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Previously called Ezo/Yezo/Yeso/Yesso, what is Japan's north and second-largest island?
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Japan
U.S. Department of State Background Note
Japan
Japan
GEOGRAPHY
Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The four main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Okinawa Island is about 380 miles southwest of Kyushu. About 3,000 smaller islands are included in the archipelago. In total land area, Japan is slightly smaller than California. About 73% of the country is mountainous, with a chain running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is the world famous Mt. Fuji (12,385 feet). Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the summits. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific depth, frequent low intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.
Temperature extremes are less pronounced than in the United States, but the climate varies considerably. Sapporo, on the northernmost main island, has warm summers and long, cold winters with heavy snowfall. Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe, in central and western parts of the largest island of Honshu, experience relatively mild winters with little or no snowfall and hot, humid summers. Fukuoka, on the island of Kyushu, has a climate similar to that of Washington, DC, with mild winters and short summers. Okinawa is subtropical.
PEOPLE
Japanese legend maintains that Japan was founded in 600 BC by the Emperor Jimmu, a direct descendant of the sun goddess and ancestor of the present ruling imperial family. About AD 405, the Japanese court officially adopted the Chinese writing system. Together with the introduction of Buddhism in the sixth century, these two events revolutionized Japanese culture and marked the beginning of a long period of Chinese cultural influence. From the establishment of the first fixed capital at Nara in 710 until 1867, the emperors of the Yamato dynasty were the nominal rulers, but actual power was usually held by powerful court nobles, regents, or "shoguns" (military governors).
Contact With the West
The first recorded contact with the West occurred about 1542, when a Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, landed in Japan. During the next century, traders from Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain arrived, as did Jesuit, Dominican, and Franciscan missionaries. During the early part of the 17th century, Japan's shogunate suspected that the traders and missionaries were actually forerunners of a military conquest by European powers. This caused the shogunate to place foreigners under progressively tighter restrictions. Ultimately, Japan forced all foreigners to leave and barred all relations with the outside world except for severely restricted commercial contacts with Dutch and Chinese merchants at Nagasaki. This isolation lasted for 200 years, until Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy negotiated the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.
Within several years, renewed contact with the West profoundly altered Japanese society. The shogunate resigned, and the emperor was restored to power. The "Meiji restoration" of 1868 initiated many reforms. The feudal system was abolished, and numerous Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal and educational system and constitutional government along parliamentary lines.
In 1898, the last of the "unequal treaties" with Western powers was removed, signaling Japan's new status among the nations of the world. In a few decades, by creating modern social, educational, economic, military, and industrial systems, the Emperor Meiji's "controlled revolution" had transformed a feudal and isolated state into a world power.
Wars With China and Russia
Japanese leaders of the late 19th century regarded the Korean Peninsula as a potential threat to Japan. It was over Korea that Japan became involved in war with the Chinese Empire in 1894-95 and with Russia in 1904-05. The war with China established Japan's domination of Korea, while also giving it the Pescadores Islands and Formosa (now Taiwan). After Japan defeated Russia in 1905, the resulting Treaty of Portsmouth awarded Japan certain rights in Manchuria and in southern Sakhalin, which Russia had received in 1875 in exchange for the Kurile Islands. Both wars gave Japan a free hand in Korea, which it formally annexed in 1910.
World War I to 1952
World War I permitted Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. The postwar era brought Japan unprecedented prosperity. Japan went to the peace conference at Versailles in 1919 as one of the great military and industrial powers of the world and received official recognition as one of the "Big Five" of the new international order. It joined the League of Nations and received a mandate over Pacific islands north of the Equator formerly held by Germany.
During the 1920s, Japan progressed toward a democratic system of government. However, parliamentary government was not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the 1930s, during which military leaders became increasingly influential.
Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and set up the puppet state of Manchukuo. In 1933, Japan resigned from the League of Nations. The Japanese invasion of China in 1937 followed Japan's signing of the "anti-Comintern pact" with Nazi Germany the previous year and was part of a chain of developments culminating in the Japanese attack on the United States at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
After years of war, resulting in the loss of 3 million Japanese lives and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan signed an instrument of surrender on the U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Harbor on September 2, 1945. As a result of World War II, Japan lost all of its overseas possessions and retained only the home islands. Manchukuo was dissolved, and Manchuria was returned to China; Japan renounced all claims to Formosa; Korea was occupied and divided by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.; southern Sakhalin and the Kuriles were occupied by the U.S.S.R.; and the U.S. became the sole administering authority of the Ryukyu, Bonin, and Volcano Islands. The 1972 reversion of Okinawa completed the U.S. return of control of these islands to Japan.
After the war, Japan was placed under international control of the Allies through the Supreme Commander, Gen. Douglas MacArthur. U.S. objectives were to ensure that Japan would become a peaceful nation and to establish democratic self-government supported by the freely expressed will of the people. Political, economic, and social reforms were introduced, such as a freely elected Japanese Diet (legislature) and universal adult suffrage. The country's constitution took effect on May 3, 1947. The United States and 45 other Allied nations signed the Treaty of Peace with Japan in September 1951. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in March 1952, and under the terms of the treaty, Japan regained full sovereignty on April 28, 1952.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. There is universal adult suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the emperor, is vested in the Japanese people, and the Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
Japan's Government is a parliamentary democracy, with a House of Representatives and a House of Councillors. Executive power is vested in a cabinet composed of a prime minister and ministers of state, all of whom must be civilians. The prime minister must be a member of the Diet and is designated by his colleagues. The prime minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The judiciary is independent.
The five major political parties represented in the National Diet are the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), the New Clean Government Party (Komeito), the Japan Communist Party (JCP), and the Social Democratic Party (SDP).
Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese constitution includes a bill of rights similar to the U.S. Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.
Japan does not have a federal system, and its 47 prefectures are not sovereign entities in the sense that U.S. states are. Most depend on the central government for subsidies. Governors of prefectures, mayors of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected to 4-year terms.
Recent Political Developments
The post-World War II years saw tremendous economic growth in Japan, with the political system dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). That total domination lasted until the Diet lower house elections in July 1993, in which the LDP failed for the first time to win a majority. The LDP returned to power in 1994, with majorities in both houses of the Diet. In elections in July 2007, the LDP lost its majority in the upper house, with the DPJ now holding the largest number of seats but with no party possessing a clear majority. Currently, the LDP maintains a majority in the lower house.
Shinzo Abe was elected Prime Minister in a Diet vote in September 2006. Abe was the first prime minister to be born after World War II and the youngest prime minister since the war. However, Abe resigned abruptly on September 12, 2007, not long after the LDP lost control of the upper house in the July 2007 elections in which the LDP's handing of domestic issues was a leading issue. Yasuo Fukuda of the LDP was elected Prime Minister by the Diet on September 25, 2007 to replace Abe. Fukuda, whose father served as Prime Minister in the late 1970s, is known as a moderate and for his experience building consensus behind the scenes.
Principal Government Officials
Prime Minister (Head of Government)--Yasuo Fukuda
Minister of Foreign Affairs--Masahiko Komura
Ambassador to the U.S.--Ryozo Kato
Permanent Representative to the UN--Kenzo Oshima
Japan maintains an embassy in the United States at 2520 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: 202-238-6700; fax: 202-328-2187).
ECONOMY
Japan's industrialized, free market economy is the second-largest in the world. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is far lower in protected areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the highest economic growth rates in the world from the 1960s through the 1980s, the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early 1990s, when the "bubble economy" collapsed, marked by plummeting stock and real estate prices.
Japan's reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.
Japan's long-term economic prospects are considered good, and it has largely recovered from its worst period of economic stagnation since World War II. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1% yearly in the 1990s, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. The Japanese economy is now in its longest postwar expansion after more than a decade of stagnation. Real growth in 2005 was 2.7% and was 2.2% in 2006.
Agriculture, Energy, and Minerals
Only 15% of Japan's land is arable. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per hectare crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 40% on fewer than 5.6 million cultivated hectares (14 million acres). Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans, primarily from the United States. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports.
Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 57% at present. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower.
Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. Iron ore, coke, copper, and bauxite must be imported, as must many forest products.
Labor
Japan's labor force consists of some 67 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership is about 12 million.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Japan is the world's second-largest economy and a major economic power both in Asia and globally. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the United Nations since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.
In recent years, the Japanese public has shown a substantially greater awareness of security issues and increasing support for the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to the Self Defense Forces' success in disaster relief efforts at home, and its participation in peacekeeping operations such as in Cambodia in the early 1990s and Iraq in 2005-2006. However, there are still significant political and psychological constraints on strengthening Japan's security profile. Although a military role for Japan in international affairs is highly constrained by its constitution and government policy, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation or revision of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. Prime Minister Abe made revising or reinterpreting the Japanese constitution a priority of his administration. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the Mutual Security Treaty for strategic protection.
While maintaining its relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After the signing of a peace and friendship treaty with China in 1978, ties between the two countries developed rapidly. Japan extended significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects and supported Chinese membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Japan's economic assistance to China is now declining. In recent years, however, Chinese exploitation of gas fields in the East China Sea has raised Japanese concerns given disagreement over the demarcation of their maritime boundary. Prime Minister Abe's October 2006 visits to Beijing and Seoul helped improve relations with China and South Korea that had been strained following Prime Minister Koizumi's visits to Yasukuni Shrine. At the same time, Japan maintains economic and cultural but not diplomatic relations with Taiwan, with which a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.
Territorial disputes and historical animosities continue to strain Japan's political relations with South Korea despite growing economic and cultural ties. Japan has limited economic and commercial ties with North Korea. A surprise visit by Prime Minister Koizumi to Pyongyang on September 17, 2002, resulted in renewed discussions on contentious bilateral issues--especially that of abductions to North Korea of Japanese citizens--and Japan's agreement to resume normalization talks in the near future. In October 2002, five abductees returned to Japan, but soon after negotiations reached a stalemate over the fate of abductees' families in North Korea. Japan strongly supported the United States in its efforts to encourage Pyongyang to abide by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Japan responded to North Korea's missile launches and nuclear tests by imposing sanctions and working with the United Nations Security Council. The U.S., Japan, and South Korea closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, and Japan participates in the Six-Party Talks to end North Korea's nuclear arms ambitions.
Japan's relations with Russia are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the islands that make up the Northern Territories (Southern Kuriles) seized by the U.S.S.R. at the end of World War II. In August 2006, a Russian patrol shot at a Japanese fishing vessel, claiming the vessel was in Russian waters, killing one crewmember and taking three seamen into custody. The stalemate over territorial issues has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war between Japan and Russia. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories dispute, however, Japan and Russia have made progress in developing other aspects of the relationship.
Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the Middle East, which provides most of its oil, and has been the second-largest assistance donor (behind the U.S.) to Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2006, Japan's Ground Self Defense Force completed a successful two-year mission in Iraq, and the Diet extended the Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law which allowed for Japan's Maritime Self Defense Force refueling activities in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in the Indian Ocean. On July 10, 2007 the Japanese Government decided to extend the Air Self-Defense Force's (ASDF) airlift support mission in Iraq to July 31, 2008. Under the Iraq Special Measures Law a wing of the ASDF's C-130 transport planes, based in Kuwait, will continue to carry personnel and supplies for the U.S.-led multinational forces and the United Nations in Iraq. The law has been extended to July 31, 2009 and will be voted on again in 2008.
Japan increasingly is active in Africa and Latin America--recently concluding negotiations with Mexico and Chile on an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)--and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions. A Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in Cambodia in 1998. Japan's economic engagement with its neighbors is increasing, as evidenced by the conclusion of an EPA with Singapore and the Philippines, and its ongoing negotiations for EPAs with Thailand and Malaysia.
In May 2007, just prior to the G8 Summit in Heiligendamm, Prime Minister Abe announced an initiative to address greenhouse gas emissions and seek to mitigate the impact of energy consumption on climate. Japan will host the G8 Summit in 2008.
U.S.-JAPAN RELATIONS
The U.S.-Japan alliance is the cornerstone of U.S. security interests in Asia and is fundamental to regional stability and prosperity. Despite the changes in the post-Cold War strategic landscape, the U.S.-Japan alliance continues to be based on shared vital interests and values. These include stability in the Asia-Pacific region, the preservation and promotion of political and economic freedoms, support for human rights and democratic institutions, and securing of prosperity for the people of both countries and the international community as a whole.
Japan provides bases and financial and material support to U.S. forward-deployed forces, which are essential for maintaining stability in the region. Under the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, Japan hosts a carrier battle group, the III Marine Expeditionary Force, the 5th Air Force, and elements of the Army's I Corps. The United States currently maintains approximately 50,000 troops in Japan, about half of whom are stationed in Okinawa.
Over the past decade the alliance has been strengthened through revised Defense Guidelines, which expand Japan's noncombatant role in a regional contingency, the renewal of our agreement on Host Nation Support of U.S. forces stationed in Japan, and an ongoing process called the Defense Policy Review Initiative (DPRI). The DPRI redefines roles, missions, and capabilities of alliance forces and outlines key realignment and transformation initiatives, including reducing the number of troops stationed in Okinawa, enhancing interoperability and communication between our respective commands, and broadening our cooperation in the area of ballistic missile defense.
Implementation of these agreements will strengthen our capabilities and make our alliance more sustainable. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, Japan has participated significantly with the global war on terrorism by providing major logistical support for U.S. and coalition forces in the Indian Ocean.
Because of the two countries' combined economic and technological impact on the world, the U.S.-Japan relationship has become global in scope. The United States and Japan cooperate on a broad range of global issues, including development assistance, combating communicable disease such as the spread of HIV/AIDS and avian influenza, and protecting the environment and natural resources. Both countries also collaborate in science and technology in such areas as mapping the human genome, research on aging, and international space exploration. As one of Asia's most successful democracies and its largest economy, Japan contributes irreplaceable political, financial, and moral support to U.S.-Japan diplomatic efforts. The United States consults closely with Japan and the Republic of Korea on policy regarding North Korea. In Southeast Asia, U.S.-Japan cooperation is vital for stability and for political and economic reform. Outside Asia, Japanese political and financial support has substantially strengthened the U.S. position on a variety of global geopolitical problems, including the Gulf, Middle East peace efforts, and the Balkans. Japan is an indispensable partner on UN reform and the second largest contributor to the UN budget. Japan broadly supports the United States on nonproliferation and nuclear issues. The U.S. supports Japan's aspiration to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.
Economic Relations
U.S. economic policy toward Japan is aimed at increasing access to Japan's markets and two-way investment, stimulating domestic demand-led economic growth, promoting economic restructuring, improving the climate for U.S. investors, and raising the standard of living in both the United States and Japan. The U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship--based on enormous flows of trade, investment, and finance--is strong, mature, and increasingly interdependent. Further, it is firmly rooted in the shared interest and responsibility of the United States and Japan to promote global growth, open markets, and a vital world trading system. In addition to bilateral economic ties, the U.S. and Japan cooperate closely in multilateral fora such as the WTO, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, and regionally in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).
Japan is a major market for many U.S. products, including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, films and music, commercial aircraft, nonferrous metals, plastics, and medical and scientific supplies. Japan also is the largest foreign market for U.S. agricultural products, with total agricultural exports valued at $9.7 billion, excluding forestry products. Revenues from Japanese tourism to the United States reached nearly $13 billion in 2005.
Trade between the United States and Japan remained strong in 2006. Total trade grew about 7.3% year-on-year. U.S. exports to Japan reached $59.6 billion in 2006, up from $55.4 billion in 2005. U.S. imports from Japan totaled $148.1 billion in 2006 ($138.1 billion in 2005).
U.S. foreign direct investment in Japan reached $78 billion in 2004, up from $73 billion in 2003. New U.S. investment was especially significant in financial services, Internet services, and software, generating new export opportunities for U.S. firms and employment for U.S. workers.
Principal U.S. Embassy Officials
Deputy Chief of Mission--Joe Donovan
Political Minister-Counselor--Michael Meserve
Public Affairs--Ronald Post
Defense Attache--Capt. James White, USN
The street address and the international mailing address of the U.S. Embassy in Japan is 10-5 Akasaka 1-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo (107); tel. 81-3-3224-5000; fax 81-3-3505-1862. The APO mailing address is American Embassy Tokyo, Unit 45004, Box 258, APO AP 96337-5004. U.S. Consulates General are in Osaka , Sapporo , and Naha , and Consulates are in Fukuoka and Nagoya . The American Chamber of Commerce in Japan is at 7th floor, Fukide No. 2 Bldg., 1-21 Toranomon 4-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo (105). Additional information is available on the U.S. Embassy's Internet home page: http://tokyo.usembassy.gov .
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program advises Americans traveling and residing abroad through Consular Information Sheets, Public Announcements, and Travel Warnings. Consular Information Sheets exist for all countries and include information on entry and exit requirements, currency regulations, health conditions, safety and security, crime, political disturbances, and the addresses of the U.S. embassies and consulates abroad. Public Announcements are issued to disseminate information quickly about terrorist threats and other relatively short-term conditions overseas that pose significant risks to the security of American travelers. Travel Warnings are issued when the State Department recommends that Americans avoid travel to a certain country because the situation is dangerous or unstable.
For the latest security information, Americans living and traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Bureau of Consular Affairs Internet web site at http://www.travel.state.gov , where the current Worldwide Caution , Public Announcements , and Travel Warnings can be found. Consular Affairs Publications , which contain information on obtaining passports and planning a safe trip abroad, are also available at http://www.travel.state.gov . For additional information on international travel, see http://www.usa.gov/Citizen/Topics/Travel/International.shtml .
The Department of State encourages all U.S citizens traveling or residing abroad to register via the State Department's travel registration website or at the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate abroad. Registration will make your presence and whereabouts known in case it is necessary to contact you in an emergency and will enable you to receive up-to-date information on security conditions.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada or the regular toll line 1-202-501-4444 for callers outside the U.S. and Canada.
The National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S. Department of State's single, centralized public contact center for U.S. passport information. Telephone: 1-877-4USA-PPT (1-877-487-2778). Customer service representatives and operators for TDD/TTY are available Monday-Friday, 7:00 a.m. to 12:00 midnight, Eastern Time, excluding federal holidays.
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747) and a web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm give the most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations or requirements, and advice on food and drinking water safety for regions and countries. A booklet entitled "Health Information for International Travel" (HHS publication number CDC-95-8280) is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, tel. (202) 512-1800.
Further Electronic Information
Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at http://www.state.gov , the Department of State web site provides timely, global access to official U.S. foreign policy information, including Background Notes and daily press briefings along with the directory of key officers of Foreign Service posts and more. The Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC) provides security information and regional news that impact U.S. companies working abroad through its website http://www.osac.gov
Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance and market information offered by the federal government and provides trade leads, free export counseling, help with the export process, and more.
STAT-USA/Internet , a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce, provides authoritative economic, business, and international trade information from the Federal government. The site includes current and historical trade-related releases, international market research, trade opportunities, and country analysis and provides access to the National Trade Data Bank .
Revised: Oct. 2007
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Hokkaido
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What name for a type of railings/fence originally referred to a defensive line of wooden stakes sharpened and angled into the ground?
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fUSION Anomaly. Japan
This nOde last updated May 29th, 2005 and is permanently morphing...
(10 Kaban (Earth) / 15 Zip - 257/260 - 12.19.12.5.17)
japan (je-pàn´) noun
1. A black enamel or lacquer used to produce a durable glossy finish.
2. An object decorated with this substance.
verb, transitive
1. To decorate with a black enamel or lacquer.
2. To coat with a glossy finish.
[After Japan.]
Japan
Japan (je-pàn´)
A country of Asia on an archipelago off the northeast coast of the mainland. Traditionally settled c. 660 B.C., Japan's written history began in the 5th century A.D. During the feudal period (12th-19th century) real power was held by the shoguns, local warriors whose dominance was finally ended by the restoration of the emperor Mutsuhito in 1868. At about the same time the country was opened to Western trade and industrial technology. Expansionist policies led to Japan's participation in World War II, which ended after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945). Today the country is highly industrialized and noted for its advanced technology. Tokyo is the capital and the largest city. Population, 121,047,196.
The Japanese, who used to be just about the fiercest people on earth, have become infatuated with cuddly adorable
Neal Stephenson - _In The Beginning Was The Command Line_
The otaku, the passionate obsessive, the
information age's embodiment of the connoisseur, more concerned with the accumulation of data than of objects, seems a natural crossover figure in today's
interface of British and Japanese cultures. I see it in the eyes of the Portobello dealers, and in the eyes of the Japanese collectors: a perfectly calm
train-spotter frenzy, murderous and sublime. Understanding otaku-hood, I think, is one of the keys to understanding the culture of the web. There is something profoundly post-national about it, extra-geographic. We are all curators, in the post-modern world, whether we want to be or not.
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The unique characteristics of Barbie dolls in Japan are that they have their lips closed with no teeth showing.
In Japan the emperor is supposed to be descended from the
abstract trip hop track _Think In Japanese_ MP3 (160k)
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604 track _Tokyo Nights_ MP3
by
_Dance Of The Japanese Beetle-Bug_ by Los Cincos off of _Experimental Procedures In Hi-Fidelity_ 12"
punk era band Big In Japan
members: Bill Drummond of The
KLF , Holly Johnson of Frankie Goes To Hollywood, Budgie of
Sioux sie & The Banshees
Japan (Nippon/Nihon)(
sun ), literally "the origin of the sun") is a country in Far East Asia located between the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, and east of the Korean peninsula. Japan is also known as "The Land of the Rising Sun."
Japan comprises a chain of islands, the largest of which are, from south to north, Shikoku, Kyushu, Honshu (the largest island), and Hokkaido.
The Japanese name Nippon is used on stamps and for international sporting events, while Nihon is used more often within Japan. It is from the Chinese version of the name that the English Japan was derived. The early Mandarin Chinese word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In Malay the Chinese word became Japang and was thus encountered by Portuguese traders in Moluccas in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in 1577 spelled Giapan.
History
People who live in Japan are descendants of those who came from the Asian continent through Sakhalin, Korea and China, especially around Beijing and Shanghai, and from the South by marine route.
According to traditional Japanese history, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu. During the 5th and 6th centuries, the Chinese writing system and Buddhism were introduced with other Chinese cultures via the Korean penisula or directly from China. The emperors were the nominal rulers, but actual power was usually held by powerful court nobles, regents, or shoguns (military governors).
Ancient political structure held that, once battles between rivals were finished, the victoriuous Shogun would migrate to the capital Heian (fully Heian-kyo-to, 'kyo-to' meaning capital city, and the full name now shortened to the suffix, 'Kyoto') to rule under the grace of the Emperor. However, in the year 1185, general Minamoto no Yoritomo was the first to break this tradition, refusing to relocate and subsequently holding power in Kamakura, just south of present-day Yokohama. While this Kamakura Shogunate was somewhat stable, Japan soon fell into warring factions, and suffered through what became known as the Warring States or Sengoku Period. In the year 1600, at the Battle of Sekigahara, Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu either coopted or defeated his enemies, and formed the Tokugawa Shogunate in the small fishing village of Edo (formerly transcribed as 'Yeddo'), what is now known as Tokyo (eastern capital).
During the 16th century, traders from Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain arrived, as did
christian missionaries. During the early part of the 17th century, Japan's shogunate suspected that they were actually forerunners of a military conquest by European powers and ultimately barred all relations with the outside world except for severely restricted
contacts with Dutch and Chinese merchants at Nagasaki (Dejima). This isolation lasted for 251 years, until Commodore Matthew Perry forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.
Within several years, renewed contact with the West profoundly
altered Japanese society. The shogunate was forced to resign, and the emperor was restored to power. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 initiated many reforms. The feudal system was abolished, and numerous Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal system and government, along with other economic, social and military reforms that transformed Japan into a world power. As results of Sino-Japanese war and Russo-Japanese war, Japan acquired Taiwan, Korea, and other territories.
The early 20th century saw Japan come under increasing influence of an expansionist military, leading to the invasion of Manchuria, a second Sino-Japanese War (1937). Japanese leaders felt it was necessary to attack the US naval base in Pearl Harbor (1941) to ensure Japanese supremacy in the Pacific. However, the entry of the United States into World War II would slowly tilt the balance in the Pacific against the Japanese. After a long Pacific campaign, Japan lost Okinawa in the Ryukyu islands and was pushed back to the four main islands. The United States made fierce attacks on Tokyo, Osaka, and other cities by strategic bombing, and Hiroshima and Nagasaki with two atomic bombs. Japan eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the United States on August 15, 1945.
A defeated post-war Japan remained under US occupation until 1952, whereafter it embarked on a remarkable economic recovery that returned prosperity to the islands. The Ryukyu islands remained under US occupation until 1972 to stabilize East Asia, and a major military presence remains there to this day. The Soviet Union seized the Kuril islands north of Hokkaido at the end of WWII, and despite the collapse of the Soviet state and friendly relations between countries, Russia has refused to return these islands.
Politics
Japan is academically considered a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, the Kokkai or Diet but most Japanese feel strange about the term monarchy and quite a few scholars argue Japan is a republic. Japan has a royal family led by an Emperor, but under the current constitution he holds no power at all, not even emergency reserve powers. The executive branch is responsible to the Diet, consisting of a cabinet composed of a prime minister and ministers of state, all of whom must be civilians. The prime minister must be a member of the Diet and is designated by his colleagues. The prime minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the emperor, is vested by the constitution in the Japanese people, and the Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
The legislative branch consists of a House of Representatives (Shugi-in) of 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years, and a House of Councillors (Sangi-in) of 247 seats, whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms. Each house contains officials elected either directly or proportionally by party. There is universal adult suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices.
Prefectures
Japan is subdivided into 47 prefectures (ordered by ISO 3166-2):
* Hokkaido
* Kagoshima
* Okinawa
The order of this list is from the north to the south, which is commonly accepted in Japan.
Geography
Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Karafuto (Japanese: 1679-1875), Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Mairuppo in the Kuriru archipelago (Japanese: Chishima Retto) is over 800km to the northeast of Hokkaido; Naha on Okinawa in the Ryukyu archipelago is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the archipelago that comprises greater Japan. About 73% of the country is mountainous, with a chain running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is the famous Mount Fuji at 3,776 m . Oyakobayama, at the northern end of Kuriru retto, is a beautifully formed snow-clad peak (2337m) rising directly out of the sea. Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the summits. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific deeps, frequent low intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century, often resulting in tsunamis. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.
The Japanese Archipelago extends from north to south along the eastern coast of Eurasian Continent or the farthermost west of Pacific Ocean. Japan belongs to the temperate zone with distinct four seasons, but varies from cool temperate in north to subtropical in south. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds blown from the continent to the ocean in winters and vise versa in summers.
Late June and early July are a rainy season except Hokkaido as a seasonal rain front or baiu zensen stays above Japan. In the late summer and early autumn typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, track from the south-west to the north-east and often bring heavy rain.
Its varied geographical features divide Japan into six principal climatic zones.
* Hokkaido: Belonging to the cool temperate zone, Hokkaido has long, cold winters and cool summers. Chishima (Kuriru) or Northeast Islands are fogbound. Precipitation is not large.
* Sea of Japan: The northwest seasonal wind in winters give heavy snowfalls. In summers it is less hot than in the Pacific area but sometimes experiences extreme hot temperature due to the Foehn wind phenomenon.
* Chuo-kochi or Central highland: A typical inland climate gives large temperature differences between summers and winters and between days and nights. Precipitation is not large throughout a year.
* Setonaikai or Inland Sea: The mountains in Chugoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds and bring mild climate and many fine days throughout a year.
* Pacific Ocean: It experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
* Nansei-shoto (Ryukyu) or Southwest Islands: It has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very large especially affected by the rainy season and typhoons.
The Kuriru retto, attached to Nemuro, comprise 5 'gun': Kunashiri, Etorofu, Uruppu, Rakkoshima and Choka.
Japan has ten regions. Those from north to south are Hokkaido, Tohoku region, Hokuriku region, Kanto region, Chubu region, Kinki region (commonly called Kansai), Chugoku region, Shikoku region, Kyushu region, and Okinawa, the main island in Ryukyu retto.
Economy
Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation (1% of GDP) have helped Japan advance with extraordinary rapidity to the rank of second largest economy power in the world only next to the US.
Notable characteristics of the economy include the working together of manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors in closely-knit groups called keiretsu; the powerful enterprise unions and shunto; and the guarantee of lifetime employment for a substantial portion of the urban labour force. Most of the these features are now eroding, however, and the economy is currently characterized by stagnation.
Industry, the most important sector of the economy, is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and fuels. The much smaller agricultural sector is highly subsidised and protected, with crop yields among the highest in the world. Usually self-sufficient in rice, Japan must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch. For three decades overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely because of the after effects of overinvestment during the late 1980s and contractionary domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000-2001 by the slowing of the US and Asian economies. Furthermore, the declining birth rate in Japan has led to speculation that more skilled immigrants will be required if Japan wishes to maintain its current level of production. The demand for cheap labor has created a boom in the illegal employment market made up mostly of fake exchange students from around the globe.
The crowding of habitable land area and the aging of the population are two major long-run problems. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength, with Japan possessing 410,000 of the world's 720,000 "working robots".
Demographics
Japanese society is ethnically and
linguistically very homogeneous, with small populations of primarily Koreans and Chinese (including Taiwanese), as well as the indigenous Ainu minority on Hokkaido. 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first
language .
Most Japanese people do not believe in any particular religion. Many people, especially those in younger generations, are opposed to religions for historical reasons and the development of science. From the Meiji Era to World War II, Shinto was organized by the government. Many others are ambivalent to religions and use various religions in their life. One may visit a Shinto shrine on New Year's day for the year's success and before school entrance exam to pray to pass.
pOrtals:
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i don't know
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The North Atlantic Drift ocean current over NW Europe starts as what at the US Florida Strait?
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The North Atlantic Drift Current
The North Atlantic drift as represented by the Mariano Global Surface Velocity Analysis (MGSVA). The N. Atlantic drift is the broad, northward flow of surface waters that replaces the sinking waters in the N. Atlantic polar seas. Click here for example plots of seasonal averages .
Aptly named, the North Atlantic Drift Current (NADC) is a slow-moving body of water located between about 50°-64°N and 10°-30°W. NADC is also considered to be an extension of the North Atlantic Current. It is recognized as a shallow, widespread and variable wind-driven surface movement of warm water that covers a large part of the eastern subpolar North Atlantic and slowly spills into the Nordic Seas. It is also sometimes included as the Subarctic or Subpolar Front as it is thought of as the boundary between the cold, subpolar region and the warm, subtropical gyre of the Northeastern Atlantic. Generally, the NADC originates from the Gulf Stream-North Atlantic Current system and from the northern Sargasso Sea. These waters then slowly flow northward into the Labrador and European basins (Veron, et.al, 1999), eventually becoming the NADC as it enters the Iceland Basin. The current is unique in that it transports warm waters to latitudes higher than in any other ocean, thereby producing the moderate climate of Europe and western Scandinavia. Because of the rapid advection of the North Atlantic gyre, the temperature of the surface waters of the NADC almost always exceeds that of both surrounding waters and the overlying atmosphere (Rossby, 1996). Water temperatures in March are at around 8degC in the NADC while ranging from 2°C to 6°C in surrounding waters (Rossby, et. al., 1998).
Several authors define the region that is occupied by the lethargic NADC as bounded by the cool Irminger current to its west, while its southern and eastern border is weakly constrained by the extension of the North Atlantic Current that bends northeastward, flanking the western edge of the Rockall Plateau. Eventually, the NADC feeds into the Norwegian Current to the north, past Iceland. The loop of the East Iceland Current acts as a boundary along the northern extent of the NADC (Rossby, 1996). Mostly warm surface water trapped between cooler, faster flowing subpolar currents to its east, and the Rockall Plateau to its west, the NADC in the Iceland Basin can extend to a depth of about 1000 meters (Bower et. al., 2002).
The NADC is generally a slow-moving body of water that transports between 2 - 5 Sv (Krauss, 1986) Although other authors have estimated volumes of 16 Sv (Bacon, 1997), the exact values remain unknown. Unlike the currents that surround it, the flow of the NADC current is obscure, evident mainly through decadal-scale observations of drifter data. Its northward speed averages about 3 cm s-1 (Otto & van Aken, 1996) along the western edge of the Rockall Plateau.
According to Krauss and Käse (1984), the North Atlantic Current, and not interference with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, is the main source of eddy energy in the North Atlantic. In the upper ocean, eddy kinetic energy decreases from about 1000 cm2s-2 (near Newfoundland) to about 300 cm2s-2 in the NAD near western Scotland. East of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, kinetic energy tapers off to less than 100 cm2s-2 in the form of a homogenous pool of low-kinetic energy (Krauss and Käse, 1984).
As far as it is known, the NADC exists as a "swath" or region, rather than an actual stream-like current, where the main thermocline shoals to the surface along which a stronger baroclinic transport is sustained than either the north or the south. A quiet, warm pool of water at the surface, its salinity can range between 35.2 and 35.7 ppt (Rossby et. al., 1998). The NADC feeds two well-defined currents, transporting warm, saline water to both the northward-flowing Norwegian Current and to the southward-flowing Canary Current (Rossby, 1996).
The southern-most extent of the NADC is marked by the northernmost boundary of the subtropical circulation system, i.e. the eastward flowing NAC along ~52°N. The zonal flow across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge seem to occur in the form of various branches (Krauss, 1996), some of which turn northwards into the subpolar region, feeding the thermohaline circulation; and others turning south and entering the recirculation of the wind-driven subtropical gyre (Rossby et. al., 1998).
Veron, et. al. (1999) determined that spatial gradients in the ratios of 206Pb/207Pb are consistent with thermohaline circulation of the different water masses in the North Atlantic, each having relatively discrete lead isotope signatures. Based on parallels between the initial isotopic data and temperature and salinity measurements, these authors proposed that stable lead isotope compositions may be employed as complimentary tracers of the mixing of source waters in the Nordic seas, particularly the NADC waters and flanking currents (Veron, 1999). The isotopic ratios and a salinity maximum (>35.2) measured in the Faroe Bank Channel, indicates a core of NADC between 130 and 430 m, and that this water mixes with cooler, fresher deeper water to form the Iceland-Scotland Overflow Waters.
Although the more distinct properties of the NADC waters themselves are poorly defined in the literature, the influences this current has on climate are well-documented. It is the contribution of warm waters from the North Atlantic Drift current that is now understood to be the main moderating force of the climate over western Scandinavia, the UK and western Europe (Bigg, 1996; Johnson, 1997; Little et. al., 1997; Moron et. al., 1998; Giraudeau et. al., 2000). And, based on diatom records, the NADC is thought to have been established as early as 13,400 years ago, although with periods of decadal-scale variations of heating and cooling (Koc et. al., 1993). The path of the NADC is clearly seen in the warming of the air over the western North Atlantic extending eastwards-and intensifying-into the Norwegian Sea (Rossby, 1996). Blindheim et. al. (2000) have shown that a positive link exists between the NADC penetration into the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean (NAO) index, defined as the difference in sea-level pressure between two stations close to the low over Iceland and the high over the Azores. High NAO indices imply that only a narrow flow extends northward of the Faeroe-Iceland Strait, resulting in a sea-surface temperature (SST) cooling at the scale of the Greenland and Norwegian basins, owing to the spread of polar waters eastward. During these conditions, flow is simultaneously intensified in the narrow band along the Norwegian shelf, northwards towards Svarlbad. The strong westerlies caused by the high winter/spring indices bring in warm, moist air over the European continent and leads to a rather mild, maritime winter. Conversely, a low winter/spring index reflects weaker mean westerlies over the NAO, which in turn corresponds to colder European winters (Eynaud, et. al., 2002). Movement of the NADC because of anomalous winds, will cause a significant latitudinal alteration in the climate zones of western Europe (Bigg 1996).
So important, in fact, is the transport of warm water to this region, that a decadal-scale shift in the flow of the NADC can initiate an ice age (Johnson, 1997). A study was conducted by Moron et al. (1998) aimed at giving a global description of climactic phenomena that exhibited some regularity during the twentieth century. They first analyzed multi-channel singular spectrum data, which was then used to extract long-term trends and quasi-regular oscillations of global SST fields since 1901. From 1910 to about 1940, the authors observed a general warming trend with a short cooling before another brief warming trend. Substantial cooling occurred in the North Atlantic, from about 1950-1980, and continues today. Overall, a 13-15 year see-saw pattern oscillation between the Gulf Stream and the NADC was observed, and also found to affect the tropical Atlantic (Moron et. al., 1998). At times of increased trade wind strength, tropical and subtropical waters are forced across the equator, enhancing the pool of warm water to be transferred to the high latitudes of the North Atlantic via the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, thereby increasing the pull of the thermohaline convective conveyor. The increased supply of warm water to the polar regions of the northern hemisphere increases the ice-ocean moisture gradient and can accelerate ice sheet growth (Little et. al., 1997).
References
Bacon, S., 1997: Circulation and Fluxes in the North Atlantic between Greenland and Ireland, Journal of Oceanography, 27, 1420-1435.
Blindheim, J., Borovkov, V., Hansen, B., Malmberg, S. A., Turrell, W. R., Osterhus, S., 2000: Upper layer cooling and freshening in the Norwegian Sea in relation to atmospheric forcing, Deep-Sea Research I, 47, 655-680.
Bigg, Grant R., 1996: The Oceans and Climate, Cambridge University Press, UK, 266p.
Bower, A. S., B. LeCann, T. Rossby, W. Zenk, J. Gould, K. Speer, P. L. Richardson, M. D. Prater and H. M. Zhang, 2002: Directly measured mid-depth circulation in the northeastern North Atlantic Ocean, Nature, 419, 603-607.
Eynaud, F., Turon, J. L., Mattheissen, J., Kissel, C., Peypouquet, J. P., De Vernal, A., and Henry, M., 2002: Norwegian sea-surface paleoenvironments of marine oxygen-isotope stage 3: the paradoxical response of dinoflagellate cysts, Journal of Quaternary Science, 17, 349-359.
Giraudeau J., Cremer M., Manthe S., Labeyrie L., Bond G., 2000: Coccolith evidence for instabilities in surface circulation south of Iceland during the Holocene times, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 179, 257-268.
Iselin, C. O., 1936: A study of the circulation of the western North Atlantic, Pap. Phys. Oceanogr. Meteorol., 4, 101 pp.
Johnson, R. G., 1997: Ice age initiation by an ocean-atmospheric circulation change in the Labrador Sea, Earth And Planetary Science Letters, 148, 367-379.
Koc, N., Jansen E., and Haflidason, H., 1993: Paleoceanographic reconstructions of the surface ocean conditions in the Greenland, Iceland and Norwegian Seas through the last 14-Ka based on diatoms, Quaternary Science Reviews, 12, 115-140.
Krauss, W., 1996: The warm water sphere of the North Atlantic Ocean, Gebruder Borntraeger, 466p.
Krauss, W., and Käs, R. H., 1984: Mean circulation and eddy kinetic energy in the Eastern North Atlantic, Journal of Geophysical Research, 89(C3), 3407-3415.
Little, M. G., Schneider, R. R. , Kroon, D., Price B, Summerhayes CP, Segl M., 1997: Trade wind forcing of upwelling, seasonality, and Heinrich events as a response to sub-Milankovitch climate variability, Paleoceanography, 12, 568-576.
Moron, V., Vautard R., Ghil M., 1998: Trends, inderdecadal and interannual oscillations in global sea surface temperatures, Climate Dynamics, 14, 545-569.
Otto, L, and H. M. van Aken, 1996: Surface circulation in the Northeast Atlantic as observed with drifters, Deep Sea Research I, 43, 467-499.
Rossby, T., Mark Prater, Huai-Min Zhang, Peter Lazarevich and Paula Pérez-Bunius, 1998: Isopycnal Float Studies of the Subpolar Front: Preliminary Results, Presented at the WOCE Conference in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, May 25-29.
Rossby, T., 1996: The North Atlantic Current and Surrounding Waters: At the Crossroads, Review of Geophysics, 34, 463-481.
Veron, A.J., Church, T.M., Rivera-Duarte, I., and Flegal, A. R., 1999: Stable lead isotopic ratios trace thermohaline circulation in the subarctic North Atlantic, Deep-Sea Research II, 46, 919-935.
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Gulf Stream
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Cassia refers to variants of which spice?
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Geology Final - Geology 211 with Zintambila at Illinois State University - StudyBlue
Transports cool northern water toward equator. 2nd current in North Atlantic drift
North Equatorial Current
Moves west. Derives energy from northeast trades
Kuroshio Current
Gulf Stream's counterpart. Ocean circulation in North Pacific. Warm water flowing north. Merges with North Pacific Drift
North Pacific Drift
A portion of it flows south along western coast of US as California Current
How do ocean currents influence weather?
Warm & moisture from currents help develop cyclonic storms
Warm air over cold water creates fog
Warm water helps keep winter temps warmer
Distinct temp gradients exist along boundaries of surface ocean currents
When warm water meets cold water, sharp temp contrasts are present
El Nino
Warming of tropical Pacific Ocean between South America & Australia/Indonesia in equator region. Occurs around Christmas every 2-7 years. Warm waters pile up along coasts of Ecuador & Peru. Warm water blocks upwelling of colder nutrient filled water which is devastating to fishing industry
La Nina
Continental tropical: High temp.,low humidity, dry air. Northern Mexico & southwest US
Continental polar air mass
Low temp. and dry air. Cold and stable. Dew point temps less than -30oC/-22oF. Originate over ice and snow covered regions of northern Canada & Alaska and moves south which causes it to warm up
Continental arctic air mass
Same as continental polar but colder. Travels in shallow but large dome of extremely cold air. The leading edge of it is marked by a cold front.
Maritime polar air mass
Low temp. & high humidity. Cool, moist, & conditionally unstable. 40-50oF. Causes light snow, freezing rain, and light drizzle during winter and spring in mid Atlantic and New England states.. Cumulus clouds form. After it crosses the Rockies, the cool moist air descends as relatively dry air. Stationary front.
Maritime tropical air mass
Produces heavy precipitation. High temp. & high humidity. Warm and moist. Sometimes called "pineapple express". Produced heavy rain and extensive flooding in northern and central California on January 1, 1997
Continental tropical
High temp.,low relative humidity (less than 10% during afternoon, Hot, dry, and conditionally unstable air at low levels. Frequent dust devils form during the day. Air must rise 3000m before condensation. Clear skies, hot weather, no rainfall.. If it moves to Great Plains a severe drought may result.
What are fronts?
Transition zone between 2 air masses of different densities
Stationary fronts
Nearly stationary. Winds blow almost parallel and from opposite directions on each side of the front. Clear to partly cloudy with colder air lying on east side. No precipitation unless warm air rides over cold air which causes light precipitation. (circle on top and triangle on bottom)
Cold fronts
Cooler air replaces warmer air. Continental polar replaces maritime tropical. Cold, dense air lifts warm air up steeply forming a steepers slope. Cumulonimbus cloud forms on a steep slope. Brings heavy rainfall and floods. Move faster than warm fronts. Rainfall occurs where cold front touches the surface (triangles at top)
Warm fronts
Warmer air replaces cooler air. Maritime tropical replaces continental polar. Warm air glides over retreating cooler air(overrunning) Warm air forms a gentle slope. Different clouds including nimbostratus rain cloud develop on front. Brings light rainfall (circles at top)
Occluded fronts
Formed when a cold front catches up with a warm front. Has cold type(cold occlusion) where air behind it is colder than air in front and a warm type(warm occlusion) where air ahead of it is colder than air behind it. Heavy, showery precipitation with winds shifting to west or northwest.
(circles and triangles on the top)
Upper-air fronts
Present aloft. Forms when the tropopause dips downward and folds under the polar jet stream. Impacts surface weather
Maritime polar pathway
Originates over Asia and moves east and south over the Pacific Ocean into California. After crossing several mountain ranges, it descends the eastern side of the Rockies. Originates in North Atlantic along the East Coast over eastern Canada and US
Continental arctic pathway
Originates near Antartica and travels southeast across upper plains through continental polar into northern Canada. Travels in shallow but large dome of extremely cold air.
Continental polar pathway
Originates in northern Canada and travels south and southeast through Canada into US
Maritime tropical pathway
Wintertime source is the east Pacific Ocean and it travels northeast to southern California coast. In the summer it originates over Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea and travels north into southern US states
Continental tropical pathway
Summer only. Originates in southern US and Mexico. Travels northeast and northwest in US
Cold outbreak temperature on 12/22/90
-28oF
Cold outbreak temp. on 12/22/89
-23oF
Cold temp outbreak on 12/23/89
5oF
In which regions of the US cold winter air masses take over
Eastern and Midwest
What is temperature range of a winter continental polar air mass?
-4oF-14oF
(-30o- -20oC) Starts at -4, gets warmer, and then gets colder as it gets higher
What is the temperature range of a summer continental polar air mass?
14oF - 68oF
Starts at 68o then gets colder as it gets higher
Polar front
Cold frontal boundary that separates colder air from warmer air at the surface and aloft
Arctic front
Separates cold air from extremely cold air. More shallow
Where do mid-latitude cyclones tend to form?
Regions of North America including Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic Ocean east of the Carolinas, and eastern slope of high mountain ranges such as the Rockies and Sierra Nevada.
Idealized cycle of a mid-latitude cyclone
1. polar front separates warm and cold easterlies
2.cyclogenisis begins
5. both air masses continue to move and low pressure center forms
6. warm + cold fronts become established
7. fronts occlude and cyclone dies
What are tropical cyclones?
All hurricane-type storms that originate over tropical waters like Pacific, Indian, & Atlantic Ocean about 22o-5o from equator
Where do tropical cyclones form?
Over the warm northern Atlantic and eastern North Pacific oceans.
How do tropical cyclones (hurricanes) compare with Mid-Latitude Cyclones?
Both move counterclockwise in Northern Hemisphere & clockwise in Southern Hemisphere
Strongest winds in H are near surface around the eye. Aloft near jet stream for MLC
Surface pressure is lowest at center for both
Vertical structure weakens with height, high pressure aloft, & warm core low for H. Strengthens with height, low pressure aloft, & old core low with MLC
Air in center sinks for H and rises for MLC
Weather fronts for MLC but none for H
Energy source for H is warm water & release of latent heat. Horizontal temp. contrasts for MLC
How do tropical cyclones form?
Wavelike disturbance called easterly wave develops
Cloudy weather forms from east side of dashed line surface winds converging and rising
Sunny weather forms from west side of dashed line surface winds diverging and sinking
Tropical waters, light winds, high humidity, surface water temp is warm
Stages of development of tropical cyclones
Tropical Disturbance: Disorganized cluster of tropical thunderstorms. Have slight to no circulation
Tropical Depression: Organized cluster of tropical thunderstorms w/ weak cyclonic circulation of less than 39mph
Tropical Storm: Tropical cyclone w/ highest sustained cyclonic winds at center between 39 and 47mph
Hurricane: Tropical cyclone with winds at center of at least 74mph
Anatomy of Tropical Cyclones
Eye: Center. Has broken clouds which swirl around eye. Sinking air & calm. Light winds. Surface air pressure is low
Eye wall: Ring of strong storms. Region of high winds & heavy rainfall. Whirl around storm's center & may extend upward.
Damage-potential scale of Tropical Cyclones
Saffir-Simpson scale.
Category 1: 74-95 mph minimal damage
Category 2: 96-110 mph moderate damage
Category 3: 111-130 mph extensive damage
Category 4: 131-155 mph extreme damage
Category 5: more than 155 mph catastrophic
What atmospheric conditions lead to the formation of thunderstorms?
Warm moist air rises in a conditionally unstable environment. Rising air is warmer than air surrounding it.
Where does the highest frequency of thunderstorms occur in the United States? Why there?
Florida. Combination of warmth and moisture. Low level of convergence of air helps initiate uplift. Close proximity to water source.
Stages of development of ordinary thunderstorms
Cumulus stage: growth stage. Rising, warm, humid air develops into a cumulus cloud
Mature stage: downdraft and updraft appear. Most intense. Turbulence, lightning, and thunder. Heavy rain and sometimes small hail.
Dissipating stage: Downdrafts exist throughout the cumulonimbus cloud. Updrafts weaken as gust front moves away. Light precipitation
Ordinary cell thunderstorms
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i don't know
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Chordata, Echinodermata, Anthropoda, and Anelida are four phyla (subgroups) of?
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Animals IV - Arthropods, Echinoderms - Biology 110 Master - Confluence
Biology 110 Master
You should have a working knowledge of the following terms:
arachnid
water vascular system
Introduction and Goals
The previous tutorial concentrated on coelomates collectively known as the protostomes. This tutorial will complete our analysis of the protostome coelomates by examining the most diverse branch of animals, the arthropods. The second half of this tutorial will introduce the last major lineage, the deuterostomes.
Figure. 1 (Click image to enlarge)
As you progress through this tutorial, try to distinguish between the arthropods and other animals classified under the bilateria. How are these groups of animals similar? What morphological and developmental patterns do they have in common? How do they differ? Once you complete this tutorial you should be able to:
Explain why the animals in Phylum Arthropoda are thought to be so successful
Name and discuss the major classes and subgroups of Phylum Arthropoda
Describe the embryonic characteristics of deuterostomes
Describe the major characteristics of Phylum Echinodermata
Arthropod Diversity
In terms of numbers and the diversity of species, Phylum Arthropoda is the most successful group in Kingdom Animalia. Whether one looks on the land, in the air, or under the sea, they will find representatives from this phylum. Approximately one million arthropod species have been described to date. (Some estimate that the number of uncharacterized species may exceed 10 million.)
Figure. 2 (Click image to enlarge)
Characteristics of Arthropods
The extreme diversity observed in Phylum Arthropoda can be attributed to three main arthropod characteristics that have evolved into various forms to allow for adaptation to different environments: a hard chitinous exoskeleton, body segmentation, and jointed appendages.
Figure. 3 (Click image to enlarge)
The arthropod body is covered by a cuticle (structurally different from the cuticle of plants, which was described in tutorial 31, but there are some functional similarities), composed primarily of the polysaccharide chitin (the same type of polymer used by fungi as described here ), but with a harder character; chitin is also described in the carbon and life tutorial. This exoskeleton endows arthropods with several adaptive features to the terrestrial environment. Its physical durability protects the animals from physical injury. It also provides structural support to the muscles that move their appendages. Lastly, the cuticle is waterproof and helps prevent desiccation in a dry terrestrial environment. The only cumbersome feature of the exoskeleton is that it confines growth, but arthropods deal with this problem by periodically shedding their exoskeletons in a process known as molting.
Arthropods are segmented, and generally there are distinct boundaries between the segments. For example, animals belonging to Class Insecta have three distinct segments: the head, the thorax (often grouped together with the head as the cephalothorax), and the abdomen. The rhinoceros beetle in the adjacent image has a head and thorax that are fused (a cephalothorax) and a large abdomen. Typically, these different body regions have distinct functions and often contain various types of jointed appendages. Jointed appendages afford the animal with a greater degree of movement. In addition to locomotion, the appendages may be adapted for other functions (e.g., feeding, sensory perception, copulation, and defense).
Figure. 4 (Click image to enlarge)
Some jointed appendages, such as the swimming appendages of this candy cane shrimp (a crustacean), are specialized to enable different species to adapt to their diverse environments.
Figure. 5 (Click image to enlarge)
This figure illustrates the body segmentation (cephalothorax and abdomen) and specialized appendages of a representative arthropod, a lobster (a crustacea). In addition to segmentation, arthropods have an open circulatory system.
Figure. 6 (Click image to enlarge)
Phylum Arthropoda: Classification
The arthropods are traditionally divided into four subgroups or subphyla: trilobites (all are extinct, but the fossil record indicates that they were once the dominant subgroup), chelicerates, crustaceans, and uniramians. As is the case for many taxonomic fields, however, newer molecular approaches are causing scientists to reconsider traditional relationships. As a student, this can create some confusion; hence, for clarity this course will use the traditional taxonomic schemes. However, this taxonomy will likely change as more molecular data provide a clearer insight into arthropod relationships.
Figure. 7 (Click image to enlarge)
The majority of modern chelicerates (e.g., spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites) are terrestrial arthropods belonging to Class Arachnida. As with the trilobites, most of the marine chelicerates are extinct, even though a few marine members (e.g., the horseshoe crab) have survived. The arachnids (like this tarantula) are best distinguished by their claw-like feeding appendages (chelicerae), from which this subgroup gets its name. Another characteristic of the chelicerates is the presence of two body segments (a cephalothorax and an abdomen). The cephalothorax has six pairs of appendages, including four pairs of walking legs, one pair of chelicerae, and one pair of pedipalps. The pedipalps have either a feeding or sensory function. They lack antennae and have simple eyes.
Figure. 8 (Click image to enlarge)
The crustaceans make up the second largest arthropod subgroup. Extant species are mainly aquatic animals, although some terrestrial species (e.g., pill bugs and wood lice) are classified within this group. Animals in this class include crabs, lobsters, crayfish and shrimp, and they are the only arthropods with two pairs of antennae. Segmentation is obvious and extensive in these animals. In contrast to the chelicerates, crustaceans have jaw-like mandibles and compound eyes. The fiddler crab (shown here) is a typical crustacean.
The uniramians, the largest extant subgroup, represent so many individual species that this subgroup accounts for the majority of all known (and probably most of the still undiscovered) animal species on the planet. The uniramians have mandibles and compound eyes (as do the crustaceans). Uniquely, they have only one pair of sensory antennae and their appendages are unbranched or uniramous, hence their name. Uniramians include Class Insecta, with its twenty-six described orders. Insects first appear in the fossil record about 400 million years ago. Insects have the characteristic uniramian features, and additionally, they have three distinct segments (head, thorax, and abdomen). Two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs are typical. Scientists who study insects are called entomologists. Class Insecta is the largest class in the phylum Arthropoda, and their diversity is unmatched in the kingdom Animalia.
Figure. 9(Click image to enlarge)
The Other Coelomates: Deuterostomes
To understand the evolutionary history of animals, scientists rely on several types of data including, but not limited to, the following: the overall morphology of the organism, DNA sequences and similarities at the molecular level, and the developmental sequence of events in the embryo.
The sequence of events during embryonic development is the main characteristic used to distinguish protostomes and deuterostomes. Review this figure, which depicts the major developmental characters that distinguish a protostome from a deuterostome. Recall that in protostomes the mouth forms first, whereas in deuterostomes it forms secondarily. Another important distinction is how the coelom forms; in protostomes it forms from a splitting of the mesoderm (schizocoelous), whereas in most deuterostomes the coelom forms from mesodermal outpocketings of the archenteron (enterocoelous).
Figure. 10 (Click image to enlarge)
There is some debate about which phyla belong in the deuterostome lineage. In this and the next tutorial we will focus on two phyla that clearly fall into this lineage, Echinodermata and Chordata.
Phylum Echinodermata
Representatives of the phylum Echinodermata are common inhabitants of coastal tide pools (or even our local saltwater aquarium at the HUB). Sea lilies, sea stars (starfish), and most other echinoderms are sessile or slow-moving animals. Some representatives are instantly recognized by their five-fold symmetry (having rays and/or arms in fives or multiples of five). Even though the radial symmetry of these adult animals would lead one to reject them as belonging to the bilateria, the bilateral symmetry of the larval stage of these animals indicates that they really belong to the bilateria lineage. Furthermore, these animals are also known as coelomates since they have a large, fluid-filled cavity lined with mesoderm and usually a complete gut. Many species of sea stars have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out by everting them through their mouths. This allows them to initiate the digestion of their prey before introducing it to their body cavities.
A thin skin overlaying a hard, yet flexible, endoskeleton composed of calcium carbonate plates and spines characterizes the exterior of echinoderms. These plates have a very complex arrangement. Electron microscopy of the surface of a sea urchin demonstrates this elegant arrangement, or sponge-like mesh, which creates a plate that allows for special structures to protrude through the endoskeleton for locomotion, feeding, gas exchange, and protection. These protrusions, typically described as tube feet (often suction-cup or sucker-like appendages), enable echinoderms to move and provide them with the ability to grip and manipulate objects or prey.
Figure. 11 (Click image to enlarge)
Echinoderms also have a unique water vascular system (a network of hydraulic canals extending in from the tube feet and around the gut of the organism). This expansive network uses hydraulic pressure to manipulate the extension of the tube feet as the animal breathes, feeds, or moves across the ocean floor.
Phylum Echinodermata: Classification
Members of the phylum Echinodermata are diverse. In the adult state it is often unclear how these animals are related. However, a close inspection of their anatomy and embryology reveals their common evolutionary history. Shown below are members from four echinoderm classes (you will not be tested on these classes).
Class Asteroidea (sea stars)
Figure. 15 (Click image to enlarge)
What Do Humans Have In Common With Sea Urchins?
The correlation between humans and sea urchins may not be obvious, however, common embryonic features reveal their common ancestry. As you should have learned, stages of embryonic development have a significant impact on the classification of animal species. Whether it is the fate of the blastopore, the number of germ layers (diploblastic versus triploblastic), or the formation and origin of the tissue lining the body cavity, embryonic origins provide information about the commonalities between all members of the kingdom Animalia.
The phylogeny that places humans (and other vertebrates) and echinoderms in close proximity is also supported by nucleic acid sequence data. As more data are collected, these relationships may be reconsidered, but to date the evidence showing embryonic similarities between the species of these groups is compelling. Some scientists have even discussed placing Phylum Echinodermata closer to Phylum Chordata, or even within Phylum Chordata, due to the discovery of some early echinoderms that might have possessed pharyngeal slits and a tail (diagnostic chordate features that are discussed in the next tutorial). Furthermore, undiscovered species may also provide information on the relatedness of chordates and echinoderms. From what you should have learned, would a modern representative of these groups shed more light on this overall question, or could just as much be learned from the fossil of an adult animal? Why or why not?
Summary
This tutorial continued our discussion of the bilateria branch of the kingdom Animalia. When you think about the character bilateral symmetry, keep in mind that it is seen in animals that actively move through the environment. Bilaterally symmetrical animals not only have a single plane of symmetry, but their sensory and cephalic areas are usually displaced toward the anterior of the animal.
Arthropods fall into one of four subgroups. Segmentation, and subsequent specialization, is one of the hallmarks of each of these four subgroups.
Trilobites were a very successful group that became extinct about 250 million years ago. Although these animals were segmented, they had very little diversification in their segments.
The chelicerates include spiders. These animals have two major body segments: the cephalothorax and the abdomen. Their appendages are all clustered in the cephalothorax. Typically there are six pairs of appendages. These include the chelicerae, which are involved in feeding, and the pedipalps, which may have a feeding function. The balance of the appendages is legs. This group does not have antennae but does have simple eyes.
Crustaceans, the second largest extant subgroup, include mostly aquatic species, however, there are some terrestrial species. They have two pairs of sensory antennae, jaw-like mandibles, and compound eyes.
The uniramians are the largest extant subgroup. Uniramians have jaw-like mandibles, compound eyes, one pair of sensory antennae, and unbranched (uniramous) appendages. This subgroup includes Class Insecta, which have distinct segments of variable numbers.
All arthropods are protostomes. That is, during early development the primitive mouth forms first (before the anus). However, in the deuterostomes the mouth forms secondarily to the anus. The polarity of the embryonic gut is clearly an ancestral trait that links organisms that look very different. The deuterostomes include the echinoderms and the chordates, and in the next (and last) tutorial you will learn more about the chordates.
Added by RICHARD CYR , last edited by RICHARD CYR on Jun 13, 2009 10:35
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Animal
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Serpula lacrymans is the technical name for what affliction of wood, notably in buildings?
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General Biology/Classification of Living Things/Eukaryotes/Animals/Phyla - Wikibooks, open books for an open world
General Biology/Classification of Living Things/Eukaryotes/Animals/Phyla
From Wikibooks, open books for an open world
Introduction to animal phyla[ edit ]
There currently are almost 40 recognized phyla.
Phylum — Number of Species — Common Name
Nemertea — 900 — ribbon worms (figures)
Rotifera — 1,800 — rotifers (figures)
Annelida — 15,000 — segmented worms (figures)
Sipuncula — 250 — peanut worms (figures)
Echiura — 135
Chaetognatha — 100 — arrow worms (figures)
Hemichordata — 85 — acorn worms
Sponges
Name means "pore-bearing".
This phylum consists of the sponges. The number of species is estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000. All are aquatic and almost all are marine.
Animals in this phyla have no true tissues, which means, for example, that they have no nervous system or sense organs. Although sponges are multicellular, they are described as being essentially at a cellular level of organization. They are sessile as adults, but have a free swimming larva.
Their bodies are porous. They are filter feeders; water flows in through many small openings (ostia), and out through fewer, large openings (osculum). They have inner and outer cell layers, and a variable middle layer. The middle layer often is gelatinous with spiny skeletal elements (called spicules) of silica or calcium carbonate, and fibres made of spongin (a form of collagen). Choanocytes are flagellated cells lining the inside of the body that generate a current, and trap and phagocytize food particles.
Their cells remain totipotent, or developmentally flexible: they can become any type of cell at any point in the sponge's development. This allows for the great regenerative power sponges have.
Sponges are an ancient group, with fossils from the early Cambrian (ca. 540 mya) and possibly from the Precambrian. Sponges often are abundant in reef ecosystems. They somehow are protected from predators (spicules? bad taste?).
Many organisms are commensals of sponges, living inside them. Some sponges harbor endosymbiotic cyanobacteria or algae (dinoflagellates, a.k.a. "zooxanthellae").
See text pages 886 - 889.
Name comes from the Greek knide- meaning "nettle".
This phylum consists of the jellyfish , hydra, sea anemones , corals , sea pens, sea wasps, sea whips and box jellyfish. There are about 9,000 species. Almost all are marine. This is another ancient group, with fossils perhaps reaching back to 700 mya.
Cnidarians exhibit radial symmetry. Their basic body plan is a sac with a gastrovascular cavity, or a central digestive system. They have one opening, which serves as both mouth and anus. The body wall has an outer ectoderm, an inner endoderm, and a variable undifferentiated middle layer called mesoglea or mesenchyme that may be jelly-like. The mesoglea is NOT considered to be true mesoderm and so the Cnidaria are described as diploblastic. Tentacles usually extend from the body wall around the mouth/anus.
Jellyfish Development
There are two basic body plans: the polyp and the medusa . The polyp is sessile and attaches to substrate by the aboral end (i.e., the end away from the mouth). The medusa ("jellyfish") is a floating form, and looks like an upside-down version of the polyp. Some cnidarians only have the polyp stage, some have only the medusa stage, and others have both.
The typical life cycle of a cnidarian involves what is called "alternation of generations": an alternation between an asexual polyp stage and a sexual medusa stage.
The tentacles are armed with cnidae (or nematocysts), small intracellular "harpoons" that function in defense and prey capture. When fired, the cnidae deliver a powerful toxin that in some cases is dangerous to humans. The phylum is named after the cnidae.
Cnidarians have no head, no centralized nervous system, and no specialized organs for gas exchange, excretion, or circulation. They do have a "nerve net" and nerve rings (in jellyfish).
Many cnidarians have intracellular algae living within them in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship (Dinoflagellates = zooxanthellae). This combination is responsible for much of the primary productivity of coral reefs.
There are three main classes in the phylum
Class Hydrozoa (hydras and Portuguese man-of-war are well-known but atypical examples of this Class)
Class Anthozoa (sea anemones, most corals)
No medusa (jellyfish) stage, so sexual reproduction occurs in the polyp stage in this group. The polyps also can reproduce asexually, which is how individual "corals" grow.
See text pages 890 - 893.
Name means "flat worm"
Most members of this phylum are parasitic (flukes and tapeworms), but some are free living (e.g., planaria). There are about 20,000 species.
They are dorsoventrally compressed (i.e., "flat").
Animals in this phylum are acoelomate, triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and unsegmented. Platyhelminths have a simple anterior "brain" and a simple ladder-like nervous system. Their gut has only one opening. Flatworms have NO circulatory or gas exchange systems. They do have simple excretory/osmoregulatory structures (protonephridia or "flame cells").
Platyhelminths are hermaphroditic, and the parasitic species often have complex reproductive (life) cycles.
There are four main classes of platyhelminths:
Class Turbellaria (mostly free living flatworms, e.g., planaria)
See text page 900
The Rotifers. The name means "wheel bearing," a reference to the corona, a feeding structure (see below).
They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and unsegmented. They are considered pseudocoelomates.
Most less than 2 mm, some as large as 2 - 3 mm.
Rotifers have a three part body: head, trunk, and foot. The head has a ciliary organ called the corona that, when beating, looks like wheels turning, hence the name of the phylum. The corona is a feeding structure that surrounds the animal's jaws. The gut is complete (i.e., mouth & anus), and regionally specialized. They have protonephridia but no specialized circulatory or gas-exchange structures.
Most live in fresh water, a very few are marine or live in damp terrestrial habitats. They typically are very abundant. There are about 2,000 species.
Parthenogenesis, where females produce more females from unfertilized but diploid eggs, is common. Males may be absent (as in bdelloid rotifers) or reduced. When males are present, sexual and asexual life cycles alternate. Males develop from unfertilized haploid eggs and are haploid. Males produce sperm by mitosis which can fertilize haploid eggs, yielding a diploid zygote that develops into a diploid female. Sexual reproduction occurs primarily when living conditions are unfavorable.
Most structures in rotifers are syncytial ("a mulitnucleate mass of protoplasm not divided into separate cells," or "a multinucleated cell") and show eutely (here, "constant or near-constant number of nuclei").
See text pages 894 - 895.
Name from the Greek for "thread".
This phylum consists of the round worms. There are about 12,000 named species but the true number probably is 10 - 100 times this!
These animals are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented pseudocoelomates. They are vermiform, or wormlike.
In cross-section, they are round, and covered by a layered cuticle (remember this cuticle !!). Probably due to this cuticle, juveniles in this phylum grow by molting. The gut is complete. They have a unique excretory system but they lack special circulatory or gas-exchange structures. The body has only longitudinal muscle fibers. The sexes are separate.
Nematodes can be incredibly common, widespread, and of great medical and economic importance. They are parasites of humans and our crops. They can live pretty much anywhere.
In one rotting apple, there can be up to 90,000 nematodes, and in one tablespoon of coastal mud, there can be 236 species of nematodes!
Nematodes can be free living or important parasites of our crops, or of humans and other animals. They have become very important in development studies, especially the species Caenorhabditis elegans, presumably due to its small size and constancy of cell number (eutely - 959 cells in C. elegans).
See text pages 906 - 909.
Name means "ringed", from the Greek annulatus.
This phylum consists of earthworms, leeches, and various marine worms given many different names (e.g., sand worms, tube worms). There are about 12,000 - 15,000 species.
Animals in this phylum are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented coelomates. Development is typically protostomous. They have a complete circulatory system, and a well-developed nervous system. Typically, each segment has paired epidermal "bristles" (setae or chaetae).
Most are marine but they are successful occupants of almost anywhere sufficient water is available. They can be free living, parasitic, mutualistic, or commensalistic.
Major advances of this phylum include the true coelom, segmentation, both longitundinal and circular muscles, a closed circulatory system and, for most, a more advanced excretory system (metanephridia).
There are three main classes of Annelids
Class Oligochaeta (earthworms)
Arthropods
Name means "jointed feet".
This phylum consists of spiders, ticks, mites, insects, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp, and is the largest of all the phyla. So far, over 1 million species have been named, and it is likely that the true number out there is 10 - 100 times greater.
This phylum also includes the extinct trilobites, which were prevalent in the Paleozoic era. Because of their exoskeletons, these animals fossilized well and over 4000 species have been named.
These animals are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented, protostome coelomates. The coelom is generally reduced to portions of the reproductive and excretory systems. They have an open circulatory system.
The most notable advancement of this phylum is a rigid exoskeleton. It has major implications in these organisms' locomotion, flexibility, circulatory systems, gas exchange systems, and growth. It also was partially responsible for the ability of the arthropods to move on to land.
There are several major groupings of arthropods:
Major subgroups include:
The chelicerates (eurytperids, horseshoe crabs, scorpions, spiders, ticks) have clawlike feeding appendages. They lack antennae and usually have simple eyes.
The Trilobites...they get their own grouping
The uniramians (centipedes, millipedes, insects) have one pair of antennae and unbranched (uniramous) appendages.
The crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, lobsters, barnacles and many others) have two pairs of antennae and branched (biramous) appendages.
Major Classes Include
See text pages 900 - 905.
Name means "soft".
This phylum consists of snails, slugs, bivalves, chitons, squids, octopus, and many others. About 110,000 species
All molluscs have a similar body plan:
A muscular foot, usually used for movement.
A visceral mass, containing most of the internal organs.
A mantle, a fold of tissue that drapes over the visceral mass and secretes the shell, if present.
Most have a radula, or a rasping organ to scrape food.
Molluscs are bilaterally symmetrical, or secondarily asymmetrical. They are coelomates, but the coelom generally has been greatly reduced; the main body cavity is a hemocoel. Development is typically protostomous. The gut is complete with marked regional specialization. Large, complex, metanephridia (excretion).
Many molluscan life cycles include a trochophore larva. This stage also is characteristic of annelids.
There are several major classes of molluscs:
Class Polyplacophora (chitons)
Name means "the chordates", i.e., these animals have a notochord at some stage in their lifecycle.
This phylum consists of tunicates, lancelets, and the vertebrates.
There are four major features that characterize the phylum Chordata.
A notochord, or a longitudinal, flexible rod between the digestive tube and the nerve cord. In most vertebrates, it is replaced developmentally by the vertebral column. This is the structure for which the phylum is named.
A dorsal hollow nerve cord which develops from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube located dorsal to the notochord. Other animal phyla have solid nerve cords ventrally located. A chordate nerve cord splits into the central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord.
Pharyngeal slits, which allow water that enters through the mouth to exit without continuing through the entire digestive tract. In many of the invertebrate chordates, these function as suspension feeding devices; in vertebrates, they have been modified for gas exchange, jaw support, hearing, and other functions.
A muscular, postanal tail which extends posterior to the anus. The digestive tract of most nonchordates extends the length of the body. In chordates, the tail has skeletal elements and musculature, and can provide most of the propulsion in aquatic species.
Chordates have a segmented body plan, at least in development. This segmentation evolved independently from the segmentation of annelids.
Three subphyla make up the phylum Chordata:
Subphylum Urochordata (tunicates): the adults are enclosed in a tunic made of a carbohydrate much like cellulose. They squirt water out of an excurrent siphon. Urochordates are characterized by errant (mobile and active) larvae and sessile adults. All are filter feeders. The only "chordate" characteristics retained in adult life are the pharyngeal slits. Larval urochordates look more like adult cephlochordates & adult vertebrates than adult urochordates.
Subphylum Cephalochordata: Cephalochordates are known as lancelets because of their blade-like shape; they are also known as amphioxus. They are marine animals and usually live on the bottom, but can swim.
Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates) ...
Vertebrata refers to the presence of vertebrae and a vertebral column.
This subphylum includes most of the animals with which most people are familiar.
Vertebrates show extreme cephalization.
The notochord generally is replaced by the cranium & vertebral column in adults.
Neural Crest Cells[ edit ]
Later in development, these give rise to many cells of the body, including some cartilage cells, pigment cells, neurons & glial cells of the peripheral nervous systems, much of the cranium, and some of the cells of the endocrine system.
Some scientists would like to classify the neural crest as the fourth germ layer.
Neural crest cells come from the dorsal edge of the neural plate, thus ectoderm.
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i don't know
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Someone whose occupation is a gillie (or ghillie) works where?
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ghillie - Memidex dictionary/thesaurus
ghillie
(shoe) a shoe without a tongue and with decorative lacing up the instep
Synonyms: gillie. Type of: shoe
(attendant) a young male attendant on a Scottish Highlander chief
Synonyms: gillie [masculine], gilly [masculine]. Type of: attendant
Etymology summary
from Scottish Gaelic gille boy | from Scottish Gaelic gille boy, servant
(Source: Collins Dictionary) [more]
[plural]
| gillie | gilly
a type of tongueless shoe with lacing up the instep, originally worn by the Scots | a variant spelling of "gillie" | an attendant or guide for hunting ...
(26 of 417 words, 4 definitions, 5 usage examples, pronunciations)
Wikipedia:
Gillie | Ghillie
a Scots term that refers to a man or a boy who acts as an attendant on a fishing, fly fishing, hunting, or deer stalking expedition, primarily in the Highlands or on a river such as the River Spey. In origin it referred especially to someone who...
(47 of 253 words)
Oxford Dictionary:
gillie | ghillie
[Scottish] a man or boy who attends someone on a hunting or fishing expedition. | [historical] : a Highland chief's attendant. | (usually "ghillie") : ...
(23 of 109 words, 3 definitions, pronunciation)
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Scottish Highlands
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What two-faced Roman god of beginnings and transitions is a name for a word which has two opposite meanings, and the derivation of the first month of the year?
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Gillie - definition of gillie by The Free Dictionary
Gillie - definition of gillie by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/gillie
also ghil·lie (gĭl′ē)
n. pl. gil·lies
1. Scots A professional fishing and hunting guide.
2. A shoe with crisscrossed laces and no tongue, especially a low-cut, soft shoe used in dancing.
[Scottish Gaelic gille, boy, servant, from Old Irish gilla, from gildae.]
gillie
1. (Hunting) an attendant or guide for hunting or fishing
2. (Hunting) (formerly) a Highland chieftain's male attendant or personal servant
[C17: from Scottish Gaelic gille boy, servant]
gil•lie
a. a hunting or fishing guide.
b. a male attendant or personal servant to a Highland chieftain.
2. a low-cut, tongueless oxford shoe with loops instead of eyelets for the laces.
[1590–1600; < Scottish Gaelic gille lad, servant]
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
1.
gillie - a young male attendant on a Scottish Highlander chief
attendant , attender , tender - someone who waits on or tends to or attends to the needs of another
2.
shoe - footwear shaped to fit the foot (below the ankle) with a flexible upper of leather or plastic and a sole and heel of heavier material
Translations
1. (Hunting) → ayudante mf de cazador or pescador
2. (o.f.) (= attendant) → criado m
gillie
n (Scot) → Jagdaufseher (in) m(f)
Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content .
Link to this page:
tender
References in classic literature ?
He was in the Black Watch, when first it was mustered; and, like other gentlemen privates, had a gillie at his back to carry his firelock for him on the march.
THEATRE PREVIEW act?
It's A Lyrical Dance Concert and it brings Gillie Kleiman back to the North East for performances at Northern Stage and The Maltings, Berwick.
LEGAL & FINANCE: Hammonds has first non-executive chairman
What began on the Web site as small show of support from Gillies to his son, Charlie - a 14-year-old Wildcats pitcher and third baseman - and a way for the Army reservist to follow the team's games, has become a virtual link from Santa Clarita to the Middle East.
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All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.
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i don't know
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What is the common name for the northern hemisphere tree genus Betula, having catkins, winged nuts, and bark that peels in strips?
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Betula species | Article about Betula species by The Free Dictionary
Betula species | Article about Betula species by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Betula+species
Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Medical , Legal , Wikipedia .
birch,
common name for some members of the Betulaceae, a family of deciduous trees or shrubs bearing male and female flowers on separate plants, widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. They are valued for their hardwood lumber and edible fruits and as ornamental trees. The species of Betulaceae native to the United States represent five genera—Alnus ( alder alder
, name for deciduous trees and shrubs of the genus Alnus of the family Betulaceae (birch family), widely distributed, especially in mountainous and moist areas of the north temperate zone and in the Andes. The black alder (A.
..... Click the link for more information. ), Betula (the birches), Corylus ( hazel hazel,
any plant of the genus Corylus of the family Betulaceae (birch family), shrubs or small trees with foliage similar to the related alders. They are often cultivated for ornament and for the edible nuts.
..... Click the link for more information. ), and Carpinus ( hornbeam hornbeam
or ironwood,
name in North America for two groups of trees of the family Betulaceae (birch family), native to the eastern half of the continent. Carpinus caroliniana, also called blue beech and water beech, has smooth gray bark.
..... Click the link for more information. ) and Ostrya (hop hornbeam), both also called ironwood. The sixth genus, Ostryopsis, is restricted to Mongolia. The birches, beautiful bushes or trees of temperate and arctic regions, are often found mingled with evergreens in northern coniferous forests. Most American species are trees of the Northeast; a few smaller and scrub species grow in the West. The close-grained hardwood of several of the trees is valued for furniture, flooring, and similar uses (in America, particularly that of the yellow birch, B. lutea); stained birch provides much of the so-called mahogany of lower-priced furniture. White-barked birches are often used as ornamental trees, e.g., the famous paper, or canoe, birch (B. papyrifera) of the N United States and Canada. Its bark, which separates in layers, was used by the Native Americans for canoes and baskets. Various birches have yielded sugar, vinegar, a tea from the leaves, and a birch beer from the sap. The sweet, or black, birch (B. lenta) is now the chief source of oil of wintergreen wintergreen
or checkerberry,
low evergreen plant (Gaultheria procumbens) of the family Ericaceae (heath family), native to sandy and acid woods (usually of evergreens) of E North America and frequently cultivated.
..... Click the link for more information. . The Betulaceae is classified in the division Magnoliophyta Magnoliophyta
, division of the plant kingdom consisting of those organisms commonly called the flowering plants, or angiosperms. The angiosperms have leaves, stems, and roots, and vascular, or conducting, tissue (xylem and phloem).
..... Click the link for more information. , class Magnoliopsida, order Fagales.
birch
A moderately strong, high-density wood, yellowish to brown in color; its uniform texture is well suited for veneer, flooring, and turned wood products. See also: Wood
Birch
(genus Betula), deciduous monoecious trees and shrubs of the Betulaceae family. The bark of the trunk ranges in color from white to black. The leaves are sequential, simple, and petiolate. The staminate flowers, with two bifurcated stamens, are gathered in hanging catkins, which in summer are formed at the ends of annual shoots. Pistillate flowers without perianths, usually in threes (in dichasia) in axils of bracteal husks, are gathered in single catkins, which are displayed in the spring of the year, when they blossom in axils of young leaflets. The birch tree blooms in early spring, almost simultaneously with the opening of the leaves. The fruit is one-seeded, nutlike, flat, and two-winged. Seeds ripen in the summer or fall. The birch tree generally grows rapidly, particularly when it is young. It readily populates areas in which other vegetation does not exist and is often a pioneer species.
There are about 100 (more, by some data) polymorphous species growing in the temperate and cool regions of the northern hemisphere and the mountains of the subtropics; there are about 50 species in the USSR. Many birches are economically important—the valuable lumber-forming and decorative species, particularly the European white birch (Betula pendula or B. verrucosa), the Old World white birch (B. pubescens), the flat-leaf birch (B. platyphylla), the ribbed, or yellow, birch (B. costata), and the Schmidt, or iron, birch (B. Schmidtii). Most species of birch require light, are quite drought- and frost-resistant, and grow in many types of soil. The lumber and bark of many birch species are used in various sectors of the economy. The buds and leaves of the European white birch and Old World white birch are used for medicinal purposes. The buds, which contain 3.5–6 percent essential oil, are sometimes used in infusions as a diuretic and externally as a massage for aches in joints. The most prevalent species of birch is the European white birch. Trees reach 25 m in height and 80 cm in diameter. Birches tolerate a certain amount of salinization of the soil and aridity of the air; they live to 150 years and more. They are observed to 65° N lat. in Western Europe; in the USSR, they are found throughout nearly the entire forest and forest-steppe zone of the European part, western Siberia, Transbaikal, Saiany, Altai, and the Caucasus. Birches grow in combination with coniferous and deciduous varieties. In some places they form vast birch forests; and in the forest-steppe zone of the Trans-Volga Region and western Siberia, they form the so-called birch groves, which alternate with fields and steppe areas. Birches are used as field-protecting strips and as decoration. The lumber is prized for furniture production; it is used for veneer and various articles.
REFERENCE
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Birch
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What capital city lies at the coordinates 53 20N 6 15W?
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Published in Trees
Betula pathway. Picture courtesy Karl Gercens Visit his flickr photostreamCondensed Version:
Best known for its characteristic silvery-white bark which does not peel like the paper birch; this beautiful medium-sized deciduous tree looks good all year round. Under optimal conditions it can reach a height of +-20m with a 12m spread, but can take 50 to 60 years to reach its ultimate height. In the garden it generally grows fairly quickly to +-5 to 10m tall with a 3 to 5m spread in the first 10 years. The silver birch produces a crown of arched branches with pendulous twigs. It has a slender trunk which seldom exceeds 40cm in diameter. The bark is green when young, maturing to its characteristic white and often marked with black diamond-shaped marks or larger patches, particularly at the base. The long, triangular bright green leaves have coarsely serrated margins and in cold regions will turn a wonderful gold colour in autumn. Yellow flowers, born in cylindrical catkins, appear before the fresh green leaves in early spring. They are wind-pollinated and followed in late summer by small winged seeds. Cultivars include 'Purpurea' with its lovely dark purple leaves and 'Youngii', a small weeping form of the silver birch.
The silver birch is a well-shaped tree that is ideal for small gardens; letting the sunshine through in winter and providing light shade in summer. It is a popular specimen tree for the lawn which allows the grass to grow well underneath. It is perfect for romantic and white gardens, pairing beautifully with the hardy Oak-leaved hydrangea and other shade loving plants. Planted alongside long driveways it will provide a stately entrance; and planted in groups of 3 to 5 a lovely forest effect can be created.
In South Africa birches thrive in moist cool regions like the KwaZulu-Natal mist belt, but are fully hardy to frost and snow. They are not suited to very hot dry regions but can be grown in the winter rainfall regions if they are protected from strong winds and are watered thoroughly in summer. Birch trees are shallow rooted and do not tolerate drought well, so always water regularly during dry spells. In cool regions they love to grow in full sun but in hotter gardens they will take some light shade. The silver birch will adapt to most well-drained garden soils and grows well in neutral to extremely acidic soils. It prefers medium fertility and is adapted to clay, silt, sand and loam soils.
Betula Autumn Leaves. Picture courtesy Lotus Johnston Visit her flickr photostreamFull Version:
Description, History & Interesting Facts:
Birches are broadleaved deciduous trees of the genus Betula, which also includes alders, hazels and hornbeams; and is closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. There are about 60 species common throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and particularly in boreal climates where they form stands on light, well-drained, particularly acidic soils. A boreal forest climate is a continental climate with long, very cold winters, and short, cool summers. Very cold air masses from the arctic often move in and the temperature range is larger than any other climate. In these regions birches are regarded as short-lived pioneer species, rapidly colonising disturbed or open ground; and quickly regenerating after fires.
Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees and the bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels, and often separates into thin, papery plates, especially upon the paper birch. The wood is resistant to decay, due to the resinous oil it contains, and the colour of the bark gives rise to the common names of the different species: grey, white, black, silver or yellow birches. Birch trees live to a maximum age of 60 to 80 years and their foliage is used as a food plant by the larvae of a large number of butterflies and moths species. Birch trees have a symbiotic relationship with a well-known British fungus, the fly agaric or fly amanita (Amanita muscaria), easily identified by its distinctive red cap and white spots, and renowned for its hallucinogenic properties.
Betula pendula Young TreeThe silver birch (Betula pendula) is native to Europe where it is widespread, although in southern Europe it is only found at higher altitudes. It occurs mainly on dry, sandy soils, and its range extends into southwest Asia in the mountains of northern Turkey and the Caucasus. In Scandinavia and other regions of northern Europe, it is grown for forestry. In parts of Canada it is naturalised and locally invasive. Best known for its characteristic silvery-white bark which does not peel like the paper birch; this beautiful medium-sized deciduous tree looks good all year round. Under optimal conditions it can reach a height of +-20m with a 12m spread, but it can take 50 to 60 years to reach its ultimate height. In the garden it generally grows fairly quickly to +-5 to 10m tall with a 3 to 5m spread in the first 10 years. Cultivars include 'Purpurea' with its lovely dark purple leaves and 'Youngii', a small weeping form of the silver birch.
The silver birch produces a crown of arched branches with pendulous twigs and has a slender trunk which seldom exceeds 40cm in diameter. The bark is green when young, maturing to its characteristic white, and often marked with black diamond-shaped marks or larger patches, particularly at the base. The long, triangular bright green leaves have coarsely serrated margins and in cold regions will turn a wonderful gold colour in autumn. Yellow flowers, born in cylindrical catkins, appear before the fresh green leaves in early spring. They are wind-pollinated and followed in late summer by small winged seeds.
betulapendulabarkUses:
In Britain, wine made from the sap was once taken as a medicine; and in Ireland the bark was used to treat skin complaints. In Sweden, the bark of birch trees was ground up and used to make a form of bread, and the removal of bark was at one time so widespread that Carl Linnaeus expressed his concern for the survival of the woodlands. Today, the leaves and bark are mostly used for their diuretic properties; and birch tar oil prepared from the bark of Betula pendula is used to treat skin conditions. One of the major constituents of the bark, betulinic acid, has shown activity against cancerous cells and HIV. The silver birch is Finland's national tree and interestingly the fragrant little branches, called vihta or vasta, are used to gently beat oneself in a sauna, having a relaxing effect on the muscles. The wood of all the species is close-grained with a satiny texture and capable of taking a fine polish. Historically, the bark was used for tanning and the brushwood is still used for racecourse jumps.
In the Garden:
The silver birch is a well-shaped tree that is ideal for small gardens; letting the sunshine through in winter and providing light shade in summer. It remains a popular specimen tree for the lawn, allowing the lawn to grow well underneath. It is perfect for romantic and white gardens, pairing beautifully with the hardy Oak-leaved hydrangea and other shade loving plants. Planted alongside long driveways it will provide a stately entrance; and planted in groups of 3 to 5 a lovely forest effect can be created.
Picture courtesy Leonora Enking, visit her flickr photostreamCultivation:
In South Africa birches thrive in moist cool regions like the KwaZulu-Natal mist belt, but are fully hardy to frost and snow. They are not suited to very hot or dry regions, but can be grown in the cooler parts of the winter rainfall regions if they are protected from strong winds and are watered thoroughly in summer. These trees are totally not suited to subtropical regions. Birch trees are shallow rooted and do not tolerate drought well, so always water regularly during dry spells. In cool regions they love to grow in full sun but in hotter gardens they will take some light shade. The silver birch will adapt to most well-drained garden soils and grows well in neutral to extremely acidic soils. It prefers medium fertility and is adapted to clay, silt, sand and loam soils. They don’t grow well in shallow alkaline soil.
Propagation:
The primary method of propagation is from seed sown in summer, with germination taking place within 4 to 6 weeks. Collect seeds in late summer and keep at about 4°C for 2 months before sowing. Germination is best in soil temperatures between 20 and 26°C. Softwood stem tip cuttings can also be taken in early summer and treated with hormone powder and intermittent mist; grafting/ budding are also successful.
Pests & Diseases:
Birches are susceptible to birch borers, birch rust, aphids, honey fungus and mildew. Leaves may become yellow on poor, shallow, chalky soil.
Warning:
Birch pollen is well known to be a significant aeroallergen (an allergen dispersed bywind). This pollen is known to be a notable cause of hay-fever and pollen-related asthma.
Details
Common Name Silver Birch, European White Birch
Latin Name Betula pendula
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Arbutus unedoThis unusual evergreen is native to the Mediterranean region where it is most common; it can also be found in Western Europe, north to western France, and Ireland. It has an unusual dome-shape and broad, glossy dark green leaves with serrated margins. It can be trained to grow as a bushy shrub or small single-stemmed tree. The hanging clusters of urn-shaped flowers appear in late summer. They are usually white, but can occasionally be flushed with pink.
The flowers are followed in winter by edible yet tasteless, strawberry-like fruits. The fruits take about 12 months to mature, ripening from yellow, to orange and then to a beautiful red and are relished by birds. Since the fruit takes 12 months to ripen, the tree carries both mature fruit and flowers at the same time and is then incredibly beautiful. The attractive ragged bark is a deep red-brown and the trunk and the branches become gnarled with age.
The fruit was known to the ancients but was not held in much esteem. Pliny named the tree Arbutus unedo; unedo means (un ede=one 1 eat), implying that once you have tasted one you won't want another! When eaten in quantities the fruit is said to be narcotic, and in Spain, a sugar and spirit have been extracted from the fruit, and a wine made from it in Corsica. In the neighbourhood of Algiers it forms hedges, and in Greece and Spain the bark has been used for tanning. The wood of the tree makes good charcoal.
The strawberry tree is an excellent tree for coastal gardens or in a sheltered spot inland. It naturally makes a multi-stemmed plant but a single stem can be selected to become the main trunk, and all basal sprouts pruned off, making it an excellent tree for a small garden. This is a superb plant to grow as a specimen in the middle of a lawn, and it also grows very well on the sunny edges of a woodland garden. It is also a very good tree to grow in towns because it tolerates industrial pollution.
The Irish strawberry tree is a trouble-free plant that is easy to grow. It can occasionally reach 9 metres tall and 8 metres wide, with a trunk up to 80cm in diameter, though it is usually much smaller; growing slowly to about 3m tall and 2m wide and maturing to about 5 to 6m tall and 3m wide.
This evergreen grows well in all parts of the country and is extremely frost hardy, tolerating temperatures down to -16°c in parts of Britain without injury; if it is planted in a sheltered position, where it is protected from cold, drying winds, especially when it is young. It is surprisingly tolerant of winds if they are not cold and can succeed in fairly exposed positions near the coast.
It loves full sun but will grow in semi-shade and does best in a nutrient-rich, well-drained, yet moisture-retentive soil. It will even grow in heavy clay soils as long as the holes are correctly prepared and drain well. Most species in this genus require a lime-free soil but this species is fairly lime tolerant. In sandy soils, dig in lots of organic matter and maintain mulch around the roots. This tree is relatively drought hardy but requires regular watering when young, especially in dry regions.
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Acer buergerianum SeedsAcer buergerianum is native to eastern China and Korea and was introduced to Japan very early, where its name translates as "China maple". The species name honours Heinrich Buerger, a 19th century German botanist. In about 1896, it was introduced to Europe and North America, where it was planted in large gardens and parks.
The Chinese maple is a trouble-free species that is tolerant of a wide range of site conditions. It is very adaptable to urban environments and tolerates air pollution, making it a wonderful street tree. It can be trimmed to keep it smaller and is good in confined spaces; making it an excellent choice for smaller gardens; providing welcome shade in summer and allowing the sunlight through in winter. Several interesting cultivars have been developed, making the Chinese maple a popular choice for the art of bonsai, and suitable for many style and sizes; responding well to techniques that create leaf reduction and ramification.
This attractive small to medium-sized, deciduous tree has a rounded and slightly spreading crown, often with multiple-trunks; and triangular three-lobed leaves. Spring growth is coppery-red, maturing to a glossy dark green in summer ,and then turning red to yellow and copper-orange in autumn; autumn colours are variable but are at their best in regions which experience warm days and cold nights in autumn. Because they are generally grown from seed, growth habit and foliage is variable. Growth rate is slow to moderate, and mature specimens can vary in height from 10 to 15m, with a trunk up to 50cm diameter; but in the garden they generally grow +-6m tall with a spread of 3 to 4m. Inconspicuous yellow-green flowers are borne in pendulous corymbs during late spring; followed in autumn by fairly small but distinctive winged seeds called samaras. The grey bark becomes darker on mature trunks, and is mottled and flaking; exfoliating in shades of orange, gray, and black.
Acer buergerianum. Mature specimen
The Chinese maple grows well in the cooler summer rainfall regions, thriving on the highveld, the Drakensberg regions and the Kwa-Zulu mist belt. Its autumn display is best in colder regions and it is hardy to temperatures as low as -25°C. It is not suited to very hot or dry gardens, but will grow in the southern and south-western Cape if it is watered regularly in summer; it does not produce its most brilliant autumn colours in these regions. The tree has good structural strength and is fairly wind resistant, but the branches have a tendency to break in strong winds, so always plant it in a sheltered part of the garden. It grows best in full sun but will take semi-shade; and although it is adaptable to most garden soils and tolerates infertile soils, it prefers a well-drained, compost enriched, loamy soil; and responds well to regular watering during prolonged dry spells.
Young trees tend to branch low down and unless they are trained to produce a central leader they will most often produce multiple stems, so if you desire a single-stemmed tree for street plantings etc, you will have to select central leader and do some formative pruning to produce an excellent shape. Pruning is done mainly in July when the plants are dormant.
Propagation is easy from seed, although germination can take up to a year. Plants sown from seed will be quite variable in habit and foliage characteristics.
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Dias cotonifolia
This charming little South African tree has been cultivated in European gardens from as far back as 1764. Its natural habitat is the eastern parts of the country, from the Eastern Cape, through the Transkei and into Kwa-Zulu Natal, Mpumalanga and Limpopo; where it can be found growing on the margins of forests, wooded slopes and in stony kloofs.
The tree is a breathtaking sight when it is in full bloom, and the entire tree is smothered in a cloud of large, delicately-scented clusters of flowers Flower heads range in colour from pink to pale lilac, and each small flower is tubular, spreading into 5 narrow petals in front and with prominent golden yellow anthers. The pompom tree can bloom anytime in summer, depending on where you live. In some regions it will bloom in late spring and early summer, and in others, in November and December.
It can be single or multi-stemmed, and has a neat upright growth habit, developing a dense, round crown of attractive bluish-green leaves. The fruit is a small nutlet and the tiny black seeds can be collected a couple of months after flowering. The bark is greyish and covered in small speckles of whitish cork. The bark contains tannin which was widely used in the past for tanning hides, and the strong sinuous bark was used in rural areas to make and a good quality rope. It is difficult to break off a branch of this tree because the bark tears off in long strips, which accounts for its common name, Kannabas.
Its ultimate height is dependent on climate and growing conditions, varying from 4 to 6m tall, and if left un-pruned it can spread as wide as it grows tall. The pompom tree has a non-invasive roots and can be pruned to keep it smaller, making it the perfect tree for small townhouse gardens and complexes; it can also be grown very successfully in large containers. This tree is tough enough to survive as a street tree and is ideal for office parks and car parks. It is an excellent specimen tree on a lawn, and is great in the back of a large border. It provides valuable nesting sites for birds and will attract butterflies to your garden.
Although its natural habitat is in the warmer regions of the country and it enjoys cool, dry winters, the pompom tree will grow easily in most parts of the country. It will survive fairly severe frost if it is planted in a sheltered position, and is covered for the first few winters. It is wind resistant and will grow in slightly saline (salty) soils. It loves to grow in full sun, but it will take a little light shade.
For best results in the garden, plant it in well-drained soil to which plenty of compost and some bonemeal has been added. Water regularly until established and during long hot, dry spells. Once established, it is fairly drought resistant. Mulch thickly with compost to keep the roots cool and to retain moisture, and feed with balanced organic fertiliser occasionally in summer. The pompom tree is semi-deciduous to deciduous; in mild climates it only loses its leaves for a very short period at the end of winter, but it is deciduous in the cold parts of the country.
It grows very quickly, reaching maturity in 4 to 5 years, and will begin flowering as early as the second year after planting. The flowers are produced on the previous year's growth so any pruning must be done after flowering. The tree can be trained with a single or multi-stems, and if a very bushy tree is required the leader stem can be removed when the trees are still young and have reached the desired height.
It is extremely easy to propagate from seed sown in spring and from semi-hardwood cuttings taken in summer.
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Mature African Tulip TreeWhen in full bloom, this tree is truly a sight to behold. It is native to tropical Africa but is now widely grown throughout the tropics. The huge tulip-shaped flowers are orange-red and rimmed with gold and bloom sporadically in summer. The flowers are followed by a long fruit capsule containing hundreds of winged seeds. The rugged bark is grey-green.
It is a handsome tree for large gardens and parks.
This large growing evergreen tree has a pyramidal shape and is slow growing; reaching 5m tall and 2.5m wide in 10 years, and at maturity 25m tall by 10m wide. It is tender to frost and grows only in Kwa-Zulu Natal and the Lowveld. Plant it into good soil in a sunny position. Protect it from strong wind and water it regularly during dry spells. It can be grown from seeds sown in spring.
African Tulip Tree Flowers
Published in Trees
Ochna pulchra
The Peeling Plant tree is one of our most attractive indigenous trees and makes an ideal garden subject for gardens small and large. The plane family has about 600 species of shrubs and trees, from tropical and subtropical countries. In South Africa we have about 10 species.
Ochna pulchra will reach 7 metres tall in open woodland. In the garden it will grow moderately to about 4 to 5m tall and about 3m wide. It has a narrow, rounded crown and in spring or early summer it produces masses of sweetly scented, lemon-yellow flowers.
When the flowers drop the sepals enlarge and turn crimson, making a colourful background to the green fruits; that ripen to black. The greyish-brown bark peels off, revealing a creamy-white inner bark. This tree loses its leaves in winter and the new spring leaves are a lovely russet-red, turning green in summer. The ripe seeds are relished by birds.
The Lekkerbreek grows best in regions with warm winters but will take moderate frost if planted in a protected position. It will tolerate long periods of drought but grows faster in regions with good summer rainfall. Plant it into large holes with lots of added compost and bone meal and water regularly in summer for best results.
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Cordyline australis. Picture courtesy Jon Ander Orue Visit his flickr photostreamThis hardy, evergreen tree comes from New Zealand and has a palm-like appearance. It is grown for its long slender trunk, topped by gracefully arching heads of long sword-like leaves. In summer, spikes of scented white flowers appear and are followed by white berries. The leaves of new hybrids come in exciting colours like purple, pink and red and the plants vary in height.
Cabbage Trees will add a tropical touch to any garden and used to create height in small gardens where space is limited. This tree looks beautiful in rock and gravel gardens and grows well near swimming pools, although it can be a bit messy. It also grows easily in pots indoors and outdoors.
The Cabbage Tree grows best in areas that receive good rainfall and grows well in coastal areas. It is hardy to moderate frost and will grow in dry regions if it is watered regularly. Plant it in fertile, well-drained soil and it will grow quickly to +-5m tall and +-2m wide in full sun or light shade. At maturity and under optimal conditions it can reach up to 13m tall and 4m wide.
Cordyline australis 'Southern Splendor' It can be propagated from cuttings taken in summer and autumn or from seed sown in autumn.
(Cordyline australis) has green leaves.
(Cordyline 'Atropurpurea') has purple leaves.
(Cordyline 'Red Sensation') has red wine-red leaves.
(Cordyline`Albertii') has cream and green striped leaves.
(Cordyline 'Pink Sensation') has striped pink leaves.
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i don't know
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Name the prehistoric 'humanoid species' found near Lewes UK 1912 and shown to be a hoax in 1953?
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Chapter1
Chapter1
1. Review of the evolution of humans: How science and reason need to work together
2. Slide 2
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The story of human evolution began in an African landscape at least 8 million years ago. At least a dozen (hominids) have evolved and as we discover more fossil sites and explore more deeply new surprises continually occur such as the discovery of Homo floresiensis which is remarkable for its small body, small brain, and survival until relatively recent times and yet hunted large animals and used fire. Several of these hominids leave simultaneously and there is little doubt that they did interact with each other. To our knowledge the last hominid to co-exist with human died out as recently as 12 000 years Debate still reigns as to the existence of ape-like men such as the Yeti of the Himalayas, the Sasquatch of North America and the Yowie of Australia.
3. Slide 3
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Human evolution is the process of change and development, or evolution, by which human beings emerged as a distinct species. It is the subject of a broad scientific inquiry that seeks to understand and describe how this change and development occurred. The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably physical anthropology and genetics. The term 'human', in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus Homo, but studies of human evolution usually include other hominids, such as the australopithecines
4. Slide 4
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The modern field of paleoanthropology began with the discovery of 'Neanderthal man'; and evidence of other 'cave men' in the 19th century. The idea that humans are similar to certain great apes had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859. Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution- "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject- the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers. Debates between Thomas Huxley and Richard Owen focused on the idea of human evolution, and by the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, Descent of Man, it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory- and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial. Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through natural selection.
5. Slide 5
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Ardipithecus is a very early hominin genus (subfamily Homininae). Because it shares several traits with the African great apes (genus Pan and genus Gorilla), it is considered by some to be on the chimpanzee rather than human branch, but most consider it a proto-human because of a likeness in teeth with Australopithecus. A. ramidus lived about 5.4 and 4.2 million years ago during the early Pliocene.
Two species have been described, Ardipithecus ramidus and Ardipithecus kadabba. The latter was initially described as a subspecies of A. ramidus, but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in Ethiopia has been raised to species rank. A. kadabba is dated to have lived between 5.8 million to 5.2 million years ago. The canine teeth show primitive features that distinguish them from those of more recent hominines. A. kadabba is believed to be the earliest organism yet identified that lies in the human line following its split from the lineage that gave rise to the two modern chimpanzee species.
On the basis of bone sizes, Ardipithecus species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The toe structure of A. ramidus suggests that the creature walked upright, and this poses problems for current theories of the origins of hominid bipedalism: Ardipithecus is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah, where the faster running permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage.
The forest lifestyle poses problems for the current theories regarding the development of bipedalism, most of which focus on the savanna. New thought will be necessary in order to reconcile these savanna theories with the current knowledge of early forest-dwelling hominids.
External links
* BBC News: Amazing hominid haul in Ethiopia - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4187991.stm
6. Slide 6
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The first discovery of Australopithecus anamensis (a single arm bone) was made by a research team in 1965. Believed to be four million years old, very little was known about the finding until 1987 when Canadian archaeologist, Allan Morton (with Harvard University's Koobi Fora Field School), discovered fragments of the specimen eroding from a hillside east of Allia Bay, near Lake Turkana, Kenya. Six years later British, Kenyan paleoanthropologist Meave Leakey and archaeologist, Alan Walker excavated the Allia Bay site and uncovered a few additional fragments of the hominid in the hot dusty terrain. The complete lower jaw found resembles that of a Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), but the teeth are definitely closer to those of Humans. Despite that they had uncovered hips, feet and legs; Meave believes that Australopithecus anamensis often climbed trees. Tree climbing for early hominins remained one ape-like trait that passed on until the first Homo species appeared about 2.5 million years ago. A. anamensis shares many traits similar to Australopithecus afarensis and may as well be its direct predecessor. Australopithecus anamensis is thought to have lived from 4.4 and 3.9 million years ago, coincidently when A. afarensis appears in the fossil record. Its name is derived from anam which means "lake" in the local Turkana language.
The fossils (twenty one in total) include upper and lower jaws, cranial fragments, and the upper and lower parts of a leg bone (tibia). In addition to this, a fragment of humerus that was found thirty years ago at the same site at Kanapoi has now been assigned to this species.
Australopithecus bahrelghazali is a fossil hominin that was first discovered in 1993 by Michel Brunet at Bahr el Ghazal, Chad. The findings were located roughly 2,500 kilometers West from the East African Great Rift Valley and were only a few teeth and a partial jaw found in deposits thought to be 3.0 to 3.5 million years old. The mandible KT-12 discovered in 1995 has similar features to the dentation of Australopithecus afarensis. This species is a mystery to some as it is the only australopithecine fossil found in Central Africa.
7. Slide 7
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Australopithecus afarensis is a hominid which lived between 3.9 to 3 million years ago belonging to the genus Australopithecus, of which the first skeleton was discovered on November 24, 1974 by Donald Johanson, Yves Coppens and Tim White in the Afar Depression of Ethiopia. They named it "Lucy" in reference to the famous Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", which was played as they celebrated the find.
Lucy's discovery
Donald Johanson, an American anthropologist who is now head of the Institute of Human Origins of Arizona State University, and his team, surveyed Hadar, Ethiopia during the late 1970s for evidence in interpreting Human origins. On November 24, 1974 near the River Awash, Don was planning on updating his field notes but instead one of his students Tom Gray accompanied him to find fossil bones. Both of them were on the hot arid plains surveying on the dusty terrain when a fossil caught both their eyes; arm bone fragments on a slope. As they looked further, more and more bones were found, including a jaw, arm bone, a thighbone, ribs, and vertebrae. Both Don and Tom had carefully analyzed the partial skeleton and calculated that an amazing 40% of a hominin skeleton was recovered, which, while sounding generally unimpressive, is astounding in the world of anthropology. When fossils are discovered usually only a few fragments are found; rarely are any skulls or ribs intact. The team proceded to further analysis and Don noticed the feminine stature of the skeleton and argued that it was a female. He then nicknamed it Lucy, after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". Lucy was only 3 feet 8 inches tall, weighed 29 kilograms (65 lbs) and looked somewhat like a Common Chimpanzee, but the observations of her pelvis proved that she had walked upright more like humans do.
Don Johanson claimed that Australopithecus afarensis was the last common ancestor between humans and Chimpanzees living from 3.9 to 3 million years ago, but earlier fossils have been found since the early 1970s; yet Lucy still remains a treasure among anthropologists who study Human origins. The older fossils that have been uncovered include only fragments and make difficult for anthropologist to know for sure if they were neither 100% bipedal nor actually hominines.
Johanson brought the skeleton back to Cleveland, under agreement with the government of the time in Ethiopia, and returned it according to agreement some 9 years later. Lucy was the first fossil hominin to really capture public notice, becoming almost a household name at the time. Current opinion is that the Lucy skeleton should be classified in the species Australopithecus afarensis. Lucy is preserved at the national Museum in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A plaster replica is displayed instead of the original skeleton. A diorama of Australopithecus afarensis and other human predecessors showing each species in its habitat and demonstrating the behaviors and capabilities that scientists believe it had is in the Hall of Human Biology and Evolution at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
8. Slide 8
One of the most striking characteristics possessed by Lucy was that she had a small skull, bipedal knee structure, and molars and front teeth of human (rather than great ape) style and relative size, but a small skull and small body. The image of a bipedal hominid with small skull, but teeth like a human, was somewhat shocking to the paleoanthropological world at the time.
This was because during the period 1950-1970, it was believed that the development of a brain larger than an ape brain was the trigger that caused apes to evolve into humans. Before Lucy, a fossil called '1470' (Homo rudolfensis), with a brain capacity of about 800 cubic centimetres had been discovered, an ape with a bigger brain, and if the 'big brain' theory was correct, then all humans should have evolved from 1470. However, it turned out Lucy was older than 1470, yet Lucy had bipedalism (she walked upright) and had a brain that was only around 375 to 500 cc. This fact contradicts the 'big brain' theory.
Bipedalism
There are differing views on how Lucy or her ancestors first became bipedal full-time.
The so-called 'savanna theory' on how A. afarensis evolved bipedalism hangs on the evidence that around 6 - 8 million years ago there seems to have been a mass extinction of forest dwelling creatures incuding the oldest hominins recognizable: Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis. This triggered a burst of adaptive radiation, an evolutionary characteristic that generates new species quickly. Lucy's genetic forebears were tree dwelling apes, but in Lucy's world the trees would have been much fewer, and Lucy would have been forced to find a living on the flat savanna. Being bipedal would have had evolutionary advantages - for example, with the eyes higher up, she could see further than quadrupeds. The disadvantages of bipedalism were great - Lucy was the slowest moving primate of her time, for example, but according to the hypothesis, the advantages of bipedalism must have outweighed the disadvantages.
There had previously been problems in the past with designating Australopithecus afarensis as a fully bipedal hominine. In fact these hominines may have occasionally walked upright but still walked on all fours like apes; the curved fingers on A. afarensis are similar to those of modern-day apes, which use them for climbing trees. The phalanges (finger bones) aren't just prone to bend at the joints, but rather the bones themselves are curved. Another aspect of the Australopithecus skeleton that differs from human skeleton is the iliac crest of the pelvic bones. The iliac crest, or hip bone, on a Homo sapiens extends front-to-back, allowing an aligned gait. A human walks with one foot in front of the other. However, on Australopithecus and on other ape and ape-like species such as the orangutan, the iliac crest extends laterally (out to the side), causing the legs to stick out to the side, not straight forward. This gives a side-to-side rocking motion as the animal walks, not a forward gait.
The so-called aquatic ape theory compares the typical elements of human locomotion (truncal erectness, aligned body, two-leggedness, striding gait, very long legs, valgus knees, plantigrady etc.) with those of chimpanzees and other animals, and proposes that human ancestors evolved from vertical wader-climbers who operated in coastal or swamp forests to shoreline dwellers who collected coconuts, turtles, bird eggs, shellfish etc. by beach-combing, wading and diving. In this view, the australopithecines largely conserved the ancestral vertical wading-climbing locomotion in swamp forests ("gracile" kind, including Australopithecus afarensis and A. africanus) and later more open wetlands ("robust" kind, including Paranthropus boisei and P. robustus). Meanwhile, Plio-Pleistocene Homo had dispersed along the African Rift valley lakes and African and Indian ocean coasts, from where different Homo populations ventured inland along rivers and lakes.
Social characteristics
These hominines were likely to be somewhat like modern Homo sapiens when it came to the matter of social behaviour, yet like modern day apes they relied on the safety of trees from predators such as lions.
Fossil sites and findings
Australopithecus afarensis fossils have only been discovered within Eastern Africa, which include Ethiopia (Hadar, Aramis), Tanzania (Laetoli) and Kenya (Omo, Turkana, Koobi Fora and Lothagam).
A major discovery made by Don Johnson after Lucy's find he discovered the "First Family" including 200 hominid fragments of A. afarensis, discovered near Lucy on the other side of the hillin the Afar region. The site is known as "site 333", by a count of fossil fragments uncovered, such as teeth and pieces of jaw. 13 individuals were uncovered and all were adults, with no injuries caused by carnivores. All 13 individuals seemed to have died at the same time, thus Don concluded that they might have been killed instantly from a flash flood.
Related work
Further findings at Afar, including the many hominin bones in "site 333", produced more bones of concurrent date, and led to Johanson and White's eventual argument that the Koobi Fora hominins were concurrent with the Afar hominins. In other words, Lucy was not unique in evolving bipedalism and a flat face.
Recently, an entirely new species has been discovered, called Kenyanthropus platyops. This had many of the same characteristics as Lucy, but is possibly an entirely different genus.
Another species, called Ardipithecus ramidus, has been found, which was fully bipedal, yet appears to have been contemporaneous with a woodland environment, and, more importantly, contemporaneous with Australopithecus afarensis. We do not yet have an estimate of the cranial capacity of A. ramidus, however.
References
* BBC - Dawn of Man (2000) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
* Australopithecus afarensis from The Human Origins Program at the Smithsonian Institution
External links
* Lucy at the Institute of Human Origins at Arizona State University
* http://www.geocities.com/palaeoanthropology/Aafarensis.html
9. Slide 9
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an australopithecine, who lived between 3.3 and 2.4 million years ago in the Pliocene. In common with the older Australopithecus afarensis, A. africanus was slenderly built, or gracile, and was thought to have been a direct ancestor of modern humans. However, fossil remains indicate that A. africanus was significantly more like modern humans than A. afarensis, with a more human-like cranium permitting a larger brain and more humanoid facial features.
Taung Child
Raymond Dart was at Taung near Kimberley, South Africa in 1924 when one of his colleagues spotted a few bone fragments and the cranium on the desk of a lime worker. The skull seemed like an odd ape creature sharing human traits such as eye orbits, teeth, and, most importantly, the hole at the base of the skull over the spinal column (the foramen magnum) indicating a human-like posture. Dart assigned the specimen the name Australopithecus africanus ("southern ape of Africa"). This was the first time the word Australopithecus was assigned to any hominid. Dart claimed that the skull must have been an intermediate species between ape and man, but his claim about Taung Child was rejected by the scientific community at the time. Sir Arthur Keith suggested that the skull belonged to a young ape, most likely from an infant gorilla.
Mr. Ples
Dart's theory was supported by Robert Broom. In 1938 Broom classified an adult endocranial cast having a brain capacity of 485cc was found by G. W. Barlow as Plesianthropus transvaalensis. On April 17, 1947, Broom and John T. Robinson discovered a skull belonging to a middle-aged female, Sts 5, while blasting at Sterkfontein. Broom classified it also as Plesianthropus transvaalensis, and it was dubbed Mrs. Ples by the press (though the skull is now thought to have belonged to a young male). The lack of facial projection in comparison to apes was noted by Raymond Dart (including from Taung Child), a trait in common with more advanced hominines. Both fossils were later classified as A. africanus.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/255725.stm
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Morphology and interpretations
Like A. afarensis, A. africanus the South African counterpart was generally similar in many traits, a bipedal hominin with arms slightly larger than the legs (a physical trait also found in chimpanzees). Despite its slightly more human-like post cranial features, seen for example in the craniums Mr. Ples and Sts 71, other more primitive features including ape-like curved fingers for tree climbing are also present.
Due to other more primitive features visible on A. africanus, some researchers believe the hominin, instead of being a direct ancestor of more modern hominins, evolved into Paranthropus. The one particular robust australopithecine seen as a descendent of A. africanus is Paranthropus robustus. Both P. robustus and A. africanus craniums seem very alike despite the more heavily built features of P. robustus that are adaptations for heavy chewing like a gorilla. A. africanus, on the other hand, had a cranium which quite closely resembled that of a chimp, yet both their brains measure about 400 cc to 500 cc and probably had an ape-like intelligence. A. africanus had a pelvis that was built for slightly better bipedalism than that of A. afarensis. No stone tools of any sort have ever been found in association with australopithecines with the exception of 2.6 million year old Australopithecus garhi.
Charles Darwin suggested that humans had originally evolved from Africa, but during the early 20th century most anthropologists and scientists supported the idea that Asia was the best candidate for human origins. However, the famous Leakey family have argued in favor of the African descent since most hominid discoveries such as the Laetoli footprints were uncovered in Eastern Africa. The species A. africanus with it's presumably slightly more Homo-like post cranial features in comparison to A. afarensis is one of several Australopithecine candidates to have evolved into the genus Homo (ie. Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis by 2.4 million years ago).
References
* BBC - Dawn of Man (2000) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
* (2000-2004). Early human phylogeny. Smithsonian Institution. URL accessed on 2005.
* (1999-2006). Human ancestry. ArchaeologyInfo.com. URL accessed on 2005.
* Hilton-Barber, Brett; Berger, Lee R (2004). Field guide to the cradle of humankind, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai & environs world heritage site, 2nd revised edition, Struik. ISBN 1-77007-065-6.
External Links
11. Slide 11
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Australopithecus garhi is a gracile australopithecine species whose fossils were discovered in 1996 by a research team led by Ethiopian paleontologist Berhane Asfaw and including Tim White, an American paleontologist researcher. The hominin remains were initially believed to be a human ancestor species and the final missing link between the Australopithecus genus and the human genus, Homo. However it is now believed that A. garhi, although more advanced than any other australopithecine, was only a competitor species to the species ancestral to Homo and therefore not a human ancestor. The remains are from the time when there is very few fossil records, between 2.0 and 3.0 million years ago. Tim White was the scientist to find the first of the key A. garhi fossils in 1996 near the village of Bouri, located in the Afar region of Ethiopia. The species was confirmed and established as A. garhi on November 20, 1997 by Y. Haile-Selassie. The species epithet "garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language.
Morphology and interpretations
The traits of Australopithecus garhi fossils such as BOU-VP-12/130 are somewhat distinctive from traits typically seen in Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus. An example of the distinction can be seen when comparing the Hadar maxilla (A. afarensis) to the Bouri specimen of A. gahri. The cranial capacity of A. garhi measures 450cc, the same size as other australopithecines. The manible classified as Asfaw et al. has a morphology generally believed to be compatible with the same species, yet it is possible that another hominin species may have been found within the same deposits. Studies made on the premolars and molar teeth have a few similarities with those of Paranthropus boisei since they are larger than any other gracile form of australopithecine. It has been suggested that if A. garhi is ancestral to Homo (ie. Homo habilis) the maxillary morphology would have undergone a rapid evolutionary change in roughly 200,000 and 300,000 years.
Earliest stone tools
Few primitive shaped stone tool artifacts closely resembling Olduwan technology were discovered with the A. garhi fossils, dating back roughly 2.5 and 2.6 million years old. The 23 April 1999 issue of Science mentions that the tools are older than those acquired by Homo habilis, which is thought to be a possible direct descendent of more modern hominins. For a long time anthropologists assumed that only members of early genus Homo had the ability to produce sophisticated tools. However the crude ancient tools lack several techniques that are generally seen in later forms Olduwan and Acheulean such as strong rock-outcroppings. In another site in Bouri, Ethiopia, roughly 3,000 stone artifacts had been found to be an estimated 2.5 million years old in age.
12. Slide 12
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Paranthropus aethiopicus is an extinct species of Paranthropus. The finding discovered in 1985 in West Turkana, Kenya, KNM-WT 17000 (known as the "Black Skull" due to the skull having fossilized by a dark mineral), is one of the earliest examples of robust australopithecines. The skull is dated to 2.5 million years old, older than the later forms of robust australopithecines. Anthropologists suggest that P. aethiopicus lived from 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. The features are quit primitive and share many traits with Australopithecus afarensis, thus P. aethiopicus is likely to be a direct descendent. With its face being as projecting as A. afarensis, its brain size was also quite small at 410 cc.
Paranthropus aethiopicus was first found in Ethiopia in 1968 as the first assigned specimen. Lower jaw and teeth fragments have been uncovered. P. aethiopicus had a large bony ridge at the top of its skull acting as an anchor for the powerful jaw muscles built for heavy chewing on vegetarian such as nuts and tubers (as in gorilla skulls). It also had large zygomatic arches. Not much is known about this species since the best evidence comes from the black skull and the jaw. There is not enough material to make an assessment to how tall they were, but they may have been as tall as Australopithecus afarensis.
Not all anthropologists agree that P. aethiopicus gave rise to both Paranthropus boisei and P. robustus, since the skull more closely resembles that of A. afarensis. The one clue that makes P. aethiopicus a possible descendent to both P. boisei and P. robustus is the similarity in jaw size. P. athiopicus is known to have lived in mixed savanna and woodland. More evidence must be gathered about P. aethiopicus in order to accurately describe its physiology. The "Black Skull"'s bizarre primitive shape gives evidence that P. aethiopicus and the other autralopithecines are on an evolutionary branch of the hominid tree, distinctly diverging from the Homo (human) lineage.
13. Slide 13
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Paranthropus robustus was originally discovered in Southern Africa in 1938. The development of P. robustus, namely in cranial features, seemed to be aimed in the direction of a "heavy-chewing complex". Because of the definitive traits that are associated with this robust line of australopithecine, anthropologist Robert Broom erected the genus Paranthropus and placed this species into it.
Paranthropus robustus is generally dated to have lived between 2.0 and 1.2 million years ago. P. robustus had large dorsal crests, jaws, and jaw muscles that were adapted to serve in the dry environment that they lived in. After Raymond Dart's discovery of Australopithecus africanus, Broom had been in favour of Dart's claims about Australopithecus africanus being an ancestor of Homo sapiens. Broom was a Scottish doctor then working in South Africa who began making his own excavation in Southern Africa to find more specimens, which Dart had found earlier. In 1938 at 70 years old, Broom excavating at Swartkrans, South Africa discovered pieces of a skull and teeth which resembled a lot like Dart's Australopithecus africanus find, but the skull had some "robust" characteristics. The fossils included parts of a skull and teeth; all dated to 2 million years old. Fossil sites found on Paranthropus robustus are found only in South Africa in Kromdraai and Swartkrans. In the caves near Swartkrans, the remains of 130 individuals were discovered. The study made on the dentation of the hominins revealed that the average P. robustus rarely lived past 17 years of age.
Paranthropus robustus became the first "robust" species of hominid ever uncovered well before P. boisei and P. aethiopicus. Broom's first discovery of P. robustus had been the first discovery of a robust australopithecine and the second australopithecine after Australopithecus africanus, which Dart discovered. Broom's work on the australopithecines showed that the evolution trail leading to Homo sapiens was not just a straight line, but was one of rich diversity.
Morphology
Typical of robust australopithecines, P. robustus had a head shaped a bit like a gorilla's with a more massive built jaw and teeth in comparison to hominins within the Homo lineage. Broom also noted the sagital crest that runs from the top of the skull acts as an anchor for large chewing muscles. The DNH 7 skull of Paranthropus robustus, "Eurydice", was discovered in 1994 at the Drimolen Cave in Southern Africa by Andre Keyser, and is dated to 2.3 million years old, possibly belonging to a female.
The teeth of these primates were larger and thicker than any gracile australopithecine found, due to the morphology differences Broom originally designated his find as Australopithecus robustus. On the skull, a bony ridge is located above from the front to back indicating where the jaw muscles joined. P. robustus males may have stood only 4 feet tall and weighed 54 kg (120lbs) while females stood about 3 feet 2 inches tall and weighed only 40 kg (90 lbs). Clearly there was a large sexual dimorphism between males and females. The teeth found on P. robustus are almost as large as those of P. boisei.
Broom analyzed his findings carefully and noted the differences in the molar teeth size which resembled a bit closer to a gorilla's than to Human's. Other P. robustus remains have been found in Southern Africa. The average brain size of P. robustus measured to only 410 and 530 cc, about as large as a chimpanzee. P robustus had a diet of hard gritty foods such as nuts and tubers since they lived in open woodland and savanna.
14. Slide 14
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Paranthropus boisei (originally called Zinjanthropus boisei and then Australopithecus boisei until recently) was an early hominin and described as the largest of the Paranthropus species. It lived from about 2.6 until about 1.4 million years ago during the Pliocene and Pleistocene eras in Eastern Africa.
Discovery
First discovered by anthropologist Mary Leakey on July 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, the well-preserved cranium OH 5 nicknamed "Nutcracker Man" dates to 1.75 million years old and has distinctive traits from the gracile australopithecines. Both Mary and her husband Louis Leakey classified the specimen as Zinjanthropus boisei; "boisei" for Charles Boise, the anthropologists team's funder at the time, "zinj" was an ancient word for East Africa, and "anthropus" meaning ape or ape-man. P. boisei proved to be a treasure especially when the anthropologists son Richard Leakey considered it to be the first hominin species to use stone tools. Another skull was unearthed in 1969 by Richard at Koobi Fora near the Lake Turkana region.
Morphology and interpretations
The brain volume is quite small, about 500 and 550 cm³, not much larger in comparison to Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus. It had a skull highly specialized for heavy chewing and several traits seen in modern day gorillas. P. boisei inhabited the dry savannah grasslands and woodland territories. Males weighed 68 kg (150 lb) and stood 4 feet 3 inches (1.3 m) tall, while females weighed 45 kg (100 lb) and stood 3 feet 5 inches (1.05 m) tall. The average adult males were almost twice the weight and height as the females being the largest sexual dimorphism recorded out of any hominine. The back molar teeth reached about 4 times larger than in modern humans.
No stone tool implements have been found in direct association with P. boisei; when first discovered Richard Leakey believed they had mastered tools. However, the first fossil of Homo habilis proved to be one of the first to acquire tool technology. Previously Richard Leakey believed the species was a direct ancestor of Homo sapiens but more modern analysis have changed the theory and place it on a separate evolutionary route unrelated to the genus Homo. Presently it is assumed that this species was not remarkable as to acquiring unique intelligence compared with more modern hominins. Instead the dentation (especially observed in the back molars and pre-molars) was built for tough chewing materials such as ground tubers, nuts and likely leaves in the grasslands.
Fossils
In 1993, A. Amzaye found fossils of P. boisei at Kronso, Ethiopia. The partial skull's designation is KGA10-525 and is dated to 1.4 million years ago. It is the biggest skull specimen ever found of P. boisei. It has been claimed as the only remains of the species found in Ethiopia; all others have been in other parts of Eastern Africa. The oldest specimen of P. boisei was found in Omo, Ethiopia and dates to 2.3 million years old classified as (L. 74a-21) while the youngest speciemen from Olduvai Gorge dates 1.2 million years old classified as OH 3 and OH 38.
Other well preserved specimens
OH 5 "Nutcrackerman" is the first P. boisei found by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania belonging to an adult male (circa. 1.75 mya).
KNM ER 406 is a small partial cranium discovered by H. Mutua and Richard Leakey in 1969 found at Koobi Fora, Kenya displays large zygomatic arches, a cranial capacity of 510cc (circa. 1.7 mya).
KNM WT 17400 a partial cranium with similar characteristics as KNM WT 17000 "Black skull" belonging to Paranthropus aethiopicus. The skull was found at West Turkana, Kenya (circa. 1.7 mya).
ER 406 was found by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua in 1970 at Koobi Fora, Kenya is a partial cranium most likely identified as belonging to a female (circa. 1.7 mya).
15. Slide 15
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Kenyanthropus platyops is a 3.5 to 3.2 million year old (Pliocene) extinct hominin species that was discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1999 by Meave Leakey. The fossil found features a broad flat face with a toe bone that suggests it probably walked upright. Teeth are intermediate between typical human and typical ape forms. Kenyanthropus platyops, which means "Flat faced man of Kenya", is the only described species in the genus. However, if some paleoanthropologists are correct (Tim White, 2003), Kenyanthropus may not even represent a valid taxon, as the specimen (KNM-WT 40000) is so horribly distorted by matrix-filled cracks that meaningful morphologic characters are next to impossible to robustly assess. It may simply be a specimen of Australopithecus afarensis, which is known from the same time period and geographic area. Other researches speculate that the flatter face position of the rough cranium is similar to KNM ER 1470 "Homo rudolfensis" and suspect it to be closer to the genus Homo, perhaps being a direct ancestor. However the debate has not been concluded and the species remains an enigma.
References
Meave G. Leakey, Fred Spoor, Frank H. Brown, Patrick N. Gathogo, Christopher Kiarie, Louise N. Leakey and Ian McDougall (2001). New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages. Nature, 410:433-40.
http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/kenyanthropus.htm
16. Slide 16
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo habilis «HOH moh HAB uh luhs» ("handy man", "skillful person") is a species of the genus Homo, which lived from approximately 2.5 million to 1.8 million years ago at the beginning of the Pleistocene. The definition of this species is credited to both Mary and Louis Leakey, who found fossils in Tanzania, East Africa, between 1962 and 1964. Homo habilis is arguably the first species of the Homo genus to appear. In its appearance and morphology, H. habilis was the least similar to modern humans of all species to be placed in the genus Homo (except possibly Homo rudolfensis). Homo habilis was very short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern man. It is thought to have probably descended from a species of australopithecine hominid. It may have had a more immediate ancestor in the form of the somewhat more massive and ape-like, Homo rudolfensis. Homo habilis had a brain slightly less than half of the size of modern man. Despite the mophology of the species, H. habilis remains are usually found alongside primitive stone tools (ie. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Lake Turkana, Kenya).
Findings
Anthropologist Richard Leakey's son Jonathon Leakey, unearthed an ape-like skull that shared human-like traits in 1964. The name itself, Homo habilis, was originally given by Raymond Dart. One set of fossil remains (OH 62) discovered by Donald Johanson and Tim White from Olduvai Gorge in 1986, included important features including the upper and lower limbs of an individual. An older (1963) finding from the Olduvai site found by N. Mbuika had included a lower jaw fragment, teeth and upper mandible possibly from a female dating 1.7 million years old. The remains from 3 skeletons[1] demonstrated an australopithecine-like body yet the face was more human-like and with smaller teeth and had a larger brain size. Compared to australopithecines, H. habilis had a 50% larger brain capacity of 590 and 650cc (considerably smaller than the 1350 to 1450cc range of modern Homo sapiens ). These hominins were small, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4'3") tall. Due to the small size and rather primitive attributes, Richard Leakey himself previously doubted H. habilis as being a member of the genus Homo. The contraversial aspect of H. habilis was by some researchers reduced to "Australopithecus habilis" instead.
Interpretations
Homo habilis is thought to have mastered the Olduwan era (Early Paleolithic) tool case which utilized stone flakes. Though these stone flakes were primitive by modern standards, they were more advanced than any tools that had ever previously existed, and they gave H. habilis the edge it needed to prosper in hostile environments previously too formidable for primates. It remains quite controversial whether H. habilis was the first hominin to master stone tool technology, the discovery of Australopithecus garhi dating 2.6 million years old has been found along with stone tool implements over 100,000 - 200,000 years older than H. habilis.
In terms of social status most experts agree that the intelligence of H. habilis was more sophisticated than typical australopithecines or chimpanzees. Yet despite its tool usage, H. habilis was not the master hunter that its descendants proved to be, as there is ample fossil evidence that H. habilis was a major staple in the diet of large predatory animals such as Dinofelis, a large predatory cat similar to a leopard. H. habilis used tools primarily for scavenging, such as cleaving meat off of carrion, rather than defence or hunting. Homo habilis is thought to be the ancestor of the lankier and more sophisticated, Homo ergaster, which in turn gave rise to the more human-appearing species, Homo erectus. There is some debate over whether H. habilis is a direct human ancestor, and over how many known fossils are properly attributed to the species.
Homo habilis co-existed with many other Homo-like bipedal primates, such as Paranthropus boisei, which were also highly successful, some prospering for many millennia. However, H. habilis, possibly because of its early tool innovation and a less specialized diet, became the precursor of an entire line of new species, whereas Paranthropus boisei and its robust relatives disappeared from the later fossil record.
17. Slide 17
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo rudolfensis is a fossil hominin species originally proposed in 1986 by V. P. Alexeev for the specimen Skull 1470 (KNM ER 1470). Originally thought to be a member of the species Homo habilis, much debate surrounded the fossil and its species assignment. Skull 1470 is an estimated age of 1.9 million years. It was found by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of a team led by anthropoligist Richard Leakey, in 1972 at Koobi Fora on the east side of Lake Rudolf (now Lake Turkana). Assigned initially to Homo habilis, it was originally dated at nearly 3 million years old. However, this figure caused much confusion as at the time it was older than any known australopithecine, from whom Homo habilis had supposedly descended. It was thought that 2 million years ago there existed a single species in the genus Homo, and this species evolved in a linear fashion into modern humans. The differences in this skull, when compared to other habilines, are too pronounced, leading to the formulation of the species Homo rudolfensis, contemporary with Homo habilis. It is not yet certain if H. rudolfensis was ancestral to the later species in Homo, or if H. habilis was, or if some third species yet to be discovered was. Like H. habilis, there is large amount of controversy about the classification of H. rudolfensis into the Homo genus. Although no reliably associated postcranial remains have been discovered for H. rudolfensis, it is thought that like H. habilis, H. rudolfensis lacked many of the things that were unique only to later hominins such as slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system, narrow birth canal, legs longer than arms, noticeable whites in the eyes, smaller hairs resulting in naked appearance and exposed skins, etc. Many scientists think H. rudolfensis to be more ape-like despite their large brains and bipedal locomotion.
18. Slide 18
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
There is large amount of controversy about the classification of H. habilis into the Homo genus. Like Homo rudolfensis, H. habilis lacked many of the things that were unique only to later hominins such as slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system, narrow birth canal and legs longer than arms; other traits such as noticeable whites in the eyes, smaller hairs resulting in exposed skin and a naked appearance remain theoretical. Many scientists think H. habilis and its close relative H. rudolfensis to be more ape like despite their larger brains and bipedal locomotion than that of earlier species and is being re-thought on their classification into the Homo genus.
Homo georgicus is a species of hominin that was suggested in 2002 to describe fossil skulls and jaws found in Dmanisi, Georgia in 1999 and 2001, which seem intermediate between Homo habilis and H. erectus. A partial skeleton was discovered in 2001. The fossils are about 1.8 million years old. The remains were first discovered in 1991 by Georgian scientist, David Lordkipanidzeis accompanied by an international team which unearthed the hominin remains. Implements and animal bones were found alongside the ancient hominin remains.
At first, scientists thought they had found thirty or so skulls belonging to Homo ergaster, but size differences led them to consider erecting a new species, Homo georgicus, which would be the descendant of Homo habilis and ancestor of Asian Homo erectus.
At around 600cc brain volume, the skull D2700 was the smallest and most primitive hominin skull ever discovered outside of Africa. With a brain half the size compared to modern Homo sapiens, the fossils were considered the smallest until the discovery of Homo floresiensis from the island of Flores. There is a strong sexual dimorphism, with males being significantly larger than females. Due to the dwarf morphology of this hominin, no subsequent role of H. georgicus can be so far determinded. H. georgicus may be the first hominin species to settle in Europe, some 800,000 years before H. erectus.
19. Slide 19
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo ergaster ("working man") is an extinct hominid species (or subspecies, according to some authorities) which lived throughout eastern and southern Africa between 1.9 to 1.4 million years ago with the advent of the lower Pleistocene and the cooling of the global climate. Homo ergaster is sometimes categorized as a subspecies of Homo erectus. It is currently in contention whether H. ergaster or the later, Asian H. erectus was the direct ancestor of modern humans. H. ergaster may be distinguished from H. erectus by its thinner skull bones and lack of an obvious sulcus. Derived features include reduced sexual dimorphism, a smaller more orthognathic face, a smaller dental arcade, and a larger (700 and 850cc) brain. It is estimated that H. ergaster stood at 1.9m (6ft) tall with relatively less sexual dimorphism in comparison to earlier hominins. Remains have been found in Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa. The most complete Homo ergaster skeleton ever discovered was made at Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1984. Paleanthropologists' Richard Leakey, Kimoya Kimeu and Tim White dubbed the 1.6 million year old specimen as KNM-WT 15000 (nicknamed "Turkana Boy").
The type specimen of H. ergaster is KNM-ER 992; the species was named by Groves and Mazak in 1975. The species name originates from the Greek ergaster meaning "Workman". This name was chosen due to the discovery of various tools such as hand-axes and cleavers near the skeletal remains of H. ergaster. This is one of the reasons that it is sometimes set apart distinctly from other human ancestors. Its use of advanced (rather than simple) tools was unique to this species; H. ergaster tool use belongs to the Acheulean industry. H. ergaster first began using these tools 1.6 million years ago. Charred animal bones in fossil deposits and traces of camps suggest that the species made creative use of fire.
20. Slide 20
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo erectus ("upright man") is a hominin species that is believed to be an ancestor of modern humans (with Homo heidelbergensis usually treated as an intermediary step). The species is found from the middle Pleistocene onwards.
Eugène Dubois discovered Java Man in Indonesia in 1891, naming it Pithecanthropus erectus. The modern species name was initially proposed by Ernst Mayr in order to unify the classification of Asian fossils. Anthropologists and geneticists throughout much of the last century have debated H. erectus' role in human evolution. Early in the century, it was believed the Asian continent was the evolutionary home of humans in contrast to naturalist Charles Darwin's prediction of humanity's African origins. However, during the 1950's and 1970's, numerous fossil finds in Africa yielded evidence of hominins far older. It is now believed that H. erectus is a descendent of more primitive ape-men such as australopithecines and early Homo species. Before their settlement of South Eastern Asia, dating fewer than 500,000 and 300,000 years ago, H. erectus originally migrated during the Pleistocene glacial period in Africa roughly 2.0 million years ago and so dispersed throughout various areas of the Old World. Fossilized remains dating 1.8 and 1 million year old fossils have been found in India, China and Indonesia. H. erectus remains an important hominine since it is believed to be the oldest representation of early human migration. However, recent discoveries and analysis indicate that H. erectus may be the Asian H. neanderthalensis, in that its lineage did not give rise to later variants of H. sapiens.
Description
The findings had fairly modern human features, with a larger cranial capacity than that of Homo habilis. The forehead is less sloping and the teeth are smaller (quantification of these differences is difficult however, see below). Homo erectus would bear a striking resemblance to modern humans, but had a brain about 75 percent () of the size of modern human. These early hominins were tall, on average standing about 1.79 m (5 feet, 10 inches) tall. The sexual dimorphism between males and females was almost the same as seen in modern Homo sapiens with males being slightly larger than females. The discovery of the skeleton KNM-WT 15000 (Turkana boy) made in near Lake Turkana, Kenya by Richard Leakey and Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 was a breakthrough in interpreting the physiological status of H. erectus.
Tool use and general abilities
Homo erectus used more diverse and sophisticated tools than its predecessors (ie. Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis). One theory is that H. erectus first used tools of the Oldowan style and then later used tools of the Acheulean style. The surviving tools from both periods are all made of stone. Oldowan tools are the oldest known formed tools and date as far back as about 2.4 million years ago. The Acheulean era began about 1.2 million years ago and ended about 500,000 years ago. The primary innovation associated with Acheulean handaxes is that the stone was chipped on both sides to form two cutting edges.
Social aspects
Homo erectus (along with Homo ergaster) was probably the first early human to fit squarely into the category of a hunter gatherer society and not as prey for larger animals. Modern day anthropologists since the beginning of the 19th century have studied various aspects of modern day hunter group societies. Among the most studied have been the desert bushmen (Kun San) peoples of the Kalahari desert in Botswana, Angola and South Africa; these peoples have barely changed their hunter lifestyles for over 22,000 years. Anthropologists such as Richard Leakey believe that H. erectus was socially closer to modern humans than the more primitive species before it. The increased larger cranial capacity generally coincides with the more sophisticated tool technology occasionally found with the species remains. The discovery of Turkana boy in 1984 has so far proven that despite H. erectus's more human like physiology, the hominins were not capable of producing highly complex sound systems that would have been on a level comparable to modern speech.
They migrated all throughout the Great Rift Valley, even up to the Red Sea. Early man, in the person of Homo erectus, was learning to master his environment for the first time. Bruce Bower suggested that H. erectus may have built rafts and travelled over oceans, although this possibility is considered controversial. Some dispute that H. erectus was able to control fire. However, the earliest (least disputed) evidence of controlled fire is around 300,000 years old and comes from a site called Terra Amata, which lies on an ancient beach location on the French Riviera. This site seems to have been occupied by Homo erectus. There are older Homo erectus sites that seem to indicate controlled use of fire, some dating back 500,000 to 1.5 million years ago, in France, China, and other areas. A discovery brought forth at the Paleoanthropology Society Annual Meeting in Montreal, Canada in March of 2004 stated that controlled fires have been evidenced in excavations in Northern Israel from about 690,000 to 790,000 years ago. Regardless, it can at least be surmised that the controlled use of fire was atypical of Homo erectus until its decline and the rise of more advanced species of the Homo genus came to the forefront (such as Homo antecessor, H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis).
Classification
There is currently a great deal of discussion as to whether H. erectus and H. ergaster were separate species at all. This debate revolves around the interpretation of morphological differences between early African fossils (the classic H. ergaster) and those found in Asia (H. erectus; and late African sites). Since Erst Mayr's biological species definition cannot be tested, this issue may never be fully resolved.
21. Slide 21
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo antecessor is an extinct hominin species that was discovered by E. Carbonell, J.L. Arsuaga and J.M. Bermudez de Castro. They are one of the earliest known hominins in Europe, with those from the site of Dmanisi being older. The best preserved fossil is a maxillar which belong to a 10 year old individual found in Spain dated to 780,000 years ago. The average brain was 1000cc in volume. In 1994 and 1995, 80 fossils of six individuals that may have belonged to the species were found in Atapuerca, Spain. At the site were numerous examples of cuts on the bones, which indicates H. antecessor may have practiced cannibalism. Many anthropologists believe that Homo antecessor is either the same species or direct descendent to Homo heidelbergensis, who inhabited Europe from 600,000 to 250,000 years ago in the Pleistocene. It is suggested that this is the last common ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.
Findings
Gran Dolina
Archaeologist Eudald Carbonell of the Universidad Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona, Spain and paleanthropologist Juan Luis Arsuaga of the Universidad Complutense in Madrid, Spain discovered Homo anteccesor remains at a site in Northern Spain known as Gran Dolina in the Atapuerca Hills (near Burgos). Over 80 bone fragments from six individuals were uncovered in 1994 and 1995. The site had also included roughly 200 stone tools and about 300 animal bones. Stone tools including a stone carved knife were found along with the ancient hominin remains. All these remains date to be at least 780,000 years old. The best preserved remains are a maxilla and a frontal bone of an individual who died at 10-11 years old.
Atapuerca
The Sierra de Atapuerca is located to the east of the city of Burgos. In this small hill the evidence for the presence of early humans and their past life ways is preserved over the course of the last one million years. Several archaeological and palaeontological sites have been found in the Atapuerca hills, some of them appeared during the construction of a railway trench (Gran Dolina, Galería, Elefante) and another one is located deep in the cave, "Sima de los Huesos" (Pit of the Bones). The Homo antecessor remains have been found in the level 6 of the Gran Dolina site (also called level TD6).
In the "Sima de los Huesos" the same team located more than 4,000 human bones with an age of 350,000 years old. Homo anteccesor is considered as one of the earliest hominids in Europe; the oldest discovery is Homo georgicus from the Republic of Georgia at 1.8 and 1.6 million years old. The fossil pit bones include a complete cranium and fragments of other craniums, mandibles, teeth, a lot of postcranial bones (femurs, hand and foot bones, spine bones, ribs, etc.) and a complete pelvis. The pit contains fossils of around 28 individuals together with remains of bears and other carnivores. Some scientists include this species as a portion of Homo heidelbergensis, a direct ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis in Europe.
Boxgrove
In 1994 British scientists had unearthed a lower hominin tibia bone just a few kilometres away from the English Channel including hundreds of ancient hand axes at the Boxgrove site. A partial leg bone is dated to 478,000 and 524,000 years old. Homo heidelbergensis was the early proto-human species that occupied both France and Briton at that time; both locales were connected by a landmass during that epoch. Prior to Gran Dolina, Boxgrove offered the earliest hominid occupants in Europe. Investigators found another particular scratched tibia indicating cannibalism had taken place.
Physiology
Homo antecessor was about 5 and a half to 6 feet tall, and males weighed roughly 200 pounds (91 kilograms). Their brain sizes were roughly 1000 to 1150 cc, smaller than Homo sapiens' 1450 to 1500 cc. Due to its scarcity, very little more is known about the physiology of Homo antecessor, yet it was likely more robust like H. heidelbergensis. Basing on teeth eruption pattern, the researchers think that Homo antecessor had the same development stages as Homo sapiens. Other features acquired by the species are a protruding post-cranium, absence of forehead and lack of chin. Some of the remains are almost indistinguishable from the fossil attributable to KNM-WT 15000 (Turkana Boy) belonging to Homo ergaster.
22. Slide 22
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo heidelbergensis (nicknamed "Goliath") is an extinct species of the genus Homo and the direct ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis in Europe. Similar "Archaic Homo sapiens" found in Africa (ie. Homo rhodesiensis and Homo sapiens idaltu) are thought to be direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens. Homo antecessor is likely a direct ancestor living 750,000 years ago evolving into Homo heidelbergensis appearing in the fossil record living roughly 600,000 to 250,000 years ago through various areas of Europe.
Homo heidelbergensis remains were found in Mauer near Heidelberg, Germany and then later in Arago, France and Petralona, Greece. The best evidence found for these hominins date between 400,000 and 500,000 years ago. Homo heidelbergensis stone tool technology was considerably close to that of the Acheulean tools used by Homo erectus. The first fossil discovery of this species was made on October 21, 1907 and came from Mauer where the workman Daniel Hartmann spotted a jaw in a sandpit. The jaw was in good condition except for the missing premolar teeth, which were eventually found near the jaw. The workman gave it to professor Otto Schoetensack from the University of Heidelberg, who identified and named the fossil.
Interpretations
Both H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis are likely descended from the morphologically very similar Homo ergaster from Africa but because H. heidelbergensis had a larger brain-case, about 93% size of the average Homo sapiens brain-case, and more advanced tools and behavior, it has been given a separate species classification. The species was tall, 1.8 m (6 ft.) on average, and more muscular than modern humans. The average cranial volume was typically between 1100 and 1400cc, 93% of the cranial capacity of modern H. sapiens.
Evidence of hunting
Cut marks found on wild deer, elephants, rhinos and horses demonstrate that they were butchered, some of the animals weighed as much as 1,500 lbs or possibly larger. During this era, now-extinct wild animals such as mammoths, European lions and Irish elk roamed the European continent.
Social behavior
In theory recent findings in Europe also suggest that H. heidelbergensis may have been the first species of the Homo genus to bury their dead, but that is contested at this time. Some experts believe that H. heidelbergensis, like its descendant H. neanderthalensis acquired a primitive form of language. No forms of art or sophisticated artifacts other than stone tools have been uncovered.
Homo cepranensis is a proposed name for a hominin species discovered in 1994 known from only one skull cap. The fossil was discovered by archeologist Italo Biddittu and was nick-named "Ceprano Man" after a nearby town 89 kilometers Southeast of Rome, Italy. The age of the fossil is older than fossils attributable to Homo antecessor from Spain and is estimated to be between 800,000 and 900,000 years old. The cranial features on the bone seem to be a cross between those found on Homo erectus and those of later species such as Homo heidelbergensis which dominated Europe long before Homo neanderthalensis. There is yet not enough material to make a complete analysis of the individual.
Rhodesian Man (Homo rhodesiensis) is a hominin fossil that was described from a cranium found in an iron and zinc mine in Northern Rhodesia (now Kabwe, Zambia) in 1921 by Tom Zwiglaar, a Swiss miner. In addition to the cranium, an upper jaw from another individual, a sacrum, a tibia, and two femur fragments were also found. The skull was dubbed Rhodesian Man at the time of the find, but is now commonly referred to as the Broken Hill Skull or the Kabwe Cranium.
The association between the bones is unclear, but the tibia and femur fossils are usually associated with the skull. Rhodesian Man is dated to be between 125,000 and 300,000 years old. Previously, some reports have given erroneous dates of up to 1.75 and 2.5 million years age for the skull. Cranial capacity of the Broken Hill skull has been measured at 1,300 cm³, which, when coupled with the more recent dating, makes any direct link to older skulls unlikely and negates the 1.75 to 2.5 million year earlier dating.
The skull is described as having a broad face similar to Homo neanderthalensis (ie. large nose and thick protruding brow ridges), but with a cranium intermediate between advances Homo sapiens and Neanderthal. Most current experts believe Rhodesian Man to be within the group of Homo heidelbergensis though other designations such as Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have also been proposed. No direct linkage of the species can so far be determined.
23. Slide 23
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The Neanderthal or Neandertal was a species of Homo (Homo neanderthalensis) that inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic period. Neanderthals were adapted to the cold, as shown by their large braincases, short but robust builds, and large noses - traits selected by nature in cold climates, as observed in modern sub-arctic populations. Their brain sizes have been estimated as larger than "modern" humans, but their brains may in fact have been approximately the same as those of modern humans. On average, Neanderthal males stood about 1.65m tall (just under 5' 6") and were heavily built, and muscular due to their physical activity. Females were about 1.53 to 1.57m tall (about 5'-5'2").
The characteristic style of stone tools in the Middle Paleolithic is called the Mousterian Culture, after a prominent archaeological site where the tools were first found. The Mousterian culture is typified by the wide use of the Levallois technique. Mousterian tools were often produced using soft hammer percussion, such as bones, antlers, and wood, rather than hard hammer percussion, using stone. Near the end of the time of the Neanderthals, they created the Chatelperronian tool style, considered more "advanced" than that of the Mousterian. They either invented the Chatelperronian themselves or "borrowed" elements from the incoming modern humans who are thought to have created the Aurignacian.
Etymology and classification
The term "Neanderthal Man" was coined in 1863 by Irish anatomist William King. Neanderthal is now spelled two ways: The spelling of the German word Thal, meaning "valley or dale", was changed to Tal in the early 20th century, but the former spelling is often retained in English and always in scientific names, while the modern spelling is used in German.
The Neanderthal or "Neander valley" was named after theologian Joachim Neander, who lived there in the late seventeenth century. For many years, professionals vigorously debated about whether Neanderthals should be classified as Homo neanderthalensis or as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, the latter placing Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo sapiens. However, recent evidence from mitochondrial DNA studies have been interpreted as evidence that Neanderthals were not a subspecies of H. sapiens. Still, some scientists argue that fossil evidence suggests that the two species interbred, and hence were the same biological species.
Discovery
A Neanderthal skull was first discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848, eight years prior to the "original" discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley (near Düsseldorf) in August, 1856, three years before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones from the right arm, two from the left arm, part of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered this material originally thought it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Karl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaafhausen. The discovery was jointly announced in 1857. That discovery is now considered the beginning of paleoanthropology. These and other discoveries led to the idea that these remains were from ancient Europeans who had played an important role in modern human origins. The remains of over 400 Neanderthals have been found since.
Physical traits
The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans; however, not all of them can be used to distinguish specific Neanderthal populations, from various geographic areas or periods of evolution, from other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits occasionally manifest in modern humans, particularly among certain ethnic groups. Nothing is known about the skin color, the hair, or the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals. Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were larger in size and had distinct morphological features, especially of the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain relatively isolated geographic regions. Their relatively robust stature is thought to be an adaptation to the cold climate of Europe during the Pleistocene epoch.
Cranial
Suprainiac fossa, a groove above the inion
Occipital bun, a protuberance of the occipital bone that looks like a hair knot
Projecting mid-face
Thick, bowed shaft of the thigh bones
Short shinbones and calf bones
Based on a 2001 study, some commentators speculated that Neanderthals exhibited rufosity, and that some red-headed and freckled humans today share some heritage with Neanderthals. [1] However, more recent research indicates that this is not likely. [2]
[edit]
Language
The theory that Neanderthals lacked complex language was widespread until 1983, when a Neanderthal hyoid bone was found at the Kebara Cave in Israel. The hyoid is a small bone that holds the root of the tongue in place, a requirement to human speech and, therefore, its presence seems to imply some ability to speak. The bone that was found is virtually identical to that of modern humans.
Many people believe that even without the hyoid bone evidence, it is obvious that tools as advanced as those of the Mousterian Era, attributed to Neanderthals, could not have been developed without cognitive skills encompassing some form of spoken language.
A recent study conducted on the Neanderthal hyoid found that due to the physical characteristics of Neanderthals and the fact that their larynx would have been stouter than that of modern man, the average note emitted by Neanderthals would have been high pitched and sharper than that of modern man, contrary to the media stereotype of Neanderthals having ape-like grunts.
The base of the Neanderthal tongue was positioned higher in the throat, crowding the mouth somewhat. As a result, Neanderthal speech would most likely have been slow-paced and nasalized.
There is still some debate, however, over whether Neanderthals actually had language, or merely had the physical ability to produce a wide enough range of sounds that under certain circumstances they could have developed language.
[edit]
Neanderthal Hunter, (American Mus. Nat. Hist.)
Neanderthal (Middle Paleolithic) archaeological sites show both a smaller and a less flexible toolkit than in the Upper Paleolithic sites, occupied by modern humans that replaced them.
There is little evidence that Neanderthals used antlers, shell, or other bone materials to make tools: their bone industry was relatively simple. However, there is good evidence that they routinely constructed a variety of stone implements. The Neanderthal (Mousterian) tool case consisted of sophisticated stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and spears. Many of these tools were very sharp.
Also, while they had weapons, none have as yet been found that were used as projectile weapons. They had spears in the sense of a long wooden shaft with a spear head firmly attached to it, but these were not spears specifically crafted for flight (perhaps better described as a lance). However, a number of 400,000 year old wooden projectile spears were found at Schöningen in northern Germany. These are thought to have been made by the Neanderthal's ancestors, Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis. Generally, projectile weapons are more commonly associated with H. sapiens.
Although much has been made of the Neanderthal's burial of their dead, their burials were less elaborate than those of anatomically modern humans. The interpretation of the Shanidar IV burials as including flowers, and therefore being a form of ritual burial (Ralph Solecki 1975), has been questioned (Sommer 1999). On the other hand, five of the six flower pollens found with Shanidar IV are known to have had "traditional" medical uses, even among relatively recent "modern" populations. In some cases Neanderthal burials include grave goods such as bison and aurochs bones, tools, and the pigment ochre.
Neanderthals performed a sophisticated set of tasks normally associated with humans alone. For example, they constructed complex shelters, controlled fire, and skinned animals. Particularly intriguing is a hollowed-out bear femur with four holes spaced like four holes in the diatonic scale claimed by many to have been deliberately bored into it. This flute was found in western Slovenia in 1995 near a Mousterian Era fireplace used by Neanderthals, but its significance is still a matter of dispute.
See also: prehistoric music and Divje Babe.
[edit]
Key dates
1848: Skull of ancient human found in Forbe's Quarry, Gibraltar. Its significance is not realised at the time.
1856: Johann Karl Fuhlrott first recognizes the fossil called "Neanderthal man."
1880: The mandible of a Neanderthal child was found in a secure context, associated with cultural debris, including hearths, Mousterian tools, and bones of extinct animals.
1899: Hundreds of Neanderthal bones were described in stratigraphic position in association with cultural remains and extinct animal bones.
1908: A nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton in association with Mousterian tools and bones of extinct tools discovered.
1953-1957: Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq: Ralph Solecki uncovers nine Neanderthal skeletons.
1975: Erik Trinkaus's study of Neanderthal feet confirms they walked like modern humans.
1987: New thermoluminescence dates in the Levant place Neanderthal levels at Kebara at ca. 60,000 BP and modern humans at Qafzeh to 90,000 BP. These dates are confirmed by ESR dates for Qafzeh (90,000 BP) and Skhul (80,000 BP).
1991: New Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dates for Near Eastern remains show Tabun Neanderthal to be contemporaneous with modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh.
2000: Igor Ovchinnikov, Kirsten Liden, William Goodman et al. retrieve DNA from a late (29,000 BP) Neanderthal infant from Mezmaikaya Cave in the Caucausus.
2005: The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology launches a project to reconstruct the Neanderthal genome.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/ice_people1.shtml
24. Slide 24
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The Neanderthal or Neandertal was a species of Homo (Homo neanderthalensis) that inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic period. Neanderthals were adapted to the cold, as shown by their large braincases, short but robust builds, and large noses - traits selected by nature in cold climates, as observed in modern sub-arctic populations. Their brain sizes have been estimated as larger than "modern" humans, but their brains may in fact have been approximately the same as those of modern humans. On average, Neanderthal males stood about 1.65m tall (just under 5' 6") and were heavily built, and muscular due to their physical activity. Females were about 1.53 to 1.57m tall (about 5'-5'2").
The characteristic style of stone tools in the Middle Paleolithic is called the Mousterian Culture, after a prominent archaeological site where the tools were first found. The Mousterian culture is typified by the wide use of the Levallois technique. Mousterian tools were often produced using soft hammer percussion, such as bones, antlers, and wood, rather than hard hammer percussion, using stone. Near the end of the time of the Neanderthals, they created the Chatelperronian tool style, considered more "advanced" than that of the Mousterian. They either invented the Chatelperronian themselves or "borrowed" elements from the incoming modern humans who are thought to have created the Aurignacian.
Etymology and classification
The term "Neanderthal Man" was coined in 1863 by Irish anatomist William King. Neanderthal is now spelled two ways: The spelling of the German word Thal, meaning "valley or dale", was changed to Tal in the early 20th century, but the former spelling is often retained in English and always in scientific names, while the modern spelling is used in German.
The Neanderthal or "Neander valley" was named after theologian Joachim Neander, who lived there in the late seventeenth century. For many years, professionals vigorously debated about whether Neanderthals should be classified as Homo neanderthalensis or as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, the latter placing Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo sapiens. However, recent evidence from mitochondrial DNA studies have been interpreted as evidence that Neanderthals were not a subspecies of H. sapiens. Still, some scientists argue that fossil evidence suggests that the two species interbred, and hence were the same biological species.
Discovery
A Neanderthal skull was first discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848, eight years prior to the "original" discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley (near Düsseldorf) in August, 1856, three years before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones from the right arm, two from the left arm, part of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered this material originally thought it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Karl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaafhausen. The discovery was jointly announced in 1857. That discovery is now considered the beginning of paleoanthropology. These and other discoveries led to the idea that these remains were from ancient Europeans who had played an important role in modern human origins. The remains of over 400 Neanderthals have been found since.
Physical traits
The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans; however, not all of them can be used to distinguish specific Neanderthal populations, from various geographic areas or periods of evolution, from other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits occasionally manifest in modern humans, particularly among certain ethnic groups. Nothing is known about the skin color, the hair, or the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals. Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were larger in size and had distinct morphological features, especially of the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain relatively isolated geographic regions. Their relatively robust stature is thought to be an adaptation to the cold climate of Europe during the Pleistocene epoch.
Cranial
Suprainiac fossa, a groove above the inion
Occipital bun, a protuberance of the occipital bone that looks like a hair knot
Projecting mid-face
Thick, bowed shaft of the thigh bones
Short shinbones and calf bones
Based on a 2001 study, some commentators speculated that Neanderthals exhibited rufosity, and that some red-headed and freckled humans today share some heritage with Neanderthals. [1] However, more recent research indicates that this is not likely. [2]
Language
The theory that Neanderthals lacked complex language was widespread until 1983, when a Neanderthal hyoid bone was found at the Kebara Cave in Israel. The hyoid is a small bone that holds the root of the tongue in place, a requirement to human speech and, therefore, its presence seems to imply some ability to speak. The bone that was found is virtually identical to that of modern humans.
Many people believe that even without the hyoid bone evidence, it is obvious that tools as advanced as those of the Mousterian Era, attributed to Neanderthals, could not have been developed without cognitive skills encompassing some form of spoken language.
A recent study conducted on the Neanderthal hyoid found that due to the physical characteristics of Neanderthals and the fact that their larynx would have been stouter than that of modern man, the average note emitted by Neanderthals would have been high pitched and sharper than that of modern man, contrary to the media stereotype of Neanderthals having ape-like grunts.
The base of the Neanderthal tongue was positioned higher in the throat, crowding the mouth somewhat. As a result, Neanderthal speech would most likely have been slow-paced and nasalized. There is still some debate, however, over whether Neanderthals actually had language, or merely had the physical ability to produce a wide enough range of sounds that under certain circumstances they could have developed language.
Tools
Neanderthal Hunter, (American Mus. Nat. Hist.)
Neanderthal (Middle Paleolithic) archaeological sites show both a smaller and a less flexible toolkit than in the Upper Paleolithic sites, occupied by modern humans that replaced them.
There is little evidence that Neanderthals used antlers, shell, or other bone materials to make tools: their bone industry was relatively simple. However, there is good evidence that they routinely constructed a variety of stone implements. The Neanderthal (Mousterian) tool case consisted of sophisticated stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and spears. Many of these tools were very sharp.
Also, while they had weapons, none have as yet been found that were used as projectile weapons. They had spears in the sense of a long wooden shaft with a spear head firmly attached to it, but these were not spears specifically crafted for flight (perhaps better described as a lance). However, a number of 400,000 year old wooden projectile spears were found at Schöningen in northern Germany. These are thought to have been made by the Neanderthal's ancestors, Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis. Generally, projectile weapons are more commonly associated with H. sapiens.
Although much has been made of the Neanderthal's burial of their dead, their burials were less elaborate than those of anatomically modern humans. The interpretation of the Shanidar IV burials as including flowers, and therefore being a form of ritual burial (Ralph Solecki 1975), has been questioned (Sommer 1999). On the other hand, five of the six flower pollens found with Shanidar IV are known to have had "traditional" medical uses, even among relatively recent "modern" populations. In some cases Neanderthal burials include grave goods such as bison and aurochs bones, tools, and the pigment ochre.
Neanderthals performed a sophisticated set of tasks normally associated with humans alone. For example, they constructed complex shelters, controlled fire, and skinned animals. Particularly intriguing is a hollowed-out bear femur with four holes spaced like four holes in the diatonic scale claimed by many to have been deliberately bored into it. This flute was found in western Slovenia in 1995 near a Mousterian Era fireplace used by Neanderthals, but its significance is still a matter of dispute.
See also: prehistoric music and Divje Babe.
Key dates
1848: Skull of ancient human found in Forbe's Quarry, Gibraltar. Its significance is not realised at the time.
1856: Johann Karl Fuhlrott first recognizes the fossil called "Neanderthal man."
1880: The mandible of a Neanderthal child was found in a secure context, associated with cultural debris, including hearths, Mousterian tools, and bones of extinct animals.
1899: Hundreds of Neanderthal bones were described in stratigraphic position in association with cultural remains and extinct animal bones.
1908: A nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton in association with Mousterian tools and bones of extinct tools discovered.
1953-1957: Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq: Ralph Solecki uncovers nine Neanderthal skeletons.
1975: Erik Trinkaus's study of Neanderthal feet confirms they walked like modern humans.
1987: New thermoluminescence dates in the Levant place Neanderthal levels at Kebara at ca. 60,000 BP and modern humans at Qafzeh to 90,000 BP. These dates are confirmed by ESR dates for Qafzeh (90,000 BP) and Skhul (80,000 BP).
1991: New Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dates for Near Eastern remains show Tabun Neanderthal to be contemporaneous with modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh.
2000: Igor Ovchinnikov, Kirsten Liden, William Goodman et al. retrieve DNA from a late (29,000 BP) Neanderthal infant from Mezmaikaya Cave in the Caucausus.
2005: The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology launches a project to reconstruct the Neanderthal genome.
25. Slide 25
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elderly wise man") is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived almost 160,000 years ago in Pleistocene Africa. Its fossilized remains were discovered in Ethiopia in 1997 by Tim White, but first unveiled in 2003. The fossils were found at Herto Bouri, a region of Ethiopia under volcanic layers. By using radioisotopes dating, the layers date between 154,000 and 160,000 years old. Three well preserved craniums are accounted for, the most well preserved is from an adult male (BOU-VP-16/1) having a brain capacity of 1450cc. The other craniums include another partial adult male and a six year old child. All the skulls had cut marks indicating they had been de-fleshed in some kind of mortuary practice. The polishing on the skulls, however, suggests this was not simple cannibalism but more probably some kind of ritualistic behaviour.
These fossils differ slightly from those of early forms of H. sapiens such as Cro-Magnon found in Europe and other parts of the world in that its morphology has many archaic features not typical of H. sapiens (although modern human skulls do differ in certain regions around the globe). It appears to be the oldest representative of the H. sapiens species found so far. The name idaltu is an Amharic word for "elder". These specimens are likely to represent the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens thought to have originally evolved in Eastern Africa.
26. Slide 26
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The Cro-Magnons (IPA: /k?oma?õ/, or anglicised IPA: /k???'mægn?n/) form the earliest known European examples of Homo sapiens, the species to which modern humans belong. The term falls outside the usual naming conventions for early man and is used in a general sense to describe the oldest modern people in Europe. The oldest H. sapiens (i.e. anatomically modern humans) first emerged in Africa around 100,000 years ago. Cro-Magnons lived from about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene epoch. For all intents and purposes these people were anatomically modern, only differing from their modern day descendants in Europe by their slightly more robust physiology and brains which were about 4 % larger than that of modern man. The Cro-Magnons could be descended from any number of subspecies of Homo sapiens that emerged from Africa approximately 100,000 years ago, such as Homo sapiens idaltu.
The geologist Louis Lartet discovered the first five skeletons in March 1868 in the Cro-Magnon rock shelter at Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France (a name that means "big-hole" in Old French). The definitive specimen from this find bears the name 'Cro Magnon I'. The skeletons showed the same high forehead, upright posture and slender (gracile) skeleton as modern humans. Other specimens have since come to light in other parts of Europe and in the Middle East. The European individuals probably arrived from a East African origin via South Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East and even North Africa. However, this is highly speculative since no Cro-Magnon remains have been found in Africa (though the East African ancestors of Cro-Magnon man would have been pre-Cro-Magnon).
The condition and placement of the remains along with pieces of shell and animal tooth in what appears to have been pendants or necklaces raises the question whether or not they were buried intentionally. If Cro-Magnons buried their dead intentionally it shows us they had a knowledge of ritual, by burying their dead with necklaces and tools, or an idea of disease and that the bodies needed to be contained.
Analysis of the pathology of the skeletons shows that the humans of this time period led a physically tough life. In addition to infection, several of the individuals found at the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks indicating traumatic injury, and the adult female found at the shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. As these injuries would be life threatening even today, this shows that Cro-Magnons believed in community support and took care of each others' injuries.
Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears. The remains of tools suggest that they knew how to make woven clothing. They had huts, constructed of rocks, clay, bones, branches, and animal hide/fur. These early humans used manganese and iron oxides to paint pictures and it is believed that they created the first calendar around 32,000 B.C.E.The flint tools found in association with the remains at Cro-Magnon have associations with the Aurignacian culture that Lartet had identified a few years before he found the skeletons.
Cro-Magnon people were completely modern in appearance. However, the name "Cro-Magnon", as typically used and mis-pronounced in English, sounds vaguely rough; in the popular mind this type of human tends to get confused with earlier, more primitive species such as Neanderthals, and is commonly portrayed in cartoons as a semi-erect, brutish and low-browed fellow.
27. Slide 27
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo floresiensis ("Man of Flores") is a species in the genus Homo, remarkable for its small body, small brain, and survival until relatively recent times. It is thought to have been contemporaneous with modern humans (Homo sapiens) on the Indonesian island of Flores. One sub-fossil skeleton, dated at 18,000 years old, is largely complete. It was discovered in deposits in Liang Bua Cave on Flores in 2003. Parts of eight other individuals, all diminutive, have been recovered as well as similarly small stone tools from horizons ranging from 94,000 to 13,000 years ago. The first of these fossils was unearthed in 2003; the publication date of the original description is October 2004; and confirmation of species status is expected to appear soon, following the March 2005 publication of details of the brain of Flores Man.
Flores has been described (in the journal Nature) as "a kind of Lost World", where archaic animals, elsewhere long extinct, had evolved into giant and dwarf forms through allopatric speciation, due to its location East of the Wallace Line. The island had dwarf elephants (a species of Stegodon, a prehistoric elephant) and giant monitor lizards akin to the Komodo dragon, as well as H. floresiensis, which can be considered a species of diminutive human.
The discoverers have called members of the diminutive species "hobbits", after J.R.R. Tolkien's fictional race of roughly the same height. In the mythology of the island, there were common references to a small furry man called Ebu Gogo even into the 19th century.
Discovery
The first (and so far only) specimens were discovered by a joint Australian-Indonesian team of paleoanthropologists and archaeologists looking on Flores for evidence of the original human migration of H. sapiens from Asia into Australia. They were not expecting to find a new species, and were quite surprised at the recovery of the remains of at least seven individuals of non-H. sapiens, from 38,000 to 13,000 years old, from the Liang Bua limestone cave on Flores. An arm bone, provisionally assigned to H. floresiensis, is about 74,000 years old. Also widely present in this cave are sophisticated stone implements of a size considered appropriate to the 1 m tall human: these are at horizons from 95,000 to 13,000 years and are associated with juvenile Stegodon, presumably the prey of Flores Man.
The specimens are not fossilized, but were described in a Nature news article as having "the consistency of wet blotting paper" (once exposed, the bones had to be left to dry before they could be dug up). Researchers hope to find preserved mitochondrial DNA to compare with samples from similarly unfossilised specimens of Homo neanderthalensis and H. sapiens. The likelihood of there being preserved DNA is low, as DNA degrades rapidly in warm tropical environments - sometimes in as little as a few dozen years. Also, contamination from the surrounding environment seems highly possible given the moist environment in which the specimens were found.
Small bodies
Homo erectus, thought to be the immediate ancestor of H. floresiensis, was approximately the same size as another descendant species, modern humans. In the limited food environment on Flores, however, H. erectus is thought to have undergone strong island dwarfing, a form of speciation also seen on Flores in several species, including a dwarf Stegodon (a group of proboscideans that was widespread throughout Asia during the Quaternary), as well as being observed on other small islands. However, the "island dwarfing" theory has been subjected to some criticism.
Despite the size difference, the specimens seem otherwise to resemble in their features H. erectus, known to be living in Southeast Asia at times coinciding with earlier finds of H. floresiensis. These observed similarities form the basis for the establishment of the suggested phylogenetic relationship. Despite a controversial reported finding by the same team of alleged material evidence, stone tools, of a H. erectus occupation 840,000 years ago, actual remains of H. erectus itself have not been found on Flores, much less transitional forms.
The type specimen for the species is a fairly complete skeleton and near-complete skull of a 30-year-old female, nicknamed Little Lady of Flores or Flo, about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in height. Not only is this drastically shorter than H. erectus, it is even somewhat smaller than the three million years older ancestor australopithecines, not previously thought to have expanded beyond Africa. This tends to qualify H. floresiensis as the most "extreme" member of the extended human family. They are certainly the shortest and smallest discovered thus far.
Homo floresiensis is also rather tiny compared to the modern human height and size of all peoples today. The estimated height of adult H. floresiensis is considerably shorter than the average adult height of even the physically smallest populations of modern humans, such as the African Pygmies (< 1.5 m, or 4 ft 11 in), Twa, Semang (1.37 m, or 4 ft 6 in for adult women), or Andamanese (1.37 m, or 4 ft 6 in for adult women). Mass is generally considered more biophysically significant than a one-dimensional measure of length, and by that measure, due to effects of scaling, differences are even greater. The type specimen of H. floresiensis has been estimated as perhaps about 25 kg.
Homo floresiensis had relatively long arms, perhaps allowing this small hominid to climb to safety in the trees when needed.
Small brains
In addition to a small body size, H. floresiensis had a remarkably small brain. The type specimen, at 380 cm³
is at the lower range of chimpanzees or the ancient australopithecines. The brain is reduced considerably relative to this species' presumed immediate ancestor H. erectus, which at 980 cm³ (60 in³) had more than double the brain volume of its descendant species. Nonetheless, the brain to body mass ratio of H. floresiensis is comparable to that of Homo erectus, indicating the species was unlikely to differ in intelligence.
Indeed, the discoverers have associated H. floresiensis with advanced behaviors. There is evidence of the use of fire for cooking. The species has also been associated with stone tools of the sophisticated Upper Paleolithic tradition typically associated with modern humans, who at 1310-1475 cm³ (80-90 in³) nearly quadruple the brain volume of H. floresiensis (with body mass increased by a factor of 2.6). Some of these tools were apparently used in the necessarily cooperative hunting of local dwarf Stegodon by this small human species.
An indicator of intelligence is the size of region 10 of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which is associated with self-awareness and is about the same size as that of modern humans, despite the much smaller overall size of the brain.
Flores remained isolated during the Wisconsin glaciation (the most recent ice age), despite the low sea levels that united much of the rest of Sundaland, because of a deep neighboring strait. This has led the discoverers of H. floresiensis to conclude that the species or its ancestors could only have reached the isolated island by water transport, perhaps arriving in bamboo rafts around 100,000 years ago (or, if they are H. erectus, then about 1 million years ago). This perceived evidence of advanced technology and cooperation on a modern human level has prompted the discoverers to hypothesize that H. floresiensis almost certainly had language. These suggestions have proved the most controversial of the discoverers' findings, despite the probable high intelligence of H. floresiensis.
Recent survival
The other remarkable aspect of the find is that this species is thought to have survived on Flores until at least as recently as 12,000 years ago. This makes it the longest-lasting non-modern human, surviving long past the Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) who went extinct about 30,000 years ago. Homo floresiensis certainly coexisted for a long time with modern humans, who arrived in the region 35,000-55,000 years ago, but it is unknown how they may have interacted.
Local geology suggests that a volcanic eruption on Flores was responsible for the demise of H. floresiensis in the part of the island under study at approximately 12,000 years ago, along with other local fauna, including the dwarf elephant Stegodon.
The discoverers suspect, however, that this species may have survived longer in other parts of Flores to become the source of the Ebu Gogo stories told among the local people. The Ebu Gogo are said to have been small, hairy, language-poor cave dwellers on the scale of H. floresiensis. Widely believed to be present at the time of the Dutch arrival during the 16th century, these strange creatures were apparently last spotted as recently as the late 19th century. There is also Tonga Island folklore that "small people" were living on 'Ata Island (the southernmost island of the group) at the time of the arrival of the Polynesians.
Similarly, on the island of Sumatra, there are reports of a one-metre tall humanoid, the Orang Pendek, which a number of professional scholars take seriously. Both footprints and hairs have been recovered. Scholars working on the Flores man have noted that the Orang Pendek may also be surviving Flores men still living on Sumatra.
Significance
The discovery is widely considered the most important of its kind in recent history, and came as a surprise to the anthropological community. The new species challenges many of the ideas of the discipline.
Homo floresiensis is so different in form from other members of genus Homo that it forces the recognition of a new, undreamt-of variability in the genus, and provides evidence against linear evolution.
No doubt, this discovery provides more fuel for the perennial debate over the out-of-Africa or multiregional models of speciation of modern humans (despite H. floresiensis not itself being an ancestor of modern humans). Already, further arguments have been made on either side.
The discoverers of H. floresiensis fully expect to find the remains of other, equally divergent Homo species on other isolated islands of Southeast Asia, and think it possible, if not quite "likely", that some lost Homo species could be found still living in some unexplored corner of jungle.
Henry Gee, a senior editor of the journal Nature, has agreed, saying, "Of course it could explain all kinds of legends of the little people. They are almost certainly extinct, but it is possible that there are creatures like this around today. Large mammals are still being found. I don't think the likelihood of finding a new species of human alive is any less than finding a new species of antelope, and that has happened"
Gee has also written that "The discovery that Homo floresiensis survived until so very recently, in geological terms, makes it more likely that stories of other mythical, human-like creatures such as Yetis are founded on grains of truth....Now, cryptozoology, the study of such fabulous creatures, can come in from the cold"
An alternative suggestion is that Homo floresiensis was actually a rainforest-adapted type of modern Homo sapiens, like Pygmies and Negritos, only of a more extreme type.
Reaction
When the first skull (that of 'Flo') was found, the first assumption was that it was a child. When it turned out to be a grown individual (closed fontanelles and worn teeth), it was thought to be microcephalic, but that theory is still disputed. And comparisons with modern human achondroplasiacs (about 1.2 m, or 3 ft 11 in) or other dwarfs, are also flawed, as these people are not generally proportionally smaller than other humans, only short-limbed.
Professor Teuku Jacob, chief paleontologist of the Indonesian Gadjah Mada University and other scientists reportedly disagree with the placement of the new finds into a new species of Homo, stating instead, "It is a sub-species of Homo sapiens classified under the Austrolomelanesid race". He contends that the find is from a 25-30 year-old omnivorous subspecies of H. sapiens, and not a 30-year-old female of a new species. He is convinced that the small skull is that of a mentally defective modern human, probably a Pygmy, suffering from the genetic disorder microcephaly or nanocephaly. Some scientists reportedly believe the skeleton found may be of a male and not a female.
When interviewed on the Australian television program Lateline, Professor Roberts reportedly conceded that the skeleton may be that of a male rather than a female but he strenuously maintained the fossil is of a new species. A paper published in Science disputes the microcephaly theory.
Access controversy
In late November and early December 2004, in an apparent arrangement with discoverer Radien Soejono, Professor Jacob borrowed most of the remains from Soejono's institution, Jakarta's National Research Centre of Archaeology, for his own research (apparently without the permission of the Centre's directors). Some expressed fears that, like the Dead Sea Scrolls, important scientific evidence would be sequestered by a small group of scientists who neither allowed access by other scientists nor published their own research. However, Jacob returned the remains to the Centre, except for two leg bones, on 23 February 2005 [10].
28. Slide 28
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Humans (Homo sapiens) are bipedal primates of the superfamily Hominoidea, together with the other apes-chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and gibbons. They are the dominant sentient species on planet Earth and define themselves in biological, social, and spiritual terms. The scientific name for humans, Homo sapiens, comes from the Latin for "wise man." Humans have an erect body carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects and using tools. The human brain is capable of abstract thought, reason, speech, language, and introspection. Bipedal locomotion appears to have evolved before the development of a large brain. The origins of bipedal locomotion and of its role in the evolution of the human brain are topics of ongoing research. The human mind has several distinct attributes. It is responsible for complex behavior, especially language. Curiosity and observation have led to a variety of explanations for consciousness and the relation between mind and body. Psychology attempts to study behavior from a scientific point of view. Religious perspectives emphasize a soul, qi or atman as the essence of being, and are often characterized by the belief in and worship of God, gods or spirits. Philosophy, especially philosophy of mind, attempts to fathom the depths of each of these perspectives. Art, music and literature often express these concepts and feelings. Like all primates, humans are inherently social. They create complex social structures composed of co-operating and competing groups. These range from nations and states down to families, and from the community to the self. Seeking to understand and manipulate the world around them has led to the development of technology and science. Artifacts, beliefs, myths, rituals, values, and social norms have each played a role in forming humanity's culture.
Terminology
In general, the word "people" is a collective noun used to define a specific group of humans. However, when used to refer to a group of humans possessing a common ethnic, cultural or national unitary characteristic or identity, "people" is a singular noun, and as such takes an "s" in the plural; (examples: "the English-speaking peoples of the world", "the indigenous peoples of Brazil").
Juvenile males are called boys, adult males men, juvenile females girls, and adult females women. Humans are commonly referred to as persons or people, and collectively as man, mankind, humankind, humanity, or the human race. Until the 20th century, "human" was only used adjectivally ("pertaining to mankind"). As an adjective, "human" is used neutrally (as in "human race"), but "human" and especially "humane" may also emphasize positive aspects of human nature, and can be synonymous with "benevolent" (versus "inhumane"; cf. humanitarian).
A distinction is maintained in philosophy and law between the notions "human being", or "man", and "person". The former refers to the species, while the latter refers to a rational agent (see, for example, John Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding II 27 and Immanuel Kant's Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals).
Anatomy and physiology
Human body types vary substantially, with some of this variation being caused by environmental and historical factors. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by diet and exercise. The average height of a North American adult female is 162 centimetres (5 feet 4 inches), and the average weight is 62 kilograms (137 pounds). Human males are typically larger than females: the average height and weight of a North American adult male is 175 centimeters (5 feet 9 inches) and 78 kilograms (172 pounds). Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to that of other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair on its body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less colored than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see. The color of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin color can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from blond to brown to red. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a defense against ultraviolet solar radiation: melanin is an effective sun-block. The skin color of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin and hair color is controlled in part by the genes Mc1r and SLC24A5. For example, the red hair and pale skin of some Europeans is the result of mutations in Mc1r. Human skin has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation; this is also controlled in part by Mc1r.
Humans are capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving the arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs. Because human physiology has not fully adapted to bipedalism, the pelvic region and spinal column tend to become worn, creating locomotion difficulties in old age.
The need for regular intake of food and drink is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science. Failure to obtain food leads to hunger and eventually starvation, while failure to obtain water leads to thirst and dehydration. Both starvation and dehydration cause death if not alleviated -- generally, most humans can survive for over two months without food, but at most between ten to fourteen days without water. In modern times, obesity amongst some human populations has increased to almost epidemic proportions, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed countries, and is becoming problematic elsewhere.
The average sleep requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child (elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours). Negative effects result from restriction of sleep. For instance a sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort. It is common in modern societies for people to get less sleep than they need, leading to a state of sleep deprivation.
Genetics
Humans are a eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. At present estimate, humans have approximately 20,000-25,000 genes and share 98.4% of their DNA with their closest living evolutionary relatives, the two species of chimpanzees. [1] Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The X chromosome is larger and carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that recessive diseases associated with X-linked genes affect men more often than women. For example, genes that control the clotting of blood reside on the X chromosome. Women have a blood-clotting gene on each X chromosome so that one normal blood-clotting gene can compensate for a flaw in the gene on the other X chromosome. But men are hemizygous for the blood-clotting gene, since there is no gene on the Y chromosome to control blood clotting. As a result, men will suffer from hemophilia more often than women.
Evolution
The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, but most notably physical anthropology and genetics. The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus Homo, but studies of human evolution usually include other hominids and hominines, such as the australopithecines. Humans are defined as hominids of the species Homo sapiens, of which the only extant subspecies is Homo sapiens sapiens (Latin for "very wise man"); Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elderly wise man") is the extinct subspecies. Modern humans are usually considered the only surviving species in the genus Homo, although some argue that the two species of chimpanzees should be reclassified from Pan troglodytes (Common Chimpanzee) and Pan paniscus (Bonobo/Pygmy Chimpanzee) to Homo troglodytes and Homo paniscus respectively, given that they share a recent ancestor with man. Full genome sequencing resulted in these conclusions: "After 6 [million] years of separate evolution, the differences between chimpanzee and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice." In fact, chimpanzee and human DNA is between 96% and 99% identical.
It has been estimated that the human lineage diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from gorillas about eight million years ago. However, in 2001 a hominid skull approximately seven million years old, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, was discovered in Chad and may indicate an earlier divergence. Two prominent scientific theories of the origins of contemporary humans exist. They concern the relationship between modern humans and other hominids: The single-origin or "out of Africa" hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later replaced hominids in other parts of the world. The multiregional hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved at least in part from independent hominid populations.
Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah proposed that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species; and that during the Late Pleistocene, the population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs (no more than 10,000), resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this possible bottleneck have been postulated, the most popular is called the Toba catastrophe theory.
Human evolution is characterized by a number of important physiological trends:
expansion of the brain cavity and brain itself, which is typically 1,400 cm³ in volume, over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (heterochrony), allowing for an extended period of social learning in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists argue that a reorganization of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial expansion itself;
canine tooth reduction;
bipedal locomotion;
descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible.
How these trends are related and what their role is in the evolution of complex social organization and culture are matters of ongoing debate. One field of inquiry that has emerged in recent years to address this issue of "gene-culture coevolution" is dual inheritance theory.
Life cycle
The human life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. New human life develops viviparously from conception. An egg is usually fertilized inside the female by sperm from the male through sexual intercourse, though in vitro fertilization methods are also used. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. The zygote divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo which over a period of thirty-eight weeks becomes the fetus. At birth, the fully grown fetus is expelled from the female's body and breathes independently as a baby for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend personhood to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus. Compared with that of other species, human childbirth is relatively complicated. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in injury to the child or the death of the mother, although the chances of a successful labour increased significantly during the twentieth century in wealthier countries. Natural childbirth remains a more dangerous ordeal in remote, underdeveloped regions of the world.
Human children are born after a nine-month gestation period, with typically 3-4 kilograms (6-9 pounds) in weight and 50-60 centimeters (20-24 inches) in height in developed countries. Helpless at birth, they continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at twelve to fifteen years of age. Boys continue growing for some time after this, reaching their maximum height around the age of eighteen. These values vary too, depending on genes and environment. The human life-span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, maturity and old age, although the lengths of these stages, especially the later ones, are not fixed.
There are striking differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40 years (highest in Monaco at 45.1 years), while in the developing world, the median age is 15-20 years (the lowest in Uganda at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth is 77.2 years in the U.S. as of 2001. The expected life span at birth in Singapore is 84.29 years for a female and 78.96 years for a male, while in Botswana, due largely to AIDS, it is 30.99 years for a male and 30.53 years for a female. One in five Europeans, but one in twenty Africans, is 60 years or older, according to The World Factbook.
The number of centenarians in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002. The current maximum life span of humans is about 120 years (Jeanne Calment lived for 122 years and 164 days). Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or over for every 100 women of the same age, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women. The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death may cause unease or fear. People who are near death sometimes report having a near-death experience, in which they have visions. Burial ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often inspired by beliefs in an afterlife. Institutions of inheritance or ancestor worship may extend an individual's presence beyond his physical lifespan.
Race and ethnicity
Humans often categorize themselves and others in terms of race or ethnicity, although the scientific validity of human races as categories is disputed. Human racial categories are based on visible traits, especially skin color and facial features, language, and ancestry. Self identification with an ethnic group is based on kinship and descent. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact social identity, giving rise to the theory of identity politics. An ethnic group is a culture or subculture whose members are readily distinguishable by outsiders based on traits originating from a common racial, national, linguistic, regional or religious source. Although most humans recognize that variances occur within a species, it is often a point of dispute as to what these differences entail, their importance, and whether discrimination based on race (racism) is acceptable. Race and intelligence, scientific racism, xenophobia and ethnocentrism are just a few of the many bases for such practices. Some societies have placed a great deal of emphasis on race, others have not. Four disparate examples include the "melting pot" of Ancient Egypt, slavery and Jim Crow laws in the United States, (the latter eventually supplanted by Civil Rights Act), and the racial policy of Nazi Germany. The five human racial divisions were proposed in Carleton Coon's The Origin of Races (1962) are Australian, African Bushman (San), Caucasian, East Asian and African.
Habitat
The view most widely accepted by the anthropological community is that the human species originated in the African savanna between 100 and 200 thousand years ago, had colonized the rest of the Old World and Oceania by 40,000 years ago, and finally colonized the Americas by 10,000 years ago. Homo sapiens displaced groups such as Homo neanderthalensis, Homo erectus and Homo floresiensis through more successful reproduction and competition for resources. (See Human evolution, Vagina gentium, and Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness.) Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to all climates. Within the last few decades, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and space, although long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. Humans, with a population of over six billion, are one of the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The vast majority of the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (13%) and Europe (12%), with 5% in Oceania. (See list of countries by population and list of countries by population density.)
The original human lifestyle was hunting-gathering, which was adapted to the savanna. Other human lifestyles are nomadism (often linked to animal herding) and permanent settlements made possible by the development of agriculture. Humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by various methods, such as agriculture, irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, and manufacturing goods.
Permanent human settlements are dependent on proximity to water and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources such as fertile land for growing crops and grazing livestock, or seasonally by populations of prey. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places these factors are no longer a driving force behind growth and decline of population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered (i.e., factors such as whether it has climate control, is a slum, has infrastructure such as schools and electricity, etc.) is often a major determinant in population change.
Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments (Antarctica, outer space) is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with a maximum of thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of 2005, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.
Food and drink
Humans are omnivorous animals who can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence shows that early Homo Sapiens employed a Hunter-gatherer methodology as their primary means of food collection. This involved combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. However, many modern humans choose to be vegans or vegetarians. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from Homo erectus, possibly even earlier.
At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which has altered substantially the kind of food people eat. This has led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased population, the development of cities, and, due to increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared has varied widely by time, location, and culture.
The last century or so has produced enormous improvements in food production, preservation, storage and shipping. Today almost every locale in the world has access to not only its traditional cuisine, but also to many other world cuisines.
Population
From 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one to six billion. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion (or, 39.7%) people lived in urban areas, and this percentage is expected to rise throughout the 21st century. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution, crime, and poverty, especially in inner city and suburban slums.
Intelligence
Human beings are considered more intelligent than other animals. While other animals are capable of creating structures (mostly as a result of instinct) and using simple tools, human technology is more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by another animal. The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Human beings are one of six species to pass the mirror test - which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself - along with common chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, dolphins and pigeons. Human beings under the age of 2 usually fail the test.
Mind
Consciousness is a state of mind, said to possess qualities such as, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. The way in which the world is experienced is the subject of much debate and research in philosophy of mind, psychology, brain biology, neurology, and cognitive science. Humans, often mentioned with other species, are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind, the fruition of which are senses and perceptions. Each human has a subjective view of existence, the passage of time, and free will. There are many debates about the extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world, and regarding the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. Cognitive scientist Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called mind, but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of software running in parallel (Dennett, 1991) .
Psychology and human ethology
Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.
Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. The examination of developmental psychology from an evolutionary perspective is called evolutionary developmental psychology. Social psychology intertwines sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. The behavior and mental processes of animals (human and non-human) can be described through animal cognition, ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as well. Human ecology is an academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with their environment, nature and the human social environment. A similar academic discipline is human behavioral ecology.
Philosophy
Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means comprising as its core logic, ontology or metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology which includes the branches of ethics and aesthetics. The term covers a very wide range of approaches, and is also used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy. Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of "first principles" and "being" (ontology). Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical have been added to metaphysics. Other problems that were considered metaphysical problems for centuries are now typically relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy, such as philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, philosophy of perception, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. In rare cases subjects of metaphysical research have been found to be entirely physical and natural. The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. Other species of animals share some of these mental capacities, and it is also used in relation to supernatural beings, as in the expression "the mind of God." The term is used here only in relation to humans. There are many Philosophies of mind, the most common relating to the nature of being, and ones way of being, or purpose.
Adi Shankara in the East proposed Advaita Vedanta, a popular argument for monism (the metaphysical view that all is of one essential essence, substance or energy). Another type of monism is physicalism or materialism, which holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be reduced to the physical. Idealism and phenomenalism, on the contrary, assert the existence of the mind and deny, or at the least deny the importance of, an external reality that exists independently of the mind.
René Descartes proposed that both mind and matter exist, and that the one cannot be reduced to the other. This represents the philosophy of mind form of dualism. Dvaita is the Hindu philosophy that incorporates a form of dualism that distinguishes God from souls.
Johannes Jacobus Poortman proposed a Pluralist classification of a number of different mystical and metaphysical views. Vishishtadvaita is the Hindu philosophy incorporating pluralism.
Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Hume, Kant, Locke, Spinoza, Nietzsche and Wittgenstein are also philosophers of note in the history of human thought.
Many religions and spiritual traditions hold that humans have both a body and a soul, usually proposing that the soul can in some way survive the death of the body. Although the soul sometimes is equated with the mind, this is not always the case.
As a finer distinction between religion and philosophy, esoteric cosmology is distinguished from religion in its more sophisticated construction and reliance on intellectual understanding rather than faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual transformation.
In between the doctrines of religion and science, stands the philosophical perspective of metaphysical cosmology. This ancient field of study seeks to draw logical conclusions about the nature of the universe, humanity, god and/or their connections based on the extension of some set of presumed facts borrowed from religion and/or observation. What might be called the core metaphysical problems would be the ones which have always been considered metaphysical. What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of ontology, the science of being or existence as well as the basic categories thereof-trying to find out what entities and what types of entities exist. Ontology has strong implications for the conceptions of reality.
Motivation
Motivation is based on emotion, specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict; positive and negative are defined by the individual brain state, not by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on Financial incentives, Moral incentives, or Coercive incentives. Religions generally posit Godly or demonic influences.
For many love is the central motivation in life. The classical Greeks had four words for love:
Eros : Romantic love
Philia : Friendship, Love (but especially platonic love).
Agape : Divine, unconditioned love. Many religious persons will refer to the love that they feel towards, or receive from God as divine love or Agape.
Storge : Natural familial affection.
Happiness or being happy is a condition which humans can have. The definition of happiness is one of the greatest philosophical topics, at least since the time of Socrates, and is especially central to Ethics, being the starting point of Aristotle's ethical works. Some people might define it as the best condition which a human can have - a condition of mental and physical health. Others may define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society, inner peace, and so forth. Aristotle conceived of Eudaimonia, a society governed by pursuit of happiness.
"The happy life is thought to be one of excellence; now an excellent life requires exertion and does not consist of amusement. If Eudaimonia, or happiness, is an activity in accordance with excellence, it's reasonable that it should be in accordance with the highest excellence, and will be that of the best thing in us."
Aristotle, "Nicomachean Ethics"
Self-reflection and humanism
Thales of Miletus, when asked what was difficult, answered in a well-known apophthegm: "To Know Thyself" ????? ??????? (also attributed to Socrates, and inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi). Humans often consider themselves to be the dominant species on Earth, and the most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This belief is especially strong in modern Western culture. Alongside such claims of dominance we often find radical pessimism because of the frailty and brevity of human life. In the Hebrew Bible, for example, dominion of man is promised in Genesis 1:28, but the author of Ecclesiastes bewails the vanity of all human effort. The Ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras made the famous claim that "Man is the measure of all things; of what is, that it is; of what is not, that it is not." Aristotle describes man as the "communal animal" (???? ?????????), i.e. emphasising society-building as a central trait of human nature, and "animal with sapience" (???? ????? ????, animal rationale), a term that also inspired the species' taxonomy, Homo sapiens. This philosophy is today called "Humanism". Humanism as a philosophy defines a socio-political doctrine the bounds of which are not constrained by those of locally developed cultures, but which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. Because spiritual beliefs of a community often manifests as religious doctrine, the history of which is as factious as it is unitive, secular humanism grew as an answer to the need for a common philosophy that transcended the cultural boundaries of local moral codes and religions. Many humanists are religious, however, and see humanism as simply a mature expression of a common truth present in most religions. Humanists affirm the possibility of an objective truth and accept that human perception of that truth is imperfect. The most basic tenets of humanism are that humans matter and can solve human problems, and that science, freedom of speech, rational thought, democracy, and freedom in the arts are worthy pursuits or goals for all peoples. Modern humanism depends on reason and logic and rejects the supernatural.
From a scientific viewpoint, H. sapiens certainly is among the most generalised species on Earth, and few single species occupy as many diverse environments as humans. Various attempts have been made to identify a single behavioral characteristic that distinguishes humans from all other animals, e.g. the ability to make and use tools, the ability to alter the environment, language use, and the development of complex social structures. Some anthropologists think that these readily observable characteristics (tool-making and language) are based on less easily observable mental processes that might be unique among humans: the ability to think symbolically, in the abstract or logically. Others, that human capacity for symbolic thought is a development from the capacity to manipulate tools or the development of speech. It is difficult however to arrive at a set of attributes that includes all humans, and humans only. The wish to find unique human characteristics could be more a matter of anthropocentrism than of zoology in the end.
Culture
Culture is defined here as a set of distinctive material, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual features of a social group, including art, literature, lifestyles, value systems, traditions, rituals, and beliefs. Culture consists of at least three elements: values, social norms, and artifacts. A culture's values define what it holds to be important. Norms are expectations of how people ought to behave. Artifacts - things, or material culture - derive from the culture's values and norms together with its understanding of the way the world functions.
Language
Values, norms and technology are dependent on the capacity for humans to share ideas. The faculty of speech is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern population. (See Origins of language.) Language is central to the communication between humans. Language is central to the sense of identity that unites cultures and ethnicities. The invention of writing systems some 5000 years ago, allowing the preservation of speech, was a major step in cultural evolution. Language, especially written language, was sometimes thought to have supernatural status or powers -- hence the term "hieroglyphics", or "sacred carvings". The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are estimated to be some 6,000 different languages, including sign languages, currently in use.
Religion
The largest religious human gathering on Earth. Around 70 million people from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at one of the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) in India. Humans apply different approaches in an attempt to answer fundamental questions about topics such as the nature of the universe (cosmology), its creation (cosmogony) and destruction (eschatology), and our place in it - who we are, why we are here, what happens after life, and more. Broadly speaking, these questions can be addressed and beliefs formed from a number of approaches and perspectives, such as religion, science, philosophy (particularly ontology within metaphysics), esotericism, and mysticism. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive. For example, an expert scientist can be highly religious, have a philosophy of life, and follow any number of esoteric or mystical practices.
Four major approaches to forming beliefs about the nature of the universe include religious cosmology, scientific or physical cosmology, metaphysical cosmology and esoteric cosmology. The earliest form of cosmology appears in the origin beliefs of many religions as they seek to explain the existence and nature of the world. In many cases, views about the creation (cosmogony) and destruction (eschatology) of the universe play a central role in shaping a framework of religious cosmology for understanding a person's role in the universe and its relationship to one or more divine beings.
Religion-sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" or "belief system"-is commonly defined as belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In the course of its development, it has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective. There are a number of perspectives regarding the fundamental nature and substance of humans. These are by no means mutually exclusive, and this list is by no means exhaustive.
Materialism holds that humans are physical beings without any supernatural or spiritual component. Materialism holds to naturalism and rejects supernaturalism.
Monotheism believes that a single deity, who is either the only one in existence, or who incorporates or excels all lesser deities, created humanity. Humans are thus bound by filial and moral duty, and cared for by paternal providence. In all the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), humans are lord or steward over the earth and all its other creatures. The Bible and Koran hold that humankind was created as a spiritually and physically perfect entity, but through the sins of self-idolatry and disobedience lost its perfection.
Pantheism holds that human beings, as part of the world, are a part of God, who is identified with the world (and vice versa). (Panentheism is similar, but holds that the world is God, but that God is more than the world.) Monism, animism, Vedic religion, and other forms of Eastern philosophy have related beliefs.
Monism is the metaphysical view that all things are of one essential essence, substance or energy. Monistic theism, a variant of both monism and Monotheism, views God as both immanent and transcendent. Both are dominant themes in Hinduism and Surat Shabd Yoga, that hold humans are special in that they can conceptualise God and strive to achieve him, but their soul is akin to a divine spark just as an animal's is.
Taoism may be rendered as religion, morality, duty, knowledge, rationality, ultimate truth, path, or taste. Its semantics vary widely depending on the context. Tao is generally translated into English as "The Way".
In polytheistic religions, a whole pantheon of gods holds sway. Polytheistic deities often have individual interests or portfolios, and are arranged in a hierarchy of their own- for example, Zeus is the Greek god of thunder as well as king of the gods. Humans are mainly characterized by their inferiority to the gods, sometimes reflected in a hierarchical society ruled by dynasties that claim divine descent.
Animism is the belief that objects and ideas including other animal species, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living spirits. Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by shamans or priests, who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience.
Esotericism refers to "hidden" knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to exoteric knowledge, which is public. It is used especially for spiritual practices.
Mysticism (meaning "that which is concealed") is the pursuit of achieving communion with, or conscious awareness of, ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight); the belief in the existence of realities beyond perceptual or intellectual apprehension that are central to being and directly accessible through personal experience; or the belief that such experience is an important source of knowledge.
Emotion and sexuality
Human emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, like love, admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction seen between refined emotions, which are socially learned, and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate.
Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worth note, particularly in those cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories, to provide an example, emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some Sufi teachers (in particular, the poet and astronomer Omar Khayyám) felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy.
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated mammals, developed commonly in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.
Human sexuality, besides ensuring reproduction, has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds and hierarchies among individuals; may be directed to spiritual transcendence; and in a hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. Sexual desire or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions, both positive (such as love or ecstasy) and negative (such as jealousy). As with other human self-descriptions, humans propose that it is high intelligence and complex societies of humans that have produced the most complex sexual behaviors of any animal, including a great many behaviors that are not directly connected with reproduction.
Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to cultural norms, which vary widely. Restrictions are largely determined by religious beliefs. Most sexologists, starting with the pioneers Alfred Kinsey and Sigmund Freud, believe that the majority of homo sapiens are attracted to males and females, being inherently bisexual. This belief is based upon the human species close relatives' sexual habits such as the bonobo apes, and historical records particularly the widespread ancient practices of paederasty.
Music
Music is a natural intuitive phenomenon operating in the three worlds of time, pitch, and energy, and under the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Composing, improvising and performing music are all art forms. Listening to music is perhaps the most common form of entertainment, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines. There are a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics.
Science and technology
In the mid- to late 20th century humans achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the atmosphere of Earth for the first time and explore space. Human cultures are both characterized and differentiated by the objects that they make and use. Archaeology attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the artifacts they produced. Early humans left stone tools, pottery and jewelry that are particular to various regions and times. Improvements in technology are passed from one culture to another. For instance, the cultivation of crops arose in several different locations, but quickly spread to be an almost ubiquitous feature of human life. Similarly, advances in weapons, architecture and metallurgy are quickly disseminated. Such techniques can be passed on by oral tradition. The development of writing, itself a type of artifact, made it possible to pass information from generation to generation and from region to region with greater accuracy. Together, these developments made possible the commencement of civilization and urbanization, with their inherently complex social arrangements. Eventually this led to the institutionalization of the development of new technology, and the associated understanding of the way the world functions. This science now forms a central part of human culture. In recent times, physics and astrophysics have come to play a central role in shaping what is now known as physical cosmology, that is, the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. This discipline, which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scales and at the earliest times, begins by arguing for the big bang, a sort of cosmic explosion from which the universe itself is said to have erupted ~13.7 ± 0.2 billion (109) years ago. After its violent beginnings and until its very end, scientists then propose that the entire history of the universe has been an orderly progression governed by physical laws.
Government, politics and the state
A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. The most common form of government worldwide is a republic, however other examples include monarchy, social democracy, military dictatorship and theocracy. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.
Trade and economics
Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both, and a form of economics. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialization and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade between locations benefits both locations. Economics is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services. Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value. Mainstream economics focuses on how prices reflect supply and demand, and uses equations to predict consequences of decisions.
War
An act of war - the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945, effectively ending World War II. The bombs over Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki immediately killed over 120,000 people. War is a state of widespread conflict between states, organizations, or relatively large groups of people, which is characterized by the use of lethal violence between combatants or upon civilians. A common perception of war is a series of military campaigns between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources, religion or other issues. A war said to liberate an occupied country is sometimes characterized as a "war of liberation", while a war between internal elements of a state is a civil war. There have been a wide variety of rapidly advancing tactics throughout the history of war, ranging from conventional war to asymmetric warfare to total war and unconventional warfare. Techniques have nearly always included hand to hand combat, the usage of ranged weapons, propaganda, Shock and Awe, and ethnic cleansing. Military intelligence has always played a key role in determining victory and defeat. In modern warfare, soldiers and armored fighting vehicles are used to control the land, warships the seas, and air power the skies. Throughout history there has been a constant struggle between defense and offense, armor and the weapons designed to breach it. Modern examples include the bunker buster bomb, and the bunkers for which they are designed to destroy. Many see war as destructive in nature, and a negative correlation has been shown between trade and war.
29. Slide 29
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The so-called Piltdown Man was fragments of a skull and jaw bone collected in the early years of the twentieth century from a gravel pit at Piltdown, a village near Uckfield, in the English county of Sussex. The fragments were claimed by experts of the day to be the fossilised remains of an hitherto unknown form of early man. The latin name Eoanthropus dawsoni was given to the specimen.
The significance of the specimen remained the subject of controversy until it was exposed in 1953 as a forgery, consisting of the lower jaw bone of an ape combined with the skull of a fully developed, modern man. It has been suggested that the forgery was the work of the person said to be its finder, Charles Dawson, after whom it was named. This view is strongly disputed and many other candidates have been proposed as the true creators of the forgery.
The finding
The finding of the Piltdown skull was poorly documented, but at a meeting of the Geological Society of London held in December 1912, Dawson claimed to have been given a fragment of the skull four years earlier by a workman at the Piltdown gravel pit. According to Dawson, workmen at the site had discovered the skull shortly before his visit and had broken it up. Revisiting the site on several occasions, Dawson found further fragments of the skull and took them to Arthur Smith Woodward, keeper of the Geological Department at the British Museum. Greatly interested by the finds, Woodward accompanied Dawson to the site where between June and September 1912 they together recovered more fragments of the skull and half of the lower jaw bone. At the same meeting, Woodward announced that a reconstruction of the fragments had been prepared which indicated that the skull was in many ways similar to that of modern man, except for the occiput (the part of the skull that sits on the spinal column) and for brain size, which was about two-thirds that of modern man. He then went on to indicate that save for the presence of two human-like molar teeth the jaw bone found would be indistinguishable from that of a modern, young chimpanzee. From the British Museum's reconstruction of the skull, Woodward proposed that Piltdown man represented an evolutionary missing link between ape and man, since the combination of a human-like cranium with an ape-like jaw tended to support the notion then prevailing in England that human evolution was brain-led.
Almost from the outset, Woodward's reconstruction of the Piltdown fragments was strongly challenged. At the Royal College of Surgeons copies of the same fragments used by the British Museum in their reconstruction were used to produce an entirely different model, one that in brain size and other features resembled modern man. Despite these differences however, it does not appear that the possibility of outright forgery arose in connection with the skull.
In 1915, Dawson claimed to have found fragments of a second skull (Piltdown II) at a site about two miles away from the site of the original finds. So far as is known the site in question has never been identified and the finds appear to be entirely undocumented. Woodward does not appear ever to have visited the site.
The exposure
The exposure of the Piltdown forgery in 1953 by workers at the British Museum and other institutions was greeted in many academic quarters with relief. Piltdown man had for some time become regarded as an aberration that was entirely inconsistent with the mainstream thrust of human evolution as demonstrated by fossil hominids found elsewhere. Piltdown Man was shown to be a composite forgery, part-ape and part-man. It consisted of a human skull of medieval age, the 500-year-old lower jaw of a Sarawak orangutan and chimpanzee fossil teeth. The appearance of age had been created by staining the bones with an iron solution and chromic acid. For the forger, the area where the jaw joined the skull posed problems that were overcome by the simple expedient of breaking off the terminals of the jaw. The teeth in the jaw had been filed to make them fit and it was this filing that led to doubts about the veracity of the whole specimen, when, by chance, it was noticed that the top of one of the molars sloped at a very different angle to the other teeth. Microscopic examination revealed file-marks on the teeth and it was deduced from this that filing had taken place to change the shape of the teeth, as ape teeth are different in shape from human teeth.
The degree of technical competence exhibited by the Piltdown forgery continues to be the subject of debate. However, the genius of the forgery is generally regarded as being that it offered the experts of the day exactly what they wanted: convincing evidence that human evolution was brain-led. It is argued that because it gave them what they wanted, the experts taken in by the Piltdown forgery were prepared to ignore all of the rules that are normally applied to evidence. It has been suggestion that nationalism and racism also played a role in the acceptance of the fossil as genuine, as it satisfied European expectations that the earliest humans would be found in Eurasia. The British, it has been claimed, also wanted a first Briton to set against fossil hominids found elsewhere in the world, including France and Germany.
Who forged it?
The identity of the Piltdown forger remains unknown. The finger of suspicion has been pointed at Dawson, Woodward, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (who worked at the site in 1913 with Dawson and discovered a tooth) and even the name of Arthur Conan Doyle has been mentioned, among many others. The motives of the forger also remain unknown, but it has been suggested that the hoax was a practical joke that rapidly ran out of hand. Thought by some to be a very promising candidate for the role of the Piltdown forger, Martin A.C. Hinton left a trunk in storage at the Natural History Museum in London that in 1970 was found to contain animal bones and teeth carved and stained in a manner similar to the carving and staining on the Piltdown finds. In 2003, the Natural History Museum held an exhibition to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the exposure of the hoax.
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Piltdown Man
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What South Honshu city in Japan, associated with international climate change agreement, was its nation's capital 794-1192?
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Chapter1
Chapter1
1. Review of the evolution of humans: How science and reason need to work together
2. Slide 2
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The story of human evolution began in an African landscape at least 8 million years ago. At least a dozen (hominids) have evolved and as we discover more fossil sites and explore more deeply new surprises continually occur such as the discovery of Homo floresiensis which is remarkable for its small body, small brain, and survival until relatively recent times and yet hunted large animals and used fire. Several of these hominids leave simultaneously and there is little doubt that they did interact with each other. To our knowledge the last hominid to co-exist with human died out as recently as 12 000 years Debate still reigns as to the existence of ape-like men such as the Yeti of the Himalayas, the Sasquatch of North America and the Yowie of Australia.
3. Slide 3
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Human evolution is the process of change and development, or evolution, by which human beings emerged as a distinct species. It is the subject of a broad scientific inquiry that seeks to understand and describe how this change and development occurred. The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably physical anthropology and genetics. The term 'human', in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus Homo, but studies of human evolution usually include other hominids, such as the australopithecines
4. Slide 4
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The modern field of paleoanthropology began with the discovery of 'Neanderthal man'; and evidence of other 'cave men' in the 19th century. The idea that humans are similar to certain great apes had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859. Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution- "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject- the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers. Debates between Thomas Huxley and Richard Owen focused on the idea of human evolution, and by the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, Descent of Man, it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory- and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial. Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through natural selection.
5. Slide 5
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Ardipithecus is a very early hominin genus (subfamily Homininae). Because it shares several traits with the African great apes (genus Pan and genus Gorilla), it is considered by some to be on the chimpanzee rather than human branch, but most consider it a proto-human because of a likeness in teeth with Australopithecus. A. ramidus lived about 5.4 and 4.2 million years ago during the early Pliocene.
Two species have been described, Ardipithecus ramidus and Ardipithecus kadabba. The latter was initially described as a subspecies of A. ramidus, but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in Ethiopia has been raised to species rank. A. kadabba is dated to have lived between 5.8 million to 5.2 million years ago. The canine teeth show primitive features that distinguish them from those of more recent hominines. A. kadabba is believed to be the earliest organism yet identified that lies in the human line following its split from the lineage that gave rise to the two modern chimpanzee species.
On the basis of bone sizes, Ardipithecus species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The toe structure of A. ramidus suggests that the creature walked upright, and this poses problems for current theories of the origins of hominid bipedalism: Ardipithecus is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah, where the faster running permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage.
The forest lifestyle poses problems for the current theories regarding the development of bipedalism, most of which focus on the savanna. New thought will be necessary in order to reconcile these savanna theories with the current knowledge of early forest-dwelling hominids.
External links
* BBC News: Amazing hominid haul in Ethiopia - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4187991.stm
6. Slide 6
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The first discovery of Australopithecus anamensis (a single arm bone) was made by a research team in 1965. Believed to be four million years old, very little was known about the finding until 1987 when Canadian archaeologist, Allan Morton (with Harvard University's Koobi Fora Field School), discovered fragments of the specimen eroding from a hillside east of Allia Bay, near Lake Turkana, Kenya. Six years later British, Kenyan paleoanthropologist Meave Leakey and archaeologist, Alan Walker excavated the Allia Bay site and uncovered a few additional fragments of the hominid in the hot dusty terrain. The complete lower jaw found resembles that of a Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), but the teeth are definitely closer to those of Humans. Despite that they had uncovered hips, feet and legs; Meave believes that Australopithecus anamensis often climbed trees. Tree climbing for early hominins remained one ape-like trait that passed on until the first Homo species appeared about 2.5 million years ago. A. anamensis shares many traits similar to Australopithecus afarensis and may as well be its direct predecessor. Australopithecus anamensis is thought to have lived from 4.4 and 3.9 million years ago, coincidently when A. afarensis appears in the fossil record. Its name is derived from anam which means "lake" in the local Turkana language.
The fossils (twenty one in total) include upper and lower jaws, cranial fragments, and the upper and lower parts of a leg bone (tibia). In addition to this, a fragment of humerus that was found thirty years ago at the same site at Kanapoi has now been assigned to this species.
Australopithecus bahrelghazali is a fossil hominin that was first discovered in 1993 by Michel Brunet at Bahr el Ghazal, Chad. The findings were located roughly 2,500 kilometers West from the East African Great Rift Valley and were only a few teeth and a partial jaw found in deposits thought to be 3.0 to 3.5 million years old. The mandible KT-12 discovered in 1995 has similar features to the dentation of Australopithecus afarensis. This species is a mystery to some as it is the only australopithecine fossil found in Central Africa.
7. Slide 7
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Australopithecus afarensis is a hominid which lived between 3.9 to 3 million years ago belonging to the genus Australopithecus, of which the first skeleton was discovered on November 24, 1974 by Donald Johanson, Yves Coppens and Tim White in the Afar Depression of Ethiopia. They named it "Lucy" in reference to the famous Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", which was played as they celebrated the find.
Lucy's discovery
Donald Johanson, an American anthropologist who is now head of the Institute of Human Origins of Arizona State University, and his team, surveyed Hadar, Ethiopia during the late 1970s for evidence in interpreting Human origins. On November 24, 1974 near the River Awash, Don was planning on updating his field notes but instead one of his students Tom Gray accompanied him to find fossil bones. Both of them were on the hot arid plains surveying on the dusty terrain when a fossil caught both their eyes; arm bone fragments on a slope. As they looked further, more and more bones were found, including a jaw, arm bone, a thighbone, ribs, and vertebrae. Both Don and Tom had carefully analyzed the partial skeleton and calculated that an amazing 40% of a hominin skeleton was recovered, which, while sounding generally unimpressive, is astounding in the world of anthropology. When fossils are discovered usually only a few fragments are found; rarely are any skulls or ribs intact. The team proceded to further analysis and Don noticed the feminine stature of the skeleton and argued that it was a female. He then nicknamed it Lucy, after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". Lucy was only 3 feet 8 inches tall, weighed 29 kilograms (65 lbs) and looked somewhat like a Common Chimpanzee, but the observations of her pelvis proved that she had walked upright more like humans do.
Don Johanson claimed that Australopithecus afarensis was the last common ancestor between humans and Chimpanzees living from 3.9 to 3 million years ago, but earlier fossils have been found since the early 1970s; yet Lucy still remains a treasure among anthropologists who study Human origins. The older fossils that have been uncovered include only fragments and make difficult for anthropologist to know for sure if they were neither 100% bipedal nor actually hominines.
Johanson brought the skeleton back to Cleveland, under agreement with the government of the time in Ethiopia, and returned it according to agreement some 9 years later. Lucy was the first fossil hominin to really capture public notice, becoming almost a household name at the time. Current opinion is that the Lucy skeleton should be classified in the species Australopithecus afarensis. Lucy is preserved at the national Museum in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A plaster replica is displayed instead of the original skeleton. A diorama of Australopithecus afarensis and other human predecessors showing each species in its habitat and demonstrating the behaviors and capabilities that scientists believe it had is in the Hall of Human Biology and Evolution at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
8. Slide 8
One of the most striking characteristics possessed by Lucy was that she had a small skull, bipedal knee structure, and molars and front teeth of human (rather than great ape) style and relative size, but a small skull and small body. The image of a bipedal hominid with small skull, but teeth like a human, was somewhat shocking to the paleoanthropological world at the time.
This was because during the period 1950-1970, it was believed that the development of a brain larger than an ape brain was the trigger that caused apes to evolve into humans. Before Lucy, a fossil called '1470' (Homo rudolfensis), with a brain capacity of about 800 cubic centimetres had been discovered, an ape with a bigger brain, and if the 'big brain' theory was correct, then all humans should have evolved from 1470. However, it turned out Lucy was older than 1470, yet Lucy had bipedalism (she walked upright) and had a brain that was only around 375 to 500 cc. This fact contradicts the 'big brain' theory.
Bipedalism
There are differing views on how Lucy or her ancestors first became bipedal full-time.
The so-called 'savanna theory' on how A. afarensis evolved bipedalism hangs on the evidence that around 6 - 8 million years ago there seems to have been a mass extinction of forest dwelling creatures incuding the oldest hominins recognizable: Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis. This triggered a burst of adaptive radiation, an evolutionary characteristic that generates new species quickly. Lucy's genetic forebears were tree dwelling apes, but in Lucy's world the trees would have been much fewer, and Lucy would have been forced to find a living on the flat savanna. Being bipedal would have had evolutionary advantages - for example, with the eyes higher up, she could see further than quadrupeds. The disadvantages of bipedalism were great - Lucy was the slowest moving primate of her time, for example, but according to the hypothesis, the advantages of bipedalism must have outweighed the disadvantages.
There had previously been problems in the past with designating Australopithecus afarensis as a fully bipedal hominine. In fact these hominines may have occasionally walked upright but still walked on all fours like apes; the curved fingers on A. afarensis are similar to those of modern-day apes, which use them for climbing trees. The phalanges (finger bones) aren't just prone to bend at the joints, but rather the bones themselves are curved. Another aspect of the Australopithecus skeleton that differs from human skeleton is the iliac crest of the pelvic bones. The iliac crest, or hip bone, on a Homo sapiens extends front-to-back, allowing an aligned gait. A human walks with one foot in front of the other. However, on Australopithecus and on other ape and ape-like species such as the orangutan, the iliac crest extends laterally (out to the side), causing the legs to stick out to the side, not straight forward. This gives a side-to-side rocking motion as the animal walks, not a forward gait.
The so-called aquatic ape theory compares the typical elements of human locomotion (truncal erectness, aligned body, two-leggedness, striding gait, very long legs, valgus knees, plantigrady etc.) with those of chimpanzees and other animals, and proposes that human ancestors evolved from vertical wader-climbers who operated in coastal or swamp forests to shoreline dwellers who collected coconuts, turtles, bird eggs, shellfish etc. by beach-combing, wading and diving. In this view, the australopithecines largely conserved the ancestral vertical wading-climbing locomotion in swamp forests ("gracile" kind, including Australopithecus afarensis and A. africanus) and later more open wetlands ("robust" kind, including Paranthropus boisei and P. robustus). Meanwhile, Plio-Pleistocene Homo had dispersed along the African Rift valley lakes and African and Indian ocean coasts, from where different Homo populations ventured inland along rivers and lakes.
Social characteristics
These hominines were likely to be somewhat like modern Homo sapiens when it came to the matter of social behaviour, yet like modern day apes they relied on the safety of trees from predators such as lions.
Fossil sites and findings
Australopithecus afarensis fossils have only been discovered within Eastern Africa, which include Ethiopia (Hadar, Aramis), Tanzania (Laetoli) and Kenya (Omo, Turkana, Koobi Fora and Lothagam).
A major discovery made by Don Johnson after Lucy's find he discovered the "First Family" including 200 hominid fragments of A. afarensis, discovered near Lucy on the other side of the hillin the Afar region. The site is known as "site 333", by a count of fossil fragments uncovered, such as teeth and pieces of jaw. 13 individuals were uncovered and all were adults, with no injuries caused by carnivores. All 13 individuals seemed to have died at the same time, thus Don concluded that they might have been killed instantly from a flash flood.
Related work
Further findings at Afar, including the many hominin bones in "site 333", produced more bones of concurrent date, and led to Johanson and White's eventual argument that the Koobi Fora hominins were concurrent with the Afar hominins. In other words, Lucy was not unique in evolving bipedalism and a flat face.
Recently, an entirely new species has been discovered, called Kenyanthropus platyops. This had many of the same characteristics as Lucy, but is possibly an entirely different genus.
Another species, called Ardipithecus ramidus, has been found, which was fully bipedal, yet appears to have been contemporaneous with a woodland environment, and, more importantly, contemporaneous with Australopithecus afarensis. We do not yet have an estimate of the cranial capacity of A. ramidus, however.
References
* BBC - Dawn of Man (2000) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
* Australopithecus afarensis from The Human Origins Program at the Smithsonian Institution
External links
* Lucy at the Institute of Human Origins at Arizona State University
* http://www.geocities.com/palaeoanthropology/Aafarensis.html
9. Slide 9
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an australopithecine, who lived between 3.3 and 2.4 million years ago in the Pliocene. In common with the older Australopithecus afarensis, A. africanus was slenderly built, or gracile, and was thought to have been a direct ancestor of modern humans. However, fossil remains indicate that A. africanus was significantly more like modern humans than A. afarensis, with a more human-like cranium permitting a larger brain and more humanoid facial features.
Taung Child
Raymond Dart was at Taung near Kimberley, South Africa in 1924 when one of his colleagues spotted a few bone fragments and the cranium on the desk of a lime worker. The skull seemed like an odd ape creature sharing human traits such as eye orbits, teeth, and, most importantly, the hole at the base of the skull over the spinal column (the foramen magnum) indicating a human-like posture. Dart assigned the specimen the name Australopithecus africanus ("southern ape of Africa"). This was the first time the word Australopithecus was assigned to any hominid. Dart claimed that the skull must have been an intermediate species between ape and man, but his claim about Taung Child was rejected by the scientific community at the time. Sir Arthur Keith suggested that the skull belonged to a young ape, most likely from an infant gorilla.
Mr. Ples
Dart's theory was supported by Robert Broom. In 1938 Broom classified an adult endocranial cast having a brain capacity of 485cc was found by G. W. Barlow as Plesianthropus transvaalensis. On April 17, 1947, Broom and John T. Robinson discovered a skull belonging to a middle-aged female, Sts 5, while blasting at Sterkfontein. Broom classified it also as Plesianthropus transvaalensis, and it was dubbed Mrs. Ples by the press (though the skull is now thought to have belonged to a young male). The lack of facial projection in comparison to apes was noted by Raymond Dart (including from Taung Child), a trait in common with more advanced hominines. Both fossils were later classified as A. africanus.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/255725.stm
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Morphology and interpretations
Like A. afarensis, A. africanus the South African counterpart was generally similar in many traits, a bipedal hominin with arms slightly larger than the legs (a physical trait also found in chimpanzees). Despite its slightly more human-like post cranial features, seen for example in the craniums Mr. Ples and Sts 71, other more primitive features including ape-like curved fingers for tree climbing are also present.
Due to other more primitive features visible on A. africanus, some researchers believe the hominin, instead of being a direct ancestor of more modern hominins, evolved into Paranthropus. The one particular robust australopithecine seen as a descendent of A. africanus is Paranthropus robustus. Both P. robustus and A. africanus craniums seem very alike despite the more heavily built features of P. robustus that are adaptations for heavy chewing like a gorilla. A. africanus, on the other hand, had a cranium which quite closely resembled that of a chimp, yet both their brains measure about 400 cc to 500 cc and probably had an ape-like intelligence. A. africanus had a pelvis that was built for slightly better bipedalism than that of A. afarensis. No stone tools of any sort have ever been found in association with australopithecines with the exception of 2.6 million year old Australopithecus garhi.
Charles Darwin suggested that humans had originally evolved from Africa, but during the early 20th century most anthropologists and scientists supported the idea that Asia was the best candidate for human origins. However, the famous Leakey family have argued in favor of the African descent since most hominid discoveries such as the Laetoli footprints were uncovered in Eastern Africa. The species A. africanus with it's presumably slightly more Homo-like post cranial features in comparison to A. afarensis is one of several Australopithecine candidates to have evolved into the genus Homo (ie. Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis by 2.4 million years ago).
References
* BBC - Dawn of Man (2000) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
* (2000-2004). Early human phylogeny. Smithsonian Institution. URL accessed on 2005.
* (1999-2006). Human ancestry. ArchaeologyInfo.com. URL accessed on 2005.
* Hilton-Barber, Brett; Berger, Lee R (2004). Field guide to the cradle of humankind, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai & environs world heritage site, 2nd revised edition, Struik. ISBN 1-77007-065-6.
External Links
11. Slide 11
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Australopithecus garhi is a gracile australopithecine species whose fossils were discovered in 1996 by a research team led by Ethiopian paleontologist Berhane Asfaw and including Tim White, an American paleontologist researcher. The hominin remains were initially believed to be a human ancestor species and the final missing link between the Australopithecus genus and the human genus, Homo. However it is now believed that A. garhi, although more advanced than any other australopithecine, was only a competitor species to the species ancestral to Homo and therefore not a human ancestor. The remains are from the time when there is very few fossil records, between 2.0 and 3.0 million years ago. Tim White was the scientist to find the first of the key A. garhi fossils in 1996 near the village of Bouri, located in the Afar region of Ethiopia. The species was confirmed and established as A. garhi on November 20, 1997 by Y. Haile-Selassie. The species epithet "garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language.
Morphology and interpretations
The traits of Australopithecus garhi fossils such as BOU-VP-12/130 are somewhat distinctive from traits typically seen in Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus. An example of the distinction can be seen when comparing the Hadar maxilla (A. afarensis) to the Bouri specimen of A. gahri. The cranial capacity of A. garhi measures 450cc, the same size as other australopithecines. The manible classified as Asfaw et al. has a morphology generally believed to be compatible with the same species, yet it is possible that another hominin species may have been found within the same deposits. Studies made on the premolars and molar teeth have a few similarities with those of Paranthropus boisei since they are larger than any other gracile form of australopithecine. It has been suggested that if A. garhi is ancestral to Homo (ie. Homo habilis) the maxillary morphology would have undergone a rapid evolutionary change in roughly 200,000 and 300,000 years.
Earliest stone tools
Few primitive shaped stone tool artifacts closely resembling Olduwan technology were discovered with the A. garhi fossils, dating back roughly 2.5 and 2.6 million years old. The 23 April 1999 issue of Science mentions that the tools are older than those acquired by Homo habilis, which is thought to be a possible direct descendent of more modern hominins. For a long time anthropologists assumed that only members of early genus Homo had the ability to produce sophisticated tools. However the crude ancient tools lack several techniques that are generally seen in later forms Olduwan and Acheulean such as strong rock-outcroppings. In another site in Bouri, Ethiopia, roughly 3,000 stone artifacts had been found to be an estimated 2.5 million years old in age.
12. Slide 12
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Paranthropus aethiopicus is an extinct species of Paranthropus. The finding discovered in 1985 in West Turkana, Kenya, KNM-WT 17000 (known as the "Black Skull" due to the skull having fossilized by a dark mineral), is one of the earliest examples of robust australopithecines. The skull is dated to 2.5 million years old, older than the later forms of robust australopithecines. Anthropologists suggest that P. aethiopicus lived from 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. The features are quit primitive and share many traits with Australopithecus afarensis, thus P. aethiopicus is likely to be a direct descendent. With its face being as projecting as A. afarensis, its brain size was also quite small at 410 cc.
Paranthropus aethiopicus was first found in Ethiopia in 1968 as the first assigned specimen. Lower jaw and teeth fragments have been uncovered. P. aethiopicus had a large bony ridge at the top of its skull acting as an anchor for the powerful jaw muscles built for heavy chewing on vegetarian such as nuts and tubers (as in gorilla skulls). It also had large zygomatic arches. Not much is known about this species since the best evidence comes from the black skull and the jaw. There is not enough material to make an assessment to how tall they were, but they may have been as tall as Australopithecus afarensis.
Not all anthropologists agree that P. aethiopicus gave rise to both Paranthropus boisei and P. robustus, since the skull more closely resembles that of A. afarensis. The one clue that makes P. aethiopicus a possible descendent to both P. boisei and P. robustus is the similarity in jaw size. P. athiopicus is known to have lived in mixed savanna and woodland. More evidence must be gathered about P. aethiopicus in order to accurately describe its physiology. The "Black Skull"'s bizarre primitive shape gives evidence that P. aethiopicus and the other autralopithecines are on an evolutionary branch of the hominid tree, distinctly diverging from the Homo (human) lineage.
13. Slide 13
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Paranthropus robustus was originally discovered in Southern Africa in 1938. The development of P. robustus, namely in cranial features, seemed to be aimed in the direction of a "heavy-chewing complex". Because of the definitive traits that are associated with this robust line of australopithecine, anthropologist Robert Broom erected the genus Paranthropus and placed this species into it.
Paranthropus robustus is generally dated to have lived between 2.0 and 1.2 million years ago. P. robustus had large dorsal crests, jaws, and jaw muscles that were adapted to serve in the dry environment that they lived in. After Raymond Dart's discovery of Australopithecus africanus, Broom had been in favour of Dart's claims about Australopithecus africanus being an ancestor of Homo sapiens. Broom was a Scottish doctor then working in South Africa who began making his own excavation in Southern Africa to find more specimens, which Dart had found earlier. In 1938 at 70 years old, Broom excavating at Swartkrans, South Africa discovered pieces of a skull and teeth which resembled a lot like Dart's Australopithecus africanus find, but the skull had some "robust" characteristics. The fossils included parts of a skull and teeth; all dated to 2 million years old. Fossil sites found on Paranthropus robustus are found only in South Africa in Kromdraai and Swartkrans. In the caves near Swartkrans, the remains of 130 individuals were discovered. The study made on the dentation of the hominins revealed that the average P. robustus rarely lived past 17 years of age.
Paranthropus robustus became the first "robust" species of hominid ever uncovered well before P. boisei and P. aethiopicus. Broom's first discovery of P. robustus had been the first discovery of a robust australopithecine and the second australopithecine after Australopithecus africanus, which Dart discovered. Broom's work on the australopithecines showed that the evolution trail leading to Homo sapiens was not just a straight line, but was one of rich diversity.
Morphology
Typical of robust australopithecines, P. robustus had a head shaped a bit like a gorilla's with a more massive built jaw and teeth in comparison to hominins within the Homo lineage. Broom also noted the sagital crest that runs from the top of the skull acts as an anchor for large chewing muscles. The DNH 7 skull of Paranthropus robustus, "Eurydice", was discovered in 1994 at the Drimolen Cave in Southern Africa by Andre Keyser, and is dated to 2.3 million years old, possibly belonging to a female.
The teeth of these primates were larger and thicker than any gracile australopithecine found, due to the morphology differences Broom originally designated his find as Australopithecus robustus. On the skull, a bony ridge is located above from the front to back indicating where the jaw muscles joined. P. robustus males may have stood only 4 feet tall and weighed 54 kg (120lbs) while females stood about 3 feet 2 inches tall and weighed only 40 kg (90 lbs). Clearly there was a large sexual dimorphism between males and females. The teeth found on P. robustus are almost as large as those of P. boisei.
Broom analyzed his findings carefully and noted the differences in the molar teeth size which resembled a bit closer to a gorilla's than to Human's. Other P. robustus remains have been found in Southern Africa. The average brain size of P. robustus measured to only 410 and 530 cc, about as large as a chimpanzee. P robustus had a diet of hard gritty foods such as nuts and tubers since they lived in open woodland and savanna.
14. Slide 14
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Paranthropus boisei (originally called Zinjanthropus boisei and then Australopithecus boisei until recently) was an early hominin and described as the largest of the Paranthropus species. It lived from about 2.6 until about 1.4 million years ago during the Pliocene and Pleistocene eras in Eastern Africa.
Discovery
First discovered by anthropologist Mary Leakey on July 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, the well-preserved cranium OH 5 nicknamed "Nutcracker Man" dates to 1.75 million years old and has distinctive traits from the gracile australopithecines. Both Mary and her husband Louis Leakey classified the specimen as Zinjanthropus boisei; "boisei" for Charles Boise, the anthropologists team's funder at the time, "zinj" was an ancient word for East Africa, and "anthropus" meaning ape or ape-man. P. boisei proved to be a treasure especially when the anthropologists son Richard Leakey considered it to be the first hominin species to use stone tools. Another skull was unearthed in 1969 by Richard at Koobi Fora near the Lake Turkana region.
Morphology and interpretations
The brain volume is quite small, about 500 and 550 cm³, not much larger in comparison to Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus. It had a skull highly specialized for heavy chewing and several traits seen in modern day gorillas. P. boisei inhabited the dry savannah grasslands and woodland territories. Males weighed 68 kg (150 lb) and stood 4 feet 3 inches (1.3 m) tall, while females weighed 45 kg (100 lb) and stood 3 feet 5 inches (1.05 m) tall. The average adult males were almost twice the weight and height as the females being the largest sexual dimorphism recorded out of any hominine. The back molar teeth reached about 4 times larger than in modern humans.
No stone tool implements have been found in direct association with P. boisei; when first discovered Richard Leakey believed they had mastered tools. However, the first fossil of Homo habilis proved to be one of the first to acquire tool technology. Previously Richard Leakey believed the species was a direct ancestor of Homo sapiens but more modern analysis have changed the theory and place it on a separate evolutionary route unrelated to the genus Homo. Presently it is assumed that this species was not remarkable as to acquiring unique intelligence compared with more modern hominins. Instead the dentation (especially observed in the back molars and pre-molars) was built for tough chewing materials such as ground tubers, nuts and likely leaves in the grasslands.
Fossils
In 1993, A. Amzaye found fossils of P. boisei at Kronso, Ethiopia. The partial skull's designation is KGA10-525 and is dated to 1.4 million years ago. It is the biggest skull specimen ever found of P. boisei. It has been claimed as the only remains of the species found in Ethiopia; all others have been in other parts of Eastern Africa. The oldest specimen of P. boisei was found in Omo, Ethiopia and dates to 2.3 million years old classified as (L. 74a-21) while the youngest speciemen from Olduvai Gorge dates 1.2 million years old classified as OH 3 and OH 38.
Other well preserved specimens
OH 5 "Nutcrackerman" is the first P. boisei found by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania belonging to an adult male (circa. 1.75 mya).
KNM ER 406 is a small partial cranium discovered by H. Mutua and Richard Leakey in 1969 found at Koobi Fora, Kenya displays large zygomatic arches, a cranial capacity of 510cc (circa. 1.7 mya).
KNM WT 17400 a partial cranium with similar characteristics as KNM WT 17000 "Black skull" belonging to Paranthropus aethiopicus. The skull was found at West Turkana, Kenya (circa. 1.7 mya).
ER 406 was found by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua in 1970 at Koobi Fora, Kenya is a partial cranium most likely identified as belonging to a female (circa. 1.7 mya).
15. Slide 15
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Kenyanthropus platyops is a 3.5 to 3.2 million year old (Pliocene) extinct hominin species that was discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1999 by Meave Leakey. The fossil found features a broad flat face with a toe bone that suggests it probably walked upright. Teeth are intermediate between typical human and typical ape forms. Kenyanthropus platyops, which means "Flat faced man of Kenya", is the only described species in the genus. However, if some paleoanthropologists are correct (Tim White, 2003), Kenyanthropus may not even represent a valid taxon, as the specimen (KNM-WT 40000) is so horribly distorted by matrix-filled cracks that meaningful morphologic characters are next to impossible to robustly assess. It may simply be a specimen of Australopithecus afarensis, which is known from the same time period and geographic area. Other researches speculate that the flatter face position of the rough cranium is similar to KNM ER 1470 "Homo rudolfensis" and suspect it to be closer to the genus Homo, perhaps being a direct ancestor. However the debate has not been concluded and the species remains an enigma.
References
Meave G. Leakey, Fred Spoor, Frank H. Brown, Patrick N. Gathogo, Christopher Kiarie, Louise N. Leakey and Ian McDougall (2001). New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages. Nature, 410:433-40.
http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/kenyanthropus.htm
16. Slide 16
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo habilis «HOH moh HAB uh luhs» ("handy man", "skillful person") is a species of the genus Homo, which lived from approximately 2.5 million to 1.8 million years ago at the beginning of the Pleistocene. The definition of this species is credited to both Mary and Louis Leakey, who found fossils in Tanzania, East Africa, between 1962 and 1964. Homo habilis is arguably the first species of the Homo genus to appear. In its appearance and morphology, H. habilis was the least similar to modern humans of all species to be placed in the genus Homo (except possibly Homo rudolfensis). Homo habilis was very short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern man. It is thought to have probably descended from a species of australopithecine hominid. It may have had a more immediate ancestor in the form of the somewhat more massive and ape-like, Homo rudolfensis. Homo habilis had a brain slightly less than half of the size of modern man. Despite the mophology of the species, H. habilis remains are usually found alongside primitive stone tools (ie. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Lake Turkana, Kenya).
Findings
Anthropologist Richard Leakey's son Jonathon Leakey, unearthed an ape-like skull that shared human-like traits in 1964. The name itself, Homo habilis, was originally given by Raymond Dart. One set of fossil remains (OH 62) discovered by Donald Johanson and Tim White from Olduvai Gorge in 1986, included important features including the upper and lower limbs of an individual. An older (1963) finding from the Olduvai site found by N. Mbuika had included a lower jaw fragment, teeth and upper mandible possibly from a female dating 1.7 million years old. The remains from 3 skeletons[1] demonstrated an australopithecine-like body yet the face was more human-like and with smaller teeth and had a larger brain size. Compared to australopithecines, H. habilis had a 50% larger brain capacity of 590 and 650cc (considerably smaller than the 1350 to 1450cc range of modern Homo sapiens ). These hominins were small, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4'3") tall. Due to the small size and rather primitive attributes, Richard Leakey himself previously doubted H. habilis as being a member of the genus Homo. The contraversial aspect of H. habilis was by some researchers reduced to "Australopithecus habilis" instead.
Interpretations
Homo habilis is thought to have mastered the Olduwan era (Early Paleolithic) tool case which utilized stone flakes. Though these stone flakes were primitive by modern standards, they were more advanced than any tools that had ever previously existed, and they gave H. habilis the edge it needed to prosper in hostile environments previously too formidable for primates. It remains quite controversial whether H. habilis was the first hominin to master stone tool technology, the discovery of Australopithecus garhi dating 2.6 million years old has been found along with stone tool implements over 100,000 - 200,000 years older than H. habilis.
In terms of social status most experts agree that the intelligence of H. habilis was more sophisticated than typical australopithecines or chimpanzees. Yet despite its tool usage, H. habilis was not the master hunter that its descendants proved to be, as there is ample fossil evidence that H. habilis was a major staple in the diet of large predatory animals such as Dinofelis, a large predatory cat similar to a leopard. H. habilis used tools primarily for scavenging, such as cleaving meat off of carrion, rather than defence or hunting. Homo habilis is thought to be the ancestor of the lankier and more sophisticated, Homo ergaster, which in turn gave rise to the more human-appearing species, Homo erectus. There is some debate over whether H. habilis is a direct human ancestor, and over how many known fossils are properly attributed to the species.
Homo habilis co-existed with many other Homo-like bipedal primates, such as Paranthropus boisei, which were also highly successful, some prospering for many millennia. However, H. habilis, possibly because of its early tool innovation and a less specialized diet, became the precursor of an entire line of new species, whereas Paranthropus boisei and its robust relatives disappeared from the later fossil record.
17. Slide 17
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo rudolfensis is a fossil hominin species originally proposed in 1986 by V. P. Alexeev for the specimen Skull 1470 (KNM ER 1470). Originally thought to be a member of the species Homo habilis, much debate surrounded the fossil and its species assignment. Skull 1470 is an estimated age of 1.9 million years. It was found by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of a team led by anthropoligist Richard Leakey, in 1972 at Koobi Fora on the east side of Lake Rudolf (now Lake Turkana). Assigned initially to Homo habilis, it was originally dated at nearly 3 million years old. However, this figure caused much confusion as at the time it was older than any known australopithecine, from whom Homo habilis had supposedly descended. It was thought that 2 million years ago there existed a single species in the genus Homo, and this species evolved in a linear fashion into modern humans. The differences in this skull, when compared to other habilines, are too pronounced, leading to the formulation of the species Homo rudolfensis, contemporary with Homo habilis. It is not yet certain if H. rudolfensis was ancestral to the later species in Homo, or if H. habilis was, or if some third species yet to be discovered was. Like H. habilis, there is large amount of controversy about the classification of H. rudolfensis into the Homo genus. Although no reliably associated postcranial remains have been discovered for H. rudolfensis, it is thought that like H. habilis, H. rudolfensis lacked many of the things that were unique only to later hominins such as slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system, narrow birth canal, legs longer than arms, noticeable whites in the eyes, smaller hairs resulting in naked appearance and exposed skins, etc. Many scientists think H. rudolfensis to be more ape-like despite their large brains and bipedal locomotion.
18. Slide 18
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
There is large amount of controversy about the classification of H. habilis into the Homo genus. Like Homo rudolfensis, H. habilis lacked many of the things that were unique only to later hominins such as slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system, narrow birth canal and legs longer than arms; other traits such as noticeable whites in the eyes, smaller hairs resulting in exposed skin and a naked appearance remain theoretical. Many scientists think H. habilis and its close relative H. rudolfensis to be more ape like despite their larger brains and bipedal locomotion than that of earlier species and is being re-thought on their classification into the Homo genus.
Homo georgicus is a species of hominin that was suggested in 2002 to describe fossil skulls and jaws found in Dmanisi, Georgia in 1999 and 2001, which seem intermediate between Homo habilis and H. erectus. A partial skeleton was discovered in 2001. The fossils are about 1.8 million years old. The remains were first discovered in 1991 by Georgian scientist, David Lordkipanidzeis accompanied by an international team which unearthed the hominin remains. Implements and animal bones were found alongside the ancient hominin remains.
At first, scientists thought they had found thirty or so skulls belonging to Homo ergaster, but size differences led them to consider erecting a new species, Homo georgicus, which would be the descendant of Homo habilis and ancestor of Asian Homo erectus.
At around 600cc brain volume, the skull D2700 was the smallest and most primitive hominin skull ever discovered outside of Africa. With a brain half the size compared to modern Homo sapiens, the fossils were considered the smallest until the discovery of Homo floresiensis from the island of Flores. There is a strong sexual dimorphism, with males being significantly larger than females. Due to the dwarf morphology of this hominin, no subsequent role of H. georgicus can be so far determinded. H. georgicus may be the first hominin species to settle in Europe, some 800,000 years before H. erectus.
19. Slide 19
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo ergaster ("working man") is an extinct hominid species (or subspecies, according to some authorities) which lived throughout eastern and southern Africa between 1.9 to 1.4 million years ago with the advent of the lower Pleistocene and the cooling of the global climate. Homo ergaster is sometimes categorized as a subspecies of Homo erectus. It is currently in contention whether H. ergaster or the later, Asian H. erectus was the direct ancestor of modern humans. H. ergaster may be distinguished from H. erectus by its thinner skull bones and lack of an obvious sulcus. Derived features include reduced sexual dimorphism, a smaller more orthognathic face, a smaller dental arcade, and a larger (700 and 850cc) brain. It is estimated that H. ergaster stood at 1.9m (6ft) tall with relatively less sexual dimorphism in comparison to earlier hominins. Remains have been found in Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa. The most complete Homo ergaster skeleton ever discovered was made at Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1984. Paleanthropologists' Richard Leakey, Kimoya Kimeu and Tim White dubbed the 1.6 million year old specimen as KNM-WT 15000 (nicknamed "Turkana Boy").
The type specimen of H. ergaster is KNM-ER 992; the species was named by Groves and Mazak in 1975. The species name originates from the Greek ergaster meaning "Workman". This name was chosen due to the discovery of various tools such as hand-axes and cleavers near the skeletal remains of H. ergaster. This is one of the reasons that it is sometimes set apart distinctly from other human ancestors. Its use of advanced (rather than simple) tools was unique to this species; H. ergaster tool use belongs to the Acheulean industry. H. ergaster first began using these tools 1.6 million years ago. Charred animal bones in fossil deposits and traces of camps suggest that the species made creative use of fire.
20. Slide 20
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo erectus ("upright man") is a hominin species that is believed to be an ancestor of modern humans (with Homo heidelbergensis usually treated as an intermediary step). The species is found from the middle Pleistocene onwards.
Eugène Dubois discovered Java Man in Indonesia in 1891, naming it Pithecanthropus erectus. The modern species name was initially proposed by Ernst Mayr in order to unify the classification of Asian fossils. Anthropologists and geneticists throughout much of the last century have debated H. erectus' role in human evolution. Early in the century, it was believed the Asian continent was the evolutionary home of humans in contrast to naturalist Charles Darwin's prediction of humanity's African origins. However, during the 1950's and 1970's, numerous fossil finds in Africa yielded evidence of hominins far older. It is now believed that H. erectus is a descendent of more primitive ape-men such as australopithecines and early Homo species. Before their settlement of South Eastern Asia, dating fewer than 500,000 and 300,000 years ago, H. erectus originally migrated during the Pleistocene glacial period in Africa roughly 2.0 million years ago and so dispersed throughout various areas of the Old World. Fossilized remains dating 1.8 and 1 million year old fossils have been found in India, China and Indonesia. H. erectus remains an important hominine since it is believed to be the oldest representation of early human migration. However, recent discoveries and analysis indicate that H. erectus may be the Asian H. neanderthalensis, in that its lineage did not give rise to later variants of H. sapiens.
Description
The findings had fairly modern human features, with a larger cranial capacity than that of Homo habilis. The forehead is less sloping and the teeth are smaller (quantification of these differences is difficult however, see below). Homo erectus would bear a striking resemblance to modern humans, but had a brain about 75 percent () of the size of modern human. These early hominins were tall, on average standing about 1.79 m (5 feet, 10 inches) tall. The sexual dimorphism between males and females was almost the same as seen in modern Homo sapiens with males being slightly larger than females. The discovery of the skeleton KNM-WT 15000 (Turkana boy) made in near Lake Turkana, Kenya by Richard Leakey and Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 was a breakthrough in interpreting the physiological status of H. erectus.
Tool use and general abilities
Homo erectus used more diverse and sophisticated tools than its predecessors (ie. Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis). One theory is that H. erectus first used tools of the Oldowan style and then later used tools of the Acheulean style. The surviving tools from both periods are all made of stone. Oldowan tools are the oldest known formed tools and date as far back as about 2.4 million years ago. The Acheulean era began about 1.2 million years ago and ended about 500,000 years ago. The primary innovation associated with Acheulean handaxes is that the stone was chipped on both sides to form two cutting edges.
Social aspects
Homo erectus (along with Homo ergaster) was probably the first early human to fit squarely into the category of a hunter gatherer society and not as prey for larger animals. Modern day anthropologists since the beginning of the 19th century have studied various aspects of modern day hunter group societies. Among the most studied have been the desert bushmen (Kun San) peoples of the Kalahari desert in Botswana, Angola and South Africa; these peoples have barely changed their hunter lifestyles for over 22,000 years. Anthropologists such as Richard Leakey believe that H. erectus was socially closer to modern humans than the more primitive species before it. The increased larger cranial capacity generally coincides with the more sophisticated tool technology occasionally found with the species remains. The discovery of Turkana boy in 1984 has so far proven that despite H. erectus's more human like physiology, the hominins were not capable of producing highly complex sound systems that would have been on a level comparable to modern speech.
They migrated all throughout the Great Rift Valley, even up to the Red Sea. Early man, in the person of Homo erectus, was learning to master his environment for the first time. Bruce Bower suggested that H. erectus may have built rafts and travelled over oceans, although this possibility is considered controversial. Some dispute that H. erectus was able to control fire. However, the earliest (least disputed) evidence of controlled fire is around 300,000 years old and comes from a site called Terra Amata, which lies on an ancient beach location on the French Riviera. This site seems to have been occupied by Homo erectus. There are older Homo erectus sites that seem to indicate controlled use of fire, some dating back 500,000 to 1.5 million years ago, in France, China, and other areas. A discovery brought forth at the Paleoanthropology Society Annual Meeting in Montreal, Canada in March of 2004 stated that controlled fires have been evidenced in excavations in Northern Israel from about 690,000 to 790,000 years ago. Regardless, it can at least be surmised that the controlled use of fire was atypical of Homo erectus until its decline and the rise of more advanced species of the Homo genus came to the forefront (such as Homo antecessor, H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis).
Classification
There is currently a great deal of discussion as to whether H. erectus and H. ergaster were separate species at all. This debate revolves around the interpretation of morphological differences between early African fossils (the classic H. ergaster) and those found in Asia (H. erectus; and late African sites). Since Erst Mayr's biological species definition cannot be tested, this issue may never be fully resolved.
21. Slide 21
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo antecessor is an extinct hominin species that was discovered by E. Carbonell, J.L. Arsuaga and J.M. Bermudez de Castro. They are one of the earliest known hominins in Europe, with those from the site of Dmanisi being older. The best preserved fossil is a maxillar which belong to a 10 year old individual found in Spain dated to 780,000 years ago. The average brain was 1000cc in volume. In 1994 and 1995, 80 fossils of six individuals that may have belonged to the species were found in Atapuerca, Spain. At the site were numerous examples of cuts on the bones, which indicates H. antecessor may have practiced cannibalism. Many anthropologists believe that Homo antecessor is either the same species or direct descendent to Homo heidelbergensis, who inhabited Europe from 600,000 to 250,000 years ago in the Pleistocene. It is suggested that this is the last common ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.
Findings
Gran Dolina
Archaeologist Eudald Carbonell of the Universidad Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona, Spain and paleanthropologist Juan Luis Arsuaga of the Universidad Complutense in Madrid, Spain discovered Homo anteccesor remains at a site in Northern Spain known as Gran Dolina in the Atapuerca Hills (near Burgos). Over 80 bone fragments from six individuals were uncovered in 1994 and 1995. The site had also included roughly 200 stone tools and about 300 animal bones. Stone tools including a stone carved knife were found along with the ancient hominin remains. All these remains date to be at least 780,000 years old. The best preserved remains are a maxilla and a frontal bone of an individual who died at 10-11 years old.
Atapuerca
The Sierra de Atapuerca is located to the east of the city of Burgos. In this small hill the evidence for the presence of early humans and their past life ways is preserved over the course of the last one million years. Several archaeological and palaeontological sites have been found in the Atapuerca hills, some of them appeared during the construction of a railway trench (Gran Dolina, Galería, Elefante) and another one is located deep in the cave, "Sima de los Huesos" (Pit of the Bones). The Homo antecessor remains have been found in the level 6 of the Gran Dolina site (also called level TD6).
In the "Sima de los Huesos" the same team located more than 4,000 human bones with an age of 350,000 years old. Homo anteccesor is considered as one of the earliest hominids in Europe; the oldest discovery is Homo georgicus from the Republic of Georgia at 1.8 and 1.6 million years old. The fossil pit bones include a complete cranium and fragments of other craniums, mandibles, teeth, a lot of postcranial bones (femurs, hand and foot bones, spine bones, ribs, etc.) and a complete pelvis. The pit contains fossils of around 28 individuals together with remains of bears and other carnivores. Some scientists include this species as a portion of Homo heidelbergensis, a direct ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis in Europe.
Boxgrove
In 1994 British scientists had unearthed a lower hominin tibia bone just a few kilometres away from the English Channel including hundreds of ancient hand axes at the Boxgrove site. A partial leg bone is dated to 478,000 and 524,000 years old. Homo heidelbergensis was the early proto-human species that occupied both France and Briton at that time; both locales were connected by a landmass during that epoch. Prior to Gran Dolina, Boxgrove offered the earliest hominid occupants in Europe. Investigators found another particular scratched tibia indicating cannibalism had taken place.
Physiology
Homo antecessor was about 5 and a half to 6 feet tall, and males weighed roughly 200 pounds (91 kilograms). Their brain sizes were roughly 1000 to 1150 cc, smaller than Homo sapiens' 1450 to 1500 cc. Due to its scarcity, very little more is known about the physiology of Homo antecessor, yet it was likely more robust like H. heidelbergensis. Basing on teeth eruption pattern, the researchers think that Homo antecessor had the same development stages as Homo sapiens. Other features acquired by the species are a protruding post-cranium, absence of forehead and lack of chin. Some of the remains are almost indistinguishable from the fossil attributable to KNM-WT 15000 (Turkana Boy) belonging to Homo ergaster.
22. Slide 22
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo heidelbergensis (nicknamed "Goliath") is an extinct species of the genus Homo and the direct ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis in Europe. Similar "Archaic Homo sapiens" found in Africa (ie. Homo rhodesiensis and Homo sapiens idaltu) are thought to be direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens. Homo antecessor is likely a direct ancestor living 750,000 years ago evolving into Homo heidelbergensis appearing in the fossil record living roughly 600,000 to 250,000 years ago through various areas of Europe.
Homo heidelbergensis remains were found in Mauer near Heidelberg, Germany and then later in Arago, France and Petralona, Greece. The best evidence found for these hominins date between 400,000 and 500,000 years ago. Homo heidelbergensis stone tool technology was considerably close to that of the Acheulean tools used by Homo erectus. The first fossil discovery of this species was made on October 21, 1907 and came from Mauer where the workman Daniel Hartmann spotted a jaw in a sandpit. The jaw was in good condition except for the missing premolar teeth, which were eventually found near the jaw. The workman gave it to professor Otto Schoetensack from the University of Heidelberg, who identified and named the fossil.
Interpretations
Both H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis are likely descended from the morphologically very similar Homo ergaster from Africa but because H. heidelbergensis had a larger brain-case, about 93% size of the average Homo sapiens brain-case, and more advanced tools and behavior, it has been given a separate species classification. The species was tall, 1.8 m (6 ft.) on average, and more muscular than modern humans. The average cranial volume was typically between 1100 and 1400cc, 93% of the cranial capacity of modern H. sapiens.
Evidence of hunting
Cut marks found on wild deer, elephants, rhinos and horses demonstrate that they were butchered, some of the animals weighed as much as 1,500 lbs or possibly larger. During this era, now-extinct wild animals such as mammoths, European lions and Irish elk roamed the European continent.
Social behavior
In theory recent findings in Europe also suggest that H. heidelbergensis may have been the first species of the Homo genus to bury their dead, but that is contested at this time. Some experts believe that H. heidelbergensis, like its descendant H. neanderthalensis acquired a primitive form of language. No forms of art or sophisticated artifacts other than stone tools have been uncovered.
Homo cepranensis is a proposed name for a hominin species discovered in 1994 known from only one skull cap. The fossil was discovered by archeologist Italo Biddittu and was nick-named "Ceprano Man" after a nearby town 89 kilometers Southeast of Rome, Italy. The age of the fossil is older than fossils attributable to Homo antecessor from Spain and is estimated to be between 800,000 and 900,000 years old. The cranial features on the bone seem to be a cross between those found on Homo erectus and those of later species such as Homo heidelbergensis which dominated Europe long before Homo neanderthalensis. There is yet not enough material to make a complete analysis of the individual.
Rhodesian Man (Homo rhodesiensis) is a hominin fossil that was described from a cranium found in an iron and zinc mine in Northern Rhodesia (now Kabwe, Zambia) in 1921 by Tom Zwiglaar, a Swiss miner. In addition to the cranium, an upper jaw from another individual, a sacrum, a tibia, and two femur fragments were also found. The skull was dubbed Rhodesian Man at the time of the find, but is now commonly referred to as the Broken Hill Skull or the Kabwe Cranium.
The association between the bones is unclear, but the tibia and femur fossils are usually associated with the skull. Rhodesian Man is dated to be between 125,000 and 300,000 years old. Previously, some reports have given erroneous dates of up to 1.75 and 2.5 million years age for the skull. Cranial capacity of the Broken Hill skull has been measured at 1,300 cm³, which, when coupled with the more recent dating, makes any direct link to older skulls unlikely and negates the 1.75 to 2.5 million year earlier dating.
The skull is described as having a broad face similar to Homo neanderthalensis (ie. large nose and thick protruding brow ridges), but with a cranium intermediate between advances Homo sapiens and Neanderthal. Most current experts believe Rhodesian Man to be within the group of Homo heidelbergensis though other designations such as Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have also been proposed. No direct linkage of the species can so far be determined.
23. Slide 23
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The Neanderthal or Neandertal was a species of Homo (Homo neanderthalensis) that inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic period. Neanderthals were adapted to the cold, as shown by their large braincases, short but robust builds, and large noses - traits selected by nature in cold climates, as observed in modern sub-arctic populations. Their brain sizes have been estimated as larger than "modern" humans, but their brains may in fact have been approximately the same as those of modern humans. On average, Neanderthal males stood about 1.65m tall (just under 5' 6") and were heavily built, and muscular due to their physical activity. Females were about 1.53 to 1.57m tall (about 5'-5'2").
The characteristic style of stone tools in the Middle Paleolithic is called the Mousterian Culture, after a prominent archaeological site where the tools were first found. The Mousterian culture is typified by the wide use of the Levallois technique. Mousterian tools were often produced using soft hammer percussion, such as bones, antlers, and wood, rather than hard hammer percussion, using stone. Near the end of the time of the Neanderthals, they created the Chatelperronian tool style, considered more "advanced" than that of the Mousterian. They either invented the Chatelperronian themselves or "borrowed" elements from the incoming modern humans who are thought to have created the Aurignacian.
Etymology and classification
The term "Neanderthal Man" was coined in 1863 by Irish anatomist William King. Neanderthal is now spelled two ways: The spelling of the German word Thal, meaning "valley or dale", was changed to Tal in the early 20th century, but the former spelling is often retained in English and always in scientific names, while the modern spelling is used in German.
The Neanderthal or "Neander valley" was named after theologian Joachim Neander, who lived there in the late seventeenth century. For many years, professionals vigorously debated about whether Neanderthals should be classified as Homo neanderthalensis or as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, the latter placing Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo sapiens. However, recent evidence from mitochondrial DNA studies have been interpreted as evidence that Neanderthals were not a subspecies of H. sapiens. Still, some scientists argue that fossil evidence suggests that the two species interbred, and hence were the same biological species.
Discovery
A Neanderthal skull was first discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848, eight years prior to the "original" discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley (near Düsseldorf) in August, 1856, three years before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones from the right arm, two from the left arm, part of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered this material originally thought it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Karl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaafhausen. The discovery was jointly announced in 1857. That discovery is now considered the beginning of paleoanthropology. These and other discoveries led to the idea that these remains were from ancient Europeans who had played an important role in modern human origins. The remains of over 400 Neanderthals have been found since.
Physical traits
The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans; however, not all of them can be used to distinguish specific Neanderthal populations, from various geographic areas or periods of evolution, from other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits occasionally manifest in modern humans, particularly among certain ethnic groups. Nothing is known about the skin color, the hair, or the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals. Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were larger in size and had distinct morphological features, especially of the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain relatively isolated geographic regions. Their relatively robust stature is thought to be an adaptation to the cold climate of Europe during the Pleistocene epoch.
Cranial
Suprainiac fossa, a groove above the inion
Occipital bun, a protuberance of the occipital bone that looks like a hair knot
Projecting mid-face
Thick, bowed shaft of the thigh bones
Short shinbones and calf bones
Based on a 2001 study, some commentators speculated that Neanderthals exhibited rufosity, and that some red-headed and freckled humans today share some heritage with Neanderthals. [1] However, more recent research indicates that this is not likely. [2]
[edit]
Language
The theory that Neanderthals lacked complex language was widespread until 1983, when a Neanderthal hyoid bone was found at the Kebara Cave in Israel. The hyoid is a small bone that holds the root of the tongue in place, a requirement to human speech and, therefore, its presence seems to imply some ability to speak. The bone that was found is virtually identical to that of modern humans.
Many people believe that even without the hyoid bone evidence, it is obvious that tools as advanced as those of the Mousterian Era, attributed to Neanderthals, could not have been developed without cognitive skills encompassing some form of spoken language.
A recent study conducted on the Neanderthal hyoid found that due to the physical characteristics of Neanderthals and the fact that their larynx would have been stouter than that of modern man, the average note emitted by Neanderthals would have been high pitched and sharper than that of modern man, contrary to the media stereotype of Neanderthals having ape-like grunts.
The base of the Neanderthal tongue was positioned higher in the throat, crowding the mouth somewhat. As a result, Neanderthal speech would most likely have been slow-paced and nasalized.
There is still some debate, however, over whether Neanderthals actually had language, or merely had the physical ability to produce a wide enough range of sounds that under certain circumstances they could have developed language.
[edit]
Neanderthal Hunter, (American Mus. Nat. Hist.)
Neanderthal (Middle Paleolithic) archaeological sites show both a smaller and a less flexible toolkit than in the Upper Paleolithic sites, occupied by modern humans that replaced them.
There is little evidence that Neanderthals used antlers, shell, or other bone materials to make tools: their bone industry was relatively simple. However, there is good evidence that they routinely constructed a variety of stone implements. The Neanderthal (Mousterian) tool case consisted of sophisticated stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and spears. Many of these tools were very sharp.
Also, while they had weapons, none have as yet been found that were used as projectile weapons. They had spears in the sense of a long wooden shaft with a spear head firmly attached to it, but these were not spears specifically crafted for flight (perhaps better described as a lance). However, a number of 400,000 year old wooden projectile spears were found at Schöningen in northern Germany. These are thought to have been made by the Neanderthal's ancestors, Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis. Generally, projectile weapons are more commonly associated with H. sapiens.
Although much has been made of the Neanderthal's burial of their dead, their burials were less elaborate than those of anatomically modern humans. The interpretation of the Shanidar IV burials as including flowers, and therefore being a form of ritual burial (Ralph Solecki 1975), has been questioned (Sommer 1999). On the other hand, five of the six flower pollens found with Shanidar IV are known to have had "traditional" medical uses, even among relatively recent "modern" populations. In some cases Neanderthal burials include grave goods such as bison and aurochs bones, tools, and the pigment ochre.
Neanderthals performed a sophisticated set of tasks normally associated with humans alone. For example, they constructed complex shelters, controlled fire, and skinned animals. Particularly intriguing is a hollowed-out bear femur with four holes spaced like four holes in the diatonic scale claimed by many to have been deliberately bored into it. This flute was found in western Slovenia in 1995 near a Mousterian Era fireplace used by Neanderthals, but its significance is still a matter of dispute.
See also: prehistoric music and Divje Babe.
[edit]
Key dates
1848: Skull of ancient human found in Forbe's Quarry, Gibraltar. Its significance is not realised at the time.
1856: Johann Karl Fuhlrott first recognizes the fossil called "Neanderthal man."
1880: The mandible of a Neanderthal child was found in a secure context, associated with cultural debris, including hearths, Mousterian tools, and bones of extinct animals.
1899: Hundreds of Neanderthal bones were described in stratigraphic position in association with cultural remains and extinct animal bones.
1908: A nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton in association with Mousterian tools and bones of extinct tools discovered.
1953-1957: Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq: Ralph Solecki uncovers nine Neanderthal skeletons.
1975: Erik Trinkaus's study of Neanderthal feet confirms they walked like modern humans.
1987: New thermoluminescence dates in the Levant place Neanderthal levels at Kebara at ca. 60,000 BP and modern humans at Qafzeh to 90,000 BP. These dates are confirmed by ESR dates for Qafzeh (90,000 BP) and Skhul (80,000 BP).
1991: New Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dates for Near Eastern remains show Tabun Neanderthal to be contemporaneous with modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh.
2000: Igor Ovchinnikov, Kirsten Liden, William Goodman et al. retrieve DNA from a late (29,000 BP) Neanderthal infant from Mezmaikaya Cave in the Caucausus.
2005: The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology launches a project to reconstruct the Neanderthal genome.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/ice_people1.shtml
24. Slide 24
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The Neanderthal or Neandertal was a species of Homo (Homo neanderthalensis) that inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic period. Neanderthals were adapted to the cold, as shown by their large braincases, short but robust builds, and large noses - traits selected by nature in cold climates, as observed in modern sub-arctic populations. Their brain sizes have been estimated as larger than "modern" humans, but their brains may in fact have been approximately the same as those of modern humans. On average, Neanderthal males stood about 1.65m tall (just under 5' 6") and were heavily built, and muscular due to their physical activity. Females were about 1.53 to 1.57m tall (about 5'-5'2").
The characteristic style of stone tools in the Middle Paleolithic is called the Mousterian Culture, after a prominent archaeological site where the tools were first found. The Mousterian culture is typified by the wide use of the Levallois technique. Mousterian tools were often produced using soft hammer percussion, such as bones, antlers, and wood, rather than hard hammer percussion, using stone. Near the end of the time of the Neanderthals, they created the Chatelperronian tool style, considered more "advanced" than that of the Mousterian. They either invented the Chatelperronian themselves or "borrowed" elements from the incoming modern humans who are thought to have created the Aurignacian.
Etymology and classification
The term "Neanderthal Man" was coined in 1863 by Irish anatomist William King. Neanderthal is now spelled two ways: The spelling of the German word Thal, meaning "valley or dale", was changed to Tal in the early 20th century, but the former spelling is often retained in English and always in scientific names, while the modern spelling is used in German.
The Neanderthal or "Neander valley" was named after theologian Joachim Neander, who lived there in the late seventeenth century. For many years, professionals vigorously debated about whether Neanderthals should be classified as Homo neanderthalensis or as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, the latter placing Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo sapiens. However, recent evidence from mitochondrial DNA studies have been interpreted as evidence that Neanderthals were not a subspecies of H. sapiens. Still, some scientists argue that fossil evidence suggests that the two species interbred, and hence were the same biological species.
Discovery
A Neanderthal skull was first discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848, eight years prior to the "original" discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley (near Düsseldorf) in August, 1856, three years before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones from the right arm, two from the left arm, part of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered this material originally thought it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Karl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaafhausen. The discovery was jointly announced in 1857. That discovery is now considered the beginning of paleoanthropology. These and other discoveries led to the idea that these remains were from ancient Europeans who had played an important role in modern human origins. The remains of over 400 Neanderthals have been found since.
Physical traits
The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans; however, not all of them can be used to distinguish specific Neanderthal populations, from various geographic areas or periods of evolution, from other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits occasionally manifest in modern humans, particularly among certain ethnic groups. Nothing is known about the skin color, the hair, or the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals. Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were larger in size and had distinct morphological features, especially of the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain relatively isolated geographic regions. Their relatively robust stature is thought to be an adaptation to the cold climate of Europe during the Pleistocene epoch.
Cranial
Suprainiac fossa, a groove above the inion
Occipital bun, a protuberance of the occipital bone that looks like a hair knot
Projecting mid-face
Thick, bowed shaft of the thigh bones
Short shinbones and calf bones
Based on a 2001 study, some commentators speculated that Neanderthals exhibited rufosity, and that some red-headed and freckled humans today share some heritage with Neanderthals. [1] However, more recent research indicates that this is not likely. [2]
Language
The theory that Neanderthals lacked complex language was widespread until 1983, when a Neanderthal hyoid bone was found at the Kebara Cave in Israel. The hyoid is a small bone that holds the root of the tongue in place, a requirement to human speech and, therefore, its presence seems to imply some ability to speak. The bone that was found is virtually identical to that of modern humans.
Many people believe that even without the hyoid bone evidence, it is obvious that tools as advanced as those of the Mousterian Era, attributed to Neanderthals, could not have been developed without cognitive skills encompassing some form of spoken language.
A recent study conducted on the Neanderthal hyoid found that due to the physical characteristics of Neanderthals and the fact that their larynx would have been stouter than that of modern man, the average note emitted by Neanderthals would have been high pitched and sharper than that of modern man, contrary to the media stereotype of Neanderthals having ape-like grunts.
The base of the Neanderthal tongue was positioned higher in the throat, crowding the mouth somewhat. As a result, Neanderthal speech would most likely have been slow-paced and nasalized. There is still some debate, however, over whether Neanderthals actually had language, or merely had the physical ability to produce a wide enough range of sounds that under certain circumstances they could have developed language.
Tools
Neanderthal Hunter, (American Mus. Nat. Hist.)
Neanderthal (Middle Paleolithic) archaeological sites show both a smaller and a less flexible toolkit than in the Upper Paleolithic sites, occupied by modern humans that replaced them.
There is little evidence that Neanderthals used antlers, shell, or other bone materials to make tools: their bone industry was relatively simple. However, there is good evidence that they routinely constructed a variety of stone implements. The Neanderthal (Mousterian) tool case consisted of sophisticated stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and spears. Many of these tools were very sharp.
Also, while they had weapons, none have as yet been found that were used as projectile weapons. They had spears in the sense of a long wooden shaft with a spear head firmly attached to it, but these were not spears specifically crafted for flight (perhaps better described as a lance). However, a number of 400,000 year old wooden projectile spears were found at Schöningen in northern Germany. These are thought to have been made by the Neanderthal's ancestors, Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis. Generally, projectile weapons are more commonly associated with H. sapiens.
Although much has been made of the Neanderthal's burial of their dead, their burials were less elaborate than those of anatomically modern humans. The interpretation of the Shanidar IV burials as including flowers, and therefore being a form of ritual burial (Ralph Solecki 1975), has been questioned (Sommer 1999). On the other hand, five of the six flower pollens found with Shanidar IV are known to have had "traditional" medical uses, even among relatively recent "modern" populations. In some cases Neanderthal burials include grave goods such as bison and aurochs bones, tools, and the pigment ochre.
Neanderthals performed a sophisticated set of tasks normally associated with humans alone. For example, they constructed complex shelters, controlled fire, and skinned animals. Particularly intriguing is a hollowed-out bear femur with four holes spaced like four holes in the diatonic scale claimed by many to have been deliberately bored into it. This flute was found in western Slovenia in 1995 near a Mousterian Era fireplace used by Neanderthals, but its significance is still a matter of dispute.
See also: prehistoric music and Divje Babe.
Key dates
1848: Skull of ancient human found in Forbe's Quarry, Gibraltar. Its significance is not realised at the time.
1856: Johann Karl Fuhlrott first recognizes the fossil called "Neanderthal man."
1880: The mandible of a Neanderthal child was found in a secure context, associated with cultural debris, including hearths, Mousterian tools, and bones of extinct animals.
1899: Hundreds of Neanderthal bones were described in stratigraphic position in association with cultural remains and extinct animal bones.
1908: A nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton in association with Mousterian tools and bones of extinct tools discovered.
1953-1957: Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq: Ralph Solecki uncovers nine Neanderthal skeletons.
1975: Erik Trinkaus's study of Neanderthal feet confirms they walked like modern humans.
1987: New thermoluminescence dates in the Levant place Neanderthal levels at Kebara at ca. 60,000 BP and modern humans at Qafzeh to 90,000 BP. These dates are confirmed by ESR dates for Qafzeh (90,000 BP) and Skhul (80,000 BP).
1991: New Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dates for Near Eastern remains show Tabun Neanderthal to be contemporaneous with modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh.
2000: Igor Ovchinnikov, Kirsten Liden, William Goodman et al. retrieve DNA from a late (29,000 BP) Neanderthal infant from Mezmaikaya Cave in the Caucausus.
2005: The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology launches a project to reconstruct the Neanderthal genome.
25. Slide 25
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elderly wise man") is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived almost 160,000 years ago in Pleistocene Africa. Its fossilized remains were discovered in Ethiopia in 1997 by Tim White, but first unveiled in 2003. The fossils were found at Herto Bouri, a region of Ethiopia under volcanic layers. By using radioisotopes dating, the layers date between 154,000 and 160,000 years old. Three well preserved craniums are accounted for, the most well preserved is from an adult male (BOU-VP-16/1) having a brain capacity of 1450cc. The other craniums include another partial adult male and a six year old child. All the skulls had cut marks indicating they had been de-fleshed in some kind of mortuary practice. The polishing on the skulls, however, suggests this was not simple cannibalism but more probably some kind of ritualistic behaviour.
These fossils differ slightly from those of early forms of H. sapiens such as Cro-Magnon found in Europe and other parts of the world in that its morphology has many archaic features not typical of H. sapiens (although modern human skulls do differ in certain regions around the globe). It appears to be the oldest representative of the H. sapiens species found so far. The name idaltu is an Amharic word for "elder". These specimens are likely to represent the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens thought to have originally evolved in Eastern Africa.
26. Slide 26
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The Cro-Magnons (IPA: /k?oma?õ/, or anglicised IPA: /k???'mægn?n/) form the earliest known European examples of Homo sapiens, the species to which modern humans belong. The term falls outside the usual naming conventions for early man and is used in a general sense to describe the oldest modern people in Europe. The oldest H. sapiens (i.e. anatomically modern humans) first emerged in Africa around 100,000 years ago. Cro-Magnons lived from about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene epoch. For all intents and purposes these people were anatomically modern, only differing from their modern day descendants in Europe by their slightly more robust physiology and brains which were about 4 % larger than that of modern man. The Cro-Magnons could be descended from any number of subspecies of Homo sapiens that emerged from Africa approximately 100,000 years ago, such as Homo sapiens idaltu.
The geologist Louis Lartet discovered the first five skeletons in March 1868 in the Cro-Magnon rock shelter at Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France (a name that means "big-hole" in Old French). The definitive specimen from this find bears the name 'Cro Magnon I'. The skeletons showed the same high forehead, upright posture and slender (gracile) skeleton as modern humans. Other specimens have since come to light in other parts of Europe and in the Middle East. The European individuals probably arrived from a East African origin via South Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East and even North Africa. However, this is highly speculative since no Cro-Magnon remains have been found in Africa (though the East African ancestors of Cro-Magnon man would have been pre-Cro-Magnon).
The condition and placement of the remains along with pieces of shell and animal tooth in what appears to have been pendants or necklaces raises the question whether or not they were buried intentionally. If Cro-Magnons buried their dead intentionally it shows us they had a knowledge of ritual, by burying their dead with necklaces and tools, or an idea of disease and that the bodies needed to be contained.
Analysis of the pathology of the skeletons shows that the humans of this time period led a physically tough life. In addition to infection, several of the individuals found at the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks indicating traumatic injury, and the adult female found at the shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. As these injuries would be life threatening even today, this shows that Cro-Magnons believed in community support and took care of each others' injuries.
Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears. The remains of tools suggest that they knew how to make woven clothing. They had huts, constructed of rocks, clay, bones, branches, and animal hide/fur. These early humans used manganese and iron oxides to paint pictures and it is believed that they created the first calendar around 32,000 B.C.E.The flint tools found in association with the remains at Cro-Magnon have associations with the Aurignacian culture that Lartet had identified a few years before he found the skeletons.
Cro-Magnon people were completely modern in appearance. However, the name "Cro-Magnon", as typically used and mis-pronounced in English, sounds vaguely rough; in the popular mind this type of human tends to get confused with earlier, more primitive species such as Neanderthals, and is commonly portrayed in cartoons as a semi-erect, brutish and low-browed fellow.
27. Slide 27
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Homo floresiensis ("Man of Flores") is a species in the genus Homo, remarkable for its small body, small brain, and survival until relatively recent times. It is thought to have been contemporaneous with modern humans (Homo sapiens) on the Indonesian island of Flores. One sub-fossil skeleton, dated at 18,000 years old, is largely complete. It was discovered in deposits in Liang Bua Cave on Flores in 2003. Parts of eight other individuals, all diminutive, have been recovered as well as similarly small stone tools from horizons ranging from 94,000 to 13,000 years ago. The first of these fossils was unearthed in 2003; the publication date of the original description is October 2004; and confirmation of species status is expected to appear soon, following the March 2005 publication of details of the brain of Flores Man.
Flores has been described (in the journal Nature) as "a kind of Lost World", where archaic animals, elsewhere long extinct, had evolved into giant and dwarf forms through allopatric speciation, due to its location East of the Wallace Line. The island had dwarf elephants (a species of Stegodon, a prehistoric elephant) and giant monitor lizards akin to the Komodo dragon, as well as H. floresiensis, which can be considered a species of diminutive human.
The discoverers have called members of the diminutive species "hobbits", after J.R.R. Tolkien's fictional race of roughly the same height. In the mythology of the island, there were common references to a small furry man called Ebu Gogo even into the 19th century.
Discovery
The first (and so far only) specimens were discovered by a joint Australian-Indonesian team of paleoanthropologists and archaeologists looking on Flores for evidence of the original human migration of H. sapiens from Asia into Australia. They were not expecting to find a new species, and were quite surprised at the recovery of the remains of at least seven individuals of non-H. sapiens, from 38,000 to 13,000 years old, from the Liang Bua limestone cave on Flores. An arm bone, provisionally assigned to H. floresiensis, is about 74,000 years old. Also widely present in this cave are sophisticated stone implements of a size considered appropriate to the 1 m tall human: these are at horizons from 95,000 to 13,000 years and are associated with juvenile Stegodon, presumably the prey of Flores Man.
The specimens are not fossilized, but were described in a Nature news article as having "the consistency of wet blotting paper" (once exposed, the bones had to be left to dry before they could be dug up). Researchers hope to find preserved mitochondrial DNA to compare with samples from similarly unfossilised specimens of Homo neanderthalensis and H. sapiens. The likelihood of there being preserved DNA is low, as DNA degrades rapidly in warm tropical environments - sometimes in as little as a few dozen years. Also, contamination from the surrounding environment seems highly possible given the moist environment in which the specimens were found.
Small bodies
Homo erectus, thought to be the immediate ancestor of H. floresiensis, was approximately the same size as another descendant species, modern humans. In the limited food environment on Flores, however, H. erectus is thought to have undergone strong island dwarfing, a form of speciation also seen on Flores in several species, including a dwarf Stegodon (a group of proboscideans that was widespread throughout Asia during the Quaternary), as well as being observed on other small islands. However, the "island dwarfing" theory has been subjected to some criticism.
Despite the size difference, the specimens seem otherwise to resemble in their features H. erectus, known to be living in Southeast Asia at times coinciding with earlier finds of H. floresiensis. These observed similarities form the basis for the establishment of the suggested phylogenetic relationship. Despite a controversial reported finding by the same team of alleged material evidence, stone tools, of a H. erectus occupation 840,000 years ago, actual remains of H. erectus itself have not been found on Flores, much less transitional forms.
The type specimen for the species is a fairly complete skeleton and near-complete skull of a 30-year-old female, nicknamed Little Lady of Flores or Flo, about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in height. Not only is this drastically shorter than H. erectus, it is even somewhat smaller than the three million years older ancestor australopithecines, not previously thought to have expanded beyond Africa. This tends to qualify H. floresiensis as the most "extreme" member of the extended human family. They are certainly the shortest and smallest discovered thus far.
Homo floresiensis is also rather tiny compared to the modern human height and size of all peoples today. The estimated height of adult H. floresiensis is considerably shorter than the average adult height of even the physically smallest populations of modern humans, such as the African Pygmies (< 1.5 m, or 4 ft 11 in), Twa, Semang (1.37 m, or 4 ft 6 in for adult women), or Andamanese (1.37 m, or 4 ft 6 in for adult women). Mass is generally considered more biophysically significant than a one-dimensional measure of length, and by that measure, due to effects of scaling, differences are even greater. The type specimen of H. floresiensis has been estimated as perhaps about 25 kg.
Homo floresiensis had relatively long arms, perhaps allowing this small hominid to climb to safety in the trees when needed.
Small brains
In addition to a small body size, H. floresiensis had a remarkably small brain. The type specimen, at 380 cm³
is at the lower range of chimpanzees or the ancient australopithecines. The brain is reduced considerably relative to this species' presumed immediate ancestor H. erectus, which at 980 cm³ (60 in³) had more than double the brain volume of its descendant species. Nonetheless, the brain to body mass ratio of H. floresiensis is comparable to that of Homo erectus, indicating the species was unlikely to differ in intelligence.
Indeed, the discoverers have associated H. floresiensis with advanced behaviors. There is evidence of the use of fire for cooking. The species has also been associated with stone tools of the sophisticated Upper Paleolithic tradition typically associated with modern humans, who at 1310-1475 cm³ (80-90 in³) nearly quadruple the brain volume of H. floresiensis (with body mass increased by a factor of 2.6). Some of these tools were apparently used in the necessarily cooperative hunting of local dwarf Stegodon by this small human species.
An indicator of intelligence is the size of region 10 of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which is associated with self-awareness and is about the same size as that of modern humans, despite the much smaller overall size of the brain.
Flores remained isolated during the Wisconsin glaciation (the most recent ice age), despite the low sea levels that united much of the rest of Sundaland, because of a deep neighboring strait. This has led the discoverers of H. floresiensis to conclude that the species or its ancestors could only have reached the isolated island by water transport, perhaps arriving in bamboo rafts around 100,000 years ago (or, if they are H. erectus, then about 1 million years ago). This perceived evidence of advanced technology and cooperation on a modern human level has prompted the discoverers to hypothesize that H. floresiensis almost certainly had language. These suggestions have proved the most controversial of the discoverers' findings, despite the probable high intelligence of H. floresiensis.
Recent survival
The other remarkable aspect of the find is that this species is thought to have survived on Flores until at least as recently as 12,000 years ago. This makes it the longest-lasting non-modern human, surviving long past the Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) who went extinct about 30,000 years ago. Homo floresiensis certainly coexisted for a long time with modern humans, who arrived in the region 35,000-55,000 years ago, but it is unknown how they may have interacted.
Local geology suggests that a volcanic eruption on Flores was responsible for the demise of H. floresiensis in the part of the island under study at approximately 12,000 years ago, along with other local fauna, including the dwarf elephant Stegodon.
The discoverers suspect, however, that this species may have survived longer in other parts of Flores to become the source of the Ebu Gogo stories told among the local people. The Ebu Gogo are said to have been small, hairy, language-poor cave dwellers on the scale of H. floresiensis. Widely believed to be present at the time of the Dutch arrival during the 16th century, these strange creatures were apparently last spotted as recently as the late 19th century. There is also Tonga Island folklore that "small people" were living on 'Ata Island (the southernmost island of the group) at the time of the arrival of the Polynesians.
Similarly, on the island of Sumatra, there are reports of a one-metre tall humanoid, the Orang Pendek, which a number of professional scholars take seriously. Both footprints and hairs have been recovered. Scholars working on the Flores man have noted that the Orang Pendek may also be surviving Flores men still living on Sumatra.
Significance
The discovery is widely considered the most important of its kind in recent history, and came as a surprise to the anthropological community. The new species challenges many of the ideas of the discipline.
Homo floresiensis is so different in form from other members of genus Homo that it forces the recognition of a new, undreamt-of variability in the genus, and provides evidence against linear evolution.
No doubt, this discovery provides more fuel for the perennial debate over the out-of-Africa or multiregional models of speciation of modern humans (despite H. floresiensis not itself being an ancestor of modern humans). Already, further arguments have been made on either side.
The discoverers of H. floresiensis fully expect to find the remains of other, equally divergent Homo species on other isolated islands of Southeast Asia, and think it possible, if not quite "likely", that some lost Homo species could be found still living in some unexplored corner of jungle.
Henry Gee, a senior editor of the journal Nature, has agreed, saying, "Of course it could explain all kinds of legends of the little people. They are almost certainly extinct, but it is possible that there are creatures like this around today. Large mammals are still being found. I don't think the likelihood of finding a new species of human alive is any less than finding a new species of antelope, and that has happened"
Gee has also written that "The discovery that Homo floresiensis survived until so very recently, in geological terms, makes it more likely that stories of other mythical, human-like creatures such as Yetis are founded on grains of truth....Now, cryptozoology, the study of such fabulous creatures, can come in from the cold"
An alternative suggestion is that Homo floresiensis was actually a rainforest-adapted type of modern Homo sapiens, like Pygmies and Negritos, only of a more extreme type.
Reaction
When the first skull (that of 'Flo') was found, the first assumption was that it was a child. When it turned out to be a grown individual (closed fontanelles and worn teeth), it was thought to be microcephalic, but that theory is still disputed. And comparisons with modern human achondroplasiacs (about 1.2 m, or 3 ft 11 in) or other dwarfs, are also flawed, as these people are not generally proportionally smaller than other humans, only short-limbed.
Professor Teuku Jacob, chief paleontologist of the Indonesian Gadjah Mada University and other scientists reportedly disagree with the placement of the new finds into a new species of Homo, stating instead, "It is a sub-species of Homo sapiens classified under the Austrolomelanesid race". He contends that the find is from a 25-30 year-old omnivorous subspecies of H. sapiens, and not a 30-year-old female of a new species. He is convinced that the small skull is that of a mentally defective modern human, probably a Pygmy, suffering from the genetic disorder microcephaly or nanocephaly. Some scientists reportedly believe the skeleton found may be of a male and not a female.
When interviewed on the Australian television program Lateline, Professor Roberts reportedly conceded that the skeleton may be that of a male rather than a female but he strenuously maintained the fossil is of a new species. A paper published in Science disputes the microcephaly theory.
Access controversy
In late November and early December 2004, in an apparent arrangement with discoverer Radien Soejono, Professor Jacob borrowed most of the remains from Soejono's institution, Jakarta's National Research Centre of Archaeology, for his own research (apparently without the permission of the Centre's directors). Some expressed fears that, like the Dead Sea Scrolls, important scientific evidence would be sequestered by a small group of scientists who neither allowed access by other scientists nor published their own research. However, Jacob returned the remains to the Centre, except for two leg bones, on 23 February 2005 [10].
28. Slide 28
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
Humans (Homo sapiens) are bipedal primates of the superfamily Hominoidea, together with the other apes-chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and gibbons. They are the dominant sentient species on planet Earth and define themselves in biological, social, and spiritual terms. The scientific name for humans, Homo sapiens, comes from the Latin for "wise man." Humans have an erect body carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects and using tools. The human brain is capable of abstract thought, reason, speech, language, and introspection. Bipedal locomotion appears to have evolved before the development of a large brain. The origins of bipedal locomotion and of its role in the evolution of the human brain are topics of ongoing research. The human mind has several distinct attributes. It is responsible for complex behavior, especially language. Curiosity and observation have led to a variety of explanations for consciousness and the relation between mind and body. Psychology attempts to study behavior from a scientific point of view. Religious perspectives emphasize a soul, qi or atman as the essence of being, and are often characterized by the belief in and worship of God, gods or spirits. Philosophy, especially philosophy of mind, attempts to fathom the depths of each of these perspectives. Art, music and literature often express these concepts and feelings. Like all primates, humans are inherently social. They create complex social structures composed of co-operating and competing groups. These range from nations and states down to families, and from the community to the self. Seeking to understand and manipulate the world around them has led to the development of technology and science. Artifacts, beliefs, myths, rituals, values, and social norms have each played a role in forming humanity's culture.
Terminology
In general, the word "people" is a collective noun used to define a specific group of humans. However, when used to refer to a group of humans possessing a common ethnic, cultural or national unitary characteristic or identity, "people" is a singular noun, and as such takes an "s" in the plural; (examples: "the English-speaking peoples of the world", "the indigenous peoples of Brazil").
Juvenile males are called boys, adult males men, juvenile females girls, and adult females women. Humans are commonly referred to as persons or people, and collectively as man, mankind, humankind, humanity, or the human race. Until the 20th century, "human" was only used adjectivally ("pertaining to mankind"). As an adjective, "human" is used neutrally (as in "human race"), but "human" and especially "humane" may also emphasize positive aspects of human nature, and can be synonymous with "benevolent" (versus "inhumane"; cf. humanitarian).
A distinction is maintained in philosophy and law between the notions "human being", or "man", and "person". The former refers to the species, while the latter refers to a rational agent (see, for example, John Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding II 27 and Immanuel Kant's Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals).
Anatomy and physiology
Human body types vary substantially, with some of this variation being caused by environmental and historical factors. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by diet and exercise. The average height of a North American adult female is 162 centimetres (5 feet 4 inches), and the average weight is 62 kilograms (137 pounds). Human males are typically larger than females: the average height and weight of a North American adult male is 175 centimeters (5 feet 9 inches) and 78 kilograms (172 pounds). Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to that of other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair on its body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less colored than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see. The color of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin color can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from blond to brown to red. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a defense against ultraviolet solar radiation: melanin is an effective sun-block. The skin color of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin and hair color is controlled in part by the genes Mc1r and SLC24A5. For example, the red hair and pale skin of some Europeans is the result of mutations in Mc1r. Human skin has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation; this is also controlled in part by Mc1r.
Humans are capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving the arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs. Because human physiology has not fully adapted to bipedalism, the pelvic region and spinal column tend to become worn, creating locomotion difficulties in old age.
The need for regular intake of food and drink is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science. Failure to obtain food leads to hunger and eventually starvation, while failure to obtain water leads to thirst and dehydration. Both starvation and dehydration cause death if not alleviated -- generally, most humans can survive for over two months without food, but at most between ten to fourteen days without water. In modern times, obesity amongst some human populations has increased to almost epidemic proportions, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed countries, and is becoming problematic elsewhere.
The average sleep requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child (elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours). Negative effects result from restriction of sleep. For instance a sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort. It is common in modern societies for people to get less sleep than they need, leading to a state of sleep deprivation.
Genetics
Humans are a eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. At present estimate, humans have approximately 20,000-25,000 genes and share 98.4% of their DNA with their closest living evolutionary relatives, the two species of chimpanzees. [1] Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The X chromosome is larger and carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that recessive diseases associated with X-linked genes affect men more often than women. For example, genes that control the clotting of blood reside on the X chromosome. Women have a blood-clotting gene on each X chromosome so that one normal blood-clotting gene can compensate for a flaw in the gene on the other X chromosome. But men are hemizygous for the blood-clotting gene, since there is no gene on the Y chromosome to control blood clotting. As a result, men will suffer from hemophilia more often than women.
Evolution
The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, but most notably physical anthropology and genetics. The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus Homo, but studies of human evolution usually include other hominids and hominines, such as the australopithecines. Humans are defined as hominids of the species Homo sapiens, of which the only extant subspecies is Homo sapiens sapiens (Latin for "very wise man"); Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elderly wise man") is the extinct subspecies. Modern humans are usually considered the only surviving species in the genus Homo, although some argue that the two species of chimpanzees should be reclassified from Pan troglodytes (Common Chimpanzee) and Pan paniscus (Bonobo/Pygmy Chimpanzee) to Homo troglodytes and Homo paniscus respectively, given that they share a recent ancestor with man. Full genome sequencing resulted in these conclusions: "After 6 [million] years of separate evolution, the differences between chimpanzee and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice." In fact, chimpanzee and human DNA is between 96% and 99% identical.
It has been estimated that the human lineage diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from gorillas about eight million years ago. However, in 2001 a hominid skull approximately seven million years old, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, was discovered in Chad and may indicate an earlier divergence. Two prominent scientific theories of the origins of contemporary humans exist. They concern the relationship between modern humans and other hominids: The single-origin or "out of Africa" hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later replaced hominids in other parts of the world. The multiregional hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved at least in part from independent hominid populations.
Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah proposed that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species; and that during the Late Pleistocene, the population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs (no more than 10,000), resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this possible bottleneck have been postulated, the most popular is called the Toba catastrophe theory.
Human evolution is characterized by a number of important physiological trends:
expansion of the brain cavity and brain itself, which is typically 1,400 cm³ in volume, over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (heterochrony), allowing for an extended period of social learning in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists argue that a reorganization of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial expansion itself;
canine tooth reduction;
bipedal locomotion;
descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible.
How these trends are related and what their role is in the evolution of complex social organization and culture are matters of ongoing debate. One field of inquiry that has emerged in recent years to address this issue of "gene-culture coevolution" is dual inheritance theory.
Life cycle
The human life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. New human life develops viviparously from conception. An egg is usually fertilized inside the female by sperm from the male through sexual intercourse, though in vitro fertilization methods are also used. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. The zygote divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo which over a period of thirty-eight weeks becomes the fetus. At birth, the fully grown fetus is expelled from the female's body and breathes independently as a baby for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend personhood to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus. Compared with that of other species, human childbirth is relatively complicated. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in injury to the child or the death of the mother, although the chances of a successful labour increased significantly during the twentieth century in wealthier countries. Natural childbirth remains a more dangerous ordeal in remote, underdeveloped regions of the world.
Human children are born after a nine-month gestation period, with typically 3-4 kilograms (6-9 pounds) in weight and 50-60 centimeters (20-24 inches) in height in developed countries. Helpless at birth, they continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at twelve to fifteen years of age. Boys continue growing for some time after this, reaching their maximum height around the age of eighteen. These values vary too, depending on genes and environment. The human life-span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, maturity and old age, although the lengths of these stages, especially the later ones, are not fixed.
There are striking differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40 years (highest in Monaco at 45.1 years), while in the developing world, the median age is 15-20 years (the lowest in Uganda at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth is 77.2 years in the U.S. as of 2001. The expected life span at birth in Singapore is 84.29 years for a female and 78.96 years for a male, while in Botswana, due largely to AIDS, it is 30.99 years for a male and 30.53 years for a female. One in five Europeans, but one in twenty Africans, is 60 years or older, according to The World Factbook.
The number of centenarians in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002. The current maximum life span of humans is about 120 years (Jeanne Calment lived for 122 years and 164 days). Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or over for every 100 women of the same age, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women. The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death may cause unease or fear. People who are near death sometimes report having a near-death experience, in which they have visions. Burial ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often inspired by beliefs in an afterlife. Institutions of inheritance or ancestor worship may extend an individual's presence beyond his physical lifespan.
Race and ethnicity
Humans often categorize themselves and others in terms of race or ethnicity, although the scientific validity of human races as categories is disputed. Human racial categories are based on visible traits, especially skin color and facial features, language, and ancestry. Self identification with an ethnic group is based on kinship and descent. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact social identity, giving rise to the theory of identity politics. An ethnic group is a culture or subculture whose members are readily distinguishable by outsiders based on traits originating from a common racial, national, linguistic, regional or religious source. Although most humans recognize that variances occur within a species, it is often a point of dispute as to what these differences entail, their importance, and whether discrimination based on race (racism) is acceptable. Race and intelligence, scientific racism, xenophobia and ethnocentrism are just a few of the many bases for such practices. Some societies have placed a great deal of emphasis on race, others have not. Four disparate examples include the "melting pot" of Ancient Egypt, slavery and Jim Crow laws in the United States, (the latter eventually supplanted by Civil Rights Act), and the racial policy of Nazi Germany. The five human racial divisions were proposed in Carleton Coon's The Origin of Races (1962) are Australian, African Bushman (San), Caucasian, East Asian and African.
Habitat
The view most widely accepted by the anthropological community is that the human species originated in the African savanna between 100 and 200 thousand years ago, had colonized the rest of the Old World and Oceania by 40,000 years ago, and finally colonized the Americas by 10,000 years ago. Homo sapiens displaced groups such as Homo neanderthalensis, Homo erectus and Homo floresiensis through more successful reproduction and competition for resources. (See Human evolution, Vagina gentium, and Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness.) Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to all climates. Within the last few decades, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and space, although long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. Humans, with a population of over six billion, are one of the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The vast majority of the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (13%) and Europe (12%), with 5% in Oceania. (See list of countries by population and list of countries by population density.)
The original human lifestyle was hunting-gathering, which was adapted to the savanna. Other human lifestyles are nomadism (often linked to animal herding) and permanent settlements made possible by the development of agriculture. Humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by various methods, such as agriculture, irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, and manufacturing goods.
Permanent human settlements are dependent on proximity to water and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources such as fertile land for growing crops and grazing livestock, or seasonally by populations of prey. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places these factors are no longer a driving force behind growth and decline of population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered (i.e., factors such as whether it has climate control, is a slum, has infrastructure such as schools and electricity, etc.) is often a major determinant in population change.
Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments (Antarctica, outer space) is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with a maximum of thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of 2005, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.
Food and drink
Humans are omnivorous animals who can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence shows that early Homo Sapiens employed a Hunter-gatherer methodology as their primary means of food collection. This involved combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. However, many modern humans choose to be vegans or vegetarians. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from Homo erectus, possibly even earlier.
At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which has altered substantially the kind of food people eat. This has led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased population, the development of cities, and, due to increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared has varied widely by time, location, and culture.
The last century or so has produced enormous improvements in food production, preservation, storage and shipping. Today almost every locale in the world has access to not only its traditional cuisine, but also to many other world cuisines.
Population
From 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one to six billion. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion (or, 39.7%) people lived in urban areas, and this percentage is expected to rise throughout the 21st century. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution, crime, and poverty, especially in inner city and suburban slums.
Intelligence
Human beings are considered more intelligent than other animals. While other animals are capable of creating structures (mostly as a result of instinct) and using simple tools, human technology is more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by another animal. The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Human beings are one of six species to pass the mirror test - which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself - along with common chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, dolphins and pigeons. Human beings under the age of 2 usually fail the test.
Mind
Consciousness is a state of mind, said to possess qualities such as, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. The way in which the world is experienced is the subject of much debate and research in philosophy of mind, psychology, brain biology, neurology, and cognitive science. Humans, often mentioned with other species, are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind, the fruition of which are senses and perceptions. Each human has a subjective view of existence, the passage of time, and free will. There are many debates about the extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world, and regarding the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. Cognitive scientist Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called mind, but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of software running in parallel (Dennett, 1991) .
Psychology and human ethology
Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.
Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. The examination of developmental psychology from an evolutionary perspective is called evolutionary developmental psychology. Social psychology intertwines sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. The behavior and mental processes of animals (human and non-human) can be described through animal cognition, ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as well. Human ecology is an academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with their environment, nature and the human social environment. A similar academic discipline is human behavioral ecology.
Philosophy
Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means comprising as its core logic, ontology or metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology which includes the branches of ethics and aesthetics. The term covers a very wide range of approaches, and is also used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy. Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of "first principles" and "being" (ontology). Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical have been added to metaphysics. Other problems that were considered metaphysical problems for centuries are now typically relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy, such as philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, philosophy of perception, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. In rare cases subjects of metaphysical research have been found to be entirely physical and natural. The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. Other species of animals share some of these mental capacities, and it is also used in relation to supernatural beings, as in the expression "the mind of God." The term is used here only in relation to humans. There are many Philosophies of mind, the most common relating to the nature of being, and ones way of being, or purpose.
Adi Shankara in the East proposed Advaita Vedanta, a popular argument for monism (the metaphysical view that all is of one essential essence, substance or energy). Another type of monism is physicalism or materialism, which holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be reduced to the physical. Idealism and phenomenalism, on the contrary, assert the existence of the mind and deny, or at the least deny the importance of, an external reality that exists independently of the mind.
René Descartes proposed that both mind and matter exist, and that the one cannot be reduced to the other. This represents the philosophy of mind form of dualism. Dvaita is the Hindu philosophy that incorporates a form of dualism that distinguishes God from souls.
Johannes Jacobus Poortman proposed a Pluralist classification of a number of different mystical and metaphysical views. Vishishtadvaita is the Hindu philosophy incorporating pluralism.
Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Hume, Kant, Locke, Spinoza, Nietzsche and Wittgenstein are also philosophers of note in the history of human thought.
Many religions and spiritual traditions hold that humans have both a body and a soul, usually proposing that the soul can in some way survive the death of the body. Although the soul sometimes is equated with the mind, this is not always the case.
As a finer distinction between religion and philosophy, esoteric cosmology is distinguished from religion in its more sophisticated construction and reliance on intellectual understanding rather than faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual transformation.
In between the doctrines of religion and science, stands the philosophical perspective of metaphysical cosmology. This ancient field of study seeks to draw logical conclusions about the nature of the universe, humanity, god and/or their connections based on the extension of some set of presumed facts borrowed from religion and/or observation. What might be called the core metaphysical problems would be the ones which have always been considered metaphysical. What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of ontology, the science of being or existence as well as the basic categories thereof-trying to find out what entities and what types of entities exist. Ontology has strong implications for the conceptions of reality.
Motivation
Motivation is based on emotion, specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict; positive and negative are defined by the individual brain state, not by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on Financial incentives, Moral incentives, or Coercive incentives. Religions generally posit Godly or demonic influences.
For many love is the central motivation in life. The classical Greeks had four words for love:
Eros : Romantic love
Philia : Friendship, Love (but especially platonic love).
Agape : Divine, unconditioned love. Many religious persons will refer to the love that they feel towards, or receive from God as divine love or Agape.
Storge : Natural familial affection.
Happiness or being happy is a condition which humans can have. The definition of happiness is one of the greatest philosophical topics, at least since the time of Socrates, and is especially central to Ethics, being the starting point of Aristotle's ethical works. Some people might define it as the best condition which a human can have - a condition of mental and physical health. Others may define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society, inner peace, and so forth. Aristotle conceived of Eudaimonia, a society governed by pursuit of happiness.
"The happy life is thought to be one of excellence; now an excellent life requires exertion and does not consist of amusement. If Eudaimonia, or happiness, is an activity in accordance with excellence, it's reasonable that it should be in accordance with the highest excellence, and will be that of the best thing in us."
Aristotle, "Nicomachean Ethics"
Self-reflection and humanism
Thales of Miletus, when asked what was difficult, answered in a well-known apophthegm: "To Know Thyself" ????? ??????? (also attributed to Socrates, and inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi). Humans often consider themselves to be the dominant species on Earth, and the most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This belief is especially strong in modern Western culture. Alongside such claims of dominance we often find radical pessimism because of the frailty and brevity of human life. In the Hebrew Bible, for example, dominion of man is promised in Genesis 1:28, but the author of Ecclesiastes bewails the vanity of all human effort. The Ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras made the famous claim that "Man is the measure of all things; of what is, that it is; of what is not, that it is not." Aristotle describes man as the "communal animal" (???? ?????????), i.e. emphasising society-building as a central trait of human nature, and "animal with sapience" (???? ????? ????, animal rationale), a term that also inspired the species' taxonomy, Homo sapiens. This philosophy is today called "Humanism". Humanism as a philosophy defines a socio-political doctrine the bounds of which are not constrained by those of locally developed cultures, but which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. Because spiritual beliefs of a community often manifests as religious doctrine, the history of which is as factious as it is unitive, secular humanism grew as an answer to the need for a common philosophy that transcended the cultural boundaries of local moral codes and religions. Many humanists are religious, however, and see humanism as simply a mature expression of a common truth present in most religions. Humanists affirm the possibility of an objective truth and accept that human perception of that truth is imperfect. The most basic tenets of humanism are that humans matter and can solve human problems, and that science, freedom of speech, rational thought, democracy, and freedom in the arts are worthy pursuits or goals for all peoples. Modern humanism depends on reason and logic and rejects the supernatural.
From a scientific viewpoint, H. sapiens certainly is among the most generalised species on Earth, and few single species occupy as many diverse environments as humans. Various attempts have been made to identify a single behavioral characteristic that distinguishes humans from all other animals, e.g. the ability to make and use tools, the ability to alter the environment, language use, and the development of complex social structures. Some anthropologists think that these readily observable characteristics (tool-making and language) are based on less easily observable mental processes that might be unique among humans: the ability to think symbolically, in the abstract or logically. Others, that human capacity for symbolic thought is a development from the capacity to manipulate tools or the development of speech. It is difficult however to arrive at a set of attributes that includes all humans, and humans only. The wish to find unique human characteristics could be more a matter of anthropocentrism than of zoology in the end.
Culture
Culture is defined here as a set of distinctive material, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual features of a social group, including art, literature, lifestyles, value systems, traditions, rituals, and beliefs. Culture consists of at least three elements: values, social norms, and artifacts. A culture's values define what it holds to be important. Norms are expectations of how people ought to behave. Artifacts - things, or material culture - derive from the culture's values and norms together with its understanding of the way the world functions.
Language
Values, norms and technology are dependent on the capacity for humans to share ideas. The faculty of speech is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern population. (See Origins of language.) Language is central to the communication between humans. Language is central to the sense of identity that unites cultures and ethnicities. The invention of writing systems some 5000 years ago, allowing the preservation of speech, was a major step in cultural evolution. Language, especially written language, was sometimes thought to have supernatural status or powers -- hence the term "hieroglyphics", or "sacred carvings". The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are estimated to be some 6,000 different languages, including sign languages, currently in use.
Religion
The largest religious human gathering on Earth. Around 70 million people from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at one of the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) in India. Humans apply different approaches in an attempt to answer fundamental questions about topics such as the nature of the universe (cosmology), its creation (cosmogony) and destruction (eschatology), and our place in it - who we are, why we are here, what happens after life, and more. Broadly speaking, these questions can be addressed and beliefs formed from a number of approaches and perspectives, such as religion, science, philosophy (particularly ontology within metaphysics), esotericism, and mysticism. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive. For example, an expert scientist can be highly religious, have a philosophy of life, and follow any number of esoteric or mystical practices.
Four major approaches to forming beliefs about the nature of the universe include religious cosmology, scientific or physical cosmology, metaphysical cosmology and esoteric cosmology. The earliest form of cosmology appears in the origin beliefs of many religions as they seek to explain the existence and nature of the world. In many cases, views about the creation (cosmogony) and destruction (eschatology) of the universe play a central role in shaping a framework of religious cosmology for understanding a person's role in the universe and its relationship to one or more divine beings.
Religion-sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" or "belief system"-is commonly defined as belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In the course of its development, it has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective. There are a number of perspectives regarding the fundamental nature and substance of humans. These are by no means mutually exclusive, and this list is by no means exhaustive.
Materialism holds that humans are physical beings without any supernatural or spiritual component. Materialism holds to naturalism and rejects supernaturalism.
Monotheism believes that a single deity, who is either the only one in existence, or who incorporates or excels all lesser deities, created humanity. Humans are thus bound by filial and moral duty, and cared for by paternal providence. In all the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), humans are lord or steward over the earth and all its other creatures. The Bible and Koran hold that humankind was created as a spiritually and physically perfect entity, but through the sins of self-idolatry and disobedience lost its perfection.
Pantheism holds that human beings, as part of the world, are a part of God, who is identified with the world (and vice versa). (Panentheism is similar, but holds that the world is God, but that God is more than the world.) Monism, animism, Vedic religion, and other forms of Eastern philosophy have related beliefs.
Monism is the metaphysical view that all things are of one essential essence, substance or energy. Monistic theism, a variant of both monism and Monotheism, views God as both immanent and transcendent. Both are dominant themes in Hinduism and Surat Shabd Yoga, that hold humans are special in that they can conceptualise God and strive to achieve him, but their soul is akin to a divine spark just as an animal's is.
Taoism may be rendered as religion, morality, duty, knowledge, rationality, ultimate truth, path, or taste. Its semantics vary widely depending on the context. Tao is generally translated into English as "The Way".
In polytheistic religions, a whole pantheon of gods holds sway. Polytheistic deities often have individual interests or portfolios, and are arranged in a hierarchy of their own- for example, Zeus is the Greek god of thunder as well as king of the gods. Humans are mainly characterized by their inferiority to the gods, sometimes reflected in a hierarchical society ruled by dynasties that claim divine descent.
Animism is the belief that objects and ideas including other animal species, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living spirits. Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by shamans or priests, who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience.
Esotericism refers to "hidden" knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to exoteric knowledge, which is public. It is used especially for spiritual practices.
Mysticism (meaning "that which is concealed") is the pursuit of achieving communion with, or conscious awareness of, ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight); the belief in the existence of realities beyond perceptual or intellectual apprehension that are central to being and directly accessible through personal experience; or the belief that such experience is an important source of knowledge.
Emotion and sexuality
Human emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, like love, admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction seen between refined emotions, which are socially learned, and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate.
Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worth note, particularly in those cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories, to provide an example, emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some Sufi teachers (in particular, the poet and astronomer Omar Khayyám) felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy.
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated mammals, developed commonly in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.
Human sexuality, besides ensuring reproduction, has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds and hierarchies among individuals; may be directed to spiritual transcendence; and in a hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. Sexual desire or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions, both positive (such as love or ecstasy) and negative (such as jealousy). As with other human self-descriptions, humans propose that it is high intelligence and complex societies of humans that have produced the most complex sexual behaviors of any animal, including a great many behaviors that are not directly connected with reproduction.
Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to cultural norms, which vary widely. Restrictions are largely determined by religious beliefs. Most sexologists, starting with the pioneers Alfred Kinsey and Sigmund Freud, believe that the majority of homo sapiens are attracted to males and females, being inherently bisexual. This belief is based upon the human species close relatives' sexual habits such as the bonobo apes, and historical records particularly the widespread ancient practices of paederasty.
Music
Music is a natural intuitive phenomenon operating in the three worlds of time, pitch, and energy, and under the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Composing, improvising and performing music are all art forms. Listening to music is perhaps the most common form of entertainment, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines. There are a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics.
Science and technology
In the mid- to late 20th century humans achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the atmosphere of Earth for the first time and explore space. Human cultures are both characterized and differentiated by the objects that they make and use. Archaeology attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the artifacts they produced. Early humans left stone tools, pottery and jewelry that are particular to various regions and times. Improvements in technology are passed from one culture to another. For instance, the cultivation of crops arose in several different locations, but quickly spread to be an almost ubiquitous feature of human life. Similarly, advances in weapons, architecture and metallurgy are quickly disseminated. Such techniques can be passed on by oral tradition. The development of writing, itself a type of artifact, made it possible to pass information from generation to generation and from region to region with greater accuracy. Together, these developments made possible the commencement of civilization and urbanization, with their inherently complex social arrangements. Eventually this led to the institutionalization of the development of new technology, and the associated understanding of the way the world functions. This science now forms a central part of human culture. In recent times, physics and astrophysics have come to play a central role in shaping what is now known as physical cosmology, that is, the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. This discipline, which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scales and at the earliest times, begins by arguing for the big bang, a sort of cosmic explosion from which the universe itself is said to have erupted ~13.7 ± 0.2 billion (109) years ago. After its violent beginnings and until its very end, scientists then propose that the entire history of the universe has been an orderly progression governed by physical laws.
Government, politics and the state
A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. The most common form of government worldwide is a republic, however other examples include monarchy, social democracy, military dictatorship and theocracy. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.
Trade and economics
Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both, and a form of economics. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialization and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade between locations benefits both locations. Economics is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services. Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value. Mainstream economics focuses on how prices reflect supply and demand, and uses equations to predict consequences of decisions.
War
An act of war - the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945, effectively ending World War II. The bombs over Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki immediately killed over 120,000 people. War is a state of widespread conflict between states, organizations, or relatively large groups of people, which is characterized by the use of lethal violence between combatants or upon civilians. A common perception of war is a series of military campaigns between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources, religion or other issues. A war said to liberate an occupied country is sometimes characterized as a "war of liberation", while a war between internal elements of a state is a civil war. There have been a wide variety of rapidly advancing tactics throughout the history of war, ranging from conventional war to asymmetric warfare to total war and unconventional warfare. Techniques have nearly always included hand to hand combat, the usage of ranged weapons, propaganda, Shock and Awe, and ethnic cleansing. Military intelligence has always played a key role in determining victory and defeat. In modern warfare, soldiers and armored fighting vehicles are used to control the land, warships the seas, and air power the skies. Throughout history there has been a constant struggle between defense and offense, armor and the weapons designed to breach it. Modern examples include the bunker buster bomb, and the bunkers for which they are designed to destroy. Many see war as destructive in nature, and a negative correlation has been shown between trade and war.
29. Slide 29
Extract from Wikipedia ~ http://en.wikipedia.org
The so-called Piltdown Man was fragments of a skull and jaw bone collected in the early years of the twentieth century from a gravel pit at Piltdown, a village near Uckfield, in the English county of Sussex. The fragments were claimed by experts of the day to be the fossilised remains of an hitherto unknown form of early man. The latin name Eoanthropus dawsoni was given to the specimen.
The significance of the specimen remained the subject of controversy until it was exposed in 1953 as a forgery, consisting of the lower jaw bone of an ape combined with the skull of a fully developed, modern man. It has been suggested that the forgery was the work of the person said to be its finder, Charles Dawson, after whom it was named. This view is strongly disputed and many other candidates have been proposed as the true creators of the forgery.
The finding
The finding of the Piltdown skull was poorly documented, but at a meeting of the Geological Society of London held in December 1912, Dawson claimed to have been given a fragment of the skull four years earlier by a workman at the Piltdown gravel pit. According to Dawson, workmen at the site had discovered the skull shortly before his visit and had broken it up. Revisiting the site on several occasions, Dawson found further fragments of the skull and took them to Arthur Smith Woodward, keeper of the Geological Department at the British Museum. Greatly interested by the finds, Woodward accompanied Dawson to the site where between June and September 1912 they together recovered more fragments of the skull and half of the lower jaw bone. At the same meeting, Woodward announced that a reconstruction of the fragments had been prepared which indicated that the skull was in many ways similar to that of modern man, except for the occiput (the part of the skull that sits on the spinal column) and for brain size, which was about two-thirds that of modern man. He then went on to indicate that save for the presence of two human-like molar teeth the jaw bone found would be indistinguishable from that of a modern, young chimpanzee. From the British Museum's reconstruction of the skull, Woodward proposed that Piltdown man represented an evolutionary missing link between ape and man, since the combination of a human-like cranium with an ape-like jaw tended to support the notion then prevailing in England that human evolution was brain-led.
Almost from the outset, Woodward's reconstruction of the Piltdown fragments was strongly challenged. At the Royal College of Surgeons copies of the same fragments used by the British Museum in their reconstruction were used to produce an entirely different model, one that in brain size and other features resembled modern man. Despite these differences however, it does not appear that the possibility of outright forgery arose in connection with the skull.
In 1915, Dawson claimed to have found fragments of a second skull (Piltdown II) at a site about two miles away from the site of the original finds. So far as is known the site in question has never been identified and the finds appear to be entirely undocumented. Woodward does not appear ever to have visited the site.
The exposure
The exposure of the Piltdown forgery in 1953 by workers at the British Museum and other institutions was greeted in many academic quarters with relief. Piltdown man had for some time become regarded as an aberration that was entirely inconsistent with the mainstream thrust of human evolution as demonstrated by fossil hominids found elsewhere. Piltdown Man was shown to be a composite forgery, part-ape and part-man. It consisted of a human skull of medieval age, the 500-year-old lower jaw of a Sarawak orangutan and chimpanzee fossil teeth. The appearance of age had been created by staining the bones with an iron solution and chromic acid. For the forger, the area where the jaw joined the skull posed problems that were overcome by the simple expedient of breaking off the terminals of the jaw. The teeth in the jaw had been filed to make them fit and it was this filing that led to doubts about the veracity of the whole specimen, when, by chance, it was noticed that the top of one of the molars sloped at a very different angle to the other teeth. Microscopic examination revealed file-marks on the teeth and it was deduced from this that filing had taken place to change the shape of the teeth, as ape teeth are different in shape from human teeth.
The degree of technical competence exhibited by the Piltdown forgery continues to be the subject of debate. However, the genius of the forgery is generally regarded as being that it offered the experts of the day exactly what they wanted: convincing evidence that human evolution was brain-led. It is argued that because it gave them what they wanted, the experts taken in by the Piltdown forgery were prepared to ignore all of the rules that are normally applied to evidence. It has been suggestion that nationalism and racism also played a role in the acceptance of the fossil as genuine, as it satisfied European expectations that the earliest humans would be found in Eurasia. The British, it has been claimed, also wanted a first Briton to set against fossil hominids found elsewhere in the world, including France and Germany.
Who forged it?
The identity of the Piltdown forger remains unknown. The finger of suspicion has been pointed at Dawson, Woodward, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (who worked at the site in 1913 with Dawson and discovered a tooth) and even the name of Arthur Conan Doyle has been mentioned, among many others. The motives of the forger also remain unknown, but it has been suggested that the hoax was a practical joke that rapidly ran out of hand. Thought by some to be a very promising candidate for the role of the Piltdown forger, Martin A.C. Hinton left a trunk in storage at the Natural History Museum in London that in 1970 was found to contain animal bones and teeth carved and stained in a manner similar to the carving and staining on the Piltdown finds. In 2003, the Natural History Museum held an exhibition to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the exposure of the hoax.
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Kingda Ka, Takabisha, X2, Steel Dragon 2000, and Millennium Force are famous what?
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The Biggest, Tallest, and Fastest Rollercoasters in the World | Digital Trends
Related: The white-knuckled tale of Spirit of Australia: the fastest boat in the world
Furthermore, Kingda Ka’s enormous top hat tower has created an interesting phenomenon knows as “rollbacks.” Once in a while, the coaster will fail to reach its top speed during launch, preventing it from reaching the top of the top hat. If this happens, gravity pulls the coaster back down the hill in reverse. The ride is specifically designed to account for this, and should it occur, riders will get another shot at experiencing the gut-churning drop.
That said, having such a tall stretch of track opens the ride and its riders up to potential aireal hazards. Everything from bird collisions to lightning strikes have forced the Kingda Ka to close operation for a time, though, no major injuries have ever been reported. Six Flags even closes it during light drizzles to prevent any accidents.
It looks like Kingda Ka may be dethroned as world’s tallest roller coaster in the near future, however. Six Flags has recently announced plans to best Kingda Ka at the Dubai Parks and Resorts megapark due to open in late 2016.
The Longest: Steel Dragon 2000
While the previous two roller coasters offer thrills of height and speed, they’re relatively short experiences. That’s where Japan’s Steel Dragon 2000 comes in. The roller coaster currently holds the title for longest in the world, with a whopping 8,133 feet of real estate. The giant coaster opened in 2000 — which, appropriately, happened to be the year of the dragon in Asia — and at the time was heralded as one of the fastest and the tallest full-track coaster in the world, which is different from the height record held by Kingda Ka. While Steel Dragon 2000 may have lost one of its two records, it’s still nothing to balk at given it remains the second-tallest full-course coaster in the world and the sixth fastest in the world.Taking up a large section of Nagashima Spa Land, Steel Dragon 2000 features a 30-story rop, tunnels, figure-eights, massive camel backs, and numerous iconic roller coaster elements that make it a complete experience for coaster enthusiasts. It’s also one hell of a four-minute adrenaline rush.
The Steepest: Takabisha
One of the most exciting parts of a roller coaster are the steep drops. That feeling you get when your stomach seems to delightfully slam into your spine and your body releases of a heavy dose adrenaline is hard to beat, and the steeper the incline, the better. The World’s steepest incline is a part of the Takabisha roller coaster in Japan’s Fuji-Q Highland amusement park. The drop is angled at 121 degrees and serves as the climactic centerpiece for the entire ride. This style of coaster, known as a Gerstlaur Euro-Fighter, is famous for combining vertical lifts with steep drops.
Thanks to its incline, Takabisha claimed the world record for Steepest Rollercoaster Made From Steel when it officially opened in July, 2011. It maintains that title today.
The Tallest Loop: Full Throttle
Steep inclines aren’t the only engineering feat to a unique roller coaster. Another record-holding coaster, known simply as Full Throttle, sits at Six Flags Magic Mountain park in Valencia, Calif. The steel launch-style roller coaster holds the record for tallest vertical loop, which stands at 160-feet tall and has been an iconic part of the park’s skyline since the ride opened in 2013. Not surprisingly, yet another Six Flags coaster — aka Superman: Krypton Coaster at Six Flags Fiesta Texas — was the previous record holder, and endures as the coaster with the second-tallest loop of any roller coaster in the world.
The Most Inversion: The Smiler
While Full Throttle’s enormous inversion may be impressive, sometimes quantity trumps quality when it comes to roller coaster loops, flips, and corkscrews. That’s likely what the folks behind the Smiler had in mind. The Smiler holds the record for the largest number of included inversions — 14, to be exact. Such a large quantity of inversions requires a complex structure to support the ride. However, such an involved structure is also prone to the occasional error and malfunction, which is probably why the Smiler has had an alarming number of mishaps.
A series of malfunctions plagued roller coaster during its first few months of operation, which included stalled trains and falling debris that struck riders. Said problems resulted in numerous short-term closures in its first six months. After operating smoothly through 2014, a serious accidents again occurred during the latter half of 2015, thus closing the ride. Due to an error on behalf of a ride operator, a car carrying passengers struck an empty stalled car on the track, resulting in severe injuries to 11 riders and two leg amputations. Because of this, the Smiler remains closed for the remainder of 2015 with plans to re-open uncertain.
The Best: Millennium Force
The previous entries on this list have covered the tallest, fastest, steepest, and most innovative coasters in the world, but none of those titles matter if your ride isn’t an exhilerating experince. While the other rollercoasters featured here are well-regarded as some of the best in the world, none of them are the best. That honor belongs to Cedar Point’s Millennium Force, which has been the highest-rated roller coaster since its debut and has received Amusement Today’s coveted Golden Ticket award a total of nine times. Time magazine also named it the best roller coaster in the United States in 2013, and moreover, the Travel Channel recognized it as a fan favorite during its series, Insane Coaster Wars.
Standing tall on the Ohio shoreline of Lake Erie, Millennium Force was the first “giga” roller coaster, a classification that means the coaster features a 300-foot drop. Millennium Force was the tallest and fastest roller coaster for a short time after opening, too, but was ultimately beat with the opening of Steel Dragon 2000. Regardless, it still manages to be the third longest roller coaster in the world and in the top 10 for numerous other global statistics such as tallest lift, fastest speed, and longest drop.
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Roller coaster
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The US city of Memphis, Tennessee, was named after the ancient (c.3000BC) Memphis city capital of which nation?
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1000+ images about Roller "Around the World" on Pinterest | Six flags, Roller coasters and Kingda ka
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The steepest roller coaster in the world. Debuting in mid-July in Japan's Fuji-Q Highland Amusement Park, the Takabisha rollercoaster features a 130 foot drop at 121 degrees. Including seven major twists over 1000 metres of track, and a nerve-jangling drop of 43 metres.
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What original 1960s surfer's slang expression of thrill or delight was popularized by the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles children's cartoon?
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Who, in 1954, was the first to run a mile in less than four minutes?
Rooms at Motel 6 once cost $6 a night.
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Jerry Mathers, of Leave It to Beaver fame, was killed in the Vietnam War.
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Which of these was NOT an American network TV game/quiz show in the '50s ?
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On TV's Get Smart, Don Adams played Maxwell Smart, Agent ...
When sharing sensitive information with the Chief, the agents of TV's Get Smart attempted to use ...
In 1963, Craig Breedlove's racer "Spirit of America" broke the land speed record at Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah. How fast did he go?
In the '50s, a dollar bill could be exchanged for silver bullion.
Was there ever a broadcast TV channel 1 in the U.S.?
Oh, I wish I were an Oscar Mayer wiener,
That is what I'd truly like to be.
'Cause if I were an Oscar Mayer wiener ...
Comet cleanser's TV commercials featured ...
In TV commercials, Charlie the Tuna tried to show he had good taste, but the sponsor was looking for tunas that taste good. Which brand of tuna was this? Plop, plop, fizz, fizz ...
How high did baseball players' salaries get in the '60s, and who was the highest-paid player of that decade?
What did Walter Cronkite say at the end of each CBS Evening News broadcast that he anchored?
Which of the following labels was NOT likely to be found on (or inside) the typical AM table radio of the '50s?
Some Baby Boomer proto-nerds built electronic kits offered by Allied Radio, Lafayette Radio Electronics, Heath Co., and others. Which of the following kits would you find in a Heathkit catalog from the '60s? (Select all that apply, if any.)
What was the name of the charter boat that was thrown off course by a storm on TV's Gilligan's Island ?
Who directed the 1968 film, 2001: A Space Odyssey ?
Who wrote the 1951 novel, The Catcher in the Rye ?
What is the title of this 1962 work by Andy Warhol?
The equine cartoon character Quick Draw McGraw sometimes assumed the identity of a Zorro-like masked vigilante known as ...
In 1960, some movie theaters were equipped with a system, dubbed "Smell-O-Vision", that delivered various odors to the audience seats when cued by the film. Playboy magazine's very first issue (1953) featured Marilyn Monroe.
In 1964, trumpeter Al Hirt had a hit single titled ... Lorne Greene, the Canadian actor best known for his role as Ben Cartwright on NBC's Bonanza, had a hit single (spoken, rather than sung) in 1964. It was titled ... David Seville was the stage name of the artist behind the 1958 hit records, Witch Doctor and The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late). What was his real name? Before portraying Mr. Waverly on TV's The Man From U.N.C.L.E., Leo G. Carroll starred as ...
On NBC's The Man From U.N.C.L.E., the enemy organization was named ... (Select all that apply, if any.)
Who sang beautifully, but stuttered when speaking? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Which of the following sentences would you be most likely to find in a "Dick and Jane" reader?
Those formerly-ubiquitous 33-1/3 rpm records were known as LPs. What did LP stand for? For what newspaper did Clark Kent work?
What was the name of the Cartwrights' ranch on Bonanza?
Many Buicks of the '50s sported portholes or "Ventiports" on the front fenders. What practical function did these serve? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Blue Suede Shoes was a #1 hit in 1956. Who wrote and first recorded it?
In a 1960s series of short radio dramas, a shoe salesman spent his weekends "striking terror into the hearts of criminals everywhere" as the winged warrior, Chickenman. What was his secret identity? "Professor Plum, in the library, with the candlestick"
is something you might say while playing ...
On which car would you find this '60s hood emblem? Ding dong ...
What musical instrument was used to produce the eerie sound effects in many science-fiction movies of the '50s?
The tribe of Indians living near Fort Courage on TV's F Troop were the ...
Ray Bradbury's 1953 novel, Fahrenheit 451, was adapted for the big screen in 1966. To what does the title refer?
The Joey Bishop Show sitcom has the distinction of being the only TV show ... Who was the first human in space?
Prior to becoming a politician and, eventually, U.S. President, Ronald Reagan was a radio and film actor, starring in one of these movies. Which one? One of these events occurred on November 9, 1965. Which one? On TV's Mission: Impossible, if Mr. Briggs (or Mr. Phelps) or any of his agents were caught or killed, what would the Secretary do?
Which make of car is most associated with James Bond 007? The U.S. launched the world's first nuclear-powered submarine in 1954. What was its name? Bob & Carol ... According to the 1957-58 hit record by Danny & the Juniors, what could you do At the Hop?
What Oscar winner made his first film appearance as the reclusive "Boo" Radley in 1962's To Kill a Mockingbird ?
You can trust your car to the man ...
During the '60s, who was often cited as "the most trusted man in America" ? Who starred in the original 1955 Broadway production of Damn Yankees ? Who starred in the original 1959 Broadway production of The Sound of Music ? In the '50s and '60s, the nation of Sri Lanka was known as ... "Coup-Fourré!"is something you might call out when playing ...
When playing Monopoly, how much rent would you be charged if you landed on Boardwalk with a hotel on it? In the '50s and '60s, Western Union offered singing telegram service.
Dr. Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of the therapeutic benefits of ... Remember TV's Hogan's Heroes? Which of the following statements about its cast is true? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Which of these automotive components, common in cars of the '50s and '60s, is absent from today's models? Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev famously warned: (Select all that apply, if any.) The operatic coloratura soprano hailed as La Stupenda in the '60s was ... In a landmark 1973 ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court ... Johnny Cash recorded A Boy Named Sue at San Quentin State Prison in 1969. The song reached #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Who wrote it? Two of the following actors are siblings. Which ones?
Which of these '60s musical groups did NOT feature guitarist Eric Clapton?
In 1971, George Harrison and Ravi Shankar organized two star-studded benefit concerts at Madison Square Garden in order to support ...
Which of the following did NOT serve as U.S. Secretary of State during the '50s-'70s ?
Who was Nikita Khrushchev's immediate successor as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union?
In 1962, Booker T. and the MGs had an instrumental hit titled ...
Before the pocket calculator, math students and engineers relied on the slide rule for quick, fairly-precise calculations. Which of the following could NOT be computed (in one operation) using a slide rule? The Bay of Pigs was the location of an international incident in 1961. Where is it?
In July, 1969, Massachusetts Senator Edward "Ted" Kennedy's career was nearly derailed. Why? The song Dominique reached #1 on the U.S. pop charts in December, 1963. Who recorded it? A performer known as Napoleon XIV had a hit novelty record in 1966 titled ... "Great Caesar's ghost!"was a catch-phrase often uttered by what fictional character?
If your TV picture looked like this, what knob did you need to adjust to get a proper picture? The 1975 film, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, starred Jack Nicholson and won five Academy Awards. Who wrote the 1962 novel on which it was based?
In 1964, author Ken Kesey and friends took an infamous hallucinogen-fueled trip across the country in a psychedelic school bus. What did the group call itself? Jurassic Park author Michael Crichton wrote several other novels, including one of these. Which one?
What is the title of this 1966 work by artist Barnett Newman?
Who was the star of TV's Andy's Gang ? "Holy mackerel!"was a catch-phrase often uttered by what fictional character?
Which cartoon character often exclaimed (with a lisp), "Sufferin' succotash!" ?
Who was Director of the FBI between 1963 and 1970?
Who left his heart in San Francisco? When and where was the first Super Bowl played? Before he was Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, he was ... Who was baseball's "Say Hey Kid" ? Who competed in the women's U.S. Open tennis tournament after previously competing in the men's division? "It's a Small World" is a popular attraction at several Disney theme parks, but it got its start at the 1964 World's Fair in New York. Whose pavilion was it? Arthur Murray's name was ... (Select all that apply, if any.)
Who hosted a fitness TV program starting in 1951? Jack Ruby became famous ...
Who starred (and sang) in the 1969 film, Paint Your Wagon ?
What was the name of the dog on The Jetsons ? Robert Zimmerman ... Tenzing Norgay ...
According to the Mister Ed theme song, what will happen if you ask Mister Ed a question?
Lethal injection, the electric chair, firing squads, and hanging have been used, from time to time, to execute those convicted of capital offenses. When was the last time such a person was legally executed by hanging in the U.S.?
What was First Lady Jackie Kennedy's maiden name? I can't believe ... One of the following agencies of departments of the U.S. government ceased to exist in 1971. Which one? What was CONELRAD? Payola ...
Who played three different roles (Duchess Gloriana XII; Prime Minister Count Rupert Mountjoy; and military leader Tully Bascomb) in the 1959 film, The Mouse That Roared ?
Who was the main sponsor of Milton "Mr. Television" Berle's comedy-variety show on NBC-TV in the early-to-mid '50s? Whose advertising claimed that their product was "shot from guns" ? What did consumers find in some boxes of Quaker Puffed Rice and Puffed Wheat cereals in 1955? One of the following musicians is/was NOT blind. Which one?
Ventriloquist-puppeteer Shari Lewis' best-known puppet was Lamb Chop. Which one of these was another of Lewis' puppets?
The Frisbee flying disc had several earlier names, including one of these. Which one? One of these products used Carly Simon's 1971 song, Anticipation, in its TV commercials. Which one? Who offered "57 varieties" ? The '50s-'60s was a period of rapid advances in air travel, including the transition to jet airliners. What (other than propellers) was common in that era, but no longer found in today's large airliners? In 1978, one of the following became a national holiday in the U.S. Which one?
Rush to Judgment, a book by Mark Lane, was one of the first investigations of ... What did SNCC stand for? What recreation innovation did Huffy introduce in 1955? "Magic Fingers" was ...
For many years, there were three commercial broadcast TV networks; ABC, CBS, and NBC. But in the mid '40s to mid '50s, there were other competing networks, including which one of these?
What did the C in CBS stand for? In the long history of Major League Baseball, there has been only one perfect game* during a World Series. Who pitched it, and when?
* not just a shut-out or no-hitter, but a game (minimum 9 innings) in which no players from the losing team reach base for any reason (base hit, walk, fielding error, hit batsman)
Where did Yogi Bear live? In the 1960s, who established a waiting list for future commercial flights to the moon? In the '60s, the ads for one of these products suggested that we should use it because the NASA astronauts used it in space. Which product was it? Whose Secret Squadron members were issued secret decoders? Nowadays, an "e-ticket" is an electronic ticket you might receive if you make travel arrangements online. What would an "E Ticket" get you in 1966?
In the '50s-'60s, how many channels were indicated on the typical American television set's built-in tuner?
Whenever Felix the Cat got in a fix, what would he do? Which one of these stories was NOT written by Dr. Seuss? Which one of the following names does not belong with the others?
In the 1974 film, The Godfather Part II, Corleone was not the real surname of the young Vito. What was his real name?
Who wrote the 1970 best-seller, Jonathan Livingston Seagull ? R. Crumb ... On what program did the catch-phrase, "Just the facts, ma'am," originate? Which classic car featured round "porthole" rear side windows?
In 1966, Woody Allen took an existing Japanese spy thriller, dubbed in comedic English dialogue, and released it as...
Who was the commercial spokesperson for Westinghouse appliances? Which of these is an actual town named after a radio or TV game show?
During the 1970s, who warned, "Don't leave home without them," in the commercials for American Express travelers cheques?
One of the regulars on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour ran for U.S. President. Who was it?
Who had the only speaking part in Mel Brooks' 1976 film, Silent Movie ?
Of the 30 companies that were in the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1958, how many remain there today* (allowing for companies whose names have changed)?
* December, 2012
Who regularly exclaimed, "And awaaay we go!" ? Match these comedic characters with the entertainers who portrayed them.
The Berlin Wall separated East and West Berlin during the Cold War. When was it constructed?
The first film based on Ian Fleming's James Bond novels was released in 1962. What was its title? "Checkpoint Charlie" was ... During the Cold War, a metaphoric barrier stood between the East and West. What was it called? Since the '50s and '60s, many countries have undergone identity crises. Match each of these current nations with its former name.
Where was JFK's presidential retreat? U.S. presidents often entertain guests and conduct meetings at Camp David. For whom (or what) was this facility named? Match each company or product with its logo. Match each animal with the appropriate TV show. Match these Top 100 hits of 1970 with their musical artists. What was special about ABC-TV's Turn-On series from 1969?
What was the name of Sky King's Cessna?
The title song for the James Bond 007 film, Goldfinger, was a Top 10 hit in the U.S. Who performed it?
Complete this line from The Firesign Theatre's 1968 debut album, Waiting for the Electrician or Someone Like Him:
"Follow in your book and repeat after me, as we learn three new words in ..."
In a recurring comedic bit on The Tonight Show, host Johnny Carson delivered "editorial replies" as a redneck wearing a plaid hunting jacket and hat. This character was named . . .
One of the following was NOT a member of the Monty Python comedy troupe. Which one? Which of these symbols was displayed on the Soviet Union's flag? Hot Diggity (Dog Ziggity Boom) was a #2 hit song in the U.S. in 1956. Who performed it? In the '50s, one of these was a popular hairstyle. Which one? "Let __ put you in the driver's seat." Whose advertising slogan was,
"When you care enough to send the very best" ?
What was touted as being "stronger than dirt" ? Complete this advertising slogan:
"Promise her anything, but give her ..."
In TV commercials, who suggested that you should, "Have it your way" ? Who promoted a bodybuilding program for the "97-pound weakling" ? Who used the advertising slogan, "Look, Mom, no cavities!" ? Complete this advertising slogan:
"All my men wear ___, or they wear nothing at all."
"Betcha can't eat just one"dared one advertiser. Which one?
Whose ads used a sexy model to ask, suggestively, "Why don't you pick me up and smoke me sometime?"
Can you match these cities with the years they hosted the Summer Olympic games? In the Beany and Cecil cartoon series, what sort of creature was Cecil?
Which comic strip features a character named Skeezix?
Only one of the following was NOT an amateur ("ham") radio operator. Which one?
What was L'il Abner's surname?
In 1966, Australian pop music group The Seekers had their biggest U.S. hit, Georgy Girl. In what film was this song featured?
Richard Harris had a big hit in 1968 with the first recording of a song that included the lyrics:
Someone left the cake out in the rain
I don't think that I can take it
'Cause it took so long to bake it
And I'll never have that recipe again
What is the title of this song? Hemo the Magnificent was ... The TV spy series with Patrick McGoohan was a British import. Here in the States, it was called Secret Agent. What was its original British title?
Who were the stars of TV's I'm Dickens, He's Fenster? (Select two.)
When mild-mannered Don Diego de la Vega donned his mask, he became the legendary swordsman, Zorro. Who portrayed him in the 1957 series on ABC-TV? On the '50s TV western, The Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok, who played Wild Bill's sidekick, Jingles P. Jones? Which brand of cigarettes came with a coupon on each pack, which smokers could collect and redeem for "valuable gifts" ?
We invited many TV families into our homes, growing to know them on a first-name basis. Can you match these TV husbands with their wives?
American Motors Corporation (AMC) produced several successful car models in the '70s, including which one of these?
What was the name of the U.S. agency that preceded the Nuclear Regulatory Commission?
The F.W. Woolworth Company had a nationwide chain of five-and-dime stores, but as that business declined, the company changed its focus and its name, becoming ...
Publication of the "Pentagon Papers" may have helped hasten the end of the Vietnam War. Who leaked these top-secret papers to the media in 1971?
What is Star Trek Captain James T. Kirk's middle name? What prominent golfer was known for wearing a straw hat and playing barefoot? What was the U.S. President's annual salary during the '50s and '60s (1949-1969, to be precise)? Who was the first African-American to be appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court? Can you match these groovy songs from the '60s-'70s with their recording artists?
Which one of the following was NOT a recurring villain on ABC-TV's Batman series in the '60s? What singer is known as The Queen of Soul? Which baseball player was known as "Hammer" ? Can you spot the celebrity whose birth name was Marvin Lee Aday?
Can you spot the person whose birth name was Leslie Hornby?
Actor James Dean starred in only three films before his death in 1955. How did he die?
Which one of these was NOT a successful '60s psychedelic rock band?
The written political principles at the heart of Students for a Democratic Society (1960-69) were known as the ...
Which school is most closely associated with the Free Speech Movement of 1964-65?
In 1969, a faction of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) broke off and formed a radical-left organization promoting the violent overthrow of the U.S. government. Informally, this group was called the ...
In 1974, newspaper heiress Patty Hearst was kidnapped by a militant left-wing group which also committed bank robberies and murders. What was the name of this group?
In a 1970 film, Godfrey Cambridge played a white bigot who wakes up one morning to discover that he has turned black. What was the film's title? Which comic strip featured a character named Sluggo?
Who emceed the Miss America pageant from 1955-79? The term "military-industrial complex" refers to the way industry, the military, and politics exert influence on one another, at the same time feeding and being fed by war. Who coined this phrase?
Which of the following were regulars on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Author Truman Capote made a rare acting appearance in the 1976 film, Murder by Death. What was the name of the character he portrayed?
Which one of these did NOT perform at the Woodstock Festival in August, 1969? Many fine musicians' lives and careers ended unexpectedly. How did each of these performers die?
First Lady Jackie Kennedy was a fashion trendsetter. Which one of these items became de rigueur due, in large part, to her use of it?
Who took American television viewers on a tour of the White House in 1962? Can you complete this advertising slogan?
"When ___ talks, people listen."
Where did the phrase, "Klaatu barada nikto," originate? Which TWO of the following starred in NBC-TV's mid-'60s series, I Spy ? (Select two.)
On The Jetsons animated TV series, what was George Jetson's work week like?
Which one of these TV series was NOT set mostly in or near New York City?
On I Love Lucy, the apartment building where the Ricardos and Mertzes lived was located at 623 E. 68th Street in New York City. What is at that address today?
Back in the '50s, many parents wouldn't let their children go to public swimming pools. This changed after the introduction of ... What role(s) did Patty Duke play on The Patty Duke Show? Which TWO of the following starred in the 1959 Broadway play (and 1962 feature film), The Miracle Worker ? (Select two.)
Who was the first host/anchor of NBC-TV's Today show?
Actor Larry Kert played the lead male role, Tony, in the original 1957 Broadway production of West Side Story. Who played the lead female roles, Maria and Anita? (Select two of the choices.)
Who played Dennis in the 1959 TV series, Dennis the Menace?
In Hank Ketcham's comic strip, what is Dennis the Menace's surname? Why are most pop songs about 3 minutes long?
Several new teams joined Major League Baseball during the '60s. Which was the first of these expansion (not simply relocated) teams to win a World Series? On April 9, 1965, Judy Garland and The Supremes performed at the gala opening night of ... There are now several domed sports stadiums in the U.S. Which was the first? In TV commercials, what product cured the dreaded "ring around the collar" ?
Many distinctive trademarks and brand names have, through common usage, become genericized. Which one of these generic terms had NOT been a U.S. trademark?
Which comedian was known as the King of the One-Liners, including the classic, "Take my wife -- please!" ?
In 1962, the University of Mississippi admitted its first African-American student, sparking riots on campus. Who was the student?
Where is the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame?
Who composed the theme music for the 1964 film, The Pink Panther ? What did Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton establish in 1966? Can you match these real-life husbands and wives?
The Vietnam War protest song, Draft Dodger Rag, included the lyrics:
Sarge, I'm only eighteen, I got a ruptured spleen
And I always carry a purse
I got eyes like a bat, and my feet are flat
And my asthma's getting worse
Who wrote it?
According to a '50s TV theme song, who was King of the Wild Frontier? Many remember The Skipper on Gilligan's Island, but few recall this fictional character's full name. Do you?
Alan Hale, Jr. is best known as the Skipper on TV's Gilligan's Island, but he played the title role on a previous show. Which one?
Whose signature song was Back in the Saddle Again ?
Whose signature tune was Thanks for the Memory ?
What TV program used Funeral March of a Marionette, by Charles Gounod, as its theme music?
A signature aspect of TV's Jeopardy! game show is the musical interlude during Final Jeopardy, while the contestants consider their answer-question and wager. Who wrote this music?
Who was the original leader of the NBC orchestra on The Tonight Show?
Who hosted New Year's Eve celebrations on radio and TV from 1929 to 1976, introducing America to Auld Lang Syne as a traditional song for the occasion?
In 1951, a DJ known as "Moondog" introduced the term "rock and roll" to the American radio audience. What was this DJ's real name?
The Lone Ranger's theme music is one of the most-recognized of all tunes. Who composed it?
It's 1959, and singer Eddie Fisher has divorced his first wife and married Elizabeth Taylor. Such a scandal! Who was Fisher's first wife? Which musician scandalously married his 13-year-old cousin (first cousin once removed) in 1957?
1958's Chantilly Lace was the biggest hit record for The Big Bopper. What was this artist's real name?
From 1966-2010, Jerry Lewis hosted an annual telethon to raise money for the fight against ...
What musical instrument did bandleader Lawrence Welk play?
Single Room Furnished starred blonde bombshell Jayne Mansfield, and was her final film. What became of her? What was the name of ventriloquist Paul Winchell's most famous dummy?
What unlikely inventor held 30 U.S. patents, including one for the first implantable artificial heart? Which comedian was known as The King of Deadpan? What was "Castle Bravo" ? In TV ads, what product was "Mmm, mmm, good!" ?
"Test tube baby" is what the popular media called the end result of in vitro fertilization (IVF). When and where was the first such baby born?
Where in California was Richard Nixon's "Western White House"?
Who was responsible for 1951's "shot heard 'round the world" ?
Most of The Beatles' songs were written by the team of Lennon and McCartney. Can you spot the one song in this list penned by George Harrison? The song, A World Without Love, was written by Lennon/McCartney and was a #1 hit in the U.S. in 1964, but it wasn't recorded by The Beatles. Who recorded it? For which product or service did the comedy team of Jerry Stiller and Ann Meara write and perform many humorous radio commercials?
In 1949, Antonio Egas Moniz of Portugal received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work on ... Complete this advertising slogan:
"Everything's better with ____ on it."
In TV commercials, who scolded customers, telling them, "Please don't squeeze the Charmin!" while secretly squeezing it himself? The 1971-72 novelty hit, Brand New Key, included the lyrics:
I got a brand new pair of roller skates
You got a brand new key
I think that we should get together and try them out you see
Who wrote and first recorded it? Which one of the following people once suffered a nervous breakdown and spent eight months in a mental hospital?
What was the capital of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)?
One of the most horrific events of the Vietnam War was the March, 1968 mass murder of civilian women and children by U.S. troops. This incident is known as the ...
With a series of records, The Beatles held the #1 spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart continuously from February 1, 1964 to May 2, 1964. Which recording artist finally took over the #1 slot from The Beatles?
On April 4, 1964, songs by The Beatles held the top five slots on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Which songs were these? (Select five.)
Can you identify The Monkees and indicate which instrument each of them played? Can you match the birth name of each actor with the name Hollywood gave him?
Who was the opening act for The Monkees during their Summer, 1967 concert tour? Before deciding to seek out four "unknown" singer-actors, the producers of The Monkees sitcom considered basing the show around which existing pop group? Ten years before becoming one of The Monkees, Micky Dolenz (credited as Mickey Braddock) starred in another TV series. Which one? Which of these costumes was the first "work uniform" ever to be granted trademark protection by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office? Each of the TV shows on the left shared a star with one of the shows on the right. Can you match the shows that shared a star? Can you match the birth name of each musician with his stage name? The following sentences employ some awfully good puns, and are parodies of a style of writing found in certain children's books.
"Pass me the shellfish," he said crabbily.
"Who discovered radium?" asked Marie curiously.
"Hurry up and get to the back of the ship," he said sternly.
"I know who turned out the lights," she hinted darkly.
What are such groaners called? Johnny Carson was best known for his opening monologue, interviewing skills, and comedic skits on NBC's The Tonight Show, but he was also an accomplished ... What common annoyance to urban TV viewers has quietly disappeared?
While best known for his comic acting abilities, Jonathan Winters is also an accomplished ... Can you match these well-known people with their lesser-known accomplishments?
Who was Woody Allen's first wife ("the Dread Mrs. Allen")? During the height of Beatlemania, Louise Caldwell provided "inside information" reports for several American radio stations on the daily doings of The Beatles. What relationship did Ms. Caldwell actually have with the band? The 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was adopted in 1971. What did it change? Science fiction author Theodore Sturgeon was the inspiration for the fictional character Kilgore Trout, who often appears in the works of which writer?
Can you identify this logo?
Which one of these musicians was never a member of The Rolling Stones?
Back in the '50s and '60s, many baseball players spent their entire Major League careers with one team. Can you match these players with their teams?
Bess Myerson was New York City's first Commissioner of Consumer Affairs. For what else is she known?
In early 1961, John F. Kennedy helped to end blacklisting of Hollywood personalities by the House Un-American Activities Committee. What did he do? "Mother, please! I'd rather do it myself!"
was the catchline in commercials for which product? 1968 saw the first cigarettes marketed specifically to women. Which brand was this? Which product was said to contain "600 tiny time pills"? Lincoln Continentals of the early '60s were distinguished by having what unusual design feature as standard equipment?
In what make of car was JFK riding when he was assassinated? Which of these soul/rock artists did NOT have a Billboard Hot 100 hit with a song first recorded by The Beatles? Can you match each of these ad slogans with its product? Benson & Hedges brought the first 100 mm. cigarette to the U.S. market in 1967. Which brand countered with a cigarette that was "a silly millimeter longer"?
Which candidate used the campaign slogan:"
In your heart, you know he's right" ?
Can you match these running mates in their losing bids for the White House? Back in the '50s and '60s, Haile Selassie I was Emperor of Ethiopia. What else is he known for? Since 1962, Playboy magazine has featured lengthy interviews with a wide variety of influential people, including all but one of these. Which one has never been the subject of a Playboy interview?
Who was Dobie Gillis' heartthrob? Every dog has its day, and (nearly) every day has its song. Can you match these '60s hits with their recording artists? Francis Gary Powers ... Can you match each movie with some of its main characters? Class difference (rich guy/poor girl, or rich girl/poor guy) was a theme of several Baby Boomer-era pop songs. Which of these was NOT about class difference?
The men's wear pictured here was fashionable in the '60s. What was it called? In the 1950s, President Dwight D. Eisenhower declared that something was "a terrible thing to do to the American people." To what was he referring?
Which of the following was NOT an Elvis Presley film?
Match each TV game show with its original host. In 1964, Kitty Genovese gained fame when she .... Albert DeSalvo gained fame when he ... By which of these nicknames was CBS most known? Which U.S. President, although Protestant, took the Oath of Office with his hand on a Catholic missal?
Which member of the Our Gang / Little Rascals cast started out being portrayed as a girl, but after several films was then portrayed as a boy? Who was the first U.S. President to have been a Boy Scout? In 1963, Australian musician Rolf Harris had a novelty hit in the U.S. with a song titled ... In 1969, John Lennon changed his middle name. He wanted to be known as "John Ono Lennon," but British law did not permit discarding a name given at birth, so he simply added Ono to his original middle name, which was ... Which British rock band had more appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show than any other such group? What is Paul McCartney's middle name?
Which one of the following was never Vice President of the United States? The Ed Sullivan Show featured a wide variety of musicians, comedians, actors, dancers, and other performers in its 23-year run. Which act appeared more frequently than any other (some say 67 times) ? Which one of the following never appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show? Which one of these television stars did NOT also have at least one Top 40 pop hit? Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In had a segment called "News of the Future," predicting unlikely or bizarre future news stories. A couple of times, though, these "joke predictions" actually came true. Which TWO of these are Laugh-In "News of the Future" items that came to pass? Can you match each Western TV star with his or her horse? Can you match each of these TV characters with his sidekick? If a Baby Boom-era pop/rock group was named after a band member, chances are it was the lead vocalist. But not always. Of the following list, which is the only group that WAS named after its lead vocalist? What was the first nationwide color TV broadcast in the U.S.? Can you identify Bamboo Harvester ? Everyone knows that the Lucy character on I Love Lucy was the wacky wife of a Cuban-born New York bandleader. Which of these describes the Lucy character on The Lucy Show when it debuted in 1962?
During the Vietnam War, protest groups sometimes identified themselves by using the name of a city and a number. Which of these was NOT a real protest group that was brought to trial? What did Newton Minow famously call a "vast wasteland" in 1961? TV commercials for which product featured a former Miss Sweden cooing, "Take it off, take it all off”? In 1963, President and Mrs. Kennedy had a third child, who lived only two days. What was the child’s name? Which TV show began with a man intoning, "Man ... woman ... birth ... death ... infinity"? Which game show had a "Heart Line" that viewers could call to help out a contestant who didn't win any money?
Until 1960, no comedy album had ever reached #1 on the Billboard charts. Which one of the following did so that year, topping the Broadway cast album of The Sound of Music and albums by Frank Sinatra and Elvis Presley, among others? Which pop song did the FBI investigate for 31 months, only to conclude that they were "unable to interpret any of the wording in the record"? In which Top 10 hit does Elvis Presley sing the words, "Oh, fiddle-de-dink!" ? In the lyrics of which one of these songs does the word “groovy” NOT appear? Do you want a car with gull-wing doors that open and close at the touch of a button? There's been only one production-model car with that feature. Which one was it? In the 1964 Jan and Dean song, which two cars participated in the disastrous drag race that ended at Dead Man's Curve? (Select two.)
Which of these colors featured most frequently in the titles of pop songs of the '60s? South Street was a Top 10 hit for the Orlons in 1963, with lyrics that began, "Where do all the hippies meet?" What city were the Orlons singing about? We knew many TV characters by their nicknames, but they had "real" first names as well. Can you match these characters with their first names? Can you match each of these TV characters with his show? Here are characters from various comic strips. Match each character on the left with the character on the right from the same comic.
Many Boomers remember Gumby, the green/blue stop-action animated clay figure. But can you name these other characters from his TV show?
What's the name of this creature from the Howdy Doody TV program?
The Howdy Doody TV show featured audience participation, with about 40 children seated in bleachers onstage. What were these lucky kids called? Can you match these current sports teams with their former home towns? Except as indicated, all are Major League Baseball teams. In 1969, rumors surfaced that someone had died and been replaced by a look-alike. The rumors took hold, and people worldwide searched for clues. Whose death had been falsely reported? The wives in The Stepford Wives were special because they ...
Abraham Zapruder ... Can you match the songs on the right with the Broadway musicals they’re from?
The film, The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. What song was this?
During which time period did Chuck Berry have a #1 pop hit?
Which of these was the first Beatles album NOT to have the word "Beatles" on the front cover? Which "weekly" '60s TV show was so popular that when it debuted, it was shown on two consecutive nights, Wednesday and Thursday? In the 1958-61 U.S. prime-time TV seasons, which type of show occupied the top three popularity spots? For many years, soap operas were aimed at stay-at-home housewives, and therefore aired during the daytime. Which was the first soap opera to air in prime time on a major U.S. TV network? You don't know shit from __."
What Top 10 song from the early '70s included the words, "I know," 26 times in a row? Who referred to the sentence, "I'm from the government, and I'm here to help," as "the nine most terrifying words in the English language"? Whose desk sported this sign?
Who pleaded, "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" ?
Who asked, “Where's the beef?” in a U.S. Presidential primary debate? Who famously said, "Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy" ?
What was the name of Mister Ed's owner?
The movie industry developed wide-screen technologies in order to compete more effectively with television. What was the name of the wide-wide-screen motion picture process, first used in 1952, that employed three synchronized projectors to produce an image covering 146 degrees of an arc?
Which comedy team made some 3-D movies in the 1950s? Which one of the following was NOT a member of the Not Ready for Prime-Time Players when Saturday Night Live debuted in October, 1975? The Champs' song from 1958, Tequila, famously ends with the band shouting "tequila!" Which other song from the late 1950s ends with someone saying "tequila!" ?
Starting in the 1950s, this symbol (shown here with the wording removed) meant that ... What event or development inspired Tom Paxton to write the song, I Don’t Want a Bunny Wunny ?
The kids' magazine, Highlights for Children, (found in many a dentist's office!) featured concise behavior lessons demonstrated by two cartoon kids, one of whom did everything wrong and the other of whom did everything right. The two kids were named ... In 1967, when a certain long-running TV program was in danger of being canceled, Sen. Robert Byrd (D-WV) spoke on the Senate floor in an effort to save it. The program continued for another 8 years. What show was Sen. Byrd so fond of? In 1969, Sen. John Pastore (D-RI) chaired hearings on the subject of TV violence. What popular CBS show was abruptly canceled when it failed to tone down the violence? In the 1964-65 TV season, similar shows featuring live pop/rock performances and go-go dancing debuted on two different networks. Which shows were these? (Select two.)
Which performer incorporated “inflationary language” (e.g., “Twice upon a time… and so fifth,”) and “phonetic punctuation” into his or her act?
[ ? =
“scrooooch, pop!”]
This artwork (shown here with the wording removed) was on the cover of a record album titled ... Which four-member rock group, with hits in the early '70s, saw half its founding members commit suicide?
According to a 1959-60 hit song, who was Running Bear in love with? Decades ago, "Mommy mommy" jokes, along with other so-called "sick jokes," were all the rage. What's the punchline to this one?
Mommy, mommy, why am I running around in circles?
Little puzzle-drawings like this ("Ship arriving too late to save a drowning witch") were popularized in the 1950s by humorist Roger Price. What are they called?
During his long career, James Brown acquired many nicknames -- some self-assigned. Which of these was NOT a nickname applied to James Brown?
Tonto referred to the Lone Ranger as "__".
In which year did almost all American-made cars switch from dual to quad headlights?
In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson proposed a broad set of domestic programs he called ...
In the Peanuts comic strip, what's the name of Snoopy's little bird friend? Identify Dr. Frances Horwich.
What actual annual tradition originated in Al Capp’s Li’l Abner comic strip? "Femlins" were ... What was Minipoo?
What product did Lionel Trains introduce in 1957 in order to appeal to girls? Which one of the following artists did NOT record for Motown Records or one of its subsidiary labels? (Think it's obvious? Think again!) In which city was Motown Records based?
Which color was NOT included in the familiar small box of eight Crayola crayons?
When Elvis Presley was discharged from the Army in 1960, what was his rank? Who wrote the 1968 sci-fi novel, 2001: A Space Odyssey ?
Launched in 1964, Alvin (DSV-2) is a deep-submersible research vehicle owned by the U.S. Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute in Massachusetts. Can you name the company that built it? (Think outside the box.)
Recording personnel Theodore Keep, Simon Waronker, and Alvin Bennett were involved in the production of which #1 pop song of the 1950s?
The father of one of the main stars of TV's The Beverly Hillbillies was a well-known .. During the 1960s, some popular music songs were deemed to have words, or subject matter, inappropriate for broadcast; therefore, edited, bleeped, or censored versions of these songs were recorded and distributed. Which one of these did NOT see release in two versions, the original and one "cleaned up"?
Automobile brands came and went during the '50s and '60s. Of the following makes, which was the LAST to cease production in the United States?
TV's Hawaii Five-O often ended with the lead character saying ... In 1966, a just-released album by The Beatles was hastily withdrawn and given another cover because the original cover ... What do the creative works
Forever Amber, by Kathleen Winsor
Strange Fruit, by Lillian Smith
The Children's Hour, by Lillian Hellman
Naked Lunch, by William S. Burroughs
have in common?
In the Coasters' 1959 song, Charlie Brown, what is Charlie Brown alleged to be doing in the boys' gym? In Arlo Guthrie’s 1967 song, Alice’s Restaurant, the restaurant was located “just a half-a-mile from the railroad track” in what town? The Order of Preachers is a Roman Catholic order of friars, nuns, and lay persons founded in the 13th century by St. Dominic, a contemporary of St. Francis of Assisi. The story of the early years of the order and its founder was the subject of ...
In the Peanuts comic strip, Snoopy sometimes imagined himself to be a World War I flying ace battling his nemesis, the Red Baron. What type of plane did Snoopy “fly”? "Put that in your __ and __ it." Can you complete this advertising slogan?
“Gee, Dad! It’s a ____ !”
For which of these is Buckminster Fuller best known? Which one of these pop music performers did NOT die in a plane crash?
In which TV show did the phrase, "Whoa, Nelly!" originate?
1959's Signal 30 was a film shown in many a high school assembly to alert teenagers to the dangers of ...
Which TV character always used the "shave-and-a-haircut" rhythm when knocking on his employer's door?
Can you complete this classic line from Monty Python’s Flying Circus ?
"Nobody expects … "
In Roll Over Beethoven, Chuck Berry sings of being afflicted with two ailments. What are they?
What kind of car did Peter Falk drive on Columbo ?
Which of these was the first African-American entertainer to host his own hourlong weekly variety TV show?
From its debut in 1957 through 1963, ABC-TV’s American Bandstand was broadcast from studios in what city? Which of the following records is held by Freddy "Boom Boom" Cannon?
When they debuted in 1968, the Motion Picture Association of America's original lineup of film ratings was ...
In which of these comic strips do the characters live in close to "real time," getting older as the years pass? Actor William Talman played D.A. Hamilton Burger on Perry Mason. For what else is he known? What was the centerpiece of the New York World’s Fair (1964-65)?
What sort of business did Dobie Gillis' father, Herbert T. Gillis, own?
Can you identify this painting? In 1973, a quip by Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show sparked a temporary nationwide shortage of ...
In 1956, American actress Grace Kelly married Rainier III, Prince of ...
What was the credit card now known as Visa called (in the U.S.) when it was launched in 1958?
The Apollo 11 spacecraft consisted of a command module, support module, and lunar module. Two astronauts descended to the Moon's surface in the lunar module, while one remained in lunar orbit in the command module. What was the name given to the command module?
What did this symbol signify? Actor Robert Blake (Baretta) was also a child star in what series?
Who sued the publishers of Mad magazine for $25 million in 1961? What was special about the Johnny Eagle series of toy guns made by Topper Toys in the '60s? According to the song, whose diet consisted of "bearcat stew"?
Who, at the age of 9, was the youngest performer ever* to be nominated for an Academy Award for a lead role?
* as of November, 2016 Which of these was NOT a haircare/grooming product? Do you remember the frozen toaster-size “pizzaburgers” made by Buitoni? What were they called? Which of these was a candy bar now sold as Milky Way Midnight?
Fantastic Voyage (1966) was a film starring Stephen Boyd, Raquel Welch, Edmund O'Brien, and Donald Pleasence. Where did the voyage of the title take them?
The Great Escape (1963 film) is based on a real-life mass escape from a German POW camp during World War II. In the film, how does Steve McQueen’s character, Captain Virgil "The Cooler King" Hilts USAAF, spend his time in the cooler (solitary confinement)?
Only one of the following statements about the first Touch-Tone telephones (introduced by AT&T in 1963) is true. Which is it? Several instrumental hits by Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass were used as musical cues on what popular TV show of the ‘60s-‘70s? For what else is trumpeter Herb Alpert (of the Tijuana Brass) known?
The 1968 film, Planet of the Apes, was followed by four sequels, including one of these. Which one?
Author Robert A. Heinlein coined the term grok in his 1961 novel, Stranger in a Strange Land. What did it mean? Who or what was Fluffo? On TV's The Addams Family, Lurch responded, "You rang?" when summoned by the gong. On which other show was "You rang?" a catchphrase? All of these actors also made the charts as pop singers. But which one had a Top 10 hit with a vocal version of his own TV show's theme music?
Soupy Sales’ children’s TV show featured two large dog puppets – one black and one white -- seen only as giant paws. What were the dogs’ names?
What was the only American-made, mass-produced passenger car to feature a rear-mounted air-cooled engine? Who wrote the 1965 best-seller, Unsafe at Any Speed ?
The whole world knows Ronald McDonald, but before Ronald, the McDonald's chain had another mascot, known as ... Who was a regular on McHale's Navy and a very frequent guest on The Carol Burnett Show ?
Rachel Carson’s 1962 best-seller, Silent Spring, helped to spawn which movement or industry? Remember the small slot at the back of medicine cabinets? What purpose did it serve?
From 1959 until 2008, the Lincoln cent had Abraham Lincoln on the obverse and the Lincoln Memorial on the reverse. What was on the reverse of the penny from 1909 to 1958? Who was Ivy Baker Priest? How would you erase the drawing on an Etch-A-Sketch?
Which of these events occurred first?
Which of these events occurred first? “Olly olly __ !”
Kookie, the parking lot attendant played by Edd Byrnes on 77 Sunset Strip, often spouted hipster language ("Baby, you're the ginchiest!"). But he was also known for constantly ... The "disadvantages" of which product were humorously portrayed in 1960s TV ads?
Joseph Heller's 1961 novel, Catch-22, introduced a new idiom to the English language. Which of these best summarizes a "catch-22" ? Who was the youngest solo male singer to have a #1 album on Billboard's albums chart*?
(* as of November, 2016) Can you match these actresses with their TV cop/detective roles?
One of the cartoon magpies, Heckle or Jeckle, spoke with a distinct New York accent. What accent did the other have? What character was a regular on both Green Acres and Petticoat Junction? What was marketed in the 1960s as "the Think Drink"?
In January 1965, children’s TV host Soupy Sales was suspended from his show for two weeks. What had he done to warrant this? Which one of these was NOT one of Nancy Drew's friends or a member of her family or household? What were the Hardy Boys' first names? Twiggy was ...
What was the magic phrase to open the cartoon vault on the original Mickey Mouse Club TV show? Which of these was the catchphrase (also the title of the autobiography) of Jack Paar, former host of The Tonight Show? The first widely-available diet soft drink was introduced in 1958. Which one of these was it? Can you match the store names with the initials?
Which of these recordings does NOT include a reference to the Vietnam War?
In her 1970 song, Big Yellow Taxi, Joni Mitchell declared, “They paved Paradise …”
In the classic 1969 film, Easy Rider, who played "Connection," the man that received the contraband cocaine from stars Wyatt "Captain America" (Peter Fonda) and Billy (Dennis Hopper)? In the 1960s, "Killer Joe" Piro was best known for being ... Which one of these people disappeared in 1975 and is presumed to be dead, although a body was never found? What is the object pictured here?
What are these women doing?
Can you identify this car?
What did a man popularly called D. B. Cooper famously do in 1971?
Which one of the following did Chairman Mao’s wife prevent from visiting China with President Nixon in 1972?
What was the first Disney film to have a sequel?
Which one of the following is NOT a Disney film?
Who played the mother on both the Lassie and Lost in Space TV shows?
Who is generally acknowledged to be the creator of Gonzo journalism* ?
* a style of journalism in which the reporters themselves become central figures of their stories What was the most popular brand of toothpaste or tooth powder in the U.S. from the 1920s through the late 1950s?
Which one of the following was a market researcher for the Ipana toothpaste "Brusha, brusha, brusha" ad campaign, featuring Bucky Beaver, before becoming otherwise famous? "Bent Fabric" is ...
Who was at the microphone during the 1974 Oscars when a man "streaked" on stage? Rudi Gernreich became famous in 1964 when he ... What is the object pictured here?
What do the initials PF stand for in the name of the sneakers, PF Flyers? Can you identify the person in this photo?
Before making it big in the mid-1970s, Barry Manilow was …
In 1988, Bob Dylan stopped someone at a party, hugged him and said, "Don't stop what you're doing, man. We're all inspired by you." To whom was he speaking?
Until 1962, the Volkswagen Beetle lacked ... Identify Carnaby Street. What was the first single by a former Beatle to reach #1 on the charts? George Harrison lost a legal battle over his song, My Sweet Lord, which was deemed to have infringed the copyright for what other song? What was Lady Bird Johnson's real first name? Who often exclaimed, "Heavens to Murgatroyd!" ? Beginning in November 1969, Native Americans staged a 19-month-long occupation of ... Which of the following, after being elected President, chose not to seek another term in the next election? (Select all that apply.)
Johnny Horton had a #1 hit in 1959 with The Battle of New Orleans. The words of that song celebrate the final battle of which military conflict? Many pop songs have resurfaced in TV commercials, but I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing (In Perfect Harmony) hit the charts in 1971 after being a commercial jingle for … Which of the following characters was NOT featured in the original (1977) lineup of the Village People?
The Shadow of Your Smile won an Academy Award for Best Original Song after being featured in what film? Can you complete this advertising slogan?
"Wow! It sure doesn’t taste like … !”
According to the song, what did Love Potion #9 look like?
Which one of these is NOT an Abbott and Costello movie?
Which of these songs is based almost entirely on verses from the Bible? What does the expression to “get rubber” mean? Paul Cole, a 58-year-old American tourist, is pictured on the front of which Beatles album?
The Shangri-Las’ 1964 song, Leader of the Pack, was followed, two months later, by a parody called Leader of the ...
What warning often accompanied the punched cards mailed with utility bills?
What was the name of the on-board computer in 2001:A Space Odyssey?
Which song from 1968 included the following lyrics?
What's your name?
(Who's your daddy? He rich?)
Is he rich like me?
Complete this advertising slogan from the '50s and '60s:
"______ is our most important product."
Which character's animated cartoons were often mini-operas, with the dialogue sung rather than spoken?
The 1967 Swedish film, I Am Curious (Yellow), was notorious for its nudity and sex scenes. Which one of the following appeared in it? (No, not in one of those scenes.)
In 1972, Bobby Fischer won the World Chess Championship in Reykjavik, Iceland by defeating ...
How big was the infamous gap in the Watergate tapes? Which one of the following was NOT involved in the Watergate scandal? Which of the following did NOT headline a tour in England for which The Beatles were a supporting/warm-up act? Arthur Fiedler was ... The first restaurant in the McDonald's chain opened in 1955. How much did its hamburgers cost?
In the ‘50s and ‘60s, what would parents and school nurses put on your skinned knee?
Can you arrange these McDonald's offerings in the order they were introduced?
Which one of the following ingredients was NOT in McDonald's original Big Mac?
1963”s Surf City was the first surf song to reach #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Who recorded it?
Where, as the song goes, were there “two girls for every boy” ? To what does the term "Sanforization" refer? One of the following was a Quaker. Which one? Can you complete this advertising slogan?
"Don't wait to be told, you need ... "
Back in the '50s and '60s, on which of these items might you have found the Kelvinator brand name?
Who gained fame as the Galloping Gourmet? "I'm no fool, no-siree / I want to live to be 93!" was the theme song of a series of educational cartoons from the late 1950s that taught schoolchildren about hazards such as traffic, fire, and sharp objects. Can you name the host of the "I'm No Fool" series?
On the Rocky and His Friends animated TV series, what nation did spies Boris and Natasha work for? Which one of the following was NOT a member of the Rat Pack?
TV commercials for which brand of chewing gum featured a special dance step named for the gum?
Which make of car sported, during the 1960s, the largest emblem (logo) ever put on a regular production passenger vehicle?
Many recall Boris and Natasha on the Rocky and His Friends animated TV series. But do you know Natasha’s surname?
Which one of these was a Top 40 hit song in 1965? "For those who think young"was an advertising slogan for what product?
When Richard Nixon resigned the presidency in 1974, to whom did he address his letter of resignation? “They often call me Speedoo, but my real name is …”
Since 1973, what are American League baseball pitchers no longer required to do? Five of these brands are named after actual people. Can you spot them? (Select all that apply.)
In what town did the Cleavers live on TV's Leave it to Beaver ? Can you match each TV show with its theme music?
Note: In some browsers, you may need to manually pause one theme before playing another.
The recording artist known as Donovan had several hit records in the ‘60s, including Sunshine Superman and Mellow Yellow. What's his real name?
The actor who played the title role in Bachelor Father also starred in which other show?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
The Partridge Family TV sitcom was inspired by and loosely based on an actual pop music family. Which one?
All but one of the following are recipients of the Oscar, Tony, Emmy, and Grammy awards. Which one is NOT a member of this exclusive "Grand Slam" club?
Which of the following did NOT often perform as a comedy team?
On which TV program would you most likely hear this catch-phrase?
"Six, two, and even -- over and out."
This distinguished-looking gentleman was seen in advertisements for ...
Since 1997, the popular Chex line of breakfast cereals has been made by General Mills. Who made them in the ‘50s and ‘60s? Many TV game shows of the ‘50s and ‘60s featured merchandise and prizes from one of these mail-order catalogs. Which one?
From 1927-1975, A&P was the largest food retailer in the U.S. (until 1965, its largest retailer of any kind). What was the full name of the company?
Who first recorded Hound Dog, in 1952? "Choo-Choo Charlie" was a character used in advertising for which of these?
Which of the following James Bond movies was a spoof, assembled by five directors and ten writers, unrelated to the "straight" Bond films starring Sean Connery, Roger Moore, etc.? Whose 1950s advertising campaign quickly transformed its product from one favored by women into one thought of as manly?
They say life imitates art. Which one of these played a character with a certain job on a TV sitcom, and later held that same job in real life?
What’s the name of the game pictured here? Who used the advertising slogan
“Blow in her face and she’ll follow you anywhere.” ?
Whose TV variety show included a segment introduced by girls singing
"Letters -- We get letters -- We get stacks and stacks of letters" ?
Can you identify this character? Who was Margie's "boyfriend" in the '50s TV show, My Little Margie ?
In the Peanuts comic strip, which character spent each Halloween in the pumpkin patch waiting for the Great Pumpkin to arrive? What did John Wayne and Phyllis Schlafly have in common?
The rock 'n' roll nostalgia group Sha Na Na derived its name from the lyrics of what song? “This is the dawning of the Age of ____ .”
Remember 1962's Papa-Oom-Mow-Mow, by the Rivingtons? What does the lead vocalist sing about? Which one of the following was typically white in the '50s and '60s, but is now usually another color? Can you identify the person in this photo?
Can you identify the person in this photo?
What was the name of the hotel on Petticoat Junction ? In late 1966, Gary Lewis and the Playboys performed on The Ed Sullivan Show. Gary, who was just about to enter the Army, sang One Last Kiss, and a girl from the audience was invited onstage to kiss him goodbye. The song and the kiss mirrored a scene from which Broadway musical? Whose catchphrase was "Well, I'll be a dirty bird!" ? What famous sports figure was shaved by Farrah Fawcett in a 1978 TV ad for her line of Fabergé hair products and fragrances?
Contestants on Truth or Consequences who failed to answer a tricky question correctly were met with a loud sound from ...
In 1964-65, Shirley Ellis had a Top 10 hit with The Name Game. Which of the following names would it be wise to avoid while playing her game? Back in the ‘50s and ‘60s, many editions of The Saturday Evening Post featured cover art by …
On You Bet Your Life, with Groucho Marx, what happened if a contestant said the secret word?
In the 1967 hit, Ode to Billie Joe, the narrator -- or someone who looked like her -- and Billie Joe McAllister were seen "throwing something off the Tallahatchie Bridge." What was it that they threw?
Which TWO of these events occurred during the 1950s?
In the U.S. prior to 1967, the Memorial Day holiday was officially known as ... George Fenneman is/was ...
How many husbands has Zsa Zsa Gabor had, to date?
Which one of the following was NOT one of Elizabeth Taylor's husbands?
What was Harry S. Truman’s middle name?
Which one of these was NOT the screen name of a "Bond Girl" in a 007 film?
In 1962, an oral vaccine developed by Dr. Albert Sabin was introduced to combat …
What's the name of this game?
In the ‘50s and ‘60s, which one of these was a sweetened puffed-wheat breakfast cereal? Can you identify Nik-L-Nip ? To what does “wow and flutter” refer?
Who recommended that their product be used three times a day?
When a standard audio cassette is playing, how fast does the tape move? In the 1950s, which product used the ad slogan
“Relief is just a swallow away.” ?
Can you identify Zip Gun ? What does ICBM stand for?
Kodak introduced the Instamatic camera in 1963. For which one of these innovations is the Instamatic known?
What was the name of the launch vehicle (rocket) used by NASA for the Gemini manned spaceflight program (1965-66)?
From whose mail-order catalog did Wile E. Coyote obtain the various contraptions with which he hoped to catch the Road Runner?
Can you identify this movie theme music?
Frank Sinatra carried a roll of dimes at all times, from 1963 until his death in 1998. Why did he start doing this?
Prior to Donald Trump, who was the only* U.S. president to have been divorced?
Which one of the following had a White House wedding?
Which world leader was prevented, for security reasons, from visiting Disneyland in 1959?
Audrey Hepburn starred in the 1964 film version of My Fair Lady, but she only lip-synced the songs. Who supplied Eliza Doolittle’s singing voice? Who or what is a “Wankel” ?
What does the “CB” stand for in “CB radio”?
The DC-10 wide-body jet airliner was introduced in 1971. Which company built it?
Idlewild Airport is mentioned in the theme song for an early-'60s TV sitcom. Where was it?
Addition of fluoride to public water supplies became widespread in the U.S. around 1960, in order to ...
Which one of these was introduced in 1972 and, due to its popularity and commercial success, launched the video arcade game industry?
Who was known as Ol' Blue Eyes?
Hey, whatcha got pokin’ out, there?
The first season of Saturday Night Live included skits in the Land of Gorch, featuring …
In 1960, Bulova introduced the first wristwatch to use a tuning fork and electronic circuitry; it emitted a soft hum rather than a ticking sound. What was it called?
What is the object pictured here?
Before replacing Shemp Howard as one of The Tthree Stooges, Joe Besser was a regular on The Abbott and Costello Show, playing a 40-year-old man dressed in a Little Lord Fauntleroy suit. What was this character's name?
Can you identify this icon of "weirdo shirts" and 1950s-1960s hot rod culture?
To what product did President Jimmy Carter’s younger brother lend his name?
In 1965, Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards was nearly electrocuted during a concert in Sacramento, California. What is believed to have saved his life?
Which one of these was NOT part of the ‘60s dance craze? Which famous sports figure became the commercial spokesperson for Mr. Coffee electric coffee makers?
Who was Marilyn Monroe’s first husband?
Marvel Comics has trademarked the sound that Spider-Man's web shooter makes. That sound is:
When introduced in 1959, Chatty Cathy dolls could say 11 different phrases. Which one of these was NOT among them? Can you identify Bild Lilli?
Can you identify the person in this 2002 photo?
Who suggested, in 1967, that we should “Turn on, tune in, drop out” ?
Who was Abbie Hoffman? Who did the Youth International Party (“Yippies”) support for President in 1968?
Which movie from the 1960s was said to have made thousands of people afraid of taking a shower?
Which TV show was subtitled "American Scene Magazine"?
Both Neil Diamond and the Hollies had hits with the record, He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother. Where did the songwriters get that phrase from?
Who reportedly made Lady Bird Johnson burst into tears at a White House luncheon in 1968?
Can you identify this sound?
Edward D. Wood, Jr. wrote and directed a film, released in 1959, that some critics have called “the worst movie ever made”. Which film was this? Can you identify Bwana Devil ? Identify VISTA from 1964:
One of the following fictitious entities was featured on TV’s The Name of the Game (1968-71) and later become a reality. Which one?
Who won the Korean War?
Which of the following was once employed as a Playboy Bunny?
Theodor Geisel was a successful writer, but he used a pseudonym. What was it?
The “Dear Abby” advice column was started in 1956, by …
Robert Loggia starred in the 1966-67 TV series, T.H.E. Cat. What did T.H.E. stand for? Billy Graham, Dick Clark, and Joe DiMaggio all ...
P. D. Q. Bach scholar, "Professor" Peter Schickele, claimed to be Chairman of the Department of Musical Pathology at what school? Can you identify the original members of The Mamas and the Papas? (Select four.)
Which of these foreign-language pop hits contains the line, translated into English, "I'm not a sailor -- I'm a captain!" ?
Satirist Tom Lehrer contributed several songs to which TV series in the mid-'60s?
in what car did Tod and Buz tour the U.S.A. on TV's Route 66 ? "Cowabunga!" -- the expression of awe or surprise used in the 1960s by surfers and, decades later, by Bart Simpson and the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles -- came from ...
What was on the reverse side of the Kennedy half dollar when it was introduced in 1964?
What plane was flown by the airmen of TV's 12 O'Clock High ?
In her 1964 hit song, Petula Clark suggested that you should go Downtown and listen to what type of music?
Janis Ian wrote and recorded her first hit single, Society’s Child, in 1964, when she was 13. What was the song about?
Whose flag was this?
Other than Psycho, can you name two movies featuring Anthony Perkins?
What is the object pictured here?
Who had a #1 hit in 1953 with (How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?
Although it would be considered very politically incorrect today, Ray Stevens’ novelty song, Ahab the Arab, reached #5 on Billboard's top 40 chart in 1962. What was the name of Ahab’s camel?
Who had a big hit with Personality in 1959?
What has Microsoft’s Bill Gates called “the first interactive TV show” ?
Who had a hit record in 1962 with Speedy Gonzales ?
This excerpt from Elton John’s 1972 hit, Crocodile Rock, reminded many* of which previous song?
* enough so that it prompted a lawsuit
Can you identify the object pictured here?
Who had a #1 hit single with the song, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds ? Back in the sixties, these teams had something in common. What was it?
Boston Patriots Buffalo Bills Denver Broncos Houston Oilers Oakland Raiders
Remember Witch Doctor, by David Seville? Which one of these was NOT part of the song's chorus?
In the liner notes of Meet the Beatles, the first Beatles album released in the U.S., Capitol Records used the phrase "pudding basin" to describe ...
In which film did Doris Day sing, Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be) ?
Whose flag was this? Back in the ‘50s and ‘60s, if you used something with the brand name LePage’s, it was probably …
Which of the following comedians often appeared on the “borscht belt” circuit in New York’s Catskill Mountains? (Check all that apply, if any.)
Can you identify Laszlo Toth ?
Carrie Fisher played Princess Leia in Star Wars. Can you name her parents?
Which television actor had been a professional baseball and basketball figure, playing for both the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Boston Celtics? What was the name of the fictional great ape who adopted John Clayton after her own baby died? I fought the law …
In 1950s TV commercials, Clorets chewing gum was touted as having which ingredient?
The 1969 film, Hercules in New York, featured an unlikely pair of actors. Which one?
Which parent-child pair won a pair of Oscars for the same movie?
At the Academy Awards, which film beat Star Wars for the best film of 1977? Hubert Humphrey said that he may have lost the 1968 election because …
What did Richard Nixon say during his brief appearance on Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In in September, 1968?
In the third season of the 1960s TV show, Batman, the crime-fighting duo was joined by Batgirl, who was identified as:
If you were lucky, there was a song named after you. Which one of the following was NOT the title of a ‘50s-‘60s Top Ten hit song?
Which of these was NOT one of the 10 most popular names given to baby girls in the 1950s?
Which of these was NOT one of the 10 most popular names given to baby boys in the 1950s?
In 1967, there was a rumor -- since debunked -- that one could get high by smoking ...
What was the name of the vampire on TV’s Dark Shadows daytime soap opera? In 1960, Israeli agents captured a high-ranking Nazi fugitive in Buenos Aires, Argentina. What was his name?
Which Top 20 song from the 1960s is sung mostly in Creole slang -- the exact translation of which is a matter of dispute?
In an oft-replayed appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, who demonstrated his tomahawk-throwing skills, but hit the target embarrassingly low?
To which Indian tribe did Howdy Doody‘s Chief Thunderthud belong?
Which of the following TV shows was a spin-off of another spin-off?
Can you identify this sound?
Which 1965 film was dedicated to Elias Howe, who in 1846 invented the sewing machine?
The 1961 Academy Award for Best Original Song went to Moon River. In which film was it featured?
Can you identify this sound?
Can you identify Royal and Underwood?
In Chuck Berry’s song, Memphis, Tennessee (or simply Memphis, as in Johnny Rivers’ 1964 version), who is the singer trying to contact on the telephone?
Which of these best paraphrases the advice given by Gerry and the Pacemakers in a 1964 hit song?
Which of these best paraphrases the advice given by Jimmy Soul in a 1963 hit song?
In a famous routine, Abbott and Costello (well, Costello, anyway)
proves that 7 X 13 equals ... In 1965, an organization was formed to promote worldwide education through musical performances. What was its name?
Which one of these was NOT a hit song by the 1910 Fruitgum Company during the 1960s?
Can you identify Wilma Rudolph? Can you match each of these '50s-'70s-era world leaders with his/her nation?
Who was the last* U.S. president who did not have a daughter?
* as of 2017
“Jeremiah was a bullfrog”
is the opening line of a hit song from 1970, written by Hoyt Axton. What was the title of the song?
The final Beatles single to reach #1 on the U.S. charts was ...
In January 1972, Time magazine called the person featured on their cover "TV's first black superstar". Who was thus honored?
Kmart, Walmart, Target, Woolco, and Big-K all opened their first discount stores in 1962.
For several years, CBS’ 60 Minutes featured a segment called Point/Counterpoint, a short debate between pundits on opposite ends of the political spectrum. One frequent pair was …
Look, up in the sky!
It's a
__!
(3-part answer)
Given the following "doo-wop" songs, which is the only one in which the words "doo-wop" were actually sung? Whose logo is this?
Each of the songs on the left is someone's signature tune. Can you match the songs with their singers? Lustre-Creme was ... On which of the following would you find a tone arm?
In what year did the Vietnam War end?
Which one of the following was NOT a member of the Warsaw Pact military alliance (1955-1991) ?
Can you complete these TV show titles? With a name like ___, it has to be good.
Who used the slogan
“A mind is a terrible thing to waste.” ?
It’s 11 o’clock. Do you know where your ____ are?
Which of the following events, unlikely though it may seem, occurred in June, 1969? Two of the choices are correct; pick either one.
In January, 1967, an event billed as The Human Be-In took place. Where?
Thinking back to the ‘50s and ‘60s, can you identify Y. A. Tittle ? Can you name each of the classic albums whose cover art is shown here?
In 1960, an American airplane was shot down over Soviet airspace. What kind of plane was it?
What was special about the Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief record album (U.S. release 1975) ?
Can you match the names with the musical groups? What is meant by the term “Fosbury Flop” ? Many songs of the '50s and '60s dealt with deaths of one kind or another. Can you match these songs with the deaths their lyrics speak of?
Which product used the famously finicky Morris the Cat in its TV commercials?
Fearing that they were too morbid for American Bandstand, Dick Clark insisted that the lyrics of a hit song be changed for his program, despite the fact that the original version told a true story. What was the song?
"Minuet in G major" from 1725’s Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (often attributed to J.S. Bach) is the basis for the melody of what hit song?
A 1971 concert by Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention in Montreux, Switzerland, ended prematurely. Why?
The lyrics of Procol Harum’s 1967 hit song, A Whiter Shade of Pale, make reference to a certain literary work. Which one? Which one of these was the first Beatles album to contain only their original compositions?
Fred MacMurray played the father on TV’s My Three Sons. What was his character’s occupation?
What was the first Disney film to have a sequel feature film?
A #1 hit song from 1966 included the lyrics:
You keep lyin' when you oughta be truthin'
And you keep losin' when you oughta not bet
What song was this?
Former New York Yankees pitcher Jim Bouton wrote a controversial tell-all book in 1970. What was its title?
Which cereal is touted as the "Breakfast of Champions" ?
Who used the advertising slogan:
"We try harder" ?
Merle Haggard had a big country hit in 1969 titled,
Okie . . .
Which one of the following was often heard butchering the song, Oh My Darling, Clementine ?
Phil Silvers played Sgt. Bilko on The Phil Silvers Show. What was Bilko’s first name?
In the early days, The Beatles recorded several covers (their versions of songs written by others), including one from which hit Broadway show?
Which TV cartoon featured characters named Ty Coon, Vincent van Gopher, Pig Newton, Muskie Muskrat, Moley Mole, and Possible 'Possum?
In the Smokey Stover comic strip, what was the main character’s job?
What’s the name of Beetle Bailey’s nemesis? Which product was advertised as “the Uncola” ? Aren't you glad you use _____? (Don't you wish everybody did?)
What kind of car was TV’s My Mother the Car?
The U.S. boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Why?
In the 1964-65 animated TV series, Jonny Quest, what was Jonny’s surname?
Ohio is one of the few U.S. states with an official rock song. What song is it?
In 1962, The Marvelettes had a hit song whose title was a telephone number. What was the number?
Whose catchphrase was “Dy-no-MITE” ?
Can you match each TV show with the first name of its title character?
Which actor portrayed the same character in the movie and TV versions of M*A*S*H ?
Of the following artists, which was the only one to perform at the Woodstock Festival in August, 1969?
We’ve all played with NERF toys, but do you know what the name NERF stands for?
Can you identify Chuck Yeager?
The U.S. Postal Service’s ZIP code system was introduced in 1963. What does ZIP stand for?
Which TV game show is described below?
The winner, to the musical accompaniment of Pomp and Circumstance, would be draped in a sable-trimmed red velvet robe, given a glittering jeweled crown to wear, placed on a velvet-upholstered throne, and handed a dozen long-stemmed roses.
In 1957, Governor Orval Faubus called out the National Guard to stop African-American students from attending high school. Of which state was he the Governor? "I'm gonna __ like a __ and sting like a bee." - Muhammad Ali
Many naval warships are nuclear powered, but what was the first nuclear powered civilian vessel? In the '50s and '60s, the name Norge was most often seen in connection with...
Martial arts master Bruce Lee co-starred on which '60s TV series?
Where did TV’s Laverne and Shirley work?
When a typewriter rang a small bell, what did it mean?
In cool weather, Polaroid instant photos developed very slowly. What did Polaroid suggest that you do if the temperature was 40°F or below?
Can you identify Evelyn Wood? In the ‘50s and ‘60s, the name Gregg was most often associated with… Can you identify Hydrox?
Where were these now-defunct amusement parks located?
Thinking back to the ‘50s and ‘60s, can you identify Haystacks Calhoun?
What was the setting for the L'il Abner comic strip?
Who portrayed Minnesota Fats opposite Paul Newman's "Fast Eddie" Felson in the 1961 film, The Hustler?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
What does the modern-day desktop or laptop computer’s keyboard have that the typical U.S.-English manual typewriter of the ‘50s and ‘60s lacked? (Check all that apply, and be careful — it's tricky.)
North Korea captured a U.S. Navy vessel in early 1968, and held its crew there for most of the year. What was the name of the ship? “This is not your father's _____.”
Can you complete this phrase, popularized in the '60s by underground comix artist R. Crumb?
What did Creedence Clearwater Revival want to know in 1970?
The PAM cooking spray was introduced in 1961. The name PAM is an acronym for ...
In the Bobbsey Twins series of children's books, the family had two sets of fraternal twins. What were the twins' first names?
The "nonfiction novel", The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, was published in 1968. Who wrote it?
The novel, Lolita, was published in 1955. Who was its author?
Nebraska has an official State Soft Drink. What is it? In TV commercials, which product was touted as being “fruit juicy”?
What color are the stripes on the typical barber pole?
Which Apollo 11 astronaut remained in lunar orbit in the command module while the other two continued to the Moon's surface?
Which beer was advertised with the slogan:
"The beer that made Milwaukee famous" ?
The original Monopoly game board featured properties (e.g., Marvin Gardens, St. Charles Place) named after actual places in or near which city?
The original Monopoly game board featured four railroad properties. What were their names? (Select four.) Complete this advertising slogan: "Ruffles _____"
Complete this '60s musical refrain:
"Hey! You! Get off of my __."
Match the make of the car with the model from 1960.
Complete the title of this 1966 hit by Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels:
Devil with ______ On
Which one of these bandleaders had a #1 instrumental hit on Billboard's Hot 100 pop chart in 1961?
While JFK was president, his family had several pets, including which one of these?
Which one of these was First Cat of the United States?
All but one of these quotes are attributed to NY Yankees great, Yogi Berra. Which one is NOT a Yogiism?
From 1955 to 1977, the "Clown Prince of Basketball" played for the Harlem Globetrotters. He was known as ...
On The Adventures of Jim Bowie, what was the title character's preferred weapon?
The animated series, The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, had several segments. Which one of these was NOT among them?
In what year do The Jetsons live?
Where did George Jetson work?
Who was the first character on a hit American sitcom to get married and become a mother during the show's run, AND keep her job?
Which was the first and only* American TV series to earn a #1 Nielsen rating for its premiere episode?
* as of November, 2016
Janis Joplin was the lead singer for which rock band?
The rock band The Who was famous for ...
Love it or hate it, the Edsel was produced by Ford Motor Company from 1958 until 1960, and was named for ... In 1968, who famously quipped,
"In the future, everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes." ?
Match each James Bond film with the appropriate villain.
After a lengthy career as a more or less standard classical musician, organist Virgil Fox "went psychedelic" in the early 1970s with a series of flamboyant live organ concerts aimed mostly at rock music fans. These performances, most of which included light shows in venues such as Fillmore East, were called ... “Let your fingers do the walking …”
Frankie Ford had a hit record in 1959, singing:
"Oo-ee, oo-ee baby, won't you let me take you ..."
On the Rhoda TV sitcom, the doorman was often heard on the intercom, but we never saw his face. What was his name?
In which mountains did the Beverly Hillbillies live before moving to Beverly Hills?
What was the name of the Cartwrights’ cook on Bonanza?
Beetle Bailey has a relative in another comic strip. Who is it?
Mary Tyler Moore's production company, MTM Enterprises, created several hit TV series, all of which showed the MTM logo at the end of each show. What distinctive feature did the logo have?
According to the lyrics of the song that introduced it, doing which dance was "easier than learning your ABC's"?
Two different actors portrayed Samantha’s husband, Darin, on TV's Bewitched. Can you name them? (Select two.)
Which TV show announced:
"You unlock this door with the key of imagination" ?
This brawny fellow was used to advertise which type of product in 1959?
Which one of the following was a recurring segment on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour (1967-69)?
Whose TV variety show featured frequent appearances by the June Taylor Dancers, with overhead camera shots of the group making geometric patterns?
What slogan accompanied this product logo?
Which one of the following snacks was named after a sports figure?
Who is the only* musician to have been honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City?
* as of November, 2016
Who recorded the 1973 novelty song, Basketball Jones featuring Tyrone Shoelaces?
"Wellbee," shown here in a strategically-edited poster from 1963, promoted ...
On which car was the Batmobile of ‘60s TV’s Batman based?
Nine popes led the Catholic church during the 20th century. One of them died after serving for just 33 days. What was his name?
Whose slogan was:
Better Things for Better Living...Through Chemistry ?
In which of his hits did Elvis Presley attempt to quote Shakespeare?
In 1966, Nancy Sinatra had a #1 hit record titled, These Boots Are Made for ...
Who was Ralph Bunche? "If I knew you were comin' I'd've ..."
Near the beginning of The Graduate (1967), a party guest offers one word of advice to Benjamin. What word is that?
Complete this line from the 1959 song, Seven Little Girls Sitting in the Back Seat, by Paul Evans:
"We're having fun sittin' in the back seat ..."
Which TV theme song promised, “You’ll laugh so hard, your sides will ache” ?
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created by executive order and later ratified by Congress. Who issued the executive order?
Which of these pop songs, when released, urged listeners to do a dance that didn't exist?
A character portrayed by Edd Byrnes on TV inspired a pop song titled,
_____, Lend Me Your Comb.
In the 1971 film, Dirty Harry, what was Harry Callahan's (Clint Eastwood) radio call sign?
This image is an example of ...
What was the normal film speed (frame rate) of 8mm home movies?
In 1960, the unit of measurement "cycles per second" (cps) was replaced and is now known as ...
In how many feature films (musicals and concert documentaries, from 1956-1972) did Elvis Presley appear?
Which TV character frequently used the phrase, "It's a doozy, Mr. B." ?
On which of these TV programs did Andy Devine co-star?
Can you identify Lewis Erskine?
The LaSalle, a sort of junior-varsity Cadillac formerly manufactured by General Motors, was mentioned in which TV show's theme song?
Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Jim Morrison were the same age when they died. How old were they?
Who played the title role in the 1953 film, Calamity Jane ?
In 1968, a well-known landmark was purchased by a private individual, who moved it to Arizona. Which landmark was this?
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy imagined by writer Douglas Adams contains a short entry on the planet Earth. What does it say?
Which of these was NOT used to describe The Purple People Eater in Sheb Wooley’s song from 1958?
Which of the following characters was NOT featured in underground comix of the late 1960s?
What song is this audio clip from?
In what city was the radio/TV police drama Dragnet set?
What was the name of the summer camp in Allan Sherman's 1963 song, Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh?
Which of the following, while plentiful in the U.S. during the ‘50s and ‘60s, are seldom seen today? (Select all that apply, if any.)
What was the main selling point of the '70s-era Earth Shoe?
On which classic TV show would you most likely hear the words, "Let's flip over all the cards"?
The 1968 film, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, was based on a children's book published four years earlier. Who wrote that book?
Match each music group with one of its members.
Match each music group with one of its members.
Match each music group with one of its members.
When it was introduced in 1965, what new beverage was advertised as being "The Sassy One" ? Big Shot, introduced in 1963, was ...
In his 1973 song, Bad, Bad Leroy Brown, Jim Croce described Leroy as being "meaner than _____ ".
A radio announcer’s test/warm-up script popularized by Jerry Lewis began, “One hen, two ducks”. Which of these followed? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Remember this test pattern from the days of black-and-white TV? You'd see it while the engineers adjusted the transmitter, after the station signed off for the night. In the U.S., what image was located where the question mark is?
Before the flat screen monitor, TVs and computers used bulky CRT displays. What did “CRT” stand for?
Who were Mark Goodson and Bill Todman?
Can you identify Stuart Sutcliffe?
Play-Doh children's modeling compound was introduced in the mid-1950s, but the compound had been used for a different purpose since it was developed in the 1930s. What was its original purpose?
Which products were advertised and sold around the holidays with the tagline, "Open me first" ?
TV westerns were very popular in the ‘50s and ‘60s. Can you match each of these classic westerns with one of its main characters?
What was the film Born Free (1966) about?
Remember the 1957 Disney film, Old Yeller? Who or what was the title character?
Outside which of these would you most likely find a wooden statue of an American Indian?
Everyone remembers S&H Green Stamps, but do you recall what "S&H" stood for?
Who are these characters? Whose motto was: "Workers of the world, unite!"
The drug Thalidomide was introduced in 1957. Unfortunately, its use by pregnant women resulted in a wide range of birth defects – so much so that it is still referred to as the Thalidomide Tragedy.
Thalidomide was originally marketed to relieve which of the following symptoms? (Check all that apply, if any.)
What company was headquartered at “Checkerboard Square”?
Who sang the 1965 R&B hit, Rescue Me ?
Be-Bop-A-Lula was a top-ten hit song in 1956, and has since been recorded by many artists. Who recorded the original hit version?
B. B. King had a major hit in 1970 with his recording of a slow blues song titled
The _____ Is Gone.
1967’s Different Drum was the first hit record for Linda Ronstadt, as a member of which music group?
Can you complete the title of the first song co-written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones?
As _____ Go By.
Before Crosby, Stills & Nash, David Crosby was a member of which music group? Only one of the following statements about the Columbo TV series is true. Which one?
The Reprise record label was founded in 1960. By whom? The comic book super-villain Bizarro was conceived as a "mirror image” of …
In what city did Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech (August 28, 1963) ?
In the 1968 film The Party, Peter Sellers' character spends nearly half a minute doing which one of these things, non-stop? Complete this classic ad slogan: "Which twin _____ ?"
Can you spot the person whose birth name was Leslie Lynch King, Jr.?
What’s the next lyric line from The Moody Blues’ 1970 song, Question ?
Why do we never get an answer
when we’re knocking at the door
with a thousand million questions
________ ?
Which one of the following celebrities married into the Kennedy family in 1954?
Barbara-Ann reached #13 on Billboard's Hot 100 chart in 1961. Who recorded it? The Stonewall riots in the summer of 1969 are viewed today as one of the most important events leading to ...
According to a Rolling Stone article at the time, December 6, 1969 was "rock and roll's all-time worst day, ... a day when everything went perfectly wrong." What happened on that day?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
Before it was appropriated by Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In, the line:
"Here come de judge!"
was part of whose comedy routine?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
In the 1968 Beatles song, Back in the U.S.S.R., the lyrics speak of returning to the Soviet Union on a BOAC flight from ... Silly Putty came in a ...
Which one of the following was NOT a character in the Boomer-era version of the Candy Land board game? In December 1961, the Associated Press issued an apology for a news story it had reported that quickly turned out to be false. It was the first such apology the AP had issued since 1945, when it had prematurely announced the end of World War II. The 1961 incorrect story reported that ...
Which one of these milestones in the history of color TV in the U.S. occurred first?
In a 1967 Top-10 hit song, The 5th Dimension asked:
Wouldn't you like to ____ ?
Following the huge success of the Peanuts-themed 1962 book, Happiness Is a Warm Puppy (on the best-seller list for two years), TV host Johnny Carson came out with his own comedic version in 1967, also a best-seller. Its title was:
Misery Is ____
In 1968, Tammy Wynette had a big country hit titled ...
Country singer Jeannie C. Riley had a big crossover hit song in 1968 titled ...
Which city did Godzilla destroy in the original 1954 film?
Can you identify Thor Heyerdahl? Comic books advertised the premiums kids could earn -- including cameras, bicycles, air rifles, and radios -- by selling something with the brand name White Cloverine. What was it?
What caption typically accompanied this drawing?
On which one of these classic TV shows would you regularly hear,
Come in, mystery challenger, and sign in please. ?
Which popular TV sitcom was adapted from a cartoon that ran in The Saturday Evening Post?
Which one of these artists did NOT make the Billboard Hot 100 chart with a song from the musical Hair? Can you identify Andrea Doria?
What was the first TV sitcom (on a broadcast network) to portray a married couple sleeping in the same bed?
What was the first song by The Rolling Stones to reach #1 on the Billboard Hot 100?
Which of these best describes the 1967 film, Cool Hand Luke?
Can you find the correct match for each of these rock group names?
On the British TV series The Prisoner, Patrick McGoohan portrayed a former secret agent who was confined to a mysterious coastal village and assigned a new identity. What was that identity?
Xerox Corporation was founded in 1906 under a name that began with one of these terms. Which one?
When did "In God we trust" become the official motto of the United States?
Can you identify Illya Kuryakin?
In August 1966, broadcasters in Spain, South Africa, and the Netherlands banned records by The Beatles. Why?
What was the name on McHale's ship on TV's McHale's Navy?
Identify this character -- the boy, not the dog:
Whose catchphrase was, "The Devil made me do it." ?
Who played Genghis Khan in the epic 1956 film, The Conqueror ?
Which musical artist was named for an 18th century English agriculturalist who changed farming by inventing a horse-drawn seed drill?
Which one of the following celebrities is a former Miss America?
From which spiritual advisor did The Beatles personally seek guidance? In the Baby Boomer era, Haggis Baggis was ...
Which of these "Brothers" musical groups did not actually have any brothers among its members?
Several of Elvis Presley's early singles did well on the C&W charts, but what song marked his debut on Billboard's Top 100 pop chart in February 1956?
The famous "Hemi Under Glass" drag racer was so named because a fuel-injected Chrysler Hemi engine was mounted in the rear of the car, and was visible through the rear window. There were several built in the late '60s, all based on the ... In 1958, a retired candy maker from Boston founded the John Birch Society, which was dedicated to crushing all traces of Communism in the U.S. Who was the John Birch for whom this organization was named?
Introduced to the U.S. at the 1961 New York Auto Show, Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made". Yet it was only produced for 14 years. What was it? For several years, Cadillac hid the unsightly gas cap to create a sleeker look. Where was the gas cap on a 1958 Cadillac Coupe de Ville?
American Motors (AMC) took a stab at the sports car market with this 1968 2-seater, said to be a competitor to the Corvette. Well received and relatively inexpensive, it still only lasted three model years. What was it?
The Beatles' first concert in the U.S. was on Tuesday, February 11, 1964. Where did it take place?
We all know Ed Sullivan as the somewhat unlikely host of a TV variety show, but what was his day job?
In 1961, an ailment caused Red Skelton to miss an episode of The Red Skelton Show. Who filled in for Skelton, playing his usual characters in the comedy sketches?
Complete the title of this 1965 Broadway musical:
The __ of the Greasepaint
— The __ of the Crowd
The first Walt Disney television show premiered on ABC in 1954. What was the name of this program? In July 1959, U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev engaged in a series of impromptu exchanges. These became known as ...
What battle or conflict does this monument commemorate?
Who was the first female guest host of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ?
Day-O (The Banana Boat Song) was released in 1956 and became one of Harry Belafonte's signature songs. Which animal is mentioned in the lyrics?
Match each animated cartoon character with its cartoonist, series, or studio: Where would you be most likely to encounter the names Hugo Hunt, Greasy Grimes, Kuku Klown, Lotta Noise, Tillie Tumble, Gusto Graft, and Petunia Pill?
In 1975, The Who's Roger Daltrey starred in a film based on the life of ...
"You have the right to remain silent …"
1966's Miranda case broke new ground in the quest for due process. The case was ultimately decided by the US Supreme Court, but which state was titled in the proceedings? Can you complete this Boomer-era commercial jingle?
"Oh, oh, oh, it's ..."
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Cowabunga
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Atoms of the same elements with the same number of protons and electrons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called what?
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BBeM: Item List
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Trivia questions
After the Lone Ranger saved the day and rode off into the sunset, the grateful citizens would ask, "Who was that masked man?" Invariably, someone would answer, "I don't know, but he left this behind." What did he leave behind?
When The Beatles first came to the U.S. in early 1964, we all watched them on ...
Get your kicks ...
The story you are about to see is true. Only the names have been changed ...
In the jungle, the mighty jungle ...
Abbott told Costello that the St. Louis baseball team's lineup consisted of:
"N-E-S-T-L-E-S, Nestle's makes the very best ... __."
The great jazz trumpeter known as "Satchmo" was America's "Ambassador of Goodwill." His real name was ...
What "takes a licking and keeps on ticking" ?
Red Skelton's hobo character was named ...
Some Americans who protested U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War did so by burning their __
The cute little car with the engine in the back and the trunk in the front was called the VW. What other name did it go by?
In 1971, singer Don MacLean recorded a song about, "the day the music died." This was a tribute to ...
In 1957, the Soviet Union took an early lead in the space race by placing the first man-made satellite into orbit. It was called ...
One of the big fads of the late '50s and early '60s was a large plastic ring that we twirled around our waist. It was called the ...
What "builds strong bodies 12 ways" ?
Before he was Muhammad Ali, he was ...
Pogo, the comic strip character, said, "We have met the enemy and ..."
Good night, David ...
Before portraying the Skipper's Little Buddy on Gilligan's Island, Bob Denver was Dobie Gillis' friend ...
Liar, liar ...
Meanwhile, back in Metropolis, Superman fights a never-ending battle for truth, justice, and ...
Hey kids, what time is it?
Lions and tigers and bears ...
"Never trust anyone ... "
The NFL quarterback who appeared in a television commercial wearing women's pantyhose was ...
Brylcreem ...
Before Cathy Rigby and Robin Williams, Peter Pan was played by ...
Can you identify The Beatles and indicate which instrument each of them played?
I wonder, wonder ... who, ...
I'm strong to the finish ...
When it's least expected, you're elected, you're the star today ...
What do M&M's do?
Hey there! Hi there! Ho there! ...
Smokey Bear warned:
Call Roto-Rooter, that's the name ...
In the valley of the jolly ...
Does she, or doesn't she?
See the U.S.A ...
What did L.S.M.F.T. mean on the side of a cigarette pack?
Us Tareyton smokers would rather ...
I'd __ for a Camel.
Schaefer is the one beer to have ...
Can you identify the person in this photo?
You'll wonder where the yellow went ...
Nothin' says lovin' like (what?) and (who?) says it best
Silly rabbit ...
Many people know this impossible object as a blivet. What did Mad magazine call it?
Go Greyhound, and ...
You're soaking in it. (What is "It"?)
The following program is brought to you in living color ...
Come to where the flavor is. Come to ...
After the Twist, the Mashed Potato, and the Watusi, we "danced" under a stick that was lowered as low as we could go, in a dance called the ...
There's always room for ...
Many cars of the '50s sported protuberances on the front bumpers. These were known as ...
Bill Dana often appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show as a character named ...
Jim Nabors is best known for his character, Gomer Pyle. What other surprising talent does/did he have?
(As the woman in the commercial opened a refrigerator): You can be sure ...
Ford has ...
Wouldn't you really rather have ... ?
Bob Keeshan was TV's Captain Kangaroo. What other character did he portray?
Oh, Magoo ...
The Rocky and His Friends cartoons featured the WABAC machine, used to travel back in time. Who did this time traveling?
It's not nice to fool ...
Whose advertising slogan was:
"Ask the man who owns one" ?
Who claimed to be "the most trusted name in electronics" ?
Burkina Faso ...
At Zenith ...
Texas used to be the biggest state in the U.S., and there were plenty of jokes based on that fact. These became virtually extinct when Alaska became the 49th, and largest, state. When did that occur?
What did "3M" mean?
What was Beaver Cleaver's given name?
On The Flintstones, what was Wilma's maiden name?
"I like ..."
Which product came with "sponge end papers" ?
Whose advertising jingle included the phrase, "where the rubber meets the road" ?
Which of the following was NOT one of the "Chicago Seven" (or "Conspiracy Seven") defendants?
What did S.W.A.K. stand for?
In a recurring feature on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, "Carnac the Magnificent" would ("in his borderline mystical way") divine the questions and answers in envelopes that had been ...
What product included "non-skid safety discs" ?
Is it live, or is it ... ?
What impish supervillain tormented Superman in DC comics and had to be tricked into returning to his 5th-dimension home?
Sometimes you feel like a nut ...
Who got married on The Tonight Show in December, 1969?
Oh boy, Laddie Boy! ...
Which of these was NOT a phrase often heard on Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In ?
Who (or what) was Rin Tin Tin ?
On The Addams Family TV series, what was the name of the severed hand?
Who put a tiger in your tank?
Many of Phyllis Diller's jokes revolved around her husband, ...
Ernie Kovacs once did a cigarette commercial while ...
Comedian Vaughn Meader was known mostly (some might say only) for his impression of ...
Nobody doesn't like ...
In 1957, how much did it cost to mail a 1-ounce first-class letter?
When did the New York Mets begin play in the National League?
Jim Backus is perhaps best known for his portrayal of Thurston Howell, III on Gilligan's Island. However, he also supplied the voice for a cartoon character. Which one?
Which one of these cartoon characters was NOT voiced by Mel Blanc?
Sid Caesar was one of early television's biggest stars, with Your Show of Shows and Caesar's Hour. Which of the following did NOT write for either of these programs?
What was "good to the last drop" ?
When did Disneyland first open in Anaheim, CA ?
What was "99 and 44/100% pure" ?
Marilyn Chambers was the "Ivory soap girl" on the Ivory Snow box, but later became famous as ...
Where have all the flowers gone?
In 1958, The Playmates had a #4 novelty hit with a rising-tempo song about a race between a Nash and a Cadillac. What was it called?
What product was withdrawn from the market in 1976 due to health concerns, only to return in 1987?
In 1969, Sly and the Family Stone had a hit single titled ...
In the '60s, most Americans did NOT own ...
Who played the title role in most episodes of The Lone Ranger on TV?
Who was the first host of NBC's Tonight Show ?
Who, in 1954, was the first to run a mile in less than four minutes?
Rooms at Motel 6 once cost $6 a night.
Which of the following was NOT one of the U.S.'s original Mercury Seven astronauts?
In a recurring office skit on The Carol Burnett Show, Tim Conway played Mr. Tudball and Burnett played his secretary. What was the secretary's name?
Jerry Mathers, of Leave It to Beaver fame, was killed in the Vietnam War.
Babe Ruth hit 60 home runs in 1927. Who finally broke that record in 1961?
Which of these was NOT part of the British musical invasion of the mid-'60s?
In 1965, country artist Roger Miller had a big crossover hit with a song titled ...
Who was Lyndon Johnson's running mate in the 1964 Presidential election?
Harold Stassen had a claim to fame as ...
Who played Little Ricky on the final season of I Love Lucy ?
On The Honeymooners, where did Ralph frequently offer to send his wife?
Which of these was NOT an American network TV game/quiz show in the '50s ?
What's the real name of The Beatles' drummer?
Herman's Hermits had several hit songs during the '60s, including Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter and I'm Henry the Eighth, I Am. What was the real name of the group's lead vocalist?
Which of the following films was NOT directed by Alfred Hitchcock?
Which of these actors was NOT in 1959's Some Like It Hot ?
According to the commercials, what was "Indescribably delicious" ?
Congress banned cigarette advertising on TV and radio as of ...
On I Love Lucy, what was Lucy Ricardo's maiden name?
According to the Car 54, Where Are You? theme song, who was "due at Idlewild" ?
In the 1958 hit, The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late), what did Alvin want for Christmas?
Before playing Detective Steve McGarrett on Hawaii Five-O, Jack Lord starred as ...
On ABC's That Girl (the first series about a single working girl who was not a domestic servant), Marlo Thomas played a character named ...
On TV's Get Smart, Don Adams played Maxwell Smart, Agent ...
When sharing sensitive information with the Chief, the agents of TV's Get Smart attempted to use ...
In 1963, Craig Breedlove's racer "Spirit of America" broke the land speed record at Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah. How fast did he go?
In the '50s, a dollar bill could be exchanged for silver bullion.
Was there ever a broadcast TV channel 1 in the U.S.?
Oh, I wish I were an Oscar Mayer wiener,
That is what I'd truly like to be.
'Cause if I were an Oscar Mayer wiener ...
Comet cleanser's TV commercials featured ...
In TV commercials, Charlie the Tuna tried to show he had good taste, but the sponsor was looking for tunas that taste good. Which brand of tuna was this? Plop, plop, fizz, fizz ...
How high did baseball players' salaries get in the '60s, and who was the highest-paid player of that decade?
What did Walter Cronkite say at the end of each CBS Evening News broadcast that he anchored?
Which of the following labels was NOT likely to be found on (or inside) the typical AM table radio of the '50s?
Some Baby Boomer proto-nerds built electronic kits offered by Allied Radio, Lafayette Radio Electronics, Heath Co., and others. Which of the following kits would you find in a Heathkit catalog from the '60s? (Select all that apply, if any.)
What was the name of the charter boat that was thrown off course by a storm on TV's Gilligan's Island ?
Who directed the 1968 film, 2001: A Space Odyssey ?
Who wrote the 1951 novel, The Catcher in the Rye ?
What is the title of this 1962 work by Andy Warhol?
The equine cartoon character Quick Draw McGraw sometimes assumed the identity of a Zorro-like masked vigilante known as ...
In 1960, some movie theaters were equipped with a system, dubbed "Smell-O-Vision", that delivered various odors to the audience seats when cued by the film. Playboy magazine's very first issue (1953) featured Marilyn Monroe.
In 1964, trumpeter Al Hirt had a hit single titled ... Lorne Greene, the Canadian actor best known for his role as Ben Cartwright on NBC's Bonanza, had a hit single (spoken, rather than sung) in 1964. It was titled ... David Seville was the stage name of the artist behind the 1958 hit records, Witch Doctor and The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late). What was his real name? Before portraying Mr. Waverly on TV's The Man From U.N.C.L.E., Leo G. Carroll starred as ...
On NBC's The Man From U.N.C.L.E., the enemy organization was named ... (Select all that apply, if any.)
Who sang beautifully, but stuttered when speaking? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Which of the following sentences would you be most likely to find in a "Dick and Jane" reader?
Those formerly-ubiquitous 33-1/3 rpm records were known as LPs. What did LP stand for? For what newspaper did Clark Kent work?
What was the name of the Cartwrights' ranch on Bonanza?
Many Buicks of the '50s sported portholes or "Ventiports" on the front fenders. What practical function did these serve? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Blue Suede Shoes was a #1 hit in 1956. Who wrote and first recorded it?
In a 1960s series of short radio dramas, a shoe salesman spent his weekends "striking terror into the hearts of criminals everywhere" as the winged warrior, Chickenman. What was his secret identity? "Professor Plum, in the library, with the candlestick"
is something you might say while playing ...
On which car would you find this '60s hood emblem? Ding dong ...
What musical instrument was used to produce the eerie sound effects in many science-fiction movies of the '50s?
The tribe of Indians living near Fort Courage on TV's F Troop were the ...
Ray Bradbury's 1953 novel, Fahrenheit 451, was adapted for the big screen in 1966. To what does the title refer?
The Joey Bishop Show sitcom has the distinction of being the only TV show ... Who was the first human in space?
Prior to becoming a politician and, eventually, U.S. President, Ronald Reagan was a radio and film actor, starring in one of these movies. Which one? One of these events occurred on November 9, 1965. Which one? On TV's Mission: Impossible, if Mr. Briggs (or Mr. Phelps) or any of his agents were caught or killed, what would the Secretary do?
Which make of car is most associated with James Bond 007? The U.S. launched the world's first nuclear-powered submarine in 1954. What was its name? Bob & Carol ... According to the 1957-58 hit record by Danny & the Juniors, what could you do At the Hop?
What Oscar winner made his first film appearance as the reclusive "Boo" Radley in 1962's To Kill a Mockingbird ?
You can trust your car to the man ...
During the '60s, who was often cited as "the most trusted man in America" ? Who starred in the original 1955 Broadway production of Damn Yankees ? Who starred in the original 1959 Broadway production of The Sound of Music ? In the '50s and '60s, the nation of Sri Lanka was known as ... "Coup-Fourré!"is something you might call out when playing ...
When playing Monopoly, how much rent would you be charged if you landed on Boardwalk with a hotel on it? In the '50s and '60s, Western Union offered singing telegram service.
Dr. Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of the therapeutic benefits of ... Remember TV's Hogan's Heroes? Which of the following statements about its cast is true? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Which of these automotive components, common in cars of the '50s and '60s, is absent from today's models? Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev famously warned: (Select all that apply, if any.) The operatic coloratura soprano hailed as La Stupenda in the '60s was ... In a landmark 1973 ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court ... Johnny Cash recorded A Boy Named Sue at San Quentin State Prison in 1969. The song reached #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Who wrote it? Two of the following actors are siblings. Which ones?
Which of these '60s musical groups did NOT feature guitarist Eric Clapton?
In 1971, George Harrison and Ravi Shankar organized two star-studded benefit concerts at Madison Square Garden in order to support ...
Which of the following did NOT serve as U.S. Secretary of State during the '50s-'70s ?
Who was Nikita Khrushchev's immediate successor as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union?
In 1962, Booker T. and the MGs had an instrumental hit titled ...
Before the pocket calculator, math students and engineers relied on the slide rule for quick, fairly-precise calculations. Which of the following could NOT be computed (in one operation) using a slide rule? The Bay of Pigs was the location of an international incident in 1961. Where is it?
In July, 1969, Massachusetts Senator Edward "Ted" Kennedy's career was nearly derailed. Why? The song Dominique reached #1 on the U.S. pop charts in December, 1963. Who recorded it? A performer known as Napoleon XIV had a hit novelty record in 1966 titled ... "Great Caesar's ghost!"was a catch-phrase often uttered by what fictional character?
If your TV picture looked like this, what knob did you need to adjust to get a proper picture? The 1975 film, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, starred Jack Nicholson and won five Academy Awards. Who wrote the 1962 novel on which it was based?
In 1964, author Ken Kesey and friends took an infamous hallucinogen-fueled trip across the country in a psychedelic school bus. What did the group call itself? Jurassic Park author Michael Crichton wrote several other novels, including one of these. Which one?
What is the title of this 1966 work by artist Barnett Newman?
Who was the star of TV's Andy's Gang ? "Holy mackerel!"was a catch-phrase often uttered by what fictional character?
Which cartoon character often exclaimed (with a lisp), "Sufferin' succotash!" ?
Who was Director of the FBI between 1963 and 1970?
Who left his heart in San Francisco? When and where was the first Super Bowl played? Before he was Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, he was ... Who was baseball's "Say Hey Kid" ? Who competed in the women's U.S. Open tennis tournament after previously competing in the men's division? "It's a Small World" is a popular attraction at several Disney theme parks, but it got its start at the 1964 World's Fair in New York. Whose pavilion was it? Arthur Murray's name was ... (Select all that apply, if any.)
Who hosted a fitness TV program starting in 1951? Jack Ruby became famous ...
Who starred (and sang) in the 1969 film, Paint Your Wagon ?
What was the name of the dog on The Jetsons ? Robert Zimmerman ... Tenzing Norgay ...
According to the Mister Ed theme song, what will happen if you ask Mister Ed a question?
Lethal injection, the electric chair, firing squads, and hanging have been used, from time to time, to execute those convicted of capital offenses. When was the last time such a person was legally executed by hanging in the U.S.?
What was First Lady Jackie Kennedy's maiden name? I can't believe ... One of the following agencies of departments of the U.S. government ceased to exist in 1971. Which one? What was CONELRAD? Payola ...
Who played three different roles (Duchess Gloriana XII; Prime Minister Count Rupert Mountjoy; and military leader Tully Bascomb) in the 1959 film, The Mouse That Roared ?
Who was the main sponsor of Milton "Mr. Television" Berle's comedy-variety show on NBC-TV in the early-to-mid '50s? Whose advertising claimed that their product was "shot from guns" ? What did consumers find in some boxes of Quaker Puffed Rice and Puffed Wheat cereals in 1955? One of the following musicians is/was NOT blind. Which one?
Ventriloquist-puppeteer Shari Lewis' best-known puppet was Lamb Chop. Which one of these was another of Lewis' puppets?
The Frisbee flying disc had several earlier names, including one of these. Which one? One of these products used Carly Simon's 1971 song, Anticipation, in its TV commercials. Which one? Who offered "57 varieties" ? The '50s-'60s was a period of rapid advances in air travel, including the transition to jet airliners. What (other than propellers) was common in that era, but no longer found in today's large airliners? In 1978, one of the following became a national holiday in the U.S. Which one?
Rush to Judgment, a book by Mark Lane, was one of the first investigations of ... What did SNCC stand for? What recreation innovation did Huffy introduce in 1955? "Magic Fingers" was ...
For many years, there were three commercial broadcast TV networks; ABC, CBS, and NBC. But in the mid '40s to mid '50s, there were other competing networks, including which one of these?
What did the C in CBS stand for? In the long history of Major League Baseball, there has been only one perfect game* during a World Series. Who pitched it, and when?
* not just a shut-out or no-hitter, but a game (minimum 9 innings) in which no players from the losing team reach base for any reason (base hit, walk, fielding error, hit batsman)
Where did Yogi Bear live? In the 1960s, who established a waiting list for future commercial flights to the moon? In the '60s, the ads for one of these products suggested that we should use it because the NASA astronauts used it in space. Which product was it? Whose Secret Squadron members were issued secret decoders? Nowadays, an "e-ticket" is an electronic ticket you might receive if you make travel arrangements online. What would an "E Ticket" get you in 1966?
In the '50s-'60s, how many channels were indicated on the typical American television set's built-in tuner?
Whenever Felix the Cat got in a fix, what would he do? Which one of these stories was NOT written by Dr. Seuss? Which one of the following names does not belong with the others?
In the 1974 film, The Godfather Part II, Corleone was not the real surname of the young Vito. What was his real name?
Who wrote the 1970 best-seller, Jonathan Livingston Seagull ? R. Crumb ... On what program did the catch-phrase, "Just the facts, ma'am," originate? Which classic car featured round "porthole" rear side windows?
In 1966, Woody Allen took an existing Japanese spy thriller, dubbed in comedic English dialogue, and released it as...
Who was the commercial spokesperson for Westinghouse appliances? Which of these is an actual town named after a radio or TV game show?
During the 1970s, who warned, "Don't leave home without them," in the commercials for American Express travelers cheques?
One of the regulars on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour ran for U.S. President. Who was it?
Who had the only speaking part in Mel Brooks' 1976 film, Silent Movie ?
Of the 30 companies that were in the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1958, how many remain there today* (allowing for companies whose names have changed)?
* December, 2012
Who regularly exclaimed, "And awaaay we go!" ? Match these comedic characters with the entertainers who portrayed them.
The Berlin Wall separated East and West Berlin during the Cold War. When was it constructed?
The first film based on Ian Fleming's James Bond novels was released in 1962. What was its title? "Checkpoint Charlie" was ... During the Cold War, a metaphoric barrier stood between the East and West. What was it called? Since the '50s and '60s, many countries have undergone identity crises. Match each of these current nations with its former name.
Where was JFK's presidential retreat? U.S. presidents often entertain guests and conduct meetings at Camp David. For whom (or what) was this facility named? Match each company or product with its logo. Match each animal with the appropriate TV show. Match these Top 100 hits of 1970 with their musical artists. What was special about ABC-TV's Turn-On series from 1969?
What was the name of Sky King's Cessna?
The title song for the James Bond 007 film, Goldfinger, was a Top 10 hit in the U.S. Who performed it?
Complete this line from The Firesign Theatre's 1968 debut album, Waiting for the Electrician or Someone Like Him:
"Follow in your book and repeat after me, as we learn three new words in ..."
In a recurring comedic bit on The Tonight Show, host Johnny Carson delivered "editorial replies" as a redneck wearing a plaid hunting jacket and hat. This character was named . . .
One of the following was NOT a member of the Monty Python comedy troupe. Which one? Which of these symbols was displayed on the Soviet Union's flag? Hot Diggity (Dog Ziggity Boom) was a #2 hit song in the U.S. in 1956. Who performed it? In the '50s, one of these was a popular hairstyle. Which one? "Let __ put you in the driver's seat." Whose advertising slogan was,
"When you care enough to send the very best" ?
What was touted as being "stronger than dirt" ? Complete this advertising slogan:
"Promise her anything, but give her ..."
In TV commercials, who suggested that you should, "Have it your way" ? Who promoted a bodybuilding program for the "97-pound weakling" ? Who used the advertising slogan, "Look, Mom, no cavities!" ? Complete this advertising slogan:
"All my men wear ___, or they wear nothing at all."
"Betcha can't eat just one"dared one advertiser. Which one?
Whose ads used a sexy model to ask, suggestively, "Why don't you pick me up and smoke me sometime?"
Can you match these cities with the years they hosted the Summer Olympic games? In the Beany and Cecil cartoon series, what sort of creature was Cecil?
Which comic strip features a character named Skeezix?
Only one of the following was NOT an amateur ("ham") radio operator. Which one?
What was L'il Abner's surname?
In 1966, Australian pop music group The Seekers had their biggest U.S. hit, Georgy Girl. In what film was this song featured?
Richard Harris had a big hit in 1968 with the first recording of a song that included the lyrics:
Someone left the cake out in the rain
I don't think that I can take it
'Cause it took so long to bake it
And I'll never have that recipe again
What is the title of this song? Hemo the Magnificent was ... The TV spy series with Patrick McGoohan was a British import. Here in the States, it was called Secret Agent. What was its original British title?
Who were the stars of TV's I'm Dickens, He's Fenster? (Select two.)
When mild-mannered Don Diego de la Vega donned his mask, he became the legendary swordsman, Zorro. Who portrayed him in the 1957 series on ABC-TV? On the '50s TV western, The Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok, who played Wild Bill's sidekick, Jingles P. Jones? Which brand of cigarettes came with a coupon on each pack, which smokers could collect and redeem for "valuable gifts" ?
We invited many TV families into our homes, growing to know them on a first-name basis. Can you match these TV husbands with their wives?
American Motors Corporation (AMC) produced several successful car models in the '70s, including which one of these?
What was the name of the U.S. agency that preceded the Nuclear Regulatory Commission?
The F.W. Woolworth Company had a nationwide chain of five-and-dime stores, but as that business declined, the company changed its focus and its name, becoming ...
Publication of the "Pentagon Papers" may have helped hasten the end of the Vietnam War. Who leaked these top-secret papers to the media in 1971?
What is Star Trek Captain James T. Kirk's middle name? What prominent golfer was known for wearing a straw hat and playing barefoot? What was the U.S. President's annual salary during the '50s and '60s (1949-1969, to be precise)? Who was the first African-American to be appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court? Can you match these groovy songs from the '60s-'70s with their recording artists?
Which one of the following was NOT a recurring villain on ABC-TV's Batman series in the '60s? What singer is known as The Queen of Soul? Which baseball player was known as "Hammer" ? Can you spot the celebrity whose birth name was Marvin Lee Aday?
Can you spot the person whose birth name was Leslie Hornby?
Actor James Dean starred in only three films before his death in 1955. How did he die?
Which one of these was NOT a successful '60s psychedelic rock band?
The written political principles at the heart of Students for a Democratic Society (1960-69) were known as the ...
Which school is most closely associated with the Free Speech Movement of 1964-65?
In 1969, a faction of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) broke off and formed a radical-left organization promoting the violent overthrow of the U.S. government. Informally, this group was called the ...
In 1974, newspaper heiress Patty Hearst was kidnapped by a militant left-wing group which also committed bank robberies and murders. What was the name of this group?
In a 1970 film, Godfrey Cambridge played a white bigot who wakes up one morning to discover that he has turned black. What was the film's title? Which comic strip featured a character named Sluggo?
Who emceed the Miss America pageant from 1955-79? The term "military-industrial complex" refers to the way industry, the military, and politics exert influence on one another, at the same time feeding and being fed by war. Who coined this phrase?
Which of the following were regulars on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Author Truman Capote made a rare acting appearance in the 1976 film, Murder by Death. What was the name of the character he portrayed?
Which one of these did NOT perform at the Woodstock Festival in August, 1969? Many fine musicians' lives and careers ended unexpectedly. How did each of these performers die?
First Lady Jackie Kennedy was a fashion trendsetter. Which one of these items became de rigueur due, in large part, to her use of it?
Who took American television viewers on a tour of the White House in 1962? Can you complete this advertising slogan?
"When ___ talks, people listen."
Where did the phrase, "Klaatu barada nikto," originate? Which TWO of the following starred in NBC-TV's mid-'60s series, I Spy ? (Select two.)
On The Jetsons animated TV series, what was George Jetson's work week like?
Which one of these TV series was NOT set mostly in or near New York City?
On I Love Lucy, the apartment building where the Ricardos and Mertzes lived was located at 623 E. 68th Street in New York City. What is at that address today?
Back in the '50s, many parents wouldn't let their children go to public swimming pools. This changed after the introduction of ... What role(s) did Patty Duke play on The Patty Duke Show? Which TWO of the following starred in the 1959 Broadway play (and 1962 feature film), The Miracle Worker ? (Select two.)
Who was the first host/anchor of NBC-TV's Today show?
Actor Larry Kert played the lead male role, Tony, in the original 1957 Broadway production of West Side Story. Who played the lead female roles, Maria and Anita? (Select two of the choices.)
Who played Dennis in the 1959 TV series, Dennis the Menace?
In Hank Ketcham's comic strip, what is Dennis the Menace's surname? Why are most pop songs about 3 minutes long?
Several new teams joined Major League Baseball during the '60s. Which was the first of these expansion (not simply relocated) teams to win a World Series? On April 9, 1965, Judy Garland and The Supremes performed at the gala opening night of ... There are now several domed sports stadiums in the U.S. Which was the first? In TV commercials, what product cured the dreaded "ring around the collar" ?
Many distinctive trademarks and brand names have, through common usage, become genericized. Which one of these generic terms had NOT been a U.S. trademark?
Which comedian was known as the King of the One-Liners, including the classic, "Take my wife -- please!" ?
In 1962, the University of Mississippi admitted its first African-American student, sparking riots on campus. Who was the student?
Where is the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame?
Who composed the theme music for the 1964 film, The Pink Panther ? What did Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton establish in 1966? Can you match these real-life husbands and wives?
The Vietnam War protest song, Draft Dodger Rag, included the lyrics:
Sarge, I'm only eighteen, I got a ruptured spleen
And I always carry a purse
I got eyes like a bat, and my feet are flat
And my asthma's getting worse
Who wrote it?
According to a '50s TV theme song, who was King of the Wild Frontier? Many remember The Skipper on Gilligan's Island, but few recall this fictional character's full name. Do you?
Alan Hale, Jr. is best known as the Skipper on TV's Gilligan's Island, but he played the title role on a previous show. Which one?
Whose signature song was Back in the Saddle Again ?
Whose signature tune was Thanks for the Memory ?
What TV program used Funeral March of a Marionette, by Charles Gounod, as its theme music?
A signature aspect of TV's Jeopardy! game show is the musical interlude during Final Jeopardy, while the contestants consider their answer-question and wager. Who wrote this music?
Who was the original leader of the NBC orchestra on The Tonight Show?
Who hosted New Year's Eve celebrations on radio and TV from 1929 to 1976, introducing America to Auld Lang Syne as a traditional song for the occasion?
In 1951, a DJ known as "Moondog" introduced the term "rock and roll" to the American radio audience. What was this DJ's real name?
The Lone Ranger's theme music is one of the most-recognized of all tunes. Who composed it?
It's 1959, and singer Eddie Fisher has divorced his first wife and married Elizabeth Taylor. Such a scandal! Who was Fisher's first wife? Which musician scandalously married his 13-year-old cousin (first cousin once removed) in 1957?
1958's Chantilly Lace was the biggest hit record for The Big Bopper. What was this artist's real name?
From 1966-2010, Jerry Lewis hosted an annual telethon to raise money for the fight against ...
What musical instrument did bandleader Lawrence Welk play?
Single Room Furnished starred blonde bombshell Jayne Mansfield, and was her final film. What became of her? What was the name of ventriloquist Paul Winchell's most famous dummy?
What unlikely inventor held 30 U.S. patents, including one for the first implantable artificial heart? Which comedian was known as The King of Deadpan? What was "Castle Bravo" ? In TV ads, what product was "Mmm, mmm, good!" ?
"Test tube baby" is what the popular media called the end result of in vitro fertilization (IVF). When and where was the first such baby born?
Where in California was Richard Nixon's "Western White House"?
Who was responsible for 1951's "shot heard 'round the world" ?
Most of The Beatles' songs were written by the team of Lennon and McCartney. Can you spot the one song in this list penned by George Harrison? The song, A World Without Love, was written by Lennon/McCartney and was a #1 hit in the U.S. in 1964, but it wasn't recorded by The Beatles. Who recorded it? For which product or service did the comedy team of Jerry Stiller and Ann Meara write and perform many humorous radio commercials?
In 1949, Antonio Egas Moniz of Portugal received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work on ... Complete this advertising slogan:
"Everything's better with ____ on it."
In TV commercials, who scolded customers, telling them, "Please don't squeeze the Charmin!" while secretly squeezing it himself? The 1971-72 novelty hit, Brand New Key, included the lyrics:
I got a brand new pair of roller skates
You got a brand new key
I think that we should get together and try them out you see
Who wrote and first recorded it? Which one of the following people once suffered a nervous breakdown and spent eight months in a mental hospital?
What was the capital of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)?
One of the most horrific events of the Vietnam War was the March, 1968 mass murder of civilian women and children by U.S. troops. This incident is known as the ...
With a series of records, The Beatles held the #1 spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart continuously from February 1, 1964 to May 2, 1964. Which recording artist finally took over the #1 slot from The Beatles?
On April 4, 1964, songs by The Beatles held the top five slots on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Which songs were these? (Select five.)
Can you identify The Monkees and indicate which instrument each of them played? Can you match the birth name of each actor with the name Hollywood gave him?
Who was the opening act for The Monkees during their Summer, 1967 concert tour? Before deciding to seek out four "unknown" singer-actors, the producers of The Monkees sitcom considered basing the show around which existing pop group? Ten years before becoming one of The Monkees, Micky Dolenz (credited as Mickey Braddock) starred in another TV series. Which one? Which of these costumes was the first "work uniform" ever to be granted trademark protection by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office? Each of the TV shows on the left shared a star with one of the shows on the right. Can you match the shows that shared a star? Can you match the birth name of each musician with his stage name? The following sentences employ some awfully good puns, and are parodies of a style of writing found in certain children's books.
"Pass me the shellfish," he said crabbily.
"Who discovered radium?" asked Marie curiously.
"Hurry up and get to the back of the ship," he said sternly.
"I know who turned out the lights," she hinted darkly.
What are such groaners called? Johnny Carson was best known for his opening monologue, interviewing skills, and comedic skits on NBC's The Tonight Show, but he was also an accomplished ... What common annoyance to urban TV viewers has quietly disappeared?
While best known for his comic acting abilities, Jonathan Winters is also an accomplished ... Can you match these well-known people with their lesser-known accomplishments?
Who was Woody Allen's first wife ("the Dread Mrs. Allen")? During the height of Beatlemania, Louise Caldwell provided "inside information" reports for several American radio stations on the daily doings of The Beatles. What relationship did Ms. Caldwell actually have with the band? The 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was adopted in 1971. What did it change? Science fiction author Theodore Sturgeon was the inspiration for the fictional character Kilgore Trout, who often appears in the works of which writer?
Can you identify this logo?
Which one of these musicians was never a member of The Rolling Stones?
Back in the '50s and '60s, many baseball players spent their entire Major League careers with one team. Can you match these players with their teams?
Bess Myerson was New York City's first Commissioner of Consumer Affairs. For what else is she known?
In early 1961, John F. Kennedy helped to end blacklisting of Hollywood personalities by the House Un-American Activities Committee. What did he do? "Mother, please! I'd rather do it myself!"
was the catchline in commercials for which product? 1968 saw the first cigarettes marketed specifically to women. Which brand was this? Which product was said to contain "600 tiny time pills"? Lincoln Continentals of the early '60s were distinguished by having what unusual design feature as standard equipment?
In what make of car was JFK riding when he was assassinated? Which of these soul/rock artists did NOT have a Billboard Hot 100 hit with a song first recorded by The Beatles? Can you match each of these ad slogans with its product? Benson & Hedges brought the first 100 mm. cigarette to the U.S. market in 1967. Which brand countered with a cigarette that was "a silly millimeter longer"?
Which candidate used the campaign slogan:"
In your heart, you know he's right" ?
Can you match these running mates in their losing bids for the White House? Back in the '50s and '60s, Haile Selassie I was Emperor of Ethiopia. What else is he known for? Since 1962, Playboy magazine has featured lengthy interviews with a wide variety of influential people, including all but one of these. Which one has never been the subject of a Playboy interview?
Who was Dobie Gillis' heartthrob? Every dog has its day, and (nearly) every day has its song. Can you match these '60s hits with their recording artists? Francis Gary Powers ... Can you match each movie with some of its main characters? Class difference (rich guy/poor girl, or rich girl/poor guy) was a theme of several Baby Boomer-era pop songs. Which of these was NOT about class difference?
The men's wear pictured here was fashionable in the '60s. What was it called? In the 1950s, President Dwight D. Eisenhower declared that something was "a terrible thing to do to the American people." To what was he referring?
Which of the following was NOT an Elvis Presley film?
Match each TV game show with its original host. In 1964, Kitty Genovese gained fame when she .... Albert DeSalvo gained fame when he ... By which of these nicknames was CBS most known? Which U.S. President, although Protestant, took the Oath of Office with his hand on a Catholic missal?
Which member of the Our Gang / Little Rascals cast started out being portrayed as a girl, but after several films was then portrayed as a boy? Who was the first U.S. President to have been a Boy Scout? In 1963, Australian musician Rolf Harris had a novelty hit in the U.S. with a song titled ... In 1969, John Lennon changed his middle name. He wanted to be known as "John Ono Lennon," but British law did not permit discarding a name given at birth, so he simply added Ono to his original middle name, which was ... Which British rock band had more appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show than any other such group? What is Paul McCartney's middle name?
Which one of the following was never Vice President of the United States? The Ed Sullivan Show featured a wide variety of musicians, comedians, actors, dancers, and other performers in its 23-year run. Which act appeared more frequently than any other (some say 67 times) ? Which one of the following never appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show? Which one of these television stars did NOT also have at least one Top 40 pop hit? Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In had a segment called "News of the Future," predicting unlikely or bizarre future news stories. A couple of times, though, these "joke predictions" actually came true. Which TWO of these are Laugh-In "News of the Future" items that came to pass? Can you match each Western TV star with his or her horse? Can you match each of these TV characters with his sidekick? If a Baby Boom-era pop/rock group was named after a band member, chances are it was the lead vocalist. But not always. Of the following list, which is the only group that WAS named after its lead vocalist? What was the first nationwide color TV broadcast in the U.S.? Can you identify Bamboo Harvester ? Everyone knows that the Lucy character on I Love Lucy was the wacky wife of a Cuban-born New York bandleader. Which of these describes the Lucy character on The Lucy Show when it debuted in 1962?
During the Vietnam War, protest groups sometimes identified themselves by using the name of a city and a number. Which of these was NOT a real protest group that was brought to trial? What did Newton Minow famously call a "vast wasteland" in 1961? TV commercials for which product featured a former Miss Sweden cooing, "Take it off, take it all off”? In 1963, President and Mrs. Kennedy had a third child, who lived only two days. What was the child’s name? Which TV show began with a man intoning, "Man ... woman ... birth ... death ... infinity"? Which game show had a "Heart Line" that viewers could call to help out a contestant who didn't win any money?
Until 1960, no comedy album had ever reached #1 on the Billboard charts. Which one of the following did so that year, topping the Broadway cast album of The Sound of Music and albums by Frank Sinatra and Elvis Presley, among others? Which pop song did the FBI investigate for 31 months, only to conclude that they were "unable to interpret any of the wording in the record"? In which Top 10 hit does Elvis Presley sing the words, "Oh, fiddle-de-dink!" ? In the lyrics of which one of these songs does the word “groovy” NOT appear? Do you want a car with gull-wing doors that open and close at the touch of a button? There's been only one production-model car with that feature. Which one was it? In the 1964 Jan and Dean song, which two cars participated in the disastrous drag race that ended at Dead Man's Curve? (Select two.)
Which of these colors featured most frequently in the titles of pop songs of the '60s? South Street was a Top 10 hit for the Orlons in 1963, with lyrics that began, "Where do all the hippies meet?" What city were the Orlons singing about? We knew many TV characters by their nicknames, but they had "real" first names as well. Can you match these characters with their first names? Can you match each of these TV characters with his show? Here are characters from various comic strips. Match each character on the left with the character on the right from the same comic.
Many Boomers remember Gumby, the green/blue stop-action animated clay figure. But can you name these other characters from his TV show?
What's the name of this creature from the Howdy Doody TV program?
The Howdy Doody TV show featured audience participation, with about 40 children seated in bleachers onstage. What were these lucky kids called? Can you match these current sports teams with their former home towns? Except as indicated, all are Major League Baseball teams. In 1969, rumors surfaced that someone had died and been replaced by a look-alike. The rumors took hold, and people worldwide searched for clues. Whose death had been falsely reported? The wives in The Stepford Wives were special because they ...
Abraham Zapruder ... Can you match the songs on the right with the Broadway musicals they’re from?
The film, The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. What song was this?
During which time period did Chuck Berry have a #1 pop hit?
Which of these was the first Beatles album NOT to have the word "Beatles" on the front cover? Which "weekly" '60s TV show was so popular that when it debuted, it was shown on two consecutive nights, Wednesday and Thursday? In the 1958-61 U.S. prime-time TV seasons, which type of show occupied the top three popularity spots? For many years, soap operas were aimed at stay-at-home housewives, and therefore aired during the daytime. Which was the first soap opera to air in prime time on a major U.S. TV network? You don't know shit from __."
What Top 10 song from the early '70s included the words, "I know," 26 times in a row? Who referred to the sentence, "I'm from the government, and I'm here to help," as "the nine most terrifying words in the English language"? Whose desk sported this sign?
Who pleaded, "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" ?
Who asked, “Where's the beef?” in a U.S. Presidential primary debate? Who famously said, "Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy" ?
What was the name of Mister Ed's owner?
The movie industry developed wide-screen technologies in order to compete more effectively with television. What was the name of the wide-wide-screen motion picture process, first used in 1952, that employed three synchronized projectors to produce an image covering 146 degrees of an arc?
Which comedy team made some 3-D movies in the 1950s? Which one of the following was NOT a member of the Not Ready for Prime-Time Players when Saturday Night Live debuted in October, 1975? The Champs' song from 1958, Tequila, famously ends with the band shouting "tequila!" Which other song from the late 1950s ends with someone saying "tequila!" ?
Starting in the 1950s, this symbol (shown here with the wording removed) meant that ... What event or development inspired Tom Paxton to write the song, I Don’t Want a Bunny Wunny ?
The kids' magazine, Highlights for Children, (found in many a dentist's office!) featured concise behavior lessons demonstrated by two cartoon kids, one of whom did everything wrong and the other of whom did everything right. The two kids were named ... In 1967, when a certain long-running TV program was in danger of being canceled, Sen. Robert Byrd (D-WV) spoke on the Senate floor in an effort to save it. The program continued for another 8 years. What show was Sen. Byrd so fond of? In 1969, Sen. John Pastore (D-RI) chaired hearings on the subject of TV violence. What popular CBS show was abruptly canceled when it failed to tone down the violence? In the 1964-65 TV season, similar shows featuring live pop/rock performances and go-go dancing debuted on two different networks. Which shows were these? (Select two.)
Which performer incorporated “inflationary language” (e.g., “Twice upon a time… and so fifth,”) and “phonetic punctuation” into his or her act?
[ ? =
“scrooooch, pop!”]
This artwork (shown here with the wording removed) was on the cover of a record album titled ... Which four-member rock group, with hits in the early '70s, saw half its founding members commit suicide?
According to a 1959-60 hit song, who was Running Bear in love with? Decades ago, "Mommy mommy" jokes, along with other so-called "sick jokes," were all the rage. What's the punchline to this one?
Mommy, mommy, why am I running around in circles?
Little puzzle-drawings like this ("Ship arriving too late to save a drowning witch") were popularized in the 1950s by humorist Roger Price. What are they called?
During his long career, James Brown acquired many nicknames -- some self-assigned. Which of these was NOT a nickname applied to James Brown?
Tonto referred to the Lone Ranger as "__".
In which year did almost all American-made cars switch from dual to quad headlights?
In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson proposed a broad set of domestic programs he called ...
In the Peanuts comic strip, what's the name of Snoopy's little bird friend? Identify Dr. Frances Horwich.
What actual annual tradition originated in Al Capp’s Li’l Abner comic strip? "Femlins" were ... What was Minipoo?
What product did Lionel Trains introduce in 1957 in order to appeal to girls? Which one of the following artists did NOT record for Motown Records or one of its subsidiary labels? (Think it's obvious? Think again!) In which city was Motown Records based?
Which color was NOT included in the familiar small box of eight Crayola crayons?
When Elvis Presley was discharged from the Army in 1960, what was his rank? Who wrote the 1968 sci-fi novel, 2001: A Space Odyssey ?
Launched in 1964, Alvin (DSV-2) is a deep-submersible research vehicle owned by the U.S. Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute in Massachusetts. Can you name the company that built it? (Think outside the box.)
Recording personnel Theodore Keep, Simon Waronker, and Alvin Bennett were involved in the production of which #1 pop song of the 1950s?
The father of one of the main stars of TV's The Beverly Hillbillies was a well-known .. During the 1960s, some popular music songs were deemed to have words, or subject matter, inappropriate for broadcast; therefore, edited, bleeped, or censored versions of these songs were recorded and distributed. Which one of these did NOT see release in two versions, the original and one "cleaned up"?
Automobile brands came and went during the '50s and '60s. Of the following makes, which was the LAST to cease production in the United States?
TV's Hawaii Five-O often ended with the lead character saying ... In 1966, a just-released album by The Beatles was hastily withdrawn and given another cover because the original cover ... What do the creative works
Forever Amber, by Kathleen Winsor
Strange Fruit, by Lillian Smith
The Children's Hour, by Lillian Hellman
Naked Lunch, by William S. Burroughs
have in common?
In the Coasters' 1959 song, Charlie Brown, what is Charlie Brown alleged to be doing in the boys' gym? In Arlo Guthrie’s 1967 song, Alice’s Restaurant, the restaurant was located “just a half-a-mile from the railroad track” in what town? The Order of Preachers is a Roman Catholic order of friars, nuns, and lay persons founded in the 13th century by St. Dominic, a contemporary of St. Francis of Assisi. The story of the early years of the order and its founder was the subject of ...
In the Peanuts comic strip, Snoopy sometimes imagined himself to be a World War I flying ace battling his nemesis, the Red Baron. What type of plane did Snoopy “fly”? "Put that in your __ and __ it." Can you complete this advertising slogan?
“Gee, Dad! It’s a ____ !”
For which of these is Buckminster Fuller best known? Which one of these pop music performers did NOT die in a plane crash?
In which TV show did the phrase, "Whoa, Nelly!" originate?
1959's Signal 30 was a film shown in many a high school assembly to alert teenagers to the dangers of ...
Which TV character always used the "shave-and-a-haircut" rhythm when knocking on his employer's door?
Can you complete this classic line from Monty Python’s Flying Circus ?
"Nobody expects … "
In Roll Over Beethoven, Chuck Berry sings of being afflicted with two ailments. What are they?
What kind of car did Peter Falk drive on Columbo ?
Which of these was the first African-American entertainer to host his own hourlong weekly variety TV show?
From its debut in 1957 through 1963, ABC-TV’s American Bandstand was broadcast from studios in what city? Which of the following records is held by Freddy "Boom Boom" Cannon?
When they debuted in 1968, the Motion Picture Association of America's original lineup of film ratings was ...
In which of these comic strips do the characters live in close to "real time," getting older as the years pass? Actor William Talman played D.A. Hamilton Burger on Perry Mason. For what else is he known? What was the centerpiece of the New York World’s Fair (1964-65)?
What sort of business did Dobie Gillis' father, Herbert T. Gillis, own?
Can you identify this painting? In 1973, a quip by Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show sparked a temporary nationwide shortage of ...
In 1956, American actress Grace Kelly married Rainier III, Prince of ...
What was the credit card now known as Visa called (in the U.S.) when it was launched in 1958?
The Apollo 11 spacecraft consisted of a command module, support module, and lunar module. Two astronauts descended to the Moon's surface in the lunar module, while one remained in lunar orbit in the command module. What was the name given to the command module?
What did this symbol signify? Actor Robert Blake (Baretta) was also a child star in what series?
Who sued the publishers of Mad magazine for $25 million in 1961? What was special about the Johnny Eagle series of toy guns made by Topper Toys in the '60s? According to the song, whose diet consisted of "bearcat stew"?
Who, at the age of 9, was the youngest performer ever* to be nominated for an Academy Award for a lead role?
* as of November, 2016 Which of these was NOT a haircare/grooming product? Do you remember the frozen toaster-size “pizzaburgers” made by Buitoni? What were they called? Which of these was a candy bar now sold as Milky Way Midnight?
Fantastic Voyage (1966) was a film starring Stephen Boyd, Raquel Welch, Edmund O'Brien, and Donald Pleasence. Where did the voyage of the title take them?
The Great Escape (1963 film) is based on a real-life mass escape from a German POW camp during World War II. In the film, how does Steve McQueen’s character, Captain Virgil "The Cooler King" Hilts USAAF, spend his time in the cooler (solitary confinement)?
Only one of the following statements about the first Touch-Tone telephones (introduced by AT&T in 1963) is true. Which is it? Several instrumental hits by Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass were used as musical cues on what popular TV show of the ‘60s-‘70s? For what else is trumpeter Herb Alpert (of the Tijuana Brass) known?
The 1968 film, Planet of the Apes, was followed by four sequels, including one of these. Which one?
Author Robert A. Heinlein coined the term grok in his 1961 novel, Stranger in a Strange Land. What did it mean? Who or what was Fluffo? On TV's The Addams Family, Lurch responded, "You rang?" when summoned by the gong. On which other show was "You rang?" a catchphrase? All of these actors also made the charts as pop singers. But which one had a Top 10 hit with a vocal version of his own TV show's theme music?
Soupy Sales’ children’s TV show featured two large dog puppets – one black and one white -- seen only as giant paws. What were the dogs’ names?
What was the only American-made, mass-produced passenger car to feature a rear-mounted air-cooled engine? Who wrote the 1965 best-seller, Unsafe at Any Speed ?
The whole world knows Ronald McDonald, but before Ronald, the McDonald's chain had another mascot, known as ... Who was a regular on McHale's Navy and a very frequent guest on The Carol Burnett Show ?
Rachel Carson’s 1962 best-seller, Silent Spring, helped to spawn which movement or industry? Remember the small slot at the back of medicine cabinets? What purpose did it serve?
From 1959 until 2008, the Lincoln cent had Abraham Lincoln on the obverse and the Lincoln Memorial on the reverse. What was on the reverse of the penny from 1909 to 1958? Who was Ivy Baker Priest? How would you erase the drawing on an Etch-A-Sketch?
Which of these events occurred first?
Which of these events occurred first? “Olly olly __ !”
Kookie, the parking lot attendant played by Edd Byrnes on 77 Sunset Strip, often spouted hipster language ("Baby, you're the ginchiest!"). But he was also known for constantly ... The "disadvantages" of which product were humorously portrayed in 1960s TV ads?
Joseph Heller's 1961 novel, Catch-22, introduced a new idiom to the English language. Which of these best summarizes a "catch-22" ? Who was the youngest solo male singer to have a #1 album on Billboard's albums chart*?
(* as of November, 2016) Can you match these actresses with their TV cop/detective roles?
One of the cartoon magpies, Heckle or Jeckle, spoke with a distinct New York accent. What accent did the other have? What character was a regular on both Green Acres and Petticoat Junction? What was marketed in the 1960s as "the Think Drink"?
In January 1965, children’s TV host Soupy Sales was suspended from his show for two weeks. What had he done to warrant this? Which one of these was NOT one of Nancy Drew's friends or a member of her family or household? What were the Hardy Boys' first names? Twiggy was ...
What was the magic phrase to open the cartoon vault on the original Mickey Mouse Club TV show? Which of these was the catchphrase (also the title of the autobiography) of Jack Paar, former host of The Tonight Show? The first widely-available diet soft drink was introduced in 1958. Which one of these was it? Can you match the store names with the initials?
Which of these recordings does NOT include a reference to the Vietnam War?
In her 1970 song, Big Yellow Taxi, Joni Mitchell declared, “They paved Paradise …”
In the classic 1969 film, Easy Rider, who played "Connection," the man that received the contraband cocaine from stars Wyatt "Captain America" (Peter Fonda) and Billy (Dennis Hopper)? In the 1960s, "Killer Joe" Piro was best known for being ... Which one of these people disappeared in 1975 and is presumed to be dead, although a body was never found? What is the object pictured here?
What are these women doing?
Can you identify this car?
What did a man popularly called D. B. Cooper famously do in 1971?
Which one of the following did Chairman Mao’s wife prevent from visiting China with President Nixon in 1972?
What was the first Disney film to have a sequel?
Which one of the following is NOT a Disney film?
Who played the mother on both the Lassie and Lost in Space TV shows?
Who is generally acknowledged to be the creator of Gonzo journalism* ?
* a style of journalism in which the reporters themselves become central figures of their stories What was the most popular brand of toothpaste or tooth powder in the U.S. from the 1920s through the late 1950s?
Which one of the following was a market researcher for the Ipana toothpaste "Brusha, brusha, brusha" ad campaign, featuring Bucky Beaver, before becoming otherwise famous? "Bent Fabric" is ...
Who was at the microphone during the 1974 Oscars when a man "streaked" on stage? Rudi Gernreich became famous in 1964 when he ... What is the object pictured here?
What do the initials PF stand for in the name of the sneakers, PF Flyers? Can you identify the person in this photo?
Before making it big in the mid-1970s, Barry Manilow was …
In 1988, Bob Dylan stopped someone at a party, hugged him and said, "Don't stop what you're doing, man. We're all inspired by you." To whom was he speaking?
Until 1962, the Volkswagen Beetle lacked ... Identify Carnaby Street. What was the first single by a former Beatle to reach #1 on the charts? George Harrison lost a legal battle over his song, My Sweet Lord, which was deemed to have infringed the copyright for what other song? What was Lady Bird Johnson's real first name? Who often exclaimed, "Heavens to Murgatroyd!" ? Beginning in November 1969, Native Americans staged a 19-month-long occupation of ... Which of the following, after being elected President, chose not to seek another term in the next election? (Select all that apply.)
Johnny Horton had a #1 hit in 1959 with The Battle of New Orleans. The words of that song celebrate the final battle of which military conflict? Many pop songs have resurfaced in TV commercials, but I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing (In Perfect Harmony) hit the charts in 1971 after being a commercial jingle for … Which of the following characters was NOT featured in the original (1977) lineup of the Village People?
The Shadow of Your Smile won an Academy Award for Best Original Song after being featured in what film? Can you complete this advertising slogan?
"Wow! It sure doesn’t taste like … !”
According to the song, what did Love Potion #9 look like?
Which one of these is NOT an Abbott and Costello movie?
Which of these songs is based almost entirely on verses from the Bible? What does the expression to “get rubber” mean? Paul Cole, a 58-year-old American tourist, is pictured on the front of which Beatles album?
The Shangri-Las’ 1964 song, Leader of the Pack, was followed, two months later, by a parody called Leader of the ...
What warning often accompanied the punched cards mailed with utility bills?
What was the name of the on-board computer in 2001:A Space Odyssey?
Which song from 1968 included the following lyrics?
What's your name?
(Who's your daddy? He rich?)
Is he rich like me?
Complete this advertising slogan from the '50s and '60s:
"______ is our most important product."
Which character's animated cartoons were often mini-operas, with the dialogue sung rather than spoken?
The 1967 Swedish film, I Am Curious (Yellow), was notorious for its nudity and sex scenes. Which one of the following appeared in it? (No, not in one of those scenes.)
In 1972, Bobby Fischer won the World Chess Championship in Reykjavik, Iceland by defeating ...
How big was the infamous gap in the Watergate tapes? Which one of the following was NOT involved in the Watergate scandal? Which of the following did NOT headline a tour in England for which The Beatles were a supporting/warm-up act? Arthur Fiedler was ... The first restaurant in the McDonald's chain opened in 1955. How much did its hamburgers cost?
In the ‘50s and ‘60s, what would parents and school nurses put on your skinned knee?
Can you arrange these McDonald's offerings in the order they were introduced?
Which one of the following ingredients was NOT in McDonald's original Big Mac?
1963”s Surf City was the first surf song to reach #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Who recorded it?
Where, as the song goes, were there “two girls for every boy” ? To what does the term "Sanforization" refer? One of the following was a Quaker. Which one? Can you complete this advertising slogan?
"Don't wait to be told, you need ... "
Back in the '50s and '60s, on which of these items might you have found the Kelvinator brand name?
Who gained fame as the Galloping Gourmet? "I'm no fool, no-siree / I want to live to be 93!" was the theme song of a series of educational cartoons from the late 1950s that taught schoolchildren about hazards such as traffic, fire, and sharp objects. Can you name the host of the "I'm No Fool" series?
On the Rocky and His Friends animated TV series, what nation did spies Boris and Natasha work for? Which one of the following was NOT a member of the Rat Pack?
TV commercials for which brand of chewing gum featured a special dance step named for the gum?
Which make of car sported, during the 1960s, the largest emblem (logo) ever put on a regular production passenger vehicle?
Many recall Boris and Natasha on the Rocky and His Friends animated TV series. But do you know Natasha’s surname?
Which one of these was a Top 40 hit song in 1965? "For those who think young"was an advertising slogan for what product?
When Richard Nixon resigned the presidency in 1974, to whom did he address his letter of resignation? “They often call me Speedoo, but my real name is …”
Since 1973, what are American League baseball pitchers no longer required to do? Five of these brands are named after actual people. Can you spot them? (Select all that apply.)
In what town did the Cleavers live on TV's Leave it to Beaver ? Can you match each TV show with its theme music?
Note: In some browsers, you may need to manually pause one theme before playing another.
The recording artist known as Donovan had several hit records in the ‘60s, including Sunshine Superman and Mellow Yellow. What's his real name?
The actor who played the title role in Bachelor Father also starred in which other show?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
Can you identify the TV show for which this was the theme music?
The Partridge Family TV sitcom was inspired by and loosely based on an actual pop music family. Which one?
All but one of the following are recipients of the Oscar, Tony, Emmy, and Grammy awards. Which one is NOT a member of this exclusive "Grand Slam" club?
Which of the following did NOT often perform as a comedy team?
On which TV program would you most likely hear this catch-phrase?
"Six, two, and even -- over and out."
This distinguished-looking gentleman was seen in advertisements for ...
Since 1997, the popular Chex line of breakfast cereals has been made by General Mills. Who made them in the ‘50s and ‘60s? Many TV game shows of the ‘50s and ‘60s featured merchandise and prizes from one of these mail-order catalogs. Which one?
From 1927-1975, A&P was the largest food retailer in the U.S. (until 1965, its largest retailer of any kind). What was the full name of the company?
Who first recorded Hound Dog, in 1952? "Choo-Choo Charlie" was a character used in advertising for which of these?
Which of the following James Bond movies was a spoof, assembled by five directors and ten writers, unrelated to the "straight" Bond films starring Sean Connery, Roger Moore, etc.? Whose 1950s advertising campaign quickly transformed its product from one favored by women into one thought of as manly?
They say life imitates art. Which one of these played a character with a certain job on a TV sitcom, and later held that same job in real life?
What’s the name of the game pictured here? Who used the advertising slogan
“Blow in her face and she’ll follow you anywhere.” ?
Whose TV variety show included a segment introduced by girls singing
"Letters -- We get letters -- We get stacks and stacks of letters" ?
Can you identify this character? Who was Margie's "boyfriend" in the '50s TV show, My Little Margie ?
In the Peanuts comic strip, which character spent each Halloween in the pumpkin patch waiting for the Great Pumpkin to arrive? What did John Wayne and Phyllis Schlafly have in common?
The rock 'n' roll nostalgia group Sha Na Na derived its name from the lyrics of what song? “This is the dawning of the Age of ____ .”
Remember 1962's Papa-Oom-Mow-Mow, by the Rivingtons? What does the lead vocalist sing about? Which one of the following was typically white in the '50s and '60s, but is now usually another color? Can you identify the person in this photo?
Can you identify the person in this photo?
What was the name of the hotel on Petticoat Junction ? In late 1966, Gary Lewis and the Playboys performed on The Ed Sullivan Show. Gary, who was just about to enter the Army, sang One Last Kiss, and a girl from the audience was invited onstage to kiss him goodbye. The song and the kiss mirrored a scene from which Broadway musical? Whose catchphrase was "Well, I'll be a dirty bird!" ? What famous sports figure was shaved by Farrah Fawcett in a 1978 TV ad for her line of Fabergé hair products and fragrances?
Contestants on Truth or Consequences who failed to answer a tricky question correctly were met with a loud sound from ...
In 1964-65, Shirley Ellis had a Top 10 hit with The Name Game. Which of the following names would it be wise to avoid while playing her game? Back in the ‘50s and ‘60s, many editions of The Saturday Evening Post featured cover art by …
On You Bet Your Life, with Groucho Marx, what happened if a contestant said the secret word?
In the 1967 hit, Ode to Billie Joe, the narrator -- or someone who looked like her -- and Billie Joe McAllister were seen "throwing something off the Tallahatchie Bridge." What was it that they threw?
Which TWO of these events occurred during the 1950s?
In the U.S. prior to 1967, the Memorial Day holiday was officially known as ... George Fenneman is/was ...
How many husbands has Zsa Zsa Gabor had, to date?
Which one of the following was NOT one of Elizabeth Taylor's husbands?
What was Harry S. Truman’s middle name?
Which one of these was NOT the screen name of a "Bond Girl" in a 007 film?
In 1962, an oral vaccine developed by Dr. Albert Sabin was introduced to combat …
What's the name of this game?
In the ‘50s and ‘60s, which one of these was a sweetened puffed-wheat breakfast cereal? Can you identify Nik-L-Nip ? To what does “wow and flutter” refer?
Who recommended that their product be used three times a day?
When a standard audio cassette is playing, how fast does the tape move? In the 1950s, which product used the ad slogan
“Relief is just a swallow away.” ?
Can you identify Zip Gun ? What does ICBM stand for?
Kodak introduced the Instamatic camera in 1963. For which one of these innovations is the Instamatic known?
What was the name of the launch vehicle (rocket) used by NASA for the Gemini manned spaceflight program (1965-66)?
From whose mail-order catalog did Wile E. Coyote obtain the various contraptions with which he hoped to catch the Road Runner?
Can you identify this movie theme music?
Frank Sinatra carried a roll of dimes at all times, from 1963 until his death in 1998. Why did he start doing this?
Prior to Donald Trump, who was the only* U.S. president to have been divorced?
Which one of the following had a White House wedding?
Which world leader was prevented, for security reasons, from visiting Disneyland in 1959?
Audrey Hepburn starred in the 1964 film version of My Fair Lady, but she only lip-synced the songs. Who supplied Eliza Doolittle’s singing voice? Who or what is a “Wankel” ?
What does the “CB” stand for in “CB radio”?
The DC-10 wide-body jet airliner was introduced in 1971. Which company built it?
Idlewild Airport is mentioned in the theme song for an early-'60s TV sitcom. Where was it?
Addition of fluoride to public water supplies became widespread in the U.S. around 1960, in order to ...
Which one of these was introduced in 1972 and, due to its popularity and commercial success, launched the video arcade game industry?
Who was known as Ol' Blue Eyes?
Hey, whatcha got pokin’ out, there?
The first season of Saturday Night Live included skits in the Land of Gorch, featuring …
In 1960, Bulova introduced the first wristwatch to use a tuning fork and electronic circuitry; it emitted a soft hum rather than a ticking sound. What was it called?
What is the object pictured here?
Before replacing Shemp Howard as one of The Tthree Stooges, Joe Besser was a regular on The Abbott and Costello Show, playing a 40-year-old man dressed in a Little Lord Fauntleroy suit. What was this character's name?
Can you identify this icon of "weirdo shirts" and 1950s-1960s hot rod culture?
To what product did President Jimmy Carter’s younger brother lend his name?
In 1965, Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards was nearly electrocuted during a concert in Sacramento, California. What is believed to have saved his life?
Which one of these was NOT part of the ‘60s dance craze? Which famous sports figure became the commercial spokesperson for Mr. Coffee electric coffee makers?
Who was Marilyn Monroe’s first husband?
Marvel Comics has trademarked the sound that Spider-Man's web shooter makes. That sound is:
When introduced in 1959, Chatty Cathy dolls could say 11 different phrases. Which one of these was NOT among them? Can you identify Bild Lilli?
Can you identify the person in this 2002 photo?
Who suggested, in 1967, that we should “Turn on, tune in, drop out” ?
Who was Abbie Hoffman? Who did the Youth International Party (“Yippies”) support for President in 1968?
Which movie from the 1960s was said to have made thousands of people afraid of taking a shower?
Which TV show was subtitled "American Scene Magazine"?
Both Neil Diamond and the Hollies had hits with the record, He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother. Where did the songwriters get that phrase from?
Who reportedly made Lady Bird Johnson burst into tears at a White House luncheon in 1968?
Can you identify this sound?
Edward D. Wood, Jr. wrote and directed a film, released in 1959, that some critics have called “the worst movie ever made”. Which film was this? Can you identify Bwana Devil ? Identify VISTA from 1964:
One of the following fictitious entities was featured on TV’s The Name of the Game (1968-71) and later become a reality. Which one?
Who won the Korean War?
Which of the following was once employed as a Playboy Bunny?
Theodor Geisel was a successful writer, but he used a pseudonym. What was it?
The “Dear Abby” advice column was started in 1956, by …
Robert Loggia starred in the 1966-67 TV series, T.H.E. Cat. What did T.H.E. stand for? Billy Graham, Dick Clark, and Joe DiMaggio all ...
P. D. Q. Bach scholar, "Professor" Peter Schickele, claimed to be Chairman of the Department of Musical Pathology at what school? Can you identify the original members of The Mamas and the Papas? (Select four.)
Which of these foreign-language pop hits contains the line, translated into English, "I'm not a sailor -- I'm a captain!" ?
Satirist Tom Lehrer contributed several songs to which TV series in the mid-'60s?
in what car did Tod and Buz tour the U.S.A. on TV's Route 66 ? "Cowabunga!" -- the expression of awe or surprise used in the 1960s by surfers and, decades later, by Bart Simpson and the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles -- came from ...
What was on the reverse side of the Kennedy half dollar when it was introduced in 1964?
What plane was flown by the airmen of TV's 12 O'Clock High ?
In her 1964 hit song, Petula Clark suggested that you should go Downtown and listen to what type of music?
Janis Ian wrote and recorded her first hit single, Society’s Child, in 1964, when she was 13. What was the song about?
Whose flag was this?
Other than Psycho, can you name two movies featuring Anthony Perkins?
What is the object pictured here?
Who had a #1 hit in 1953 with (How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?
Although it would be considered very politically incorrect today, Ray Stevens’ novelty song, Ahab the Arab, reached #5 on Billboard's top 40 chart in 1962. What was the name of Ahab’s camel?
Who had a big hit with Personality in 1959?
What has Microsoft’s Bill Gates called “the first interactive TV show” ?
Who had a hit record in 1962 with Speedy Gonzales ?
This excerpt from Elton John’s 1972 hit, Crocodile Rock, reminded many* of which previous song?
* enough so that it prompted a lawsuit
Can you identify the object pictured here?
Who had a #1 hit single with the song, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds ? Back in the sixties, these teams had something in common. What was it?
Boston Patriots Buffalo Bills Denver Broncos Houston Oilers Oakland Raiders
Remember Witch Doctor, by David Seville? Which one of these was NOT part of the song's chorus?
In the liner notes of Meet the Beatles, the first Beatles album released in the U.S., Capitol Records used the phrase "pudding basin" to describe ...
In which film did Doris Day sing, Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be) ?
Whose flag was this? Back in the ‘50s and ‘60s, if you used something with the brand name LePage’s, it was probably …
Which of the following comedians often appeared on the “borscht belt” circuit in New York’s Catskill Mountains? (Check all that apply, if any.)
Can you identify Laszlo Toth ?
Carrie Fisher played Princess Leia in Star Wars. Can you name her parents?
Which television actor had been a professional baseball and basketball figure, playing for both the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Boston Celtics? What was the name of the fictional great ape who adopted John Clayton after her own baby died? I fought the law …
In 1950s TV commercials, Clorets chewing gum was touted as having which ingredient?
The 1969 film, Hercules in New York, featured an unlikely pair of actors. Which one?
Which parent-child pair won a pair of Oscars for the same movie?
At the Academy Awards, which film beat Star Wars for the best film of 1977? Hubert Humphrey said that he may have lost the 1968 election because …
What did Richard Nixon say during his brief appearance on Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In in September, 1968?
In the third season of the 1960s TV show, Batman, the crime-fighting duo was joined by Batgirl, who was identified as:
If you were lucky, there was a song named after you. Which one of the following was NOT the title of a ‘50s-‘60s Top Ten hit song?
Which of these was NOT one of the 10 most popular names given to baby girls in the 1950s?
Which of these was NOT one of the 10 most popular names given to baby boys in the 1950s?
In 1967, there was a rumor -- since debunked -- that one could get high by smoking ...
What was the name of the vampire on TV’s Dark Shadows daytime soap opera? In 1960, Israeli agents captured a high-ranking Nazi fugitive in Buenos Aires, Argentina. What was his name?
Which Top 20 song from the 1960s is sung mostly in Creole slang -- the exact translation of which is a matter of dispute?
In an oft-replayed appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, who demonstrated his tomahawk-throwing skills, but hit the target embarrassingly low?
To which Indian tribe did Howdy Doody‘s Chief Thunderthud belong?
Which of the following TV shows was a spin-off of another spin-off?
Can you identify this sound?
Which 1965 film was dedicated to Elias Howe, who in 1846 invented the sewing machine?
The 1961 Academy Award for Best Original Song went to Moon River. In which film was it featured?
Can you identify this sound?
Can you identify Royal and Underwood?
In Chuck Berry’s song, Memphis, Tennessee (or simply Memphis, as in Johnny Rivers’ 1964 version), who is the singer trying to contact on the telephone?
Which of these best paraphrases the advice given by Gerry and the Pacemakers in a 1964 hit song?
Which of these best paraphrases the advice given by Jimmy Soul in a 1963 hit song?
In a famous routine, Abbott and Costello (well, Costello, anyway)
proves that 7 X 13 equals ... In 1965, an organization was formed to promote worldwide education through musical performances. What was its name?
Which one of these was NOT a hit song by the 1910 Fruitgum Company during the 1960s?
Can you identify Wilma Rudolph? Can you match each of these '50s-'70s-era world leaders with his/her nation?
Who was the last* U.S. president who did not have a daughter?
* as of 2017
“Jeremiah was a bullfrog”
is the opening line of a hit song from 1970, written by Hoyt Axton. What was the title of the song?
The final Beatles single to reach #1 on the U.S. charts was ...
In January 1972, Time magazine called the person featured on their cover "TV's first black superstar". Who was thus honored?
Kmart, Walmart, Target, Woolco, and Big-K all opened their first discount stores in 1962.
For several years, CBS’ 60 Minutes featured a segment called Point/Counterpoint, a short debate between pundits on opposite ends of the political spectrum. One frequent pair was …
Look, up in the sky!
It's a
__!
(3-part answer)
Given the following "doo-wop" songs, which is the only one in which the words "doo-wop" were actually sung? Whose logo is this?
Each of the songs on the left is someone's signature tune. Can you match the songs with their singers? Lustre-Creme was ... On which of the following would you find a tone arm?
In what year did the Vietnam War end?
Which one of the following was NOT a member of the Warsaw Pact military alliance (1955-1991) ?
Can you complete these TV show titles? With a name like ___, it has to be good.
Who used the slogan
“A mind is a terrible thing to waste.” ?
It’s 11 o’clock. Do you know where your ____ are?
Which of the following events, unlikely though it may seem, occurred in June, 1969? Two of the choices are correct; pick either one.
In January, 1967, an event billed as The Human Be-In took place. Where?
Thinking back to the ‘50s and ‘60s, can you identify Y. A. Tittle ? Can you name each of the classic albums whose cover art is shown here?
In 1960, an American airplane was shot down over Soviet airspace. What kind of plane was it?
What was special about the Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief record album (U.S. release 1975) ?
Can you match the names with the musical groups? What is meant by the term “Fosbury Flop” ? Many songs of the '50s and '60s dealt with deaths of one kind or another. Can you match these songs with the deaths their lyrics speak of?
Which product used the famously finicky Morris the Cat in its TV commercials?
Fearing that they were too morbid for American Bandstand, Dick Clark insisted that the lyrics of a hit song be changed for his program, despite the fact that the original version told a true story. What was the song?
"Minuet in G major" from 1725’s Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (often attributed to J.S. Bach) is the basis for the melody of what hit song?
A 1971 concert by Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention in Montreux, Switzerland, ended prematurely. Why?
The lyrics of Procol Harum’s 1967 hit song, A Whiter Shade of Pale, make reference to a certain literary work. Which one? Which one of these was the first Beatles album to contain only their original compositions?
Fred MacMurray played the father on TV’s My Three Sons. What was his character’s occupation?
What was the first Disney film to have a sequel feature film?
A #1 hit song from 1966 included the lyrics:
You keep lyin' when you oughta be truthin'
And you keep losin' when you oughta not bet
What song was this?
Former New York Yankees pitcher Jim Bouton wrote a controversial tell-all book in 1970. What was its title?
Which cereal is touted as the "Breakfast of Champions" ?
Who used the advertising slogan:
"We try harder" ?
Merle Haggard had a big country hit in 1969 titled,
Okie . . .
Which one of the following was often heard butchering the song, Oh My Darling, Clementine ?
Phil Silvers played Sgt. Bilko on The Phil Silvers Show. What was Bilko’s first name?
In the early days, The Beatles recorded several covers (their versions of songs written by others), including one from which hit Broadway show?
Which TV cartoon featured characters named Ty Coon, Vincent van Gopher, Pig Newton, Muskie Muskrat, Moley Mole, and Possible 'Possum?
In the Smokey Stover comic strip, what was the main character’s job?
What’s the name of Beetle Bailey’s nemesis? Which product was advertised as “the Uncola” ? Aren't you glad you use _____? (Don't you wish everybody did?)
What kind of car was TV’s My Mother the Car?
The U.S. boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Why?
In the 1964-65 animated TV series, Jonny Quest, what was Jonny’s surname?
Ohio is one of the few U.S. states with an official rock song. What song is it?
In 1962, The Marvelettes had a hit song whose title was a telephone number. What was the number?
Whose catchphrase was “Dy-no-MITE” ?
Can you match each TV show with the first name of its title character?
Which actor portrayed the same character in the movie and TV versions of M*A*S*H ?
Of the following artists, which was the only one to perform at the Woodstock Festival in August, 1969?
We’ve all played with NERF toys, but do you know what the name NERF stands for?
Can you identify Chuck Yeager?
The U.S. Postal Service’s ZIP code system was introduced in 1963. What does ZIP stand for?
Which TV game show is described below?
The winner, to the musical accompaniment of Pomp and Circumstance, would be draped in a sable-trimmed red velvet robe, given a glittering jeweled crown to wear, placed on a velvet-upholstered throne, and handed a dozen long-stemmed roses.
In 1957, Governor Orval Faubus called out the National Guard to stop African-American students from attending high school. Of which state was he the Governor? "I'm gonna __ like a __ and sting like a bee." - Muhammad Ali
Many naval warships are nuclear powered, but what was the first nuclear powered civilian vessel? In the '50s and '60s, the name Norge was most often seen in connection with...
Martial arts master Bruce Lee co-starred on which '60s TV series?
Where did TV’s Laverne and Shirley work?
When a typewriter rang a small bell, what did it mean?
In cool weather, Polaroid instant photos developed very slowly. What did Polaroid suggest that you do if the temperature was 40°F or below?
Can you identify Evelyn Wood? In the ‘50s and ‘60s, the name Gregg was most often associated with… Can you identify Hydrox?
Where were these now-defunct amusement parks located?
Thinking back to the ‘50s and ‘60s, can you identify Haystacks Calhoun?
What was the setting for the L'il Abner comic strip?
Who portrayed Minnesota Fats opposite Paul Newman's "Fast Eddie" Felson in the 1961 film, The Hustler?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
What does the modern-day desktop or laptop computer’s keyboard have that the typical U.S.-English manual typewriter of the ‘50s and ‘60s lacked? (Check all that apply, and be careful — it's tricky.)
North Korea captured a U.S. Navy vessel in early 1968, and held its crew there for most of the year. What was the name of the ship? “This is not your father's _____.”
Can you complete this phrase, popularized in the '60s by underground comix artist R. Crumb?
What did Creedence Clearwater Revival want to know in 1970?
The PAM cooking spray was introduced in 1961. The name PAM is an acronym for ...
In the Bobbsey Twins series of children's books, the family had two sets of fraternal twins. What were the twins' first names?
The "nonfiction novel", The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, was published in 1968. Who wrote it?
The novel, Lolita, was published in 1955. Who was its author?
Nebraska has an official State Soft Drink. What is it? In TV commercials, which product was touted as being “fruit juicy”?
What color are the stripes on the typical barber pole?
Which Apollo 11 astronaut remained in lunar orbit in the command module while the other two continued to the Moon's surface?
Which beer was advertised with the slogan:
"The beer that made Milwaukee famous" ?
The original Monopoly game board featured properties (e.g., Marvin Gardens, St. Charles Place) named after actual places in or near which city?
The original Monopoly game board featured four railroad properties. What were their names? (Select four.) Complete this advertising slogan: "Ruffles _____"
Complete this '60s musical refrain:
"Hey! You! Get off of my __."
Match the make of the car with the model from 1960.
Complete the title of this 1966 hit by Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels:
Devil with ______ On
Which one of these bandleaders had a #1 instrumental hit on Billboard's Hot 100 pop chart in 1961?
While JFK was president, his family had several pets, including which one of these?
Which one of these was First Cat of the United States?
All but one of these quotes are attributed to NY Yankees great, Yogi Berra. Which one is NOT a Yogiism?
From 1955 to 1977, the "Clown Prince of Basketball" played for the Harlem Globetrotters. He was known as ...
On The Adventures of Jim Bowie, what was the title character's preferred weapon?
The animated series, The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, had several segments. Which one of these was NOT among them?
In what year do The Jetsons live?
Where did George Jetson work?
Who was the first character on a hit American sitcom to get married and become a mother during the show's run, AND keep her job?
Which was the first and only* American TV series to earn a #1 Nielsen rating for its premiere episode?
* as of November, 2016
Janis Joplin was the lead singer for which rock band?
The rock band The Who was famous for ...
Love it or hate it, the Edsel was produced by Ford Motor Company from 1958 until 1960, and was named for ... In 1968, who famously quipped,
"In the future, everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes." ?
Match each James Bond film with the appropriate villain.
After a lengthy career as a more or less standard classical musician, organist Virgil Fox "went psychedelic" in the early 1970s with a series of flamboyant live organ concerts aimed mostly at rock music fans. These performances, most of which included light shows in venues such as Fillmore East, were called ... “Let your fingers do the walking …”
Frankie Ford had a hit record in 1959, singing:
"Oo-ee, oo-ee baby, won't you let me take you ..."
On the Rhoda TV sitcom, the doorman was often heard on the intercom, but we never saw his face. What was his name?
In which mountains did the Beverly Hillbillies live before moving to Beverly Hills?
What was the name of the Cartwrights’ cook on Bonanza?
Beetle Bailey has a relative in another comic strip. Who is it?
Mary Tyler Moore's production company, MTM Enterprises, created several hit TV series, all of which showed the MTM logo at the end of each show. What distinctive feature did the logo have?
According to the lyrics of the song that introduced it, doing which dance was "easier than learning your ABC's"?
Two different actors portrayed Samantha’s husband, Darin, on TV's Bewitched. Can you name them? (Select two.)
Which TV show announced:
"You unlock this door with the key of imagination" ?
This brawny fellow was used to advertise which type of product in 1959?
Which one of the following was a recurring segment on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour (1967-69)?
Whose TV variety show featured frequent appearances by the June Taylor Dancers, with overhead camera shots of the group making geometric patterns?
What slogan accompanied this product logo?
Which one of the following snacks was named after a sports figure?
Who is the only* musician to have been honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City?
* as of November, 2016
Who recorded the 1973 novelty song, Basketball Jones featuring Tyrone Shoelaces?
"Wellbee," shown here in a strategically-edited poster from 1963, promoted ...
On which car was the Batmobile of ‘60s TV’s Batman based?
Nine popes led the Catholic church during the 20th century. One of them died after serving for just 33 days. What was his name?
Whose slogan was:
Better Things for Better Living...Through Chemistry ?
In which of his hits did Elvis Presley attempt to quote Shakespeare?
In 1966, Nancy Sinatra had a #1 hit record titled, These Boots Are Made for ...
Who was Ralph Bunche? "If I knew you were comin' I'd've ..."
Near the beginning of The Graduate (1967), a party guest offers one word of advice to Benjamin. What word is that?
Complete this line from the 1959 song, Seven Little Girls Sitting in the Back Seat, by Paul Evans:
"We're having fun sittin' in the back seat ..."
Which TV theme song promised, “You’ll laugh so hard, your sides will ache” ?
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created by executive order and later ratified by Congress. Who issued the executive order?
Which of these pop songs, when released, urged listeners to do a dance that didn't exist?
A character portrayed by Edd Byrnes on TV inspired a pop song titled,
_____, Lend Me Your Comb.
In the 1971 film, Dirty Harry, what was Harry Callahan's (Clint Eastwood) radio call sign?
This image is an example of ...
What was the normal film speed (frame rate) of 8mm home movies?
In 1960, the unit of measurement "cycles per second" (cps) was replaced and is now known as ...
In how many feature films (musicals and concert documentaries, from 1956-1972) did Elvis Presley appear?
Which TV character frequently used the phrase, "It's a doozy, Mr. B." ?
On which of these TV programs did Andy Devine co-star?
Can you identify Lewis Erskine?
The LaSalle, a sort of junior-varsity Cadillac formerly manufactured by General Motors, was mentioned in which TV show's theme song?
Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Jim Morrison were the same age when they died. How old were they?
Who played the title role in the 1953 film, Calamity Jane ?
In 1968, a well-known landmark was purchased by a private individual, who moved it to Arizona. Which landmark was this?
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy imagined by writer Douglas Adams contains a short entry on the planet Earth. What does it say?
Which of these was NOT used to describe The Purple People Eater in Sheb Wooley’s song from 1958?
Which of the following characters was NOT featured in underground comix of the late 1960s?
What song is this audio clip from?
In what city was the radio/TV police drama Dragnet set?
What was the name of the summer camp in Allan Sherman's 1963 song, Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh?
Which of the following, while plentiful in the U.S. during the ‘50s and ‘60s, are seldom seen today? (Select all that apply, if any.)
What was the main selling point of the '70s-era Earth Shoe?
On which classic TV show would you most likely hear the words, "Let's flip over all the cards"?
The 1968 film, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, was based on a children's book published four years earlier. Who wrote that book?
Match each music group with one of its members.
Match each music group with one of its members.
Match each music group with one of its members.
When it was introduced in 1965, what new beverage was advertised as being "The Sassy One" ? Big Shot, introduced in 1963, was ...
In his 1973 song, Bad, Bad Leroy Brown, Jim Croce described Leroy as being "meaner than _____ ".
A radio announcer’s test/warm-up script popularized by Jerry Lewis began, “One hen, two ducks”. Which of these followed? (Select all that apply, if any.)
Remember this test pattern from the days of black-and-white TV? You'd see it while the engineers adjusted the transmitter, after the station signed off for the night. In the U.S., what image was located where the question mark is?
Before the flat screen monitor, TVs and computers used bulky CRT displays. What did “CRT” stand for?
Who were Mark Goodson and Bill Todman?
Can you identify Stuart Sutcliffe?
Play-Doh children's modeling compound was introduced in the mid-1950s, but the compound had been used for a different purpose since it was developed in the 1930s. What was its original purpose?
Which products were advertised and sold around the holidays with the tagline, "Open me first" ?
TV westerns were very popular in the ‘50s and ‘60s. Can you match each of these classic westerns with one of its main characters?
What was the film Born Free (1966) about?
Remember the 1957 Disney film, Old Yeller? Who or what was the title character?
Outside which of these would you most likely find a wooden statue of an American Indian?
Everyone remembers S&H Green Stamps, but do you recall what "S&H" stood for?
Who are these characters? Whose motto was: "Workers of the world, unite!"
The drug Thalidomide was introduced in 1957. Unfortunately, its use by pregnant women resulted in a wide range of birth defects – so much so that it is still referred to as the Thalidomide Tragedy.
Thalidomide was originally marketed to relieve which of the following symptoms? (Check all that apply, if any.)
What company was headquartered at “Checkerboard Square”?
Who sang the 1965 R&B hit, Rescue Me ?
Be-Bop-A-Lula was a top-ten hit song in 1956, and has since been recorded by many artists. Who recorded the original hit version?
B. B. King had a major hit in 1970 with his recording of a slow blues song titled
The _____ Is Gone.
1967’s Different Drum was the first hit record for Linda Ronstadt, as a member of which music group?
Can you complete the title of the first song co-written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones?
As _____ Go By.
Before Crosby, Stills & Nash, David Crosby was a member of which music group? Only one of the following statements about the Columbo TV series is true. Which one?
The Reprise record label was founded in 1960. By whom? The comic book super-villain Bizarro was conceived as a "mirror image” of …
In what city did Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech (August 28, 1963) ?
In the 1968 film The Party, Peter Sellers' character spends nearly half a minute doing which one of these things, non-stop? Complete this classic ad slogan: "Which twin _____ ?"
Can you spot the person whose birth name was Leslie Lynch King, Jr.?
What’s the next lyric line from The Moody Blues’ 1970 song, Question ?
Why do we never get an answer
when we’re knocking at the door
with a thousand million questions
________ ?
Which one of the following celebrities married into the Kennedy family in 1954?
Barbara-Ann reached #13 on Billboard's Hot 100 chart in 1961. Who recorded it? The Stonewall riots in the summer of 1969 are viewed today as one of the most important events leading to ...
According to a Rolling Stone article at the time, December 6, 1969 was "rock and roll's all-time worst day, ... a day when everything went perfectly wrong." What happened on that day?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
Before it was appropriated by Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In, the line:
"Here come de judge!"
was part of whose comedy routine?
Can you identify this TV theme music?
In the 1968 Beatles song, Back in the U.S.S.R., the lyrics speak of returning to the Soviet Union on a BOAC flight from ... Silly Putty came in a ...
Which one of the following was NOT a character in the Boomer-era version of the Candy Land board game? In December 1961, the Associated Press issued an apology for a news story it had reported that quickly turned out to be false. It was the first such apology the AP had issued since 1945, when it had prematurely announced the end of World War II. The 1961 incorrect story reported that ...
Which one of these milestones in the history of color TV in the U.S. occurred first?
In a 1967 Top-10 hit song, The 5th Dimension asked:
Wouldn't you like to ____ ?
Following the huge success of the Peanuts-themed 1962 book, Happiness Is a Warm Puppy (on the best-seller list for two years), TV host Johnny Carson came out with his own comedic version in 1967, also a best-seller. Its title was:
Misery Is ____
In 1968, Tammy Wynette had a big country hit titled ...
Country singer Jeannie C. Riley had a big crossover hit song in 1968 titled ...
Which city did Godzilla destroy in the original 1954 film?
Can you identify Thor Heyerdahl? Comic books advertised the premiums kids could earn -- including cameras, bicycles, air rifles, and radios -- by selling something with the brand name White Cloverine. What was it?
What caption typically accompanied this drawing?
On which one of these classic TV shows would you regularly hear,
Come in, mystery challenger, and sign in please. ?
Which popular TV sitcom was adapted from a cartoon that ran in The Saturday Evening Post?
Which one of these artists did NOT make the Billboard Hot 100 chart with a song from the musical Hair? Can you identify Andrea Doria?
What was the first TV sitcom (on a broadcast network) to portray a married couple sleeping in the same bed?
What was the first song by The Rolling Stones to reach #1 on the Billboard Hot 100?
Which of these best describes the 1967 film, Cool Hand Luke?
Can you find the correct match for each of these rock group names?
On the British TV series The Prisoner, Patrick McGoohan portrayed a former secret agent who was confined to a mysterious coastal village and assigned a new identity. What was that identity?
Xerox Corporation was founded in 1906 under a name that began with one of these terms. Which one?
When did "In God we trust" become the official motto of the United States?
Can you identify Illya Kuryakin?
In August 1966, broadcasters in Spain, South Africa, and the Netherlands banned records by The Beatles. Why?
What was the name on McHale's ship on TV's McHale's Navy?
Identify this character -- the boy, not the dog:
Whose catchphrase was, "The Devil made me do it." ?
Who played Genghis Khan in the epic 1956 film, The Conqueror ?
Which musical artist was named for an 18th century English agriculturalist who changed farming by inventing a horse-drawn seed drill?
Which one of the following celebrities is a former Miss America?
From which spiritual advisor did The Beatles personally seek guidance? In the Baby Boomer era, Haggis Baggis was ...
Which of these "Brothers" musical groups did not actually have any brothers among its members?
Several of Elvis Presley's early singles did well on the C&W charts, but what song marked his debut on Billboard's Top 100 pop chart in February 1956?
The famous "Hemi Under Glass" drag racer was so named because a fuel-injected Chrysler Hemi engine was mounted in the rear of the car, and was visible through the rear window. There were several built in the late '60s, all based on the ... In 1958, a retired candy maker from Boston founded the John Birch Society, which was dedicated to crushing all traces of Communism in the U.S. Who was the John Birch for whom this organization was named?
Introduced to the U.S. at the 1961 New York Auto Show, Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made". Yet it was only produced for 14 years. What was it? For several years, Cadillac hid the unsightly gas cap to create a sleeker look. Where was the gas cap on a 1958 Cadillac Coupe de Ville?
American Motors (AMC) took a stab at the sports car market with this 1968 2-seater, said to be a competitor to the Corvette. Well received and relatively inexpensive, it still only lasted three model years. What was it?
The Beatles' first concert in the U.S. was on Tuesday, February 11, 1964. Where did it take place?
We all know Ed Sullivan as the somewhat unlikely host of a TV variety show, but what was his day job?
In 1961, an ailment caused Red Skelton to miss an episode of The Red Skelton Show. Who filled in for Skelton, playing his usual characters in the comedy sketches?
Complete the title of this 1965 Broadway musical:
The __ of the Greasepaint
— The __ of the Crowd
The first Walt Disney television show premiered on ABC in 1954. What was the name of this program? In July 1959, U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev engaged in a series of impromptu exchanges. These became known as ...
What battle or conflict does this monument commemorate?
Who was the first female guest host of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ?
Day-O (The Banana Boat Song) was released in 1956 and became one of Harry Belafonte's signature songs. Which animal is mentioned in the lyrics?
Match each animated cartoon character with its cartoonist, series, or studio: Where would you be most likely to encounter the names Hugo Hunt, Greasy Grimes, Kuku Klown, Lotta Noise, Tillie Tumble, Gusto Graft, and Petunia Pill?
In 1975, The Who's Roger Daltrey starred in a film based on the life of ...
"You have the right to remain silent …"
1966's Miranda case broke new ground in the quest for due process. The case was ultimately decided by the US Supreme Court, but which state was titled in the proceedings? Can you complete this Boomer-era commercial jingle?
"Oh, oh, oh, it's ..."
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i don't know
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The Arab food falafal is commonly made from?
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Falafel Recipe : Melissa d'Arabian : Food Network
Kosher salt and freshly ground black pepper
Directions
Watch how to make this recipe.
In a food processor, combine the chickpeas , scallions , garlic, cumin, coriander , cayenne, parsley, cilantro, egg, and lemon juice . Pulse to combine and season with salt. The mixture will not be smooth, but it should not have large chunks.
Add in the baking powder and 1/3 cup of the flour and pulse to just combine. Remove to a bowl and chill in the refrigerator for 30 minutes.
Remove the chickpea mixture from the refrigerator. Add enough oil to a large saute pan so it reaches 1/2-inch up the sides and heat it over medium-high heat until an inserted thermometer reads 360 degrees F.
Meanwhile, drop spoonfuls of the chickpea mixture onto a plate with 1/4 cup flour. Roll into balls on the floured plate and press gently into patties. Fry in batches of hot oil for about 3 to 4 minutes each side and drain on paper towels.
Serve the falafel on a bed of lettuce with chopped salted tomatoes, grated cucumber and White Bean Yogurt Sauce.
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Chickpea
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Which famous English brewer of ale, established in 1787 next to London's Tower Bridge, has a cockerel as its emblem?
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How to Make Falafel with this Classic Recipe
Yield: 2 servings
Preparation
Place dried chickpeas in a bowl, covering with cold water. Allow to soak overnight. Omit this step if using canned beans.
Drain chickpeas , and place in pan with fresh water, and bring to a boil.
Allow to boil for 5 minutes, then let simmer on low for about an hour.
Drain and allow to cool for 15 minutes.
Combine chickpeas, garlic, onion, coriander, cumin, salt and pepper (to taste) in medium bowl. Add flour.
Mash chickpeas, ensuring to mix ingredients together. You can also combine ingredients in a food processor . You want the result to be a thick paste.
Tip: This recipe does call for 2 tablespoons of flour, however, if you find your falafel is falling apart you can use more. Just add a little at time. Egg is also an acceptable binding agent, but only use 1 egg.
Form the mixture into small balls, about the size of a ping pong ball. Slightly flatten.
Fry in 2 inches of oil at 350 degrees until golden brown (5-7 minutes).
Serve hot.
Serving Falafel
The sky is the limit when it comes to serving falafel . It is commonly served in pita bread with salad and tahini sauce or hummus , called a falafel pita . French fries are sometimes added in the pita with the falafel instead of vegetables.
Falafel can be served alone and is often accompanied by hummus , baba ghannouj , fresh pita bread , fries, and a salad.
McDonald's in Egypt serves the "McFalafel", a falafel version of the Big Mac. The secret sauce is replaced with tahini.
Not going to Egypt anytime soon to indulge in the McFalafel. No worries, try this McFalafel recipe .
Falafel can be prepared in a variety of ways. Here are some other Falafel Recipes:
Falafel with Fava Beans Recipe - Falafel is normally made with chickpeas, however you may find in countries like Lebanon, that falafel is made with fava beans .
Easy Falafel Recipe - Don't have the time to soak falafel beans overnight? Not a problem. This recipe used canned chickpeas , without compromising the flavor.
Boxed Falafel Mixes - Falafel mixes are easy, quick, and taste almost as good as homemade. Falafel mixes can come in different flavors also.
If you find your hummus falling apart, add a little flour to the mixture. This should bind it together.
You can also watch this video on how to make falafel!
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i don't know
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Which children's TV animated character, named 'Pollux' in the original French version, is based on a 'drop-eared Skye terrier'?
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The Magic Roundabout - iSnare Free Encyclopedia
The Magic Roundabout
This article is about the television series. For other uses, see Magic Roundabout (disambiguation) .
The Magic Roundabout
Nigel Planer (Channel 4 narrator)
Country of origin
450 × 5 minutes (1965–2000)
104 × 11 minutes (2007–2010)
Production company(s)
Nick Jr. and Nick Jr. 2 (UK, 2007–)
BBC Four (UK, 2007)
Original release
1964 – 1971
The Magic Roundabout (known in the original French as Le Manège enchanté ) was a children's television programme created in 1963 by Serge Danot , with the help of Ivor Wood [1] and Wood's French wife, Josiane. The series was originally broadcast from 1964 to 1971 on ORTF (Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française). Having originally rejected the series as "charming... but difficult to dub into English", [1] the BBC later produced a version of the series using the original French- stop motion animation footage with new English-language scripts, written and narrated by Eric Thompson , which bore little relation to the original storylines. This version, broadcast in 441 five-minute-long episodes from 18 October 1965 to 25 January 1977, was a great success and attained cult status, [1] and when in 1967 it was moved from the slot just before the evening news to an earlier children's viewing time, adult viewers complained to the BBC. [1]
Contents
13 External links
Characters
Although the characters are common to both versions, they were given different names and personalities depending on the language.
The main character is Dougal (Pollux in the original French-language version) who was a drop-eared variety of the Skye Terrier .
In the French version, Pollux is a British character who speaks somewhat broken French with an outrageous English accent as a result of Ivor Wood 's role as co-creator. His sweet tooth, shown through his fondness for sugar lumps, was based on a French belief that one of the traits of the English is a liking for sweets.
Other characters include Zebedee (Zébulon), a jack-in-the-box ; Brian (Ambroise), a snail ; Ermintrude (Azalée), a cow, and Dylan (named after Bob Dylan
The show has a distinctive visual style. The set is a brightly coloured and stylised park containing the eponymous roundabout (a fairground carousel ). The programmes were created by stop motion animation, which meant that Dougal was made without legs to make him easier to animate. Zebedee was created from a giant pea which was available in the animation studio and was re-painted. The look of these characters was the responsibility of British animator Ivor Wood, who was working at Danot's studio at the time (and who subsequently animated The Herbs , Paddington Bear and Postman Pat ).
English-language version
The British (BBC) version was especially distinct from the French version in that the narration was entirely new, created by Eric Thompson from just the visuals, and not based on the script by Serge Danot. A former BBC employee, interviewed on BBC Radio in 2008, maintained that the original contract with the French owners did not include the scripts that accompanied the original animations (contrary to BBC assumptions). The BBC, instead of making a further payment to acquire the scripts, which would have required translation, decided to commission its own version – without access to the original French, and the English-language version therefore bears no resemblance to it.
The first British broadcasts were shown just before the 5.55 pm news every weekday on BBC 1, [1] This was the first time an entertainment programme had been transmitted in this way in the UK. The original series, which was a serial, was made in black-and-white. From the second series onwards it was made in colour, although the series was still broadcast in black-and-white by the BBC; the first colour episode of the show was transmitted on 5 October 1970.
Fifty-two additional episodes, not previously broadcast, were shown in the United Kingdom during 1991 on Channel 4 's News Daily. Thompson had died by this time, and the job of narrating them in a pastiche of Thompson's style went to actor Nigel Planer .
The English version of Dougal was generally grumpy and loosely based on Tony Hancock , [1] an actor and comedian. Ermintrude was rather matronly and fond of singing. Dylan was a hippy-like, guitar-playing rabbit, and rather dopey. Florence was portrayed as courteous and level-headed. Brian was unsophisticated but well-meaning. Zebedee had a red face and large upturned moustache, was dressed in a yellow jacket, and in the first episode was delivered to Mr Rusty in a box, from which he burst like a jack-in-the-box : hence the lower half of his body consisting entirely of a spring. In most episodes he appeared, usually summoned by Florence, with a loud "boing" sound, and he usually closed the show with the phrase "Time for bed".
In the foreword to the recent re-release of the books, Thompson's daughter Emma explains that her father had felt that he was most like Brian of all the characters and that Ermintrude was in some respects based upon his wife, Phyllida Law .
Other characters included Mr McHenry (the elderly gardener who rode a tricycle), Uncle Hamish and Angus (in "Dougal's Scottish Holiday"), and a talking locomotive with a 4-2-2 wheel arrangement and a two-wheel tender. Three other children, Paul, Basil and Rosalie, appeared in the original black-and-white serial and in the credit sequence of the colour episodes, but very rarely in subsequent episodes.
Part of the show's attraction was that it appealed to adults, who enjoyed the world-weary Hancock-style comments made by Dougal, as well as to children. The audience measured eight million at its peak. There are speculations about possible interpretations of the show. One is that the characters represented French politicians of the time, and that Dougal represented Charles de Gaulle . In fact, when Serge Danot was interviewed by Joan Bakewell on Late Night Line-Up in 1968 his associate (perhaps Jean Biard) said that in France it was thought at first that the UK version of Pollux had been renamed "De Gaulle", mishearing the name Dougal (as seen in the Channel 4 documentary The Return of the Magic Roundabout (broadcast 08:50 on 25 December 1991 and 18:00 on 5 January 1992), and in the BBC4 documentary The Magic Roundabout Story (2003)). In the UK, the series gained cult status among some adults during the 1960s because it was seen as having psychedelic connotations.
Sometimes, the series broke the fourth wall . At the end of one episode, when Zebedee called his catchphrase of "Time for bed.", Florence asked "Already?", and Zebedee replied that "It is nearly time for the news, and there has been enough magic for one day." The news was broadcast just after The Magic Roundabout. This story was later republished in print from Bloomsbury's 1998 book The Adventures of Brian.
In 1998, Thompson's stories were published by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc as a series of four paperbacks, The Adventures of Dougal, The Adventures of Brian, The Adventures of Dylan and The Adventures of Ermintrude with forewords by his daughter Emma Thompson.
For years, the series had re-runs on Cartoon Network , and was later moved to its sister channel, Boomerang .
Other versions
In Italy, part of the series was broadcast in the late 1970s by the RAI state television network. In this version Pollux-Dougal was renamed Bobo and the show stuck with the idea of giving each character its own voice. Bobo was still referred to as English but did not have an accent. The Italian theme for the series became something of a minor hit in children's music.
In Germany and in Austria it was translated to Das Zauberkarussell. In Austria there was in 1974/75 a special version in "Betthupferl" (the same as the German "Mr Sandman") called Cookie and his friends, as Cookie and his friend Apollonius always went through a hole in a tree to join the garden. The name of the magician "Zebedee" in German is " Zebulon ".
In America, the series was called The Magic Carousel and it aired in the 1980s on Pinwheel, a programme on the children's channel Nickelodeon . In this version, Dylan was called Flappy, as in the French version.
In 2006/2007, a new TV version of The Magic Roundabout was created, with 52 x 11-minute episodes, by French animation house Action Synthese with scripts and voices produced in the UK. Directed by Graham Ralph of Silver Fox Films and produced by Theresa Plummer Andrews. Using the CGI designed versions of the original characters from the movie (2005) also produced by Action Synthese, the only new character taken from the film is Soldier Sam. The new series also created a few original characters of its own. The series was first broadcast in the UK from Monday 22 October 2007 at 8.00 am on satellite channel Nick Jr. This series picks up where the 2005 film left off.
In 2010, a second season of 52 11-minute episodes was created.
Theme tunes
The French and British versions had different theme tunes.
The French tune was quite an upbeat pop tune played on a Hammond organ with child-adult vocals.
The British version, by Alain Legrand, removed the vocals and increased the tempo of the tune while making it sound as if it were played on a fairground organ .
Film versions
Main article: Dougal and the Blue Cat
Danot made a longer film, Pollux et le chat bleu, in 1970 which was also adapted by Thompson and shown in Britain as Dougal and the Blue Cat. The cat, named Buxton, was working for the Blue Voice who wanted to take over the garden. The Blue Voice was voiced by Fenella Fielding and was the only time that Eric Thompson called in another person to voice a character. The Blue Cat heard of Dougal's plan and made him face his ultimate weakness by locking him in a room full of sugar.
2005 film
Main article: The Magic Roundabout (film)
In 2005, a film adaptation (also called The Magic Roundabout) was released. The movie was about Dougal, Ermintrude, Brian and Dylan going on a quest to stop Zebadee's evil twin, who intends on creating an eternal winter. It was made using modern computer animation , and adopted the approach of the original creator, Serge Danot, of giving each character its own voice rather than using a narrator. The voices included Tom Baker , Joanna Lumley , Ian McKellen , Kylie Minogue , Robbie Williams , Bill Nighy and Lee Evans . The film was relatively well received, with a 60% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes . [2] The two-disc special edition of the UK DVD of the film features five of the original Magic Roundabout episodes on the second disc. They are all presented in the original black and white with the option of viewing them in English or in the original French.
In 2006, the film was released in the USA as Doogal . This version featured a narration from Judi Dench , rewritten dialogue and a new storyline made to accommodate pop culture references and flatulence jokes (neither of which were present in the original release). The majority of original British voices were replaced by celebrities more familiar to the American public, such as Whoopi Goldberg and Chevy Chase . Only two original voices remained: those of Kylie Minogue and Ian McKellen . The North American version was panned. It currently has an 8% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, [3] a score of 23 out of 100 ("generally unfavorable") on Metacritic , and an F rating from Entertainment Weekly magazine. It was also a financial failure, grossing a total of 7.2 million dollars in the United States, which is considered low by CGI animated film standards. It has become the second-lowest grossing CGI film (second only to Delgo ).[ citation needed ]
Musical spinoffs
In 1975, Jasper Carrott released The Magic Roundabout (originally featured on his first live LP Jasper Carrot – In the Club), a short, risqué comic monologue parodying the children's TV series, as the B-side of a 7-inch single, featuring his comic song "Funky Moped" on the A-side. The record was a hit, but Carrott always claimed people were buying it for the B-side and not for the song.[ citation needed ] The show's theme music also featured on two minor UK hit singles in 1991, "Summer's Magic" by Mark Summers and "Magic Style" by The Badman.
Records
In 1971 BBC Records released The Magic Roundabout (RBT 8), an LP containing 10 stories taken from the soundtracks of the TV series as told by Eric Thompson. The stories were: "Dougal's Experiment", "A Starry Night", "The Moody Concerto", "Dougal's Adventure", "The Stiff Necked Heliotropes" on side one and "The Birds School", "The Piano Carrier", "Banana Skin", "The Musical Box", "The Announcer" on side two. This album has been re-released twice on CD by the BBC, first in 2005 (BBC Audio:Children's) to coincide with the 'new' film and again in 2010 (Vintage Beeb), featuring the original LP artwork and a bonus interview with Eric Thompson.
French soundtrack recordings were also issued in France in the 60s on three EPs and again on an LP Pollux in 1983 along with an original single "C'est moi Pollux".
UK VHS releases
The Magic Roundabout (BBCV 4278)
6 March 1989
Dougal - Film Director, Walking Sticks, Bicycle Race, The Cannon, Rustlers, Gold, Parking Meters, The Camera, The Caravan, The Experiment, The Magic Carpet, Oil, Vote for Dougal
The Magic Roundabout 2 (BBCV 4499)
1 April 1991
Bubbles, Piano Moving, Let's Play at Cats, Watch the Birdie, Sculptor, The Orchestra, Pack of Cards, Toffee River, Oil Wells, Banana Skin, Spaghetti Party, Rain, Baking A Pie
The Magic Roundabout 3 (BBCV 4734)
10 February 1992
Alarm Clock, Brian and the Train Race, The Chimney Sweep, Road Signs, Dylan Plays the Bagpipes, Dougal's Glasses, Hide and Seek, The Lost Boing, Windy, The Scarecrow, Musical Box, The Oyster, Dylan the Hairdresser
The Magic Roundabout 4 (BBCV 4829)
6 July 1992
TV Announcer, Magic Pot, The Picnic, Ermintrude's Folly, The Exhibition, Holidays, Relay Race, Soul of the Violin, The Tombola, Pancakes, Flying Saucer, The Sleepwalker, A Starry Night
The Very Best of the Magic Roundabout (BBCV 4955)
5 April 1993
The Orchestra, Dougal's Glasses, TV Announcer, Rustlers, The Lost Boing, Baking A Pie, Ermintrude's Folly, The Magic Carpet, The Chimney Sweep, Sculptor, Hide and Seek, Pancakes, Watch the Birdie, The Experiment, A Starry Night, Road Signs, Dougal - Film Director
In popular culture
Giant versions of Dougal and Zebedee, both the size of a small house, are featured in The Goodies episode " The Goodies Rule – O.K.? " Dougal also makes a brief appearance in another Goodies episode, " It Might as Well Be String ".
A slightly inaccurate competitor based on Dougal, named Ruf Ruf Dougal, appeared in Seasons 5–6 of the British game show Robot Wars .
In the episode Dough from Series 3 of the TV comedy Bottom , one of Eddie's forged banknotes depicts " Sylvester Stallone fisting nice Mr. McHenry from The Magic Roundabout".
Road traffic namesake
The 'magic roundabout' in Splott, featuring road sign sculptures.
In the United Kingdom, the "Magic Roundabout" name has been given to the ring junction – a large road traffic circulation system with unconventional layouts – in Swindon and in Hemel Hempstead for example. The popularity of the TV show coincided with the introduction of such schemes and soon became associated with any complex traffic roundabout . Although the Swindon roundabout's original name was not the Magic Roundabout, it was almost always referred to as such by Swindon residents and in the late eighties, it was officially renamed. The Hemel Hempstead roundabout, with its large central roundabout surrounded by six smaller ones, is officially named the Plough Roundabout.
In 1992, the Cardiff Bay Public Art Strategy selected Pierre Vivant to create artwork for a roundabout in Splott , a district of Cardiff . He created a series of geometrical sculptures featuring everyday road signs and, although its official name is "The Landmark", it is affectionately known by locals as the "Magic Roundabout". [4]
In 2006, the Go North East Bus Company branded one of their routes "The Magic Roundabout", the buses running on it all featuring the characters from the series. [5]
Engineering namesake
A kind of engineering nut with a spring attached, for using in metal channels, is often called a 'Zebedee nut' for its similarity to the character. [6]
TV equipment manufacturer Quantel used many Magic Roundabout references in their 'Henry' system. The hard disk system was named 'Dylan' and the operating system named 'Dougal' with VT-100 queries to the OS returning the memorable phrase 'Already Dougling'.
References
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Dougal
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Which word, broadly synonymous with 'typeface', derives from French 'to melt'?
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The Magic Roundabout - The Full Wiki
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the television series. For other uses, see Magic Roundabout (disambiguation) .
The Magic Roundabout
Nigel Planer (Channel 4 narrator)
Country of origin
Original run
18 October 1965 – 25 January 1977
The Magic Roundabout (known in the original French as Le Manège enchanté) was a children's television programme created in France in 1963 by Serge Danot . Some five hundred five-minute-long episodes were made and were originally broadcast between 1964 and 1971 on ORTF .
The series also attained great success in the United Kingdom. The English version was narrated by Eric Thompson , the father of actresses Emma Thompson and Sophie Thompson , and was broadcast from 18 October 1965 to 25 January 1977. This version of the show attained cult status, and was watched as much by adults for its dry humour as by the children for whom it was intended.
Contents
Main: List of characters in The Magic Roundabout (film)
Although the characters were common to both versions, they were given different names depending on the language.
The main character was Pollux (Dougal in the English language version) who was a drop-eared variety of the Skye Terrier . In the French version Pollux was an English character who spoke somewhat broken French with an outrageous English accent, as a result of Ivor Wood's role as co-creator. His sweet tooth, shown through his fondness for sugar lumps, was based on a French belief that one of the traits of the English is a liking for sweets.
Other characters include Zebedee (Zébulon), a jack-in-the-box ; Brian (Ambroise), a snail ; Ermintrude (Azalée), a cow , and Dylan (Flappy) a rabbit , who in the French version was Spanish. There are two notable human characters: Florence (Margote), a young girl; and Mr Rusty (le Père Pivoine), the operator of the roundabout.
The show had a distinctive visual style. The set was a brightly coloured and stylised park containing the eponymous roundabout (a fairground carousel ). The programmes were created by stop motion animation, which meant that Dougal was made without legs to make him easier to animate. Zebedee was created from a giant pea which was available in the animation studio and was re-painted. The look of these characters was the responsibility of British animator Ivor Wood, who was working at Danot's studio at the time (and who subsequently animated The Herbs , Paddington Bear and Postman Pat ).
English-language version
The British ( BBC ) version was especially distinct from the French version in that the narration was entirely new, created by Eric Thompson from just the visuals, and not based on the script by Serge Danot. A former BBC employee, interviewed on BBC Radio in 2008, maintained that the original contract with the French owners did not include the scripts which accompanied the original animations (contrary to BBC assumptions). The BBC, instead of making a further payment to acquire the scripts, which would have required translation, decided to commission its own version - without access to the original French, the English version therefore bears no resemblance to it.
The first BBC broadcasts were stripped across the week and shown at 5.40pm, just before the early evening news each day on BBC 1 . This was the first time an entertainment programme had been transmitted in this way in the UK. The original series, which was a serial, was made in black-and-white . It was made in colour from series 2 - the first colour programme was transmitted 5 October 1970.
Fifty-two additional episodes, not previously broadcast, were shown in the UK during 1992 by Channel 4 . Thompson had died by this time, and the job of narrating them in a pastiche of Thompson's style went to actor Nigel Planer .
The British Dougal was grumpy and loosely based on Tony Hancock . Ermintrude was rather matronly and fond of singing. Dylan was a hippy-like, guitar -playing rabbit, and rather dopey. Florence was portrayed as courteous and level-headed. Brian was unsophisticated but well-meaning. Zebedee was an almost human creature in a yellow jacket with a spring instead of feet. He frequently went "Boing!" and regularly closed the show with the phrase "Time for bed." In the original French serial he was delivered to Mr Rusty in a box which he sprang from like a jack-in-the-box , explaining the spring. In the foreword to the recent re-release of the books, Emma Thompson explains that her father had felt that he was most like Brian of all the characters and that Ermintrude was in some respects based upon his wife.
Other characters include Mr MacHenry, an elderly man who rode a tricycle, Mr Rusty, Uncle Hamish and Angus (in "Dougal's Scottish Holiday"), and a talking train known simply as "The Train". Three other children, Paul, Basil and Rosalie, appeared in the original b/w serial and in the credit sequence of the colour episodes, but very rarely in subsequent episodes.
Part of the show's attraction was that it appealed to adults, who enjoyed the world-weary Hancock-style comments made by Dougal, as well as to children. The audience measured eight million at its peak.
There are speculations about possible interpretations of the show:
One theory is that the characters represented French politicians of the time, and that Dougal represented De Gaulle . (In fact when Serge Danot appeared on 'Late Night Line Up' he revealed that he thought the UK version of Pollux had been re-named De Gaulle , mishearing the name Dougal which the UK translators used for him.)[citation needed]
Another is that each character was addicted to a different type of psychotropic drug , mainly because of the very laid-back rabbit, Dylan, named after Bob Dylan , but also due to the a psychedelic look of the show and the fact that many of the characters chewed on flowers and sugar cubes.[citation needed]
In 1998, Thompson's stories were published as a series of four paperbacks, The Adventures Of Dougal, The Adventures Of Brian, The Adventures Of Dylan and The Adventures Of Ermintrude with forewords by Emma Thompson (Eric's daughter). The paperbacks were a major success for Bloomsbury Publishing Plc .
For years, the series had re-runs on Cartoon Network , and was later moved to its sister channel, Boomerang .
Missing episodes
Of the 441 episodes that were made, 25 are currently missing. Three episodes from series 2 and seven from series 3 were wiped and the tapes reused for reasons of cost.
Other versions
In Italy, part of the series was broadcast in the late 1970s by the RAI state television network. In this version Pollux-Dougal was renamed Bobo and the show stuck with the idea of giving each character his own voice. Bobo was still referred to as English but did not have an accent. The Italian theme for the series became something of a minor hit in children's music.
In Germany and in Austria it was translated to "Das Zauberkarussell", in Austria there was in 1974/75 a special version in "Betthupferl" (the same then the German "Mr Sandman") called "Cookie and his friends", as Cookie and his friend Apollonius always went through a hole in a tree to join the garden. The name of the magician "Zebedee" in German is "Zebulon", a reference to of one of the twelve tribes of Israel.
In 2007, a new TV version of The Magic Roundabout was created using the CGI characters from the movie except for Zeebad and the Moose. The original characters all returned, along with a few new ones which were created for the film. 52 episodes were planned for this series.
Theme tunes
Both the French and the British versions had distinctive theme tunes. The French tune was quite an upbeat pop tune played on a Hammond organ with child-adult vocals. The English version, by Alain Legrand, removed the vocals and increased the tempo of the tune while making it sound as if it were played on a fairground organ .
Film versions
Main article: Dougal and the Blue Cat
Danot made a longer film , Pollux et le chat bleu, in 1972 which was also adapted by Thompson and shown in Britain as Dougal and the Blue Cat . The cat, named Buxton, was working for the Blue Voice who wanted to take over the garden. The Blue Voice was voiced by Fenella Fielding and was the only time that Eric Thompson called in another person to voice a character. The Blue Cat heard of Dougal's plan and made him face his ultimate weakness by locking him in a room full of sugar.
2005 film
Main article: The Magic Roundabout (film)
In 2005, a film adaptation (also called The Magic Roundabout ) was released. It was made using modern computer animation , and adopted the French approach of each character having its own voice rather than using a narrator. The voices included Tom Baker , Joanna Lumley , Ian McKellen , Kylie Minogue , Robbie Williams and Lee Evans . The 2-Disc Special Edition of the UK DVD of the film features five of the original Magic Roundabout episodes on the second disc. They are all presented in the original black and white with the option of viewing them in English or in the original French language.
In 2006, the film was released in the US as Doogal . This version featured rewritten dialogue and a new storyline made to accommodate pop culture references and flatulence jokes (neither of which were present in the original release). It also added narration by Judi Dench , and the majority of original British voices were replaced by celebrities more familiar to the American public, such as Jon Stewart and Chevy Chase . Only two original voices remained: those of Kylie Minogue and Ian McKellen . Americans panned the movie. It has a 6% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes , [1] and received an F rating from Entertainment Weekly magazine. As of 16 March 2006, it grossed a total of 7.2 million dollars in the United States, which is considered exceptionally low by CGI animated film standards, as the average domestic gross for a computer animated film is $134,571,721.[citation needed]
Musical spinoffs
In 1975 Jasper Carrott recorded a short, risqué comic monologue , parodying The Magic Roundabout, which was released on a single as the B-side of his comic song "Funky Moped". The record was a hit, but Carrott always claimed people were buying it for the B-side and not for the song, which he soon came to hate. The show's theme music also featured on two minor UK hit singles in 1991, "Summer's Magic" by Mark Summers and "Magic Style" by The Badman.
Road traffic spinoff
The name "Magic Roundabout" has been applied in the United Kingdom to large road traffic circulation systems with unconventional layout - at Swindon , for example. The popularity of the TV show coincided with the introduction of such schemes and soon became associated with any complex traffic roundabout . The complex in Hertfordshire at Hemel Hempstead , with its large central roundabout surrounded by six smaller ones, has attracted this nickname. [2]
Whereas these highway junctions have acquired the nickname "Magic Roundabout" due to their being unusual or complex, in central Cardiff a statue of Paris-born artist Pierre Vivant (1952-), Cardiff's "Magic Roundabout" was erected in 1992, having been commissioned by Cardiff Bay Arts Trust (now known as Safle, since merging with Cywaith Cymru in 2007). It continues to serve as a useful local landmark during a period of considerable change in the area surrounding Cardiff's old docklands. The "Magic Roundabout" nickname is used with a certain amount of affection by still-amused locals. [3]
Magic Roundabout and the RAF
The RAF 's 8 Squadron 's Avro Shackleton airborne early warning aircraft were named after characters from The Magic Roundabout and The Herbs :
WL741: PC Knapweed
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i don't know
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A radionuclide is a radioactive?
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Radiation Therapy for Cancer - National Cancer Institute
Radiation Therapy for Cancer
What research is being done to improve radiation therapy?
What is radiation therapy?
Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to shrink tumors and kill cancer cells ( 1 ). X-rays , gamma rays , and charged particles are types of radiation used for cancer treatment.
The radiation may be delivered by a machine outside the body ( external-beam radiation therapy ), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells ( internal radiation therapy , also called brachytherapy ).
Systemic radiation therapy uses radioactive substances, such as radioactive iodine , that travel in the blood to kill cancer cells.
About half of all cancer patients receive some type of radiation therapy sometime during the course of their treatment.
How does radiation therapy kill cancer cells?
Radiation therapy kills cancer cells by damaging their DNA (the molecules inside cells that carry genetic information and pass it from one generation to the next) ( 1 ). Radiation therapy can either damage DNA directly or create charged particles ( free radicals ) within the cells that can in turn damage the DNA.
Cancer cells whose DNA is damaged beyond repair stop dividing or die. When the damaged cells die, they are broken down and eliminated by the body’s natural processes.
Does radiation therapy kill only cancer cells?
No, radiation therapy can also damage normal cells, leading to side effects.
Doctors take potential damage to normal cells into account when planning a course of radiation therapy. The amount of radiation that normal tissue can safely receive is known for all parts of the body. Doctors use this information to help them decide where to aim radiation during treatment.
Why do patients receive radiation therapy?
Radiation therapy is sometimes given with curative intent (that is, with the hope that the treatment will cure a cancer, either by eliminating a tumor, preventing cancer recurrence , or both) ( 1 ). In such cases, radiation therapy may be used alone or in combination with surgery, chemotherapy, or both.
Radiation therapy may also be given with palliative intent. Palliative treatments are not intended to cure. Instead, they relieve symptoms and reduce the suffering caused by cancer.
Some examples of palliative radiation therapy are:
Radiation given to the brain to shrink tumors formed from cancer cells that have spread to the brain from another part of the body ( metastases ).
Radiation given to shrink a tumor that is pressing on the spine or growing within a bone, which can cause pain.
Radiation given to shrink a tumor near the esophagus , which can interfere with a patient’s ability to eat and drink.
How is radiation therapy planned for an individual patient?
A radiation oncologist develops a patient’s treatment plan through a process called treatment planning, which begins with simulation .
During simulation, detailed imaging scans show the location of a patient’s tumor and the normal areas around it. These scans are usually computed tomography (CT) scans, but they can also include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and ultrasound scans.
Computed Tomography Scanner. CT scans are often used in treatment planning for radiation therapy. During CT scanning, pictures of the inside of the body are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine.
CT scans are often used in treatment planning for radiation therapy. During CT scanning, pictures of the inside of the body are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine.
During simulation and daily treatments, it is necessary to ensure that the patient will be in exactly the same position every day relative to the machine delivering the treatment or doing the imaging. Body molds, head masks, or other devices may be constructed for an individual patient to make it easier for a patient to stay still. Temporary skin marks and even tattoos are used to help with precise patient positioning.
Patients getting radiation to the head may need a mask. The mask helps keep the head from moving so that the patient is in the exact same position for each treatment.
After simulation, the radiation oncologist then determines the exact area that will be treated, the total radiation dose that will be delivered to the tumor, how much dose will be allowed for the normal tissues around the tumor, and the safest angles (paths) for radiation delivery.
Radiation Therapy Head Mask. Patients getting radiation to the head may need a mask. The mask helps keep the head from moving so that the patient is in the exact same position for each treatment.
The staff working with the radiation oncologist (including physicists and dosimetrists ) use sophisticated computers to design the details of the exact radiation plan that will be used. After approving the plan, the radiation oncologist authorizes the start of treatment. On the first day of treatment, and usually at least weekly after that, many checks are made to ensure that the treatments are being delivered exactly the way they were planned.
Radiation doses for cancer treatment are measured in a unit called a gray (Gy), which is a measure of the amount of radiation energy absorbed by 1 kilogram of human tissue. Different doses of radiation are needed to kill different types of cancer cells.
Radiation can damage some types of normal tissue more easily than others. For example, the reproductive organs ( testicles and ovaries ) are more sensitive to radiation than bones. The radiation oncologist takes all of this information into account during treatment planning.
If an area of the body has previously been treated with radiation therapy, a patient may not be able to have radiation therapy to that area a second time, depending on how much radiation was given during the initial treatment. If one area of the body has already received the maximum safe lifetime dose of radiation, another area might still be treated with radiation therapy if the distance between the two areas is large enough.
The area selected for treatment usually includes the whole tumor plus a small amount of normal tissue surrounding the tumor. The normal tissue is treated for two main reasons:
To take into account body movement from breathing and normal movement of the organs within the body, which can change the location of a tumor between treatments.
To reduce the likelihood of tumor recurrence from cancer cells that have spread to the normal tissue next to the tumor (called microscopic local spread).
How is radiation therapy given to patients?
Radiation can come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, more commonly called brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, given by mouth or into a vein, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body.
The type of radiation therapy prescribed by a radiation oncologist depends on many factors, including:
The type of cancer.
The size of the cancer.
The cancer’s location in the body.
How close the cancer is to normal tissues that are sensitive to radiation.
How far into the body the radiation needs to travel.
The patient’s general health and medical history.
Whether the patient will have other types of cancer treatment.
Other factors, such as the patient’s age and other medical conditions.
External-beam radiation therapy
External-beam radiation therapy is most often delivered in the form of photon beams (either x-rays or gamma rays) ( 1 ). A photon is the basic unit of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation . It can be thought of as a bundle of energy. The amount of energy in a photon can vary. For example, the photons in gamma rays have the highest energy, followed by the photons in x-rays.
Linear Accelerator Used for External-beam Radiation Therapy. Many types of external-beam radiation therapy are delivered using a machine called a linear accelerator (also called a LINAC). A LINAC uses electricity to form a stream of fast-moving subatomic particles. This creates high-energy radiation that may be used to treat cancer.
Many types of external-beam radiation therapy are delivered using a machine called a linear accelerator (also called a LINAC). A LINAC uses electricity to form a stream of fast-moving subatomic particles. This creates high-energy radiation that may be used to treat cancer.
Patients usually receive external-beam radiation therapy in daily treatment sessions over the course of several weeks. The number of treatment sessions depends on many factors, including the total radiation dose that will be given.
One of the most common types of external-beam radiation therapy is called 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT). 3D-CRT uses very sophisticated computer software and advanced treatment machines to deliver radiation to very precisely shaped target areas.
Many other methods of external-beam radiation therapy are currently being tested and used in cancer treatment. These methods include:
Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT): IMRT uses hundreds of tiny radiation beam-shaping devices, called collimators, to deliver a single dose of radiation ( 2 ). The collimators can be stationary or can move during treatment, allowing the intensity of the radiation beams to change during treatment sessions. This kind of dose modulation allows different areas of a tumor or nearby tissues to receive different doses of radiation.
Unlike other types of radiation therapy, IMRT is planned in reverse (called inverse treatment planning). In inverse treatment planning, the radiation oncologist chooses the radiation doses to different areas of the tumor and surrounding tissue, and then a high-powered computer program calculates the required number of beams and angles of the radiation treatment ( 3 ). In contrast, during traditional (forward) treatment planning, the radiation oncologist chooses the number and angles of the radiation beams in advance and computers calculate how much dose will be delivered from each of the planned beams.
The goal of IMRT is to increase the radiation dose to the areas that need it and reduce radiation exposure to specific sensitive areas of surrounding normal tissue. Compared with 3D-CRT, IMRT can reduce the risk of some side effects, such as damage to the salivary glands (which can cause dry mouth, or xerostomia ), when the head and neck are treated with radiation therapy ( 4 ). However, with IMRT, a larger volume of normal tissue overall is exposed to radiation. Whether IMRT leads to improved control of tumor growth and better survival compared with 3D-CRT is not yet known ( 4 ).
Image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT): In IGRT, repeated imaging scans (CT, MRI, or PET) are performed during treatment. These imaging scans are processed by computers to identify changes in a tumor’s size and location due to treatment and to allow the position of the patient or the planned radiation dose to be adjusted during treatment as needed. Repeated imaging can increase the accuracy of radiation treatment and may allow reductions in the planned volume of tissue to be treated, thereby decreasing the total radiation dose to normal tissue ( 5 ).
Tomotherapy : Tomotherapy is a type of image-guided IMRT. A tomotherapy machine is a hybrid between a CT imaging scanner and an external-beam radiation therapy machine ( 6 ). The part of the tomotherapy machine that delivers radiation for both imaging and treatment can rotate completely around the patient in the same manner as a normal CT scanner.
Tomotherapy machines can capture CT images of the patient’s tumor immediately before treatment sessions, to allow for very precise tumor targeting and sparing of normal tissue.
Like standard IMRT, tomotherapy may be better than 3D-CRT at sparing normal tissue from high radiation doses ( 7 ). However, clinical trials comparing 3D-CRT with tomotherapy have not been conducted.
Stereotactic radiosurgery : Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) can deliver one or more high doses of radiation to a small tumor ( 5 , 8 ). SRS uses extremely accurate image-guided tumor targeting and patient positioning. Therefore, a high dose of radiation can be given without excess damage to normal tissue.
SRS can be used to treat only small tumors with well-defined edges. It is most commonly used in the treatment of brain or spinal tumors and brain metastases from other cancer types. For the treatment of some brain metastases, patients may receive radiation therapy to the entire brain (called whole-brain radiation therapy) in addition to SRS.
SRS requires the use of a head frame or other device to immobilize the patient during treatment to ensure that the high dose of radiation is delivered accurately.
Stereotactic body radiation therapy : Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) delivers radiation therapy in fewer sessions, using smaller radiation fields and higher doses than 3D-CRT in most cases. By definition, SBRT treats tumors that lie outside the brain and spinal cord . Because these tumors are more likely to move with the normal motion of the body, and therefore cannot be targeted as accurately as tumors within the brain or spine, SBRT is usually given in more than one dose ( 8 ). SBRT can be used to treat only small, isolated tumors, including cancers in the lung and liver ( 8 ).
Many doctors refer to SBRT systems by their brand names, such as the CyberKnife®.
Proton therapy : External-beam radiation therapy can be delivered by proton beams as well as the photon beams described above. Protons are a type of charged particle.
Proton beams differ from photon beams mainly in the way they deposit energy in living tissue. Whereas photons deposit energy in small packets all along their path through tissue, protons deposit much of their energy at the end of their path (called the Bragg peak) and deposit less energy along the way.
In theory, use of protons should reduce the exposure of normal tissue to radiation, possibly allowing the delivery of higher doses of radiation to a tumor ( 9 ). Proton therapy has not yet been compared with standard external-beam radiation therapy in clinical trials ( 10 , 11 ).
Other charged particle beams: Electron beams are used to irradiate superficial tumors, such as skin cancer or tumors near the surface of the body, but they cannot travel very far through tissue ( 1 ). Therefore, they cannot treat tumors deep within the body.
Patients can discuss these different methods of radiation therapy with their doctors to see if any is appropriate for their type of cancer and if it is available in their community or through a clinical trial.
Internal radiation therapy
Internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy) is radiation delivered from radiation sources (radioactive materials) placed inside or on the body ( 12 ). Several brachytherapy techniques are used in cancer treatment. Interstitial brachytherapy uses a radiation source placed within tumor tissue, such as within a prostate tumor. Intracavitary brachytherapy uses a source placed within a surgical cavity or a body cavity, such as the chest cavity, near a tumor. Episcleral brachytherapy, which is used to treat melanoma inside the eye, uses a source that is attached to the eye.
In brachytherapy, radioactive isotopes are sealed in tiny pellets or “seeds.” These seeds are placed in patients using delivery devices, such as needles, catheters , or some other type of carrier. As the isotopes decay naturally, they give off radiation that damages nearby cancer cells.
If left in place, after a few weeks or months, the isotopes decay completely and no longer give off radiation. The seeds will not cause harm if they are left in the body (see permanent brachytherapy, described below).
Brachytherapy may be able to deliver higher doses of radiation to some cancers than external-beam radiation therapy while causing less damage to normal tissue ( 1 , 12 ).
Brachytherapy can be given as a low- dose-rate or a high-dose-rate treatment:
In low-dose-rate treatment, cancer cells receive continuous low-dose radiation from the source over a period of several days ( 1 , 12 ).
In high-dose-rate treatment, a robotic machine attached to delivery tubes placed inside the body guides one or more radioactive sources into or near a tumor, and then removes the sources at the end of each treatment session. High-dose-rate treatment can be given in one or more treatment sessions.
An example of a high-dose-rate treatment is the MammoSite® system, which is being studied to treat patients with breast cancer who have undergone breast-conserving surgery .
The placement of brachytherapy sources can be temporary or permanent ( 1 , 12 ):
For permament brachytherapy, the sources are surgically sealed within the body and left there, even after all of the radiation has been given off. The remaining material (in which the radioactive isotopes were sealed) does not cause any discomfort or harm to the patient. Permanent brachytherapy is a type of low-dose-rate brachytherapy.
For temporary brachytherapy, tubes (catheters) or other carriers are used to deliver the radiation sources, and both the carriers and the radiation sources are removed after treatment. Temporary brachytherapy can be either low-dose-rate or high-dose-rate treatment.
Doctors can use brachytherapy alone or in addition to external-beam radiation therapy to provide a “boost” of radiation to a tumor while sparing surrounding normal tissue ( 12 ).
Systemic radiation therapy
In systemic radiation therapy, a patient swallows or receives an injection of a radioactive substance, such as radioactive iodine or a radioactive substance bound to a monoclonal antibody .
Radioactive iodine (131I) is a type of systemic radiation therapy commonly used to help treat some types of thyroid cancer . Thyroid cells naturally take up radioactive iodine.
For systemic radiation therapy for some other types of cancer, a monoclonal antibody helps target the radioactive substance to the right place. The antibody joined to the radioactive substance travels through the blood, locating and killing tumor cells. For example:
The drug ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin®) has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of certain types of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). The antibody part of this drug recognizes and binds to a protein found on the surface of B lymphocytes .
The combination drug regimen of tositumomab and iodine I 131 tositumomab (Bexxar®) has been approved for the treatment of certain types of NHL. In this regimen, nonradioactive tositumomab antibodies are given to patients first, followed by treatment with tositumomab antibodies that have 131I attached. Tositumomab recognizes and binds to the same protein on B lymphocytes as ibritumomab. The nonradioactive form of the antibody helps protect normal B lymphocytes from being damaged by radiation from 131I.
Many other systemic radiation therapy drugs are in clinical trials for different cancer types.
Some systemic radiation therapy drugs relieve pain from cancer that has spread to the bone (bone metastases). This is a type of palliative radiation therapy. The radioactive drugs samarium-153 -lexidronam (Quadramet®) and strontium-89 chloride (Metastron®) are examples of radiopharmaceuticals used to treat pain from bone metastases ( 13 ).
Why are some types of radiation therapy given in many small doses?
Patients who receive most types of external-beam radiation therapy usually have to travel to the hospital or an outpatient facility up to 5 days a week for several weeks. One dose (a single fraction) of the total planned dose of radiation is given each day. Occasionally, two treatments a day are given.
Most types of external-beam radiation therapy are given in once-daily fractions. There are two main reasons for once-daily treatment:
To minimize the damage to normal tissue.
To increase the likelihood that cancer cells are exposed to radiation at the points in the cell cycle when they are most vulnerable to DNA damage ( 1 , 14 ).
In recent decades, doctors have tested whether other fractionation schedules are helpful ( 1 ), including:
Accelerated fractionation—treatment given in larger daily or weekly doses to reduce the number of weeks of treatment.
Hyperfractionation —smaller doses of radiation given more than once a day.
Hypofractionation —larger doses given once a day or less often to reduce the number of treatments.
Researchers hope that different types of treatment fractionation may either be more effective than traditional fractionation or be as effective but more convenient.
When will a patient get radiation therapy?
A patient may receive radiation therapy before, during, or after surgery. Some patients may receive radiation therapy alone, without surgery or other treatments. Some patients may receive radiation therapy and chemotherapy at the same time. The timing of radiation therapy depends on the type of cancer being treated and the goal of treatment (cure or palliation).
Radiation therapy given before surgery is called pre-operative or neoadjuvant radiation. Neoadjuvant radiation may be given to shrink a tumor so it can be removed by surgery and be less likely to return after surgery ( 1 ).
Radiation therapy given during surgery is called intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT). IORT can be external-beam radiation therapy (with photons or electrons) or brachytherapy. When radiation is given during surgery, nearby normal tissues can be physically shielded from radiation exposure ( 15 ). IORT is sometimes used when normal structures are too close to a tumor to allow the use of external-beam radiation therapy.
Radiation therapy given after surgery is called post-operative or adjuvant radiation therapy.
Radiation therapy given after some types of complicated surgery (especially in the abdomen or pelvis) may produce too many side effects; therefore, it may be safer if given before surgery in these cases ( 1 ).
The combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy given at the same time is sometimes called chemoradiation or radiochemotherapy. For some types of cancer, the combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy may kill more cancer cells (increasing the likelihood of a cure), but it can also cause more side effects ( 1 , 14 ).
After cancer treatment, patients receive regular follow-up care from their oncologists to monitor their health and to check for possible cancer recurrence. Detailed information about follow-up care can be found in the National Cancer Institute fact sheet Follow-up Care After Cancer Treatment .
Does radiation therapy make a patient radioactive?
External-beam radiation does not make a patient radioactive.
During temporary brachytherapy treatments, while the radioactive material is inside the body, the patient is radioactive; however, as soon as the material is removed, the patient is no longer radioactive. For temporary brachytherapy, the patient will usually stay in the hospital in a special room that shields other people from the radiation.
During permanent brachytherapy, the implanted material will be radioactive for several days, weeks, or months after the radiation source is put in place. During this time, the patient is radioactive. However, the amount of radiation reaching the surface of the skin is usually very low. Nonetheless, this radiation can be detected by radiation monitors and contact with pregnant woman and young children may be restricted for a few days or weeks.
Some types of systemic radiation therapy may temporarily make a patient’s bodily fluids (such as saliva, urine, sweat, or stool) emit a low level of radiation. Patients receiving systemic radiation therapy may need to limit their contact with other people during this time, and especially avoid contact with children younger than 18 and pregnant women.
A patient’s doctor or nurse will provide more information to family members and caretakers if any of these special precautions are needed. Over time (usually days or weeks), the radioactive material retained within the body will break down so that no radiation can be measured outside the patient’s body.
What are the potential side effects of radiation therapy?
Radiation therapy can cause both early ( acute ) and late ( chronic ) side effects. Acute side effects occur during treatment, and chronic side effects occur months or even years after treatment ends ( 1 ). The side effects that develop depend on the area of the body being treated, the dose given per day, the total dose given, the patient’s general medical condition, and other treatments given at the same time.
Acute radiation side effects are caused by damage to rapidly dividing normal cells in the area being treated. These effects include skin irritation or damage at regions exposed to the radiation beams. Examples include damage to the salivary glands or hair loss when the head or neck area is treated, or urinary problems when the lower abdomen is treated.
Most acute effects disappear after treatment ends, though some (like salivary gland damage) can be permanent. The drug amifostine (Ethyol®) can help protect the salivary glands from radiation damage if it is given during treatment. Amifostine is the only drug approved by the FDA to protect normal tissues from radiation during treatment. This type of drug is called a radioprotector. Other potential radioprotectors are being tested in clinical trials.
Fatigue is a common side effect of radiation therapy regardless of which part of the body is treated. Nausea with or without vomiting is common when the abdomen is treated and occurs sometimes when the brain is treated. Medications are available to help prevent or treat nausea and vomiting during treatment.
Late side effects of radiation therapy may or may not occur. Depending on the area of the body treated, late side effects can include ( 1 ):
Fibrosis (the replacement of normal tissue with scar tissue, leading to restricted movement of the affected area).
Damage to the bowels, causing diarrhea and bleeding.
Memory loss.
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Isotope
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ASCII (referring to computer language) means what in full?
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Radioactivity and Radiation
Radioactivity and Radiation
Radioactivity and Radiation
Discussion of radioactivity and radiation, uranium and radioactivity, radiological health risks of uranium isotopes and decay products.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the term used to describe the natural process by which some atoms spontaneously disintegrate, emitting both particles and energy as they transform into different, more stable atoms. This process, also called radioactive decay, occurs because unstable isotopes tend to transform into a more stable state. Radioactivity is measured in terms of disintegrations, or decays, per unit time. Common units of radioactivity are the Becquerel, equal to 1 decay per second, and the Curie, equal to 37 billion decays per second.
Radiation and Radionuclides
Radiation refers to the particles or energy released during radioactive decay. The radiation emitted may be in the form of particles, such as neutrons, alpha particles, and beta particles, or waves of pure energy, such as gamma and X-rays.
Each radioactive element, or radionuclide, has a characteristic half-life. Half-life is a measure of the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a particular radionuclide to disintegrate (or decay) into another nuclear form. Half-lives vary from millionths of a second to billions of years. Because radioactivity is a measure of the rate at which a radionuclide decays (for example, decays per second), the longer the half-life of a radionuclide, the less radioactive it is for a given mass.
Sources of Radiation
Everyone is exposed to radiation on a daily basis, primarily from naturally occurring cosmic rays, radioactive elements in the soil, and radioactive elements incorporated in the body. Man-made sources of radiation, such as medical X-rays or fallout from historical nuclear weapons testing, also contribute, but to a lesser extent. About 80% of background radiation originates from naturally occurring sources, with the remaining 20% resulting from man-made sources.
Uranium and Radioactivity
All isotopes of uranium are radioactive, with most having extremely long half-lives. Half-life is a measure of the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a particular radionuclide to disintegrate (or decay) into another nuclear form. Each radionuclide has a characteristic half-life. Half-lives vary from millionths of a second to billions of years. Because radioactivity is a measure of the rate at which a radionuclide decays (for example, decays per second), the longer the half-life of a radionuclide, the less radioactive it is for a given mass. The half live of uranium-238 is about 4.5 billion years, uranium-235 about 700 million years, and uranium-234 about 25 thousand years.
Decay Products of Uranium
Uranium atoms decay into other atoms, or radionuclides, that are also radioactive and commonly called "decay products." Uranium and its decay products primarily emit alpha radiation, however, lower levels of both beta and gamma radiation are also emitted. The total activity level of uranium depends on the isotopic composition and processing history. A sample of natural uranium (as mined) is composed of 99.3% uranium-238, 0.7% uranium-235, and a negligible amount of uranium-234 (by weight), as well as a number of radioactive decay products.
Radiological Health Risks of Uranium Isotopes and Decay Products
In general, uranium-235 and uranium-234 pose a greater radiological health risk than uranium-238 because they have much shorter half-lives, decay more quickly, and are thus "more radioactive." Because all uranium isotopes are primarily alpha emitters, they are only hazardous if ingested or inhaled. However, because several of the radioactive uranium decay products are gamma emitters, workers in the vicinity of large quantities of uranium in storage or in a processing facility can also be exposed to low levels of external radiation.
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i don't know
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A traditional light-bulb containing a glowing filament is technically called what, from the Latin 'glow white'?
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Incandescent lighting and powder metallurgical manufacturing of tungsten wire | SpringerLink
Incandescent lighting and powder metallurgical manufacturing of tungsten wire
Authors
Lunk, HJ. ChemTexts (2015) 1: 3. doi:10.1007/s40828-014-0003-8
1.6k Downloads
Abstract
This paper presents a historic overview, starting with a fireplace as source for illumination via the carbon filament lamp and ending with the IR-coated halogen lamp. The physico-chemical principles of the different periods of incandescent lighting are “illuminated.” The chemical and technological basics of powder metallurgical manufacturing of tungsten wire as well as the significance of this revolutionary technology for the mass production of incandescent lamps are demonstrated. In conclusion, a comparison of the modern incandescent lamp with alternative light sources is given.
Keywords
Historic overviewIncandescent lightingPowder metallurgyTungsten wire
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (doi: 10.1007/s40828-014-0003-8 ) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Illumination prior to the incandescent lamp
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s legendary last words “More light” were later also philosophically interpreted. But maybe he simply ordered his servant Friedrich Krause to open the shutters. It could also be just a Frankfurt’s jargon like “Mer liecht (I lie = ‘more light’) here so uncomfortable” or even just the call after the Botschanper (a malapropism of “pot de chambre”—pisspot). Unfortunately, it cannot be clarified anymore. But since the beginning of time the human race cannot do without artificial lighting. Table 1 shows a condensed time travel prior to the incandescent lamp.
Table 1
Light sources prior to the incandescent lamp
About 250,000 B.C.E.
Bowl lamp (precursor of clay lamp)
700 B.C.E.
Appearance of candles in the Roman Empire
1783
Argand’s oil lamp (François Pierre Ami Argand)
1798/1802
Gas light in English factories
1799
Gas light patent of Philippe Lebon in Paris
1800
Discovery of electric arc between carbon electrodes
1830
Heinrich Geißler invented the discharge tube
1862
Justus Liebig discovered acetylene gas for the carbide lamp
Basic knowledge for generating light by an incandescent body
The wavelength distribution of light generated by an incandescent body is described by Planck’s radiation law. Like the Sun’s spectrum, it is continuous. Compared to the Sun’s temperature, however, the temperature of an incandescent body is very low. Therefore, the light’s red portion predominates, while blue is only poorly represented. With increasing temperature, the radiation maximum shifts in accordance with Wien’s displacement law λmax = 2.8978 × 106 nm K T−1(λmax: wavelength maximum; T: absolute temperature of the radiation surface) to smaller wavelengths and thereby to the visible region (400–800 nm), but always remains in the IR region.
The Stefan–Boltzmann law specifies which radiant flux P a Black body of the area A and the absolute temperature T emits. Using the Stefan–Boltzmann constantσ, it corresponds to P = σ A T4. Accordingly, a Black-body’s radiation is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. So, doubling the temperature causes an increase of the radiation by a factor of 16. This law is also called Boltzmann’s T-to-the-fourth law. For getting a high light output, the radiation maximum must be shifted by temperature increase from the long-wave infrared heat radiation as far as possible to the range of visible light, without getting too close to the melting temperature of the material used. Almost the entire input power is converted into radiation. The losses by conduction and convection are minimal. However, only the wavelength range of radiation 400–800 nm is visible to the human eye. The main portion is located in the invisible infrared region and cannot be used for lighting purposes.
Brief history of the light bulb
When people are asked, who invented the incandescent lamp (vernacular “incandescent pear”), most of them would mention the name of Thomas Alva Edison. However, the corresponding “incandescent story” started a lot earlier. Table 2 summarizes the most important steps of lighting using a material, which is heated up by electric power to glow. These so-called thermal radiators generate light by electric power, which flows through a suitable material. Unfortunately, only a low percentage of the applied energy is converted to visible light. Not all inventors, who have provided valuable contributions over a period of 110 years to the development of an incandescent tungsten filament, could be listed here.
Table 2
The journey from platinum filament to tungsten coil
Year
Material of the light source
Atmosphere
Metal wires brought to a bright glow
Air
Warren De la Rue (GB)
Platinum filament
Jean Baptiste Ambroise Marcellin Jobard (BE)
Carbon rod
Carl Auer von Welsbach (AT)
Osmium wire
Nernst lamp: ceramics made from ZrO2-Y2O3
Air
Werner Bolton und Otto Feuerlein (DE)
Tantalum wire
http://www.edisontechcenter.org/incandescent.html
Carbon filament light bulb: Joseph Wilson Swan versus Thomas Alva Edison
Beginning with the 1850s, patents for light bulbs were filed in quite large numbers. However, the developers failed to produce longer-lasting bulbs due to the then-imperfect vacuum technology. After the invention and distribution of the vacuum pump, the design efforts were intensified. As a result, in the 1870s numerous patent applications were filed in different countries. The function of these lamps was still limited to less than 10 h. In addition to the shelf life of the lamps, the economic energy consumption was a huge problem.
Joseph Wilson Swan (1828–1914)
Let us now focus on the Briton Swan and the American Edison, the main players in the competition for the best carbon filament incandescent lamp. In 1850, the physicist and chemist Joseph Wilson Swan began his studies on the generation of electric light. His first models contained a carbonized paper thread in an evacuated glass bulb. The corresponding British patent was granted to him in 1860. This lamp, however, was unfit for a general use due to the poor vacuum and problems with the electrical supply. In 1878, Swan patented an improved lamp version with a carbonized thread. As a result of the better vacuum, the oxygen content was low. Due to the low resistance of the carbon threads, Swan had to use thick copper wires for the electrical supply. Nonetheless, Swan’s house in Gateshead was the first house worldwide, equipped with functioning bulbs. In 1880, he started The Swan Electric Light Company, which produced commercial light bulbs.
Thomas Alva Edison(1847–1931)
Meanwhile, Thomas Alva Edison in the United States worked on his version of an incandescent lamp. His works based essentially on a patent acquired in 1875 from Henry Woodward and Matthew Evans, as well as on the two patents of Swan.Edison improved the light bulb and received the basic patent 223,898 US for its developments in the United States on January 27, 1880. As a side note, the invention date November 4, 1879, mentioned in numerous publications, is merely the patent’s earlier filing date. Edison’s light bulb consisted of an evacuated glass bulb with a carbon filament of carbonized bamboo fibers. The American patent granted to Edison was a direct copy of Swan’s lamp. Swan consequently defeated Edison in the trial for patent infringement. However, he provided Edison the right to produce light bulbs in the United States, while he kept his rights in England. Edison was also required to take Swan as a partner in his British electricity-generating plants. In 1883, the Edison & Swan United electric light company (Ediswan) was founded. Ediswan marketed incandescent lamps, which contained a better filament, patented by Swan in 1881. This new industry standard used an alcohol/ether solution of nitrocellulose, which was sprayed into a precipitation bath. Subsequently, the formed threads were carburized. The Edison General Electric Company continued to use the carbonized bamboo thread developed by Edison. Numerous improvements particularly in the precise filament manufacture led to light bulbs, wherewith Edison successfully competed with the common gas lamps. Durability, light output, and energy costs played a major role. In contrast to Swan’s lamps, Edison’s incandescent lamps were equipped with high-resistance filaments. The fabrication of these lamps was certainly difficult, but a power grid considerably simplified their usage and reduced the overall costs significantly. Using high voltage for high-resistance appliances, the electricity could be more easily transported. In addition, significant amounts of copper were saved as a lower wire cross section could be used. Now the energy supply for electricity was technically feasible and competitive with the existing grid for gas lamps. In particular, Edison could resolve the problem of the divisibility of light with his high-impedance lamps. All previous solutions had required an individual power source for few lamps. Edison’s incandescent lamp was the first ever that was fabricated not only in small numbers, but also went into serial production. Therefore, we rightfully should credit Thomas Alva Edison with the invention of a practically usable light bulb. In 1892, The Edison General Electric Company emerged with the Thomson-Houston Electric Company to General Electric (GE). From now on, GE also used the cellulose-based carbon filament developed by Swan.
Although carbon has a higher melting point (3,547 °C) than tungsten (3,420 °C), its vapor pressure reaches the high value of 1 Pa (7.5 × 10−3 Torr) already at 2,437 °C. This leads to the early blackening of the glass flask at relatively low temperatures of the carbon thread. The already low light output (see "Basic knowledge for generating light by an incandescent body" and "Light parameters" ) as a result of the limited operating temperature drops still further.
The use of carbon filament light bulbs in households in the 1880s went hand in hand with the development of distribution grids for electric energy. This marked the beginning of the ubiquitous electrification. In Germany, the Café Bauer Unter den Linden in Berlin was the first building, which in 1884 was illuminated with incandescent lamps. The light bulbs were produced by Emil Moritz Rathenau (father of Walther Rathenau, the Foreign Minister during the Weimar Republic) based on Edison’s patents. In 1883, Rathenau founded the German Edison Society for Applied Electricity, which in 1887 was converted into the General Electricity Association (AEG). In the same year, Rathenau and his rival and at the same time business partner Werner von Siemens founded the Telefunken Society for Wireless Telegraphy mbH.
From osmium to tantalum lamp
The fundamental suitability of osmium (m.p. 3,045 °C), tantalum (m.p. 2,996 °C), and tungsten (m.p. 3,420 °C) for filaments was obvious, due to the high melting points of these metals. But only technical developments in powder metallurgy allowed the economic processibility of these rare and at the same time expensive materials. The processing problems were particularly immense in the case of the extremely hard and brittle tungsten. The Austrian chemist and founder of OSRAM (OSmium/wolfRAM, ‘Wolfram’ is the German word for ‘tungsten’) Carl Auer von Welsbach made an important contribution to the invention of a light bulb equipped with a metallic filament. In 1898, his German ‘Reichspatent’ 38,135 was filed: “Manufacturing of osmium filaments and their use for electrical incandescent lamps.” Auer von Welsbach is also the discoverer of the four rare-earth metals praseodymium (element 59), neodymium (60), ytterbium (70), and lutetium (71) as well as of the incandescent gas mantle (“Auer sock”) and the flint (“Auer metal”) of the lighter.
Incandescent lamps with drawn tantalum wires were developed in 1902 by Werner von Bolton [ 1 ]. These lamps achieved a luminous efficacy (see Table 4 ) comparable with the osmium lamp, however, with lower energy consumption. Until 1905, headed by Werner von Bolton and Otto Feuerlein, the tantalum lamps were produced at Siemens & Halske AG and shipped to customers in large quantities. The tantalum wire replaced the osmium wire lamps and subsequently gradually the carbon filament lamps. The tantalum lamp was, however, only a short episode in the history of the light bulb in the run-up to the developments of the tungsten filament lamp. Remarkably, until the outbreak of WWI, over 50 million tantalum lamps were manufactured and sold. So, the “unsinkable” luxury liner Titanic was completely equipped with tantalum wire lamps. On its maiden voyage, it rammed an iceberg on April 14, 1912, and approximately 1,500 people were ripped to their deaths.
Table 3
Luminous efficacy (lm W−1)
Color temperature (K)
100
From the carbon filament lamp to the modern light bulb
Tungsten is one of the high-melting metals, also called refractory metals. All metals with a higher melting point than platinum (1,772 °C) belong to this privileged group. Very soon it became obvious that tungsten should be the ideal material for light bulbs. It has the highest melting point of all metals (3,420 °C), and its evaporation rate is very low up to high temperatures. For instance, its vapor pressure at 1,800 °C amounts to 2 × 10−9 Pa, at 2,200 °C to 6 × 0−6 Pa and reached even at 3,003 °C only 0.133 Pa (10−3 Torr). As a result of its high molar mass of 183.85 g mol−1, tungsten has a low specific heat capacity of csp(293 K) = 0.0321 cal K−1 g−1 (0.1344 J K−1 g−1). Tungsten also has the lowest linear expansion coefficient of all metals: 4.6 × 10−6 K−1 at 27 °C and 7.3 × 10−6 K−1 at 2,100 °C.
At 20 °C, the elasticity modulus for the tungsten single crystal amounts to 35,000–40,000 kg mm−2. The high-temperature tensile strength combined with the high E-modulus enables tungsten’s high creep resistance. Tungsten has a body-centered cubic lattice, and hence the same characteristic brittle-ductile transition as molybdenum. The corresponding transition temperature can be shifted by deformation and alloying to lower temperatures. The strength rises with increasing degree of deformation. In contrast to other metals, the ductility of tungsten also upturns in this direction. All in all, tungsten possesses ideal characteristics to be used as filament. There was “only” one problem. How would it be able to produce a ductile tungsten wire? The “magic” technology was and is the powder metallurgy. The details of the powder metallurgical manufacture are presented in several monographs [ 2 – 7 ]. There exist six crucial development steps on the way from the carbon filament to the modern tungsten coil lamp.
Replacement of carbon thread by tungsten wire (1909)
Filling the bulb with an inert gas (1914)
“Coiling” the filament to a single-coil (1913) and a coiled-coil filament (1926)
“Doping” of tungsten trioxide with potassium-, silicon- and aluminum-containing compounds (1922)
Addition of halogens to the filling gas (1959)
Infrared coating of the bulb (1996)
Replacement of carbon thread by tungsten wire
Powder metallurgical production of tungsten wire
In 1909, William David Coolidge and his team at GE achieved the decisive breakthrough with the powder metallurgy production of tungsten wire (British patent 23,499). Coolidge successfully adapted the 80-year-old powder metallurgical method for making platinum parts (developed by Petr Grigorevich Sobolevsky [ 8 , 9 ]) to the production of ductile tungsten.
Examples of the four generations of incandescent lamps from Edison to Coolidge are shown in Fig. 1 .
Fig. 1
Four generations of incandescent lamps. a Legendary “century” carbon filament lamp (Fire Department, Livermore, CA, United States). b Osmium lamp. c Tantalum lamp. d One of the first Coolidge lamps with drawn tungsten wire (1911)
Numerous industrial metals and alloys such as aluminum, copper, and many steel varieties are produced by melting processes. What is so fascinating about powder metallurgy? Remarkably, in this case the melting point is never reached; it is simply bypassed. Using this technology, composite materials are possible for different components, which are not producible using melting metallurgy. The end products are fabricated by pressing the corresponding metal powders and subsequent heat treatment far below the melting temperature of the material. The so-called sintering presents the central technological step of powder metallurgy. Metals with melting points far above 2,000 °C are produced by this revolutionary technology. It can also be used for fabrication of homogeneous materials with selected properties from tailored powder mixtures, e.g., the polycrystalline tungsten carbides. Generally, a powder metallurgy process even at small production quantities is still very economical.
Tungsten powder production
In the early years of the powder metallurgy production of tungsten wire exclusively the yellow tungsten trioxide, WO3, served as starting compound (Fig. 2 ). It was produced either by calcination in air of “tungstic acid,” WO3 H2O, (correct nomenclature: tungsten trioxide monohydrate), or of ammonium paratungstate tetrahydrate (APT), (NH4)10[H2W12O42] 4 H2O (Fig. 3 ). APT is a prominent representative of the isopolyoxometalates [ 10 ]. The scanning electron micrograph of a tungsten powder with the average grain size of 4 μm is shown in Fig. 4 .
Fig. 2
Polyhedral model of [H2W12O42]10−
Fig. 4
SEM micrograph of tungsten powder
Nowadays, all over the world—and not only for the production of tungsten wire—“tungsten blue oxide” (TBO) is utilized as starting material. However, the frequently used term TBO does not represent a well-defined chemical compound, but is only the designation of a blue-colored industrially manufactured oxidic tungsten compound. TBO is produced favorably in rotary kilns by partial thermal decomposition of APT in reducing atmospheres, mostly in hydrogen. Its overall composition xNH3·yH2O·WOn (n < 3) is determined by the chosen production conditions such as heating rate, maximum temperature, atmosphere, gas flow, and APT throughput. Using quantitative chemical analysis, qualitative and quantitative X-ray techniques, as well as high-resolution 1H-NMR spectroscopy, it was shown that TBO’s composition of leading manufacturers is quite different. In addition to the crystalline compounds WO3 (Fig. 2 ), hexagonal tungsten bronze, (NH4)nWO3 (0 < n ≤ 0.33), (Fig. 5 ) as well as the “tungsten suboxides” W20O58 (WO2.90) and W18O49 (WO2.72), most TBOs also contain X-ray amorphous components. These phases are represented in different TBOs in variable proportions [ 11 ]. If the thermal decomposition of APT is carried out in the temperature range of 500–600 °C, the produced TBO contains significant amounts of (NH4)nWO3 (see ““Doping” of WO3 and TBO” ). The change in color from colorless to blue is the result of a reduction process, whereby the oxidation states W5+ and/or W4+ are produced. The cation–cation charge transfer between W6+ and a reduced tungsten species is the reason for the color change [ 12 ].
Fig. 5
Hexagonal tungsten bronze structure. a Polyhedral model of hexagonal γ-WO3. b Ball-and-stick model (Black W, Yellow O, Red NH4) of Ammonium tungsten bronze (NH4)nWO3 (0 < n < 0.33)
Pressing and sintering
Tungsten powder quantities up to 6 kg are compacted at pressures of approximately 2,000 atm to the so-called green bar. The green bar is sintered in special furnaces (“sinter bottles”) in direct circuit continuity at temperatures up to 2,900 °C. As the result of the sintering, the density increased from 10 to 11 g cm−3 to approx. 18 g cm−3; a specific microstructure is formed. The sintered ingot is ductile at high temperature. By its rolling, swaging, and drawing, the final tungsten wire with the theoretical density of 19.3 g cm−3 can be thinner than a human hair. Only when all steps of the metal working are perfectly synchronized, the desired high quality of the tungsten wire as temperature strength, hardness, and flow behavior can be achieved.
Filling the bulb with an inert gas
The filling gas of the incandescent lamp transports a large part of the filament’s heat away from it. Therefore, extra energy must be supplied to the filament to maintain its temperature. The heat loss depends on the type of the filling gas. It can be reduced by the “heavy” noble gases krypton (molar mass 83.798 g mol−1, density 3.749 g L−1 at 273 K, thermal conductivity 9.43 × 10−3 W m−1 K−1) or xenon (molar mass 131.29 g mol−1, density 5.989 g L−1 at 273 K, thermal conductivity 5.65 × 10−3 W m−1 K−1) instead of the noble gas argon (molar mass 39.948 g mol−1, density 1.784 g L−1 at 273 K, thermal conductivity 17.72 × 10−3 W m−1 K−1). The larger the atoms of a gas, the smaller the heat conductivity and thereby the resulting heat loss. By filling the bulb with krypton or xenon, less electric energy is required to heat up the tungsten filament. The heavy atoms also slow down the evaporation of tungsten atoms from the filament. It reduces the loss of material at the filament, and accordingly increases the lamp’s lifetime.
The physicist Imre Bródy (1891–1944) was the first, who in 1930 filled lamps with krypton in lieu of argon. Production of krypton-filled lamps based on his invention started in 1937 in a factory at the Hungarian city Ajka. The invention was the most economic bulb in the age, which for decades was one of the most successful export products of Hungary.
Bródy stayed with his family after the German occupation of Hungary in 1944, and the immunity promised by the factory to him could not save his life. Being Jewish, he was murdered on December 20, 1944, at age 53, in Mühldorf subcamp, a satellite system of the Dachau concentration camp. The research institute of Tungsram, now part of General Electric, in Budapest is named after him.
“Coiling” the filament to a single-coil or coiled-coil filament
In addition to the potential increase of the temperature and thereby the light output (see "Light parameters" ), metallic filaments have another advantage: They can be shaped to coils, whereby the power density is increased. The bulb is getting smaller for the same light output. In addition to the reduced space requirement, the light is better centered. The bulb is significantly smaller for the same light output. High-output lamps are often equipped with coiled-coil filaments. Besides the limited thermal convection by a small Langmuir layer, plenty of wire can be placed in a small volume. Coiled-coil filaments are fabricated by coiling tungsten wire around a molybdenum wire with a larger diameter. Afterward, the molybdenum mandrel is removed by etching with nitric acid.
Addition of halogens to the filling gas
During the extended lifetime of a light bulb, the sublimation of tungsten in the inert gas (state-of-the-art: xenon) is not preventable, despite its extremely low vapor pressure. The condensation of tungsten leads to the blackening of the bulb’s inside wall and thereby reduces the light output (see "Basic knowledge for generating light by an incandescent body" and "Light parameters" ). The filament becomes thinner and hotter which accelerates its own destruction.
Efforts to ensure on one hand as high as possible temperatures of the glowing tungsten wire and on the other hand to reduce the evaporation rate led to the development of the tungsten halogen incandescent lamp [ 13 ]. The formation of gaseous tungsten-containing compounds prevents the blackening (“windshield wiper”) of the bulb. The thermal decomposition of these compounds near the hot wire results in the deposition of tungsten on the wire (Fig. 6 ). The halogen (mostly bromine or iodine) is freed up and can continue the transport process. The creation of the halogen lamp constitutes an application of the van Arkel-de-Boer process (transport reaction), developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1924. This process was designed for fabrication or purification of metals such as titanium, zirconium, vanadium, chromium or rhenium, and their compounds (e.g., zirconium nitride ZrN) as well as for the semi-metals boron and silicon.
Fig. 6
Coil of a halogen lamp after several hundred hours of operating life. The crystalline deposits of tungsten can be seen
The tungsten halogen cycle in a halogen lamp includes also the not completely excludable oxygen and can be described as follows:
$$ {\text{W}} + {\text{O}}_{ 2} + {\text{X}}_{ 2} \rightleftharpoons {\text{WO}}_{ 2} {\text{X}}_{ 2} \,\left( {X \, = {\text{ Br}},{\text{ I}}} \right). $$
The operating temperature of a halogen lamp when compared to a traditional light bulb requires the use of tungsten wires of enhanced quality. Table 3 lists three examples of OSRAM-ECO halogen lamps.
“Doping” of WO3 and TBO
The “doping” process, in the past of WO3, at present exclusively of TBO, is carried out with aqueous solutions of potassium silicate and aluminum nitrate or chloride. By doping the starting materials, the quality of the produced tungsten wire was improved dramatically. The total concentration of the empirically determined amounts of the “dope” elements K, Si, and Al amounts to about 5,000 ppm. The “dope” procedure was an accidental discovery by Aladar Pacz, back in 1922 [ 14 ]. The understanding of the role of the key element potassium was possible only since the 1960s with the help of modern analytical tools like the scanning electron microscope (SEM), the transmission electron microscope (TEM), and the Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) [ 15 – 20 ].
Doped tungsten is a unique composite of two non-alloyable metals, which could not be more different, namely of tungsten (m.p. 3,420 °C, atomic radius 137 pm) and potassium (m.p. 63.7 °C, atomic radius 227 pm). The following facts of potassium-doped tungsten have been collected over the last decades.
(A)
At first an aqueous solution of potassium silicate is added to the starting materials WO3 or TBO. During this stage, depending on the composition and the pre-treatment of the oxidic raw materials, varying amounts of the polyoxotungstates K4[α-SiO4W12O36] and K8[α-SiO4W11O35] are formed [ 10 ]. The polyhedral model of the famous Keggin anion is shown in Fig. 7 . The anion is built by 12 WO6 octahedra, which surround the central tetrahedrally coordinated “heteroatom” Si. Four edge-linked W3O13 groups are connected over corners. The anion [α-SiO4W11O35]8−, known as “lacunar” arrangement, derives from the complete Keggin structure by removing a W = O group (highlighted in blue).
Fig. 7
Polyhedral model of the Keggin anions [α-SiO4W12O36]4− and [α-SiO4W11O35]8−
The subsequently added aqueous solution of Al(NO3)3 or AlCl3 reacts with the remaining potassium silicate to insoluble potassium alumosilicates like KAlSi3O8 and KAlSi2O6 [ 21 – 23 ]. If the utilized TBO contains hexagonal tungsten bronze (NH4)nWO3 (see "Replacement of carbon thread by tungsten wire" ), additional amounts of potassium will be incorporated into the oxidic starting material via the ion-exchange process K+ → NH4+.
(B)
The hydrogen reduction in pusher-type furnaces is usually carried out in two stages via the intermediate “brown oxide” (mixture of WO2 and α-W). Chemical transport reactions during the first reduction stage at temperatures around 600 °C are crucial for two reasons.
(a)
To generate the precondition for an optimal grain size and grain size distribution during the second reduction stage, the tungsten powder must be moldable.
To incorporate the desired amount of potassium-containing compounds into the partially reduced material.
During the second reduction stage at around 900 °C, the whole WO3 or TBO is reduced to cubic body-centered α-W. The polyoxotungstates are transformed to α-W, K2WO4, and K2Si2O5, while the potassium alumosilicates will not be reduced under these conditions. The compound K2WO4 is the main foreign phase in the otherwise completely reduced tungsten powder. Its amount is determined by the quantity of the formed polyoxotungstates. Their concentration in turn depends on the specific dope procedure, particularly on the composition of the dope solutions [ 24 ]. First, the water-soluble potassium monotungstate is removed by water washing the tungsten powder. Secondly, the silicate phases are decomposed by aqueous hydrofluoric acid, HF, into soluble anionic complexes such as [SiF6]4− and [AlF6]3−. After thorough water wash, the powder is filtered off and dried at about 80 °C. The tungsten powder has an average grain size of approx. 4 μm. Depending on the dope conditions, it contains 60–130 ppm K and insignificant amounts of remaining Si and Al.
(C)
During the multi-step sintering process in hydrogen, the incorporated foreign phases, which could not be removed by the washing process, are decomposed. The minute amounts of Si (atomic radius 117 pm), Al (143 pm), and O (66 pm) are initially solved in the tungsten matrix. At higher sintering temperatures, they diffuse out of the matrix. In contrast, about 70 % of the potassium that had remained after the washing treatment “survived” the whole sintering process. The large potassium atoms (227 pm) are insoluble in the tungsten lattice. They are being stabilized by the equilibrium between the Laplace pressure (capillary or curvature pressure) of the potassium bubbles and the internal potassium vapor pressure, which is considerably high at elevated temperature.
(D)
The subsequent hot deformation of the sintered ingot by rolling, swaging, and drawing processes leads to significant changes of the microstructure. At first potassium-filled long ellipsoids or tubes are formed. At medium annealing temperatures, individual bubbles and/or bubble rows are generated. As soon as the individual potassium bubbles have been formed at elevated temperature by disintegration of the ellipsoids, they grow to their equilibrium size. A standard potassium-doped tungsten wire can contain up to 85 ppm K. Now it exhibits the specific stable structure with elongated grains (Fig. 8 ), which accounts for its “non-sag” behavior. The blockage of the grain boundaries’ movement perpendicular to the wire axis is the main reason for the development of this specific morphology. It guarantees excellent high-temperature properties of the material such as a good creep resistance and dimensional stability of the material.
Fig. 8
Potassium-doped tungsten wire (diameter 0.5 mm). a Photomicrograph. b Annealed at 1,200 °C. c Annealed at 1,400 °C
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Slaying the ‘Slayers’ with Watts – part 2 | Watts Up With That?
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Light Bulb Back Radiation Experiment
Guest essay by Curt Wilson
In the climate blogosphere, there have been several posts recently on the basic principles of radiative physics and how they relate to heat transfer. (see yesterday’s experiment by Anthony here ) These have spawned incredibly lengthy streams of arguments in the comments between those who subscribe to the mainstream, or textbook view of radiative heat transfer, and those, notably the “Skydragon Slayers” who reject this view.
A typical statement from a Slayer is that if “you have initially a body kept at a certain temperature by its internal source of energy”, that if another body at a lower temperature is placed near to it, that the radiation from this colder body could not increase the temperature of the warmer body, this being a violation of the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. They continue that if this were possible, both objects would continually increase the other’s temperature indefinitely, which would be an obvious violation of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics (energy conservation).
This is part of a more general claim by Slayers that radiation from a colder body cannot transfer any energy to a warm body and lead to a higher temperature of the warm body than would be the case without the presence of the colder body.
It occurred to me that these claims were amenable to simple laboratory experiments that I had the resources to perform. A light bulb is a classic example of a body with an internal source of energy. Several Slayers specifically used the example of reflection back to a light bulb as such an example.
In our laboratory, we often have to do thermal testing of our electronic products so we can ensure their reliability. Particularly when it comes to power electronics, we must consider the conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer mechanisms by which heat can be removed from these bodies with an “internal source of energy”. We have invested in good thermocouple measurement devices, regularly calibrated by a professional service, to make the temperature measurements we need.
We often use banks of light bulbs as resistive loads in the testing of our power electronics, because it is a simple and inexpensive means to load the system and dissipate the power, and it is immediately obvious in at least a qualitative sense from looking at the bulbs whether they are dissipating power. So our lab bench already had these ready.
If you want to isolate the radiative effects, the ideal setup would be to perform experiments in a vacuum to eliminate the conductive/convective losses. However, the next best thing is to reduce and control these to keep them as much alike as possible in the different phases of the experiment.
So, on to the experiment. This first picture shows a standard 40-watt incandescent light bulb without power applied. The lead of the thermocouple measuring device is taped to the glass surface of the bulb with heat-resistant tape made for this purpose. The meter registers 23.2C. In addition, a professional-grade infrared thermometer is aimed at the bulb, showing a temperature of 72F. (I could not get it to change the units of the display to Celsius.) Note that throughout the experiment, the thermocouple measurements are the key ones.
Next, the standard North American voltage of 120 volts AC (measured as 120.2V) was applied to the bulb, which was standing in free air on a table top. The system was allowed to come to a new thermal equilibrium. At this new equilibrium, the thermocouple registered 93.5C. (The IR thermometer showed a somewhat lower 177F, but remember that its reported temperature makes assumptions about the emissivity of the object.)
Next, a clear cubic glass container about 150mm (6”) on a side, initially at the room temperature of 23 C, was placed over the bulb, and once again the system was allowed to reach a new thermal equilibrium. In this state, the thermocouple on the temperature of the bulb registers 105.5C, and the outer surface of the glass container registers 37.0C (equivalent to body temperature).
The glass container permits the large majority of the radiative energy to escape, both in the visible portion of the spectrum (obviously) and in the near infrared, as standard glass is highly transparent to wavelengths as long as 2500 nanometers (2.5 microns). However, it does inhibit the direct free convection losses, as air heated by the bulb can only rise as far as the top of the glass container. From there, it must conductively transfer to the glass, where it is conducted through the thickness of the glass, and the outside surface of the glass can transfer heat to the outside ambient atmosphere, where it can be convected away.
The next step in the experiment was to wrap an aluminum foil shell around the glass container. This shell would not permit any of the radiative energy from the bulb to pass through, and would reflect the large majority of that energy back to the inside. Once again the system was allowed to reach thermal equilibrium. In this new state, the thermocouple on the surface of the bulb registered 137.7C, and the thermocouple on the outer surface of the glass registered 69.6C. The infrared thermometer is not of much use here due to the very low emissivity (aka high reflectivity) of the foil. Interestingly, it did show higher temperatures when focused on the tape on the outside of the foil than on the foil itself.
Since adding the foil shell outside the glass container could be reducing the conductive/convective losses as well as the radiative losses, the shell was removed and the system with the glass container only was allowed to re-equilibrate at the conditions of the previous step. Then the glass container was quickly removed and the foil shell put in its place. After waiting for thermal equilibrium, the thermocouple on the surface of the bulb registered 148.2C and the thermocouple on the outside of the foil registered 46.5C. The transient response (not shown) was very interesting: the temperature increase of the bulb was much faster in this case than in the case of adding the foil shell to the outside of the glass container. Note also how low the infrared thermometer reads (84F = 29C) on the low-emissivity foil.
Further variations were then tried. A foil shell was placed inside the same glass container and the system allowed to reach equilibrium. The thermocouple on the surface of the bulb registered 177.3C, the thermocouple on the outer surface of the foil registered 67.6C, and the infrared thermometer reading the outside of the glass (which has high emissivity to the wavelengths of ambient thermal radiation) reads 105F (40.6C).
Then the glass container was removed from over the foil shell and the system permitted to reach equilibrium again. The thermocouple on the surface of the bulb registered 176.3C and the thermocouple on the outside of the foil registered 50.3C.
All of the above examples used the reflected shortwave radiation from the aluminum foil. What about absorbed and re-emitted longwave radiation? To test this, a shell of black-anodized aluminum plate, 1.5mm thick, was made, of the same size as the smaller foil shell. A black-anodized surface has almost unity absorption and emissivity, both in the shortwave (visible and near infrared) and longwave (far infrared). Placing this over the bulb (without the glass container), at equilibrium, the thermocouple on the bulb registered 129.1C and the thermocouple on the outside of the black shell registered 47.0C. The infrared thermometer read 122F (50C) on the tape on the outside of the shell.
The power source for this experiment was the electrical input. The wall voltage from the electrical grid was steady at 120.2 volts. The electrical current was measured under several conditions with a professional-grade clip-on current sensor. With the bulb in open air and a surface temperature of 96.0C, the bulb used 289.4 milli-amperes of current.
With the bulb covered by a foil shell alone and a surface temperature of 158.6C, the bulb drew slightly less, 288.7 milliamperes.
Summary of Results
The following table shows the temperatures at equilibrium for each of the test conditions:
Condition
47C
Analysis
Having multiple configurations permits us to make interesting and informative comparisons. In all cases, there is about a 35-watt (120V x 0.289A) electrical input to the system, and thermal equilibrium is reached when the system is dissipating 35 watts to the room as well.
I used a low-wattage (40W nominal) bulb because I had high confidence that it could take significant temperature increases without failure, as it has the same package design as much higher-wattage bulbs. Also, I would not be working with contraband high-wattage devices ;-)
The case with the glass container alone is the important reference case. The glass lets virtually all of the radiant energy through, while inhibiting direct convection to the room ambient temperature of 23C. Conductive/convective losses must pass from the surface of the bulb, through the air under the container, to and through the glass, and then to the room atmosphere, where it is conducted/convected away. Under these conditions, the bulb surface temperature is 105C, which is 10C greater than when the bulb can conductively dissipate heat directly to the room atmosphere.
Compare this case to the case of the larger foil shell alone. The foil shell also inhibits direct conductive/convective losses to the room atmosphere, but it will not inhibit them to any greater extent. In fact, there are three reasons why it will inhibit these losses less than the glass container will. First, the material thermal conductivity of aluminum metal is far higher than that of glass, over 200 times greater (>200 W/(m*K) versus <1.0 W/(m*K)). Second, the foil, which is a small fraction of a millimeter thick, is far thinner than the glass container, which is about 4 mm thick on average. And third, the surface area of the foil is somewhat larger than the glass container, so it has more ability to conductively transfer heat to the outside air.
And yet, the surface of the bulb equilibrated at 146C under these conditions, over 40C hotter than with the glass container. With conductive/convective losses no less than with the glass container, and very probably greater, the only explanation for the higher temperature can be a difference in the radiative transfer. The glass container lets the large majority of the radiation from the bulb through, and the foil lets virtually none of it through, reflecting it back toward the bulb. The presence of the foil, which started at the room ambient of 23C and equilibrated at 46C, increased the temperature of the bulb, which started at 105C on the outside (and obviously warmer inside). The reflected radiation increased the temperature of the bulb, but did not produce “endless warming”, instead simply until the other losses that increase with temperature matched the input power of 35 watts.
Interestingly, the foil shell without the glass container inside led to a higher bulb temperature (148C) than the foil shell with the glass container inside (138C). Two layers of material around the bulb must reduce conductive/convective losses more than only one of them would, so the higher temperature must result from significantly more reflected radiation back to the bulb. With the glass inside, the reflected radiation must pass through two surfaces of the glass on the way back to the bulb, neither of which passes 100% through.
Another interesting comparison is the large foil shell that could fit outside of the glass container, about 160mm on a side, with the small foil shell that could fit inside the glass container, about 140mm on a side. With the large shell alone, the bulb temperature steadied at 148C; with the smaller shell, it steadied at 176C. With all direct radiative losses suppressed in both cases, the difference must come from the reduced surface area of the smaller shell, which lessens its conductive/convective transfer to the outside air at a given temperature difference. This is why halogen incandescent light bulbs, which are designed to run hotter than standard incandescent bulbs, are so much smaller for the same power level – they need to reduce conductive/convective losses to get the higher temperatures.
All of the above-discussed setups used directly reflected radiation from the aluminum foil. What happens when there is a barrier that absorbs this “shortwave” radiation and re-emits it as “longwave” radiation in the far infrared? Can this lead to higher temperatures of the warmer body? I could test this using black-anodized aluminum plate. Black anodizing a metal surface makes it very close to the perfect “blackbody” in the visible, near-infrared, and far-infrared ranges, with absorptivity/emissivity (which are the same at any given wavelength) around 97-98% in all of these ranges.
With a black plate shell of the same size as the smaller foil shell, the bulb surface temperature equilibrated at 129C, 24C hotter than with the glass container alone. Once again, the thin metal shell would inhibit conductive/convective losses no better, and likely worse than the glass container (because of higher material conductivity and lower thickness), so the difference must be from the radiative exchange. The presence of the shell, which started at the room ambient of 23C and increased to 47C, caused the bulb surface temperature to increase from 105C to 129C.
Another interesting comparison is that of the smaller foil shell, which led to a bulb surface temperature of 176C and a shell temperature of 50C, to the black plate shell of the same size, which led to a bulb surface temperature of 129C and a shell temperature of 46C. While both of these create significantly higher bulb temperatures than the glass container, the reflective foil leads to a bulb surface temperature almost 50C higher than the black plate does. Why is this?
Consider the outside surface of the shell. The foil, which is an almost perfect reflector, has virtually zero radiative absorptivity, and therefore virtually zero radiative emissivity. So it can only transfer heat to the external room by conduction to the air, and subsequent convection away. The black plate, on the other hand, is virtually the perfect absorber and therefore radiator, so it can dissipate a lot of power to the room radiatively as well as conductively/convectively. Remember that, since it is radiating as a function of its own temperature, it will be radiating essentially equally from both sides, there being almost no temperature difference across the thickness of the plate. (Many faulty analyses miss this.) The foil simply reflects the bulb’s radiation back to the inside and radiates almost nothing to the outside. This is why the infrared thermometer does not read the temperature of the foil well.
The electrical voltage and current measurements were made to confirm that the increased temperature did not come from a higher electrical power input. The current measurements shown above demonstrate that the current draw of the bulb was no higher when the bulb temperature was higher, and was in fact slightly lower. This is to be expected, since the resistivity of the tungsten in the filament, as with any metal, increases with temperature. If you measure the resistance of an incandescent bulb at room temperature, this resistance is less than 10% of the resistance at its operating temperature. In this case, the “cold” resistance of the bulb is about 30 ohms, and the operating resistance is about 415 ohms.
Let’s look at the dynamic case, starting with the thermal equilibrium under the glass container alone. 35 watts are coming into the bulb from the electrical system, and 35 watts are leaving the bulb through conductive losses to the air and radiative losses to the room through the glass. Now we replace the glass with one of the metal shells. Conductive losses are not decreased (and may well be increased). But now the bulb is receiving radiant power from the metal shell, whether reflected in one case, or absorbed and re-radiated back at longer wavelengths in the other. Now the power into the bulb exceeds the power out, so the temperature starts to increase. (If you want to think in terms of net radiative exchange between the bulb and the shell, this net radiative output from the bulb decreases, and you get the same power imbalance.)
As the temperature of the bulb increases, both the conductive losses to the air at the surface of the bulb increase (approximately proportional to the temperature increase) and the radiative losses increase as well (approximately proportional to the 4th power of the temperature increase). Eventually, these losses increase to where the losses once again match the input power, and a new, higher-temperature thermal equilibrium is reached.
I originally did these tests employing a cylindrical glass container 150mm in diameter and 150mm high with and without foil shells, and got comparable results. In the second round shown here, I changed to a cubic container, so I could also create a black-plate shell of the same shape.
It is certainly possible that improvements to these experiments could result in differences of 1 or 2C in the results, but I don’t see any way that they could wipe out the gross effect of the warming from the “back radiation”, which are several tens of degrees C.
All of these results are completely in line with the principles taught in undergraduate engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer courses. The idea that you could inhibit net thermal losses from an object with an internal power source, whether by conductive, convective, or radiative means, without increasing the temperature of that object, would be considered ludicrous in any of these courses. As the engineers and physicists in my group came by the lab bench to see what I was up to, not a single one thought for a moment that this back radiation would not increase the temperature of the bulb.
Generations of engineers have been taught in these principles of thermal analysis, and have gone on to design crucial devices and infrastructure using these principles. If you think all of this is fundamentally wrong, you should not be spending your time arguing on blogs; you should be out doing whatever it takes to shut down all of the erroneously designed, and therefore dangerous, industrial systems that use high temperatures.
Conclusions
This experiment permitted the examination of various radiative transfer setups while controlling for conductive/convective losses from the bulb. While conductive/convective losses were not eliminated, they were at least as great, and probably greater, in the cases where a metal shell replaced the glass shell over the bulb.
Yet the bulb surface temperature was significantly higher with each of the metal shells than with the glass shell. The only explanation can therefore be the radiative transfer from the shells back to the bulb. In both cases, the shells were significantly cooler than the bulb throughout the entire experiment, both in the transient and equilibrium conditions.
We therefore have solid experimental evidence that radiation from a cooler object (the shell) can increase the temperature of a warmer object (the bulb) with other possible effects well controlled for. This is true both for reflected radiation of the same wavelengths the warmer body emitted, and for absorbed and re-radiated emissions of longer wavelengths. The temperature effects are so large that they cannot be explained by minor setup effects.
Electrical measurements were made to confirm that there was not increased electrical power into the bulb when it was at higher temperatures. In fact, the electrical power input was slightly reduced at higher temperatures.
This experiment is therefore compatible with the standard radiative physics paradigm that warmer and cooler bodies can exchange radiative power (but the warmer body will always transfer more power to the cooler body). It is not compatible with the idea that cooler bodies cannot transfer any power by radiative means to warmer bodies and cause an increase in temperature of the warmer body.
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i don't know
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Central to Norse mythology, Yggdrasil is a huge what, connected to the cosmos?
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Norse Mythology, Part Two: The Norse Cosmos | The Uncommon Geek
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Norse Mythology, Part Two: The Norse Cosmos
June 8, 2014 by theterranauthor
In part two of my geeking out over Norse Mythology, I explore the Norse Cosmos, and where it diverges from what you see presented in mainstream motion pictures, such as Marvel’s Thor.
As I touched on in Part One , the Scandinavian and Germanic peoples who espoused Norse Mythology were raised in a harsh and demanding geographical landscape. The ice, fjords, fog, imposing mountains, and dark, dense forests which dominated their environment, shaped their culture and their beliefs. As well, this brutal, survival of the fittest lifestyle contributed to the stark, matter-of-fact fatalism that permeates the Norse myths. There is a certain degree of parallel between the Norse views, and those of Judeo-Christianity, on life after death. Both have quite fatalistic viewpoints on mankind’s ultimate destiny, though the Norse were considerably more naturalistic and cyclical in their beliefs. Viking stories, such as their story of creation, also were influenced, no doubt, by environments like Iceland, where one can find fire and ice in equal measure.
As described in Marvel’s Thor film, the Norse Cosmos did have Nine Realms, and in them, Earth is also referred to as Midgard. Midgard in Old Norse, does translate as “Middle World” or “Middle Earth,” which is a fun fact for fans of J.R.R. Tolkien. Midgard lay, naturally, in the middle of all the other realms: Asgard, Alfheim, and Vanaheim, Svartalfheim, Niflheim, Helheim, Jotunheim, and Muspelheim. These realms are connected by the great World Tree, Yggdrasil, also referred to as the Tree of Life, and the great bridge, Bifrost, which is known either as the Flaming Bridge or the Rainbow Bridge, connects the realm of Asgard to that of Midgard. The Marvel comics and movies do lift the correct names, but they depict Yggdrasil as some sort of cosmic string, and the Nine Realms as wholly separate planets, or planetoids in the case of Asgard.
In Thor: The Dark World, Chris Hemsworth’s character mentions that the Nine Realms are connected within Yggdrasil, yet the Marvel Asgardians require their version of Bifrost to transport between worlds. It seems like the Marvel Yggdrasil is either a constellation, or a concentrated star cluster, that acts as some form of cosmic anchor which keeps the nine different worlds aligned with each other. How this works exactly is not explained, but it does seem that the construct of Bifrost itself is a necessary component to traversing this interplanetary connection. Without it, travel between realms is limited to wormholes like the one Loki exploits in The Dark World, or to concentrated distortions caused by dark matter, which is how Odin sent Thor to Earth in The Avengers.
In the Norse myths, travel between realms was not a galactic affair, and indeed many of the gods are depicted as being able to travel to the realms on foot, or by horseback. One of the most enduring and classic of such tales is Hermod’s ride into Helheim, to beg the release of Balder’s soul. Balder, purest and most beloved of the Aesir (the gods of Asgard) was slain unintentionally by the blind god Hod, in a scheme developed by Loki.
Marvel’s use of the Norse Cosmos, starting with Stan Lee’s original character, and continuing into today’s movies, is an interesting choice. It is true that many Greek and Roman heroes and ideas had already been tapped in stories and comics, so I appreciate that someone thought to take a look at the rich world of Norse Mythology. That said, I feel that modern perceptions of said mythos are a bit muddled, and the Thor comics and movies, while fun, only add to the confusion. They add a pseudo sci-fi element to the mix, but are not very good explaining the science aspect of the fiction. Especially in the movies, the plots don’t even seem to be entirely convinced of their own science, and they don’t stop to explain how things work. The chief protagonist may go out of his way to say, “here’s what these things are,” but there is no explanation of how Yggdrasil or Bifrost work, or why there is a special relationship between these nine seemingly unrelated planets. If you are going to take the myth and the magic out of the mythology, it’d be nice to have something more tangible to back it up. Even if it isn’t the most solid body of science fiction explanation, just having something to go on would be nice. Instead we are left scratching our heads.
As presented, the cosmos of Thor: The Dark World seem to be a random happenstance of ideas and technologies, borrowing elements from Star Trek, Star Wars, Prometheus, the other Marvel films, and some of the Norse myths, but with no real brains behind it. It is just there.
The Norse cosmos, as relayed to us in the myths translated by Snorri Sturluson, while existing in nine distinct parts (with the Tree of Life as the central anchor of it all), was still a large organism of its own. The fate of all the worlds were bound together, and all would have to face Ragnarok, the end of the world as the Norse foresaw it. However, even in the end of the world as they knew it, the Norse recognized, even in myth, the duality of life and death, and how nature, in its cyclical ways, always manages to balance itself out. It regenerates, it renews. A handful of gods and humans were destined to survive Ragnarok, and usher in the existence of a brand new realm.
Out of all the mythologies that I have studied, I have found none like that of the Norse, which is more closely in touch with the ebb and flow of life, death, and the nature of the universe. Like any other religion or mythos, it really is just a way of humans trying to explain things that they don’t understand. But perhaps more than in any other faith, I can respect the fact that in the Norse cosmos, even the gods are fallible, and are far from invincible. These myths, while capable of influencing a sense of fatalism, can also inspire, and serve as a reminder that the universe, and nature, favor no one, not even the gods. These stories are ways to remind oneself to live life to the fullest. Live with zest today, for tomorrow all may die. Brutal, perhaps, but I can respect it.
In part three, I will take a look at the Norse gods and heroes themselves; where they are like their cinematic counterparts, and where Marvel took major liberties.
Skål!
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Tree
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The Indian currency the Rupee takes its name from Hindi and Sanskrit, 'wrought (what metal)'?
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Yggdrasil
Yggdrasil
Yggdrasil or Yggdrasill (pronounced /ˈɪg.drə.sɪl/,
IG
-drə-sil or
IPA:
[ˈyɡ.drə.sil]) is the world tree in Norse mythology, a huge ash tree that spans and supports the universe by holding together earth, heaven, and hell by its roots. Yggdrasil is generally considered to mean "Ygg's ( Odin 's) horse". In Old Norse , Yggdrasil is called Mimameidr. Yggdrasil is central in Norse cosmology, and around it exist nine worlds.
Yggdrasil is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, Yggdrasil is an immense ash tree that is central and considered very holy. The Æsir go to Yggdrasil daily to hold their courts. The branches of Yggdrasil extend far into the heavens, and the tree is supported by three roots that extend far away into other locations; one to the well Urðarbrunnr in the heavens, one to the spring Hvergelmir, and another to the well Mímisbrunnr. Creatures live within Yggdrasil, including the harts Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór, and an unnamed eagle, and the wyrm Níðhöggr.
Scholarly theories have been proposed about the etymology of the name Yggdrasill, the relation to tree and Eurasian shamanic lore, the potential relation to the trees Mímameiðr and Læraðr, Hoddmímis holt, the sacred tree at Uppsala, and the fate of Yggdrasil during the events of Ragnarök.
Etymology
Scholarly opinions regarding the precise meaning of the name Yggdrasill vary, particularly on the issue of whether Yggdrasill is the name of the tree itself, or if only the full term askr Yggdrasil refers specifically to the tree. Yggdrasill means "Ygg's horse," "Yggr" is one of Odin's many names, and according to this, askr Yggdrasils would be viewed as the world-tree upon which the "horse of the highest god is bound."
The generally accepted etymology of the name is that Yggdrasill means "Odin's horse," which means "tree," and that the reason behind the name "Odin's horse" lies in the notion of gallows as "the horse of the hanged," and, according to this notion, the tree would then be the gallows in which Odin hanged during his self-sacrifice described in the Poetic Edda poem Hávamál. Both of these etymologies rely on a presumed but unattested *Yggsdrasill.
A third interpretation by F. Detter is that the name Yggdrasill refers to the word Yggr ("terror"), yet not in reference to the Odinic name, and so Yggdrasill would then mean "tree of terror, gallows." F. R. Schröder has proposed a fourth etymology where yggdrasill means "yew pillar," deriving yggia from *igwja (meaning " yew-tree "), and drasill from *dher- (meaning "support").
Attestations
In the Poetic Edda, the tree is mentioned in three poems; Völuspá, Hávamál, and Grímnismál:
Völuspá
In the second stanza of the poem Völuspá, the völva reciting the poem to the god Odin says that she remembers far back to "early times," being raised by jötnar, nine worlds, "nine wood-ogresses" (Old Norse nío ídiðiur) and when Yggdrasil was a seed ("glorious tree of good measure, under the ground"). In stanza 19, the völva says:
An ash I know there stands,
Yggdrasill is its name,
From there come the dews
that drop in the valleys.
It stands forever green over
Urðr's well.
In stanza 20, the völva says that from the lake under the tree come three "maidens deep in knowledge" named Urðr, Verðandi, and Skuld . The maidens "incised the slip of wood," "laid down laws" and "chose lives" for the children of mankind and the destinies ( ørlǫg ) of men. In stanza 27, the völva details that she is aware that " Heimdallr 's hearing is couched beneath the bright-nurtured holy tree." In stanza 45, Yggdrasil receives a final mention in the poem. The völva describes, as a part of the onset of Ragnarök, that Heimdallr blows Gjallarhorn, that the Odin speaks with Mímir's head, and then:
Yggdrasill shivers,
the ash, as it stands.
The old tree groans,
and the giant slips free.
Hávamál
In stanza 34 of the poem Hávamál, Odin describes how he once sacrificed himself to himself by hanging on a tree. The stanza reads:
I know that I hung on a windy tree
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows
from where its roots run.
In the stanza that follows, Odin describes how he had no food nor drink there, that he peered downward, and that "I took up the runes, screaming I took them, then I fell back from there." While Yggdrasil is not mentioned by name in the poem and other trees exist in Norse mythology, the tree is near universally accepted as Yggdrasil, and if the tree is Yggdrasil, then the name Yggdrasil directly relates to this story.
Grímnismál
In the poem Grímnismál, Odin (disguised as Grímnir) provides the young Agnar with cosmological lore. Yggdrasil is first mentioned in the poem in stanza 29, where Odin says that, because the "bridge of the Æsir burns" and the "sacred waters boil," Thor must wade through the rivers Körmt and Örmt and two rivers named Kerlaugar to go "sit as judge at the ash of Yggdrasill." In the stanza that follows, a list of horse names are given that the Æsir ride to "sit as judges" at Yggdrasil.
In stanza 31, Odin says that the ash Yggdrasil has three roots that grows in three directions. He details that beneath the first lives Hel, under the second live frost jötnar, and beneath the third live mankind. Stanza 32 details that a squirrel named Ratatoskr must run across Yggdrasil and bring "the eagle's word" from above to Níðhöggr below. Stanza 33 describes that four harts named Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór consume "the highest boughs" of Yggdrasil.
In stanza 34, Odin says that, beneath Yggdrasil, more serpents lie "than any fool can imagine", and lists them as Góinn and Móinn (possibly meaning Old Norse "land-animal") which he describes as sons of Grafvitnir (Old Norse, possibly "ditch-wolf"), Grábakr (Old Norse "Greyback"), Grafvölluðr (Old Norse, possibly "the one digging under the plain" or possibly amended as "the one ruling in the ditch"), Ófnir (Old Norse "the winding one, the twisting one"), and Sváfnir (Old Norse, possibly "the one who puts to sleep = death"), who Odin adds that he thinks will forever gnaw on the tree's branches.
In stanza 35, Odin says that Yggdrasil "suffers agony more than men know", as a hart bites it from above, it decays on its sides, and Níðhöggr bites it from beneath. In stanza 44, Odin provides a list of things that are the he refers to as the "noblest" of their type. Within the list, Odin mentions Yggdrasil first, and states that it is the "noblest of trees."
Prose Edda
Yggdrasil is mentioned in two books in the Prose Edda; Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál. In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, the Yggdrasil is introduced in chapter 15. In chapter 15, Gangleri (described as king Gylfi in disguise) asks where is there the chief center or holiest place of the gods. High replies "It is the ash Yggdrasil. There the gods must hold their courts each day." Gangleri asks what there is to tell about Yggdrasil. Just-As-High says that Yggdrasil is the biggest and best of all trees, that its branches extend out over all of the world and reach out over the sky. Three of the roots of the tree support it, and these three roots also extend extremely far: one "is among the Æsir, the second among the frost jötnar, and the third over Niflheim. The root over Niflheim is gnawed by the wyrm Níðhöggr, and beneath this root is the spring Hvergelmir. Beneath the root that reaches the frost jötnar is the well Mímisbrunnr, "which has wisdom and intelligence contained in it, and the master of the well is called Mimir." Just-As-High provides detail regarding Mímisbrunnr, and then describes that the third root of the well "extends to heaven," and beneath the root is the "very holy" well Urðarbrunnr. At Urðarbrunnr the gods hold their court, and every day the Æsir ride to Urðarbrunnr up over the bridge Bifröst. Later in the chapter, a stanza from Grímnismál mentioning Yggdrasil is quoted in support.
In chapter 16, Gangleri asks "what other particularly notable things are there to tell about the ash?" High says there is quite a lot to tell about. High continues that an eagle sits on the branches of Yggdrasil, and it wields much knowledge. Between the eyes of the eagle sits a hawk called Veðrfölnir. A squirrel called Ratatoskr scurries up and down the ash Yggdrasil carrying "malicious messages" between the eagle and Níðhöggr. Four stags named Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór run in the branches of Yggdrasil, and consume its foilage. Within the spring Hvergelmir, there are so many snakes with Níðhöggr "that no tongue can enumerate them." In support, two stanzas from Grímnismál are cited. High continues that each day, the norns that live by the holy well Urðarbrunnr take water from the well and mud from around it and pour it over Yggdrasil, so that the branches of the ash do not rot away or decay. High provides more information about Urðarbrunnr, cites a stanza from Völuspá in support, and adds that dew falls from Yggdrasil to the earth, explaining that "this is what people call honeydew, and from it bees feed."
In chapter 41, the stanza from Grímnismál is quoted that mentions that Yggdrasil is the foremost of trees. In chapter 54, as part of the events of Ragnarök, High describes that Odin will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr and consult Mímir on behalf of himself and his people. After this, "the ash Yggdrasil will shake and nothing will be unafraid in heaven or on earth" and then the Æsir and Einherjar will don their war gear and advance to the field of Vígríðr. Further into the chapter, the stanza in Völuspá that details this sequence is cited.
In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, Yggdrasil receives a single mention, though not by name. In chapter 64, names for kings and dukes are given. "Illustrious one" is provided as an example, appearing in a Christianity-influenced work by the skald Hallvarðr Háreksblesi: "There is not under the pole of the earth [Yggdrasil] an illustrious one closer to the lord of monks [God] than you."
Theories
Shamanic origins
Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that the existence of Nine Worlds around Yggdrasil are mentioned more than once in Old Norse sources, but the identity of the worlds is never outright stated, yet can be adduced from various sources. Davidson comments that "no doubt the identity of the nine varied from time to time as the emphasis changed or new imagery arrived." Davidson says that it is unclear where the Nine Worlds are located in relation to the tree; they could either exist one above the other or perhaps be grouped around the tree, but that there are references to worlds existing beneath the tree, while the gods are pictured as in the sky, a rainbow bridge (Bifröst) connecting the tree with other worlds. Davidson opines that "those who have tried to produce a convincing diagram of the Scandinavian cosmos from what we are told in the sources have only added to the confusion."
Davidson notes parallels between Yggdrasil and in shamanic lore in northern Eurasia:
[...] the conception of the tree rising through a number of worlds is found in northern Eurasia and forms part of the shamanic lore shared by many peoples of this region. This seems to be a very ancient conception, perhaps based on the Pole Star, the centre of the heavens, an the image of the central tree in Scandinavia may have been influenced by it [...]. Among Siberian shamans, a central tree may be used as a ladder to ascend the heavens [...].
Davidson says that the notion of an eagle atop a tree and the World Serpent coiled around the roots of the tree has parallels in other cosmologies from Asia , and that Norse cosmology may have been influenced by these Asiatic cosmologies from a northern. On the other hand, Davidson adds, the Germanic peoples are attested as worshipping their deities in open forest clearings, and that a sky god was particularly connected with the oak tree, and therefore "a central tree was a natural symbol for them also."
Mímameiðr, Hoddmímis holt and Ragnarök
Connections have been proposed between the wood Hoddmímis holt (Old Norse "Hoard-Mímir's" holt ) and the tree Mímameiðr ("Mímir's tree"), generally thought to refer to the world tree Yggdrasil, and the spring Mímisbrunnr. Based on this association, all three have been theorized as within the same proximity.
Carolyne Larrington notes that it is nowhere expressly stated what will happen to Yggdrasil during the events of Ragnarök. Larrington points to a connection between the primordial figure of Mímir and Yggdrasil in the poem Völuspá, and theorizes that "it is possible that Hoddmimir is another name for Mimir, and that the two survivors hide in Yggdrasill."
Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir through Ragnarök by hiding in Hoddmímis holt is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny, understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic escatology." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well." Simek says that in Germanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient. Simek additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar-Oddr, "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (Ǫrvar-Odds saga 24–27)".
Warden Trees, Irminsul, and the sacred trees
Continuing as late as the 19th century, Warden Trees were venerated in areas of Germany and Scandinavia, considered to be guardians and bringers of luck, and offerings were sometimes made to them. A massive birch tree standing atop a burial mound and located beside a farm in western Norway is recorded as having had ale poured over its roots during festivals. The tree was felled in 1874.
Davidson comments that "the position of the tree in the centre as a source of luck and protection for gods and men is confirmed" by these rituals to Warden Trees. Davidson notes that the gods are described as meeting beneath Yggdrasil to hold their things, and that the pillars venerated by the Germanic peoples, such as the pillar Irminsul, were also symbolic of the center of the world. Davidson details that it would be difficult to ascertain whether a tree or pillar came first, and that this likely depends on if the holy location was in a thickly wooded area or not. Davidson notes that there is no mention of a sacred tree at Þingvellir in Iceland yet that Adam of Bremen describes a huge tree standing next to the Temple at Uppsala in Sweden , which Adam describes as remaining green throughout Summer and Winter, and that no one knew what type of tree that it was. Davidson comments that while it is uncertain that Adam's informant actually witnessed the tree is unknown, the existence of sacred trees in pre-Christian Germanic Europe is further evidenced by records of their destruction by early Christian Missionaries, such as Thor's Oak by Saint Boniface .
Ken Dowden comments that behind Irminsul, Thor's Oak in Geismar, and the Sacred Tree at Uppsala "looms a mythic prototype, an Yggdrasil, the world-ash of the Norsemen."
Modern influence
The world-ash Ygdrasil (in Richard Wagner 's idiomatic spelling) appears in the ominous opening scene of Götterdämmerung, where the three Norns tell how Wotan had long ago broken off a branch to fashion himself the spear that gave him mastery over men and gods, and where Wotan soon comes to wake Erda, Mother Earth, from her sleep with urgent questioning.
Modern works of art depicting Yggdrasil include the Die Nornen (apinting, 1888) by K. Ehrenberg, Yggdrasil ( fresco , 1933) by Axel Revold located in the University of Oslo library auditorium in Oslo , Norway, Hjortene beiter i løvet på Yggdrasil asken on the Oslo City Hall (wood relief carving 1938) by Dagfin Werenskjold, and the bronze relief on the doors of the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities (around 1950) by B. Marklund in Stockholm , Sweden. Poems mentioning Yggdrasil include Vårdträdet by Viktor Rydberg and Yggdrasill by J. Linke. (Wikipedia)
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The significant 18th century Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-83) is noted for solving the 'Seven (What?) of Königsberg problem'?
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number game | Britannica.com
Number game
Alternative Titles: mathematical game, mathematical puzzle, mathematical recreation
Related Topics
Fifteen Puzzle
Number game, any of various puzzles and games that involve aspects of mathematics.
Mathematical recreations comprise puzzles and games that vary from naive amusements to sophisticated problems, some of which have never been solved. They may involve arithmetic, algebra, geometry, theory of numbers, graph theory, topology, matrices, group theory, combinatorics (dealing with problems of arrangements or designs), set theory, symbolic logic, or probability theory. Any attempt to classify this colourful assortment of material is at best arbitrary. Included in this article are the history and the main types of number games and mathematical recreations and the principles on which they are based. Details, including descriptions of puzzles, games, and recreations mentioned in the article, will be found in the references listed in the bibliography.
At times it becomes difficult to tell where pastime ends and serious mathematics begins. An innocent puzzle requiring the traverse of a path may lead to technicalities of graph theory; a simple problem of counting parts of a geometric figure may involve combinatorial theory; dissecting a polygon may involve transformation geometry and group theory; logical inference problems may involve matrices. A problem regarded in medieval times—or before electronic computers became commonplace—as very difficult may prove to be quite simple when attacked by the mathematical methods of today.
Mathematical recreations have a universal appeal. The urge to solve a puzzle is manifested alike by young and old, by the unsophisticated as well as the sophisticated. An outstanding English mathematician, G.H. Hardy , observed that professional puzzle makers, aware of this propensity , exploit it diligently, knowing full well that the general public gets an intellectual kick out of such activities.
The relevant literature has become extensive, particularly since the beginning of the 20th century. Some of it is repetitious, but surprisingly enough, successive generations have found the older chestnuts to be quite delightful, whether dressed in new clothes or not. Much newly created material is continually being added.
History
Eyjafjallajökull volcano
In Germany, Hermann Schubert published Zwölf Geduldspiele in 1899 and the Mathematische Mussestunden (3rd ed., 3 vol.) in 1907–09. Between 1904 and 1920 Wilhelm Ahrens published several works, the most significant being his Mathematische Unterhaltungen und Spiele (2 vol., 1910) with an extensive bibliography.
Among British contributors, Henry Dudeney, a contributor to the Strand Magazine, published several very popular collections of puzzles that have been reprinted from time to time (1917–67). The first edition of W.W. Rouse Ball’s Mathematical Recreations and Essays appeared in 1892; it soon became a classic, largely because of its scholarly approach. After passing through 10 editions it was revised by the British professor H.S.M. Coxeter in 1938; it is still a standard reference.
Outstanding work was that of Maurice Kraitchik, editor of the periodical Sphinx and author of several well-known works published between 1900 and 1942.
About the middle third of the 20th century, there was a gradual shift in emphasis on various topics. Up to that time interest had focussed largely on such amusements as numerical curiosities; simple geometric puzzles; arithmetical story problems; paper folding and string figures; geometric dissections; manipulative puzzles; tricks with numbers and with cards; magic squares; those venerable diversions concerning angle trisection, duplication of the cube, squaring the circle, as well as the elusive fourth dimension. By the middle of the century, interest began to swing toward more mathematically sophisticated topics: cryptograms; recreations involving modular arithmetic, numeration bases, and number theory; graphs and networks; lattices, group theory; topological curiosities; packing and covering; flexagons; manipulation of geometric shapes and forms; combinatorial problems; probability theory; inferential problems; logical paradoxes ; fallacies of logic; and paradoxes of the infinite .
Types of games and recreations
Arithmetic and algebraic recreations
Number patterns and curiosities
Some groupings of natural numbers , when operated upon by the ordinary processes of arithmetic, reveal rather remarkable patterns, affording pleasant pastimes. For example:
Another type of number pleasantry concerns multigrades; i.e., identities between the sums of two sets of numbers and the sums of their squares or higher powers—e.g.,
An easy method of forming a multigrade is to start with a simple equality—e.g., 1 + 5 = 2 + 4—then add, for example, 5 to each term: 6 + 10 = 7 + 9. A second-order multigrade is obtained by “switching sides” and combining, as shown below:
On each side the sum of the first powers (S1) is 22 and of the second powers (S2) is 156.
Ten may be added to each term to derive a third-order multigrade:
Switching sides and combining, as before:
In this example S1 = 84, S2 = 1,152, and S3 = 17,766.
This process can be continued indefinitely to build multigrades of successively higher orders. Similarly, all terms in a multigrade may be multiplied or divided by the same number without affecting the equality. Many variations are possible: for example, palindromic multigrades that read the same backward and forward, and multigrades composed of prime numbers.
Other number curiosities and oddities are to be found. Thus, narcissistic numbers are numbers that can be represented by some kind of mathematical manipulation of their digits. A whole number, or integer, that is the sum of the nth powers of its digits (e.g., 153 = 13 + 53 + 33) is called a perfect digital invariant. On the other hand, a recurring digital invariant is illustrated by:
(From Mathematics on Vacation, Joseph Madachy; Charles Scribner’s Sons.)
A variation of such digital invariants is
Another curiosity is exemplified by a number that is equal to the nth power of the sum of its digits:
An automorphic number is an integer whose square ends with the given integer, as (25)2 = 625, and (76)2 = 5776. Strobogrammatic numbers read the same after having been rotated through 180°; e.g., 69, 96, 1001.
It is not improbable that such curiosities should have suggested intrinsic properties of numbers bordering on mysticism.
Digital problems
The problem of the four n’s calls for the expression of as large a sequence of integers as possible, beginning with 1, representing each integer in turn by a given digit used exactly four times. The answer depends upon the rules of operation that are admitted. Two partial examples are shown.
For four 1s:
For four 4s:
(In M. Bicknell & V. Hoggatt, “64 Ways to Write 64 Using Four 4’s,” Recreational Mathematics Magazine, No. 14, Jan.–Feb. 1964, p. 13.)
Obviously, many alternatives are possible; e.g., 7 = 4 + √4 + 4/4 could also be expressed as 4!/4 + 4/4, or as 44/4 - 4. The factorial of a positive integer is the product of all the positive integers less than or equal to the given integer; e.g., “factorial 4,” or 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. If the use of factorial notation is not allowed, it is still possible to express the numbers from 1 to 22 inclusive with four “4s”; thus 22 = (4 + 4)/.4 + √4. But if the rules are extended, many additional combinations are possible.
A similar problem requires that the integers be expressed by using the first m positive integers, m > 3 (“m is greater than three”) and the operational symbols used in elementary algebra. For example, using the digits 1, 2, 3, and 4:
Such problems have many variations; for example, more than 100 ways of arranging the digits 1 to 9, in order, to give a value of 100 have been demonstrated.
All of these digital problems require considerable ingenuity but involve little significant mathematics.
Cryptarithms
The term “crypt-arithmetic” was introduced in 1931, when the following multiplication problem appeared in the Belgian journal Sphinx:
The shortened word cryptarithm now denotes mathematical problems usually calling for addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division and replacement of the digits by letters of the alphabet or some other symbols.
An analysis of the original puzzle suggested the general method of solving a relatively simple cryptarithm:
1. In the second partial product D × A = D, hence A = 1.
2. D × C and E × C both end in C; since for any two digits 1–9 the only multiple that will produce this result is 5 (zero if both digits are even, 5 if both are odd), C = 5.
3. D and E must be odd. Since both partial products have only three digits, neither D nor E can be 9. This leaves only 3 and 7. In the first partial product E × B is a number of two digits, while in the second partial product D × B is a number of only one digit. Thus E is larger than D, so E = 7 and D = 3.
4. Since D × B has only one digit, B must be 3 or less. The only two possibilities are 0 and 2. B cannot be zero because 7B is a two digit number. Thus B = 2.
5. By completing the multiplication, F = 8, G = 6, and H = 4.
6. Answer: 125 × 37 = 4,625.
(From 150 Puzzles in Crypt-Arithmetic by Maxey Brooke; Dover Publications, Inc., New York , 1963. Reprinted through the permission of the publisher.)
Such puzzles had apparently appeared, on occasion, even earlier. Alphametics refers specifically to cryptarithms in which the combinations of letters make sense, as in one of the oldest and probably best known of all alphametics:
Unless otherwise indicated, convention requires that the initial letters of an alphametic cannot represent zero, and that two or more letters may not represent the same digit. If these conventions are disregarded, the alphametic must be accompanied by an appropriate clue to that effect. Some cryptarithms are quite complex and elaborate and have multiple solutions. Electronic computers have been used for the solution of such problems.
Paradoxes and fallacies
Mathematical paradoxes and fallacies have long intrigued mathematicians. A mathematical paradox is a mathematical conclusion so unexpected that it is difficult to accept even though every step in the reasoning is valid. A mathematical fallacy, on the other hand, is an instance of improper reasoning leading to an unexpected result that is patently false or absurd. The error in a fallacy generally violates some principle of logic or mathematics, often unwittingly. Such fallacies are quite puzzling to the tyro, who, unless he is aware of the principle involved, may well overlook the subtly concealed error. A sophism is a fallacy in which the error has been knowingly committed, for whatever purpose. If the error introduced into a calculation or a proof leads innocently to a correct result, the result is a “howler,” often said to depend on “making the right mistake.”
Many paradoxes arise from the concepts of infinity and limiting processes. For example, the infinite series
has a continually greater sum the more terms are included, but the sum always remains less than 2, although it approaches nearer and nearer to 2 as more terms are included. On the other hand, the series
is called divergent: it has no limit, the sum becoming larger than any chosen value if sufficient terms are taken. Another paradox is the fact that there are just as many even natural numbers as there are even and odd numbers altogether, thus contradicting the notion that “the whole is greater than any of its parts.” This seeming contradiction arises from the properties of collections containing an infinite number of objects. Since both are infinite, they are for both practical and mathematical purposes equal.
The so-called paradoxes of Zeno (c. 450 bce) are, strictly speaking, sophisms. In the race between Achilles and the tortoise, the two start moving at the same moment, but, if the tortoise is initially given a lead and continues to move ahead, Achilles can run at any speed and never catch up. Zeno’s argument rests on the presumption that Achilles must first reach the point where the tortoise started, by which time the tortoise will have moved ahead to another point, and so on. Obviously, Zeno did not believe what he claimed; his interest lay in locating the error in his argument. The same observation is true of the three remaining paradoxes of Zeno, the Dichotomy, “motion is impossible”; the Arrow, “motionless even while in flight”; and the Stadium, or “a given time interval is equivalent to an interval twice as long.” Beneath the sophistry of these contradictions lie subtle and elusive concepts of limits and infinity, only completely explained in the 19th century when the foundations of analysis became more rigorous and the theory of transfinite numbers had been formulated.
Learn about Zeno’s Achilles paradox.
© Open University (A Britannica Publishing Partner)
Common algebraic fallacies usually involve a violation of one or another of the following assumptions:
Three examples of such violations follow:
Thus a is both greater than b and less than b.
An example of an illegal operation or “lucky boner” is:
Polygonal and other figurate numbers
Among the many relationships of numbers that have fascinated man are those that suggest (or were derived from) the arrangement of points representing numbers into series of geometrical figures. Such numbers, known as figurate or polygonal numbers, appeared in 15th-century arithmetic books and were probably known to the ancient Chinese; but they were of especial interest to the ancient Greek mathematicians. To the Pythagoreans (c. 500 bce), numbers were of paramount significance; everything could be explained by numbers, and numbers were invested with specific characteristics and personalities. Among other properties of numbers, the Pythagoreans recognized that numbers had “shapes.” Thus, the triangular numbers, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, etc., were visualized as points or dots arranged in the shape of a triangle.
Square numbers are the squares of natural numbers, such as 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, etc., and can be represented by square arrays of dots, as shown in Figure 1 . Inspection reveals that the sum of any two adjacent triangular numbers is always a square number.
Oblong numbers are the numbers of dots that can be placed in rows and columns in a rectangular array, each row containing one more dot than each column. The first few oblong numbers are 2, 6, 12, 20, and 30. This series of numbers is the successive sums of the series of even numbers or the products of two consecutive numbers: 2 = 1·2; 6 = 2·3 = 2 + 4; 12 = 3·4 = 2 + 4 + 6; 20 = 4·5 = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8; etc. An oblong number also is formed by doubling any triangular number (see Figure 2 ).
The gnomons include all of the odd numbers; these can be represented by a right angle, or a carpenter’s square, as illustrated in Figure 3 . Gnomons were extremely useful to the Pythagoreans. They could build up squares by adding gnomons to smaller squares and from such a figure could deduce many interrelationships: thus 12 + 3 = 22, 22 + 5 = 32, etc.; or 1 + 3 + 5 = 32, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 52, etc. Indeed, it is quite likely that Pythagoras first realized the famous relationship between the sides of a right triangle, represented by a2 + b2 = c2, by contemplating the properties of gnomons and square numbers, observing that any odd square can be added to some even square to form a third square. Thus
and, in general, a2 + b2 = c2, where a2 = b + c. This is a special class of Pythagorean triples (see below Pythagorean triples ).
Besides these, the Greeks also studied numbers having pentagonal, hexagonal, and other shapes. Many relationships can be shown to exist between these geometric patterns and algebraic expressions.
Polygonal numbers constitute a subdivision of a class of numbers known as figurate numbers. Examples include the arithmetic sequences
When new series are formed from the sums of the terms of these series, the results are, respectively,
These series are not arithmetic sequences but are seen to be the polygonal triangular and square numbers. Polygonal number series can also be added to form threedimensional figurate numbers; these sequences are called pyramidal numbers.
The significance of polygonal and figurate numbers lies in their relation to the modern theory of numbers. Even the simple, elementary properties and relations of numbers often demand sophisticated mathematical tools. Thus, it has been shown that every integer is either a triangular number, the sum of two triangular numbers, or the sum of three triangular numbers: e.g., 8 = 1 + 1 + 6, 42 = 6 + 36, 43 = 15 + 28, 44 = 6 + 10 + 28.
Pythagorean triples
The study of Pythagorean triples as well as the general theorem of Pythagoras leads to many unexpected byways in mathematics. A Pythagorean triple is formed by the measures of the sides of an integral right triangle—i.e., any set of three positive integers such that a2 + b2 = c2. If a, b, and c are relatively prime—i.e., if no two of them have a common factor—the set is a primitive Pythagorean triple.
A formula for generating all primitive Pythagorean triples is
in which p and q are relatively prime, p and q are neither both even nor both odd, and p > q. By choosing p and q appropriately, for example, primitive Pythagorean triples such as the following are obtained:
The only primitive triple that consists of consecutive integers is 3, 4, 5.
Certain characteristic properties are of interest:
1. Either a or b is divisible by 3.
2. Either a or b is divisible by 4.
3. Either a or b or c is divisible by 5.
4. The product of a, b, and c is divisible by 60.
5. One of the quantities a, b, a + b, a - b is divisible by 7.
It is also true that if n is any integer, then 2n + 1, 2n2 + 2n, and 2n2 + 2n + 1 form a Pythagorean triple.
Certain properties of Pythagorean triples were known to the ancient Greeks—e.g., that the hypotenuse of a primitive triple is always an odd integer. It is now known that an odd integer R is the hypotenuse of such a triple if and only if every prime factor of R is of the form 4k + 1, where k is a positive integer.
Perfect numbers and Mersenne numbers
Most numbers are either “abundant” or “deficient.” In an abundant number, the sum of its proper divisors (i.e., including 1 but excluding the number itself) is greater than the number; in a deficient number, the sum of its proper divisors is less than the number. A perfect number is an integer that equals the sum of its proper divisors. For example, 24 is abundant, its divisors giving a sum of 36; 32 is deficient, giving a sum of 31. The number 6 is a perfect number, since 1 + 2 + 3 = 6; so is 28, since 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28. The next two perfect numbers are 496 and 8,128. The first four perfect numbers were known to the ancients. Indeed, Euclid suggested that any number of the form 2n − 1(2n − 1) is a perfect number whenever 2n − 1 is prime, but it was not until the 18th century that the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler proved that every even perfect number must be of the form 2n − 1(2n − 1), where 2n − 1 is a prime.
A number of the form 2n − 1 is called a Mersenne number after the French mathematician Marin Mersenne ; it may be prime (i.e., having no factor except itself or 1) or composite (composed of two or more prime factors). A necessary though not sufficient condition that 2n − 1 be a prime is that n be a prime. Thus, all even perfect numbers have the form 2n − 1(2n − 1) where both n and 2n − 1 are prime numbers. Until comparatively recently, only 12 perfect numbers were known. In 1876 the French mathematician Édouard Lucas found a way to test the primality of Mersenne numbers. By 1952 the U.S. mathematician Raphael M. Robinson had applied Lucas’ test and, by means of electronic digital computers, had found the Mersenne primes for n = 521; 607; 1,279; 2,203; and 2,281, thus adding five more perfect numbers to the list. By the 21st century, more than 40 Mersenne primes had been found.
It is known that to every Mersenne prime there corresponds an even perfect number and vice versa. But two questions are still unanswered: the first is whether there are any odd perfect numbers, and the second is whether there are infinitely many perfect numbers.
Many remarkable properties are revealed by perfect numbers. All perfect numbers, for example, are triangular. Also, the sum of the reciprocals of the divisors of a perfect number (including the reciprocal of the number itself) is always equal to 2. Thus
Fibonacci numbers
In 1202 the mathematician Leonardo of Pisa , also called Fibonacci, published an influential treatise, Liber abaci . It contained the following recreational problem: “How many pairs of rabbits can be produced from a single pair in one year if it is assumed that every month each pair begets a new pair which from the second month becomes productive?” Straightforward calculation generates the following sequence:
The second row represents the first 12 terms of the sequence now known by Fibonacci’s name, in which each term (except the first two) is found by adding the two terms immediately preceding; in general, xn = xn − 1 + xn − 2, a relation that was not recognized until about 1600.
Over the years, especially in the middle decades of the 20th century, the properties of the Fibonacci numbers have been extensively studied, resulting in a considerable literature. Their properties seem inexhaustible; for example, xn + 1 · xn − 1 = xn2 + (−1)n. Another formula for generating the Fibonacci numbers is attributed to Édouard Lucas:
The ratio (√5 + 1) : 2 = 1.618 . . . , designated as Φ, is known as the golden number ; the ratio (√5 − 1) : 2, the reciprocal of Φ, is equal to 0.618 . . . . Both these ratios are related to the roots of x2 − x − 1 = 0, an equation derived from the Divine Proportion of the 15th-century Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli , namely, a/b = b/(a + b), when a < b, by setting x = b/a. In short, dividing a segment into two parts in mean and extreme proportion, so that the smaller part is to the larger part as the larger is to the entire segment, yields the so-called Golden Section, an important concept in both ancient and modern artistic and architectural design. Thus, a rectangle the sides of which are in the approximate ratio of 3 : 5 (Φ−1 = 0.618 . . .), or 8 : 5 (Φ = 1.618 . . .), is presumed to have the most pleasing proportions, aesthetically speaking.
Raising the golden number to successive powers generates the sequence that begins as follows:
In this sequence the successive coefficients of the radical √5 are Fibonacci’s 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, while the successive second terms within the parentheses are the so-called Lucas sequence: 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18. The Lucas sequence shares the recursive relation of the Fibonacci sequence; that is, xn = xn − 1 + xn − 2.
If a golden rectangle ABCD is drawn and a square ABEF is removed, the remaining rectangle ECDF is also a golden rectangle. If this process is continued and circular arcs are drawn, the curve formed approximates the logarithmic spiral, a form found in nature (see Figure 4 ). The logarithmic spiral is the graph of the equation r = kΘ, in polar coordinates, where k = Φ2/π. The Fibonacci numbers are also exemplified by the botanical phenomenon known as phyllotaxis . Thus, the arrangement of the whorls on a pinecone or pineapple, of petals on a sunflower, and of branches from some stems follows a sequence of Fibonacci numbers or the series of fractions
Geometric and topological recreations
Optical illusions
The creation and analysis of optical illusions may involve mathematical and geometric principles such as the proportionality between the areas of similar figures and the squares of their linear dimensions. Some involve physiological or psychological considerations, such as the fact that, when making visual comparisons, relative lengths are more accurately perceived than relative areas.
For treatment of optical illusions and their illusory effects, including unorthodox use of perspective, distorted angles, deceptive shading, unusual juxtaposition , equivocal contours or contrasts, colour effects, chromatic aberration , and afterimages, see the articles illusion ; hallucination .
Geometric fallacies and paradoxes
Some geometric fallacies include “proofs”: (1) that every triangle is isosceles (i.e., has two equal sides); (2) that every angle is a right angle; (3) that if ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB = CD, then AD must be parallel to BC; and (4) that every point in the interior of a circle lies on the circle.
The explanations of fallacious proofs in geometry usually include one or another of the following: faulty construction; violation of a logical principle, such as assuming the truth of a converse, or confusing partial inverses or converses; misinterpretation of a definition, or failing to take note of“necessary and sufficient” conditions; too great dependence upon diagrams and intuition; being trapped by limiting processes and deceptive appearances.
Impossible figures
At first glance, drawings such as those in Figure 5 appear to represent plausible three-dimensional objects, but closer inspection reveals that they cannot; the representation is flawed by faulty perspective, false juxtaposition, or psychological distortion. Among the first to produce these drawings—also called undecidable figures—was Oscar Reutersvard of Sweden, who made them the central features of a set of Swedish postage stamps.
In 1958 L.S. Penrose, a British geneticist, and his son Roger Penrose , a mathematical physicist, introduced the undecidable figures called strange loops. One of these is the Penrose square stairway ( Figure 6 ), which one could apparently traverse in either direction forever without getting higher or lower. Strange loops are important features of some of M.C. Escher’s lithographs, including “Ascending and Descending” (1960) and “Waterfall” (1961). The concept of the strange loop is related to the idea of infinity and also to logical paradoxes involving self-referential statements, such as that of Epimenides (see below Logical paradoxes ).
Pathological curves
A mathematical curve is said to be pathological if it lacks certain properties of continuous curves. For example, its tangent may be undefined at some—or indeed any—point; the curve may enclose a finite area but be infinite in length; or its curvature may be undefinable. Some of these curves may be regarded as the limit of a series of geometrical constructions; their lengths or the areas they enclose appear to be the limits of sequences of numbers. Their idiosyncrasies constitute paradoxes rather than optical illusions or fallacies.
Von Koch’s snowflake curve , for example, is the figure obtained by trisecting each side of an equilateral triangle and replacing the centre segment by two sides of a smaller equilateral triangle projecting outward, then treating the resulting figure the same way, and so on. The first two stages of this process are shown in Figure 7 . As the construction proceeds, the perimeter of the curve increases without limit, but the area it encloses does approach an upper bound, which is 8/5 the area of the original triangle.
In seeming defiance of the fact that a curve is “one-dimensional” and thus cannot fill a given space, it can be shown that the curve produced by continuing the stages in Figure 8 , when completed, will pass through every point in the square. In fact, by similar reasoning, the curve can be made to fill completely an entire cube.
The Sierpinski curve , the first few stages of which are shown in Figure 9 , contains every point interior to a square, and it describes a closed path. As the process of forming the curve is continued indefinitely, the length of the curve approaches infinity , while the area enclosed by it approaches 5/12 that of the square.
A fractal curve, loosely speaking, is one that retains the same general pattern of irregularity regardless of how much it is magnified; von Koch’s snowflake is such a curve. At each stage in its construction, the length of its perimeter increases in the ratio of 4 to 3. The mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot has generalized the term dimension , symbolized D, to denote the power to which 3 must be raised to produce 4; that is, 3D = 4. The dimension that characterizes von Koch’s snowflake is therefore log 4/log 3, or approximately 1.26.
Beginning in the 1950s Mandelbrot and others have intensively studied the self-similarity of pathological curves, and they have applied the theory of fractals in modelling natural phenomena. Random fluctuations induce a statistical self-similarity in natural patterns; analysis of these patterns by Mandelbrot’s techniques has been found useful in such diverse fields as fluid mechanics , geomorphology , human physiology , economics , and linguistics . Specifically, for example, characteristic “landscapes” revealed by microscopic views of surfaces in connection with Brownian movement , vascular networks, and the shapes of polymer molecules are all related to fractals.
Mazes
A maze having only one entrance and one exit can be solved by placing one hand against either wall and keeping it there while traversing it; the exit can always be reached in this manner, although not necessarily by the shortest path. If the goal is within the labyrinth, the “hand-on-wall” method will also succeed, provided that there is no closed circuit; i.e., a route that admits of complete traverse back to the beginning ( Figure 10 ).
If there are no closed circuits—i.e., no detached walls—the maze is “ simply connected”; otherwise the maze is “ multiply connected.” A classic general method of “threading a maze” is to designate a place where there is a choice of turning as a node; a path or node that has not yet been entered as a “new” path or node; and one that has already been entered as an “old” path or node.
The procedure is as follows:
Never traverse a path more than twice.
When arriving at a new node, select either path.
When arriving at an old node or at a dead end by a new path, return by the same path.
When arriving at an old node by an old path, select a new path, if possible; otherwise, an old path.
Although recreational interest in mazes has diminished, two areas of modern science have found them to be of value: psychology and communications technology. The former is concerned with learning behaviour, the latter with improved design of computers.
Geometric dissections
Geometric dissection problems involve the cutting of geometric figures into pieces that can be arranged to form other geometric figures; for example, cutting a rectangle into parts that can be put together in the form of a square and vice versa. Interest in this area of mathematical recreations began to manifest itself toward the close of the 18th century when Montucla called attention to this problem. As the subject became more popular, greater emphasis was given to the more general problem of dissecting a given polygon of any number of sides into parts that would form another polygon of equal area. Then, in the early 20th century, interest shifted to finding the minimum number of pieces required to change one figure into another.
According to a comprehensive theory of equidecomposable figures that was outlined in detail about 1960, two polygons are said to be equidecomposable if it is possible to dissect, or decompose, one of them into a finite number of pieces that can then be rearranged to form the second polygon. Obviously, the two polygons have equal areas.
According to the converse theorem, if two polygons have equal areas, they are equidecomposable.
In the method of complementation, congruent parts are added to two figures so as to make the two new figures congruent. It is known that equicomplementable figures have equal areas and that, if two polygons have equal areas, they are equicomplementable. As the theory advanced, the relation of equidecomposability to various motions such as translations, central symmetry, and, indeed, to groups of motions in general, was explored. Studies were also extended to the more difficult questions of dissecting polyhedra.
On the “practical” side, the execution of a dissection, such as converting the Greek cross into a square ( Figure 11 ), may require the use of ingenious procedures, some of which have been described by H. Lindgren (see Bibliography).
A quite different and distinctly modern type of dissection deserves brief mention, the so-called squaring the square, or squared rectangles. Thus, the problem of subdividing a square into smaller squares, no two of which are alike, which was long thought to be unsolvable, has been solved by the means of network theory. In this connection, a squared rectangle is a rectangle that can be dissected into a finite number of squares; if no two of these squares are equal, the squared rectangle is said to be perfect. The order of a squared rectangle is the number of constituent squares. It is known that there are no perfect rectangles of orders less than 9, and that there are exactly two perfect rectangles of order 9. (One of these is shown as Figure 12 .) The dissection of a square into unequal squares, deemed impossible as early as 1907, was first reported in 1939.
Graphs and networks
The word graph may refer to the familiar curves of analytic geometry and function theory, or it may refer to simple geometric figures consisting of points and lines connecting some of these points; the latter are sometimes called linear graphs, although there is little confusion within a given context . Such graphs have long been associated with puzzles.
If a finite number of points are connected by lines ( Figure 13A ), the resulting figure is a graph; the points, or corners, are called the vertices , and the lines are called the edges. If every pair of vertices is connected by an edge, the graph is called a complete graph ( Figure 13B ). A planar graph is one in which the edges have no intersection or common points except at the edges. (It should be noted that the edges of a graph need not be straight lines.) Thus a nonplanar graph can be transformed into an equivalent, or isomorphic, planar graph, as in Figures 13C and 13D . An interesting puzzle involves the problem of the three wells. Here ( Figure 14 ) A, B, and C represent three neighbours’ houses, and R, S, and T three wells. It is desired to have paths leading from each house to each well, allowing no path to cross any other path. The proof that the problem is impossible depends on the so-called Jordan curve theorem that a continuous closed curve in a plane divides the plane into an interior and an exterior region in such a way that any continuous line connecting a point in the interior with a point in the exterior must intersect the curve. Planar graphs have proved useful in the design of electrical networks.
A connected graph is one in which every vertex, or point (or, in the case of a solid, a corner), is connected to every other point by an arc; an arc denotes an unbroken succession of edges. A route that never passes over an edge more than once, although it may pass through a point any number of times, is sometimes called a path .
Modern graph theory (in the sense of linear graphs) had its inception with the work of Euler in connection with the “ Königsberg bridge problem ” and was, for many years, associated with curves now called Eulerian paths —i.e., figures that can be drawn without retracing edges or lifting the pencil from the paper. The city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad) embraces the banks and an island of the forked Pregel (Pregolya) River; seven bridges span the different branches (see Figure 15A ). The problem was: Could a person leave home, take a walk, and return, crossing each bridge just once? Euler showed why it is impossible.
Briefly stated, Euler’s principles (which apply to any closed network) are as follows:
The number of even points—i.e., those in which an even number of edges meet—is of no significance.
The number of odd points is always even; this includes the case of a network with only even points.
If there are no odd points, one can start at any point and finish at the same point.
If there are exactly two odd points, one can start at either of the odd points and finish at the other odd point.
If there are more than two odd points, the network cannot be traced in one continuous path; if there are 2n odd points and no more, it can be traced in n separate paths.
Thus, in Figure 15, B and C can be traversed by Eulerian paths; D and E cannot; F shows a network corresponding to the Königsberg bridge problem, in which the points represent the land areas and the edges the seven bridges.
Networks are related to a variety of recreational problems that involve combining or arranging points in a plane or in space. Among the earliest was a puzzle invented by an Irish mathematician, Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1859), which required finding a route along the edges of a regular dodecahedron that would pass once and only once through every point. In another version, the puzzle was made more convenient by replacing the dodecahedron by a graph isomorphic to the graph formed by the 30 edges of the dodecahedron ( Figure 16 ). A Hamilton circuit is one that passes through each point exactly once but does not, in general, cover all the edges; actually, it covers only two of the three edges that intersect at each vertex. The route shown in heavy lines is one of several possible Hamilton circuits.
Graph theory lends itself to a variety of problems involving combinatorics: for example, designing a network to connect a set of cities by railroads or by telephone lines; planning city streets or traffic patterns; matching jobs with applicants; arranging round-robin tournaments such that every team or individual meets every other team or individual.
Map-colouring problems
Cartographers have long recognized that no more than four colours are needed to shade the regions on any map in such a way that adjoining regions are distinguished by colour. The corresponding mathematical question, framed in 1852, became the celebrated “ four-colour map problem ”: Is it possible to construct a planar map for which five colours are necessary? Similar questions can be asked for other surfaces. For example, it was found by the end of the 19th century that seven colours, but no more, may be needed to colour a map on a torus. Meanwhile the classical four-colour question withstood mathematical assaults until 1976, when mathematicians at the University of Illinois announced that four colours suffice . Their published proof, including diagrams derived from more than 1,000 hours of calculations on a high-speed computer, was the first significant mathematical proof to rely heavily on artificial computation.
Flexagons
A flexagon is a polygon constructed from a strip of paper or thin metal foil in such a way that the figure possesses the property of changing its faces when it is flexed. First discussed in 1939, flexagons have become a fascinating mathematical recreation. One of the simplest flexagons is the trihexaflexagon, made by cutting a strip of suitable material and marking off 10 equilateral triangles. By folding appropriately several times and then gluing the last triangle onto the reverse side of the first triangle, the resulting model may be flexed so that one of the faces disappears and another face takes its place.
Manipulative recreations
Puzzles involving configurations
One of the earliest puzzles and games that require arranging counters into some specified alignment or configuration was Lucas’ Puzzle: in a row of seven squares, each of the three squares at the left end is occupied by a black counter, each of the three squares at the right end is occupied by a white counter, and the centre square is vacant. The object is to move one counter at a time until the squares originally occupied by white counters are occupied by black, and vice versa; black counters can be moved only to the right and white only to the left. A counter may move to an adjacent vacant square or it may jump one counter of the other colour to occupy a vacant square. The puzzle may be enlarged to any number of counters of each colour. For n counters of each kind the number of required moves is n(n + 2).
A similar puzzle uses eight numbered counters placed on nine positions. The aim is to shift the counters so that they will appear in reverse numerical order; only single moves and jumps are permitted.
Well known, but by no means as trivial, are games for two players, such as ticktacktoe and its more sophisticated variations, one of which calls for each player to begin with three counters (3 black, 3 white); the first player places a counter in any cell, except the center cell, of a 3 × 3 diagram; the players then alternate until all the counters are down. If neither has won by getting three in a row, each, in turn, is permitted to move a counter to an adjacent square, moving only horizontally or vertically. Achieving three in a row constitutes a win. There are many variations. The game can be played on a 4 × 4 diagram, each player starting with four counters; sometimes diagonal moves are permitted. Another version is played on a 5 × 5 pattern. Yet another interesting modification, popular in Europe, is variously known as mill or nine men’s morris , played with counters on a board consisting of three concentric squares and eight transversals.
Another game of this sort is played on a diamond-shaped board of tessellated hexagons, usually 11 on each edge, where by “tessellated” we mean fitted together like tiles to cover the board completely. Two opposite edges of the diamond are designated “white”; the other two sides, “black.” Each player has a supply of black or white counters. The players alternately place a piece on any vacant hexagon; the object of the game is for each player to complete an unbroken chain of his pieces between the sides designating his colour. Though the game does not end until one of the players has made a complete chain, it may meander across the board; it cannot end in a draw because the only way one player can block the other is by completing his own chain. The game was created by Piet Hein in 1942 in Denmark, where it quickly became popular under the name of polygon. It was invented independently in the United States in 1948 by John Nash , and a few years later one version was marketed under the name of hex.
In addition to the aforementioned varieties of a class of games that can be loosely described as “three in a row” or “specified alignment,” many others also exist, such as three- and four-dimensional ticktacktoe and even a computer ticktacktoe. The game strategy in ticktacktoe is by no means simple; an excellent mathematical analysis is given by F. Schuh.
Chessboard problems
Recreational problems posed with regard to the conventional chessboard are legion. Among the most widely discussed is the problem of how to place eight queens on a chessboard in such a way that none of the queens is attacking any other queen; the problem interested the great German mathematician C.F. Gauss (c. 1850). Another group of problems has to do with the knight’s tour; in particular, to find a closed knight’s tour that ends at the starting point, that does not enter any square more than once, but that passes through all the squares in one tour. Problems of the knight’s tour are intimately connected with the construction of magic squares. Other chessboard problems are concerned with determining the relative values of the various chess pieces; finding the maximum number of pieces of any one type that can be put on a board so that no one piece can take any other; finding the minimum number of pieces of any one type that can be put on a board so as to command all cells; and how to place 16 queens on a board so that no three of them are in a straight line.
The Fifteen Puzzle
One of the best known of all puzzles is the Fifteen Puzzle, which Sam Loyd the elder claimed to have invented about 1878, though modern scholars have documented earlier inventors. It is also known as the Boss Puzzle, Gem Puzzle, and Mystic Square. It became popular all over Europe almost at once. It consists essentially of a shallow square tray that holds 15 small square counters numbered from 1 to 15, and one square blank space. With the 15 squares initially placed in random order and with the blank space in the lower right-hand corner, the puzzle is to rearrange them in numerical order by sliding only, with the blank space ending up back in the lower right-hand corner. It may overwhelm the reader to learn that there are more than 20,000,000,000,000 possible different arrangements that the pieces (including the blank space) can assume. But in 1879 two American mathematicians proved that only one-half of all possible initial arrangements, or about 10,000,000,000,000, admitted of a solution. The mathematical analysis is as follows. Basically, no matter what path it takes, as long as it ends its journey in the lower right-hand corner of the tray, any numeral must pass through an even number of boxes. In the normal position of the squares ( Figure 17A ), regarded row by row from left to right, each number is larger than all the preceding numbers; i.e., no number precedes any number smaller than itself. In any other than the normal arrangement, one or more numbers will precede others smaller than themselves. Every such instance is called an inversion. For example, in the sequence 9, 5, 3, 4, the 9 precedes three numbers smaller than itself and the 5 precedes two numbers smaller than itself, making a total of five inversions. If the total number of all the inversions in a given arrangement is even, the puzzle can be solved by bringing the squares back to the normal arrangement; if the total number of inversions is odd, the puzzle cannot be solved. Thus, in Figure 17B there are two inversions, and the puzzle can be solved; in Figure 17C there are five inversions, and the puzzle has no solution. Theoretically, the puzzle can be extended to a tray of m × n spaces with (mn − 1) numbered counters.
The Tower of Hanoi
The puzzle of the Tower of Hanoi is widely believed to have been invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas , though his role in its invention has been disputed. Ever popular, made of wood or plastic, it still can be found in toy shops. It consists essentially of three pegs fastened to a stand and of eight circular disks, each having a hole in the centre. The disks, all of different radii, are initially placed (see Figure 18 ) on one of the pegs, with the largest disk on the bottom and the smallest on top; no disk rests upon one smaller than itself. The task is to transfer the individual disks from one peg to another so that no disk ever rests on one smaller than itself, and, finally, to transfer the tower; i.e., all the disks in their proper order, from their original peg to one of the other pegs. It can be shown that for a tower of n disks, there will be required 2n − 1 transfers of individual disks to shift the tower completely to another peg. Thus for 8 disks, the puzzle requires 28 − 1, or 255 transfers. If the original “needle” (peg) was a tower with 64 disks, the number of transfers would be 264 − 1, or 18,446,744,073,709,551,615; this is exactly the same number required to fill an 8 × 8 checkerboard with grains of wheat, 1 on the first square, 2 on the second, 4 on the next, then 8, 16, 32, etc.
Polyominoes
The term polyomino was introduced in 1953 as a jocular extension of the word domino . A polyomino is a simply connected set of equal-sized squares, each joined to at least one other along an edge. The simpler polyomino shapes are shown in Figure 19A . Somewhat more fascinating are the pentominoes, of which there are exactly 12 forms ( Figure 19B ). Asymmetrical pieces, which have different shapes when they are flipped over, are counted as one.
The number of distinct polyominoes of any order is a function of the number of squares in each, but, as yet, no general formula has been found. It has been shown that there are 35 types of hexominoes and 108 types of heptominoes, if the dubious heptomino with an interior “hole” is included.
Recreations with polyominoes include a wide variety of problems in combinatorial geometry, such as forming desired shapes and specified designs, covering a chessboard with polyominoes in accordance with prescribed conditions, etc. Two illustrations may suffice.
The 35 hexominoes, having a total area of 210 squares, would seem to admit of arrangement into a rectangle 3 × 70, 5 × 42, 6 × 35, 7 × 30, 10 × 21, or 14 × 15; however, no such rectangle can be formed.
Can the 12 pentominoes, together with one square tetromino, form an 8 × 8 checkerboard? A solution of the problem was shown around 1935. It is not known how many solutions there are, but it has been estimated to be at least 1,000. In 1958, by use of a computer, it was shown that there are 65 solutions in which the square tetromino is exactly in the centre of the checkerboard.
Soma Cubes
Piet Hein of Denmark, also known for his invention of the mathematical games known as hex and tac tix, stumbled upon the fact that all the irregular shapes that can be formed by combining three or four congruent cubes joined at their faces can be put together to form a larger cube. There are exactly seven such shapes, called Soma Cubes; they are shown in Figure 20 . No two shapes are alike, although the fifth and sixth are mirror images of each other. The fact that these seven pieces (comprising 27 “unit” cubes) can be reassembled to form one large cube is indeed remarkable.
Many interesting solid shapes can be formed from the seven Soma Cubes, shapes resembling, for example, a sofa, a chair, a castle, a tunnel, a pyramid, and so on. Even the assembling of the seven basic pieces into a large cube can be done in more than 230 essentially different ways.
As a recreation, the Soma Cubes are fascinating. With experience, many persons find that they can solve Soma problems mentally. Psychologists who have used them find that the ability to solve Soma problems is roughly correlated with general intelligence, although there are some strange anomalies at both ends of the distribution of intelligence. In any event, people playing with the cubes do not appear to want to stop; the variety of interesting structures possible seems endless.
Coloured squares and cubes
There is a wide variety of puzzles involving coloured square tiles and coloured cubes. In one, the object is to arrange the 24 three-colour patterns, including repetitions, that can be obtained by subdividing square tiles diagonally, using three different colours, into a 4 × 6 rectangle so that each pair of touching edges is the same colour and the entire border of the rectangle is the same colour.
More widely known perhaps is the 30 Coloured Cubes Puzzle. If six colours are used to paint the faces there result 2,226 different combinations. If from this total only those cubes that bear all six colours on their faces are selected, a set of 30 different cubes is obtained; two cubes are regarded as “different” if they cannot be placed side by side so that all corresponding faces match. Many fascinating puzzles arise from these coloured squares and cubes; many more could be devised. Some of them have appeared commercially at various times under different names, such as the Mayblox Puzzle, the Tantalizer, and the Katzenjammer.
A revival of interest in coloured-cube problems was aroused by the appearance of a puzzle known as Instant Insanity, consisting of four cubes, each of which has its faces painted white, red, green, and blue in a definite scheme. The puzzle is to assemble the cubes into a 1 × 1 × 4 prism such that all four colours appear on each of the four long faces of the prism. Since each cube admits of 24 different orientations, there are 82,944 possible prismatic arrangements; of these only two are the required solutions.
This puzzle was soon superseded by Rubik’s Cube , developed independently by Ernő Rubik (who obtained a Hungarian patent in 1975) and Terutoshi Ishigi (who obtained a Japanese patent in 1976). The cube appears to be composed of 27 smaller cubes, or cubelets; in its initial state, each of the six faces of the cube is made up of nine cubelet faces all of the same colour. In the commercial versions of the puzzle, an internal system of pivots allows any layer of nine cubelets to be rotated with respect to the rest, so that successive rotations about the three axes cause the cubelet faces to become scrambled. The challenge of restoring a scrambled cube to its original configuration is formidable , inasmuch as more than 1019 states can be reached from a given starting condition. A thriving literature quickly developed for the exposition of systematic solutions (based on group theory) of scrambled cubes.
Nim and similar games
A game so old that its origin is obscure, nim lends itself nicely to mathematical analysis. In its generalized form, any number of objects (counters) are divided arbitrarily into several piles. Two people play alternately; each, in turn, selects any one of the piles and removes from it all the objects, or as many as he chooses, but at least one object. The player removing the last object wins. Every combination of the objects may be considered “safe” or “unsafe”; i.e., if the position left by a player after his move assures a win for that player, the position is called safe. Every unsafe position can be made safe by an appropriate move, but every safe position is made unsafe by any move. To determine whether a position is safe or unsafe, the number of objects in each pile may be expressed in binary notation: if each column adds up to zero or an even number, the position is safe. For example, if at some stage of the game, three piles contain 4, 9, and 15 objects, the calculation is:
Since the second column from the right adds up to 1, an odd number, the given combination is unsafe. A skillful player will always move so that every unsafe position left to him is changed to a safe position.
A similar game is played with just two piles; in each draw the player may take objects from either pile or from both piles, but in the latter event he must take the same number from each pile. The player taking the last counter is the winner.
Games such as nim make considerable demands upon the player’s ability to translate decimal numbers into binary numbers and vice versa. Since digital computers operate on the binary system, however, it is possible to program a computer (or build a special machine) that will play a perfect game. Such a machine was invented by American physicist Edward Uhler Condon and an associate; their automatic Nimatron was exhibited at the New York World’s Fair in 1940.
Games of this sort seem to be widely played the world over. The game of pebbles, also known as the game of odds, is played by two people who start with an odd number of pebbles placed in a pile. Taking turns, each player draws one, or two, or three pebbles from the pile. When all the pebbles have been drawn, the player who has an odd number of them in his possession wins.
Predecessors of these games, in which players distribute pebbles, seeds, or other counters into rows of holes under varying rules, have been played for centuries in Africa and Asia and are known as mancala games.
Problems of logical inference
Logical puzzles
Many challenging questions do not involve numerical or geometrical considerations but call for deductive inferences based chiefly on logical relationships. Such puzzles are not to be confounded with riddles, which frequently rely upon deliberately misleading or ambiguous statements, a play on words, or some other device intended to catch the unwary. Logical puzzles do not admit of a standard procedure or generalized pattern for their solution and are usually solved by some trial-and-error method. This is not to say that the guessing is haphazard; on the contrary, the given facts (generally minimal) suggest several hypotheses . These can be successively rejected if found inconsistent, until, by substitution and elimination, the solution is finally reached. The use of various techniques of logic may sometimes prove helpful, but in the last analysis, success depends largely upon that elusive capacity called ingenuity. For convenience, logic problems are arbitrarily grouped in the following categories.
The brakeman, the fireman, and the engineer
The brakeman-fireman-engineer puzzle has become a classic. The following version of it appeared in Oswald Jacoby and William Benson’s Mathematics for Pleasure (1962).
The names, not necessarily respectively, of the brakeman, fireman, and engineer of a certain train were Smith, Jones, and Robinson. Three passengers on the train happened to have the same names and, in order to distinguish them from the railway employees, will be referred to hereafter as Mr. Smith, Mr. Jones, and Mr. Robinson. Mr. Robinson lived in Detroit; the brakeman lived halfway between Chicago and Detroit; Mr. Jones earned exactly $2,000 per year; Smith beat the fireman at billiards; the brakeman’s next-door neighbour, one of the passengers, earned exactly three times as much as the brakeman; and the passenger who lived in Chicago had the same name as the brakeman. What was the name of the engineer?
Overlapping groups
The following problem is typical of the overlapping-groups category. Among the members of a high-school language club, 21 were studying French; 20, German; 26, Spanish; 12, both French and Spanish; 10, both French and German; nine, both Spanish and German; and three, French, Spanish, and German. How many club members were there? How many members were studying only one language?
Truths and lies
Another kind of logical inference puzzle concerns truths and lies. One variety is as follows: The natives of a certain island are known as knights or knaves, though they are indistinguishable in appearance. The knights always tell the truth, and the knaves always lie. A visitor to the island, meeting three natives, asks them whether they are knights or knaves. The first says something inaudible. The second, pointing to the first, says, “He says that he is a knight.” The third, pointing to the second, says, “He lies.” Knowing beforehand that only one is a knave, the visitor decides what each of the three is.
In a slightly different type, four men, one of whom was known to have committed a certain crime, made the following statements when questioned by the police:
Archie: Dave did it.
Gus: I didn’t do it.
Tony: Dave lied when he said I did it.
If only one of these four statements is true, who was the guilty man? On the other hand, if only one of these four statements is false, who was the guilty man? (From 101 Puzzles in Thought and Logic by C.R. Wylie, Jr.; Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1957. Reprinted through the permission of the publisher.)
The smudged faces
The problem of the smudged faces is another instance of pure logical deduction. Three travellers were aboard a train that had just emerged from a tunnel, leaving a smudge of soot on the forehead of each. While they were laughing at each other, and before they could look into a mirror, a neighbouring passenger suggested that although no one of the three knew whether he himself was smudged, there was a way of finding out without using a mirror. He suggested: “Each of the three of you look at the other two; if you see at least one whose forehead is smudged, raise your hand.” Each raised his hand at once. “Now,” said the neighbour, “as soon as one of you knows for sure whether his own forehead is smudged or not, he should drop his hand, but not before.” After a moment or two, one of the men dropped his hand with a smile of satisfaction, saying: “I know.” How did that man know that his forehead was smudged?
The unexpected hanging
A final example might be the paradox of the unexpected hanging, a remarkable puzzle that first became known by word of mouth in the early 1940s. One form of the paradox is the following: A prisoner has been sentenced on Saturday. The judge announces that “the hanging will take place at noon on one of the seven days of next week, but you will not know which day it is until you are told on the morning of the day of the hanging.” The prisoner, on mulling this over, decided that the judge’s sentence could not possibly be carried out. “For example,” said he, “I can’t be hanged next Saturday, the last day of the week, because on Friday afternoon I’d still be alive and I’d know for sure that I’d be hanged on Saturday. But I’d known this before I was told about it on Saturday morning, and this would contradict the judge’s statement.” In the same way, he argued, they could not hang him on Friday, or Thursday, or Wednesday, Tuesday, or Monday. “And they can’t hang me tomorrow,” thought the prisoner, “because I know it today!”
Careful analysis reveals that this argument is false, and that the decree can be carried out. The paradox is a subtle one. The crucial point is that a statement about a future event can be known to be a true prediction by one person but not known to be true by another person until after the event has taken place.
Logical paradoxes
Highly amusing and often tantalizing, logical paradoxes generally lead to searching discussions of the foundations of mathematics. As early as the 6th century bce, the Cretan prophet Epimenides allegedly observed that “All Cretans are liars ,” which, in effect, means that “All statements made by Cretans are false.” Since Epimenides was a Cretan, the statement made by him is false. Thus the initial statement is self-contradictory. A similar dilemma was given by an English mathematician, P.E.B. Jourdain, in 1913, when he proposed the card paradox. This was a card on one side of which was printed:
“The sentence on the other side of this card is TRUE.”
On the other side of the card the sentence read:
“The sentence on the other side of this card is FALSE.”
The barber paradox , offered by Bertrand Russell , was of the same sort: The only barber in the village declared that he shaved everyone in the village who did not shave himself. On the face of it, this is a perfectly innocent remark until it is asked “Who shaves the barber?” If he does not shave himself, then he is one of those in the village who does not shave himself and so is shaved by the barber, namely, himself. If he shaves himself, he is, of course, one of the people in the village who is not shaved by the barber. The self-contradiction lies in the fact that a statement is made about “all” the members of a certain class, when the statement or the object to which the statement refers is itself a member of the class. In short, the Russell paradox hinges on the distinction between those classes that are members of themselves and those that are not members of themselves. Russell attempted to resolve the paradox of the class of all classes by introducing the concept of a hierarchy of logical types but without much success. Indeed, the entire problem lies close to the philosophical foundations of mathematics .
Additional Reading
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Bridge
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What pluralized term refers to a building's roof edge adjoining its wall, usually designed to prevent rainwater ingress?
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Johann Tobias Mayer facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Johann Tobias Mayer
(b. Basel, Switzerland, 15 April 1707; d. St. Petersburg, Russia, 18 September 1783)
mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, physics.
Life . Euler’s forebears settled in Basel at the end of the sixteenth century. His great-great-grandfather, Hans Georg Euler, had moved from Lindau, on the Bodensee (Lake Constance). They were, for the most part, artisans; but the mathematician’s father, Paul Euler, graduated from the theological department of the University of Basel. He became a Protestant minister, and in 1706 he married Margarete Brucker, daughter of another minister. In 1708 the family moved to the village of Riehen, near Basel, where Leonhard Euler spent his childhood.
Euler’s father was fond of mathematics and had attended Jakob Bernoulli’s lectures at the university; he gave his son his elementary education, including mathematics. In the brief autobiography dictated to his eldest son in 1767, Euler recollected that for several years he diligently and thoroughly studied Christoff Rudolf’s Algebra, a difficult work (dating, in Stifel’s edition, from 1553) which only a very gifted boy could have used. Euler later spent several years with his maternal grandmother in Basel, studying at a rather poor local Gymnasium; mathematics was not taught at all, so Euler studied privately with Johann Burckhardt, an amateur mathematician. In the autumn of 1720, being not yet fourteen, Euler entered the University of Basel in the department of arts to get a general education before specializing. The university was small; it comprised only a few more than a hundred students and nineteen professors. But among the latter was Johann I Bernoulli, who had followed his brother Jakob, late in 1705, in the chair of mathematics. During the academic year, Bernoulli delivered daily public lectures on elementary mathematics; besides that, for additional pay he conducted studies in higher mathematics and physics for those who were interested. Euler laboriously studied all the required subjects, but this did not satisfy him. According to the autobiography:
... I soon found an opportunity to be introduced to a famous professor Johann Bernoulli.... True, he was very busy and so refused flatly to give me private lessons; but he gave me much more valuable advice to start reading more difficult mathematical books on my own and to study them as diligently as I could; if I came across some obstacle or difficulty, I was given permission to visit him freely every Saturday afternoon and he kindly explained to me everything I could not understand.... and this, undoubtedly, is the best method to succeed in mathematical subjects. 1
In the summer of 1722, Euler delivered a speech in praise of temperance, “De temperantia,” and received his prima laurea, a degree corresponding to the bachelor of arts. The same year he acted as opponent (respondens) at the defense of two theses—one on logic, the other on the history of law. In 1723 Euler received his master’s degree in philosophy. This was officially announced at a session on 8 June 1724; Euler made a speech comparing the philosophical ideas of Descartes and Newton. Some time earlier, in the autumn of 1723, he had joined the department of theology, fulfilling his father’s wish. His studies in theology, Greek, and Hebrew were not very successful, however; Euler devoted most of his time to mathematics. He finally gave up the idea of becoming a minister but remained a wholehearted believer throughout his life. He also retained the knowledge of the humanities that he acquired in the university; he had an outstanding memory and knew by heart the entirety of Vergil’s Aeneid. At seventy he could recall precisely the lines printed at the top and bottom of each page of the edition he had read when he was young.
At the age of eighteen, Euler began his independent investigations. His first work, a small note on the construction of isochronous curves in a resistant medium, 2 appeared in Acta eruditorum (1726); this was followed by an article in the same periodical on algebraic reciprocal trajectories (1727). 3 The problem of reciprocal trajectories was studied by Johann I Bernoulli, by his son Nikolaus II, and by other mathematicians of the time. Simultaneously Euler participated in a competition announced by the Paris Académie des Sciences which proposed for 1727 the problem of the most efficient arrangement of masts on a ship. The prize went to Pierre Bouguer, but Euler’s work 4 received the accessit. Later, from 1738 to 1772, Euler was to receive twelve prizes from the Academy.
For mathematicians beginning their careers in Switzerland, conditions were hard. There were few chairs of mathematics in the country and thus little chance of finding a suitable job. The income and public recognition accorded to a university professor of mathematics were not cause for envy. There were no scientific magazines, and publishers were reluctant to publish books on mathematics, which were considered financially risky. At this time the newly organized St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1725) was looking for personnel. In the autumn of that year Johann I Bernoulli’s sons, Nikolaus II and Daniel, went to Russia. On behalf of Euler, they persuaded the authorities of the new Academy to send an invitation to their young friend also.
Euler received the invitation to serve as adjunct of physiology in St. Petersburg in the autumn of 1726, and he began to study this discipline, with an effort toward applying the methods of mathematics and mechanics. He also attempted to find a job at the University of Basel. A vacancy occurred in Basel after the death of a professor of physics, and Euler presented as a qualification a small composition on acoustics, Dissertatio physica de sono (1727). 5 Vacancies were then filled in the university by drawing lots among the several chosen candidates. In spite of a recommendation from Johann Bernoulli, Euler was not chosen as a candidate, probably because he was too young—he was not yet twenty. But, as O. Spiess has pointed out, this was in Euler’s favor; 6 a much broader field of action lay ahead of him.
On 5 April 1727 Euler left Basel for St. Petersburg, arriving there on 24 May. From this time his life and scientific work were closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy and with Russia. He never returned to Switzerland, although he maintained his Swiss citizenship.
In spite of having been invited to St. Petersburg to study physiology, Euler was at once given the chance to work in his real field and was appointed an adjunct member of the Academy in the mathematics section. He became professor of physics in 1731 and succeeded Daniel Bernoulli, who returned to Basel in 1733 as a professor of mathematics. The young Academy was beset with numerous difficulties, but on the whole the atmosphere was exceptionally beneficial for the flowering of Euler’s genius. Nowhere else could he have been surrounded by such a group of eminent scientists, including the analyst, geometer, and specialist in theoretical mechanics Jakob Hermann, a relative; Daniel Bernoulli, with whom Euler was connected not only by personal friendship but also by common interests in the field of applied mathematics; the versatile scholar Christian Goldbach, with whom Euler discussed numerous problems of analysis and the theory of numbers; F. Maier, working in trigonometry; and the astronomer and geographer J.-N. Delisle.
In St. Petersburg, Euler began his scientific activity at once. No later than August 1727 he started making reports on his investigations at sessions of the Academy; he began publishing them in the second volume of the academic proceedings, Commentarii Academiae scientiarum imperialis Petropolitanae (1727) (St. Petersburg, 1729). The generous publication program of the Academy was especially important for Euler, who was unusually prolific. In a letter written in 1749 Euler cited the importance that the work at the Academy had for many of its members:
... I and all others who had the good fortune to be for some time with the Russian Imperial Academy cannot but acknowledge that we owe everything which we are and possess to the favorable conditions which we had there. 7
In addition to conducting purely scientific work, the St. Petersburg Academy from the very beginning was also obliged to educate and train Russian scientists, and with this aim a university and a Gymnasium were organized. The former existed for nearly fifty years and the latter until 1805. The Academy was also charged to carry out for the government a study of Russian territory and to find solutions for various technological problems. Euler was active in these projects. From 1733 on, he successfully worked with Delisle on maps in the department of geography. From the middle of the 1730’s he studied problems of shipbuilding and navigation, which were especially important to the rise of Russia as a great sea power. He joined various technological committees and engaged in testing scales, fire pumps, saws, and so forth. He wrote articles for the popular periodical of the Academy and reviewed works submitted to it (including those on the quadrature of the circle), compiled the Einleitung zur Rechen-Kunst 8 for Gymnasiums, and also served on the examination board.
Euler’s main efforts, however, were in the mathematical sciences. During his fourteen years in St. Petersburg he made brilliant discoveries in such areas as analysis, the theory of numbers, and mechanics. By 1741 he had prepared between eighty and ninety works for publication. He published fifty-five, including the two-volume Mechanica. 9
As is usual with scientists, Euler formulated many of his principal ideas and creative concepts when he was young. Neither the dates of preparation of his works nor those of their actual publication adequately indicate Euler’s intellectual progress, since a number of the plans formulated in the early years in St. Petersburg (and even as early as the Basel period) were not realized until much later. For example, the first drafts of the theory of motion of solid bodies, finished in the 1760’s, were made during this time. Likewise Euler began studying hydromechanics while still in Basel, but the most important memoirs on the subject did not appear until the middle of the 1750’s; he imagined a systematic exposition of differential calculus on the basis of calculus of finite differences in the 1730’s but did not realize the intention until two decades later; and his first articles on optics appeared fifteen years after he began studying the subject in St. Petersburg. Only by a complete study of the unpublished Euler manuscripts would it be possible to establish the progression of his ideas more precisely.
Because of his large correspondence with scientists from many countries, Euler’s discoveries often became known long before publication and rapidly brought him increasing fame. An index of this is Johann I Bernoulli’s letters to his former disciple—in 1728 Bernoulli addressed the “most learned and gifted man of science Leonhard Euler”; in 1737 he wrote, the “most famous and wisest mathematician”; and in 1745 he called him the “incomparable Leonhard Euler” and “mathematicorum princeps.” Euler was then a member of both the St. Petersburg and Berlin academies. (That certain frictions between Euler and Schumacher, the rude and despotic councillor of the St. Petersburg Academy, did Euler’s career no lasting harm was due to his tact and diplomacy.) He was later elected a member of the Royal Society of London (1749) and the Académie des Sciences of Paris (1755). He was elected a member of the Society of Physics and Mathematics in Basel in 1753.
At the end of 1733 Euler married Katharina Gsell, a daughter of Georg Gsell, a Swiss who taught painting at the Gymnasium attached to the St. Petersburg Academy. Johann Albrecht, Euler’s first son, was born in 1734, and Karl was born in 1740. It seemed that Euler had settled in St. Petersburg for good; his younger brother, Johann Heinrich, a painter, also worked there. His quiet life was interrupted only by a disease that caused the loss of sight in his right eye in 1738.
In November 1740 Anna Leopoldovna, mother of the infant Emperor Ivan VI, became regent, and the atmosphere in the Russian capital grew troubled. According to Euler’s autobiography, “things looked rather dubious.” 10 At that time Frederick the Great, who had succeeded to the Prussian throne in June 1740, decided to reorganize the Berlin Society of Sciences, which had been founded by Leibniz but allowed to degenerate during Frederick’s father’s reign. Euler was invited to work in Berlin. He accepted, and after fourteen years in Russia he sailed with his family on 19 June 1741 from St. Petersburg. He arrived in Berlin on 25 July.
Euler lived in Berlin for the next twenty-five years. In 1744 he moved into a house, still preserved, on the Behrenstrasse. The family increased with the birth of a third son, Christoph, and two daughters; eight other children died in infancy. In 1753 Euler bought an estate in Charlottenburg, which was then just outside the city. The estate was managed by his mother, who lived with Euler after 1750. He sold the property in 1763.
Euler’s energy in middle age was inexhaustible. He was working simultaneously in two academies—Berlin and St. Petersburg. He was very active in transforming the old Society of Sciences into a large academy—officially founded in 1744 as the Académie Royale des Sciences et des Belles Lettres de Berlin. (The monarch preferred his favorite language, French, to both Latin and German.) Euler was appointed director of the mathematical class of the Academy and member of the board and of the committee directing the library and the publication of scientific works. He also substituted for the president, Maupertuis, when the latter was absent. When Maupertuis died in 1759, Euler continued to run the Academy, although without the title of president. Euler’s friendship with Maupertuis enabled him to exercise great influence on all the activities of the Academy, particularly on the selection of members.
Euler’s administrative duties were numerous: he supervised the observatory and the botanical gardens; selected the personnel; oversaw various financial matters; and, in particular, managed the publication of various calendars and geographical maps, the sale of which was a source of income for the Academy. The king also charged Euler with practical problems, such as the project in 1749 of correcting the level of the Finow Canal, which was built in 1744 to join the Havel and the Oder. At that time he also supervised the work on pumps and pipes of the hydraulic system at Sans Souci, the royal summer residence.
In 1749 and again in 1763 he advised on the organization of state lotteries and was a consultant to the government on problems of insurance, annuities, and widows’ pensions. Some of Euler’s studies on demography grew out of these problems. An inquiry from the king about the best work on artillery moved Euler to translate into German Benjamin Robins’ New Principles of Gunnery. Euler added his own supplements on ballistics, which were five times longer than the original text (1745). 11 These supplements occupy an important place in the history of ballistics; Euler himself had written a short work on the subject as early as 1727 or 1728 in connection with the testing of guns. 12
Euler’s influence upon scientific life in Germany was not restricted to the Berlin Academy. He maintained a large correspondence with professors at numerous German universities and promoted the teaching of mathematical sciences and the preparation of university texts.
From his very first years in Berlin, Euler kept in regular working contact with the St. Petersburg Academy. This contact was interrupted only during military actions between Prussia and Russia in the course of the Seven Years’ War—although even then not completely. Before his departure from the Russian capital, Euler was appointed an honorary member of the Academy and given an annual pension; on his part he pledged to carry out various assignments of the Academy and to correspond with it. During the twenty-five years in Berlin, Euler maintained membership in the St. Petersburg Academy à tous les titres, to quote N. Fuss. On its commission he finished the books on differential calculus and navigation begun before his departure for Berlin edited the mathematical section of the Academy journal; kept the Academy apprised, through his letters, of scientific and technological thought in Western Europe; bought books and scientific apparatus for the Academy; recommended subjects for scientific competitions and candidates to vacancies; and served as a mediator in conflicts between academicians.
Euler’s participation in the training of Russian scientific personnel was of great importance, and he was frequently sent for review the works of Russian students and even members of the Academy. For example, in 1747 he praised most highly two articles of M.V. Lomonosov on physics and chemistry; and S.K. Kotelnikov, S. Y. Rumovski, and M. Sofronov studied in Berlin under his supervision for several years. Finally, Euler regularly sent memoirs to St. Petersburg. About half his articles were published there in Latin, and the other half appeared in French in Berlin.
During this period, Euler greatly increased the variety of his investigations. Competing with d’Alembert and Daniel Bernoulli, he laid the foundations of mathematical physics; and he was a rival of both A. Clairaut and d’Alembert in advancing the theory of lunar and planetary motion. At the same time, Euler elaborated the theory of motion of solids, created the mathematical apparatus of hydrodynamics, successfully developed the differential geometry of surfaces, and intensively studied optics, electricity, and magnetism. He also pondered such problems of technology as the construction of achromatic refractors, the perfection of J.A. Segner’s hydraulic turbine, and the theory of toothed gearings.
During the Berlin period Euler prepared no fewer than 380 works, of which about 275 were published, including several lengthy books: a monograph on the calculus of variations (1744); 13 a fundamental work on calculation of orbits (1745); 14 the previously mentioned work on artillery and ballistics (1745); Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748); 15 a treatise on shipbuilding and navigation, prepared in an early version in St. Petersburg (1749); 16 his first theory of lunar motion (1753); 17 and Institutiones calculi differentialis (1755). 18 The last three books were published at the expense of the St. Petersburg Academy. Finally, there was the treatise on the mechanics of solids, Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum (1765). 19 The famous Lettres à une princesse d’Allemagne sur divers sujets de physique et de philosophie, which originated in lessons given by Euler to a relative of the Prussian king, was not published until Euler’s return to St. Petersburg. 20 Written in an absorbing and popular manner, the book was an unusual success and ran to twelve editions in the original French, nine in English, six in German, four in Russian, and two in both Dutch and Swedish. There were also Italian, Spanish, and Danish editions.
In the 1740’s and 1750’s Euler took part in several philosophical and scientific arguments. In 1745 and after, there were passionate discussions about the monadology of Leibniz and of Christian Wolff. German intellectuals were divided according to their opinions on monadology. As Euler later wrote, every conversation ended in a discussion of monads. The Berlin Academy announced as the subject of a 1747 prize competition an exposé and critique of the system. Euler, who was close to Cartesian mechanical materialism in natural philosophy, was an ardent enemy of monadology, as was Maupertuis. It should be added that Euler, whose religious views were based on a belief in revelation, could not share the religion of reason which characterized Leibniz and Wolff. Euler stated his objections, which were grounded on arguments of both a physical and theological nature, in the pamphlet Gedancken von den Elementen der Cörper... (1746). 21 His composition caused violent debates, but the decision of the Academy gave the prize to Justi, author of a rather mediocre work against the theory of monads.
In 1751 a sensational new argument began when S. König published some critical remarks on Maupertuis’s principle of least action (1744) and cited a letter of Leibniz in which the principle was, in König’s opinion, formulated more precisely. Submitting to Maupertuis, the Berlin Academy rose to defend him and demanded that the original of Leibniz’ letter (a copy had been sent to König from Switzerland) be presented. When it became clear that the original could not be found, Euler published, with the approval of the Academy, “Exposé concernant l’examen de la lettre de M. de Leibnitz” (1752), 22 where, among other things, he declared the letter a fake. The conflict grew critical when later in the same year Voltaire published his Diatribe du docteur Akakia, médecin du pape, defending König and making laughingstocks of both Maupertuis and Euler. Frederick rushed to the defense of Maupertuis, quarreling with his friend Voltaire and ordering the burning of the offensive pamphlet. His actions, however, did not prevent its dissemination throughout Europe. The argument touched not only on the pride of the principal participants but also on their general views: Maupertuis and, to a lesser degree, Euler interpreted the principle of least action theologically and teleologically; König was a follower of Wolff and Voltaire—the greatest ideologist of free thought.
Three other disputes in which Euler took part (all discussed below) were much more important for the development of mathematical sciences: his argument with d’Alembert on the problem of logarithms of negative numbers, the argument with d’Alembert and Daniel Bernoulli on the solution of the equation of a vibrating string, and Euler’s polemics with Dollond on optical problems.
As mentioned earlier, after Maupertuis died in 1759, Euler managed the Berlin Academy, but under the direct supervision of the king. But relations between Frederick and Euler had long since spoiled. They differed sharply, not only in their views but in their tastes, treatment of men, and personal conduct. Euler’s bourgeois manners and religious zeal were as unattractive to the king as the king’s passion for bons mots and freethinking was to Euler. Euler cared little for poetry, which the king adored; Frederick was quite contemptuous of the higher realms of mathematics, which did not seem to him immediately practical. In spite of having no one to replace Euler as manager of the Academy, the king, nonetheless, did not intend to give him the post of president. In 1763 it became known that Frederick wanted to appoint d’Alembert, and Euler thus began to think of leaving Berlin. He wrote to G. F. Müller, secretary of the St. Petersburg Academy, which had tried earlier to bring him back to Russia. Catherine the Great then ordered the academicians to send Euler another offer.
D’Alembert’s refusal to move permanently to Berlin postponed for a time the final decision on the matter. But during 1765 and 1766 grave conflicts over financial matters arose between Euler and Frederick, who interfered actively with Euler’s management of the Academy after the Seven Years’ War. The king thought Euler inexperienced in such matters and relied too much on the treasurer of the Academy. For half a year Euler pleaded for royal permission to leave, but the king, well-aware that the Academy would thus lose its best worker and principal force, declined to grant his request. Finally he had to consent and vented his annoyance in crude jokes about Euler. On 9 June 1766, Euler left Berlin, spent ten days in Warsaw at the invitation of Stanislas II, and arrived in St. Petersburg on 28 July. Euler’s three sons returned to Russia also. Johann Albrecht became academician in the chair of physics in 1766 and permanent secretary of the Academy in 1769. Christoph, who had become an officer in Prussia, successfully resumed his military career, reaching the rank of major-general in artillery. Both his daughters also accompanied him.
Euler settled in a house on the embankment of the Neva, not far from the Academy. Soon after his return he suffered a brief illness, which left him almost completely blind in the left eye; he could not now read and could make out only outlines of large objects. He could write only in large letters with chalk and slate. An operation in 1771 temporarily restored his sight, but Euler seems not to have taken adequate care of himself and in a few days he was completely blind. Shortly before the operation, he had lost his house and almost all of his personal property in a fire, barely managing to rescue himself and his manuscripts. In November 1773 Euler’s wife died, and three years later he married her half sister, Salome Abigail Gsell.
Euler’s blindness did not lessen his scientific activity. Only in the last years of his life did he cease attending academic meetings, and his literary output even increased—almost half of his works were produced after 1765. His memory remained flawless, he carried on with his unrealized ideas, and he devised new plans. He naturally could not execute this immense work alone and was helped by active collaborators: his sons Johann Albrecht and Christoph; the academicians W. L. Krafft and A. J. Lexell; and two new young disciples, adjuncts N. Fuss, who was invited in 1772 from Switzerland, and M. E. Golovin, a nephew of Lomonosov. Sometimes Euler simply dictated his works; thus, he dictated to a young valet, a tailor by profession, the two-volume Vollstàndige Anleitung zur Algebra (l770), 23 first published in Russian translation.
But the scientists assisting Euler were not mere secretaries; he discussed the general scheme of the works with them, and they developed his ideas, calculated tables, and sometimes compiled examples. The enormous, 775-page Theoria motuum lunae... (1772) 24 was thus completed with the help of Johann Albrecht, Krafft, and Lexell—all of whom are credited on the title page. Krafft also helped Euler with the three-volume Dioptrica (l769-1771). 25 Fuss, by his own account, during a seven-year period prepared 250 memoirs, and Golovin prepared seventy. Articles written by Euler in his later years were generally concise and particular. For example, the fifty-six works prepared during 1776 contain about the same number of pages (1,000) as the nineteen works prepared in 1751.
Besides the works mentioned, during the second St. Petersburg period Euler published three volumes of Institutiones calculi integralis (1768–l770), 26 the principal parts of which he had finished in Berlin, and an abridged edition of Scientia navalis—Théorie complette de la construction et de la manoeuvre des vaisseaux (1773). 27 The last, a manual for naval cadets, was soon translated into English, Italian, and Russian, and Euler received for it large sums from the Russian and French governments.
The mathematical apparatus of the Dioptrica remained beyond the practical opticist’s understanding; so Fuss devised, on the basis of this work, the Instruction détaillée pour porter les lunettes de toutes les différentes espéces au plus haut degré de perfection dont elles sont susceptibles... (1774). 28 Fuss also aided Euler in preparing the Éclaircissemens sur les érablissemens publics... (l776), 29 which was very important in the development of insurance; many companies used its methods of solution and its tables.
Euler continued his participation in other functions of the St. Petersburg Academy. Together with Johann Albrecht he was a member of the commission charged in 1766 with the management of the Academy. Both resigned their posts on the commission in 1774 because of a difference of opinion between them and the director of the Academy, Count V. G. Orlov, who actually managed it.
On 18 September 1783 Euler spent the first half of the day as usual. He gave a mathematics lesson to one of his grandchildren, did some calculations with chalk on two boards on the motion of balloons; then discussed with Lexell and Fuss the recently discovered planet Uranus. About five o’clock in the afternoon he suffered a brain hemorrhage and uttered only “I am dying,” before he lost consciousness. He died about eleven o’clock in the evening.
Soon after Euler’s death eulogies were delivered by Fuss at a meeting of the St. Petersburg Academy 30 and by Condorcet at the Paris Academy of Sciences. 31 Euler was buried at the Lutheran Smolenskoye cemetery in St. Petersburg, where in 1837 a massive monument was erected at his grave, with the inscription, “Leonhardo Eulero Academia Petropolitana.” In the autumn of 1956 Euler’s remains and the monument were transferred to the necropolis of Leningrad.
Euler was a simple man, well disposed and not given to envy. One can also say of him what Fontenelle said of Leibniz: “He was glad to observe the flowering in other people’s gardens of plants whose seeds he provided.”
Mathematics . Euler was a geometer in the wide sense in which the word was used during the eighteenth century. He was one of the most important creators of mathematical science after Newton. In his work, mathematics was closely connected with applications to other sciences, to problems of technology, and to public life. In numerous cases he elaborated mathematical methods for the direct solution of problems of mechanics and astronomy, physics and navigation, geography and geodesy, hydraulics and ballistics, insurance and demography. This practical orientation of his work explains his tendency to prolong his investigations until he had derived a convenient formula for calculation or an immediate solution in numbers or a table. He constantly sought algorithms that would be simple to use in calculation and that would also assure sufficient accuracy in the results.
But just as his friend Daniel Bernoulli was first of all a physicist, Euler was first of all a mathematician. Bernoulli’s thinking was preeminently physical; he tried to avoid mathematics whenever possible, and once having developed a mathematical device for the solution of some physical problem, he usually left it without further development. Euler, on the other hand, attempted first of all to express a physical problem in mathematical terms; and having found a mathematical idea for solution, he systematically developed and generalized it. Thus, Euler’s brilliant achievements in the field are explained by his regular elaboration of mathematics as a single whole. Bernoulli was not especially attracted by more abstract problems of mathematics; Euler, on the contrary, was very much carried away with the theory of numbers. All this is manifest in the distribution of Euler’s works on various sciences: twenty-nine volumes of the Opera omnia (see BIBLIOGRAPHY [1]) pertain to pure mathematics.
In Euler’s mathematical work, first place belongs to analysis, which at the time was the most pressing need in mathematical science; seventeen volumes of the Opera omnia are in this area. Thus, in principle, Euler was an analyst. He contributed numerous particular discoveries to analysis, systematized its exposition in his classical manuals, and, along with all this, contributed immeasurably to the founding of several large mathematical disciplines: the calculus of variations, the theory of differential equations, the elementary theory of functions of complex variables, and the theory of special functions.
Euler is often characterized as a calculator of genius, and he was, in fact, unsurpassed in formal calculations and transformations and was even an outstanding calculator in the elementary sense of the word. But he also was a creator of new and important notions and methods, the principal value of which was in some cases properly understood only a century or more after his death. Even in areas where he, along with his contemporaries, did not feel at home, his judgment came, as a rule, from profound intuition into the subject under study. His findings were intrinsically capable of being grounded in the rigorous mode of demonstration that became obligatory in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Such standards were not, and could not be, demanded in the mathematics of the eighteenth century.
It is frequently said that Euler saw no intrinsic impossibility in the deduction of mathematical laws from a very limited basis in observation; and naturally he employed methods of induction to make empirical use of the results he had arrived at through analysis of concrete numerical material. But he himself warned many times that an incomplete induction serves only as a heuristic device, and he never passed off as finally proved truths the suppositions arrived at by such methods.
Euler introduced many of the present conventions of mathematical notation: the symbol e to represent the base of the natural system of logarithms (1727, published 1736); the use of letter f and of parentheses for a function f([x/a] + c) (1734, published 1740); the modern signs for trigonometric functions (1748); the notation fn for the sum of divisors of the number n (1750); notations for finite differences, Δy, Δ2y, etc., and for the sum Σ(1755); and the letter i for , published 1794).
Euler had only a few immediate disciples, and none of them was a first-class scientist. On the other hand, according to Laplace, he was a tutor of all the mathematicians of his time. In mathematics the eighteenth century can fairly be labeled the Age of Euler, but his influence upon the development of mathematical sciences was not restricted to that period. The work of many outstanding nineteenth-century mathematicians branched out directly from the works of Euler.
Euler was especially important for the development of science in Russia. His disciples formed the first scientific mathematical school in the country and contributed to the rise of mathematical education. One can trace back to Euler numerous paths from Chebyshev’s St. Petersburg mathematical school.
[In the following, titles of articles are not, as a rule, cited; dates in parentheses signify the year of publication.]
Theory of Numbers . Problems of the theory of numbers had attracted mathematicians before Euler. Fermat, for example, established several remarkable arithmetic theorems but left almost no proofs. Euler laid the foundations of number theory as a true science.
A large series of Euler’s works is connected with the theory of divisibility. He proved by three methods Fermat’s lesser theorem, the principal one in the field (1741, 1761, 1763); he suggested with the third proof an important generalization of the theorem by introducing Euler’s function φ(n), denoting the number of positive integers less than n which are relatively prime to n: the difference aφn-1 is divisible by n if a is relatively prime to n. Elaborating related ideas, Euler came to the theory of n-ic residues (1760). Here his greatest discovery was the law of quadratic reciprocity (1783), which, however, he could not prove. Euler’s discovery went unnoticed by his contemporaries, and the law was rediscovered, but incompletely proved, by A. M. Legendre (1788). Legendre was credited with it until Chebyshev pointed out Euler’s priority in 1849. The complete proof of the law was finally achieved by Gauss (1801). Gauss, Kummer, D. Hilbert, E. Artin, and others extended the law of reciprocity to various algebraic number fields; the most general law of reciprocity was established by I. R. Shafarevich (1950).
Another group of Euler’s works, in which he extended Fermat’s studies on representation of prime numbers by sums of the form m x2+n y2, where m, n, x, and y are positive integers, led him to the discovery of a new efficient method of determining whether a given large number N is prime or composite (1751, et seq.). These works formed the basis for the general arithmetic theory of binary quadratic forms developed by Lagrange and especially by Gauss.
Euler also contributed to so-called Diophantine analysis, that is, to the solution, in integers or in rational numbers, of indeterminate equations with integer coefficients. Thus, by means of continued fractions, which he had studied earlier (1744, et seq.), he gave (1767) a method of calculation of the smallest integer solution of the equation x2-d y2=1 (d being a positive nonsquare integer). This had been studied by Fermat and Wallis and even earlier by scientists of India and Greece. A complete investigation of the problem was soon undertaken by Lagrange. In 1753 Euler proved the impossibility of solving x3+y3=z3 in which x, y, and z are integers, xyz ≠0 (a particular case of Fermat’s last theorem); his demonstration, based on the method of infinite descent and using complex numbers of the form , is thoroughly described in his Vllstàndige Anleitung zur Algebra, the second volume of which (1769) has a large section devoted to Diophantine analysis.
In all these cases Euler used methods of arithmetic and algebra, but he was also the first to use analytical methods in number theory. To solve the partition problem posed in 1740 by P. Naudé, concerning the total number of ways the positive integer n is obtainable as a sum of positive integers m < n, Euler used the expansions of certain infinite products into a power series whose coefficients give the solution (1748). In particular, in the expansion the right-hand series is one of theta functions, introduced much later by C. Jacobi in his theory of elliptic functions. Earlier, in 1737, Euler had deduced the famous identity where the sum extends over all positive integers n and the product over all primes p (1744), the left-hand side is what Riemann later called the zeta-function ζ(ς)
Using summation of divergent series and induction, Euler discovered in 1749 (1768) a functional equation involving ζ(s), ζ(1-s), and Γ(s), which was rediscovered and established by Riemann, the first scientist to define the zeta-function also for complex values of the argument. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the zeta-function became one of the principal means of analytic number theory, particularly in the studies of the laws of distribution of prime numbers by Dirichlet, Chebyshev, Riemann, Hadamard, de la Vallèe-Poussin, and others.
Finally, Euler studied mathematical constants and formulated important problems relevant to the theory of transcendental numbers. His expression of the number e in the form of a continued fraction (1744) was used by J. H. Lambert (1768) in his demonstration of irrationality of the numbers e and π. F. Lindemann employed Euler’s formula Ln(-1) = πί (discovered as early as 1728) to prove that is transcendental (1882). The hypothesis of the transcendence of ab, where a is any algebraic number ≠0,1 and b is any irrational algebraic number—formulated by D. Hilbert in 1900 and proved by A. Gelfond in 1934—presents a generalization of Euler’s corresponding supposition about rational-base logarithms of rational numbers (1748).
Algebra . When mathematicians of the seventeenth century formulated the fundamental theorem that an algebraic equation of degree n with real coefficients has n roots, which could be imaginary, it was yet unknown whether the domain of imaginary roots was restricted to numbers of the form a + bi, which, following Gauss, are now called complex numbers. Many mathematicians thought that there existed imaginary quantities of another kind. In his letters to Nikolaus I Bernoulli and to Goldbach (dated 1742), Euler stated for the first time the theorem that every algebraic polynomial of degree n with real coefficients may be resolved into real linear or quadratic factors, that is, possesses n roots of the form a + bi (1743). The theorem was proved by d’Alembert (1748) and by Euler himself (1751). Both proofs, quite different in ideas, had omissions and were rendered more precise during the nineteenth century.
Euler also aspired—certainly in vain—to find the general form of solution by radicals for equations of degree higher than the fourth (1738, 1764). He elaborated approximating methods of solutions for numerical equations (1748) and studied the elimination problem. Thus, he gave the first proof of the theorem, which was known to Newton, that two algebraic curves of degrees m and n, respectively, intersect in mn points (1748, 1750). It should be added that Euler’s Vollständige Anleitung zur Algebra, published in many editions in English, Dutch, Italian, French, and Russian, greatly influenced nineteenth- and twentieth-century texts on the subject.
Infinite Series . In Euler’s works, infinite series, which previously served mainly as an auxiliary means for solving problems, became a subject of study. One example, his investigation of the zeta-function, has already been mentioned. The point of departure was the problem of summation of the reciprocals of the squares of the integers
which had been vainly approached by the Bernoulli brothers, Stirling, and other outstanding mathematicians. Euler solved in 1735 a much more general problem and demonstrated that for any even integer number 2k > 0,
ζ(2k)=a2kπs k,
where a2k are rational numbers (1740), expressed through coefficients of the Euler-Maclaurin summation formula (1750) and, consequently, through Bernoulli numbers (1755). The problem of the arithmetic nature of ζ(2k + 1) remains unsolved.
The summation formula was discovered by Euler no later than 1732 (1738) and demonstrated in 1735 (1741); it was independently discovered by Maclaurin no later than 1738 (1742). The formula, one of the most important in the calculus of finite differences, represents the partial sum of a series, , by another infinite series involving the integral and the derivatives of the general term u(n). Later Euler expressed the coefficients of the latter series through Bernoulli numbers (1755). Euler knew that although this infinite series generally diverges, its partial sums under certain conditions might serve as a brilliant means of approximating the calculations shown by James Stirling (1730) in a particular case of
By means of the summation formula, Euler in 1735 calculated (1741) to sixteen decimal places the value of Euler’s constant,
C = 0.57721566...,
belonging to an asymptotic formula,
which he discovered in 1731 (1738).
The functions studied in the eighteenth century were, with rare exceptions, analytic, and therefore Euler made great use of power series. His special merit was the introduction of a new and extremely important class of trigonometric Fourier series. In a letter to Goldbach (1744), he expressed for the first time an algebraic function by such a series (1755),
He later found other expansions (1760), deducing in 1777 a formula of Fourier coefficients for expansion of a given function into a series of cosines on the interval (0,π), pointing out that coefficients of expansion into a series of sines could be deduced analogously (1798). Fourier, having no knowledge of Euler’s work, deduced in 1807 the same formulas. For his part, Euler did not know that coefficients of expansion into a series of cosines had been given by Clairaut in 1759.
Euler also introduced expansion of functions into infinite products and into the sums of elementary fractions, which later acquired great importance in the general theory of analytic functions. Numerous methods of transformation of infinite series, products, and continued fractions into one another are also his.
Eighteenth-century mathematicians distinguished convergent series from divergent series, but the general theory of convergence was still missing. Algebraic and analytic operations on infinite series were similar to those on finite polynomials, without any restrictions. It was supposed that identical laws operate in both cases. Several tests of convergence already known found almost no application. Opinions, however, differed on the problem of admissibility of divergent series. Many mathematicians were radically against their employment. Euler, sure that important correct results might be arrived at by means of divergent series, set about the task of establishing the legitimacy of their application. With this aim, he suggested a new, wider definition of the concept of the sum of a series, which coincides with the traditional definition if the series converges; he also suggested two methods of summation (1755). Precise grounding and further development of these fruitful ideas were possible only toward the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. 32
The Concept of Function . Discoveries in the field of analysis made in the middle of the eighteenth century (many of them his own) were systematically summarized by Euler in the trilogy Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748),15Institutiones calculi differentialis (1755),18 and Institutiones calculi integralis (1768-1770). The books are still of interest, especially the first volume of the Introductio. Many of the problems considered there, however, are now so far developed that knowledge of them is limited to a few specialists, who can trace in the book the development of many fruitful methods of analysis.
In the Introductio Euler presented the first clear statement of the idea that mathematical analysis is a science of functions; and he also presented a more thorough investigation of the very concept of function. Defining function as an analytic expression somehow composed of variables and constants—following in this respect Johann I Bernoulli (1718)— Euler defined precisely the term “analytic expression”: functions are produced by means of algebraic operations, and also of elementary and other transcendental operations, carried out by integration. Here the classification of functions generally used today is also given; Euler speaks of functions defined implicitly and by parametric representation. Further on he states his belief, shared by other mathematicians, that all analytic expressions might be given in the form of infinite power series or generalized power series with fractional or negative exponents. Thus, functions studied in mathematical analysis generally are analytic functions with some isolated singular points. Euler’s remark that functions are considered not only for real but also for imaginary values of independent variables was very important.
Even at that time, however, the class of analytic functions was insufficient for the requirements of analysis and its applications, particularly for the solution of the problem of the vibrating string. Here Euler encountered “arbitrary” functions, geometrically represented in piecewise smooth plane curves of arbitrary form—functions which are, generally speaking, nonanalytic (1749). The problem of the magnitude of the class of functions applied in mathematical physics and generally in analysis and the closely related problem of the possibility of analytic expression of nonanalytic functions led to a lengthy polemic involving many mathematicians, including Euler, d’Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli. One of the results of this controversy over the problem of the vibrating string was the general arithmetical definition of a function as a quantity whose values somehow change with the changes of independent variables; the definition was given by Euler in Institutiones calculi differentialis.18 He had, however, already dealt with the interpretation of a function as a correspondence of values in his introductio.
Elementary Functions . The major portion of the first volume of the Introductio is devoted to the theory of elementary functions, which is developed by means of algebra and of infinite series and products. Concepts of infinitesimal and infinite quantity are used, but those of differential and integral calculus are lacking. Among other things, Euler here for the first time described the analytic theory of trigonometric functions and gave a remarkably simple, although nonrigorous, deduction of Moivre’s formula and also of his own (1743),
e±xi = cos x ± i sin x.
This was given earlier by R. Cotes (1716) in a somewhat different formulation, but it was widely used only by Euler. The logarithmic function was considered by Euler in the Introductio only for the positive independent variable. However, he soon published his complete theory of logarithms of complex numbers (1751)—which some time before had ended the arguments over logarithms of negative numbers between Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli and between d’Alembert and Euler himself in their correspondence (1747-1748). Euler had come across the problem (1727-1728) when he discussed in his correspondence with Johann I Bernoulli the problem of the graphics of the function y = (-1)x and arrived at the equality ln(-1)= πi.
Functions of a Complex Variable . The study of elementary functions brought d’Alembert (1747-1748) and Euler (1751) to the conclusion that the domain of complex numbers is closed (in modern terms) with regard to all algebraic and transcendental operations. They both also made early advances in the general theory of analytic functions. In 1752 d’Alembert, investigating problems of hydrodynamics, discovered equations connecting the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function u(x,y) + iv(x,y). In 1777 Euler deduced the same equations, from general analytical considerations, developing a new method of calculation of definite integrals f f(z) dz by means of an imaginary substitution
z = x + iy
(1793, 1797). He thus discovered (1794) that
Euler also used analytic functions of a complex variable, both in the study of orthogonal trajectories by means of their conformal mapping (1770) and in his works on cartography (1778). (The term projectio conformis was introduced by a St. Petersburg academician, F. T. Schubert [1789].) All of these ideas were developed in depth in the elaboration of the general theory of analytic functions by Cauchy (1825) and Riemann (1854), after whom the above-cited equations of d’Alembert and Euler are named.
Although Euler went from numbers of the form x + iy to the point u(x,y) and back, and used a trigonometric form r(cos φ + i sinφ), he saw in imaginary numbers only convenient notations void of real meaning. A somewhat less than successful attempt at geometric interpretation undertaken by H. Kühn (1753) met with sharp critical remarks from Euler.
Differential and Integral Calculus . Both branches of infinitesimal analysis were enriched by Euler’s numerous discoveries. Among other things in the Institutiones calculi differentialis, he thoroughly elaborated formulas of differentiation under substitution of variables; revealed his theorem on homogeneous functions, stated for f(x,y) as early as 1736; proved the theorem of Nikolaus I Bernoulli (1721) that for z = f(x,y)
deduced the necessary condition for the exact differential of f(x,y); applied Taylor’s series to finding extrema of f(x); and investigated extrema of f(x,y), inaccurately formulating, however, sufficient conditions.
The first two chapters of the Institutiones are devoted to the elements of the calculus of finite differences. Euler approached differential calculus as a particular case, we would say a limiting case, of the method of finite differences used when differences of the function and of the independent variable approach zero. During the eighteenth century it was often said against differential calculus that all its formulas were incorrect because the deductions were based on the principle of neglecting infinitely small summands, e.g., on equalities of the kind a + α = a, where α is infinitesimal with respect to a. Euler thought that such criticism could be obviated only by supposing all infinitesimals and differentials equal to zero, and therefore he elaborated an original calculus of zeroes. This concept, although not contradictory in itself, did not endure because it proved insufficient in many problems; a strict grounding of analysis was possible if the infinitesimals were interpreted as variables tending to the limit zero.
The methods of indefinite integration in the Institutiones calculi integralis (I, 1768) are described by Euler in quite modern fashion and in a detail that practically exhausts all the cases in which the result of integration is expressible in elementary functions. He invented many of the methods himself; the expression “Euler substitution” (for rationalization of certain irrational differentials) serves as a reminder of the fact. Euler calculated many difficult definite integrals, thus laying the foundations of the theory of special functions. In 1729, already studying interpolation of the sequence 1!, 2!,..., n!,..., he introduced Eulerian integrals of the first and second kind (Legendre’s term), today called the beta-and gammafunctions (1738). He later discovered a number of their properties.
Particular cases of the beta-function were first considered by Wallis in 1656. The functions B and Γ, together with the zeta-function and the so-called Bessel functions (see below), are among the most important transcendental functions. Euler’s main contribution to the theory of elliptic integrals was his discovery of the general addition theorem (1768). Finally, the theory of multiple integrals also goes back to Euler; he introduced double integrals and established the rule of substitution (1770).
Differential Equations . The Institutiones calculi integralis exhibits Euler’s numerous discoveries in the theory of both ordinary and partial differential equations, which were especially useful in mechanics.
Euler elaborated many problems in the theory of ordinary linear equations: a classical method for solving reduced linear equations with constant coefficients, in which he strictly distinguished between the general and the particular integral (1743); works on linear systems, conducted simultaneously with d’Alembert (1750); solution of the general linear equation of order n with constant coefficients by reduction to the equation of the same form of order n - 1 (1753). After 1738 he successfully applied to second-order linear equations with variable coefficients a method that was highly developed in the nineteenth century; this consisted of the presentation of particular solutions in the form of generalized power series. Another Eulerian device, that of expressing solutions by definite integrals that depend on a parameter (1763), was extended by Laplace to partial differential equations (1777).
One can trace back to Euler (1741) and Daniel Bernoulli the method of variation of constants later elaborated by Lagrange (1777). The method of an integrating factor was also greatly developed by Euler, who applied it to numerous classes of first-order differential equations (1768) and extended it to higher-order equations (1770). He devoted a number of articles to the Riccati equation, demonstrating its involvement with continued fractions (1744). In connection with his works on the theory of lunar motion, Euler created the widely used device of approximating the solution of the equation dy/dx = f(x,y), with initial condition x = x0, y = y0 (1768), extending it to second-order equations (1769). This Euler method of open polygons was used by Cauchy in the 1820’s to demonstrate the existence theorem for the solution of the above-mentioned equation (1835, 1844). Finally, Euler discovered tests for singular solutions of first-order equations (1768).
Among the large cycle of Euler’s works on partial differential equations begun in the middle of the 1730’s with the study of separate kinds of first-order equations, which he had encountered in certain problems of geometry (1740), the most important are the studies on second-order linear equations—to which many problems of mathematical physics may be reduced. First was the problem of small plane vibrations of a string, the wave equation originally solved by d’Alembert with the so-called method of characteristics. Given a general solution expressible as a sum of two arbitrary functions, the initial conditions and the boundary conditions of the problem admitted of arriving at solutions in concrete cases (1749). Euler immediately tested this method of d’Alembert’s and further elaborated it, eliminating unnecessary restrictions imposed by d’Alembert upon the initial shape and velocity of the string (1749). As previously mentioned, the two mathematicians engaged in an argument which grew more involved when Daniel Bernoulli asserted that any solution of the wave equation might be expressed by a trigonometric series (1755). D’Alembert and Euler agreed that such a solution could not be sufficiently general. The discussion was joined by Lagrange, Laplace, and other mathematicians of great reputation and lasted for over half a century; not until Fourier (1807, 1822) was the way found to the correct formulation and solution of the problem. Euler later developed the method of characteristics more thoroughly (1766, 1767).
Euler encountered equations in other areas of what became mathematical physics: in hydrodynamics; in the problem of vibrations of membranes, which he reduced to the so-called Bessel equation and solved (1766) by means of the Bessel functions Jn(x); and in the problem of the motion of air in pipes (1772). Some classes of equations studied by Euler for velocities close to or surpassing the velocity of sound continue to figure in modern aerodynamics.
Calculus of Variations . Starting with several problems solved by Johann and Jakob Bernoulli, Euler was the first to formulate the principal problems of the calculus of variations and to create general methods for their solution. In Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas...13 he systematically developed his discoveries of the 1730’s (1739, 1741). The very title of the work shows that Euler widely employed geometric representations of functions as flat curves. Here he introduced, using different terminology, the concepts of function and variation and distinguished between problems of absolute extrema and relative extrema, showing how the latter are reduced to the former. The problem of the absolute extremum of the function of several independent variables, where F is the given and y(x) the desired minimizing or maximizing function, is treated as the limiting problem for the ordinary extremum of the function where xk = a+k Δx, Δx =(b - a)/n, k = 0, 1,..., n (and→∞). Thus Euler deduced the differential equation named after him to which the function y(x) should correspond; this necessary condition was generalized for the case where F involves the derivatives y’, y“,..., yn. In this way the solution of a problem in the calculus of variations might always be reduced to integration of a differential equation. A century and a half later the situation had changed. The direct method imagined by Euler, which he had employed only to obtain his differential equation, had (together with similar methods) acquired independent value for rigorous or approximate solution of variational problems and the corresponding differential equations.
In the mid-1750’s, after Lagrange had created new algorithms and notations for the calculus of variations, Euler abandoned the former exposition and gave instead a detailed and lucid exposition of Lagrange’s method, considering it a new calculus—which he called variational (1766). He applied the calculus of variations to problems of extreme values of double integrals with constant limits in volume III of the Institutiones calculi integralis (1770); soon thereafter he suggested still another method of exposition of the calculus, one which became widely used.
Geometry . Most of Euler’s geometrical discoveries were made by application of the methods of algebra and analysis. He gave two different methods for an analytical exposition of the system of spherical trigonometry (1755, 1782). He showed how the trigonometry of spheroidal surfaces might be applied to higher geodesy (1755). In volume II of the Introductio he surpassed his contemporaries in giving a consistent algebraic development of the theory of second-order curves, proceeding from their general equation (1748). He constituted the theory of third-order curves by analogy. But Euler’s main achievement was that for the first time he studied thoroughly the general equation of second-order surfaces, applying Euler angles in corresponding transformations.
Euler’s studies of the geodesic lines on a surface are prominent in differential geometry; the problem was pointed out to him by Johann Bernoulli (1732, 1736, and later). But still more important were his pioneer investigations in the theory of surfaces, from which Monge and other geometers later proceeded. In 1763 Euler made the first substantial advance in the study of the curvature of surfaces; in particular, he expressed the curvature of an arbitrary normal section by principal curvatures (1767). He went on to study developable surfaces, introducing Gaussian coordinates (1772), which became widely used in the nineteenth century. In a note written about 1770 but not published until 1862 Euler discovered the necessary condition for applicability of surfaces that was independently established by Gauss (1828). In 1775 Euler successfully renewed elaboration of the general theory of space curves (1786), beginning where Clairaut had left off in 1731.
Euler was also the author of the first studies on topology. In 1735 he gave a solution to the problem of the seven bridges of Königsberg: the bridges, spanning several arms of a river, must all be crossed without recrossing any (1741). In a letter to Goldbach (1750), he cited (1758) a number of properties of polyhedra, among them the following: the number of vertices, S, edges, A, and sides, H, of a polyhedron are connected by an equality S - A + H = 2. A hundred years later it was discovered that the theorem had been known to Descartes. The Euler characteristic S - A + H and its generalization for multidimensional complexes as given by H. Poincaré is one of the principal invariants of modern topology.
Mechanics . In an introduction to the Mechanica (1736) Euler outlined a large program of studies embracing every branch of the science. The distinguishing feature of Euler’s investigations in mechanics as compared to those of his predecessors is the systematic and successful application of analysis. Previously the methods of mechanics had been mostly synthetic and geometrical; they demanded too individual an approach to separate problems. Euler was the first to appreciate the importance of introducing uniform analytic methods into mechanics, thus enabling its problems to be solved in a clear and direct way. Euler’s concept is manifest in both the introduction and the very title of the book, Mechanica sine motus scientia analytice exposita.
This first large work on mechanics was devoted to the kinematics and dynamics of a point-mass. The first volume deals with the free motion of a point-mass in a vacuum and in a resisting medium; the section on the motion of a point-mass under a force directed to a fixed center is a brilliant analytical reformulation of the corresponding section of Newton’s Principia; it was sort of an introduction to Euler’s further works on celestial mechanics. In the second volume, Euler studied the constrained motion of a point-mass; he obtained three equations of motion in space by projecting forces on the axes of a moving trihedral of a trajectory described by a moving point, i.e., on the tangent, principal normal, and binormal. Motion in the plane is considered analogously. In the chapter on the motion of a point on a given surface, Euler solved a number of problems of the differential geometry of surfaces and of the theory of geodesics.
The Theoria motus corporum solidorum19 published almost thirty years later (1765), is related to the Mechanica. In the introduction to this work, Euler gave a new exposition of punctual mechanics and followed Maclaurin’s example (1742) in projecting the forces onto the axes of a fixed orthogonal rectilinear system. Establishing that the instantaneous motion of a solid body might be regarded as composed of rectilinear translation and instant rotation, Euler devoted special attention to the study of rotatory motion. Thus, he gave formulas for projections of instantaneous angular velocity on the axes of coordinates (with application of Euler angles), and framed dynamical differential equations referred to the principal axes of inertia, which determine this motion. Special mention should be made of the problem of motion of a heavy solid body about a fixed point, which Euler solved for a case in which the center of gravity coincides with the fixed point. The law of motion in such a case is, generally speaking, expressed by means of elliptic integrals. Euler was led to this problem by the study of precession of the equinoxes and of the nutation of the terrestrial axis (175l). 33 Other cases in which the differential equations of this problem can be integrated were discovered by Lagrange (1788) and S. V. Kovalevskaya (1888). Euler considered problems of the mechanics of solid bodies as early as the first St. Petersburg period.
In one of the two appendixes to the Methodus...13 Euler suggested a formulation of the principle of least action for the case of the motion of a point under a central force: the trajectory described by the point minimizes the integral f mu ds. Maupertuis had stated at nearly the same time the principle of least action in a much more particular form. Euler thus laid the mathematical foundation of the numerous studies on variational principles of mechanics and physics which are still being carried out.
In the other appendix to the Methodus, Euler, at the insistence of Daniel Bernoulli, applied the calculus of variations to some problems of the theory of elasticity, which he had been intensively elaborating since 1727. In this appendix, which was in fact the first general work on the mathematical theory of elasticity, Euler studied bending and vibrations of elastic bands (either homogeneous or nonhomogeneous) and of a plate under different conditions; considered nine types of elastic curves; and deduced the famous Euler buckling formula, or Euler critical load, used to determine the strength of columns.
Hydromechanics . Euler’s first large work on fluid mechanics was Scientia novalis. Volume I contains a general theory of equilibrium of floating bodies including an original elaboration of problems of stability and of small oscillations in the neighborhood of an equilibrium position. The second volume applies general theorems to the case of a ship.
From 1753 to 1755 Euler elaborated in detail an analytical theory of fluid mechanics in three classic memoirs—“Principes généraux de l’état d’équilibre des fluides” “Principes généraux du mouvement des fluides”; and “Continuation des recherches sur la théorie du mouvement des fluides”—all published simultaneously (1757). 34 Somewhat earlier (1752) the “Principia motus fluidorum” was written; it was not published, however, until 176l. 35 Here a system of principal formulas of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics was for the first time created; it comprised the continuity equation for liquids with constant density; the velocity-potential equation (usually called after Laplace); and the general Euler equations for the motion of an incompressible liquid, gas, etc. As has generally been the case in mathematical physics, the main innovations were in the application of partial differential equations to the problems. At the beginning of the “Continuation des recherches” Euler emphasized that he had reduced the whole of the theory of liquids to two analytic equations and added:
However sublime are the researches on fluids which we owe to the Messrs. Bernoulli, Clairaut and d’Alembert, they flow so naturally from my two general formulae that one cannot sufficiently admire this accord of their profound meditations with the simplicity of the principles from which I have drawn my two equations, and to which I was led immediately by the first axioms of mechanics. 36
Euler also investigated a number of concrete problems on the motion of liquids and gases in pipes, on vibration of air in pipes, and on propagation of sound. Along with this, he worked on problems of hydrotechnology, discussed, in part, above. Especially remarkable were the improvements he introduced into the design of a hydraulic machine imagined by Segner in 1749 and the theory of hydraulic turbines, which he created in accordance with the principle of action and reaction (1752–1761). 37
Astronomy . Euler’s studies in astronomy embraced a great variety of problems: determination of the orbits of comets and planets by a few observations, methods of calculation of the parallax of the sun, the theory of refraction, considerations on the physical nature of comets, and the problem of retardation of planetary motions under the action of cosmic ether. His most outstanding works, for which he won many prizes from the Paris Académie des Sciences, are concerned with celestial mechanics, which especially attracted scientists at that time.
The observed motions of the planets, particularly of Jupiter and Saturn, as well as the moon, were evidently different from the calculated motions based on Newton’s theory of gravitation. Thus, the calculations of Clairaut and d’Alembert (1745) gave the value of eighteen years for the period of revolution of the lunar perigee, whereas observations showed this value to be nine years. This caused doubts about the validity of Newton’s system as a whole. For a long time Euler joined these scientists in thinking that the law of gravitation needed some corrections. In 1749 Clairaut established that the difference between theory and observation was due to the fact that he and others solving the corresponding differential equation had restricted themselves to the first approximation. When he calculated the second approximation, it was satisfactorily in accordance with the observed data. Euler did not at once agree. To put his doubts at rest, he advised the St. Petersburg Academy to announce a competition on the subject. Euler soon determined that Clairaut was right, and on Euler’s recommendation his composition received the prize of the Academy (1752). Euler was still not completely satisfied, however. In 1751 he had written his own Theoria motus lunae exhibens omnes ejus inaequalitates (published in 1753), in which he elaborated an original method of approximate solution to the three-body problem, the so-called first Euler lunar theory. In the appendix he described another method which was the earliest form of the general method of variation of elements. Euler’s numerical results also conformed to Newton’s theory of gravitation.
The first Euler lunar theory had an important practical consequence: T. Mayer, an astronomer from Göttingen, compiled, according to its formulas, lunar tables (1755) that enabled the calculation of the position of the moon and thus the longitude of a ship with an exactness previously unknown in navigation. The British Parliament had announced as early as 1714 a large cash prize for the method of determination of longitude at sea with error not to exceed half a degree, and smaller prizes for less exact methods. The prize was not awarded until 1765; £ 3,000 went to Mayer’s widow and £300 to Euler for his preliminary theoretical work. Simultaneously a large prize was awarded to J. Harrison for his construction of a more nearly perfect chronometer. Lunar tables were included in all nautical almanacs after 1767, and the method was used for about a century.
From 1770 to 1772 Euler elaborated his second theory of lunar motion, which he published in the Theoria motuum lunae, nova methodo pertractata (1772).24 For various reasons, the merits of the new method could be correctly appreciated only after G. W. Hill brilliantly developed the ideas of the composition in 1877-1888.
Euler devoted numerous works to the calculation of perturbations of planetary orbits caused by the mutual gravitation of Jupiter and Saturn (1749, 1769) as well as of the earth and the other planets (1771). He continued these studies almost to his death.
Physics . Euler’s principal contribution to physics consisted in mathematical elaboration of the problems discussed above. He touched upon various physical problems which would not yield to mathematical analysis at that time. He aspired to create a uniform picture of the physical world. He had been, as pointed out earlier, closer to Cartesian natural philosophy than to Newtonian, although he was not a direct representative of Cartesianism. Rejecting the notion of empty space and the possibility of action at a distance, he thought that the universe is filled up with ether—a thin elastic matter with extremely low density, like super-rarified air. This ether contains material particles whose main property is impenetrability. Euler thought it possible to explain the diversity of the observed phenomena (including electricity, light, gravitation, and even the principle of least action) by the hypothetical mechanical properties of ether. He also had to introduce magnetic whirls into the doctrine of magnetism; these are even thinner and move more quickly than ether.
In physics Euler built up many artificial models and hypotheses which were short-lived. But his main concept of the unity of the forces of nature acting deterministically in some medium proved to be important for the development of physics, owing especially to Lettres à une princesse d’Allemagne. Thus, his views on the nature of electricity were the prototype of the theory of electric and magnetic fields of Faraday and Maxwell. His theory of ether influenced Riemann.
Euler’s works on optics were widely known and important in the physics of the eighteenth century. Rejecting the dominant corpuscular theory of light, he constructed his own theory in which he attributed the cause of light to peculiar oscillations of ether. His Nova theoria lucis et colorum(1746) 38 explained some, but not all, phenomena. Proceeding from certain analogies that later proved incorrect, Euler concluded that the elimination of chromatic aberration of optic lenses was possible (1747); he conducted experiments with lenses filled with water to confirm the conclusion. This provoked objections by the English optician Dollond, who, following Newton, held that dispersion was inevitable. The result of this polemic, in which both parties were partly right and partly wrong, was the creation by Dollond of achromatic telescopes (1757), a turning point in optical technology. For his part, Euler, in his Dioptrica, laid the foundations of the calculation of optical systems.
NOTES
All works cited are listed in the BIBLIOGRAPHY. References to Euler’s Opera omnia(see [1] in BIBLIOGRAPHY) include series and volume number.
1. 20, p. 75
30. See 17.
31. Condorcet’s éloge was first published in Histoire de l’Académie royale des sciences pour l’année 1783 (Paris, 1786), pp. 37-68. It is reprinted in 1, 3rd ser., XII, 287-310.
32. See 50, chs.1-2.
33. “Recherches sur la précession des équinoxes et sur la nutation de l’axe de la terre.” See 1, 2nd ser., XXIX, 92-123.
34. See 1, 2nd ser., XII, 2-132.
35. See 1, 2nd ser., XII, 133-168.
36. See 1, 2nd ser., XII, 92, for the original French.
37. See 1, 2nd ser., XV, pt. 1, 1-39, 80-104, 157-218.
38. See 1, 3rd ser., V, 1-45.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Original Works. Euler wrote and published more than any other mathematician. During his lifetime about 560 books and articles appeared, and he once remarked to Count Orlov that he would leave enough memories to fill the pages of publications of the St. Petersburg Academy for twenty years after his death. Actually the publication of his literary legacy lasted until 1862. N. Fuss published about 220 works, and then the work was carried on by V. Y. Buniakovsky, P. L. Chebyshev, and P.-H. Fuss. Other works were found still later. The list compiled by Eneström (25) includes 856 titles and 31 works by J.-A. Euler, all written under the supervision of his father.
Euler’s enormous correspondence (approximately 300 addressees), which he conducted from 1726 until his death, has been only partly published. For an almost complete description, with summaries and indexes, see (37) below. For his correspondence with Johann I Bernoulli, see (2) and (3); with Nikolaus I Bernoulli (2) and (4); with Daniel Bernoulli (2) and (3); with C. Goldbach (2) and (5); with J.-N. Delisle (6); with Clairaut (7); with d’Alembert (3) and (8); with T. Mayer (9); with Lagrange (10); with J.H. Lambert (11); with M. V. Lomonosov (12); with G. F. Müller (13); with J. D. Schumacher (13); with King Stanislas II (14); and with various others (15).
Euler’s complete works are in the course of publication in a collection that has been destined from the outset to become one of the monuments of modern scholarship in the historiography of science: Leonhardi Euleri Opera omnia (Berlin-Göttingen-Leipzig-Heidelberg, 1911-). The Opera omnia is limited for the most part to republishing works that Euler himself prepared for the press. All texts appear in the original language of publication. Each volume is edited by a modern expert in the science it concerns, and many of the introductions constitute full histories of the relevant branch of science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Several volumes are in course of preparation. The work is organized in three series. The first series (Opera mathematica) comprises 29 vols. and is complete. The second series (Opera mechanica et astronomica) is to comprise 31 vols. and still lacks vols. XVI, XVII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXIV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXXI. The third series (Opera physica, Miscellanea, Epistolae) is to comprise 12 vols. and still lacks vols. IX and X. Euler’s correspondence is not included in this edition.
2. P.-H. Fuss, ed., Correspondance mathématique et physique de quelques célèbres géomètres du XVIIIe siécle, 2 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1843). See vol. I for correspondence with Goldbach. For correspondence with Johann I Bernoulli, see II, 1-93; with Nikolaus I Bernoulli, II, 679-713; and with Daniel Bernoulli, II, 407-665.
3. G. Eneström, ed., Bibliotheca mathematica, 3rd ser., 4 (1903), 344-388; 5 (1904), 248-291; and 6 (1905), 16-87; for correspondence with Johann I Bernoulli. For Euler’s correspondence with Daniel Bernoulli, see 7 (1906-1907); 126-156. See 11 (1911), 223-226, for correspondence with d’Alembert.
4. Opera postuma, I (St. Petersburg, 1862), 519-549.
5. A.P. Youschkevitch and E. Winter, eds., Leonhard Euler und Christian Goldbach. Briefwechsel 1729–1764 (Berlin, 1965).
6. A. T. Grigorian, A. P. Youschkevitch, et. al., eds., Russko-frantsuskie nauchnye svyazi (Leningrad, 1968), pp. 119-279.
7. G. Bigourdan, ed., “Lettres inédites d’Euler à Clairaut,” in Comptes rendus du Congrès des sociétés savantes, 1928 (Paris, 1930), pp. 26-40.
8.Bullettino di bibliografia e di storia delle scienze matematiche e fisiche, 19 (1886), 136-148.
9. Y. K. Kopelevich and E. Forbs, eds., Istorikoastronomicheskie issledovania, V (1959), 271-444; X (1969), 285-308.
10. J. L. Lagrange, Oeuvres, J. A. Serret and G. Darboux, eds., XIV (Paris, 1892), 135-245.
11. K. Bopp, “Eulers und J.-H. Lamberts Briefwechsel,” in Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (1924), 7-37.
12. M. V. Lomonosov, Sochinenia, VIII (Moscow-Leningrad, 1948); and Polnoe sobranie sochineny, X (Moscow-Leningrad, 1957).
13. A. P. Youschkevitch, E. Winter, et. al., eds., Die Berliner und die Petersburger Akademie der Wissenschaften im Briefwechsel Leonhard Eulers, 2 vols. See vol. I (Berlin, 1959) for letters to G.F. Müller; vol. II (Berlin, 1961) for letters to Nartov, Schumacher, Teplov, and others.
14. T. K∤ado and R. W. Wo∤oszyński, eds., “Korrespondencja Stanis∤awa Augusta z Leonardem Eulerem...” in Studia i materia∤y z dziejów nauki polskiej, ser. C, no. 10 (Warsaw, 1965), pp. 3-41.
15. V.I. Smirnov et. al., eds., Leonard Euler. Pisma k uchenym (Moscow-Leningrad, 1963). Contains letters to Bailly, Bülfinger, Bonnet, C. L. Ehler, C. Wolff, and others.
II. Secondary Literature.
16. J. W. Herzog, Adumbratio eruditorum basilensium meritis apud exteros olim hodieque celebrium (Basel, 1778), pp. 32-60.
17. N. Fuss, Éloge de Monsieur Léonard Euler (St. Petersburg, 1783). A German trans. of this is in (1), 1st ser., I, xliii-xcv.
18. Marquis de Condorcet, Éloge de M. Euler, in Histoire de l’Académie royale des sciences pour l’année 1783 (Paris, 1786), pp. 37-68.
19. R. Wolf, Biographien zur Kulturgeschichte der Schweiz, IV (Zurich, 1862), 87-134.
20. P. Pekarski, “Ekaterina II i Eyler,” in Zapiski imperatorskoi akademii nauk, 6 (1865), 59-92.
21. P. Pekarski, Istoria imperatorskoi akademii nauk v Peterburge, 1 (1870), 247–308, See also index.
22. M. I. Sukhomlinov, ed., Materialy dlya istorii imperatorskoi akademii nauk, 1716-1760 10 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1885-1900). See indexes.
23. Protokoly zasedany konferentsii imperatorskoi akademii nauk s 1725 po 1803 god, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1897-1911). See indexes.
24. A. Harnack, Geschichte der königlichen preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, I-III (Berlin, 1900).
25. G. Eneström, “verzeichnis der Schriften Leonhard Eulers,” in Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematikervereinigung, Ergänzungsband 4 (Leipzig, 1910-1913). An important BIBLIOGRAPHY of Euler’s works in three parts, listed in order of date of publication, in order of date of composition, and by subject. The first part is reprinted in (35), I, 352-386.
26. O. Spiess, Leonhard Euler. Ein Beitrag zur Geistes-geschichte des XVIII. Jahrhunderts (Frauenfeld-Leipzig, 1929).
27. G. Du Pasquier, Léonard Euler et ses amis (Paris, 127)
28. W. Stieda, Die Übersiedlung Léonhard Eulers von Berlin nach Petersburg (Leipzing, 1931).
29. W. Stieda, J.A. Euler in seinen Briefen, 1766-1790 (Leipzig, 1932).
30. A. Speiser, Die Basler Mathematiker (Basel, 1939).
31. E. Fueter, Geschichte der exakten Wissenschaften in der Schweizerischen Aufklärung, 1680-1780 (Aarau, 1941).
32. Karl Euler, Das Geschlecht Euler-Schölpi. Geschichte einer alien Familie (Giessen, 1955).
33. E. and M. Winter, eds., Die Registres der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1746-1766. Dokumente für das Wirken Leonhard Eulers in Berlin (Berlin, 1957). With an intro. by E. Winter.
34. Istoria akademii nauk SSSR, I (Moscow-Leningrad, 1958). See index.
35. Y.K. Kopelevich, M. V. Krutikova, G. M. Mikhailov, and N. M. Raskin, eds., Rukopisnye materialy Leonarda Eylera v arkhive akademii nauk SSR, 2 vols. (Moscow–Leningrad, 1962–1965). Vol. I contains an index of Euler’s scientific papers, an index of official and personal documents, summaries of proceedings of conferences of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg with respect to Euler’s activities, an index of Euler’s correspondence, a reedited version of the first part of (24), and many valuable indexes. Vol. II contains 12 of Euler’s papers on mechanics published for the first time. See especially I, 120-228.
36. G. K. Mikhailov, “K pereezdu Leonarda Eylera v Peterburg” “On Leonhard Euler’s Removal to St. Petersburg,” in Izvestiya Akademii nauk SSSR. Otdelenie tekhnicheskikh nauk, no. 3 (1957), 10-38.
37. V.I. Smirnov and A. P. Youschkevitch, eds., Leonard Eyler. Perepiska. Annotirovannye ukazateli (Leningrad, 1967).
38. F. Dannemann, Die Naturwissenschaften in ihrer Entwicklung und in ihrem Zusammenhänge II-III (Leipzig, 1921). See indexes.
39. R. Taton, ed., Histoire générale des sciences, II (Paris, 1958). See index.
40. I. Y. Timchenko, Osnovania teorii analiticheskikh funktsy. Chast I. Istoricheskie svedenia (Odessa, 1899).
41. M. Cantor, Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik, III-IV (Leipzig, 1898-1908). See indexes.
42. H. Wieleitner, Geschichte der Mathematik, II (Berlin-Leipzig, 1911-1921). See indexes.
43. D.J. Struik, A Concise History of Mathematics, 2 vols. (New York, 1948; 2nd ed., London, 1956).
44. J. E. Hofmann, Geschichte der Mathematik, pt. 3 (Berlin, 1957). See index.
45. A. P. Youschkevitch, Istoria matematika v Rossii do 1917 goda (Moscow, 1968). See index.
46. Carl B. Boyer, A History of Mathematics (New York, 1968).
47. L.E. Dickson, History of the Theory of Numbers, 3 vols. (Washington, 1919–1927; 2nd ed., 1934). See indexes.
48. D. J. Struik, “Outline of a History of Differential Geometry,” in Isis, 19 (1933), 92-120; 20 (1933), 161-191.
49. J. L. Coolidge, A History of Geometrical Methods (Oxford, 1940).
50. G. H. Hardy, Divergent Series (Oxford, 1949).
51. A. I. Markuschevitsch, Skizzen zur Geschichte der analytischen Funktionen (Berlin, 1955)
52. Carl B. Boyer, History of Analytic Geometry (New York, 1956). See index.
53. N. I. Simonov, Prikladnye metody analiza u Eylera (Moscow, 1957).
54. A. T. Grigorian, Ocherki istorii mekhaniki v Rossii (Moscow, 1961).
55. C. Truesdell, “The Rational Mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies”, in (1), 2nd ser., XI, pt. 2.
57. A. P. Mandryka, Istoria ballistiki (Moscow-Lenigrad, 1964).
58. N.V. Bogolyubov, Istoria mekhaniki mashin (Kiev, 1964).
59. F. Rosenberger, Die Geschichte der Physik in Grundzügen II (Brunswick, 1884). See index.
60. V. F. Gnucheva, Geografichesky departament akademii nauk XVIII veka (Moscow-Lenigrad, 1946).
61. E. Hoppe, Die Philosophie Leonhard Eulers(Gotha, 1904).
62. A. Speiser, Leonhard Euler und die deutsche Philosophie (Zurich, 1934).
63. G. Kröber, L. Euler. Briefe an eine deutsche Prinzessin. Philosophische Auswahl (Leipzig, 1965), pp. 5-26. See also intro.
Many important essays on Euler’s life, activity, and work are in the following five memorial volumes.
64. Festschrift zur Feier 200. Geburtstages Leonhard Eulers (Leipzig-Berlin, 1907), a publication of the Berliner Mathematische Gesellschaft.
65. A. M. Deborin, ed., Leonard Eyler, 1707–1783 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1935).
66. E. Winter, et. al., eds., Die deutsch-russische Begegnung und Leonhard Euler.... (Berlin, 1958).
67. M. A. Lavrentiev, A. P. Youschkevitch, and A. T. Grigorian, eds., Leonard Eyler. Sbornik statey (Moscow, 1958). See especially pp. 268-375 and 377-413 for articles on Euler’s work in astronomy and his physical concepts.
68. K. Schröder, ed., Sammelband der zu Ehren des 250. Geburtstages Leonhard Eulers... vorgelegten Abhandlungen (Berlin, 1959).
69. Istoriko-matematicheskie issledovania (Moscow, 1949-1969). For articles on Euler, see II, V-VII, X, XII, XIII, XVI, and XVII.
70. G. K. Mikhailov, “Leonard Eyler”, in Izvestiya akademii nauk SSSR. Otdelenie teknicheskikh nauk, no. 1 (1955), 3-26, with extensive BIBLIOGRAPHY.
A. P. Youschkevitch
(b. Marbach, near Stuttgart, Germany, 17 February 1723; d. Göttingen, Germany, 20 February 1762).
cartography, astronomy.
Mayer was the son of a cartwright, also named Johann Tobias Mayer, and his second wife, Maria Catherina Finken. In 1723 the father left his trade and went to work as the foreman of a well-digging crew in the nearby town of Esslingen, where his family joined him the Following year. After his father’s death in 1737 Mayer was taken into the tocal orphanage, while his mother found employment in St. Katharine’s Hospital, where she remained until her death in 1737. It was probably through her occupation that Mayer found the opportunity to make architectural drawings of the hospital, as he did when he was barely fourteen years old. There is some evidence to indicate that he was encouraged in his draftmanship by Gottlieb David Kandler, a shoemaker who was subsequently responsible for the education of orphans in Esslingen.
Mayer’s skill in architectural drawings also brought him to the attention of a certain Geiger, a noncommissioned officer in the Swabian district artillery, which was then garrisoned in Esslingen. Under Geiger’s instruction, Mayer, in early 1739, prepared a book of plans and drawings of military fortifications. Later in the same year he drew a map of Esslingen and its surroundings (the oldest still extant), which was reproduced as a copper engraving by Gabriel Bodenehr of Augsburg in 1741.
Mayer’s first book, written on the occasion of his eighteenth birthday, was published at about this same time. It was devoted to the application of analytic methods to the solution of geometrical problems, and m its preface Mayer acknowledged his debt to Christian son Woff’s Anfangs-Grünlc aller mathematischen hen Wisscnschatften, through which he had taught himself mathematics, a subject not included in the curriculum of the Esslingen Latin school, which he attended. The influence of Wolff’s compendium is again apparent in the arrangement and content of Mayer’s Mathematischer Atlas of 1745; the sixty plates of the latter work duplicate Wolff’s choice of subjects—arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, and anal v sis, as applied to mechanics, optics, astronomy, geography, chronotogy, gnomonics, pyrotechnics, and military and civil architecture. This atlas, published in Augsburg by the firm of Johann Andreas Pfeffel for which Mayer worked during his brief stay there (from 1744 to 1746), provides a good index to the extent of his scientific and technical knowledge at that period. It was probably in Augsburg that he acquired much of his knowledge of French, Italian, and English. He also became acquainted with a tocal mechanic and optician, G. F. Brander.
Mayer left Augsburg to take up a post with the Homann Cartographic Bureau in Nuremberg. He spent live years there, which he devoted primarily to improving the state of cartography. To this end he collated geographical and astronomical data from the numerous printed and manuscript records to which the Homann office permitted him access. He also made personal observations of lunar occul unions and other astronomical eclipse phenomena, using a nine-foot-focus telescope and a glass micrometer of his own design. Of more than thirty maps that he drew, the “mappa critica” of Germany is generally considered to be the most significant, since it established a new standard for the rigorous handling of geographical source materials and for the application of accurate astronomical methods in finding terrestrial latitude and longitude.
In order to facilitate the lunar eclipse method of longitude determination, Mayer in 1747 and 1748 made a large number of micrometric measurements of the angular diameter of the moon and of the times of its meridian transits, In his determinations of the selenographic coordinates of eighty-nine prominent lunar markings, he took account of the irregularity of the orbital and libratory motions of the moon and of the effect of its variable parallax. In addition his analysis correctly—although fortuitously—reduced twenty-seven conditional equations to three “normal” ones, a procedure that had never before been attempted, and one for which a theory had still be developed.
Mayer was the editor of the Kosmographische Nachrichten und Sammlungen auf das Jahr 1748, which was published in Nuremberg in 1750, under the auspices of the newly established Cosmographical Society. The work contains Mayer’s own description of his glass micrometer, his observations of the solar eclipse of 25 July 1748 and the occultations of a number of bright stars, his long treatise on the libration of the moon, and his argument as to why the moon cannot possess an atmosphere. The Cosmographical Society itself, founded by Johann Michael Franz, director of the Homann firm, was crucial in determining the nature, scope, and, to some degree, motivation of Mayer’s subsequent scientific research. The aims of the mathematical class of the society, to which Mayer betonged, as set out by Franz in the preface to the Homannisch-Haseschen Gesellschafts Atlas (Nuremberg, 1747), define much of Mayer’s later work.
In November 1750 Mayer was called to a professorship at the Georg-August Academy in Göttingen, a post that he took up after Faster of the Following year. Shortly before he left Nuremberg he married Maria Victoria Gnüge; of their eight children, two. Johann Tobias and Georg Moritz lived to maturity. Mayer’s academic title, professor of economy, was purely nominal, since his actual duties were assigned, in his letter of appointment, as the teaching of practical (that is, applied) mathematics and research. His reputation as a cartographer and practical astronomer had preceded him, and was indeed the basis for his selection as professor.
Mayer’s chief scientific concerns at this time were the investigation of astronomical refraction and lunar theory. In 1752 he drew up new lunar and solar tables, in which he attained an accuracy of ±,’an achievement attributable to his skillful use of observational data, rather than to the originality of his theory or the superiority of his instruments, Mayer subsequently undertook an investigation of the celestial positions of the moon at conjunction and opposition; he compared the values that he obtained with those derivable from a systematic study of all lunar and solar eclipses reported since the invention of the astronomical telescope and the pendulum clock. His results led him to recognize that the discrepancies of up to ±5’ that he and his contemporaries had found were due largely to errors in the determination of star places and to the poor quality of their instruments.
Mayer’s further astronomical researches consequently included the problem of the elimination of errors from a six-foot-radius mural quadrant made in 1755 by John Bird for installation in Mayer’s newly completed observatory in Göttingen; the invention of a simple and accurate method for computing solar eclipses; the compilation of a catalogue of zodiacal stars; and the investigation of stellar proper motions. He wrote treatises on each of these topics that were published posthumously in Georg Christoph Lichtenberg’s Opera inedita Tobiae Mayeri (Göttingen, 1775). This work also contains a treatise on the problem of accurately defining thermometric changes (an extension of Mayer’s research on astronomical refraction) and another on a mathematical theory of color mixing (a topic that Mayer may have taken up in response to the need of the Homann firm, part of which had been transferred to Göttingen in 1755, to train unskilled workers in the accurate reproduction of maps). Appended to Lichtenberg’s book, in accordance with one of Mayer’s last wishes, is a copper engraving of Mayer’s map of the moon; the original map and the forty detailed drawings from which it was constructed were also reproduced by photolithography more than a century later.
Others of Mayer’s treatises, lecture notes, and correspondence have been neglected since their deposit, shortly after his death, in the Göttingen observatory archives, although abstracts of some of his lectures to the Göttingen Scientific Society were printed in the Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen between 1752 and 1762. His researches during these years included his efforts to improve the art of land measurement, for which purpose he invented a new goniometer and explored the application of the repeating principle of angle measurement, developed a new projective method for finding the areas of irregularly shaped fields, and transformed the common astrolabe into a precision instrument. He further applied the repeating principle to an instrument of his own invention, the repeating circle, which proved to be of use not only for the sea navigation for which it had been designed but also for making standard trigonometrical land surveys. (The instrument used by Delambre and Méchain in their determination of the standard meter was a variant, designed by Borda, of the Mayer circle.)
Mayer also undertook to devise a method for finding geographical coordinates independently of astronomical observations. In so doing he arrived at a new theory of the magnet, based, like his lunar theory, on the principles of Newtonian mechanics. This theory represented a convincing demonstration of the validity of the inverse-square law of magnetic attraction and repulsion, and antedated Coulomb’s well-known verification of that law by some twenty five years. Mayer’s manuscripts on this theory and on its application to the calculation of the variation and dip of a magnetic needle are among those that went virtually unnoticed after his death.
In 1763 Mayer’s widow, acting upon another of his last requests, submitted to the British admiralty his Theoria lunae juxta systema Newtonianum, which contained the derivations of the equations upon which his lunar theory was based, and his Tabulae motuum solis et lunae novae et correctae, which were published in London in 1767 and 1770, respectively. The tables were edited by Maskelyne, and printed under his direct supervision; they were used to compute the lunar and solar ephemerides for the early editions of the Nautical Almanac. (They were superseded a decade later by tables employing essentially the same principles, but based upon the newer and more accurate observational data that were gradually being assembled at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich.) In 1765 the British parliament authorized Maria Mayer to receive an award of £3,000, in recognition of her husband’s claim, lodged ten years before, for one of the prizes offered to “any Person or Persons as shall Discover the Longitude at Sea.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A comprehensive list of Mayer’s publications is given in Poggendoriff, II, 91, the sole omission being his article “Versuch einer Erklärung des Erdbebens,” in Hannoverischen nüzlichen Sammlungen (1756), 290–296.
Mayer’s scientific work is discussed by his official biographer, Siegmund Günther, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, XXI (1885), 109–116. His correspondence with Euler between 1751 and 1755, a valuable primary source of information about the former’s contributions to the lunar theory, is in E. G. Forbes, ed., The Euler-Mayer Correspondence (1751–1755) (London, 1971).
The bulk of MS material relating to Mayer is preserved in Göttingen. The official classification of these papers is contained in the Verzeichniss der Handschriften im Preussischen Staate I Hannover 3 Göttingen, III (Berlin, 1894), 154–158. The title “Tobias Mayer’s Nachlass, aufbewahrt in der K. Sternwarte” no longer applies, since the 70 items catalogued in this index were transferred to the Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitäts-Bibliothek, Gä’ttingen, during the summer of 1965. In this same repository there is a booklet entitled “Briefe von und an J. Tobias Mayer,” Cod. MS philos. 159. Cod. MS philos. 157 and Cod. MS Michaelis 320 are two other items worth consulting. Personalakte Tobias Mayer 4│Vb 18, and 4│Vf│1–4 are preserved in the Dekanate und Universitäte-Archiv, Göttingen. Some additional items of minor importance are also in the archives of the Göttingen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
The only significant MS collection outside Göttingen is “Betreffend der von Seiten des Prof. Tobias Mayer in Göttingen gelöste englische Preisfrage üher die Bestimmung der Longitudo maris. 1754–1765,” Hannover Des. 92 xxxiv no. II, 4, á, Staatsarchiv, Hannover, A few document relating to the payment of the parliamentary award to Mayer’s widow are in vol. I of the Board of Longitude papers at the Royal Greenwich Observatory (P.R.O. Ref. 529, pp. 143–155).
E. G. Forbes, ed., The Unpublished Writings of Tobias Mayer, 3 vols. (Göttingen, 1972), contains Mayer’s writings on astronomy and geography, his lecture notes on artillery and mechanics, and his theory of the magnet and its application to terrestrial magnetism.
Mayer’s role in the development of navigation and his dealings with the British Admiralty and Board of Longitude are discussed in E. G. Forbes, The Birth of Scientific Navigation (London, 1973).
Eric G. Forbes
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i don't know
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The green gemstone peridot is known in its mineral form by what edible coloured/colored name?
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Guide to Common Green and Greenish Minerals
• Actinolite
A shiny medium-green mineral with many long, thin crystals is likely to be actinolite. Look for it exclusively in metamorphic rocks , where it forms crystals in marble or is disseminated in greenstone . Its color is from iron; the white variety without iron is tremolite. Luster glassy to pearly; hardness 5–6. More »
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Chlorite specimen. Chlorite specimen Andrew Alden photo
• Chlorite
It's the most widespread green mineral, but one you may never see by itself. In microscopic form, chlorite gives a dull olive-green color to a wide range of metamorphic rocks from slate and phyllite to schist . It is also found in small spots or masses in which it displays a flaky structure like that of a mica mineral , but it gleams rather than sparkles and doesn't split into flexible sheets. Luster pearly; hardness 2–2½. More »
Typical epidote. Typical epidote Andrew Alden photo
• Epidote
Epidote is common in medium-grade metamorphic rocks as well as late-stage igneous rocks such as pegmatites . It's typically a pistachio or avocado green when it occurs in the massive form—crystals have a wider color range. Luster dull to pearly; hardness 6–7. More »
Glauconite in greensand. Glauconite in greensand Ron Schott (Flickr CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
• Glauconite
This is the usual green mineral found in greenish marine sandstones and the gardening amendment known as greensand. It's a mica mineral , but because it forms by alteration of other micas it never makes crystals. You'll generally see it in the form of a blue-green color rather than a separate mineral. Luster dull; hardness 2. More »
• Jade (Jadeite/Nephrite)
Few minerals excite the rockhound like jade, but it can be hard to distinguish. Two minerals , jadeite and nephrite, are recognized as true jade. Both occur where serpentinite is found but form at higher pressures and temperatures. Nephrite (a microcrystalline form of actinolite ) has a hardness of 5–6; jadeite (a sodium pyroxene mineral ) has a hardness of 6½–7. More »
Olivine in Hawaiian basalt. Olivine in Hawaiian basalt Andrew Alden photo
• Olivine
Dark primary igneous rocks ( basalt , gabbro and so on) are the exclusive home of olivine. It's usually found in small clear olive-green grains and stubby crystals. A rock made entirely of olivine is called dunite . Olivine breaks down at the Earth's surface by chemical weathering . It would rather live deep beneath the Earth's crust, where it is most stable. Olivine gives the rock peridotite its name, peridot being the gem variety of olivine. Luster glassy ; hardness 6½–7. More »
Prehnite balls. Prehnite balls fluor_doublet (Flickr CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
• Prehnite
Rocks metamorphosed by hot-water solutions may have prehnite crusts and botryoidal clusters along with pockets of zeolite minerals . Prehnite has a light "bottle-green" color and is quite translucent. Any rock shop will have prehnite specimens you can learn this mineral from. Luster glassy; hardness 6–6½. More »
High-grade serpentine. High-grade serpentine Andrew Alden photo
• Serpentine
Serpentine is a metamorphic mineral that occurs in some marbles but more often keeps to itself in the distinctive rock serpentinite . It typically occurs in shiny, mottled, streamlined shapes and never in crystals (except sometimes as asbestos fibers). Its color ranges from white to black but is mostly dark olive-green. Serpentine is a sign of high-magnesium (typically deep-sea) lavas that have been thoroughly altered by hydrothermal activity . Luster greasy; hardness 2–5. More »
Mariposite. Mariposite Andrew Alden photo
• Other Green Minerals
Several other minerals are typically green, but they aren't widespread and are quite distinctive. These include chrysocolla , diopside , dioptase , fuchsite , several of the garnets , malachite , phengite , and variscite . You'll see them in rock shops and mineral shows more than in the field.
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Olivine
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What term for a fungal mold derives from an old mistaken idea that it distilled from the air?
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Mineral Properties, Uses and Descriptions
Minerals are the building blocks of our society. We use items made with them every day.
Rock and Mineral Kits
Rock, Mineral and Fossil Collections. Nice kits for personal or classroom use.
Diamond: The Mineral
Diamond is a mineral with unique properties and many gem and industrial uses!
Olivine
Olivine - Abundant in Earth*s mantle. A constituent of meteorites. The gem peridot.
Topaz
Topaz is a mineral best known as a durable gemstone and its use in Mohs Hardness Scale.
Fluorescent Minerals
Fluorescent Minerals glow with spectacular colors under ultraviolet light.
Calcite
Calcite is a carbonate mineral with industrial, agricultural, medical and many other uses.
Quartz
Quartz is the most abundant mineral in the crust. It has many useful properties.
Diamonds from Coal?
Diamonds Do Not Form From Coal That is one of the biggest misconceptions in science.
Diopside
Diopside - Gem material, ornamental stone, diamond indicator, industrial mineral.
Mineral Identification
Mineral Identification Chart Printable mineral ID chart by Art Crossman in MS Excel format.
Mineral Hardness
Mohs Hardness Scale is a set of reference minerals used for classroom hardness testing.
Zircon
Zircon is the primary ore of zirconium and a gemstone that is available in many colors.
Corundum
Corundum is the third hardest mineral. It is also the mineral of ruby and sapphire.
U.S. Gemstones
United States Gemstones Small mines in the U.S. produce a diversity of gemstones.
Ilmenite
Ilmenite - The primary ore of titanium and source of most titanium dioxide.
Is Water a Mineral?
Are Water and Ice Minerals? Comparing their properties with the definition of a mineral.
Garnet
Garnet is best known as a red gemstone. It occurs in any color and has many industrial uses.
Mineraloids
Mineraloids are amorphous naturally-occurring inorganic solids that lack crystallinity.
Herkimer Diamonds
Herkimer Diamonds Doubly-terminated quartz crystals used as specimens and gems.
Rare Earth Elements
Rare Earth Elements are used in cell phones, DVDs, batteries, magnets & many other products.
Rhodochrosite
Rhodochrosite : a manganese mineral used as an ore, a pink gem and an ornamental stone.
Rhodonite
Rhodonite - a manganese silicate used as a minor ore of manganese and as a gemstone.
Uses of Gold
Gold has unique properties that make it one of the most useful minerals.
Tucson Mineral Show
Tucson Gem & Mineral Show Photos from the largest gem and mineral show.
Benitoite
Benitoite - discovery of the State Gem of California - USGS report from 1911.
Tourmaline
Tourmaline - the most colorful mineral and natural gem material on Earth.
Chalcopyrite
Chalcopyrite - The most important ore of copper for over five thousand years.
Hematite
Hematite - the most important source of iron ore and mineral pigment since prehistory.
The Acid Test
The Acid Test Geologists use dilute hydrochloric acid to identify carbonate minerals.
Rock Tumbling
Rock Tumblers - All about rock tumblers and rock tumbling. Read before you buy a tumbler.
Streak Test
The Streak Test is a method to determine the color of a mineral in powdered form.
Azurite
Azurite - Used as an ore of copper, a pigment, ornamental stone and gem material.
Tumbled Stones
Tumbled Stones are rocks that have been rounded, smoothed and polished in a rock tumbler.
Spodumene
Spodumene is a pegmatite mineral, an ore of lithium and sometimes a gemstone.
Limonite
Limonite - an amorphous iron oxide. An ore of iron and a pigment since prehistory.
Kyanite
Kyanite is a metamorphic mineral used to make porcelain, abrasive products and gems.
Cinnabar
Cinnabar - the only important ore of mercury. Used in pigments until its toxicity was realized.
Colored Glass
Minerals in Colored Glass - Minerals are what produce the color in colored glass.
Serpentine
Serpentine - metamorphic rocks used in construction, architecture and lapidary work.
Snowflakes
How Do Snowflakes Form? They start as tiny crystals. Some grow on the way down.
Denver Mineral Show
Denver Gem and Mineral Show - Photos and comments about this incredible show.
Uses of Silver
Uses of Silver Most people think of jewelry and coins, but silver\'s primary use is industrial.
Olivine Rain
Olivine Rain Spitzer Telescope discovered a rain of olivine crystals on protostar HOPS-68.
Dangerous Mines
Abandoned Mine Accidents kill 20 to 30 per year. Education can prevent many of them.
Hardness Picks
Hardness Picks - Mohs hardness testing with precise and easy-to-use hardness picks.
Fireworks & Minerals
The Science of Fireworks Learn how the colors and shapes are created.
Geology Tools
Geology Tools - Hammers, field bags, hand lenses, maps, hardness picks, gold pans.
Triboluminescence
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i don't know
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What word prefixes the words ball, board, code, core and hearted to make five new words/terms?
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5000 FREE SAT Test Prep Words - 5000 Vocabulary Words FREE
abase v. To lower in position, estimation, or the like; degrade. ← Many vocabulary words, such as degrade, are repeated in definitions for double learning.
abbess n. The lady superior of a nunnery.
abbey n. The group of buildings which collectively form the dwelling-place of a society of monks or nuns. Free SAT prep math notes below vocabulary ↓
abbot n. The superior of a community of monks.
abdicate v. To give up (royal power or the like).
abdomen n. In mammals, the visceral cavity between the diaphragm and the pelvic floor; the belly.
abdominal n. Of, pertaining to, or situated on the abdomen.
abduction n. A carrying away of a person against his will, or illegally.
abed adv. In bed; on a bed.
aberration n. Deviation from a right, customary, or prescribed course.
abet v. To aid, promote, or encourage the commission of (an offense).
abeyance n. A state of suspension or temporary inaction.
abhorrence n. The act of detesting extremely.
abhorrent adj. Very repugnant; hateful.
abidance n. An abiding.
abject adj. Sunk to a low condition.
abjure v. To recant, renounce, repudiate under oath.
able-bodied adj. Competent for physical service.
ablution n. A washing or cleansing, especially of the body.
abnegate v. To renounce (a right or privilege).
abnormal adj. Not conformed to the ordinary rule or standard.
abominable adj. Very hateful.
abominate v. To hate violently.
abomination n. A very detestable act or practice.
aboriginal adj. Primitive; unsophisticated.
aborigines n. The original of earliest known inhabitants of a country.
aboveboard adv. & adj. Without concealment, fraud, or trickery.
abrade v. To wear away the surface or some part of by friction.
abrasion n. That which is rubbed off.
abridge v. To make shorter in words, keeping the essential features, leaning out minor particles.
abridgment n. A condensed form as of a book or play.
abrogate v. To abolish, repeal.
abrupt adj. Beginning, ending, or changing suddenly or with a break.
abscess n. A Collection of pus in a cavity formed within some tissue of the body.
abscission n. The act of cutting off, as in a surgical operation.
abscond v. To depart suddenly and secretly, as for the purpose of escaping arrest.
absence n. The fact of not being present or available.
absent-minded adj. Lacking in attention to immediate surroundings or business.
absolution n. Forgiveness, or passing over of offenses.
absolve v. To free from sin or its penalties.
absorb v. To drink in or suck up, as a sponge absorbs water.
absorption n. The act or process of absorbing.
abstain v. To keep oneself back (from doing or using something).
abstemious adj. Characterized by self denial or abstinence, as in the use of drink, food.
abstinence n. Self denial.
abstruse adj. Dealing with matters difficult to be understood.
absurd adj. Inconsistent with reason or common sense.
abundant adj. Plentiful.
abusive adj. Employing harsh words or ill treatment.
abut v. To touch at the end or boundary line.
abyss n. Bottomless gulf.
academic adj. Of or pertaining to an academy, college, or university.
academician n. A member of an academy of literature, art, or science.
academy n. Any institution where the higher branches of learning are taught.
accede v. To agree.
accelerate v. To move faster.
accept v. To take when offered.
access n. A way of approach or entrance; passage.
accessible adj. Approachable.
accession n. Induction or elevation, as to dignity, office, or government.
accessory n. A person or thing that aids the principal agent.
acclaim v. To utter with a shout.
accommodate v. To furnish something as a kindness or favor.
accompaniment n. A subordinate part or parts, enriching or supporting the leading part.
accompanist n. One who or that which accompanies.
accompany v. To go with, or be associated with, as a companion.
accomplice n. An associate in wrong-doing.
accomplish v. To bring to pass.
accordion n. A portable free-reed musical instrument.
accost v. To speak to.
account n. A record or statement of receipts and expenditures, or of business transactions.
accouter v. To dress.
accredit v. To give credit or authority to.
accumulate v. To become greater in quantity or number.
accuracy n. Exactness.
accurate adj. Conforming exactly to truth or to a standard.
accursed adj. Doomed to evil, misery, or misfortune.
accusation n. A charge of crime, misdemeanor, or error.
accusatory adj. Of, pertaining to, or involving an accusation.
accuse v. To charge with wrong doing, misconduct, or error.
accustom v. To make familiar by use.
acerbity n. Sourness, with bitterness and astringency.
acetate n. A salt of acetic acid.
acetic adj. Of, pertaining to, or of the nature of vinegar.
ache v. To be in pain or distress.
Achillean adj. Invulnerable.
acid n. A sour substance.
acidify v. To change into acid.
acknowledge v. To recognize; to admit the genuineness or validity of.
acknowledgment n. Recognition.
acme n. The highest point, or summit.
acoustic adj. Pertaining to the act or sense of hearing.
acquaint v. To make familiar or conversant.
acquiesce v. To comply; submit.
acquiescence n. Passive consent.
acquire v. To get as one's own.
acquisition n. Anything gained, or made one's own, usually by effort or labor.
acquit v. To free or clear, as from accusation.
acquittal n. A discharge from accusation by judicial action.
acquittance n. Release or discharge from indebtedness, obligation, or responsibility.
acreage n. Quantity or extent of land, especially of cultivated land.
acrid adj. Harshly pungent or bitter.
acrimonious adj. Full of bitterness.
acrimony n. Sharpness or bitterness of speech or temper.
actionable adj. Affording cause for instituting an action, as trespass, slanderous words.
actuality n. Any reality.
actuary n. An officer, as of an insurance company, who calculates and states the risks and premiums.
actuate v. To move or incite to action.
acumen n. Quickness of intellectual insight, or discernment; keenness of discrimination.
acute adj. Having fine and penetrating discernment.
adamant n. Any substance of exceeding hardness or impenetrability.
addendum n. Something added, or to be added.
addle v. To make inefficient or worthless; muddle.
adduce v. To bring forward or name for consideration.
adhere v. To stick fast or together.
adherence n. Attachment.
adherent adj. Clinging or sticking fast.
adhesion n. The state of being attached or joined.
adieu inter. Good-by; farewell.
adjacency n. The state of being adjacent.
adjacent n. That which is near or bordering upon.
adjudge v. To award or bestow by formal decision.
adjunct n. Something joined to or connected with another thing, but holding a subordinate place.
adjuration n. A vehement appeal.
adjutant adj. Auxiliary.
administrator n. One who manages affairs of any kind.
admissible adj. Having the right or privilege of entry.
admittance n. Entrance, or the right or permission to enter.
admonish v. To warn of a fault.
admonition n. Gentle reproof.
ado n. unnecessary activity or ceremony.
adoration n. Profound devotion.
adroit adj. Having skill in the use of the bodily or mental powers.
adulterant n. An adulterating substance.
adulterate v. To make impure by the admixture of other or baser ingredients.
adumbrate v. To represent beforehand in outline or by emblem.
advent n. The coming or arrival, as of any important change, event, state, or personage.
adverse adj. Opposing or opposed.
adversity n. Misfortune.
advert v. To refer incidentally.
advertiser n. One who advertises, especially in newspapers.
advisory adj. Not mandatory.
advocacy n. The act of pleading a cause.
advocate n. One who pleads the cause of another, as in a legal or ecclesiastical court.
aerial adj. Of, pertaining to, or like the air.
aeronaut n. One who navigates the air, a balloonist.
aeronautics n. the art or practice of flying aircraft
aerostat n. A balloon or other apparatus floating in or sustained by the air.
aerostatics n. The branch of pneumatics that treats of the equilibrium, pressure, and mechanical properties.
affable adj. Easy to approach.
affect v. To act upon
affectation n. A studied or ostentatious pretense or attempt.
affiliate n. Some auxiliary person or thing.
affirmative adj. Answering yes; to a question at issue.
affix v. To fasten.
affluence n. A profuse or abundant supply of riches.
affront n. An open insult or indignity.
afire adv. & adj. On fire, literally or figuratively.
afoot adv. In progress.
aforesaid adj. Said in a preceding part or before.
afresh adv. Once more, after rest or interval.
afterthought n. A thought that comes later than its appropriate or expected time.
agglomerate v. To pile or heap together.
aggrandize v. To cause to appear greatly.
aggravate v. To make heavier, worse, or more burdensome.
aggravation n. The fact of being made heavier or more heinous, as a crime , offense, misfortune, etc.
aggregate n. The entire number, sum, mass, or quantity of something.
aggress v. To make the first attack.
aggression n. An unprovoked attack.
aggrieve v. To give grief or sorrow to.
aghast adj. Struck with terror and amazement.
agile adj. Able to move or act quickly, physically, or mentally.
agitate v. To move or excite (the feelings or thoughts).
agrarian adj. Pertaining to land, especially agricultural land.
aide-de-camp n. An officer who receives and transmits the orders of the general.
ailment n. Slight sickness.
akin adj. Of similar nature or qualities.
alabaster n. A white or delicately tinted fine-grained gypsum.
alacrity n. Cheerful willingness.
albeit conj. Even though.
albino n. A person with milky white skin and hair, and eyes with bright red pupil and usually pink iris.
album n. A book whose leaves are so made to form paper frames for holding photographs or the like.
alchemy n. Chemistry of the middle ages, characterized by the pursuit of changing base metals to gold.
alcohol n. A volatile, inflammable, colorless liquid of a penetrating odor and burning taste.
alcoholism n. A condition resulting from the inordinate or persistent use of alcoholic beverages.
alcove n. A covered recess connected with or at the side of a larger room.
alder n. Any shrub or small tree of the genus Alumnus, of the oak family.
alderman n. A member of a municipal legislative body, who usually exercises also certain judicial functions.
aldermanship n. The dignity, condition, office, or term of office of an alderman.
alias n. An assumed name.
alien n. One who owes allegiance to a foreign government.
alienable adj. Capable of being aliened or alienated, as lands.
alienate v. To cause to turn away.
alienation n. Estrangement.
aliment n. That which nourishes.
alkali n. Anything that will neutralize an acid, as lime, magnesia, etc.
allay v. To calm the violence or reduce the intensity of; mitigate.
allege v. To assert to be true, especially in a formal manner, as in court.
allegory n. The setting forth of a subject under the guise of another subject of aptly suggestive likeness.
alleviate v. To make less burdensome or less hard to bear.
alley n. A narrow street, garden path, walk, or the like.
alliance n. Any combination or union for some common purpose.
allot v. To assign a definite thing or part to a certain person.
allotment n. Portion.
allude v. To refer incidentally, or by suggestion.
allusion n. An indirect and incidental reference to something without definite mention of it.
alluvion n. Flood.
ally n. A person or thing connected with another, usually in some relation of helpfulness.
almanac n. A series of tables giving the days of the week together with certain astronomical information.
aloof adv. Not in sympathy with or desiring to associate with others.
altar n. Any raised place or structure on which sacrifices may be offered or incense burned.
alter v. To make change in.
alteration n. Change or modification.
altercate v. To contend angrily or zealously in words.
alternate n. One chosen to act in place of another, in case of the absence or incapacity of that other.
alternative n. Something that may or must exist, be taken or chosen, or done instead of something else.
altitude n. Vertical distance or elevation above any point or base-level, as the sea.
alto n. The lowest or deepest female voice or part.
altruism n. Benevolence to others on subordination to self-interest.
altruist n. One who advocates or practices altruism.
amalgam n. An alloy or union of mercury with another metal.
amalgamate v. To mix or blend together in a homogeneous body.
amateur adj. Practicing an art or occupation for the love of it, but not as a profession.
amatory adj. Designed to excite love.
ambidextrous adj. Having the ability of using both hands with equal skill or ease.
ambiguous adj. Having a double meaning.
ambitious adj. Eagerly desirous and aspiring.
ambrosial adj. Divinely sweet, fragrant, or delicious.
ambulance n. A vehicle fitted for conveying the sick and wounded.
ambulate v. To walk about
ambush n. The act or state of lying concealed for the purpose of surprising or attacking the enemy.
ameliorate v. To relieve, as from pain or hardship
amenable adj. Willing and ready to submit.
Americanism n. A peculiar sense in which an English word or phrase is used in the United States.
amicable adj. Done in a friendly spirit.
amity n. Friendship.
amorous adj. Having a propensity for falling in love.
amorphous adj. Without determinate shape.
amour n. A love-affair, especially one of an illicit nature.
ampere n. The practical unit of electric-current strength.
ampersand n. The character &; and.
amphibious adj. Living both on land and in water.
amphitheater n. An edifice of elliptical shape, constructed about a central open space or arena.
amplitude n. Largeness.
amputate v. To remove by cutting, as a limb or some portion of the body.
amusement n. Diversion.
anachronism n. Anything occurring or existing out of its proper time.
anagram n. The letters of a word or phrase so transposed as to make a different word or phrase.
analogous adj. Corresponding (to some other) in certain respects, as in form, proportion, relations.
analogy n. Reasoning in which from certain and known relations or resemblance others are formed.
analyst n. One who analyzes or makes use of the analytical method.
analyze v. To examine minutely or critically.
anarchy n. Absence or utter disregard of government.
anathema n. Anything forbidden, as by social usage.
anatomy n. That branch of morphology which treats of the structure of organisms.
ancestry n. One's ancestors collectively.
anecdote n. A brief account of some interesting event or incident.
anemia n. Deficiency of blood or red corpuscles.
anemic adj. Affected with anemia.
anemometer n. An instrument for measuring the force or velocity of wind.
anesthetic adj. Pertaining to or producing loss of sensation.
anew adv. Once more.
angelic adj. Saintly.
Anglophobia n. Hatred or dread of England or of what is English.
Anglo-Saxon n. The entire English race wherever found, as in Europe, the United States, or India.
angular adj. Sharp-cornered.
animadversion n. The utterance of criticism or censure.
animadvert v. To pass criticism or censure.
animalcule n. An animal of microscopic smallness.
animate v. To make alive.
animosity n. Hatred.
annals n. A record of events in their chronological order, year by year.
annex v. To add or affix at the end.
annihilate v. To destroy absolutely.
annotate v. To make explanatory or critical notes on or upon.
annual adj. Occurring every year.
annuity n. An annual allowance, payment, or income.
annunciation n. Proclamation.
anode n. The point where or path by which a voltaic current enters an electrolyte or the like.
anonymous adj. Of unknown authorship.
antagonism n. Mutual opposition or resistance of counteracting forces, principles, or persons.
Antarctic adj. Pertaining to the south pole or the regions near it.
ante v. In the game of poker, to put up a stake before the cards are dealt.
antecede v. To precede.
antecedent n. One who or that which precedes or goes before, as in time, place, rank, order, or causality.
antechamber n. A waiting room for those who seek audience.
antedate v. To assign or affix a date to earlier than the actual one.
antediluvian adj. Of or pertaining to the times, things, events before the great flood in the days of Noah.
antemeridian adj. Before noon.
antemundane adj. Pertaining to time before the world's creation.
antenatal adj. Occurring or existing before birth.
anterior adj. Prior.
anteroom n. A room situated before and opening into another, usually larger.
anthology n. A collection of extracts from the writings of various authors.
anthracite n. Hard coal.
anthropology n. The science of man in general.
anthropomorphous adj. Having or resembling human form.
antic n. A grotesque, ludicrous, or fantastic action.
Antichrist n. Any opponent or enemy of Christ, whether a person or a power.
anticlimax n. A gradual or sudden decrease in the importance or impressiveness of what is said.
anticyclone n. An atmospheric condition of high central pressure, with currents flowing outward.
antidote n. Anything that will counteract or remove the effects of poison, disease, or the like.
antilogy n. Inconsistency or contradiction in terms or ideas.
antipathize v. To show or feel a feeling of antagonism, aversion, or dislike.
antiphon n. A response or alteration of responses, generally musical.
antiphony n. An anthem or other composition sung responsively.
antipodes n. A place or region on the opposite side of the earth.
antiquary n. One who collects and examines old things, as coins, books, medals, weapons, etc.
antiquate v. To make old or out of date.
antique adj. Pertaining to ancient times.
antiseptic n. Anything that destroys or restrains the growth of putrefactive micro-organisms.
antislavery adj. Opposed to human slavery.
antispasmodic adj. Tending to prevent or relieve non-inflammatory spasmodic affections.
antistrophe n. The inversion of terms in successive classes, as in "the home of joy and the joy of home".
antitoxin n. A substance which neutralizes the poisonous products of micro-organisms.
antonym n. A word directly opposed to another in meaning.
anxious adj. Distressed in mind respecting some uncertain matter.
apathy n. Insensibility to emotion or passionate feeling.
aperture n. Hole.
apex n. The highest point, as of a mountain.
aphorism n. Proverb.
apiary n. A place where bees are kept.
apogee n. The climax.
apology n. A disclaimer of intentional error or offense.
apostasy n. A total departure from one's faith or religion.
apostate adj. False.
apostle n. Any messenger commissioned by or as by divine authority.
apothecary n. One who keeps drugs for sale and puts up prescriptions.
apotheosis n. Deification.
appall v. To fill with dismay or horror.
apparent adj. Easily understood.
appease v. To soothe by quieting anger or indignation.
appellate adj. Capable of being appealed to.
appellation n. The name or title by which a particular person, class, or thing is called.
append v. To add or attach, as something accessory, subordinate, or supplementary.
appertain v. To belong, as by right, fitness, association, classification, possession, or natural relation.
apposite adj. Appropriate.
apposition n. The act of placing side by side, together, or in contact.
appraise v. To estimate the money value of.
appreciable adj. Capable of being discerned by the senses or intellect.
apprehend v. To make a prisoner of (a person) in the name of the law.
apprehensible adj. Capable of being conceived.
approbation n. Sanction.
appropriate adj. Suitable for the purpose and circumstances.
aqueduct n. A water-conduit, particularly one for supplying a community from a distance.
aqueous adj. Of, pertaining to, or containing water.
arbiter n. One chosen or appointed, by mutual consent of parties in dispute, to decide matters.
arbitrary adj. Fixed or done capriciously.
arbitrate v. To act or give judgment as umpire.
arbor n. A tree.
arboreal adj. Of or pertaining to a tree or trees.
arborescent adj. Having the nature of a tree.
arboretum n. A botanical garden or place devoted to the cultivation of trees or shrubs.
arboriculture n. The cultivation of trees or shrubs.
arcade n. A vaulted passageway or street; a roofed passageway having shops, etc., opening from it.
archaic adj. Antiquated
archaism n. Obsolescence.
archangel n. An angel of high rank.
archbishop n. The chief of the bishops of an ecclesiastical province in the Greek, Roman, and Anglican church.
archdeacon n. A high official administrator of the affairs of a diocese.
archaeology n. The branch of anthropology concerned with the systematic investigation of the relics of man.
archetype n. A prototype.
archipelago n. Any large body of water studded with islands, or the islands collectively themselves.
ardent adj. Burning with passion.
ardor n. Intensity of passion or affection.
arid adj. Very dry.
aristocracy n. A hereditary nobility
aristocrat n. A hereditary noble or one nearly connected with nobility.
armada n. A fleet of war-vessels.
armful n. As much as can be held in the arm or arms.
armory n. An arsenal.
aroma n. An agreeable odor.
arraign v. To call into court, as a person indicted for crime, and demand whether he pleads guilty or not.
arrange v. To put in definite or proper order.
arrangement n. The act of putting in proper order, or the state of being put in order.
arrant adj. Notoriously bad.
arrear n. Something overdue and unpaid.
arrival n. A coming to stopping-place or destination.
arrogant adj. Unduly or excessively proud, as of wealth, station, learning, etc.
arrogate v. To take, demand, or claim, especially presumptuously or without reasons or grounds.
Artesian well n. A very deep bored well. water rises due to underground pressure
artful adj. Characterized by craft or cunning.
Arthurian adj. Pertaining to King Arthur, the real or legendary hero of British poetic story.
artifice n. Trickery.
ascension n. The act of rising.
ascent n. A rising, soaring, or climbing.
ascetic adj. Given to severe self-denial and practicing excessive abstinence and devotion.
ascribe v. To assign as a quality or attribute.
asexual adj. Having no distinct sexual organs.
ashen adj. Pale.
askance adv. With a side or indirect glance or meaning.
asperity n. Harshness or roughness of temper.
aspirant n. One who seeks earnestly, as for advancement, honors, place.
aspiration n. An earnest wish for that which is above one's present reach.
aspire v. To have an earnest desire, wish, or longing, as for something high and good, not yet attained.
assailant n. One who attacks.
assassin n. One who kills, or tries to kill, treacherously or secretly.
assassinate v. To kill, as by surprise or secret assault, especially the killing of some eminent person.
assassination n. Murderer, as by secret assault or treachery.
assay n. The chemical analysis or testing of an alloy ore.
assent v. To express agreement with a statement or matter of opinion.
assess v. To determine the amount of (a tax or other sum to be paid).
assessor n. An officer whose duty it is to assess taxes.
assets n. pl. Property in general, regarded as applicable to the payment of debts.
assiduous adj. Diligent.
assignee n. One who is appointed to act for another in the management of certain property and interests.
assimilate v. To adapt.
assonance n. Resemblance or correspondence in sound.
assonant adj. Having resemblance of sound.
assonate v. To accord in sound, especially vowel sound.
assuage v. To cause to be less harsh, violent, or severe, as excitement, appetite, pain, or disease.
astringent adj. Harsh in disposition or character.
astute adj. Keen in discernment.
atheism n. The denial of the existence of God.
athirst adj. Wanting water.
athwart adv. From side to side.
atomizer n. An apparatus for reducing a liquid to a fine spray, as for disinfection, inhalation, etc.
atone v. To make amends for.
atonement n. Amends, reparation, or expiation made from wrong or injury.
atrocious adj. Outrageously or wantonly wicked, criminal, vile, or cruel.
atrocity n. Great cruelty or reckless wickedness.
attache n. A subordinate member of a diplomatic embassy.
attest v. To certify as accurate, genuine, or true.
attorney-general n. The chief law-officer of a government.
auburn adj. Reddish-brown, said usually of the hair.
audacious adj. Fearless.
audible adj. Loud enough to be heard.
audition n. The act or sensation of hearing.
auditory adj. Of or pertaining to hearing or the organs or sense of hearing.
augment v. To make bigger.
augur v. To predict.
Augustinian adj. Pertaining to St. Augustine, his doctrines, or the religious orders called after him.
aura n. Pervasive psychic influence supposed to emanate from persons
aural adj. Of or pertaining to the ear.
auricle n. One of the two chambers of the heart which receives the blood from the veins.
auricular adj. Of or pertaining to the ear, its auricle, or the sense of hearing.
auriferous adj. Containing gold.
aurora n. A luminous phenomenon in the upper regions of the atmosphere.
auspice n. favoring, protecting, or propitious influence or guidance.
austere adj. Severely simple; unadorned.
autarchy n. Unrestricted power.
authentic adj. Of undisputed origin.
authenticity n. The state or quality of being genuine, or of the origin and authorship claimed.
autobiography n. The story of one's life written by himself.
autocracy n. Absolute government.
autocrat n. Any one who claims or wields unrestricted or undisputed authority or influence.
automaton n. Any living being whose actions are or appear to be involuntary or mechanical.
autonomous adj. Self-governing.
autonomy n. Self-government.
autopsy n. The examination of a dead body by dissection to ascertain the cause of death.
autumnal adj. Of or pertaining to autumn.
auxiliary n. One who or that which aids or helps, especially when regarded as subsidiary or accessory.
avalanche n. The fall or sliding of a mass of snow or ice down a mountain-slope, often bearing with it rock.
avarice n. Passion for getting and keeping riches.
aver v. To assert as a fact.
averse adj. Reluctant.
aversion n. A mental condition of fixed opposition to or dislike of some particular thing.
avert v. To turn away or aside.
aviary n. A spacious cage or enclosure in which live birds are kept.
avidity n. Greediness.
avow v. To declare openly.
awaken v. To arouse, as emotion, interest, or the like.
awry adv. & adj. Out of the proper form, direction, or position.
aye adv. An expression of assent.
azalea n. A flowering shrub.
azure n. The color of the sky.
Baconian adj. Of or pertaining to Lord Bacon or his system of philosophy.
bacterium n. A microbe.
baffle v. To foil or frustrate.
bailiff n. An officer of court having custody of prisoners under arraignment.
baize n. A single-colored napped woolen fabric used for table-covers, curtains, etc.
bale n. A large package prepared for transportation or storage.
baleful adj. Malignant.
ballad n. Any popular narrative poem, often with epic subject and usually in lyric form.
balsam n. A medical preparation, aromatic and oily, used for healing.
banal adj. Commonplace.
barcarole n. A boat-song of Venetian gondoliers.
barograph n. An instrument that registers graphically and continuously the atmospheric pressure.
barometer n. An instrument for indicating the atmospheric pressure per unit of surface.
barring prep. Apart from.
baritone adj. Having a register higher than bass and lower than tenor.
bask v. To make warm by genial heat.
bass adj. Low in tone or compass.
baste v. To cover with melted fat, gravy, while cooking.
baton n. An official staff borne either as a weapon or as an emblem of authority or privilege.
battalion n. A body of infantry composed of two or more companies, forming a part of a regiment.
batten n. A narrow strip of wood.
batter n. A thick liquid mixture of two or more materials beaten together, to be used in cookery.
bauble n. A trinket.
bawl v. To proclaim by outcry.
beatify v. To make supremely happy.
beatitude n. Any state of great happiness.
beau n. An escort or lover.
becalm v. To make quiet.
beck v. To give a signal to, by nod or gesture.
bedaub v. To smear over, as with something oily or sticky.
bedeck v. To cover with ornament.
bedlam n. Madhouse.
befriend v. To be a friend to, especially when in need.
beget v. To produce by sexual generation.
begrudge v. To envy one of the possession of.
belate v. To delay past the proper hour.
belay v. To make fast, as a rope, by winding round a cleat.
belie v. To misrepresent.
believe v. To accept as true on the testimony or authority of others.
belittle v. To disparage.
belle n. A woman who is a center of attraction because of her beauty, accomplishments, etc.
bellicose adj. Warlike.
belligerent adj. Manifesting a warlike spirit.
bemoan v. To lament
benediction n. a solemn invocation of the divine blessing.
benefactor n. A doer of kindly and charitable acts.
benefice n. A church office endowed with funds or property for the maintenance of divine service.
beneficent adj. Characterized by charity and kindness.
beneficial adj. Helpful.
beneficiary n. One who is lawfully entitled to the profits and proceeds of an estate or property.
benefit n. Helpful result.
benevolence n. Any act of kindness or well-doing.
benevolent adj. Loving others and actively desirous of their well-being.
benign adj. Good and kind of heart.
benignant adj. Benevolent in feeling, character, or aspect.
benignity n. Kindness of feeling, disposition, or manner.
benison n. Blessing.
bequeath v. To give by will.
bereave v. To make desolate with loneliness and grief.
berth n. A bunk or bed in a vessel, sleeping-car, etc.
beseech v. To implore.
beset v. To attack on all sides.
besmear v. To smear over, as with any oily or sticky substance.
bestial adj. Animal.
bestrew v. To sprinkle or cover with things strewn.
bestride v. To get or sit upon astride, as a horse.
bethink v. To remind oneself.
betide v. To happen to or befall.
betimes adv. In good season or time.
betroth v. To engage to marry.
betrothal n. Engagement to marry.
bevel n. Any inclination of two surfaces other than 90 degrees.
bewilder v. To confuse the perceptions or judgment of.
bibliomania n. The passion for collecting books.
bibliography n. A list of the words of an author, or the literature bearing on a particular subject.
bibliophile n. One who loves books.
bibulous adj. Fond of drinking.
bide v. To await.
biennial n. A plant that produces leaves and roots the first year and flowers and fruit the second.
bier n. A horizontal framework with two handles at each end for carrying a corpse to the grave.
bigamist n. One who has two spouses at the same time.
bigamy n. The crime of marrying any other person while having a legal spouse living.
bight n. A slightly receding bay between headlands, formed by a long curve of a coast-line.
bilateral adj. Two-sided.
bilingual adj. Speaking two languages.
biograph n. A bibliographical sketch or notice.
biography n. A written account of one's life, actions, and character.
biology n. The science of life or living organisms.
biped n. An animal having two feet.
birthright n. A privilege or possession into which one is born.
bitterness n. Acridity, as to the taste.
blase adj. Sated with pleasure.
blaspheme v. To indulge in profane oaths.
blatant adj. Noisily or offensively loud or clamorous.
blaze n. A vivid glowing flame.
blazon v. To make widely or generally known.
bleak adj. Desolate.
blemish n. A mark that mars beauty.
blithe adj. Joyous.
blithesome adj. Cheerful.
blockade n. The shutting up of a town, a frontier, or a line of coast by hostile forces.
boatswain n. A subordinate officer of a vessel, who has general charge of the rigging, anchors, etc.
bodice n. A women's ornamental corset-shaped laced waist.
bodily adj. Corporeal.
boisterous adj. Unchecked merriment or animal spirits.
bole n. The trunk or body of a tree.
bolero n. A Spanish dance, illustrative of the passion of love, accompanied by caste nets and singing.
boll n. A round pod or seed-capsule, as a flax or cotton.
bolster v. To support, as something wrong.
bomb n. A hollow projectile containing an explosive material.
bombard v. To assail with any missile or with abusive speech.
bombardier n. A person who has charge of mortars, bombs, and shells.
bombast n. Inflated or extravagant language, especially on unimportant subjects.
boorish adj. Rude.
bore v. To weary by tediousness or dullness.
borough n. An incorporated village or town.
bosom n. The breast or the upper front of the thorax of a human being, especially of a woman.
botanical adj. Connected with the study or cultivation of plants.
botanize v. To study plant-life.
botany n. The science that treats of plants.
bountiful adj. Showing abundance.
Bowdlerize v. To expurgate in editing (a literary composition) by omitting words or passages.
bowler n. In cricket, the player who delivers the ball.
boycott v. To place the products or merchandise of under a ban.
brae n. Hillside.
braggart n. A vain boaster.
brandish v. To wave, shake, or flourish triumphantly or defiantly, as a sword or spear.
bravado n. An aggressive display of boldness.
bravo interj. Well done.
bray n. A loud harsh sound, as the cry of an ass or the blast of a horn.
braze v. To make of or ornament with brass.
brazier n. An open pan or basin for holding live coals.
breach n. The violation of official duty, lawful right, or a legal obligation.
breaker n. One who trains horses, dogs, etc.
breech n. The buttocks.
brethren n. pl. Members of a brotherhood, gild, profession, association, or the like.
brevity n. Shortness of duration.
bric-a-brac n. Objects of curiosity or for decoration.
bridle n. The head-harness of a horse consisting of a head-stall, a bit, and the reins.
brigade n. A body of troops consisting of two or more regiments.
brigadier n. General officer who commands a brigade, ranking between a colonel and a major-general.
brigand n. One who lives by robbery and plunder.
brimstone n. Sulfur.
brine n. Water saturated with salt.
bristle n. One of the coarse, stiff hairs of swine: used in brush-making, etc.
Britannia n. The United Kingdom of Great Britain.
Briticism n. A word, idiom, or phrase characteristic of Great Britain or the British.
brittle adj. Fragile.
broach v. To mention, for the first time.
broadcast adj. Disseminated far and wide.
brogan n. A coarse, heavy shoe.
brogue n. Any dialectic pronunciation of English, especially that of the Irish people.
brokerage n. The business of making sales and purchases for a commission; a broker.
bromine n. A dark reddish-brown, non-metallic liquid element with a suffocating odor.
bronchitis n. Inflammation of the bronchial tubes.
bronchus n. Either of the two subdivisions of the trachea conveying air into the lungs.
brooch n. An article of jewelry fastened by a hinged pin and hook on the underside.
brotherhood n. Spiritual or social fellowship or solidarity.
browbeat v. To overwhelm, or attempt to do so, by stern, haughty, or rude address or manner.
brusque adj. Somewhat rough or rude in manner or speech.
buffoon n. A clown.
buffoonery n. Low drollery, coarse jokes, etc.
bulbous adj. Of, or pertaining to, or like a bulb.
bullock n. An ox.
bulrush n. Any one of various tall rush-like plants growing in damp ground or water.
bulwark n. Anything that gives security or defense.
bumper n. A cup or glass filled to the brim, especially one to be drunk as a toast or health.
bumptious adj. Full of offensive and aggressive self-conceit.
bungle v. To execute clumsily.
buoyancy n. Power or tendency to float on or in a liquid or gas.
buoyant adj. Having the power or tendency to float or keep afloat.
bureau n. A chest of drawers for clothing, etc.
bureaucracy n. Government by departments of men transacting particular branches of public business.
burgess n. In colonial times, a member of the lower house of the legislature of Maryland or Virginia.
burgher n. An inhabitant, citizen or freeman of a borough burgh, or corporate town.
burnish v. To make brilliant or shining.
bursar n. A treasurer.
butt v. To strike with or as with the head, or horns.
butte n. A conspicuous hill, low mountain, or natural turret, generally isolated.
buttress n. Any support or prop.
by-law n. A rule or law adopted by an association, a corporation, or the like.
cabal n. A number of persons secretly united for effecting by intrigue some private purpose.
cabalism n. Superstitious devotion to one's religion.
cabinet n. The body of men constituting the official advisors of the executive head of a nation.
cacophony n. A disagreeable, harsh, or discordant sound or combination of sounds or tones.
cadaverous adj. Resembling a corpse.
cadence n. Rhythmical or measured flow or movement, as in poetry or the time and pace of marching troops.
cadenza n. An embellishment or flourish, prepared or improvised, for a solo voice or instrument.
caitiff adj. Cowardly.
cajole v. To impose on or dupe by flattering speech.
cajolery n. Delusive speech.
calculable adj. That may be estimated by reckoning.
calculus n. A concretion formed in various parts of the body resembling a pebble in hardness.
callosity n. The state of being hard and insensible.
callow adj. Without experience of the world.
calorie n. Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree centigrade.
calumny n. Slander.
Calvary n. The place where Christ was crucified.
Calvinism n. The system of doctrine taught by John Calvin.
Calvinize v. To teach or imbue with the doctrines of Calvinism.
came n. A leaden sash-bar or grooved strip for fastening panes in stained-glass windows.
cameo n. Any small engraved or carved work in relief.
campaign n. A complete series of connected military operations.
Canaanite n. A member of one of the three tribes that dwelt in the land of Canaan, or western Palestine.
canary adj. Of a bright but delicate yellow.
candid adj. Straightforward.
candor n. The quality of frankness or outspokenness.
canine adj. Characteristic of a dog.
canon n. Any rule or law.
cant v. To talk in a singsong, preaching tone with affected solemnity.
cantata n. A choral composition.
canto n. One of the divisions of an extended poem.
cantonment n. The part of the town or district in which the troops are quartered.
capacious adj. Roomy.
capillary n. A minute vessel having walls composed of a single layer of cells.
capitulate v. To surrender or stipulate terms.
caprice n. A whim.
caption n. A heading, as of a chapter, section, document, etc.
captious adj. Hypercritical.
captivate v. To fascinate, as by excellence. eloquence, or beauty.
carcass n. The dead body of an animal.
cardiac adj. Pertaining to the heart.
cardinal adj. Of prime or special importance.
caret n. A sign (^) placed below a line, indicating where omitted words, etc., should be inserted.
caricature n. a picture or description in which natural characteristics are exaggerated or distorted.
carnage n. Massacre.
carnivorous adj. Eating or living on flesh.
carouse v. To drink deeply and in boisterous or jovial manner.
carrion n. Dead and putrefying flesh.
cartilage n. An elastic animal tissue of firm consistence.
cartridge n. A charge for a firearm, or for blasting.
caste n. The division of society on artificial grounds.
castigate v. To punish.
casual adj. Accidental, by chance.
casualty n. A fatal or serious accident or disaster.
cataclysm n. Any overwhelming flood of water.
cataract n. Opacity of the lens of the eye resulting in complete or partial blindness.
catastrophe n. Any great and sudden misfortune or calamity.
cathode n. The negative pole or electrode of a galvanic battery.
Catholicism n. The system, doctrine, and practice of the Roman Catholic Church.
catholicity n. Universal prevalence or acceptance.
cat-o-nine-tails n. An instrument consisting of nine pieces of cord, formerly used for flogging in the army and navy.
caucus n. A private meeting of members of a political party to select candidates.
causal adj. Indicating or expressing a cause.
caustic adj. Sarcastic and severe.
cauterize v. To burn or sear as with a heated iron.
cede v. To pass title to.
censor n. An official examiner of manuscripts empowered to prohibit their publication.
censorious adj. Judging severely or harshly.
census n. An official numbering of the people of a country or district.
centenary adj. Pertaining to a hundred years or a period of a hundred years.
centiliter n. A hundredth of a liter.
centimeter n. A length of one hundredth of a meter.
centurion n. A captain of a company of one hundred infantry in the ancient Roman army.
cereal adj. Pertaining to edible grain or farinaceous seeds.
ceremonial adj. Characterized by outward form or ceremony.
ceremonious adj. Observant of ritual.
cessation n. Discontinuance, as of action or motion.
cession n. Surrender, as of possessions or rights.
chagrin n. Keen vexation, annoyance, or mortification, as at one's failures or errors.
chameleon adj. Changeable in appearance.
chancery n. A court of equity, as distinguished from a common-law court.
chaos n. Any condition of which the elements or parts are in utter disorder and confusion.
characteristic n. A distinctive feature.
characterize v. To describe by distinctive marks or peculiarities.
charlatan n. A quack.
chasm n. A yawning hollow, as in the earth's surface.
chasten v. To purify by affliction.
chastise v. To subject to punitive measures.
chastity n. Sexual or moral purity.
chateau n. A castle or manor-house.
chattel n. Any article of personal property.
check v. To hold back.
chiffon n. A very thin gauze used for trimmings, evening dress, etc.
chivalry n. The knightly system of feudal times with its code, usages and practices.
cholera n. An acute epidemic disease.
choleric adj. Easily provoked to anger.
choral adj. Pertaining to, intended for, or performed by a chorus or choir.
Christ n. A title of Jesus
christen v. To name in baptism.
Christendom n. That part of the world where Christianity is generally professed.
chromatic adj. Belonging, relating to, or abounding in color.
chronology n. The science that treats of computation of time or of investigation and arrangement of events.
chronometer n. A portable timekeeper of the highest attainable precision.
cipher v. To calculate arithmetically. (also a noun meaning zero or nothing)
circulate v. To disseminate.
circumference n. The boundary-line of a circle.
circumlocution n. Indirect or roundabout expression.
circumnavigate v. To sail quite around.
circumscribe v. To confine within bounds.
circumspect adj. Showing watchfulness, caution, or careful consideration.
citadel n. Any strong fortress.
cite v. To refer to specifically.
claimant n. One who makes a claim or demand, as of right.
clairvoyance n. Intuitive sagacity or perception.
clamorous adj. Urgent in complaint or demand.
clan n. A tribe.
clangor n. Clanking or a ringing, as of arms, chains, or bells; clamor.
clarify v. To render intelligible.
clarion n. A small shrill trumpet or bugle.
classify v. To arrange in a class or classes on the basis of observed resemblances and differences.
clearance n. A certificate from the proper authorities that a vessel has complied with the law and may sail.
clemency n. Mercy.
close-hauled adj. Having the sails set for sailing as close to the wind as possible.
clothier n. One who makes or sells cloth or clothing.
clumsy adj. Awkward of movement.
coagulate v. To change into a clot or a jelly, as by heat, by chemical action, or by a ferment.
coagulant adj. Producing coagulation.
coalescence n. The act or process of coming together so as to form one body, combination, or product.
coalition n. Combination in a body or mass.
coddle v. To treat as a baby or an invalid.
codicil n. A supplement adding to, revoking, or explaining in the body of a will.
coerce v. To force.
coercion n. Forcible constraint or restraint, moral or physical.
coercive adj. Serving or tending to force.
cogent adj. Appealing strongly to the reason or conscience.
cognate adj. Akin.
cohere v. To stick together.
cohesion n. Consistency.
cohesive adj. Having the property of consistency.
coincide v. To correspond.
coincidence n. A circumstance so agreeing with another: often implying accident.
coincident adj. Taking place at the same time.
collaborate v. To labor or cooperate with another or others, especially in literary or scientific pursuits.
collapse v. To cause to shrink, fall in, or fail.
collapsible adj. That may or can collapse.
colleague n. An associate in professional employment.
collective adj. Consisting of a number of persons or objects considered as gathered into a mass, or sum.
collector n. One who makes a collection, as of objects of art, books, or the like.
collegian n. A college student.
collide v. To meet and strike violently.
collier n. One who works in a coal-mine.
collision n. Violent contact.
colloquial adj. Pertaining or peculiar to common speech as distinguished from literary.
colloquialism n. Form of speech used only or chiefly in conversation.
colloquy n. Conversation.
collusion n. A secret agreement for a wrongful purpose.
colossus n. Any strikingly great person or object.
comely adj. Handsome.
comestible adj. Fit to be eaten.
comical adj. Funny.
commemorate v. To serve as a remembrance of.
commentary n. A series of illustrative or explanatory notes on any important work.
commingle v. To blend.
commissariat n. The department of an army charged with the provision of its food and water and daily needs.
commission v. To empower.
commitment n. The act or process of entrusting or consigning for safe-keeping.
committal n. The act, fact, or result of committing, or the state of being
commodity n. Something that is bought and sold.
commotion n. A disturbance or violent agitation.
commute v. To put something, especially something less severe, in place of.
comparable adj. Fit to be compared.
comparative adj. Relative.
comparison n. Examination of two or more objects with reference to their likeness or unlikeness.
compensate v. To remunerate.
competence n. Adequate qualification or capacity.
competent adj. Qualified.
competitive adj. characterized by rivalry.
competitor n. A rival.
complacence n. Satisfaction with one's acts or surroundings.
complacent adj. Pleased or satisfied with oneself.
complaisance n. Politeness.
complement v. To make complete.
complex adj. Complicated.
complicate v. To make complex, difficult, or hard to deal with.
complication n. An intermingling or combination of things or parts, especially in a perplexing manner.
complicity n. Participation or partnership, as in wrong-doing or with a wrong-doer.
compliment v. To address or gratify with expressions of delicate praise.
component n. A constituent element or part.
comport v. To conduct or behave (oneself).
composure n. Calmness.
comprehension n. Ability to know.
comprehensive adj. Large in scope or content.
compress v. To press together or into smaller space.
compressible adj. Capable of being pressed into smaller compass.
compression n. Constraint, as by force or authority.
comprise v. To consist of.
compulsion n. Coercion.
concurrent adj. Occurring or acting together.
concussion n. A violent shock to some organ by a fall or a sudden blow.
condensation n. The act or process of making dense or denser.
condense v. To abridge.
condescend v. To come down voluntarily to equal terms with inferiors.
condolence n. Expression of sympathy with a person in pain, sorrow, or misfortune.
conduce v. To bring about.
conducive adj. Contributing to an end.
conductible adj. Capable of being conducted or transmitted.
conduit n. A means for conducting something, particularly a tube, pipe, or passageway for a fluid.
confectionery n. The candy collectively that a confectioner makes or sells, as candy.
confederacy n. A number of states or persons in compact or league with each other, as for mutual aid.
confederate n. One who is united with others in a league, compact, or agreement.
confer v. To bestow.
conferee n. A person with whom another confers.
confessor n. A spiritual advisor.
confidant n. One to whom secrets are entrusted.
confide v. To reveal in trust or confidence.
confidence n. The state or feeling of trust in or reliance upon another.
confident adj. Assured.
confinement n. Restriction within limits or boundaries.
confiscate v. To appropriate (private property) as forfeited to the public use or treasury.
conflagration n. A great fire, as of many buildings, a forest, or the like.
confluence n. The place where streams meet.
confluent n. A stream that unites with another.
conformance n. The act or state or conforming.
conformable adj. Harmonious.
conformation n. General structure, form, or outline.
conformity n. Correspondence in form, manner, or use.
confront v. To encounter, as difficulties or obstacles.
congeal v. To coagulate.
congenial adj. Having kindred character or tastes.
congest v. To collect into a mass.
congregate v. To bring together into a crowd.
coniferous adj. Cone-bearing trees.
conjugal adj. Pertaining to marriage, marital rights, or married persons.
conjugate adj. Joined together in pairs.
conjugation n. The state or condition of being joined together.
conjunction n. The state of being joined together, or the things so joined.
connive v. To be in collusion.
connoisseur n. A critical judge of art, especially one with thorough knowledge and sound judgment of art.
connote v. To mean; signify.
connubial adj. Pertaining to marriage or matrimony.
conquer v. To overcome by force.
consanguineous adj. Descended from the same parent or ancestor.
conscience n. The faculty in man by which he distinguishes between right and wrong in character and conduct.
conscientious adj. Governed by moral standard.
conscious adj. Aware that one lives, feels, and thinks.
conscript v. To force into military service.
consecrate v. To set apart as sacred.
consecutive adj. Following in uninterrupted succession.
consensus n. A collective unanimous opinion of a number of persons.
conservatism n. Tendency to adhere to the existing order of things.
conservative adj. Adhering to the existing order of things.
conservatory n. An institution for instruction and training in music and declamation.
consign v. To entrust.
consignee n. A person to whom goods or other property has been entrusted.
consignor n. One who entrusts.
consistency n. A state of permanence.
console v. To comfort.
consolidate v. To combine into one body or system.
consonance n. The state or quality of being in accord with.
consonant adj. Being in agreement or harmony with.
consort n. A companion or associate.
conspicuous adj. Clearly visible.
conspirator n. One who agrees with others to cooperate in accomplishing some unlawful purpose.
conspire v. To plot.
constable n. An officer whose duty is to maintain the peace.
constellation n. An arbitrary assemblage or group of stars.
consternation n. Panic.
constituency n. The inhabitants or voters in a district represented in a legislative body.
constituent n. One who has the right to vote at an election.
constrict v. To bind.
consul n. An officer appointed to reside in a foreign city, chiefly to represent his country.
consulate n. The place in which a consul transacts official business.
consummate v. To bring to completion.
consumption n. Gradual destruction, as by burning, eating, etc., or by using up, wearing out, etc.
consumptive adj. Designed for gradual destruction.
contagion n. The communication of disease from person to person.
contagious adj. Transmitting disease.
contemplate v. To consider thoughtfully.
contemporaneous adj. Living, occurring, or existing at the same time.
contemporary adj. Living or existing at the same time.
contemptible adj. Worthy of scorn or disdain.
contemptuous adj. Disdainful.
contender n. One who exerts oneself in opposition or rivalry.
contiguity n. Proximity.
contiguous adj. Touching or joining at the edge or boundary.
continence n. Self-restraint with respect to desires, appetites, and passion.
contingency n. Possibility of happening.
contingent adj. Not predictable.
continuity n. Uninterrupted connection in space, time, operation, or development.
continuous adj. Connected, extended, or prolonged without separation or interruption of sequence.
contort v. To twist into a misshapen form.
contraband n. Trade forbidden by law or treaty.
contradiction n. The assertion of the opposite of that which has been said.
contradictory adj. Inconsistent with itself.
contraposition n. A placing opposite.
contravene v. To prevent or obstruct the operation of.
contribution n. The act of giving for a common purpose.
contributor n. One who gives or furnishes, in common with others, for a common purpose.
contrite adj. Broken in spirit because of a sense of sin.
contrivance n. The act planning, devising, inventing, or adapting something to or for a special purpose.
contrive v. To manage or carry through by some device or scheme.
control v. To exercise a directing, restraining, or governing influence over.
controller n. One who or that which regulates or directs.
contumacious adj. Rebellious.
contumacy n. Contemptuous disregard of the requirements of rightful authority.
contuse v. To bruise by a blow, either with or without the breaking of the skin.
contusion n. A bruise.
convalesce v. To recover after a sickness.
convalescence n. The state of progressive restoration to health and strength after the cessation of disease.
convalescent adj. Recovering health after sickness.
convene v. To summon or cause to assemble.
convenience n. Fitness, as of time or place.
converge v. To cause to incline and approach nearer together.
convergent adj. Tending to one point.
conversant adj. Thoroughly informed.
conversion n. Change from one state or position to another, or from one form to another.
convertible adj. Interchangeable.
convex adj. Curving like the segment of the globe or of the surface of a circle.
conveyance n. That by which anything is transported.
convivial adj. Devoted to feasting, or to good-fellowship in eating or drinking.
convolution n. A winding motion.
convolve v. To move with a circling or winding motion.
convoy n. A protecting force accompanying property in course of transportation.
convulse v. To cause spasms in.
convulsion n. A violent and abnormal muscular contraction of the body.
copious adj. Plenteous.
coquette n. A flirt.
cornice n. An ornamental molding running round the walls of a room close to the ceiling.
cornucopia n. The horn of plenty, symbolizing peace and prosperity.
corollary n. A proposition following so obviously from another that it requires little demonstration.
coronation n. The act or ceremony of crowning a monarch.
coronet n. Inferior crown denoting, according to its form, various degrees of noble rank less than sovereign.
corporal adj. Belonging or relating to the body as opposed to the mind.
corporate adj. Belonging to a corporation.
corporeal adj. Of a material nature; physical.
corps n. A number or body of persons in some way associated or acting together.
corpse n. A dead body.
corpulent adj. Obese.
corpuscle n. A minute particle of matter.
correlate v. To put in some relation of connection or correspondence.
correlative adj. Mutually involving or implying one another.
corrigible adj. Capable of reformation.
corroborate v. To strengthen, as proof or conviction.
corroboration n. Confirmation.
corrode v. To ruin or destroy little by little.
corrosion n. Gradual decay by crumbling or surface disintegration.
corrosive n. That which causes gradual decay by crumbling or surface disintegration.
corruptible adj. Open to bribery.
corruption n. Loss of purity or integrity.
cosmetic adj. Pertaining to the art of beautifying, especially the complexion.
cosmic adj. Pertaining to the universe.
cosmogony n. A doctrine of creation or of the origin of the universe.
cosmography n. The science that describes the universe, including astronomy, geography, and geology.
cosmology n. The general science of the universe.
cosmopolitan adj. Common to all the world.
cosmopolitanism n. A cosmopolitan character.
cosmos n. The world or universe considered as a system, perfect in order and arrangement.
counter-claim n. A cross-demand alleged by a defendant in his favor against the plaintiff.
counteract v. To act in opposition to.
counterbalance v. To oppose with an equal force.
countercharge v. To accuse in return.
counterfeit adj. Made to resemble something else.
counterpart n. Something taken with another for the completion of either.
countervail v. To offset.
counting-house n. A house or office used for transacting business, bookkeeping, correspondence, etc.
countryman n. A rustic.
course n. Line of motion or direction.
courser n. A fleet and spirited horse.
courtesy n. Politeness originating in kindness and exercised habitually.
covenant n. An agreement entered into by two or more persons or parties.
covert adj. Concealed, especially for an evil purpose.
covey n. A flock of quails or partridges.
cower v. To crouch down tremblingly, as through fear or shame.
coxswain n. One who steers a rowboat, or one who has charge of a ship's boat and its crew under an officer.
crag n. A rugged, rocky projection on a cliff or ledge.
cranium n. The skull of an animal, especially that part enclosing the brain.
crass adj. Coarse or thick in nature or structure, as opposed to thin or fine.
craving n. A vehement desire.
creak n. A sharp, harsh, squeaking sound.
creamery n. A butter-making establishment.
creamy adj. Resembling or containing cream.
credence n. Belief.
creed n. A formal summary of fundamental points of religious belief.
crematory adj. A place for cremating dead bodies.
crevasse n. A deep crack or fissure in the ice of a glacier.
crevice n. A small fissure, as between two contiguous surfaces.
criterion n. A standard by which to determine the correctness of a judgment or conclusion.
critique n. A criticism or critical review.
crockery n. Earthenware made from baked clay.
crucible n. A trying and purifying test or agency.
crusade n. Any concerted movement, vigorously prosecuted, in behalf of an idea or principle.
crustacean adj. Pertaining to a division of arthropods, containing lobsters, crabs, crawfish, etc.
crustaceous adj. Having a crust-like shell.
cryptogram n. Anything written in characters that are secret or so arranged as to have hidden meaning.
crystallize v. To bring together or give fixed shape to.
cudgel n. A short thick stick used as a club.
culinary adj. Of or pertaining to cooking or the kitchen.
cull v. To pick or sort out from the rest.
culpable adj. Guilty.
culprit n. A guilty person.
culvert n. Any artificial covered channel for the passage of water through a bank or under a road, canal.
cupidity n. Avarice.
curable adj. Capable of being remedied or corrected.
curator n. A person having charge as of a library or museum.
curio n. A piece of bric-a-brac.
cursive adj. Writing in which the letters are joined together.
cursory adj. Rapid and superficial.
curt adj. Concise, compressed, and abrupt in act or expression.
curtail v. To cut off or cut short.
curtsy n. A downward movement of the body by bending the knees.
cycloid adj. Like a circle.
cygnet n. A young swan.
cynical adj. Exhibiting moral skepticism.
cynicism n. Contempt for the opinions of others and of what others value.
cynosure n. That to which general interest or attention is directed.
daring adj. Brave.
darkling adv. Blindly.
Darwinism n. The doctrine that natural selection has been the prime cause of evolution of higher forms.
dastard n. A base coward.
datum n. A premise, starting-point, or given fact.
dauntless adj. Fearless.
day-man n. A day-laborer.
dead-heat n. A race in which two or more competitors come out even, and there is no winner.
dearth n. Scarcity, as of something customary, essential ,or desirable.
death's-head n. A human skull as a symbol of death.
debase v. To lower in character or virtue.
debatable adj. Subject to contention or dispute.
debonair adj. Having gentle or courteous bearing or manner.
debut n. A first appearance in society or on the stage.
decagon n. A figure with ten sides and ten angles.
decagram n. A weight of 10 grams.
decaliter n. A liquid and dry measure of 10 liters.
decalogue n. The ten commandments.
Decameron n. A volume consisting of ten parts or books.
decameter n. A length of ten meters.
decamp v. To leave suddenly or unexpectedly.
decapitate v. To behead.
decapod adj. Ten-footed or ten-armed.
decasyllable n. A line of ten syllables.
deceit n. Falsehood.
deceive v. To mislead by or as by falsehood.
decency n. Moral fitness.
decent adj. Characterized by propriety of conduct, speech, manners, or dress.
deciduous adj. Falling off at maturity as petals after flowering, fruit when ripe, etc.
decimal adj. Founded on the number 10.
decimate v. To destroy a measurable or large proportion of.
decipher v. To find out the true words or meaning of, as something hardly legible.
decisive ad. Conclusive.
declamation n. A speech recited or intended for recitation from memory in public.
declamatory adj. A full and formal style of utterance.
declarative adj. Containing a formal, positive, or explicit statement or affirmation.
declension n. The change of endings in nouns and adj. to express their different relations of gender.
decorate v. To embellish.
decorous adj. Suitable for the occasion or circumstances.
decoy n. Anything that allures, or is intended to allures into danger or temptation.
decrepit adj. Enfeebled, as by old age or some chronic infirmity.
dedication n. The voluntary consecration or relinquishment of something to an end or cause.
deduce v. To derive or draw as a conclusion by reasoning from given premises or principles.
deface v. To mar or disfigure the face or external surface of.
defalcate v. To cut off or take away, as a part of something.
defamation n. Malicious and groundless injury done to the reputation or good name of another.
defame v. To slander.
default n. The neglect or omission of a legal requirement.
defendant n. A person against whom a suit is brought.
defensible adj. Capable of being maintained or justified.
defensive adj. Carried on in resistance to aggression.
defer v. To delay or put off to some other time.
deference n. Respectful submission or yielding, as to another's opinion, wishes, or judgment.
defiant adj. Characterized by bold or insolent opposition.
deficiency n. Lack or insufficiency.
deficient adj. Not having an adequate or proper supply or amount.
definite adj. Having an exact signification or positive meaning.
deflect v. To cause to turn aside or downward.
deforest v. To clear of forests.
deform v. To disfigure.
defraud v. To deprive of something dishonestly.
defray v. To make payment for.
degeneracy n. A becoming worse.
degenerate v. To become worse or inferior.
degradation n. Diminution, as of strength or magnitude.
degrade v. To take away honors or position from.
dehydrate v. To deprive of water.
deify v. To regard or worship as a god.
deign v. To deem worthy of notice or account.
deist n. One who believes in God, but denies supernatural revelation.
deity n. A god, goddess, or divine person.
deject v. To dishearten.
delectable adj. Delightful to the taste or to the senses.
delectation n. Delight.
deleterious adj. Hurtful, morally or physically.
delicacy n. That which is agreeable to a fine taste.
delineate v. To represent by sketch or diagram.
deliquesce v. To dissolve gradually and become liquid by absorption of moisture from the air.
delirious adj. Raving.
delude v. To mislead the mind or judgment of.
deluge v. To overwhelm with a flood of water.
delusion n. Mistaken conviction, especially when more or less enduring.
demagnetize v. To deprive (a magnet) of magnetism.
demagogue n. An unprincipled politician.
demeanor n. Deportment.
demerit n. A mark for failure or bad conduct.
demise n. Death.
demobilize v. To disband, as troops.
demolish v. To annihilate.
demonstrable adj. Capable of positive proof.
demonstrate v. To prove indubitably.
demonstrative adj. Inclined to strong exhibition or expression of feeling or thoughts.
demonstrator n. One who proves in a convincing and conclusive manner.
demulcent n. Any application soothing to an irritable surface
demurrage n. the detention of a vessel beyond the specified time of sailing.
dendroid adj. Like a tree.
dendrology n. The natural history of trees.
denizen n. Inhabitant.
denominate v. To give a name or epithet to.
denomination n. A body of Christians united by a common faith and form of worship and discipline.
denominator n. Part of a fraction which expresses the number of equal parts into which the unit is divided.
denote v. To designate by word or mark.
denouement n. That part of a play or story in which the mystery is cleared up.
denounce v. To point out or publicly accuse as deserving of punishment, censure, or odium.
dentifrice n. Any preparation used for cleaning the teeth.
denude v. To strip the covering from.
denunciation n. The act of declaring an action or person worthy of reprobation or punishment.
deplete v. To reduce or lessen, as by use, exhaustion, or waste.
deplorable adj. Contemptible.
deplore v. To regard with grief or sorrow.
deponent adj. Laying down.
depopulate v. To remove the inhabitants from.
deport v. To take or send away forcibly, as to a penal colony.
deportment n. Demeanor.
deposition n. Testimony legally taken on interrogatories and reduced to writing, for use as evidence in court.
depositor n. One who makes a deposit, or has an amount deposited.
depository n. A place where anything is kept in safety.
deprave v. To render bad, especially morally bad.
deprecate v. To express disapproval or regret for, with hope for the opposite.
depreciate v. To lessen the worth of.
depreciation n. A lowering in value or an underrating in worth.
depress v. To press down.
depression n. A falling of the spirits.
depth n. Deepness.
derelict adj. Neglectful of obligation.
deride v. To ridicule.
derisible adj. Open to ridicule.
derision n. Ridicule.
derivation n. That process by which a word is traced from its original root or primitive form and meaning.
derivative adj. Coming or acquired from some origin.
derive v. To deduce, as from a premise.
dermatology n. The branch of medical science which relates to the skin and its diseases.
derrick n. An apparatus for hoisting and swinging great weights.
descendant n. One who is descended lineally from another, as a child, grandchild, etc.
descendent adj. Proceeding downward.
descent n. The act of moving or going downward.
descry v. To discern.
desert v. To abandon without regard to the welfare of the abandoned
desiccant n. Any remedy which, when applied externally, dries up or absorbs moisture, as that of wounds.
designate v. To select or appoint, as by authority.
desist v. To cease from action.
desistance n. Cessation.
despair n. Utter hopelessness and despondency.
desperado n. One without regard for law or life.
desperate adj. Resorted to in a last extremity, or as if prompted by utter despair.
despicable adj. Contemptible.
despite prep. In spite of.
despond v. To lose spirit, courage, or hope.
despondent adj. Disheartened.
despot n. An absolute and irresponsible monarch.
despotism n. Any severe and strict rule in which the judgment of the governed has little or no part.
destitute adj. Poverty-stricken.
desultory adj. Not connected with what precedes.
deter v. To frighten away.
deteriorate v. To grow worse.
determinate adj. Definitely limited or fixed.
determination n. The act of deciding.
deterrent adj. Hindering from action through fear.
detest v. To dislike or hate with intensity.
detract v. To take away in such manner as to lessen value or estimation.
detriment n. Something that causes damage, depreciation, or loss.
detrude v. To push down forcibly.
deviate v. To take a different course.
devilry n. Malicious mischief.
deviltry n. Wanton and malicious mischief.
devious adj. Out of the common or regular track.
devise v. To invent.
devout adj. Religious.
dexterity n. Readiness, precision, efficiency, and ease in any physical activity or in any mechanical work.
diabolic adj. Characteristic of the devil.
diacritical adj. Marking a difference.
diagnose v. To distinguish, as a disease, by its characteristic phenomena.
diagnosis n. Determination of the distinctive nature of a disease.
dialect n. Forms of speech collectively that are peculiar to the people of a particular district.
dialectician n. A logician.
dialogue n. A formal conversation in which two or more take part.
diaphanous adj. Transparent.
diatomic adj. Containing only two atoms.
diatribe n. A bitter or malicious criticism.
dictum n. A positive utterance.
didactic adj. Pertaining to teaching.
difference n. Dissimilarity in any respect.
differentia n. Any essential characteristic of a species by reason of which it differs from other species.
differential adj. Distinctive.
differentiate v. To acquire a distinct and separate character.
diffidence n. Self-distrust.
diffident adj. Affected or possessed with self-distrust.
diffusible adj. Spreading rapidly through the system and acting quickly.
diffusion n. Dispersion.
dignitary n. One who holds high rank.
digraph n. A union of two characters representing a single sound.
digress v. To turn aside from the main subject and for a time dwell on some incidental matter.
dilapidated pa. Fallen into decay or partial ruin.
dilate v. To enlarge in all directions.
dilatory adj. Tending to cause delay.
dilemma n. A situation in which a choice between opposing modes of conduct is necessary.
dilettante n. A superficial amateur.
diligence n. Careful and persevering effort to accomplish what is undertaken.
dilute v. To make more fluid or less concentrated by admixture with something.
diminution n. Reduction.
dimly adv. Obscurely.
diphthong n. The sound produced by combining two vowels in to a single syllable or running together the sounds.
diplomacy n. Tact, shrewdness, or skill in conducting any kind of negotiations or in social matters.
diplomat n. A representative of one sovereign state at the capital or court of another.
diplomatic adj. Characterized by special tact in negotiations.
diplomatist n. One remarkable for tact and shrewd management.
disagree v. To be opposite in opinion.
disallow v. To withhold permission or sanction.
disappear v. To cease to exist, either actually or for the time being.
disappoint v. To fail to fulfill the expectation, hope, wish, or desire of.
disapprove v. To regard with blame.
disarm v. To deprive of weapons.
disarrange v. To throw out of order.
disavow v. To disclaim responsibility for.
disavowal n. Denial.
disbeliever n. One who refuses to believe.
disburden v. To disencumber.
disburse v. To pay out or expend, as money from a fund.
discard v. To reject.
discernible adj. Perceivable.
disciple n. One who believes the teaching of another, or who adopts and follows some doctrine.
disciplinary adj. Having the nature of systematic training or subjection to authority.
discipline v. To train to obedience.
disclaim v. To disavow any claim to, connection with, or responsibility to.
discolor v. To stain.
discomfit v. To put to confusion.
discomfort n. The state of being positively uncomfortable.
disconnect v. To undo or dissolve the connection or association of.
disconsolate adj. Grief-stricken.
discontinuance n. Interruption or intermission.
discord n. Absence of harmoniousness.
discountenance v. To look upon with disfavor.
discover v. To get first sight or knowledge of, as something previously unknown or unperceived.
discredit v. To injure the reputation of.
discreet adj. Judicious.
discriminate v. To draw a distinction.
discursive adj. Passing from one subject to another.
discussion n. Debate.
disenfranchise v. To deprive of any right privilege or power
disengage v. To become detached.
disfavor n. Disregard.
disfigure v. To impair or injure the beauty, symmetry, or appearance of.
dishabille n. Undress or negligent attire.
dishonest adj. Untrustworthy.
disinfect v. To remove or destroy the poison of infectious or contagious diseases.
disinfectant n. A substance used to destroy the germs of infectious diseases.
disinherit v. To deprive of an inheritance.
disinterested adj. Impartial.
disjunctive adj. Helping or serving to disconnect or separate.
dislocate v. To put out of proper place or order.
dismissal n. Displacement by authority from an office or an employment.
dismount v. To throw down, push off, or otherwise remove from a horse or the like.
disobedience n. Neglect or refusal to comply with an authoritative injunction.
disobedient adj. Neglecting or refusing to obey.
disown v. To refuse to acknowledge as one's own or as connected with oneself.
disparage v. To regard or speak of slightingly.
disparity n. Inequality.
dispel v. To drive away by or as by scattering in different directions.
dispensation n. That which is bestowed on or appointed to one from a higher power.
displace v. To put out of the proper or accustomed place.
dispossess v. To deprive of actual occupancy, especially of real estate.
disputation n. Verbal controversy.
disquiet v. To deprive of peace or tranquillity.
disregard v. To take no notice of.
disreputable adj. Dishonorable or disgraceful.
disrepute n. A bad name or character.
disrobe v. To unclothe.
disrupt v. To burst or break asunder.
dissatisfy v. To displease.
dissect v. To cut apart or to pieces.
dissection n. The act or operation of cutting in pieces, specifically of a plant or an animal.
dissemble v. To hide by pretending something different.
disseminate v. To sow or scatter abroad, as seed is sown.
dissension n. Angry or violent difference of opinion.
dissent n. Disagreement.
dissentient n. One who disagrees.
dissentious adj. Contentious.
disservice n. An ill turn.
dissever v. To divide.
dissipate v. To disperse or disappear.
dissipation n. The state of being dispersed or scattered.
dissolute adj. Lewd.
dissolution n. A breaking up of a union of persons.
dissolve v. To liquefy or soften, as by heat or moisture.
dissonance n. Discord.
dissonant adj. Harsh or disagreeable in sound.
dissuade v. To change the purpose or alter the plans of by persuasion, counsel, or pleading.
dissuasion n. The act of changing the purpose of or altering the plans of through persuasion, or pleading.
disyllable n. A word of two syllables.
distemper n. A disease or malady.
distend v. To stretch out or expand in every direction.
distensible adj. Capable of being stretched out or expanded in every direction.
distention n. Expansion.
distill v. To extract or produce by vaporization and condensation.
distillation n. Separation of the more volatile parts of a substance from those less volatile.
distiller n. One occupied in the business of distilling alcoholic liquors.
distinction n. A note or designation of honor, officially recognizing superiority or success in studies.
distort v. To twist into an unnatural or irregular form.
distrain v. To subject a person to distress.
distrainor n. One who subjects a person to distress.
distraught adj. Bewildered.
distrust n. Lack of confidence in the power, wisdom, or good intent of any person.
disunion n. Separation of relations or interests.
diurnal adj. Daily.
divergent adj. Tending in different directions.
diverse adj. Capable of various forms.
diversion n. Pastime.
diversity n. Dissimilitude.
divert v. To turn from the accustomed course or a line of action already established.
divertible adj. Able to be turned from the accustomed course or a line of action already established.
divest v. To strip, specifically of clothes, ornaments, or accouterments or disinvestment.
divination n. The pretended forecast of future events or discovery of what is lost or hidden.
divinity n. The quality or character of being godlike.
divisible adj. Capable of being separated into parts.
divisor n. That by which a number or quantity is divided.
divulge v. To tell or make known, as something previously private or secret.
divulgence n. A divulging.
docile adj. Easy to manage.
docket n. The registry of judgments of a court.
doe n. The female of the deer.
dogma n. A statement of religious faith or duty formulated by a body claiming authority.
dogmatic adj. Making statements without argument or evidence.
dogmatize v. To make positive assertions without supporting them by argument or evidence.
doleful adj. Melancholy.
dolorous adj. Expressing or causing sorrow or pain.
domain n. A sphere or field of action or interest.
domesticity n. Life in or fondness for one's home and family.
domicile n. The place where one lives.
dominance n. Ascendancy.
dominate v. To influence controllingly.
domination n. Control by the exercise of power or constituted authority.
domineer v. To rule with insolence or unnecessary annoyance.
donate v. To bestow as a gift, especially for a worthy cause.
donator n. One who makes a donation or present.
donee n. A person to whom a donation is made.
donor n. One who makes a donation or present.
dormant adj. Being in a state of or resembling sleep.
doublet n. One of a pair of like things.
doubly adv. In twofold degree or extent.
dowry n. The property which a wife brings to her husband in marriage.
drachma n. A modern and an ancient Greek coin.
dragnet n. A net to be drawn along the bottom of the water.
dragoon n. In the British army, a cavalryman.
drainage n. The means of draining collectively, as a system of conduits, trenches, pipes, etc.
dramatist n. One who writes plays.
dramatize v. To relate or represent in a dramatic or theatrical manner.
drastic adj. Acting vigorously.
drought n. Dry weather, especially when so long continued as to cause vegetation to wither.
drowsy adj. Heavy with sleepiness.
drudgery n. Hard and constant work in any menial or dull occupation.
dubious adj. Doubtful.
duckling n. A young duck.
ductile adj. Capable of being drawn out, as into wire or a thread.
duet n. A composition for two voices or instruments.
dun v. To make a demand or repeated demands on for payment.
duplex adj. Having two parts.
duplicity n. Double-dealing.
duration n. The period of time during which anything lasts.
duteous adj. Showing submission to natural superiors.
dutiable adj. Subject to a duty, especially a customs duty.
dutiful adj. Obedient.
dwindle v. To diminish or become less.
dyne n. The force which, applied to a mass of one gram for 1 second, would give it a velocity of 1 cm/s.
earnest adj. Ardent in spirit and speech.
earthenware n. Anything made of clay and baked in a kiln or dried in the sun.
eatable adj. Edible.
ebullient adj. Showing enthusiasm or exhilaration of feeling.
eccentric adj. Peculiar.
eccentricity n. Idiosyncrasy.
eclipse n. The obstruction of a heavenly body by its entering into the shadow of another body.
economize v. To spend sparingly.
ecstasy n. Rapturous excitement or exaltation.
ecstatic adj. Enraptured.
edible adj. Suitable to be eaten.
edict n. That which is uttered or proclaimed by authority as a rule of action.
edify v. To build up, or strengthen, especially in morals or religion.
editorial n. An article in a periodical written by the editor and published as an official argument.
educe v. To draw out.
efface v. To obliterate.
effective adj. Fit for a destined purpose.
effectual adj. Efficient.
effeminate adj. Having womanish traits or qualities.
effervesce v. To bubble up.
effervescent adj. Giving off bubbles of gas.
effete adj. Exhausted, as having performed its functions.
efficacious adj. Effective.
efficacy n. The power to produce an intended effect as shown in the production of it.
efficiency n. The state of possessing adequate skill or knowledge for the performance of a duty.
efficient adj. Having and exercising the power to produce effects or results.
efflorescence n. The state of being flowery, or a flowery appearance.
efflorescent adj. Opening in flower.
effluvium n. A noxious or ill-smelling exhalation from decaying or putrefying matter.
effrontery n. Unblushing impudence.
effuse v. To pour forth.
effusion n. an outpouring.
egoism n. The theory that places man's chief good in the completeness of self.
egoist n. One who advocates or practices egoism.
egotism n. Self-conceit.
egotist n. One given to self-mention or who is constantly telling of his own views and experiences.
egregious adj. Extreme.
egress n. Any place of exit.
eject v. To expel.
elapse v. To quietly terminate: said of time.
elasticity n. That property of matter by which a body tends to return to a former shape after being changed.
electrolysis n. The process of decomposing a chemical compound by the passage of an electric current.
electrotype n. A metallic copy of any surface, as a coin.
elegy n. A lyric poem lamenting the dead.
element n. A component or essential part.
elicit v. To educe or extract gradually or without violence.
eligible adj. Qualified for selection.
eliminate v. To separate and cast aside.
Elizabethan adj. Relating to Elizabeth, queen of England, or to her era.
elocution n. The art of correct intonation, inflection, and gesture in public speaking or reading.
eloquent adj. Having the ability to express emotion or feeling in lofty and impassioned speech.
elucidate v. To bring out more clearly the facts concerning.
elude v. To evade the search or pursuit of by dexterity or artifice.
elusion n. Evasion.
emaciate v. To waste away in flesh.
emanate v. To flow forth or proceed, as from some source.
emancipate v. To release from bondage.
embargo n. Authoritative stoppage of foreign commerce or of any special trade.
embark v. To make a beginning in some occupation or scheme.
embarrass v. To render flustered or agitated.
embellish v. To make beautiful or elegant by adding attractive or ornamental features.
embezzle v. To misappropriate secretly.
emblazon v. To set forth publicly or in glowing terms.
emblem n. A symbol.
embody v. To express, formulate, or exemplify in a concrete, compact or visible form.
embolden v. To give courage to.
embolism n. An obstruction or plugging up of an artery or other blood-vessel.
embroil v. To involve in dissension or strife.
emerge v. To come into view or into existence.
emergence n. A coming into view.
emergent adj. Coming into view.
emeritus adj. Retired from active service but retained to an honorary position.
emigrant n. One who moves from one place to settle in another.
emigrate v. To go from one country, state, or region for the purpose of settling or residing in another.
eminence n. An elevated position with respect to rank, place, character, condition, etc.
eminent adj. High in station, merit, or esteem.
emit v. To send or give out.
emphasis n. Any special impressiveness added to an utterance or act, or stress laid upon some word.
emphasize v. To articulate or enunciate with special impressiveness upon a word, or a group of words.
emphatic adj. Spoken with any special impressiveness laid upon an act, word, or set of words.
employee n. One who works for wages or a salary.
employer n. One who uses or engages the services of other persons for pay.
emporium n. A bazaar or shop.
empower v. To delegate authority to.
emulate v. To imitate with intent to equal or surpass.
enact v. To make into law, as by legislative act.
enamor v. To inspire with ardent love.
encamp v. To pitch tents for a resting-place.
encomium n. A formal or discriminating expression of praise.
encompass v. To encircle.
encore n. The call for a repetition, as of some part of a play or performance.
encourage v. To inspire with courage, hope, or strength of mind.
encroach v. To invade partially or insidiously and appropriate the possessions of another.
encumber v. To impede with obstacles.
encyclical adj. Intended for general circulation.
encyclopedia n. A work containing information on subjects, or exhaustive of one subject.
endanger v. To expose to peril.
endear v. To cause to be loved.
endemic adj. Peculiar to some specified country or people.
endue v. To endow with some quality, gift, or grace, usually spiritual.
endurable adj. Tolerable.
endurance n. The ability to suffer pain, distress, hardship, or stress of any kind without succumbing.
energetic adj. Working vigorously.
enervate v. To render ineffective or inoperative.
enfeeble v. To debilitate.
enfranchise v. To endow with a privilege, especially with the right to vote.
engender v. To produce.
engrave v. To cut or carve in or upon some surface.
engross v. To occupy completely.
enhance v. To intensify.
enrapture v. To delight extravagantly or intensely.
enshrine v. To keep sacred.
ensnare v. To entrap.
entail v. To involve; necessitate.
entangle v. To involve in difficulties, confusion, or complications.
enthrall v. To bring or hold under any overmastering influence.
enthrone v. To invest with sovereign power.
enthuse v. To yield to or display intense and rapturous feeling.
enthusiastic adj. Full of zeal and fervor.
entirety n. A complete thing.
entomology n. The branch of zoology that treats of insects.
entrails n. pl. The internal parts of an animal.
entreaty n. An earnest request.
entree n. The act of entering.
entrench v. To fortify or protect, as with a trench or ditch and wall.
entwine v. To interweave.
enumerate v. To name one by one.
epic n. A poem celebrating in formal verse the mythical achievements of great personages, heroes, etc.
epicure n. One who cultivates a delicate taste for eating and drinking.
Epicurean adj. Indulging, ministering, or pertaining to daintiness of appetite.
epicycle n. A circle that rolls upon the external or internal circumference of another circle.
epicycloid n. A curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls upon another circle.
epidemic n. Wide-spread occurrence of a disease in a certain region.
epidermis n. The outer skin.
epigram n. A pithy phrasing of a shrewd observation.
epilogue n. The close of a narrative or dramatic poem.
epiphany n. Any appearance or bodily manifestation of a deity.
episode n. An incident or story in a literary work, separable from yet growing out of it.
epitaph n. An inscription on a tomb or monument in honor or in memory of the dead.
epithet n. Word used adjectivally to describe some quality or attribute of is objects, as in "Father Aeneas".
epitome n. A simplified representation.
epizootic adj. Prevailing among animals.
epoch n. A interval of time, memorable for extraordinary events.
epode n. A species of lyric poems.
equalize v. To render uniform.
equanimity n. Evenness of mind or temper.
equestrian adj. Pertaining to horses or horsemanship.
equilibrium n. A state of balance.
equitable adj. Characterized by fairness.
equity n. Fairness or impartiality.
equivalent adj. Equal in value, force, meaning, or the like.
equivocal adj. Ambiguous.
equivocate v. To use words of double meaning.
eradicate v. To destroy thoroughly.
errant adj. Roving or wandering, as in search of adventure or opportunity for gallant deeds.
erratic adj. Irregular.
erudition n. Extensive knowledge of literature, history, language, etc.
eschew v. To keep clear of.
espy v. To keep close watch.
esquire n. A title of dignity, office, or courtesy.
essence n. That which makes a thing to be what it is.
esthetic adj. Pertaining to beauty, taste, or the fine arts.
estimable adj. Worthy of respect.
estrange v. To alienate.
estuary n. A wide lower part of a tidal river.
et cetera Latin. And so forth.
eugenic adj. Relating to the development and improvement of race.
eulogize v. To speak or write a laudation of a person's life or character.
eulogy n. A spoken or written laudation of a person's life or character.
euphemism n. A figure of speech by which a phrase less offensive is substituted.
euphonious adj. Characterized by agreeableness of sound.
euphony n. Agreeableness of sound.
eureka Greek. I have found it.
evade v. To avoid by artifice.
evanesce v. To vanish gradually.
evanescent adj. Fleeting.
evangelical adj. Seeking the conversion of sinners.
evangelist n. A preacher who goes from place to place holding services.
evasion n. Escape.
evert v. To turn inside out.
evict v. To dispossess pursuant to judicial decree.
evidential adj. Indicative.
evince v. To make manifest or evident.
evoke v. To call or summon forth.
evolution n. Development or growth.
evolve v. To unfold or expand.
exacerbate v. To make more sharp, severe, or virulent.
exaggerate v. To overstate.
exasperate v. To excite great anger in.
excavate v. To remove by digging or scooping out.
exceed v. To go beyond, as in measure, quality, value, action, power, skill, etc.
excel v. To be superior or distinguished.
excellence n. Possession of eminently or unusually good qualities.
excellency n. A title of honor bestowed upon various high officials.
excellent adj. Possessing distinguished merit.
excerpt n. An extract or selection from written or printed matter.
excess n. That which passes the ordinary, proper, or required limit, measure, or experience.
excitable adj. Nervously high-strung.
excitation n. Intensified emotion or action.
exclamation n. An abrupt or emphatic expression of thought or of feeling.
exclude v. To shut out purposely or forcibly.
exclusion n. Non-admission.
excrescence n. Any unnatural addition, outgrowth, or development.
excretion n. The getting rid of waste matter.
excruciate v. To inflict severe pain or agony upon.
excursion n. A journey.
execration n. An accursed thing.
executor n. A person nominated by the will of another to execute the will.
exegesis n. Biblical exposition or interpretation.
exemplar n. A model, pattern, or original to be copied or imitated.
exemplary adj. Fitted to serve as a model or example worthy of imitation.
exemplify v. To show by example.
exempt adj. Free, clear, or released, as from some liability, or restriction affecting others.
exert v. To make an effort.
exhale v. To breathe forth.
exhaust v. To empty by draining off the contents.
exhaustible adj. Causing or tending to cause exhaustion.
exhaustion n. Deprivation of strength or energy.
exhaustive adj. Thorough and complete in execution.
exhilarate v. To fill with high or cheerful spirits.
exhume v. To dig out of the earth (what has been buried).
exigency n. A critical period or condition.
exigent adj. Urgent.
existence n. Possession or continuance of being.
exit n. A way or passage out.
exodus n. A going forth or departure from a place or country, especially of many people.
exonerate v. To relieve or vindicate from accusation, imputation, or blame.
exorbitance n. Extravagance or enormity.
exorbitant adj. Going beyond usual and proper limits.
exorcise v. To cast or drive out by religious or magical means.
exotic adj. Foreign.
expand v. To increase in range or scope.
expanse n. A continuous area or stretch.
expansion n. Increase of amount, size, scope, or the like.
expatriate v. To drive from one's own country.
expect v. To look forward to as certain or probable.
expectancy n. The act or state of looking forward to as certain or probable.
expectorate v. To cough up and spit forth.
expediency n. Fitness to meet the requirements of a particular case.
expedient adj. Contributing to personal advantage.
expedite v. To hasten the movement or progress of.
expeditious adj. Speedy.
expend v. To spend.
expense n. The laying out or expending or money or other resources, as time or strength.
expiate v. To make satisfaction or amends for.
explicate v. To clear from involvement.
explicit adj. Definite.
explode v. To cause to burst in pieces by force from within.
explosion n. A sudden and violent outbreak.
explosive adj. Pertaining to a sudden and violent outbreak.
exposition n. Formal presentation.
expository adj. Pertaining to a formal presentation.
expostulate v. To discuss.
exposure n. An open situation or position in relation to the sun, elements, or points of the compass.
expressive adj. Full of meaning.
expulsion n. Forcible ejection.
extant adj. Still existing and known.
extemporaneous adj. Done or made without much or any preparation.
extempore adv. Without studied or special preparation.
extensible adj. Capable of being thrust out.
extension n. A reaching or stretching out, as in space, time or scope.
extensive adj. Extended widely in space, time, or scope.
extensor n. A muscle that causes extension.
extenuate v. To diminish the gravity or importance of.
exterior n. That which is outside.
external n. Anything relating or belonging to the outside.
extinct adj. Being no longer in existence.
extinguish v. To render extinct.
extol v. To praise in the highest terms.
extort v. To obtain by violence, threats, compulsion, or the subjection of another to some necessity.
extortion n. The practice of obtaining by violence or compulsion.
extradite v. To surrender the custody of.
extradition n. The surrender by a government of a person accused of crime to the justice of another government.
extrajudicial adj. Happening out of court.
extraneous adj. Having no essential relation to a subject.
extraordinary adj. Unusual.
extravagance n. Undue expenditure of money.
extravagant adj. Needlessly free or lavish in expenditure.
extremist n. One who supports extreme measures or holds extreme views.
extremity n. The utmost point, side, or border, or that farthest removed from a mean position.
extricate v. Disentangle.
extrude v. To drive out or away.
exuberance n. Rich supply.
exuberant adj. Marked by great plentifulness.
fabricate v. To invent fancifully or falsely.
fabulous adj. Incredible.
facet n. One of the small triangular plane surfaces of a diamond or other gem.
facetious adj. Amusing.
facial adj. Pertaining to the face.
facile adj. Not difficult to do.
facilitate v. To make more easy.
facility n. Ease.
facsimile n. An exact copy or reproduction.
faction n. A number of persons combined for a common purpose.
factious adj. Turbulent.
fallacy n. Any unsound or delusive mode of reasoning, or anything based on such reasoning.
fallible adj. Capable of erring.
fallow n. Land broken up and left to become mellow or to rest.
famish v. To suffer extremity of hunger or thirst.
fanatic n. A religious zealot.
fancier n. One having a taste for or interest in special objects.
fanciless adj. Unimaginative.
fastidious adj. Hard to please.
fathom n. A measure of length, 6 feet.
fatuous adj. Idiotic
faulty adj. Imperfect.
faun n. One of a class of deities of the woods and herds represented as half human, with goats feet.
fawn n. A young deer.
fealty n. Loyalty.
feasible adj. That may be done, performed, or effected; practicable.
federate v. To league together.
feint n. Any sham, pretense, or deceptive movement.
felicitate v. To wish joy or happiness to, especially in view of a coming event.
felicity n. A state of well-founded happiness.
felon n. A criminal or depraved person.
felonious adj. Showing criminal or evil purpose.
felony n. One of the highest class of offenses, and punishable with death or imprisonment.
feminine adj. Characteristic of woman or womankind.
fernery n. A place in which ferns are grown.
ferocious adj. Of a wild, fierce, and savage nature.
ferocity n. Savageness.
fervent adj. Ardent in feeling.
fervid adj. Intense.
fervor n. Ardor or intensity of feeling.
festal adj. Joyous.
fete n. A festival or feast.
fetus n. The young in the womb or in the egg.
feudal adj. Pertaining to the relation of lord and vassal.
feudalism n. The feudal system.
fez n. A brimless felt cap in the shape of a truncated cone, usually red with a black tassel.
fiasco n. A complete or humiliating failure.
fickle adj. Unduly changeable in feeling, judgment, or purpose.
fictitious adj. Created or formed by the imagination.
fidelity n. Loyalty.
fiducial adj. Indicative of faith or trust.
fief n. A landed estate held under feudal tenure.
filibuster n. One who attempts to obstruct legislation.
finale n. Concluding performance.
finality n. The state or quality of being final or complete.
finally adv. At last.
financier n. One skilled in or occupied with financial affairs or operations.
finery n. That which is used to decorate the person or dress.
finesse n. Subtle contrivance used to gain a point.
finite adj. Limited.
fiscal adj. Pertaining to the treasury or public finances of a government.
fishmonger n. One who sells fish.
fissure n. A crack or crack-like depression.
fitful adj. Spasmodic.
fixture n. One who or that which is expected to remain permanently in its position.
flag-officer n. The captain of a flag-ship.
flagrant adj. Openly scandalous.
flamboyant adj. Characterized by extravagance and in general by want of good taste.
flatulence n. Accumulation of gas in the stomach and bowels.
flection n. The act of bending.
fledgling n. A young bird.
flexible adj. Pliable.
flimsy adj. Thin and weak.
flippant adj. Having a light, pert, trifling disposition.
floe n. A collection of tabular masses of floating polar ice.
flora n. The aggregate of plants growing without cultivation in a district.
floral adj. Pertaining to flowers.
florid adj. Flushed with red.
florist n. A dealer in flowers.
fluctuate v. To pass backward and forward irregularly from one state or degree to another.
fluctuation n. Frequent irregular change back and forth from one state or degree to another.
flue n. A smoke-duct in a chimney.
fluent adj. Having a ready or easy flow of words or ideas.
fluential adj. Pertaining to streams.
flux n. A state of constant movement, change, or renewal.
foggy adj. Obscure.
foible n. A personal weakness or failing.
foist v. To palm off.
foliage n. Any growth of leaves.
folio n. A sheet of paper folded once, or of a size adapted to folding once.
folk-lore n. The traditions, beliefs, and customs of the common people.
fondle v. To handle tenderly and lovingly.
foolery n. Folly.
foot-note n. A note of explanation or comment at the foot of a page or column.
foppery n. Dandyism.
foppish adj. Characteristic of one who is unduly devoted to dress and the niceties of manners.
forbearance n. Patient endurance or toleration of offenses.
forby adv. Besides.
forecourt n. A court opening directly from the street.
forejudge v. To judge of before hearing evidence.
forepeak n. The extreme forward part of a ship's hold, under the lowest deck.
foreshore n. That part of a shore uncovered at low tide.
forebode v. To be an omen or warning sign of, especially of evil.
forecast v. To predict.
forecastle n. That part of the upper deck of a ship forward of the after fore-shrouds.
foreclose v. To bar by judicial proceedings the equitable right of a mortgagor to redeem property.
forefather n. An ancestor.
forego v. To deny oneself the pleasure or profit of.
foreground n. That part of a landscape or picture situated or represented as nearest the spectator.
forehead n. The upper part of the face, between the eyes and the hair.
foreign adj. Belonging to, situated in, or derived from another country.
foreigner n. A citizen of a foreign country.
foreknowledge n. Prescience.
foreman n. The head man.
foreordain v. To predetermine.
forerun v. To go before as introducing or ushering in.
foresail n. A square sail.
foresee v. To discern beforehand.
foresight n. Provision against harm or need.
foretell v. To predict.
forfeit v. To lose possession of through failure to fulfill some obligation.
forfend v. To ward off.
forgery n. Counterfeiting.
forgo v. To deny oneself.
formation n. Relative disposition of parts.
formidable adj. Difficult to accomplish.
formula n. Fixed rule or set form.
forswear v. To renounce upon oath.
forte n. A strong point.
forth adv. Into notice or view.
forthright adv. With directness.
fortify v. To provide with defensive works.
fortitude n. Patient courage.
foursome adj. Consisting of four.
fracture n. A break.
frailty n. Liability to be broken or destroyed.
fragile adj. Capable of being broken.
frankincense n. A gum or resin which on burning yields aromatic fumes.
frantic adj. Frenzied.
fray v. To fret at the edge so as to loosen or break the threads.
freemason n. A member of an ancient secret fraternity originally confined to skilled artisans.
freethinker n. One who rejects authority or inspiration in religion.
free trade n. Commerce unrestricted by tariff or customs.
frequency n. The comparative number of any kind of occurrences within a given time or space.
fresco n. The art of painting on a surface of plaster, particularly on walls and ceilings.
freshness n. The state, quality, or degree of being fresh.
fretful adj. Disposed to peevishness.
frightful adj. Apt to induce terror or alarm.
frigid adj. Lacking warmth.
frigidarium n. A room kept at a low temperature for preserving fruits, meat, etc.
frivolity n. A trifling act, thought, saying, or practice.
frivolous adj. Trivial.
frizz v. To give a crinkled, fluffy appearance to.
frizzle v. To cause to crinkle or curl, as the hair.
frolicsome adj. Prankish.
frontier n. The part of a nation's territory that abuts upon another country.
frowzy adj. Slovenly in appearance.
frugal adj. Economical.
fruition n. Fulfillment.
fugacious adj. Fleeting.
fulcrum n. The support on or against which a lever rests, or the point about which it turns.
fulminate v. To cause to explode.
fulsome adj. Offensive from excess of praise or commendation.
fumigate v. To subject to the action of smoke or fumes, especially for disinfection.
functionary n. An official.
fungible adj. That may be measured, counted, or weighed.
fungous adj. Spongy.
fungus n. A plant destitute of chlorophyll, as a mushroom.
furbish v. To restore brightness or beauty to.
furlong n. A measure, one-eighth of a mile.
furlough n. A temporary absence of a soldier or sailor by permission of the commanding officer.
furrier n. A dealer in or maker of fur goods.
further adj. More distant or advanced.
furtherance n. Advancement.
furtive adj. Stealthy or sly, like the actions of a thief.
fuse v. To unite or blend as by melting together.
fusible adj. Capable of being melted by heat.
futile adj. Of no avail or effect.
futurist n. A person of expectant temperament.
gauge n. An instrument for measuring.
gaiety n. Festivity.
gait n. Carriage of the body in going.
gallant adj. Possessing a brave or chivalrous spirit.
galore adj. Abundant.
galvanic adj. Pertaining or relating to electricity produced by chemical action.
galvanism n. Current electricity, especially that arising from chemical action.
galvanize v. To imbue with life or animation.
gamble v. To risk money or other possession on an event, chance, or contingency.
gambol n. Playful leaping or frisking.
gamester n. A gambler.
gamut n. The whole range or sequence.
garnish v. In cookery, to surround with additions for embellishment.
garrison n. The military force stationed in a fort, town, or other place for its defense.
garrote v. To execute by strangling.
garrulous adj. Given to constant trivial talking.
gaseous adj. Light and unsubstantial.
gastric adj. Of, pertaining to, or near the stomach.
gastritis n. Inflammation of the stomach.
gastronomy n. The art of preparing and serving appetizing food.
gendarme n. In continental Europe, particularly in France, a uniformed and armed police officer.
genealogy n. A list, in the order of succession, of ancestors and their descendants.
genealogist n. A tracer of pedigrees.
generality n. The principal portion.
generalize v. To draw general inferences.
generally adv. Ordinarily.
generate v. To produce or cause to be.
generic adj. Noting a genus or kind; opposed to specific.
generosity n. A disposition to give liberally or to bestow favors heartily.
genesis n. Creation.
geniality n. Warmth and kindliness of disposition.
genital adj. Of or pertaining to the animal reproductive organs.
genitive adj. Indicating source, origin, possession, or the like.
genteel adj. Well-bred or refined.
gentile adj. Belonging to a people not Jewish.
geology n. The department of natural science that treats of the constitution and structure of the earth.
germane adj. Relevant.
germinate v. To begin to develop into an embryo or higher form.
gestation n. Pregnancy.
gesticulate v. To make gestures or motions, as in speaking, or in place of speech.
gesture n. A movement or action of the hands or face, expressive of some idea or emotion.
ghastly adj. Hideous.
gibe v. To utter taunts or reproaches.
giddy adj. Affected with a whirling or swimming sensation in the head.
gigantic adj. Tremendous.
giver n. One who gives, in any sense.
glacial adj. Icy, or icily cold.
glacier n. A field or stream of ice.
gladden v. To make joyous.
glazier n. One who cuts and fits panes of glass, as for windows.
glimmer n. A faint, wavering, unsteady light.
glimpse n. A momentary look.
globose adj. Spherical.
glorious adj. Of excellence and splendor.
glutinous adj. Sticky.
gluttonous adj. Given to excess in eating.
gnash v. To grind or strike the teeth together, as from rage.
Gordian knot n. Any difficulty the only issue out of which is by bold or unusual manners.
gourmand n. A connoisseur in the delicacies of the table.
gosling n. A young goose.
gossamer adj. Flimsy.
gourd n. A melon, pumpkin, squash, or some similar fruit having a hard rind.
graceless adj. Ungracious.
gradation n. A step, degree, rank, or relative position in an order or series.
gradient adj. Moving or advancing by steps.
granary n. A storehouse for grain after it is thrashed or husked.
grandeur n. The quality of being grand or admirably great.
grandiloquent adj. Speaking in or characterized by a pompous or bombastic style.
grandiose adj. Having an imposing style or effect.
grantee n. The person to whom property is transferred by deed.
grantor n. The maker of a deed.
granular adj. Composed of small grains or particles.
granulate v. To form into grains or small particles.
granule n. A small grain or particle.
grapple v. To take hold of.
gratification n. Satisfaction.
gratify v. To please, as by satisfying a physical or mental desire or need.
gratuitous adj. Voluntarily.
gratuity n. That which is given without demand or claim. Tip.
gravity n. Seriousness.
gregarious adj. Not habitually solitary or living alone.
grenadier n. A member of a regiment composed of men of great stature.
grief n. Sorrow.
grievance n. That which oppresses, injures, or causes grief and at the same time a sense of wrong.
grievous adj. Creating affliction.
grimace n. A distortion of the features, occasioned by some feeling of pain, disgust, etc.
grindstone n. A flat circular stone, used for sharpening tools.
grisly adj. Fear-inspiring.
grotesque adj. Incongruously composed or ill-proportioned.
grotto n. A small cavern.
ground n. A pavement or floor or any supporting surface on which one may walk.
guess n. Surmise.
heifer n. A young cow.
heinous adj. Odiously sinful.
hemorrhage n. Discharge of blood from a ruptured or wounded blood-vessel.
hemorrhoids n. pl. Tumors composed of enlarged and thickened blood-vessels, at the lower end of the rectum.
henchman n. A servile assistant and subordinate.
henpeck v. To worry or harass by ill temper and petty annoyances.
heptagon n. A figure having seven sides and seven angles.
heptarchy n. A group of seven governments.
herbaceous adj. Having the character of a herb.
herbarium n. A collection of dried plants scientifically arranged for study.
herbivorous adj. Feeding on herbs or other vegetable matter, as animals.
hereditary adj. Passing naturally from parent to child.
heredity n. Transmission of physical or mental qualities, diseases, etc., from parent to offspring.
heresy n. An opinion or doctrine subversive of settled beliefs or accepted principles.
heretic n. One who holds opinions contrary to the recognized standards or tenets of any philosophy.
heritage n. Birthright.
hernia n. Protrusion of any internal organ in whole or in part from its normal position.
hesitancy n. A pausing to consider.
hesitant adj. Vacillating.
heterodox adj. At variance with any commonly accepted doctrine or opinion.
heterogeneity n. Unlikeness of constituent parts.
heterogeneous adj. Consisting of dissimilar elements or ingredients of different kinds.
heteromorphic adj. Deviating from the normal form or standard type.
hexangular adj. Having six angles.
hexapod adj. Having six feet.
hexagon n. A figure with six angles.
hiatus n. A break or vacancy where something necessary to supply the connection is wanting.
hibernal adj. Pertaining to winter.
Hibernian adj. Pertaining to Ireland, or its people.
hideous adj. Appalling.
hillock n. A small hill or mound.
hinder v. To obstruct.
hindmost adj. Farthest from the front.
hindrance n. An obstacle.
hirsute adj. Having a hairy covering.
hoard v. To gather and store away for the sake of accumulation.
hoarse adj. Having the voice harsh or rough, as from a cold or fatigue.
homage n. Reverential regard or worship.
homogeneity n. Congruity of the members or elements or parts.
homogeneous adj. Made up of similar parts or elements.
homologous adj. Identical in nature, make-up, or relation.
homonym n. A word agreeing in sound with but different in meaning from another.
homophone n. A word agreeing in sound with but different in meaning from another.
honorarium n. A token fee or payment to a professional man for services.
hoodwink v. To deceive.
horde n. A gathered multitude of human beings.
hosiery n. A stocking.
hospitable adj. Disposed to treat strangers or guests with generous kindness.
hospitality n. The practice of receiving and entertaining strangers and guests with kindness.
hostility n. Enmity.
huckster n. One who retails small wares.
humane adj. Compassionate.
humanize v. To make gentle or refined.
humbug n. Anything intended or calculated to deceive or mislead.
humiliate v. To put to shame.
hussar n. A light-horse trooper armed with saber and carbine.
hustle v. To move with haste and promptness.
hybrid adj. Cross-bred.
hydra n. The seven- or nine-headed water-serpent slain by Hercules.
hydraulic adj. Involving the moving of water, of the force exerted by water in motion.
hydrodynamics n. The branch of mechanics that treats of the dynamics of fluids.
hydroelectric adj. Pertaining to electricity developed water or steam.
hydromechanics n. The mechanics of fluids.
hydrometer n. An instrument for determining the density of solids and liquids by flotation.
hydrostatics n. The branch of science that treats of the pressure and equilibrium of fluids.
hydrous adj. Watery.
hygiene n. The branch of medical science that relates to improving health.
hypercritical adj. Faultfinding.
hypnosis n. An artificial trance-sleep.
hypnotic adj. Tending to produce sleep.
hypnotism n. An artificially induced somnambulistic state in which the mind readily acts on suggestion.
hypnotize v. To produce a somnambulistic state in which the mind readily acts on suggestions.
hypocrisy n. Extreme insincerity.
hypocrite n. One who makes false professions of his views or beliefs.
hypodermic adj. Pertaining to the area under the skin.
hypotenuse n. The side of a right-angled triangle opposite the right angle.
hypothesis n. A proposition taken for granted as a premise from which to reach a conclusion.
hysteria n. A nervous affection occurring typically in paroxysms of laughing and crying.
ichthyic adj. Fish-like.
ichthyology n. The branch of zoology that treats of fishes.
ichthyosaurs n. A fossil reptile.
icily adv. Frigidly.
iciness n. The state of being icy.
icon n. An image or likeness.
iconoclast n. An image-breaker.
idealize v. To make to conform to some mental or imaginary standard.
idiom n. A use of words peculiar to a particular language.
idiosyncrasy n. A mental quality or habit peculiar to an individual.
idolize v. To regard with inordinate love or admiration.
ignoble adj. Low in character or purpose.
ignominious adj. Shameful.
Iliad n. A Greek epic poem describing scenes from the siege of Troy.
illegal adj. Not according to law.
illegible adj. Undecipherable.
illiterate adj. Having little or no book-learning.
ill-natured adj. Surly.
illogical adj. Contrary to the rules of sound thought.
illuminant n. That which may be used to produce light.
illuminate v. To supply with light.
illumine v. To make bright or clear.
illusion n. An unreal image presented to the senses.
illusive adj. Deceptive.
illusory adj. Deceiving or tending to deceive, as by false appearance.
imaginable adj. That can be imagined or conceived in the mind.
imaginary adj. Fancied.
imbibe v. To drink or take in.
imbroglio n. A misunderstanding attended by ill feeling, perplexity, or strife.
imbrue v. To wet or moisten.
imitation n. That which is made as a likeness or copy.
imitator n. One who makes in imitation.
immaculate adj. Without spot or blemish.
immaterial adj. Of no essential consequence.
immature adj. Not full-grown.
immense adj. Very great in degree, extent, size, or quantity.
immerse v. To plunge or dip entirely under water or other fluid.
immersion n. The act of plunging or dipping entirely under water or another fluid.
immigrant n. A foreigner who enters a country to settle there.
immigrate v. To come into a country or region from a former habitat.
imminence n. Impending evil or danger.
imminent adj. Dangerous and close at hand.
immiscible adj. Separating, as oil and water.
immoral adj. Habitually engaged in licentious or lewd practices.
immortalize v. To cause to last or to be known or remembered throughout a great or indefinite length of time.
immovable adj. Steadfast.
immune adj. Exempt, as from disease.
immutable adj. Unchangeable.
impair v. To cause to become less or worse.
impalpable adj. Imperceptible to the touch.
impartial adj. Unbiased.
impassable adj. That can not be passed through or over.
impassible adj. Not moved or affected by feeling.
impassive adj. Unmoved by or not exhibiting feeling.
impatience n. Unwillingness to brook delays or wait the natural course of things.
impeccable adj. Blameless.
impecunious adj. Having no money.
impede v. To be an obstacle or to place obstacles in the way of.
impel v. To drive or urge forward.
impend v. To be imminent.
imperative adj. Obligatory.
imperfectible adj. That can not be perfected.
imperil v. To endanger.
imperious adj. Insisting on obedience.
impermissible adj. Not permissible.
impersonal adj. Not relating to a particular person or thing.
impersonate v. To appear or act in the character of.
impersuadable adj. Unyielding.
importation n. The act or practice of bringing from one country into another.
importunate adj. Urgent in character, request, or demand.
importune v. To harass with persistent demands or entreaties.
impotent adj. Destitute of or lacking in power, physical, moral, or intellectual.
impoverish v. To make indigent or poor.
impracticable adj. Not feasible.
impregnable adj. That can not be taken by assault.
impregnate v. To make pregnant.
impromptu n. Anything done or said on the impulse of the moment.
improper adj. Not appropriate, suitable, or becoming.
impropriety n. The state or quality of being unfit, unseemly, or inappropriate.
improvident adj. Lacking foresight or thrift.
improvise v. To do anything extemporaneously or offhand.
imprudent adj. Heedless.
impugn v. To assail with arguments, insinuations, or accusations.
impulsion n. Impetus.
impunity n. Freedom from punishment.
impure adj. Tainted.
inaccessible adj. Difficult of approach.
inaccurate adj. Not exactly according to the facts.
inactive adj. Inert.
inadmissible adj. Not to be approved, considered, or allowed, as testimony.
inadvertent adj. Accidental.
inanimate adj. Destitute of animal life.
inapprehensible adj. Not to be understood.
inapt adj. Awkward or slow.
inarticulate adj. Speechless.
inaudible adj. That can not be heard.
inborn adj. Implanted by nature.
inbred adj. Innate.
incandescence n. The state of being white or glowing with heat.
incandescent adj. White or glowing with heat.
incapacitate v. To deprive of power, capacity, competency, or qualification.
incapacity n. Want of power to apprehend, understand, and manage.
incarcerate v. To imprison.
incendiary n. Chemical or person who starts a fire-literally or figuratively.
incentive n. That which moves the mind or inflames the passions.
inception n. The beginning.
inchoative n. That which begins, or expresses beginning.
incidence n. Casual occurrence.
incident n. A happening in general, especially one of little importance.
incidentally adv. Without intention.
incinerate v. To reduce to ashes.
incipience n. Beginning.
incisor n. A front or cutting tooth.
incite v. To rouse to a particular action.
incitement n. That which moves to action, or serves as an incentive or stimulus.
incoercible adj. Incapable of being forced, constrained, or compelled.
incoherence n. Want of connection, or agreement, as of parts or ideas in thought, speech, etc.
incoherent adj. Not logically coordinated, as to parts, elements, or details.
incombustible adj. That can not be burned.
incomparable adj. Matchless.
incompetence n. General lack of capacity or fitness.
incompetent adj. Not having the abilities desired or necessary for any purpose.
incomplete adj. Lacking some element, part, or adjunct necessary or required.
incomprehensible adj. Not understandable.
incompressible adj. Resisting all attempts to reduce volume by pressure.
inconceivable adj. Incomprehensible.
incongruous adj. Unsuitable for the time, place, or occasion.
inconsequential adj. Valueless.
inconsiderable adj. Small in quantity or importance.
inconsistent adj. Contradictory.
indigestible adj. Not digestible, or difficult to digest.
indigestion n. Difficulty or failure in the alimentary canal in changing food into absorptive nutriment.
indignant adj. Having such anger and scorn as is aroused by meanness or wickedness.
indignity n. Unmerited contemptuous conduct or treatment.
indiscernible adj. Not perceptible.
indiscreet adj. Lacking wise judgment.
indiscriminate adj. Promiscuous.
indispensable adj. Necessary or requisite for the purpose.
indistinct adj. Vague.
indivertible adj. That can not be turned aside.
indivisible adj. Not separable into parts.
indolence n. Laziness.
indolent adj. Habitually inactive or idle.
indomitable adj. Unconquerable.
induct v. To bring in.
indulgence n. The yielding to inclination, passion, desire, or propensity in oneself or another.
indulgent adj. Yielding to the desires or humor of oneself or those under one's care.
inebriate v. To intoxicate.
inedible adj. Not good for food.
ineffable adj. Unutterable.
inefficient adj. Not accomplishing an intended purpose.
inefficiency n. That which does not accomplish an intended purpose.
ineligible adj. Not suitable to be selected or chosen.
inept adj. Not fit or suitable.
inert adj. Inanimate.
inevitable adj. Unavoidable.
inexcusable adj. Not to be justified.
inexhaustible adj. So large or furnishing so great a supply as not to be emptied, wasted, or spent.
inexorable adj. Unrelenting.
inexperience n. Lack of or deficiency in experience.
inexplicable adj. Such as can not be made plain.
inexpressible adj. Unutterable.
inextensible adj. Of unchangeable length or area.
infallible adj. Exempt from error of judgment, as in opinion or statement.
infamous adj. Publicly branded or notorious, as for vice, or crime.
infamy n. Total loss or destitution of honor or reputation.
inference n. The derivation of a judgment from any given material of knowledge on the ground of law.
infernal adj. Akin to or befitting hell or its occupants.
infest v. To be present in such numbers as to be a source of annoyance, trouble, or danger.
infidel n. One who denies the existence of God.
infidelity n. Disloyalty.
infinity n. Boundless or immeasurable extension or duration.
infirm adj. Lacking in bodily or mental strength.
infirmary n. A place for the reception or treatment of the sick.
infirmity n. A physical, mental, or moral weakness or flaw.
inflammable adj. Easily set on fire or excited.
inflammation n. A morbid process in some part of the body characterized by heat, swelling, and pain.
inflexible adj. That can not be altered or varied.
influence n. Ability to sway the will of another.
influential adj. Having the power to sway the will of another.
influx n. Infusion.
infringe v. To trespass upon.
infuse v. To instill, introduce, or inculcate, as principles or qualities.
infusion n. The act of imbuing, or pouring in.
ingenious adj. Evincing skill, originality, or cleverness, as in contrivance or arrangement.
ingenuity n. Cleverness in contriving, combining, or originating.
ingenuous adj. Candid, frank, or open in character or quality.
inglorious adj. Shameful.
ingraft v. To set or implant deeply and firmly.
ingratiate v. To win confidence or good graces for oneself.
ingratitude n. Insensibility to kindness.
ingredient n. Component.
inherence n. The state of being permanently existing in something.
inherent adj. Intrinsic.
inhibit v. To hold back or in.
inhospitable adj. Not disposed to entertain strangers gratuitously.
inhuman adj. Savage.
inhume v. To place in the earth, as a dead body.
inimical adj. Adverse.
iniquity n. Gross wrong or injustice.
initiate v. To perform the first act or rite.
inject v. To introduce, as a fluid, by injection.
injunction n. Mandate.
inland adj. Remote from the sea.
inlet n. A small body of water leading into a larger.
inmost adj. Deepest within.
innovate v. To introduce or strive to introduce new things.
innuendo n. Insinuation.
inoffensive adj. Causing nothing displeasing or disturbing.
inopportune adj. Unsuitable or inconvenient, especially as to time.
inquire v. To ask information about.
inquisition n. A court or tribunal for examination and punishment of heretics.
inquisitive adj. Given to questioning, especially out of curiosity.
inquisitor n. One who makes an investigation.
inroad n. Forcible encroachment or trespass.
insatiable adj. That desires or craves immoderately or unappeasably.
inscribe v. To enter in a book, or on a list, roll, or document, by writing.
inscrutable adj. Impenetrably mysterious or profound.
insecure adj. Not assured of safety.
insensible adj. Imperceptible.
insentient adj. Lacking the power of feeling or perceiving.
inseparable adj. That can not be separated.
insidious adj. Working ill by slow and stealthy means.
insight n. Intellectual discernment.
insignificance n. Lack of import or of importance.
insignificant adj. Without importance, force, or influence.
insinuate v. To imply.
insufficient adj. Inadequate for some need, purpose, or use.
insular adj. Pertaining to an island.
insulate v. To place in a detached state or situation.
insuperable adj. Invincible.
insuppressible adj. Incapable of being concealed.
insurgence n. Uprising.
insurgent n. One who takes part in forcible opposition to the constituted authorities of a place.
insurrection n. The state of being in active resistance to authority.
intangible adj. Not perceptible to the touch.
integrity n. Uprightness of character and soundness of moral principle.
intellect n. The faculty of perception or thought.
intellectual adj. Characterized by intelligence.
intelligence n. Capacity to know or understand.
intelligible adj. Comprehensible.
intemperance n. Immoderate action or indulgence, as of the appetites.
intension n. The act of stringing or stretching, or state of being strained.
intensive adj. Adding emphasis or force.
intention n. That upon which the mind is set.
interact v. To act reciprocally.
intercede v. To mediate between persons.
intercept v. To interrupt the course of.
intercession n. Entreaty in behalf of others.
intercessor n. A mediator.
interdict n. Authoritative act of prohibition.
interim n. Time between acts or periods.
interlocutor n. One who takes part in a conversation or oral discussion.
interlude n. An action or event considered as coming between others of greater length.
intermediate adj. Being in a middle place or degree or between extremes.
interminable adj. Having no limit or end.
intermission n. A recess.
intermit v. To cause to cease temporarily.
intermittent adj. A temporary discontinuance.
interpolation n. Verbal interference.
interpose v. To come between other things or persons.
interposition n. A coming between.
interpreter n. A person who makes intelligible the speech of a foreigner by oral translation.
interrogate v. To examine formally by questioning.
interrogative adj. Having the nature or form of a question.
interrogatory n. A question or inquiry.
interrupt v. To stop while in progress.
intersect v. To cut through or into so as to divide.
intervale n. A low tract of land between hills, especially along a river.
intervene v. To interfere for some end.
intestacy n. The condition resulting from one's dying not having made a valid will.
intestate adj. Not having made a valid will.
intestine n. That part of the digestive tube below or behind the stomach, extending to the anus.
intimacy n. Close or confidential friendship.
intimidate v. To cause to become frightened.
intolerable adj. Insufferable.
intolerance n. Inability or unwillingness to bear or endure.
intolerant adj. Bigoted.
intoxicant n. Anything that unduly exhilarates or excites.
intoxicate v. To make drunk.
intracellular adj. Occurring or situated within a cell.
intramural adj. Situated within the walls of a city.
intrepid adj. Fearless and bold.
intricacy n. Perplexity.
intricate adj. Difficult to follow or understand.
intrigue n. A plot or scheme, usually complicated and intended to accomplish something by secret ways.
intrinsic adj. Inherent.
introspect v. To look into.
introspection n. The act of observing and analyzing one's own thoughts and feelings.
introversion n. The act of turning or directing inward, physically or mentally.
introvert v. To turn within.
intrude v. To come in without leave or license.
intrusion n. The act of entering without warrant or invitation; encroachment.
intuition n. Instinctive knowledge or feeling.
inundate v. To fill with an overflowing abundance.
inundation n. Flood.
inure v. To harden or toughen by use, exercise, or exposure.
invalid adj. Having no force, weight, or cogency.
invalid n. One who is disabled by illness or injury.
invalidate v. To render of no force or effect.
invaluable adj. Exceedingly precious.
invasion n. Encroachment, as by an act of intrusion or trespass.
invective n. An utterance intended to cast censure, or reproach.
inveigh v. To utter vehement censure or invective.
inventive adj. Quick at contrivance.
inverse adj. Contrary in tendency or direction.
inversion n. Change of order so that the first shall become last and the last first.
invert v. To turn inside out, upside down, or in opposite direction.
investigator n. One who investigates.
investor n. One who invests money.
inveterate adj. Habitual.
invidious adj. Showing or feeling envy.
invigorate v. To animate.
invincible adj. Not to be conquered, subdued, or overcome.
inviolable adj. Incapable of being injured or disturbed.
invoke v. To call on for assistance or protection.
involuntary adj. Unwilling.
involve v. To draw into entanglement, literally or figuratively.
invulnerable adj. That can not be wounded or hurt.
inwardly adv. With no outward manifestation.
iota n. A small or insignificant mark or part.
irascible adj. Prone to anger.
irate adj. Moved to anger.
ire n. Wrath.
iridescence n. A many-colored appearance.
iridescent adj. Exhibiting changing rainbow-colors due to the interference of the light.
irk v. To afflict with pain, vexation, or fatigue.
irksome adj. Wearisome.
irony n. Censure or ridicule under cover of praise or compliment.
irradiance n. Luster.
irradiate v. To render clear and intelligible.
irrational adj. Not possessed of reasoning powers or understanding.
irreducible adj. That can not be lessened.
irrefragable adj. That can not be refuted or disproved.
irrefrangible adj. That can not be broken or violated.
irrelevant adj. Inapplicable.
irreligious adj. Indifferent or opposed to religion.
irreparable adj. That can not be rectified or made amends for.
irrepressible adj. That can not be restrained or kept down.
irresistible adj. That can not be successfully withstood or opposed.
irresponsible adj. Careless of or unable to meet responsibilities.
irreverence n. The quality showing or expressing a deficiency of veneration, especially for sacred things.
irreverent adj. Showing or expressing a deficiency of veneration, especially for sacred things.
irreverential adj. Showing or expressing a deficiency of veneration, especially for sacred things.
irreversible adj. Irrevocable.
irrigant adj. Serving to water lands by artificial means.
irrigate v. To water, as land, by ditches or other artificial means.
irritable adj. Showing impatience or ill temper on little provocation.
irritancy n. The quality of producing vexation.
irritant n. A mechanical, chemical, or pathological agent of inflammation, pain, or tension.
irritate v. To excite ill temper or impatience in.
irruption n. Sudden invasion.
isle n. An island.
islet n. A little island.
isobar n. A line joining points at which the barometric pressure is the same at a specified moment.
isochronous adj. Relating to or denoting equal intervals of time.
isolate v. To separate from others of its kind.
isothermal adj. Having or marking equality of temperature.
itinerant adj. Wandering.
itinerary n. A detailed account or diary of a journey.
itinerate v. To wander from place to place.
jargon n. Confused, unintelligible speech or highly technical speech.
jaundice n. A morbid condition, due to obstructed excretion of bile or characterized by yellowing of the skin.
jeopardize v. To imperil.
Jingo n. One of a party in Great Britain in favor of spirited and demonstrative foreign policy.
jocose adj. Done or made in jest.
jocular adj. Inclined to joke.
joggle n. A sudden irregular shake or a push causing such a shake.
journalize v. To keep a diary.
jovial adj. Merry.
judgment n. The faculty by the exercise of which a deliberate conclusion is reached.
judicature n. Distribution and administration of justice by trial and judgment.
judicial adj. Pertaining to the administration of justice.
judiciary n. That department of government which administers the law relating to civil and criminal justice.
judicious adj. Prudent.
juggle v. To play tricks of sleight of hand.
jugglery n. The art or practice of sleight of hand.
jugular adj. Pertaining to the throat.
juicy adj. Succulent.
junction n. The condition of being joined.
juncture n. An articulation, joint, or seam.
junta n. A council or assembly that deliberates in secret upon the affairs of government.
juridical adj. Assumed by law to exist.
jurisdiction n. Lawful power or right to exercise official authority.
jurisprudence n. The science of rights in accordance with positive law.
juror n. One who serves on a jury or is sworn in for jury duty in a court of justice.
joust v. To engage in a tilt with lances on horseback.
justification n. Vindication.
juvenile adj. Characteristic of youth.
juxtapose v. To place close together.
keepsake n. Anything kept or given to be kept for the sake of the giver.
kerchief n. A square of linen, silk, or other material, used as a covering for the head or neck.
kernel n. A grain or seed.
kiln n. An oven or furnace for baking, burning, or drying industrial products.
kiloliter n. One thousand liters.
kilometer n. A length of 1,000 meters.
kilowatt n. One thousand watts.
kimono n. A loose robe, fastening with a sash, the principal outer garment in Japan.
kind-hearted adj. Having a kind and sympathetic nature.
kingling n. A petty king.
kingship n. Royal state.
knavery n. Deceitfulness in dealing.
knead v. To mix and work into a homogeneous mass, especially with the hands.
knickknack n. A small article, more for ornament that use.
knight errant n. One of the wandering knights who in the middle ages went forth in search of adventure.
knighthood n. Chivalry.
lacerate v. To tear rudely or raggedly.
lackadaisical adj. Listless.
lactation n. The secretion of milk.
lacteal adj. Milky.
lactic adj. Pertaining to milk.
laddie n. A lad.
ladle n. A cup-shaped vessel with a long handle, intended for dipping up and pouring liquids.
laggard adj. Falling behind.
landholder n. Landowner.
landlord n. A man who owns and lets a tenement or tenements.
landmark n. A familiar object in the landscape serving as a guide to an area otherwise easily lost track of.
landscape n. A rural view, especially one of picturesque effect, as seen from a distance or an elevation.
languid adj. Relaxed.
languor n. Lassitude of body or depression.
lapse n. A slight deviation from what is right, proper, or just.
lascivious adj. Lustful.
lassie n. A little lass.
latent adj. Dormant.
latency n. The state of being dormant.
later adv. At a subsequent time.
lateral adj. Directed toward the side.
latish adj. Rather late.
lattice n. Openwork of metal or wood, formed by crossing or interlacing strips or bars.
laud v. To praise in words or song.
laudable adj. Praiseworthy.
laudatory adj. Pertaining to, expressing, or containing praise.
laundress n. Washerwoman.
laureate adj. Crowned with laurel, as a mark of distinction.
lave v. To wash or bathe.
lawgiver n. A legislator.
lax adj. Not stringent or energetic.
laxative adj. Having power to open or loosen the bowels.
lea n. A field.
leaflet n. A little leaf or a booklet.
leaven v. To make light by fermentation, as dough.
leeward n. That side or direction toward which the wind blows.
left-handed adj. Using the left hand or arm more dexterously than the right.
legacy n. A bequest.
legalize v. To give the authority of law to.
legging n. A covering for the leg.
legible adj. That may be read with ease.
legionary n. A member of an ancient Roman legion or of the modern French Legion of Honor.
legislate v. To make or enact a law or laws.
legislative adj. That makes or enacts laws.
legislator n. A lawgiver.
legitimacy n. Accordance with law.
legitimate adj. Having the sanction of law or established custom.
leisure n. Spare time.
leonine adj. Like a lion.
lethargy n. Prolonged sluggishness of body or mind.
levee n. An embankment beside a river or stream or an arm of the sea, to prevent overflow.
lever n. That which exerts, or through which one may exert great power.
leviathan n. Any large animal, as a whale.
levity n. Frivolity.
levy v. To impose and collect by force or threat of force.
lewd adj. Characterized by lust or lasciviousness.
lexicographer n. One who makes dictionaries.
lexicography n. The making of dictionaries.
lexicon n. A dictionary.
liable adj. Justly or legally responsible.
libel n. Defamation.
liberalism n. Opposition to conservatism.
liberate v. To set free or release from bondage.
licentious adj. Wanton.
licit adj. Lawful.
liege adj. Sovereign.
lien n. A legal claim or hold on property, as security for a debt or charge.
lieu n. Stead.
lifelong adj. Lasting or continuous through life.
lifetime n. The time that life continues.
ligament n. That which binds objects together.
ligature n. Anything that constricts, or serves for binding or tying.
light-hearted adj. Free from care.
ligneous adj. Having the texture of appearance of wood.
likelihood n. A probability.
linear adj. Of the nature of a line.
liner n. A vessel belonging to a steamship-line.
lingo n. Language.
lingual adj. Pertaining to the use of the tongue in utterance.
linguist n. One who is acquainted with several languages.
linguistics n. The science of languages, or of the origin, history, and significance of words.
liniment n. A liquid preparation for rubbing on the skin in cases of bruises, inflammation, etc.
liquefacient adj. Possessing a liquefying nature or power.
liquefy v. To convert into a liquid or into liquid form.
liqueur n. An alcoholic cordial sweetened and flavored with aromatic substances.
liquidate v. To deliver the amount or value of.
liquor n. Any alcoholic or intoxicating liquid.
listless adj. Inattentive.
literacy n. The state or condition of knowing how to read and write.
literal adj. Following the exact words.
literature n. The written or printed productions of the human mind collectively.
lithe adj. Supple.
lithograph n. A print made by printing from stone.
lithotype n. In engraving, an etched stone surface for printing.
litigant n. A party to a lawsuit.
litigate v. To cause to become the subject-matter of a suit at law.
litigious adj. Quarrelsome.
littoral adj. Of, pertaining to, or living on a shore.
liturgy n. A ritual.
livelihood n. Means of subsistence.
livid adj. Black-and-blue, as contused flesh.
loam n. A non-coherent mixture of sand and clay.
loath adj. Averse.
locative adj. Indicating place, or the place where or wherein an action occurs.
loch n. A lake.
locomotion n. The act or power of moving from one place to another.
lode n. A somewhat continuous unstratified metal- bearing vein.
lodgment n. The act of furnishing with temporary quarters.
logic n. The science of correct thinking.
logical adj. Capable of or characterized by clear reasoning.
logician n. An expert reasoner.
loiterer n. One who consumes time idly.
loneliness n. Solitude.
longevity n. Unusually prolonged life.
loot v. To plunder.
lordling n. A little lord.
lough n. A lake or loch.
louse n. A small insect parasitic on and sucking the blood of mammals.
lovable adj. Amiable.
luminary n. One of the heavenly bodies as a source of light.
luminescent adj. Showing increase of light.
luminescence n. Showing increase.
luminosity n. The quality of giving or radiating light.
luminous adj. Giving or radiating light.
lunacy n. Mental unsoundness.
lunar adj. Pertaining to the moon.
lunatic n. An insane person.
lune n. The moon.
lurid adj. Ghastly and sensational.
luscious adj. Rich, sweet, and delicious.
lustrous adj. Shining.
luxuriance n. Excessive or superfluous growth or quantity.
luxuriant adj. Abundant or superabundant in growth.
luxuriate v. To live sumptuously.
lying n. Untruthfulness.
lyre n. One of the most ancient of stringed instruments of the harp class.
lyric adj. Fitted for expression in song.
macadamize v. To cover or pave, as a path or roadway, with small broken stone.
machinery n. The parts of a machine or engine, taken collectively.
machinist n. One who makes or repairs machines, or uses metal-working tools.
macrocosm n. The whole of any sphere or department of nature or knowledge to which man is related.
madden v. To inflame with passion.
Madonna n. A painted or sculptured representation of the Virgin, usually with the infant Jesus.
magician n. A sorcerer.
magisterial adj. Having an air of authority.
magistracy n. The office or dignity of a magistrate.
magnanimous adj. Generous in treating or judging others.
magnate n. A person of rank or importance.
magnet n. A body possessing that peculiar form of polarity found in nature in the lodestone.
magnetize v. To make a magnet of, permanently, or temporarily.
magnificence n. The exhibition of greatness of action, character, intellect, wealth, or power.
magnificent adj. Grand or majestic in appearance, quality, or action.
magnitude n. Importance.
maharaja n. A great Hindu prince.
maidenhood n. Virginity.
maintain v. To hold or preserve in any particular state or condition.
maintenance n. That which supports or sustains.
maize n. Indian corn: usually in the United States called simply corn.
makeup n. The arrangements or combination of the parts of which anything is composed.
malady n. Any physical disease or disorder, especially a chronic or deep-seated one.
malaria n. A fever characterized by alternating chills, fever, and sweating.
malcontent n. One who is dissatisfied with the existing state of affairs.
malediction n. The calling down of a curse or curses.
malefactor n. One who injures another.
maleficent adj. Mischievous.
malevolent adj. Wishing evil to others.
malign v. To speak evil of, especially to do so falsely and severely.
malignant adj. Evil in nature or tending to do great harm or mischief.
malleable adj. Pliant.
mallet n. A wooden hammer.
maltreat v. To treat ill, unkindly, roughly, or abusively.
man-trap n. A place or structure dangerous to human life.
mandate n. A command.
mandatory adj. Expressive of positive command, as distinguished from merely directory.
mane n. The long hair growing upon and about the neck of certain animals, as the horse and the lion.
man-eater n. An animal that devours human beings.
maneuver v. To make adroit or artful moves: manage affairs by strategy.
mania n. Insanity.
maniac n. a person raving with madness.
manifesto n. A public declaration, making announcement, explanation or defense of intentions, or motives.
manlike adj. Like a man.
manliness n. The qualities characteristic of a true man, as bravery, resolution, etc.
mannerism n. Constant or excessive adherence to one manner, style, or peculiarity, as of action or conduct.
manor n. The landed estate of a lord or nobleman.
mantel n. The facing, sometimes richly ornamented, about a fireplace, including the usual shelf above it.
mantle n. A cloak.
manufacturer n. A person engaged in manufacturing as a business.
manumission n. Emancipation.
manumit v. To set free from bondage.
marine adj. Of or pertaining to the sea or matters connected with the sea.
maritime adj. Situated on or near the sea.
maroon v. To put ashore and abandon (a person) on a desolate coast or island.
martial adj. Pertaining to war or military operations.
Martian adj. Pertaining to Mars, either the Roman god of war or the planet.
martyrdom n. Submission to death or persecution for the sake of faith or principle.
marvel v. To be astonished and perplexed because of (something).
masonry n. The art or work of constructing, as buildings, walls, etc., with regularly arranged stones.
masquerade n. A social party composed of persons masked and costumed so as to be disguised.
massacre n. The unnecessary and indiscriminate killing of human beings.
massive adj. Of considerable bulk and weight.
masterpiece n. A superior production.
mastery n. The attainment of superior skill.
material n. That of which anything is composed or may be constructed.
materialize v. To take perceptible or substantial form.
maternal adj. Pertaining or peculiar to a mother or to motherhood.
matinee n. An entertainment (especially theatrical) held in the daytime.
matricide n. The killing, especially the murdering, of one's mother.
matrimony n. The union of a man and a woman in marriage.
matrix n. That which contains and gives shape or form to anything.
matter of fact n. Something that has actual and undeniable existence or reality.
maudlin adj. Foolishly and tearfully affectionate.
mausoleum n. A tomb of more than ordinary size or architectural pretensions.
mawkish adj. Sickening or insipid.
maxim n. A principle accepted as true and acted on as a rule or guide.
maze n. A labyrinth.
mealy-mouthed adj. Afraid to express facts or opinions plainly.
meander v. To wind and turn while proceeding in a course.
mechanics n. The branch of physics that treats the phenomena caused by the action of forces.
medallion n. A large medal.
meddlesome adj. Interfering.
medial adj. Of or pertaining to the middle.
mediate v. To effect by negotiating as an agent between parties.
medicine n. A substance possessing or reputed to possess curative or remedial properties.
medieval adj. Belonging or relating to or descriptive of the middle ages.
mediocre adj. Ordinary.
meditation n. The turning or revolving of a subject in the mind.
medley n. A composition of different songs or parts of songs arranged to run as a continuous whole.
meliorate v. To make better or improve, as in quality or social or physical condition.
mellifluous adj. Sweetly or smoothly flowing.
melodious adj. Characterized by a sweet succession of sounds.
melodrama n. A drama with a romantic story or plot and sensational situation and incidents.
memento n. A souvenir.
mentor n. A wise and faithful teacher, guide, and friend.
mercantile adj. Conducted or acting on business principles; commercial.
mercenary adj. Greedy
merciful adj. Disposed to pity and forgive.
merciless adj. Cruel.
meretricious adj. Alluring by false or gaudy show.
mesmerize v. To hypnotize.
messieurs n. pl. Gentlemen.
metal n. An element that forms a base by combining with oxygen, is usually hard, heavy, and lustrous.
metallurgy n. The art or science of extracting a metal from ores, as by smelting.
metamorphosis n. A passing from one form or shape into another.
metaphor n. A figure of speech in which one object is likened to another, by speaking as if the other.
metaphysical adj. Philosophical.
metaphysician n. One skilled in metaphysics.
metaphysics n. The principles of philosophy as applied to explain the methods of any particular science.
mete v. To apportion.
metempsychosis n. Transition of the soul of a human being at death into another body, whether human or beast.
meticulous adj. Over-cautious.
metonymy n. A figure of speech that consists in the naming of a thing by one of its attributes.
metric adj. Relating to measurement.
metronome n. An instrument for indicating and marking exact time in music.
metropolis n. A chief city, either the capital or the largest or most important city of a state.
metropolitan adj. Pertaining to a chief city.
mettle n. Courage.
mettlesome adj. Having courage or spirit.
microcosm n. The world or universe on a small scale.
micrometer n. An instrument for measuring very small angles or dimensions.
microphone n. An apparatus for magnifying faint sounds.
microscope n. An instrument for assisting the eye in the vision of minute objects or features of objects.
microscopic adj. Adapted to or characterized by minute observation.
microscopy n. The art of examing objects with the microscope.
midsummer n. The middle of the summer.
midwife n. A woman who makes a business of assisting at childbirth.
mien n. The external appearance or manner of a person.
migrant adj. Wandering.
migrate v. To remove or pass from one country, region, or habitat to another.
migratory adj. Wandering.
mileage n. A distance in miles.
militant adj. Of a warlike or combative disposition or tendency.
militarism n. A policy of maintaining great standing armies.
militate v. To have weight or influence (in determining a question).
militia n. Those citizens, collectively, who are enrolled and drilled in temporary military organizations.
Milky Way n. The galaxy.
millet n. A grass cultivated for forage and cereal.
mimic v. To imitate the speech or actions of.
miniature adj. Much smaller than reality or that the normal size.
minimize v. To reduce to the smallest possible amount or degree.
minion n. A servile favorite.
ministration n. Any religious ceremonial.
ministry n. A service.
minority n. The smaller in number of two portions into which a number or a group is divided.
minute adj. Exceedingly small in extent or quantity.
minutia n. A small or unimportant particular or detail.
mirage n. An optical effect looking like a sheet of water in the desert.
misadventure n. An unlucky accident.
misanthropic adj. Hating mankind.
misanthropy n. Hatred of mankind.
misapprehend v. To misunderstand.
misbehave v. To behave ill.
misbehavior n. Ill or improper behavior.
mischievous adj. Fond of tricks.
miscount v. To make a mistake in counting.
miscreant n. A villain.
misdeed n. A wrong or improper act.
misdemeanor n. Evil conduct, small crime.
miser n. A person given to saving and hoarding unduly.
mishap n. Misfortune.
mismanage v. To manage badly, improperly, or unskillfully.
misnomer n. A name wrongly or mistakenly applied.
misogamy n. Hatred of marriage.
misogyny n. Hatred of women.
misplace v. To put into a wrong place.
misrepresent v. To give a wrong impression.
misrule v. To misgovern.
missal n. The book containing the service for the celebration of mass.
missile n. Any object, especially a weapon, thrown or intended to be thrown.
missive n. A message in writing.
mistrust v. To regard with suspicion or jealousy.
misty adj. Lacking clearness
misunderstand v. To Take in a wrong sense.
misuse v. To maltreat.
mite n. A very small amount, portion, or particle.
miter n. The junction of two bodies at an equally divided angle.
mitigate v. To make milder or more endurable.
mnemonics n. A system of principles and formulas designed to assist the recollection in certain instances.
moat n. A ditch on the outside of a fortress wall.
mobocracy n. Lawless control of public affairs by the mob or populace.
moccasin n. A foot-covering made of soft leather or buckskin.
mockery n. Ridicule.
moderator n. The presiding officer of a meeting.
modernity n. The state or character of being modern.
modernize v. To make characteristic of the present or of recent times.
modification n. A change.
modify v. To make somewhat different.
modish adj. Fashionable.
modulate v. To vary in tone, inflection, pitch or other quality of sound.
mollify v. To soothe.
molt v. To cast off, as hair, feathers, etc.
momentary adj. Lasting but a short time.
momentous adj. Very significant.
monarchy n. Government by a single, sovereign ruler.
monastery n. A dwelling-place occupied in common by persons under religious vows of seclusion.
monetary adj. Financial.
mongrel n. The progeny resulting from the crossing of different breeds or varieties.
monition n. Friendly counsel given by way of warning and implying caution or reproof.
monitory n. Admonition or warning.
monocracy n. Government by a single person.
monogamy n. The habit of pairing, or having but one mate.
monogram n. A character consisting of two or more letters interwoven into one, usually initials of a name.
monograph n. A treatise discussing a single subject or branch of a subject.
monolith n. Any structure or sculpture in stone formed of a single piece.
monologue n. A story or drama told or performed by one person.
monomania n. The unreasonable pursuit of one idea.
monopoly n. The control of a thing, as a commodity, to enable a person to raise its price.
monosyllable n. A word of one syllable.
monotone n. The sameness or monotony of utterance.
monotonous adj. Unchanging and tedious.
monotony n. A lack of variety.
monsieur n. A French title of respect, equivalent to Mr. and sir.
monstrosity n. Anything unnaturally huge or distorted.
moonbeam n. A ray of moonlight.
morale n. A state of mind with reference to confidence, courage, zeal, and the like.
moralist n. A writer on ethics.
morality n. Virtue.
moralize v. To render virtuous.
moratorium n. An emergency legislation authorizing a government suspend some action temporarily.
morbid adj. Caused by or denoting a diseased or unsound condition of body or mind.
mordacious adj. Biting or giving to biting.
mordant adj. Biting.
moribund adj. On the point of dying.
morose adj. Gloomy.
morphology n. the science of organic forms.
motley adj. Composed of heterogeneous or inharmonious elements.
motto n. An expressive word or pithy sentence enunciating some guiding rule of life, or faith.
mountaineer n. One who travels among or climbs mountains for pleasure or exercise.
mountainous adj. Full of or abounding in mountains.
mouthful n. As much as can be or is usually put into the or exercise.
muddle v. To confuse or becloud, especially with or as with drink.
muffle v. To deaden the sound of, as by wraps.
mulatto n. The offspring of a white person and a black person.
muleteer n. A mule-driver.
multiform adj. Having many shapes, or appearances.
multiplicity n. the condition of being manifold or very various.
mundane adj. Worldly, as opposed to spiritual or celestial.
municipal adj. Of or pertaining to a town or city, or to its corporate or local government.
municipality n. A district enjoying municipal government.
munificence n. A giving characterized by generous motives and extraordinary liberality.
munificent adj. Extraordinarily generous.
muster n. An assemblage or review of troops for parade or inspection, or for numbering off.
mutation n. The act or process of change.
mutilate v. To disfigure.
mutiny n. Rebellion against lawful or constituted authority.
myriad n. A vast indefinite number.
mystic n. One who professes direct divine illumination, or relies upon meditation to acquire truth.
mystification n. The act of artfully perplexing.
myth n. A fictitious narrative presented as historical, but without any basis of fact.
mythology n. The whole body of legends cherished by a race concerning gods and heroes.
nameless adj. Having no fame or reputation.
naphtha n. A light, colorless, volatile, inflammable oil used as a solvent, as in manufacture of paints.
Narcissus n. The son of the Athenian river-god Cephisus, fabled to have fallen in love with his reflection.
narrate v. To tell a story.
narration n. The act of recounting the particulars of an event in the order of time or occurrence.
narrative n. An orderly continuous account of the successive particulars of an event.
narrator n. One who narrates anything.
narrow-minded adj. Characterized by illiberal views or sentiments.
nasal adj. Pertaining to the nose.
natal adj. Pertaining to one's birth.
nationality n. A connection with a particular nation.
naturally adv. According to the usual order of things.
nausea n. An affection of the stomach producing dizziness and usually an impulse to vomit
nauseate v. To cause to loathe.
nauseous adj. Loathsome.
nautical adj. Pertaining to ships, seamen, or navigation.
naval adj. Pertaining to ships.
navel n. The depression on the abdomen where the umbilical cord of the fetus was attached.
navigable adj. Capable of commercial navigation.
navigate v. To traverse by ship.
nebula n. A gaseous body of unorganized stellar substance.
necessary adj. Indispensably requisite or absolutely needed to accomplish a desired result.
necessitate v. To render indispensable.
necessity n. That which is indispensably requisite to an end desired.
necrology n. A list of persons who have died in a certain place or time.
necromancer n. One who practices the art of foretelling the future by means of communication with the dead.
necropolis n. A city of the dead.
necrosis n. the death of part of the body.
nectar n. Any especially sweet and delicious drink.
nectarine n. A variety of the peach.
needlework n. Embroidery.
needy adj. Being in need, want, or poverty.
nefarious adj. Wicked in the extreme.
negate v. To deny.
negation n. The act of denying or of asserting the falsity of a proposition.
neglectful adj. Exhibiting or indicating omission.
negligee n. A loose gown worn by women.
negligence n. Omission of that which ought to be done.
negligent adj. Apt to omit what ought to be done.
negligible adj. Transferable by assignment, endorsement, or delivery.
negotiable v. To bargain with others for an agreement, as for a treaty or transfer of property.
Nemesis n. A goddess; divinity of chastisement and vengeance.
neocracy n. Government administered by new or untried persons.
neo-Darwinsim n. Darwinism as modified and extended by more recent students.
neo-Latin n. Modernized Latin.
neopaganism n. A new or revived paganism.
Neolithic adj. Pertaining to the later stone age.
neology n. The coining or using of new words or new meanings of words.
neophyte adj. Having the character of a beginner.
nestle v. To adjust cozily in snug quarters.
nestling adj. Recently hatched.
nettle v. To excite sensations of uneasiness or displeasure in.
network n. Anything that presents a system of cross- lines.
neural adj. Pertaining to the nerves or nervous system.
neurology n. The science of the nervous system.
neuter adj. Neither masculine nor feminine.
neutral adj. Belonging to or under control of neither of two contestants.
nevertheless conj. Notwithstanding.
Newtonian adj. Of or pertaining to Sir Isaac Newton, the English philosopher.
niggardly adj. Stingy. (no longer acceptable to use)
nihilist n. An advocate of the doctrine that nothing either exists or can be known.
nil n. Nothing
nimble adj. Light and quick in motion or action.
nit n. The egg of a louse or some other insect.
nocturnal adj. Of or pertaining to the night.
noiseless adj. Silent.
noisome adj. Very offensive, particularly to the sense of smell.
noisy adj. Clamorous.
nomad adj. Having no fixed abode.
nomic adj. Usual or customary.
nominal adj. Trivial.
nominate v. To designate as a candidate for any office.
nomination n. The act or ceremony of naming a man or woman for office.
nominee n. One who receives a nomination.
non-existent n. That which does not exist.
non-resident adj. Not residing within a given jurisdiction.
nonchalance n. A state of mind indicating lack of interest.
non-combatant n. One attached to the army or navy, but having duties other than that of fighting.
nondescript adj. Indescribable.
nonentity n. A person or thing of little or no account.
nonpareil n. One who or that which is of unequaled excellence.
norm n. A model.
normalcy n. The state of being normal.
Norman adj. Of or peculiar to Normandy, in northern France.
nostrum n. Any scheme or recipe of a charlatan character.
noticeable adj. Perceptible.
notorious adj. Unfavorably known to the general public.
novellette n. A short novel.
novice n. A beginner in any business or occupation.
nowadays adv. In the present time or age.
nowhere adv. In no place or state.
noxious adj. Hurtful.
nuance n. A slight degree of difference in anything perceptible to the sense of the mind.
nucleus n. A central point or part about which matter is aggregated.
nude adj. Naked.
nugatory adj. Having no power or force.
nuisance n. That which annoys, vexes, or irritates.
numeration n. The act or art of reading or naming numbers.
numerical adj. Of or pertaining to number.
nunnery n. A convent for nuns.
nuptial adj. Of or pertaining to marriage, especially to the marriage ceremony.
nurture n. The process of fostering or promoting growth.
nutriment n. That which nourishes.
nutritive adj. Having nutritious properties.
oaken adj. Made of or from oak.
oakum n. Hemp-fiber obtained by untwisting and picking out loosely the yarns of old hemp rope.
obdurate adj. Impassive to feelings of humanity or pity.
obelisk n. A square shaft with pyramidal top, usually monumental or commemorative.
obese adj. Exceedingly fat.
obituary adj. A published notice of a death.
objective adj. Grasping and representing facts as they are.
objector n. One who objects, as to a proposition, measure, or ruling.
obligate v. To hold to the fulfillment of duty.
obligatory adj. Binding in law or conscience.
oblique adj. Slanting; said of lines.
obliterate v. To cause to disappear.
oblivion n. The state of having passed out of the memory or of being utterly forgotten.
oblong adj. Longer than broad: applied most commonly to rectangular objects considerably elongated
obnoxious adj. Detestable.
obsequies n. Funeral rites.
obsequious adj. Showing a servile readiness to fall in with the wishes or will of another.
observance n. A traditional form or customary act.
observant adj. Quick to notice.
observatory n. A building designed for systematic astronomical observations.
obsolescence n. The condition or process of gradually falling into disuse.
obsolescent adj. Passing out of use, as a word.
obsolete adj. No longer practiced or accepted.
obstetrician n. A practitioner of midwifery.
obstetrics n. The branch of medical science concerned with the treatment and care of women during pregnancy.
obstinacy n. Stubborn adherence to opinion, arising from conceit or the desire to have one's own way.
obstreperous adj. Boisterous.
obstruct v. To fill with impediments so as to prevent passage, either wholly or in part.
obstruction n. Hindrance.
obtrude v. To be pushed or to push oneself into undue prominence.
obtrusive adj. Tending to be pushed or to push oneself into undue prominence.
obvert v. To turn the front or principal side of (a thing) toward any person or object.
obviate v. To clear away or provide for, as an objection or difficulty.
occasion n. An important event or celebration.
Occident n. The countries lying west of Asia and the Turkish dominions.
occlude v. To absorb, as a gas by a metal.
occult adj. Existing but not immediately perceptible.
occupant n. A tenant in possession of property, as distinguished from the actual owner.
occurrence n. A happening.
octagon n. A figure with eight sides and eight angles.
octave n. A note at this interval above or below any other, considered in relation to that other.
octavo n. A book, or collection of paper in which the sheets are so folded as to make eight leaves.
octogenarian adj. A person of between eighty and ninety years.
ocular adj. Of or pertaining to the eye.
oculist n. One versed or skilled in treating diseases of the eye.
oddity n. An eccentricity.
ode n. The form of lyric poetry anciently intended to be sung.
odious adj. Hateful.
odium n. A feeling of extreme repugnance, or of dislike and disgust.
odoriferous adj. Having or diffusing an odor or scent, especially an agreeable one.
odorous adj. Having an odor, especially a fragrant one.
off adj. Farther or more distant.
offhand adv. Without preparation.
officiate v. To act as an officer or leader.
officious adj. Intermeddling with what is not one's concern.
offshoot n. Something that branches off from the parent stock.
ogre n. A demon or monster that was supposed to devour human beings.
ointment n. A fatty preparation with a butter-like consistency in which a medicinal substance exists.
olfactory adj. of or pertaining to the sense of smell.
olive-branch n. A branch of the olive-tree, as an emblem of peace.
ominous adj. Portentous.
omnipotence n. Unlimited and universal power.
Omnipotent adj. Possessed of unlimited and universal power.
omniscience n. Unlimited or infinite knowledge.
omniscient adj. Characterized by unlimited or infinite knowledge.
omnivorous adj. Eating or living upon food of all kinds indiscriminately.
onerous adj. Burdensome or oppressive.
onrush n. Onset.
onset n. An assault, especially of troops, upon an enemy or fortification.
onslaught n. A violent onset.
onus n. A burden or responsibility.
opalescence n. The property of combined refraction and reflection of light, resulting in smoky tints.
opaque adj. Impervious to light.
operate v. To put in action and supervise the working of.
operative adj. Active.
operator n. One who works with or controls some machine or scientific apparatus.
operetta n. A humorous play in dialogue and music, of more than one act.
opinion n. A conclusion or judgment held with confidence, but falling short of positive knowledge.
opponent n. One who supports the opposite side in a debate, discussion, struggle, or sport.
opportune adj. Especially fit as occurring, said, or done at the right moment.
opportunist n. One who takes advantage of circumstances to gain his ends.
opportunity n. Favorable or advantageous chance or opening.
opposite adj. Radically different or contrary in action or movement.
opprobrium n. The state of being scornfully reproached or accused of evil.
optic n. Pertaining to the eye or vision.
optician n. One who makes or deals in optical instruments or eye-glasses.
optics n. The science that treats of light and vision, and all that is connected with sight.
optimism n. The view that everything in nature and the history of mankind is ordered for the best.
option n. The right, power, or liberty of choosing.
optometry n. Measurement of the powers of vision.
opulence n. Affluence.
oral adj. Uttered through the mouth.
orate v. To deliver an elaborate or formal public speech.
oration n. An elaborate or formal public speech.
orator n. One who delivers an elaborate or formal speech.
oratorio n. A composition for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, generally taken from the Scriptures.
oratory n. The art of public speaking.
ordeal n. Anything that severely tests courage, strength, patience, conscience, etc.
ordinal n. That form of the numeral that shows the order of anything in a series, as first, second, third.
ordination n. A consecration to the ministry.
ordnance n. A general name for all kinds of weapons and their appliances used in war.
orgies n. Wild or wanton revelry.
origin n. The beginning of that which becomes or is made to be.
original adj. Not copied nor produced by imitation.
originate v. To cause or constitute the beginning or first stage of the existence of.
ornate adj. Ornamented to a marked degree.
orthodox adj. Holding the commonly accepted faith.
orthodoxy n. Acceptance of the common faith.
orthogonal adj. Having or determined by right angles.
orthopedic adj. Relating to the correcting or preventing of deformity
orthopedist n. One who practices the correcting or preventing of deformity
oscillate v. To swing back and forth.
osculate v. To kiss.
ossify v. to convert into bone.
ostentation n. A display dictated by vanity and intended to invite applause or flattery.
ostracism n. Exclusion from intercourse or favor, as in society or politics.
ostracize v. To exclude from public or private favor.
ought v. To be under moral obligation to be or do.
oust v. To eject.
out-and-out adv. Genuinely.
outbreak n. A sudden and violent breaking forth, as of something that has been pent up or restrained.
outburst n. A violent issue, especially of passion in an individual.
outcast n. One rejected and despised, especially socially.
outcry n. A vehement or loud cry or clamor.
outdo v. To surpass.
outlandish adj. Of barbarous, uncouth, and unfamiliar aspect or action.
outlast v. To last longer than.
outlaw n. A habitual lawbreaker.
outlive v. To continue to exist after.
out-of-the-way adj. Remotely situated.
outpost n. A detachment of troops stationed at a distance from the main body to guard against surprise.
outrage n. A gross infringement of morality or decency.
outrageous adj. Shocking in conduct.
outreach v. To reach or go beyond.
outride v. To ride faster than.
outrigger n. A part built or arranged to project beyond a natural outline for support.
outright adv. Entirely.
outskirt n. A border region.
outstretch v. To extend.
outstrip v. To go beyond.
outweigh v. To surpass in importance or excellence.
overdo v. To overtax the strength of.
overdose n. An excessive dose, usually so large a dose of a medicine that its effect is toxic.
overeat v. To eat to excess.
overhang n. A portion of a structure which projects or hangs over.
overleap v. To leap beyond.
overlord n. One who holds supremacy over another.
overpass v. To pass across or over, as a river.
overpay v. To pay or reward in excess.
overpower v. To gain supremacy or victory over by superior power.
overproduction n. Excessive production.
overreach v. To stretch out too far.
overrun v. To infest or ravage.
oversee v. To superintend.
overshadow v. To cast into the shade or render insignificant by comparison.
overstride v. To step beyond.
overthrow v. To vanquish an established ruler or government.
overtone n. A harmonic.
overture n. An instrumental prelude to an opera, oratorio, or ballet.
overweight n. Preponderance.
pacify v. To bring into a peaceful state.
packet n. A bundle, as of letters.
pact n. A covenant.
pagan n. A worshiper of false gods.
pageant n. A dramatic representation, especially a spectacular one.
palate n. The roof of the mouth.
palatial adj. Magnificent.
paleontology n. The branch of biology that treats of ancient life and fossil organisms.
palette n. A thin tablet, with a hole for the thumb, upon which artists lay their colors for painting.
palinode n. A retraction.
pall v. To make dull by satiety.
palliate v. To cause to appear less guilty.
pallid adj. Of a pale or wan appearance.
palpable n. perceptible by feeling or touch.
palsy n. Paralysis.
paly adj. Lacking color or brilliancy.
pamphlet n. A brief treatise or essay, usually on a subject of current interest.
pamphleteer v. To compose or issue pamphlets, especially controversial ones.
panacea n. A remedy or medicine proposed for or professing to cure all diseases.
Pan-American adj. Including or pertaining to the whole of America, both North and South.
pandemic adj. Affecting a whole people or all classes, as a disease.
pandemonium n. A fiendish or riotous uproar.
panegyric n. A formal and elaborate eulogy, written or spoken, of a person or of an act.
panel n. A rectangular piece set in or as in a frame.
panic n. A sudden, unreasonable, overpowering fear.
panoply n. A full set of armor.
panorama n. A series of large pictures representing a continuous scene.
pantheism n. The worship of nature for itself or its beauty.
Pantheon n. A circular temple at Rome with a fine Corinthian portico and a great domed roof.
pantomime n. Sign-language.
pantoscope n. A very wide-angled photographic lens.
papacy n. The official head of the Roman Catholic Church.
papyrus n. The writing-paper of the ancient Egyptians, and later of the Romans.
parable n. A brief narrative founded on real scenes or events usually with a moral.
paradox n. A statement or doctrine seemingly in contradiction to the received belief.
paragon n. A model of excellence.
parallel v. To cause to correspond or lie in the same direction and equidistant in all parts.
parallelism n. Essential likeness.
paralysis n. Loss of the power of contractility in the voluntary or involuntary muscles.
paralyze v. To deprive of the power to act.
paramount adj. Supreme in authority.
paramour n. One who is unlawfully and immorally a lover or a mistress.
paraphernalia n. Miscellaneous articles of equipment or adornment.
paraphrase v. Translate freely.
pare v. To cut, shave, or remove (the outside) from anything.
parentage n. The relation of parent to child, of the producer to the produced, or of cause to effect.
Pariah n. A member of a degraded class; a social outcast.
parish n. The ecclesiastical district in charge of a pastor.
Parisian adj. Of or pertaining to the city of Paris.
parity n. Equality, as of condition or rank.
parlance n. Mode of speech.
parley v. To converse in.
parliament n. A legislative body.
parlor n. A room for reception of callers or entertainment of guests.
parody v. To render ludicrous by imitating the language of.
paronymous adj. Derived from the same root or primitive word.
paroxysm n. A sudden outburst of any kind of activity.
parricide n. The murder of a parent.
parse v. To describe, as a sentence, by separating it into its elements and describing each word.
parsimonious adj. Unduly sparing in the use or expenditure of money.
partible adj. Separable.
participant n. One having a share or part.
participate v. To receive or have a part or share of.
partition n. That which separates anything into distinct parts.
partisan adj. Characterized by or exhibiting undue or unreasoning devotion to a party.
passible adj. Capable of feeling of suffering.
passive adj. Unresponsive.
pastoral adj. Having the spirit or sentiment of rural life.
paternal adj. Fatherly.
pathos n. The quality in any form of representation that rouses emotion or sympathy.
patriarch n. The chief of a tribe or race who rules by paternal right.
patrician adj. Of senatorial or noble rank.
patrimony n. An inheritance from an ancestor, especially from one's father.
patriotism n. Love and devotion to one's country.
patronize v. To exercise an arrogant condescension toward.
patronymic adj. Formed after one's father's name.
patter v. To mumble something over and over.
paucity n. Fewness.
pauper n. One without means of support.
pauperism n. Dependence on charity.
pavilion n. An open structure for temporary shelter.
payee n. A person to whom money has been or is to be paid.
peaceable adj. Tranquil.
peccable adj. Capable of sinning.
peccadillo n. A small breach of propriety or principle.
peccant adj. Guilty.
pectoral adj. Pertaining to the breast or thorax.
pecuniary adj. Consisting of money.
pedagogics n. The science and art of teaching.
pedagogue n. A schoolmaster.
pedagogy n. The science and art of teaching
pedal n. A lever for the foot usually applied only to musical instruments, cycles, and other machines.
pedant n. A scholar who makes needless and inopportune display of his learning.
peddle v. To go about with a small stock of goods to sell.
pedestal n. A base or support as for a column, statue, or vase.
pedestrian n. One who journeys on foot.
pediatrics n. The department of medical science that relates to the treatment of diseases of childhood.
pedigree n. One's line of ancestors.
peddler n. One who travels from house to house with an assortment of goods for retail.
peerage n. The nobility.
peerless adj. Of unequaled excellence or worth.
peevish adj. Petulant. (irritable)
pellucid adj. Translucent.
penalty n. The consequences that follow the transgression of natural or divine law.
penance n. Punishment to which one voluntarily submits or subjects himself as an expression of penitence.
penchant n. A bias in favor of something.
pendant n. Anything that hangs from something else, either for ornament or for use.
pendulous adj. Hanging, especially so as to swing by an attached end or part.
pendulum n. A weight hung on a rod, serving by its oscillation to regulate the rate of a clock.
penetrable adj. That may be pierced by physical, moral, or intellectual force.
penetrate v. To enter or force a way into the interior parts of.
penetration n. Discernment.
peninsular adj. Pertaining to a piece of land almost surrounded by water.
penitence n. Sorrow for sin with desire to amend and to atone.
penitential adj. Pertaining to sorrow for sin with desire to amend and to atone.
pennant n. A small flag.
pension n. A periodical allowance to an individual on account of past service done by him/her.
pentagram n. A figure having five points or lobes.
pentavalent adj. Quinqeuvalent.
pentad n. The number five.
pentagon n. A figure, especially, with five angles and five sides.
pentahedron n. A solid bounded by five plane faces.
pentameter n. In prosody, a line of verse containing five units or feet.
pentathlon n. The contest of five associated exercises in the great games and the same contestants.
penultimate adj. A syllable or member of a series that is last but one.
penurious adj. Excessively sparing in the use of money.
penury n. Indigence.
perambulate v. To walk about.
perceive v. To have knowledge of, or receive impressions concerning, through the medium of the body senses.
perceptible adj. Cognizable.
perception n. Knowledge through the senses of the existence and properties of matter or the external world.
percipience n. The act of perceiving.
percipient n. One who or that which perceives.
percolate v. To filter.
percussion n. The sharp striking of one body against another.
peremptory adj. Precluding question or appeal.
perennial adj. Continuing though the year or through many years.
perfectible adj. Capable of being made perfect.
perfidy n. Treachery.
perforate v. To make a hole or holes through.
perform v. To accomplish.
perfumery n. The preparation of perfumes.
perfunctory adj. Half-hearted.
perhaps adv. Possibly.
perigee n. The point in the orbit of the moon when it is nearest the earth.
periodicity n. The habit or characteristic of recurrence at regular intervals.
peripatetic adj. Walking about.
perjure v. To swear falsely to.
perjury n. A solemn assertion of a falsity.
permanence n. A continuance in the same state, or without any change that destroys the essential form or nature.
permanent adj. Durable.
permissible adj. That may be allowed.
permutation n. Reciprocal change, different ordering of same items.
pernicious adj. Tending to kill or hurt.
perpendicular adj. Straight up and down.
perpetrator n. The doer of a wrong or a criminal act.
perpetuate v. To preserve from extinction or oblivion.
perquisite n. Any profit from service beyond the amount fixed as salary or wages.
persecution n. Harsh or malignant oppression.
perseverance n. A persistence in purpose and effort.
persevere v. To continue striving in spite of discouragements.
persiflage n. Banter.
persist v. To continue steadfast against opposition.
persistence n. A fixed adherence to a resolve, course of conduct, or the like.
personage n. A man or woman as an individual, especially one of rank or high station.
personal adj. Not general or public.
personality n. The attributes, taken collectively, that make up the character and nature of an individual.
personnel n. The force of persons collectively employed in some service.
perspective n. The relative importance of facts or matters from any special point of view.
perspicacious adj. Astute.
perspicacity n. Acuteness or discernment.
perspicuous adj. Lucid.
perspire v. To excrete through the pores of the skin.
persuade v. To win the mind of by argument, eloquence, evidence, or reflection.
persuadable adj. capable of influencing to action by entreaty, statement, or anything that moves the feelings.
pertinacious adj. Persistent or unyielding.
pertinacity n. Unyielding adherence.
perturb v. To disturb greatly.
perturbation n. Mental excitement or confusion.
perusal n. The act of reading carefully or thoughtfully.
pervade v. To pass or spread through every part.
pervasion n. The state of spreading through every part.
pervasive adj. Thoroughly penetrating or permeating.
perverse adj. Unreasonable.
perversion n. Diversion from the true meaning or proper purpose.
perversity n. Wickedness.
pervert n. One who has forsaken a doctrine regarded as true for one esteemed false.
pervious adj. Admitting the entrance or passage of another substance.
pestilence n. A raging epidemic.
pestilent adj. Having a malign influence or effect.
pestilential adj. having the nature of or breeding pestilence.
peter v. To fail or lose power, efficiency, or value.
petrify v. To convert into a substance of stony hardness and character.
petulance n. The character or condition of being impatient, capricious or petulant.
petulant adj. Displaying impatience.
pharmacopoeia n. A book containing the formulas and methods of preparation of medicines for the use of druggists.
pharmacy n. The art or business of compounding and dispensing medicines.
phenomenal adj. Extraordinary or marvelous.
phenomenon n. Any unusual occurrence.
philander v. To play at courtship with a woman.
philanthropic adj. Benevolent.
philanthropist n. One who endeavors to help his fellow men.
philanthropy n. Active humanitarianism.
philately n. The study and collection of stamps.
philharmonic adj. Fond of music.
philogynist n. One who is fond of women.
philologist n. An expert in linguistics.
philology n. The study of language in connection with history and literature.
philosophize v. To seek ultimate causes and principles.
philosophy n. The general principles, laws, or causes that furnish the rational explanation of anything.
phlegmatic adj. Not easily roused to feeling or action.
phonetic adj. Representing articulate sounds or speech.
phonic adj. Pertaining to the nature of sound.
phonogram n. A graphic character symbolizing an articulate sound.
phonology n. The science of human vocal sounds.
phosphorescence n. The property of emitting light.
photoelectric adj. Pertaining to the combined action of light and electricity.
photometer n. Any instrument for measuring the intensity of light or comparing the intensity of two lights.
photometry n. The art of measuring the intensity of light.
physicist n. A specialist in the science that treats of the phenomena associated with matter and energy.
physics n. The science that treats of the phenomena associated with matter and energy.
physiocracy n. The doctrine that land and its products are the only true wealth.
physiognomy n. The external appearance merely.
physiography n. Description of nature.
physiology n. The science of organic functions.
physique n. The physical structure or organization of a person.
picayune adj. Of small value.
piccolo n. A small flute.
piece n. A loose or separated part, as distinguished from the whole or the mass.
piecemeal adv. Gradually.
pillage n. Open robbery, as in war.
pillory n. A wooden framework in which an offender is fastened to boards and is exposed to public scorn.
pincers n. An instrument having two lever-handles and two jaws working on a pivot.
pinchers n. An instrument having two jaws working on a pivot.
pinnacle n. A high or topmost point, as a mountain-peak.
pioneer n. One among the first to explore a country.
pious adj. Religious.
pique v. To excite a slight degree of anger in.
piteous adj. Compassionate.
pitiless adj. Hard-hearted.
pittance n. Any small portion or meager allowance.
placate v. To bring from a state of angry or hostile feeling to one of patience or friendliness.
placid adj. Serene.
plagiarism n. The stealing of passages from the writings of another and publishing them as one's own.
planisphere n. A polar projection of the heavens on a chart.
plasticity n. The property of some substances through which the form of the mass can readily be changed.
platitude n. A written or spoken statement that is flat, dull, or commonplace.
plaudit n. An expression of applause.
plausible adj. Seeming likely to be true, though open to doubt.
playful adj. Frolicsome.
playwright n. A maker of plays for the stage.
plea n. An argument to obtain some desired action.
pleasant adj. Agreeable.
pledgee n. The person to whom anything is pledged.
pledgeor n. One who gives a pledge.
plenary adj. Entire.
plenipotentiary n. A person fully empowered to transact any business.
plenitude n. Abundance.
plumb n. A weight suspended by a line to test the verticality of something.
plummet n. A piece of lead for making soundings, adjusting walls to the vertical.
pluperfect adj. Expressing past time or action prior to some other past time or action.
plural adj. Containing or consisting of more than one.
plurality n. A majority.
plutocracy n. A wealthy class in a political community who control the government by means of their money.
pneumatic adj. Pertaining to or consisting of air or gas.
poesy n. Poetry.
poetaster n. An inferior poet.
poetic adj. Pertaining to poetry.
poetics n. The rules and principles of poetry.
poignancy n. Severity or acuteness, especially of pain or grief.
poignant adj. Severely painful or acute to the spirit.
poise n. Equilibrium.
polar adj. Pertaining to the poles of a sphere, especially of the earth.
polemics n. The art of controversy or disputation.
pollen n. The fine dust-like grains or powder formed within the anther of a flowering plant.
pollute v. To contaminate.
polyarchy n. Government by several or many persons of what- ever class.
polycracy n. The rule of many.
polygamy n. the fact or condition of having more than one wife or husband at once.
polyglot adj. Speaking several tongues.
polygon n. A figure having many angles.
polyhedron n. A solid bounded by plane faces, especially by more than four.
polysyllable adj. Having several syllables, especially more than three syllables.
polytechnic adj. Pertaining to, embracing, or practicing many arts.
polytheism n. The doctrine or belief that there are more gods than one.
pommel v. To beat with something thick or bulky.
pomposity n. The quality of being marked by an assumed stateliness and impressiveness of manner.
pompous adj. Marked by an assumed stateliness and impressiveness of manner.
ponder v. To meditate or reflect upon.
ponderous adj. Unusually weighty or forcible.
pontiff n. The Pope.
populace n. The common people.
populous adj. Containing many inhabitants, especially in proportion to the territory.
portend v. To indicate as being about to happen, especially by previous signs.
portent n. Anything that indicates what is to happen.
portfolio n. A portable case for holding writing-materials, drawings, etc.
posit v. To present in an orderly manner.
position n. The manner in which a thing is placed.
positive adj. Free from doubt or hesitation.
posse n. A force of men.
possess v. To own.
possession n. The having, holding, or detention of property in one's power or command.
possessive adj. Pertaining to the having, holding, or detention of property in one's power or command.
possessor n. One who owns, enjoys, or controls anything, as property.
possible adj. Being not beyond the reach of power natural, moral, or supernatural.
postdate v. To make the date of any writing later than the real date.
posterior n. The hinder part.
postgraduate adj. Pertaining to studies that are pursued after receiving a degree.
postscript n. Something added to a letter after the writer's signature.
potency n. Power.
potentate n. One possessed of great power or sway.
potential n. Anything that may be possible.
potion n. A dose of liquid medicine.
powerless adj. Impotent.
prate v. To talk about vainly or foolishly.
prattle v. To utter in simple or childish talk.
preamble n. A statement introductory to and explanatory of what follows.
precarious adj. Perilous.
precaution n. A provision made in advance for some possible emergency or danger.
precede v. To happen first.
precedence n. Priority in place, time, or rank.
precedent n. An instance that may serve as a guide or basis for a rule.
precedential adj. Of the nature of an instance that may serve as a guide or basis for a rule.
precession n. The act of going forward.
precipice n. A high and very steep or approximately vertical cliff.
precipitant adj. Moving onward quickly and heedlessly.
precipitate v. To force forward prematurely.
precise adj. Exact.
precision n. Accuracy of limitation, definition, or adjustment.
preclude v. To prevent.
precocious adj. Having the mental faculties prematurely developed.
precursor n. A forerunner or herald.
predatory adj. Prone to pillaging.
predecessor n. An incumbent of a given office previous to another.
predicament n. A difficult, trying situation or plight.
predicate v. To state as belonging to something.
predict v. To foretell.
predominance n. Ascendancy or preponderance.
predominant adj. Superior in power, influence, effectiveness, number, or degree.
predominate v. To be chief in importance, quantity, or degree.
preeminence n. Special eminence.
preempt v. To secure the right of preference in the purchase of public land.
preemption n. The right or act of purchasing before others.
preengage v. To preoccupy.
preestablish v. To settle or arrange beforehand.
preexist v. To exist at a period or in a state earlier than something else.
preexistence n. Existence antecedent to something.
preface n. A brief explanation or address to the reader, at the beginning of a book.
prefatory adj. Pertaining to a brief explanation to the reader at the beginning of a book.
prefer v. To hold in higher estimation.
preferable adj. More desirable than others.
preference n. An object of favor or choice.
preferential adj. Possessing, giving, or constituting preference or priority.
preferment n. Preference.
prefix v. To attach at the beginning.
prehensible adj. Capable of being grasped.
prehensile adj. Adapted for grasping or holding.
prehension n. The act of laying hold of or grasping.
prejudice n. A judgment or opinion formed without due examination of the facts.
prelacy n. A system of church government.
prelate n. One of a higher order of clergy having direct authority over other clergy.
prelude n. An introductory or opening performance.
premature adj. Coming too soon.
premier adj. First in rank or position.
premise n. A judgment as a conclusion.
premonition n. Foreboding.
preoccupation n. The state of having the mind, attention, or inclination preoccupied.
preoccupy v. To fill the mind of a person to the exclusion of other subjects.
preordain v. To foreordain.
preparation n. An act or proceeding designed to bring about some event.
preparatory adj. Having to do with what is preliminary.
preponderant adj. Prevalent.
preponderate v. To exceed in influence or power.
prepossession n. A preconceived liking.
preposterous adj. Utterly ridiculous or absurd.
prerogative adj. Having superior rank or precedence.
presage v. To foretell.
prescience n. Knowledge of events before they take place.
prescient adj. Foreknowing.
prescript adj. Prescribed as a rule or model.
prescriptible adj. Derived from authoritative direction.
prescription n. An authoritative direction.
presentient adj. Perceiving or feeling beforehand.
presentiment n. Foreboding.
primer n. An elementary reading-book for children.
primeval adj. Belonging to the first ages.
primitive adj. Pertaining to the beginning or early times.
principal adj. Most important.
principality n. The territory of a reigning prince.
principle n. A general truth or proposition.
priory n. A monastic house.
pristine adj. Primitive.
privateer n. A vessel owned and officered by private persons, but carrying on maritime war.
privilege n. A right or immunity not enjoyed by all, or that may be enjoyed only under special conditions.
privity n. Knowledge shared with another or others regarding a private matter.
privy adj. Participating with another or others in the knowledge of a secret transaction.
probate adj. Relating to making proof, as of a will.
probation n. Any proceeding designed to ascertain or test character, qualification, or the like.
probe v. To search through and through.
probity n. Virtue or integrity tested and confirmed.
procedure n. A manner or method of acting.
proceed v. To renew motion or action, as after rest or interruption.
proclamation n. Any announcement made in a public manner.
procrastinate v. To put off till tomorrow or till a future time.
procrastination n. Delay.
proctor n. An agent acting for another.
prodigal n. One wasteful or extravagant, especially in the use of money or property.
prodigious adj. Immense.
prodigy n. A person or thing of very remarkable gifts or qualities.
productive adj. Yielding in abundance.
profession n. Any calling or occupation involving special mental or other special disciplines.
professor n. A public teacher of the highest grade in a university or college.
proffer v. To offer to another for acceptance.
proficiency n. An advanced state of acquirement, as in some knowledge, art, or science.
proficient adj. Possessing ample and ready knowledge or of skill in any art, science, or industry.
profile n. An outline or contour.
profiteer n. One who profits.
profligacy n. Shameless viciousness.
profligate adj. Abandoned to vice.
profuse adj. Produced or displayed in overabundance.
progeny n. Offspring.
progression n. A moving forward or proceeding in course.
prohibition n. A decree or an order forbidding something.
prohibitionist n. One who favors the prohibition by law of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages.
prohibitory adj. Involving or equivalent to prohibition, especially of the sale of alcoholic beverages.
projection n. A prominence.
proletarian n. A person of the lowest or poorest class.
prolific adj. Producing offspring or fruit.
prolix adj. Verbose.
prologue n. A prefatory statement or explanation to a poem, discourse, or performance.
prolong v. To extend in time or duration.
promenade v. To walk for amusement or exercise.
prominence n. The quality of being noticeable or distinguished.
prominent adj. Conspicuous in position, character, or importance.
promiscuous adj. Brought together without order, distinction, or design (for sex).
promissory adj. Expressing an engagement to pay.
promontory n. A high point of land extending outward from the coastline into the sea.
promoter n. A furtherer, forwarder, or encourager.
promulgate v. To proclaim.
propaganda n. Any institution or systematic scheme for propagating a doctrine or system.
propagate v. To spread abroad or from person to person.
propel v. To drive or urge forward.
propellant adj. Propelling.
propeller n. One who or that which propels.
prophecy n. Any prediction or foretelling.
prophesy v. To predict or foretell, especially under divine inspiration and guidance.
propitious adj. Kindly disposed.
proportionate adj. Being in proportion.
propriety n. Accordance with recognized usage, custom, or principles.
propulsion n. A driving onward or forward.
prosaic adj. Unimaginative.
proscenium n. That part of the stage between the curtain and the orchestra.
proscribe v. To reject, as a teaching or a practice, with condemnation or denunciation.
proscription n. Any act of condemnation and rejection from favor and privilege.
proselyte n. One who has been won over from one religious belief to another.
prosody n. The science of poetical forms.
prospector n. One who makes exploration, search, or examination, especially for minerals.
prospectus n. A paper or pamphlet containing information of a proposed undertaking.
prostrate adj. Lying prone, or with the head to the ground.
protagonist n. A leader in any enterprise or contest.
protection n. Preservation from harm, danger, annoyance, or any other evil.
protective adj. Sheltering.
protector n. A defender.
protege n. One specially cared for and favored by another usually older person.
Protestant n. A Christian who denies the authority of the Pope and holds the right of special judgment.
protomartyr n. The earliest victim in any cause.
protocol n. A declaration or memorandum of agreement less solemn and formal than a treaty.
protoplasm n. The substance that forms the principal portion of an animal or vegetable cell.
prototype n. A work, original in character, afterward imitated in form or spirit.
protract v. To prolong.
protrude v. To push out or thrust forth.
protrusion n. The act of protruding.
protuberance n. Something that swells out from a surrounding surface.
protuberant adj. Bulging.
protuberate v. To swell or bulge beyond the surrounding surface.
proverb n. A brief, pithy saying, condensing in witty or striking form the wisdom of experience.
provident adj. Anticipating and making ready for future wants or emergencies.
providential adj. Effected by divine guidance.
provincial adj. Uncultured in thought and manner.
proviso n. A clause in a contract, will, etc., by which its operation is rendered conditional.
provocation n. An action or mode of conduct that excites resentment.
prowess n. Strength, skill, and intrepidity in battle.
proximately adv. Immediately.
proxy n. A person who is empowered by another to represent him or her in a given matter.
prudence n. Caution.
prudential adj. Proceeding or marked by caution.
prudery n. An undue display of modesty or delicacy.
prurient adj. Inclined to lascivious thoughts and desires.
pseudapostle n. A pretended or false apostle.
pseudonym n. A fictitious name, especially when assumed by a writer.
pseudonymity n. The state or character of using a fictitious name.
psychiatry n. The branch of medicine that relates to mental disease.
psychic adj. Pertaining to the mind or soul.
psychopathic adj. Morally irresponsible.
psychotherapy n. The treatment of mental disease.
pudgy adj. Small and fat.
puerile adj. Childish.
pulmonary adj. Pertaining to the lungs.
punctilious adj. Strictly observant of the rules or forms prescribed by law or custom.
punctual adj. Observant and exact in points of time.
pungent adj. Affecting the sense of smell.
pungency n. The quality of affecting the sense of smell.
punitive adj. Pertaining to punishment.
pupilage n. The state or period of being a student.
purgatory n. An intermediate state where souls are made fit for paradise or heaven by expiatory suffering.
purl v. To cause to whirl, as in an eddy.
purloin v. To steal.
purveyor n. one who supplies
pusillanimous adj. Without spirit or bravery.
putrescent adj. Undergoing decomposition of animal or vegetable matter accompanied by fetid odors.
pyre n. A heap of combustibles arranged for burning a dead body.
pyromania n. An insane propensity to set things on fire.
pyrotechnic adj. Pertaining to fireworks or their manufacture.
pyx n. A vessel or casket, usually of precious metal, in which the host is preserved.
quackery n. Charlatanry
quadrate v. To divide into quarters.
quadruple v. To multiply by four.
qualification n. A requisite for an employment, position, right, or privilege.
qualify v. To endow or furnish with requisite ability, character, knowledge, skill, or possessions.
qualm n. A fit of nausea.
quandary n. A puzzling predicament.
quantity n. Magnitude.
quarantine n. The enforced isolation of any person or place infected with contagious disease.
quarrelsome adj. Irascible.
quarter n. One of four equal parts into which anything is or may be divided.
quarterly adj. Occurring or made at intervals of three months.
quartet n. A composition for four voices or four instruments.
quarto n. An eight-page newspaper of any size.
quay n. A wharf or artificial landing-place on the shore of a harbor or projecting into it.
querulous adj. Habitually complaining.
query v. To make inquiry.
queue n. A file of persons waiting in order of their arrival, as for admittance.
quibble n. An utterly trivial distinction or objection.
quiescence n. Quiet.
quiescent adj. Being in a state of repose or inaction.
quiet adj. Making no noise.
quietus n. A silencing, suppressing, or ending.
quintessence n. The most essential part of anything.
quintet n. Musical composition arranged for five voices or instruments.
quite adv. Fully.
Quixotic adj. Chivalrous or romantic to a ridiculous or extravagant degree.
rabid adj. Affected with rabies or hydrophobia.
racy adj. Exciting or exhilarating to the mind.
radiance n. Brilliant or sparkling luster.
radiate v. To extend in all directions, as from a source or focus.
radical n. One who holds extreme views or advocates extreme measures.
radix n. That from or on which something is developed.
raillery n. Good-humored satire.
ramify v. To divide or subdivide into branches or subdivisions.
ramose adj. Branch-like.
rampant adj. Growing, climbing, or running without check or restraint.
rampart n. A bulwark or construction to oppose assault or hostile entry.
rancor n. Malice.
rankle v. To produce irritation or festering.
rapacious adj. Disposed to seize by violence or by unlawful or greedy methods.
rapid adj. Having great speed.
rapine n. The act of seizing and carrying off property by superior force, as in war.
rapt adj. Enraptured.
raptorial adj. Seizing and devouring living prey.
ration v. To provide with a fixed allowance or portion, especially of food.
rationalism n. The formation of opinions by relying upon reason alone, independently of authority.
raucous adj. Harsh.
ravage v. To lay waste by pillage, rapine, devouring, or other destructive methods.
ravenous adj. Furiously voracious or hungry.
ravine n. A deep gorge or hollow, especially one worn by a stream or flow of water.
reaction n. Tendency towards a former, or opposite state of things, as after reform, revolution, or inflation.
reactionary adj. Pertaining to, of the nature of, causing, or favoring reaction.
readily adv. Without objection or reluctance.
readjust v. To put in order after disarrangement.
ready adj. In a state of preparedness for any given purpose or occasion.
realism n. The principle and practice of depicting persons and scenes as they are believed really to exist.
rearrange v. To arrange again or in a different order.
reassure v. To give new confidence.
rebellious adj. Insubordinate.
rebuff n. A peremptory or unexpected rejection of advances or approaches.
rebuild v. To build again or anew.
rebut v. To oppose by argument or a sufficient answer.
recant v. To withdraw formally one's belief (in something previously believed or maintained).
recapitulate v. To repeat again the principal points of.
recapture v. To capture again.
recede v. To move back or away.
receivable adj. Capable of being or fit to be received - often money.
receptive adj. Having the capacity, quality, or ability of receiving, as truths or impressions.
recessive adj. Having a tendency to go back.
recidivist n. A confirmed criminal.
reciprocal adj. Mutually interchangeable or convertible.
reciprocate v. To give and take mutually.
reciprocity n. Equal mutual rights and benefits granted and enjoyed.
recitation n. The act of reciting or repeating, especially in public and from memory.
reck v. To have a care or thought for.
reckless adj. Foolishly headless of danger.
reclaim v. To demand or to obtain the return or restoration of.
recline v. To cause to assume a leaning or recumbent attitude or position.
recluse n. One who lives in retirement or seclusion.
reclusory n. A hermitage.
recognizance n. An acknowledgment entered into before a court with condition to do some particular act.
recognize v. To recall the identity of (a person or thing).
recoil v. To start back as in dismay, loathing, or dread.
recollect v. To recall the knowledge of.
reconcilable adj. Capable of being adjusted or harmonized.
reconnoiter v. To make a preliminary examination of for military, surveying, or geological purposes.
reconsider v. To review with care, especially with a view to a reversal of previous action.
reconstruct v. To rebuild.
recourse n. Resort to or application for help in exigency or trouble.
recover v. To regain.
recreant n. A cowardly or faithless person.
recreate v. To refresh after labor.
recrudescence n. The state of becoming raw or sore again.
recrudescent adj. Becoming raw or sore again.
recruit v. To enlist men for military or naval service.
rectify v. To correct.
rectitude n. The quality of being upright in principles and conduct.
recuperate v. To recover.
recur v. To happen again or repeatedly, especially at regular intervals.
recure v. To cure again.
recurrent adj. Returning from time to time, especially at regular or stated intervals.
redemption n. The recovery of what is mortgaged or pledged, by paying the debt.
redolent adj. Smelling sweet and agreeable.
redolence n. Smelling sweet and agreeable.
redoubtable adj. Formidable.
redound n. Rebound.
redress v. To set right, as a wrong by compensation or the punishment of the wrong-doer.
reducible adj. That may be reduced.
redundance n. Excess.
redundant adj. Constituting an excess.
reestablish v. To restore.
refer v. To direct or send for information or other purpose.
referrer n. One who refers.
referable adj. Ascribable.
refinery n. A place where some crude material, as sugar or petroleum, is purified.
reflectible adj. Capable of being turned back.
reflection n. The throwing off or back of light, heat, sound, or any form of energy that travels in waves.
reflector n. A mirror, as of metal, for reflecting light, heat, or sound in a particular direction.
reflexible adj. Capable of being reflected.
reform n. Change for the better.
reformer n. One who carries out a reform.
refract v. To bend or turn from a direct course.
refractory adj. Not amenable to control.
refragable adj. Capable of being refuted.
refringency n. Power to refract.
refringent adj. Having the power to refract.
refusal n. Denial of what is asked.
refute v. To prove to be wrong.
regale v. To give unusual pleasure.
regalia n. pl. The emblems of royalty.
regality n. Royalty.
regenerate v. To reproduce.
regent n. One who is lawfully deputized to administer the government for the time being in the name of the ruler.
regicide n. The killing of a king or sovereign.
regime n. Particular conduct or administration of affairs.
regimen n. A systematized order or course of living with reference to food, clothing and personal habits.
regiment n. A body of soldiers.
regnant adj. Exercising royal authority in one's own right.
regress v. To return to a former place or condition.
regretful adj. Feeling, expressive of, or full of regret.
rehabilitate v. To restore to a former status, capacity, right rank, or privilege.
reign v. To hold and exercise sovereign power.
reimburse v. To pay back as an equivalent of what has been expended.
rein n. A step attached to the bit for controlling a horse or other draft-animal.
reinstate v. To restore to a former state, station, or authority.
reiterate v. To say or do again and again.
rejoin v. To reunite after separation.
rejuvenate v. To restore to youth.
rejuvenescence n. A renewal of youth.
relapse v. To suffer a return of a disease after partial recovery.
relegate v. To send off or consign, as to an obscure position or remote destination.
relent v. To yield.
relevant adj. Bearing upon the matter in hand.
reliance n. Dependence.
relinquish v. To give up using or having.
reliquary n. A casket, coffer, or repository in which relics are kept.
relish v. To like the taste or savor of.
reluctance n. Unwillingness.
reluctant adj. Unwilling.
remembrance n. Recollection.
reminiscence n. The calling to mind of incidents within the range of personal knowledge or experience.
reminiscent adj. Pertaining to the recollection of matters of personal interest.
remiss adj. Negligent.
remission n. Temporary diminution of a disease.
remodel v. Reconstruct.
remonstrance n. Reproof.
remonstrant adj. Having the character of a reproof.
remonstrate v. To present a verbal or written protest to those who have power to right or prevent a wrong.
remunerate v. To pay or pay for.
remuneration n. Compensation.
Renaissance n. The revival of letters, and then of art, which marks the transition from medieval to modern time.
rendezvous n. A prearranged place of meeting.
rendition n. Interpretation.
renovate v. To restore after deterioration, as a building.
renunciation n. An explicit disclaimer of a right or privilege.
reorganize v. To change to a more satisfactory form of organization.
reparable adj. Capable of repair.
reparation n. The act of making amends, as for an injury, loss, or wrong.
repartee n. A ready, witty, or apt reply.
repeal v. To render of no further effect.
repel v. To force or keep back in a manner, physically or mentally.
repellent adj. Having power to force back in a manner, physically or mentally.
repentance n. Sorrow for something done or left undone, with desire to make things right by undoing the wrong.
repertory n. A place where things are stored or gathered together.
repetition n. The act of repeating.
repine v. To indulge in fretfulness and faultfinding.
replenish v. To fill again, as something that has been emptied.
replete adj. Full to the uttermost.
replica n. A duplicate executed by the artist himself, and regarded, equally with the first, as an original.
repository n. A place in which goods are stored.
reprehend v. To find fault with.
reprehensible adj. Censurable.
reprehension n. Expression of blame.
repress v. To keep under restraint or control.
repressible adj. Able to be kept under restraint or control.
reprieve v. To grant a respite from punishment to.
reprimand v. To chide or rebuke for a fault.
reprisal n. Any infliction or act by way of retaliation on an enemy.
reprobate n. One abandoned to depravity and sin.
reproduce v. To make a copy of.
reproduction n. The process by which an animal or plant gives rise to another of its kind.
reproof n. An expression of disapproval or blame personally addressed to one censured.
repudiate v. To refuse to have anything to do with.
repugnance n. Thorough dislike.
repugnant adj. Offensive to taste and feeling.
repulse n. The act of beating or driving back, as an attacking or advancing enemy.
repulsive adj. Grossly offensive.
repute v. To hold in general opinion.
requiem n. A solemn mass sung for the repose of the souls of the dead.
requisite adj. Necessary.
requital n. Adequate return for good or ill.
requite v. To repay either good or evil to, as to a person.
rescind v. To make void, as an act, by the enacting authority or a superior authority.
reseat v. To place in position of office again.
resemblance n. Similarity in quality or form.
resent v. To be indignant at, as an injury or insult.
reservoir n. A receptacle where a quantity of some material, especially of a liquid or gas, may be kept.
residue n. A remainder or surplus after a part has been separated or otherwise treated.
resilience n. The power of springing back to a former position
resilient adj. Having the quality of springing back to a former position.
resistance n. The exertion of opposite effort or effect.
resistant adj. Offering or tending to produce resistance.
resistive adj. Having or exercising the power of resistance.
resistless adj. Powerless.
resonance n. The quality of being able to reinforce sound by sympathetic vibrations.
resonance adj. Able to reinforce sound by sympathetic vibrations.
resonate v. To have or produce resonance.
resource n. That which is restored to, relied upon, or made available for aid or support.
respite n. Interval of rest.
resplendent adj. Very bright.
restitution n. Restoration of anything to the one to whom it properly belongs.
resumption n. The act of taking back, or taking again.
resurgent adj. Surging back or again.
resurrection n. A return from death to life
resuscitate v. To restore from apparent death.
retaliate v. To repay evil with a similar evil.
retch v. To make an effort to vomit.
retention n. The keeping of a thing within one's power or possession.
reticence n. The quality of habitually keeping silent or being reserved in utterance.
reticent adj. Habitually keeping silent or being reserved in utterance.
retinue n. The body of persons who attend a person of importance in travel or public appearance.
retort n. A retaliatory speech.
retouch v. To modify the details of.
retrace v. To follow backward or toward the place of beginning, as a track or marking.
retract v. To recall or take back (something that one has said).
retrench v. To cut down or reduce in extent or quantity.
retrieve v. To recover something by searching.
retroactive adj. Operative on, affecting, or having reference to past events, transactions, responsibilities.
retrograde v. To cause to deteriorate or to move backward.
retrogression n. A going or moving backward or in a reverse direction.
retrospect n. A view or contemplation of something past.
retrospective adj. Looking back on the past.
reunite v. To unite or join again, as after separation.
revelation n. A disclosing, discovering, or making known of what was before secret, private, or unknown.
revere v. To regard with worshipful veneration.
reverent adj. Humble.
reversion n. A return to or toward some former state or condition.
revert v. To return, or turn or look back, as toward a former position or the like.
revile v. To heap approach or abuse upon.
revisal n. Revision.
revise v. To examine for the correction of errors, or for the purpose of making changes.
revocation n. Repeal.
rhapsody n. Rapt or rapturous utterance.
rhetoric n. The art of discourse.
rhetorician n. A showy writer or speaker.
ribald adj. Indulging in or manifesting coarse indecency or obscenity.
riddance n. The act or ridding or delivering from something undesirable.
ridicule n. Looks or acts expressing amused contempt.
ridiculous adj. Laughable and contemptible.
rife adj. Abundant.
rightful adj. Conformed to a just claim according to established laws or usage.
rigmarole n. Nonsense.
ripplet n. A small ripple, as of water.
risible adj. capable of exciting laughter.
rivulet n. A small stream or brook.
robust adj. Characterized by great strength or power of endurance.
rondo n. A musical composition during which the first part or subject is repeated several times.
rookery n. A place where crows congregate to breed.
rotary adj. Turning around its axis, like a wheel, or so constructed as to turn thus.
rotate v. To cause to turn on or as on its axis, as a wheel.
rote n. Repetition of words or sounds as a means of learning them, with slight attention.
rotund adj. Round from fullness or plumpness.
rudimentary adj. Being in an initial, early, or incomplete stage of development.
rue v. To regret extremely.
ruffian adj. A lawless or recklessly brutal fellow.
ruminant adj. Chewing the cud.
ruminate v. To chew over again, as food previously swallowed and regurgitated.
rupture v. To separate the parts of by violence.
rustic adj. Characteristic of dwelling in the country.
ruth n. Sorrow for another's misery.
sacrifice v. To make an offering of to deity, especially by presenting on an altar.
sacrificial adj. Offering or offered as an atonement for sin.
sacrilege n. The act of violating or profaning anything sacred.
sacrilegious adj. Impious.
sagacious adj. Able to discern and distinguish with wise perception.
salacious adj. Having strong sexual desires.
salience n. The condition of standing out distinctly.
salient adj. Standing out prominently.
saline adj. Constituting or consisting of salt.
salutary adj. Beneficial.
salutation n. Any form of greeting, hailing, or welcome, whether by word or act.
salutatory n. The opening oration at the commencement in American colleges.
salvage n. Any act of saving property.
salvo n. A salute given by firing all the guns, as at the funeral of an officer.
sanctimonious adj. Making an ostentatious display or hypocritical pretense of holiness or piety.
sanction v. To approve authoritatively.
sanctity n. Holiness.
sanguine adj. Having the color of blood.
sanguineous adj. Consisting of blood.
sapid adj. Affecting the sense of taste.
sapience n. Deep wisdom or knowledge.
sapient adj. Possessing wisdom.
saponaceous adj. Having the nature or quality of soap.
sarcasm n. Cutting and reproachful language.
sarcophagus n. A stone coffin or a chest-like tomb.
sardonic adj. Scornfully or bitterly sarcastic.
satiate v. To satisfy fully the appetite or desire of.
satire n. The employment of sarcasm, irony, or keenness of wit in ridiculing vices.
satiric adj. Resembling poetry, in which vice, incapacity ,or corruption is held up to ridicule.
satirize v. To treat with sarcasm or derisive wit.
satyr n. A very lascivious person.
savage n. A wild and uncivilized human being.
savor v. To perceive by taste or smell.
scabbard n. The sheath of a sword or similar bladed weapon.
scarcity n. Insufficiency of supply for needs or ordinary demands.
scholarly adj. Characteristic of an erudite person.
scholastic adj. Pertaining to education or schools.
scintilla n. The faintest ray.
scintillate v. To emit or send forth sparks or little flashes of light.
scope n. A range of action or view.
scoundrel n. A man without principle.
scribble n. Hasty, careless writing.
scribe n. One who writes or is skilled in writing.
script n. Writing or handwriting of the ordinary cursive form.
Scriptural adj. Pertaining to, contained in, or warranted by the Holy Scriptures.
scruple n. Doubt or uncertainty regarding a question of moral right or duty.
scrupulous adj. Cautious in action for fear of doing wrong.
scurrilous adj. Grossly indecent or vulgar.
scuttle v. To sink (a ship) by making holes in the bottom.
scythe n. A long curved blade for mowing, reaping, etc.
seance n. A meeting of spirituals for consulting spirits.
sear v. To burn on the surface.
sebaceous adj. Pertaining to or appearing like fat.
secant adj. Cutting, especially into two parts.
secede v. To withdraw from union or association, especially from a political or religious body.
secession n. Voluntary withdrawal from fellowship, especially from political or religious bodies.
seclude v. To place, keep, or withdraw from the companionship of others.
seclusion n. Solitude.
secondary adj. Less important or effective than that which is primary.
secondly adv. In the second place in order or succession.
second-rate adj. Second in quality, size, rank, importance, etc.
secrecy n. Concealment.
secretary n. One who attends to correspondence, keeps records. or does other writing for others.
secretive adj. Having a tendency to conceal.
sedate adj. Even-tempered.
sedentary adj. Involving or requiring much sitting.
sediment n. Matter that settles to the bottom of a liquid.
sedition n. Conduct directed against public order and the tranquillity of the state.
seditious adj. Promotive of conduct directed against public order and the tranquillity of the state.
seduce v. To entice to surrender chastity.
sedulous adj. Persevering in effort or endeavor.
seer n. A prophet.
seethe v. To be violently excited or agitated.
seignior n. A title of honor or respectful address, equivalent to sir.
seismograph n. An instrument for recording the phenomena of earthquakes.
seize v. To catch or take hold of suddenly and forcibly.
selective adj. Having the power of choice.
self-respect n. Rational self-esteem.
semiannual adj. Recurring at intervals of six months.
semicircle n. A half-circle.
seminar n. Any assemblage of pupils for real research in some specific study under a teacher.
seminary n. A special school, as of theology or pedagogics.
senile adj. Peculiar to or proceeding from the weakness or infirmity of old age.
sensation n. A condition of mind resulting from spiritual or inherent feeling.
sense n. The signification conveyed by some word, phrase, or action.
sensibility n. Power to perceive or feel.
sensitive adj. Easily affected by outside operations or influences.
sensorium n. The sensory apparatus.
sensual adj. Pertaining to the body or the physical senses.
sensuous adj. Having a warm appreciation of the beautiful or of the refinements of luxury.
sentence n. A related group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought.
sentience n. Capacity for sensation or sense-perception.
sentient adj. Possessing the power of sense or sense-perception.
sentinel n. Any guard or watch stationed for protection.
separable adj. Capable of being disjoined or divided.
separate v. To take apart.
separatist n. A seceder.
septennial adj. Recurring every seven years.
sepulcher n. A burial-place.
sequacious adj. Ready to be led.
sequel n. That which follows in consequence of what has previously happened.
sequence n. The order in which a number or persons, things, or events follow one another in space or time.
sequent adj. Following in the order of time.
sequester v. To cause to withdraw or retire, as from society or public life.
sequestrate v. To confiscate.
sergeant n. A non-commissioned military officer ranking next above a corporal.
sergeant-at-arms n. An executive officer in legislative bodies who enforces the orders of the presiding officer.
sergeant-major n. The highest non-commissioned officer in a regiment.
service n. Any work done for the benefit of another.
serviceable adj. Durable.
sextet n. A band of six singers or players.
sextuple adj. Multiplied by six.
sheer adj. Absolute.
shiftless adj. Wanting in resource, energy, or executive ability.
shrewd adj. Characterized by skill at understanding and profiting by circumstances.
shriek n. A sharp, shrill outcry or scream, caused by agony or terror.
shrinkage n. A contraction of any material into less bulk or dimension.
shrivel v. To draw or be drawn into wrinkles.
shuffle n. A mixing or changing the order of things.
sibilance n. A hissing sound.
sibilant adj. Made with a hissing sound.
sibilate v. To give a hissing sound to, as in pronouncing the letter s.
sidelong adj. Inclining or tending to one side.
sidereal adj. Pertaining to stars or constellations.
siege n. A beleaguerment.
significant adj. Important, especially as pointing something out.
signification n. The meaning conveyed by language, actions, or signs.
similar adj. Bearing resemblance to one another or to something else.
simile n. A comparison which directs the mind to the representative object itself.
similitude n. Similarity.
simplify v. To make less complex or difficult.
simulate v. Imitate.
simultaneous adj. Occurring, done, or existing at the same time.
sinecure n. Any position having emoluments with few or no duties.
singe v. To burn slightly or superficially.
sinister adj. Evil.
sinuosity n. The quality of curving in and out.
sinuous adj. Curving in and out.
sinus n. An opening or cavity.
siren n. A sea-nymph, described by Homer as dwelling between the island of Circe and Scylla.
sirocco n. hot winds from Africa.
sisterhood n. A body of sisters united by some bond of sympathy or by a religious vow.
skeptic n. One who doubts any statements.
skepticism n. The entertainment of doubt concerning something.
skiff n. Usually, a small light boat propelled by oars.
skirmish n. Desultory fighting between advanced detachments of two armies.
sleight n. A trick or feat so deftly done that the manner of performance escapes observation.
slight adj. Of a small importance or significance.
slothful adj. Lazy.
sluggard n. A person habitually lazy or idle.
sociable adj. Inclined to seek company.
socialism n. A theory of civil polity that aims to secure the reconstruction of society.
socialist adj. One who advocates reconstruction of society by collective ownership of land and capital.
sociology n. The philosophical study of society.
Sol n. The sun.
solace n. Comfort in grief, trouble, or calamity.
solar adj. Pertaining to the sun.
solder n. A fusible alloy used for joining metallic surfaces or margins.
soldier n. A person engaged in military service.
solecism n. Any violation of established rules or customs.
solicitor n. One who represents a client in court of justice; an attorney.
solicitude n. Uneasiness of mind occasioned by desire, anxiety, or fear.
soliloquy n. A monologue.
solstice n. The time of year when the sun is at its greatest declination.
soluble adj. Capable of being dissolved, as in a fluid.
solvent adj. Having sufficient funds to pay all debts.
somber adj. Gloomy.
somniferous adj. Tending to produce sleep.
somnolence n. Oppressive drowsiness.
sonata n. An instrumental composition.
sonnet n. A poem of fourteen decasyllabic or octosyllabiclines expressing two successive phrases.
sonorous adj. Resonant.
soothsayer n. One who claims to have supernatural insight or foresight.
sophism n. A false argument understood to be such by the reasoner himself and intentionally used to deceive
sophistical adj. Fallacious.
sophisticate v. To deprive of simplicity of mind or manner.
sophistry n. Reasoning sound in appearance only, especially when designedly deceptive.
soprano n. A woman's or boy's voice of high range.
sorcery n. Witchcraft.
sordid adj. Of degraded character or nature.
souvenir n. A token of remembrance.
sparse adj. Thinly diffused.
Spartan adj. Exceptionally brave; rigorously severe.
spasmodic adj. Convulsive.
specialize v. To assume an individual or specific character, or adopt a singular or special course.
specialty n. An employment limited to one particular line of work.
specie n. A coin or coins of gold, silver, copper, or other metal.
species n. A classificatory group of animals or plants subordinate to a genus.
specimen n. One of a class of persons or things regarded as representative of the class.
specious adj. Plausible.
spectator n. One who beholds or looks on.
specter n. Apparition.
spectrum n. An image formed by rays of light or other radiant energy.
speculate v. To pursue inquiries and form conjectures.
speculator n. One who makes an investment that involves a risk of loss, but also a chance of profit.
sphericity n. The state or condition of being a sphere.
spheroid n. A body having nearly the form of a sphere.
spherometer n. An instrument for measuring curvature or radii of spherical surfaces.
spinous adj. Having spines.
spinster n. A woman who has never been married.
spontaneous adj. Arising from inherent qualities or tendencies without external efficient cause.
sprightly adj. Vivacious.
squalid adj. Having a dirty, mean, poverty-stricken appearance.
squatter n. One who settles on land without permission or right.
stagnant adj. Not flowing: said of water, as in a pool.
stagnate v. To become dull or inert.
stagnation n. The condition of not flowing or not changing.
stagy adj. Having a theatrical manner.
staid adj. Of a steady and sober character.
stallion n. An uncastrated male horse, commonly one kept for breeding.
stanchion n. A vertical bar, or a pair of bars, used to confine cattle in a stall.
stanza n. A group of rimed lines, usually forming one of a series of similar divisions in a poem.
statecraft n. The art of conducting state affairs.
static adj. Pertaining to or designating bodies at rest or forces in equilibrium.
statics n. The branch of mechanics that treats of the relations that subsist among forces in order.
stationary adj. Not moving.
statistician n. One who is skilled in collecting and tabulating numerical facts.
statuesque adj. Having the grace, pose, or quietude of a statue.
statuette n. A figurine.
stature n. The natural height of an animal body.
statute n. Any authoritatively declared rule, ordinance, decree, or law.
stealth n. A concealed manner of acting.
stellar adj. Pertaining to the stars.
steppe n. One of the extensive plains in Russia and Siberia.
sterling adj. Genuine.
stifle v. To smother.
stigma n. A mark of infamy or token of disgrace attaching to a person as the result of evil-doing.
stiletto n. A small dagger.
stimulant n. Anything that rouses to activity or to quickened action.
stimulate v. To rouse to activity or to quickened action.
stimulus n. Incentive.
stingy adj. Cheap, unwilling to spend money.
stipend n. A definite amount paid at stated periods in compensation for services or as an allowance.
Stoicism n. The principles or the practice of the Stoics-being very even tempered in success and failure.
stolid adj. Expressing no power of feeling or perceiving.
strait n. A narrow passage of water connecting two larger bodies of water.
stratagem n. Any clever trick or device for obtaining an advantage.
stratum n. A natural or artificial layer, bed, or thickness of any substance or material.
streamlet n. Rivulet.
stripling n. A mere youth.
studious adj. Having or showing devotion to the acquisition of knowledge.
stultify v. To give an appearance of foolishness to.
stupendous adj. Of prodigious size, bulk, or degree.
stupor n. Profound lethargy.
suasion n. The act of persuading.
suave adj. Smooth and pleasant in manner.
subacid adj. Somewhat sharp or biting.
subaquatic adj. Being, formed, or operating under water.
subconscious adj. Being or occurring in the mind, but without attendant consciousness or conscious perception.
subjacent adj. Situated directly underneath.
subjection n. The act of bringing into a state of submission.
subjugate v. To conquer.
subliminal adj. Being beneath the threshold of consciousness.
sublingual adj. Situated beneath the tongue.
submarine adj. Existing, done, or operating beneath the surface of the sea.
submerge v. To place or plunge under water.
submergence n. The act of submerging.
submersible adj. Capable of being put underwater.
submersion n. The act of submerging.
submission n. A yielding to the power or authority of another.
submittal n. The act of submitting.
subordinate adj. Belonging to an inferior order in a classification.
subsequent adj. Following in time.
subservience n. The quality, character, or condition of being servilely following another's behests.
subservient adj. Servilely following another's behests.
subside v. To relapse into a state of repose and tranquillity.
subsist v. To be maintained or sustained.
subsistence n. Sustenance.
subtend v. To extend opposite to.
subterfuge n. Evasion.
subterranean adj. Situated or occurring below the surface of the earth.
subtle adj. Discriminating.
subtrahend n. That which is to be subtracted.
subversion n. An overthrow, as from the foundation.
subvert v. To bring to ruin.
succeed v. To accomplish what is attempted or intended.
success n. A favorable or prosperous course or termination of anything attempted.
successful adj. Having reached a high degree of worldly prosperity.
successor n. One who or that which takes the place of a predecessor or preceding thing.
succinct adj. Concise.
succumb v. To cease to resist.
sufferance n. Toleration.
sufficiency n. An ample or adequate supply.
suffrage n. The right or privilege of voting.
suffuse v. To cover or fill the surface of.
suggestible adj. That can be suggested.
suggestive adj. Stimulating to thought or reflection.
summary n. An abstract.
sumptuous adj. Rich and costly.
superabundance n. An excessive amount.
superadd v. To add in addition to what has been added.
superannuate v. To become deteriorated or incapacitated by long service.
superb adj. Sumptuously elegant.
supercilious adj. Exhibiting haughty and careless contempt.
superficial adj. Knowing and understanding only the ordinary and the obvious.
superfluity n. That part of anything that is in excess of what is needed.
superfluous adj. Being more than is needed.
superheat v. To heat to excess.
superintend v. To have the charge and direction of, especially of some work or movement.
superintendence n. Direction and management.
superintendent n. One who has the charge and direction of, especially of some work or movement.
superlative n. That which is of the highest possible excellence or eminence.
supernatural adj. Caused miraculously or by the immediate exercise of divine power.
supernumerary adj. Superfluous.
supine adj. Lying on the back.
supplant v. To take the place of.
supple adj. Easily bent.
supplementary adj. Being an addition to.
supplicant n. One who asks humbly and earnestly.
supplicate v. To beg.
suppress v. To prevent from being disclosed or punished.
suppressible adj. Capable of being suppressed.
suppression n. A forcible putting or keeping down.
supramundane adj. Supernatural.
surcharge n. An additional amount charged.
surety n. Security for payment or performance.
surfeit v. To feed to fullness or to satiety.
surmise v. To conjecture.
surmount v. To overcome by force of will.
surreptitious adj. Clandestine.
surrogate n. One who or that which is substituted for or appointed to act in place of another.
surround v. To encircle.
susceptibility n. A specific capability of feeling or emotion.
susceptible adj. Easily under a specified power or influence.
suspense n. Uncertainty.
suspension n. A hanging from a support.
suspicious adj. Inclined to doubt or mistrust.
sustenance n. Food.
swarthy adj. Having a dark hue, especially a dark or sunburned complexion.
Sybarite n. A luxurious person.
sycophant n. A servile flatterer, especially of those in authority or influence.
syllabic adj. Consisting of that which is uttered in a single vocal impulse.
syllabication n. Division of words into that which is uttered in a single vocal impulse.
syllable n. That which is uttered in a single vocal impulse.
syllabus n. Outline of a subject, course, lecture, or treatise.
sylph n. A slender, graceful young woman or girl.
symmetrical adj. Well-balanced.
symmetry n. Relative proportion and harmony.
sympathetic adj. Having a fellow-feeling for or like feelings with another or others.
sympathize v. To share the sentiments or mental states of another.
symphonic adj. Characterized by a harmonious or agreeable mingling of sounds.
symphonious adj. Marked by a harmonious or agreeable mingling of sounds.
symphony n. A harmonious or agreeable mingling of sounds.
synchronism n. Simultaneousness.
syndicate n. An association of individuals united for the prosecution of some enterprise.
syneresis n. The coalescence of two vowels or syllables, as e'er for ever.
synod n. An ecclesiastical council.
synonym n. A word having the same or almost the same meaning as some other.
synopsis n. A syllabus or summary.
systematic adj. Methodical.
tableau n. An arrangement of inanimate figures representing a scene from real life.
tacit adj. Understood.
taciturn adj. Disinclined to conversation.
tack n. A small sharp-pointed nail.
tact n. Fine or ready mental discernment shown in saying or doing the proper thing.
tactician n. One who directs affairs with skill and shrewdness.
tactics n. Any maneuvering or adroit management for effecting an object.
tangency n. The state of touching.
tangent adj. Touching.
tangible adj. Perceptible by touch.
tannery n. A place where leather is tanned.
tantalize v. To tease.
tantamount adj. Having equal or equivalent value, effect, or import.
tapestry n. A fabric to which a pattern is applied with a needle, designed for ornamental hangings.
tarnish v. To lessen or destroy the luster of in any way.
taut adj. Stretched tight.
taxation n. A levy, by government, of a fixed contribution.
taxidermy n. The art or process of preserving dead animals or parts of them.
technic adj. Technical.
technicality n. Something peculiar to a particular art, trade, or the like.
technique n. Manner of performance.
technography n. The scientific description or study of human arts and industries in their historic development.
technology n. The knowledge relating to industries and manufactures.
teem v. To be full to overflowing.
telepathy n. Thought-transference.
telephony n. The art or process of communicating by telephone.
telescope v. To drive together so that one slides into the another like the sections of a spy-glass.
telltale adj. That gives warning or information.
temerity n. Recklessness.
temporal adj. Pertaining to or concerned with the affairs of the present life.
temporary adj. Lasting for a short time only.
temporize v. To pursue a policy of delay.
tempt v. To offer to (somebody) an inducement to do wrong.
tempter n. An allurer or enticer to evil.
tenacious adj. Unyielding.
tenant n. An occupant.
tendency n. Direction or inclination, as toward some objector end.
tenet n. Any opinion, principle, dogma, or doctrine that a person believes or maintains as true.
tenor n. A settled course or manner of progress.
tense adj. Strained to stiffness.
tentative adj. Done as an experiment.
tenure n. The term during which a thing is held.
tercentenary adj. Pertaining to a period of 300 years.
termagant adj. Violently abusive and quarrelsome.
terminal adj. Pertaining to or creative of a boundary, limit.
terminate v. To put an end or stop to.
termination n. The act of ending or concluding.
terminus n. The final point or goal.
terrify v. To fill with extreme fear.
territorial adj. Pertaining to the domain over which a sovereign state exercises jurisdiction.
terse adj. Pithy.
testator n. The maker of a will.
testimonial n. A formal token of regard, often presented in public.
thearchy n. Government by a supreme deity.
theism n. Belief in God.
theocracy n. A government administered by ecclesiastics.
theocrasy n. The mixed worship of polytheism.
theologian n. A professor of divinity.
theological adj. Based on or growing out of divine revelation.
theology n. The branch of theological science that treats of God.
theoretical adj. Directed toward knowledge for its own sake without respect to applications.
theorist n. One given to speculating.
theorize v. To speculate.
thereabout adv. Near that number, quantity, degree, place, or time, approximately.
therefor adv. For that or this.
thermal adj. Of or pertaining to heat.
thermoelectric adj. Denoting electricity produced by heat.
thermoelectricity n. Electricity generated by differences of temperature,
thesis n. An essay or treatise on a particular subject.
thoroughbred adj. Bred from the best or purest blood or stock.
thoroughfare n. A public street or road.
thrall n. One controlled by an appetite or a passion.
tilth n. Cultivation.
timbre n. The quality of a tone, as distinguished from intensity and pitch.
timorous adj. Lacking courage.
tincture n. A solution, usually alcoholic, of some principle used in medicine.
tinge n. A faint trace of color.
tipsy adj. Befuddled with drinks.
tirade n. Harangue.
transalpine adj. Situated on the other side of the Alps.
transact v. To do business.
transatlantic adj. Situated beyond or on the other side of the Atlantic.
transcend v. To surpass.
transcontinental adj. Extending or passing across a continent.
transcribe v. To write over again (something already written)
transcript n. A copy made directly from an original.
transfer v. To convey, remove, or cause to pass from one person or place to another.
transferable adj. Capable of being conveyed from one person or place to another.
transferee n. The person to whom a transfer is made.
transference n. The act of conveying from one person or place to another.
transferrer n. One who or that which conveys from one person or place to another.
transfigure v. To give an exalted meaning or glorified appearance to.
transfuse v. To pour or cause to pass, as a fluid, from one vessel to another.
transfusible adj. Capable of being poured from one vessel to another.
transfusion n. The act of pouring from one vessel to another.
transgress v. To break a law.
transience n. Something that is of short duration.
transient n. One who or that which is only of temporary existence.
transition n. Passage from one place, condition, or action to another.
transitory adj. Existing for a short time only.
translate v. To give the sense or equivalent of in another language or dialect.
translator n. An interpreter.
translucence n. The property or state of allowing the passage of light.
translucent adj. Allowing the passage of light.
transmissible adj. That may e sent through or across.
transmission n. The act of sending through or across.
transmit v. To send trough or across.
transmute v. To change in nature, substance, or form.
transparent adj. Easy to see through or understand.
transpire v. To come to pass.
transplant v. To remove and plant in another place.
transposition n. The act of reversing the order or changing the place of.
transverse adj. Lying or being across or in a crosswise direction.
travail n. Hard or agonizing labor.
travesty n. A grotesque imitation.
treacherous adj. Perfidious.
treachery n. Violation of allegiance, confidence, or plighted faith.
treasonable adj. Of the nature of betrayal, treachery, or breech of allegiance.
treatise n. An elaborate literary composition presenting a subject in all its parts.
treble adj. Multiplied by three.
trebly adv. Triply.
tremor n. An involuntary trembling or shivering.
tremulous adj. Characterized by quivering or unsteadiness.
trenchant adj. Cutting deeply and quickly.
trepidation n. Nervous uncertainty of feeling.
trestle n. An open braced framework for supporting the horizontal stringers of a railway-bridge.
triad n. A group of three persons of things.
tribune n. Any champion of the rights and liberties of the people: often used as the name for a newspaper.
trickery n. Artifice.
tricolor adj. Of three colors.
tricycle n. A three-wheeled vehicle.
trident n. The three-pronged fork that was the emblem of Neptune.
triennial adj. Taking place every third year.
trimness n. Neatness.
trinity n. A threefold personality existing in the one divine being or substance.
trio n. Three things grouped or associated together.
triple adj. Threefold.
triplicate adj. Composed of or pertaining to three related things or parts.
triplicity n. The state of being triple or threefold.
tripod n. A three-legged stand, usually hinged near the top, for supporting some instrument.
trisect v. To divide into three parts, especially into three equal parts.
trite adj. Made commonplace by frequent repetition.
triumvir n. One of three men united coordinately in public office or authority.
trivial adj. Of little importance or value.
troublesome adj. Burdensome.
truculent adj. Having the character or the spirit of a savage.
truism n. A statement so plainly true as hardly to require statement or proof.
truthful adj. Veracious.
tutelage n. The act of training or the state of being under instruction.
tutelar adj. Protective.
tutorship n. The office of a guardian.
twinge n. A darting momentary local pain.
typical adj. Characteristic.
typify v. To serve as a characteristic example of.
typographical adj. Pertaining to typography or printing.
typography n. The arrangement of composed type, or the appearance of printed matter.
tyrannical adj. Despotic.
tyranny n. Absolute power arbitrarily or unjustly administrated.
tyro n. One slightly skilled in or acquainted with any trade or profession.
ubiquitous adj. Being present everywhere.
ulterior adj. Not so pertinent as something else to the matter spoken of.
ultimate adj. Beyond which there is nothing else.
ultimatum n. A final statement or proposal, as concerning terms or conditions.
ultramundane adj. Pertaining to supernatural things or to another life.
ultramontane adj. Beyond the mountains, especially beyond the Alps (that is, on their Italian side).
umbrage n. A sense of injury.
unaccountable adj. Inexplicable.
unanimous adj. Sharing the same views or sentiments.
unanimity n. The state or quality of being of one mind.
unavoidable adj. Inevitable.
unbecoming adj. Unsuited to the wearer, place, or surroundings.
unbelief n. Doubt.
unbiased adj. Impartial, as judgment.
unbridled adj. Being without restraint.
uncommon adj. Rare.
unconscionable adj. Ridiculously or unjustly excessive.
unconscious adj. Not cognizant of objects, actions, etc.
unction n. The art of anointing as with oil.
unctuous adj. Oily.
undeceive v. To free from deception, as by apprising of the real state of affairs.
undercharge v. To make an inadequate charge for.
underexposed adj. Insufficiently exposed for proper or full development, as negatives in photography.
undergarment n. A garment to be worn under the ordinary outer garments.
underman v. To equip with less than the full complement of men.
undersell v. To sell at a lower price than.
undersized adj. Of less than the customary size.
underhanded adj. Clandestinely carried on.
underlie v. To be the ground or support of.
underling n. A subordinate.
undermine v. To subvert in an underhand way.
underrate v. To undervalue.
understate v. To fail to put strongly enough, as a case.
undervalue v. To underestimate.
underwrite v. To issue or be party to the issue of a policy of insurance.
undue adj. More than sufficient.
undulate v. To move like a wave or in waves.
undulous adj. Resembling waves.
upbraid v. To reproach as deserving blame.
upcast n. A throwing upward.
upheaval n. Overthrow or violent disturbance of established order or condition.
upheave v. To raise or lift with effort.
uppermost adj. First in order of precedence.
uproarious adj. Noisy.
upturn v. To throw into confusion.
urban adj. Of, or pertaining to, or like a city.
urbanity n. Refined or elegant courtesy.
urchin n. A roguish, mischievous boy.
urgency n. The pressure of necessity.
usage n. Treatment.
usurious adj. Taking unlawful or exorbitant interest on money loaned.
usurp v. To take possession of by force.
usury n. The demanding for the use of money as a loan, a rate of interest beyond what is allowed by law.
utilitarianism n. The ethical doctrine that actions are right because they are useful or of beneficial tendency.
utility n. Fitness for some desirable practical purpose.
utmost n. The greatest possible extent.
vacate v. To leave.
vaccinate v. To inoculate with vaccine virus or virus of cowpox.
vacillate v. To waver.
vacuum n. A space entirely devoid of matter.
vagabond n. A wanderer.
vagrant n. An idle wanderer.
vainglory n. Excessive, pretentious, and demonstrative vanity.
vale n. Level or low land between hills.
valediction n. A bidding farewell.
valedictorian n. Student who delivers an address at graduating exercises of an educational institution.
valedictory n. A parting address.
valid adj. Founded on truth.
valorous adj. Courageous.
vapid adj. Having lost sparkling quality and flavor.
vaporizer n. An atomizer.
variable adj. Having a tendency to change.
variance n. Change.
variant n. A thing that differs from another in form only, being the same in essence or substance.
variation n. Modification.
variegate v. To mark with different shades or colors.
vassal n. A slave or bondman.
vaudeville n. A variety show.
vegetal adj. Of or pertaining to plants.
vegetarian n. One who believes in the theory that man's food should be exclusively vegetable.
vegetate v. To live in a monotonous, passive way without exercise of the mental faculties.
vegetation n. Plant-life in the aggregate.
vegetative adj. Pertaining to the process of plant-life.
vehement adj. Very eager or urgent.
velocity n. Rapid motion.
velvety adj. Marked by lightness and softness.
venal adj. Mercenary, corrupt.
vendition n. The act of selling.
vendor n. A seller.
veneer n. Outside show or elegance.
venerable adj. Meriting or commanding high esteem.
venerate v. To cherish reverentially.
venereal adj. Pertaining to or proceeding from sexual intercourse.
venial adj. That may be pardoned or forgiven, a forgivable sin.
venison n. The flesh of deer.
venom n. The poisonous fluid that certain animals secrete.
venous adj. Of, pertaining to, or contained or carried in a vein or veins.
veracious adj. Habitually disposed to speak the truth.
veracity n. Truthfulness.
verbatim adv. Word for word.
verbiage n. Use of many words without necessity.
verbose adj. Wordy.
verdant adj. Green with vegetation.
verification n. The act of proving to be true, exact, or accurate.
verify v. To prove to be true, exact, or accurate.
verily adv. In truth.
vermin n. A noxious or troublesome animal.
vernacular n. The language of one's country.
vernal adj. Belonging to or suggestive of the spring.
versatile adj. Having an aptitude for applying oneself to new and varied tasks or to various subjects.
version n. A description or report of something as modified by one's character or opinion.
vertex n. Apex.
vertical adj. Lying or directed perpendicularly to the horizon.
vertigo n. Dizziness.
vestige n. A visible trace, mark, or impression, of something absent, lost, or gone.
vestment n. Clothing or covering.
veto n. The constitutional right in a chief executive of refusing to approve an enactment.
vicarious adj. Suffered or done in place of or for the sake of another.
viceroy n. A ruler acting with royal authority in place of the sovereign in a colony or province.
vicissitude n. A change, especially a complete change, of condition or circumstances, as of fortune.
vie v. To contend.
vigilance n. Alert and intent mental watchfulness in guarding against danger.
vigilant adj. Being on the alert to discover and ward off danger or insure safety.
vignette n. A picture having a background or that is shaded off gradually.
vincible adj. Conquerable.
vindicate v. To prove true, right, or real.
vindicatory adj. Punitive.
vinery n. A greenhouse for grapes.
viol n. A stringed instrument of the violin class.
viola n. A musical instrument somewhat larger than a violin.
violator n. One who transgresses.
violation n. Infringement.
violoncello n. A stringed instrument held between the player's knees.
virago n. A bold, impudent, turbulent woman.
virile adj. Masculine.
virtu n. Rare, curious, or beautiful quality.
virtual adj. Being in essence or effect, but not in form or appearance.
virtuoso n. A master in the technique of some particular fine art.
virulence n. Extreme poisonousness.
virulent adj. Exceedingly noxious or deleterious.
visage n. The face, countenance, or look of a person.
viscount n. In England, a title of nobility, ranking fourth in the order of British peerage.
vista n. A view or prospect.
visual adj. Perceptible by sight.
visualize v. To give pictorial vividness to a mental representation.
vitality n. The state or quality of being necessary to existence or continuance.
vitalize v. To endow with life or energy.
vitiate v. To contaminate.
vituperable adj. Deserving of censure.
vivacity n. Liveliness.
vivify v. To endue with life.
vivisection n. The dissection of a living animal.
vocable n. a word, especially one regarded in relation merely to its qualities of sound.
vocative adj. Of or pertaining to the act of calling.
vociferance n. The quality of making a clamor.
vociferate v. To utter with a loud and vehement voice.
vociferous adj. Making a loud outcry.
vogue n. The prevalent way or fashion.
volant adj. Flying or able to fly.
volatile adj. Changeable.
volition n. An act or exercise of will.
volitive adj. Exercising the will.
voluble adj. Having great fluency in speaking.
voluptuous adj. having fullness of beautiful form, as a woman, with or without sensuous or sensual quality.
voracious adj. Eating with greediness or in very large quantities.
vortex n. A mass of rotating or whirling fluid, especially when sucked spirally toward the center.
votary adj. Consecrated by a vow or promise.
votive adj. Dedicated by a vow.
vulgarity n. Lack of refinement in conduct or speech.
vulnerable adj. Capable of receiving injuries.
waif n. A homeless, neglected wanderer.
waistcoat n. A vest.
waive v. To relinquish, especially temporarily, as a right or claim.
wampum n. Beads strung on threads, formerly used among the American Indians as currency.
wane v. To diminish in size and brilliancy.
wantonness n. Recklessness.
weak-kneed adj. Without resolute purpose or energy.
weal n. Well-being.
wean v. To transfer (the young) from dependence on mother's milk to another form of nourishment.
wearisome adj. Fatiguing.
well-bred adj. Of good ancestry.
well-doer n. A performer of moral and social duties.
well-to-do adj. In prosperous circumstances.
whereabouts n. The place in or near which a person or thing is.
whereupon adv. After which.
wherever adv. In or at whatever place.
wherewith n. The necessary means or resources.
whet v. To make more keen or eager.
whimsical adj. Capricious.
whine v. To utter with complaining tone.
wholly adv. Completely.
wield v. To use, control, or manage, as a weapon, or instrument, especially with full command.
wile n. An act or a means of cunning deception.
winsome adj. Attractive.
wintry adj. Lacking warmth of manner.
wiry adj. Thin, but tough and sinewy.
witchcraft n. Sorcery.
witless adj. Foolish, indiscreet, or silly.
witling n. A person who has little understanding.
witticism n. A witty, brilliant, or original saying or sentiment.
wittingly adv. With knowledge and by design.
wizen v. To become or cause to become withered or dry.
wizen-faced adj. Having a shriveled face.
working-man n. One who earns his bread by manual labor.
workmanlike adj. Like or befitting a skilled workman.
workmanship n. The art or skill of a workman.
wrangle v. To maintain by noisy argument or dispute.
wreak v. To inflict, as a revenge or punishment.
wrest v. To pull or force away by or as by violent twisting or wringing.
wretchedness n. Extreme misery or unhappiness.
writhe v. To twist the body, face, or limbs or as in pain or distress.
writing n. The act or art of tracing or inscribing on a surface letters or ideographs.
wry adj. Deviating from that which is proper or right.
yearling n. A young animal past its first year and not yet two years old.
zealot n. One who espouses a cause or pursues an object in an immoderately partisan manner.
zeitgeist n. The intellectual and moral tendencies that characterize any age or epoch.
zenith n. The culminating-point of prosperity, influence, or greatness.
zephyr n. Any soft, gentle wind.
zodiac n. An imaginary belt encircling the heavens within which are the larger planets.
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SAT Vocabulary Building by Dr. Steve Baba
You do not need to learn every word in the dictionary to improve your SAT score. Every bone in your body has a name, but the names of your bones will not be on the SAT for two reasons. It would give an unfair advantage to students interested in human anatomy, and the question would be too difficult. Just as easy questions that everyone can answer will not be on the test, questions that no one can answer will also not be on the test for the same reason; they do not measure anything since everyone would get the same score.
There are about 10,000 words that are likely to show up on the SAT - other words are too hard or too easy. While 10,000 words is a lot, you probably know half of the words already. Also, many of the words are related to each other through common roots such as subsonic and supersonic. If you know what supersonic means, you should be able to figure out what subsonic means and vice versa.
Five or ten hours of vocabulary work cannot compare to a lifetime of studious vocabulary building, but all is not lost. You can review, remember and clarify words you once knew and learn a few new words. Unless you have a photographic memory or have mastered mnemonics (thinking of memory aids), you will not be able to memorize 1000 new words from a list in a few hours. What you can do is review words that you barely remember, and some of the new words may stick.
If you are tempted to skip vocabulary building because there are too many words, just remember that you do not need to know all the words to answer vocabulary questions correctly. Consider the following sentence completion question.
Because of his _____ and effort, John Doe was a success.
a. laziness
1000 Most Important Words by Norman Schur, 245 pages, $5.99.
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In addition to answering more vocabulary questions correctly, answering quickly leaves more time for reading comprehension questions, which have vocabulary embedded in the passages.
These words are targeted for SAT test prep, but other tests, such as the GRE and GMAT, use the same collegiate words.
GRE words and GMAT vocabulary are just hard SAT words; SAT prep will help you on graduate school entrance tests.
The SAT vocabulary and SAT math advice also applies to GRE vocabulary and GRE math, but the difficulty is different.
On the SAT, Both Speed And Accuracy Count
Finishing the easy SAT math problems faster gives you time to solve two more hard problems per section for 60 more points.
Every SAT math problem, even the hard ones such as these in my seminar (PDF), can be easily solved in one minute without a calculator.
The reading-passage questions are NOT ordered from easy to hard. If you run out of time, because of slow reading or slow vocabulary, you both miss opportunities to answer easy questions for easy points and don't have extra time for hard questions.
Just 20% faster is like having an extra 5 minutes on 25-minute sections.
SAT prep, such as my CDs/DVD, can enable you to gain 50+ points from increased accuracy and 50+ points from increased speed per subject for a total increase of 300+.
SAT Writing: Can’t write (no good/good/well)? Not a Big Problem
The “new” SAT writing (really the same old SAT II writing) is 2/3 multiple-choice grammar and 1/3 a 25-minute essay.
The multiple-choice grammar does not even require knowing the names of parts of speech. One only needs to pick the best of several choices or identify errors (no good/good/well). Because SAT scoring is highly curved, half correct (50%) is enough to reach 500, and even 600, 650 or 700 allows many mistakes or 50/50 guesses.
Most, but not all, of the multiple-choice questions can be answered with two-dozen English grammar rules, which are covered in the Kaplan and Princeton Review books.
Multiple-choice grammar questions can be answered multiple ways:
1) know the grammar rule for the one correct answer
2) eliminate all wrong answers to find the remaining correct answer
3) know a correct similar sentence - Can’t (swim/any activity) (no good/good/well)?
4) reword to clarify - I write (no good/good/well).
5) guess after eliminating some wrong answers
A 25-minute essay is as far from a creatively written novel as a 25-minute fast-food meal is from a gourmet meal. Becoming a professional chef or novelist takes years. Becoming a fast-food cook or writing a decent 25-minute essay can be mastered faster.
The essay is often illustrated by a triple cheeseburger. Top bun = introduction. Three burgers = three examples. Cheese between burgers = transitions between examples. Bottom bun = conclusion. Cooking small pieces of meat is easy = using small examples is easy.
SAT writing is the easiest to improve. Reading with difficult vocabulary is the hardest to improve.
Recommended SAT Prep Books by Steve Baba, Ph.D.
While some books are slightly better than others, I have found that none were exceptional. Kaplan certainly knows what Princeton Review is doing and vice versa. Books from other companies generally contain similar advice and are only differentiated by jokes, writing style, and graphics.
I have found that the Princeton Review book is slightly better for low-scoring students because it simplifies every solution. I have found that the Kaplan book is slightly better for high-scoring students because it does not (over) simplify every solution.
The book The Official SAT Study Guide provides real SAT tests, which are ideal for practicing and becoming more confident with the test. But do not use this book alone. Using The Official SAT Study Guide alone is like learning how to swim by jumping into the deep end of the pool. To maximize your SAT score, you need to both practice and learn from experts.
While SAT preparation books generally contains similar advice, longer books obviously contain more information. While learning 200 SAT words is useful, learning 2000 words is better. Ditto for math problems. .
Almost every SAT math problem can be solved with the below math. My DVD SAT math seminar shows how-to while covering the necessary math.
Print (click icon below) the below ( if blank click here ), free, 6-page SAT Math Notes and use as a crash course and/or a quick reference "cheat sheet."
The 4-column, small-type, terse-wording design enables students to quickly find and read formulas. On a table or a large desk, 6-pages can be viewed instantly.
This website is for the pre-2016 SAT Test. The SAT sold out to Common Core money.
The new redesigned 2016 SAT is Common Core garbage, designed by the Common Core architect himself.
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20 awesomely untranslatable words from around the world
20 awesomely untranslatable words from around the world
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1. Toska
Russian – Vladmir Nabokov describes it best: “No single word in English renders all the shades of toska. At its deepest and most painful, it is a sensation of great spiritual anguish, often without any specific cause. At less morbid levels it is a dull ache of the soul, a longing with nothing to long for, a sick pining, a vague restlessness, mental throes, yearning. In particular cases it may be the desire for somebody or something specific, nostalgia, love-sickness. At the lowest level it grades into ennui, boredom.”
2. Mamihlapinatapei
Yagan (indigenous language of Tierra del Fuego) – “The wordless, yet meaningful look shared by two people who both desire to initiate something but are both reluctant to start.” ( Altalang.com )
3. Jayus
Indonesian – “A joke so poorly told and so unfunny that one cannot help but laugh.” ( Altalang.com )
4. Iktsuarpok
Inuit – “To go outside to check if anyone is coming.” ( Altalang.com )
5. Litost
Czech – Milan Kundera, author of The Unbearable Lightness of Being, remarked that, “As for the meaning of this word, I have looked in vain in other languages for an equivalent, though I find it difficult to imagine how anyone can understand the human soul without it.” The closest definition is a state of agony and torment created by the sudden sight of one’s own misery.
6. Kyoikumama
Japanese – “A mother who relentlessly pushes her children toward academic achievement.” ( Altalang.com )
7. Tartle
Scottish – The act of hestitating while introducing someone because you’ve forgotten their name. ( Altalang.com )
8. Ilunga
Tshiluba (Southwest Congo) – A word famous for its untranslatability, most professional translators pinpoint it as the stature of a person “who is ready to forgive and forget any first abuse, tolerate it the second time, but never forgive nor tolerate on the third offense.” ( Altalang.com )
9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money. In Spanish, the phrase for this is “Dar un toque,” or, “To give a touch.” ( Altalang.com )
10. Cafuné
Brazilian Portuguese – “The act of tenderly running one’s fingers through someone’s hair.” ( Altalang.com )
11. Torschlusspanik
German – Translated literally, this word means “gate-closing panic,” but its contextual meaning refers to “the fear of diminishing opportunities as one ages.” ( Altalang.com )
12. Wabi-Sabi
Japanese – Much has been written on this Japanese concept, but in a sentence, one might be able to understand it as “a way of living that focuses on finding beauty within the imperfections of life and accepting peacefully the natural cycle of growth and decay.” ( Altalang.com )
13. Dépaysement
French – The feeling that comes from not being in one’s home country.
14. Schadenfreude
German – Quite famous for its meaning, which somehow other languages have neglected to emulate, this refers to the feeling of pleasure derived by seeing another’s misfortune. I guess “America’s Funniest Moments of Schadenfreude” just didn’t have the same ring to it.
15. Tingo
Pascuense (Easter Island) – Hopefully this isn’t a word you’d need often: “the act of taking objects one desires from the house of a friend by gradually borrowing all of them.” ( Altalang.com )
16. Hyggelig
Danish – Its “literal” translation into English gives connotations of a warm, friendly, cozy demeanor, but it’s unlikely that these words truly capture the essence of a hyggelig; it’s something that must be experienced to be known. I think of good friends, cold beer, and a warm fire. ( Altalang.com )
17. L’appel du vide
French – “The call of the void” is this French expression’s literal translation, but more significantly it’s used to describe the instinctive urge to jump from high places.
18. Ya’aburnee
Arabic – Both morbid and beautiful at once, this incantatory word means “You bury me,” a declaration of one’s hope that they’ll die before another person because of how difficult it would be to live without them.
19. Duende
Spanish – While originally used to describe a mythical, spritelike entity that possesses humans and creates the feeling of awe of one’s surroundings in nature, its meaning has transitioned into referring to “the mysterious power that a work of art has to deeply move a person.” There’s actually a nightclub in the town of La Linea de la Concepcion, where I teach, named after this word. ( Altalang.com )
20. Saudade
Portuguese – One of the most beautiful of all words, translatable or not, this word “refers to the feeling of longing for something or someone that you love and which is lost.” Fado music, a type of mournful singing, relates to saudade. ( Altalang.com )
This post was originally published on October 9, 2010.
Kathy
What great words! I want to add several to my vocabulary. Especially “Jayus” for *many* of my husband’s “jokes” 🙂
ir
from the Filipino language (Tagalog, specifically)–
Gigil
– a strong urge to squish something/someone either out of fondness or anger (towards either adorable babies for instance, or that annoying colleague)
Kilig
– usually associated with romance and the phenomenon of butterflies in one’s stomach. However it’s generally more positive (vs. the butterflies being present in moments of anxiety/nervousness as well), and is more of a jolt-like and/or tingly/tickly feeling
– the last 5 seconds of this clip perfectly demonstrates it lol
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uMRs6XGcCqw
LWW
“L’apelle du vide” is not a an untranslatable word. It is a phrase. Cool, but I don’t think it belongs here.
merde
ENOUGH with the wrong spelling !
It’s ‘appel du vide’ not apel nor apelle =)
Thank you and have a good day.
Me too, Candice. I have a terrible memory for names. I am happy to have a word for my social awkward moments. 🙂
leona
Sophie
Excellent compilation. Provides a good background for a fascinating discussion this.
I would translate “hyggelig” (or “koselig”, essentially the same) as having a nice time, but it doesn’t convey the whole meaning.
Another interesting thing is when words that you would think means the same in two similar languages, can mean the opposite, since the word has evolved differently in the two languages. Example: “offensive” is a very positive word in Norwegian – it means being active, taking charge, going forward; – well, simply being on the offense – something you’d look for when hiring an employee. In English, it has become a rather more negative word (except when talking about football, perhaps). Surely, at one time, it must have meant the same.
An example in the opposite direction is “self-confident”, a positive word in English. In Norwegian, it has a touch of arrogance in it, so calling someone self-confident is not entirely a compliment.
Tamera Daun
@Sofie..
Koselig has a much warmer essence than hyggelig. Although, I would agree that hyggelig would describe “pleasant”, or “having a good time”.
Offensive in the meaning you describe has an English equivalent with a positive meaning, and that is “assertive”.
And, on the self-confident one, you raise a good point. This has its root in the political and social structure of the society. Janteloven!!! Du skal ikke tro du er noe.
I greatly enjoyed the article. For a languages geek is a pleasure to read and discover new stuff. Great work!
Heather Carreiro
Thanks Alina! You should find plenty of stuff for language geeks here on Abroad. I was a Linguistics major myself.
Carlo Alcos
Sweet post. I really like the ending, talking about the taste and texture of words. Interesting.
Can we come up with a word that describes that specific awkwardness when you exit an elevator with someone you’ve just said “see you later” to, but then both walk in the same direction?
Tyler S
Nice compilation. I esp like tartle.
Simon C
Very interesting list! I never realized “dépaysement” was especially unique, but it is true that it’s quite hard to translate. Oh, and not that I want to play the role of the grammar nazi, but it’s “L’appel du vide” and not “L’apelle du vide”!
Heather Carreiro
Thanks Simone! Will fix that.
nachoua
Well dépaysement is the literal translation of the word, meaning like you said to feel somehow out of place when ur out of ur country. But the figurative meaning is more currently used, to say that u don’t feel at ease, not in ur milieu, uncomfortable for a reason or another, far from what ur used too, even in ur own country. if u see what i mean;
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Millerman
“Schadenfreude” is a word that exists in Dutch as well. Why is it untranslatable? Because both in Dutch and German words are simply put together to form a new word. Schadenfreude is nothing more than Schade Freude, which would translate to ‘mischief joy’.
Another thing is number 17, where you mention Gezellig in the title, but fail to mention it again in the text. It’s the Dutch equivalent of the Danish word. It’s the most famous example of an untranslatable word for Dutchies.
gezellig is my favorite untranslatable word 🙂
miriam
nice post, really interesting!
the fisrt word I came up with is a Japanese one. I’m not sure about the spelling, but it should sounds something like “komorebi”, it refers to the sun shining through tree leaves.
and what about the German Sehnsucht?can you actually translate it?
I thought Sehnsucht (German), Saudade (French? Or Portuguese apparently), spleen (English) and nostalgie (Dutch) all meant the same thing more or less, but I could be wrong. There’s probably a nuance that can’t be translated fully.
Heather Carreiro
Jutta
I am not surprised that the ‘untranslatable’ German words often have equivalents in Dutch and Scandinavian languages. I guess the term ‘untranslatable’ needs to be better defined.
I always thought it is ‘Torschusspanik’ meaning the feeling of panic when the soccer ball is approaching the goal – can you hold it or not. LOL. But you are right – it is ‘Torschlusspanik’ (with L) referring to the closing time of a shop, and the fear of being left on the shelves, often used in the context of not finding the right partner for marriage.
There is also the word ‘gemütlich / Gemütlichkeit’ in German that is hard to express in English, but is very close to ‘gezellig’ in Dutch. It refers to a cozy atmosphere which can be both derived from the interior design and/or the spirit of the people being together.
Another word I could never quite express correctly in English is ‘übersichtlich / Übersichtlichkeit’ – LEO.org suggests clarity, clearness, lucidity, clear arrangement, facility of inspection. None of these seems to match the German meaning perfectly.
A Hebrew word which I find fascinating because it has multiple meanings in most other languages is ‘chesed’ – it is often translated as unfailing love, but sometimes it refers to God’s faithfulness and justice, or his covenantal fidelity.
Now we might need to start another list – English words that are difficult to express in most other languages. 😉
Wow what an amazing list I haven’t seen anything like this before…HONEST…it so orginal…HONEST…impressive stuff…!
Marie
Wow, awesome. Actually stumbled upon this (and liked it)
There is a word in Norwegian for Prozvonit and it’s called “anrop” but it’s most common to say:”legge anrop” however people would understand the single use of the word as well.
Another interesting fact of the word Toska is that it’s the name of one of Norway’s most horrible criminals. David Toska. One could argue his name had a deeper meaning. Amazing article!
Heather Carreiro
Glad you enjoyed the article Marie!
Interesting idea about the word “toska” – I wonder if there is any relation.
Jana
Great article. Seen some of them before but some are new.
Just to add – in Czech both toska and schadenfreude exist (stesk and škodolibost respectively), probably due to to its Slavic roots and German influences.
Nuno Lagoa
Cafune (Brazilian Portuguese) should be written Cafuné and read “KA-FU-NEH”. It is a very specific use of the concept of “caress”, whereby, as the description says, it is restricted to hair caresses.
Regarding “saudade” (Portuguese) is closely related to “homesick”, except that saudade is more wide-ranging as it may relate not just to one’s home, but to loved ones and one’s country.
Heather Carreiro
Thanks for pointing out that missing accent. All fixed now!
I actually had a good discussion yesterday with husband (who is Portuguese) about “saudade.” It seems like the Portuguese meaner is richer and deeper than the English equivalent of saying “miss.” I wonder if that has to do with the grammatical construction, which is similar to the French “Je me manque” – roughly translated to “You are missing to me” rather than “I miss you.” The Portuguese would literally come out as “I have missing for you” or something like that – it just sounds more intense than the American way we can say “I miss my wife” and “I miss cheeseburgers” almost in the same breath.
raphael
actually “je me manque” means “I miss me”. Maybe you mean “tu me manques”.
Heather Carreiro
LOL my bad – I totally knew that. Reminds me not to reply to comments during insomnia episodes…
Malotobe
“Prozvonit” also exists in present-day Malagasy (from Madagascar) as “Mibeep,” from the prefix “Mi,” used to form present tense active verbs, and the onomatopoeia “beep.”
dani
we just call Prozvonit a “miss call” in Egypt.
Claire
Shakanaka is one of my favorite words from the Shona language of Zimbabwe. It essentially signifies that beauty of the world. The best part is that when one says shakanaka, many people within hearing will smile and nod with an accompanying “eya”, signifying agreement in life’s completeness.
Heather Carreiro
Sounds like a beautiful expression. Thanks for sharing it!
daniel
Duende is not an evil spirit, in latin america (where i am from), it usually means a leprechaun or a goblin….
AJ
Interesting list. There also isn’t a good english word for the italian/spanish “Simpatia” or to call someone ‘simpatico(a)’. If a person is ‘simpatico’ it means he’s friendly, likeable, pleasant, good to be around. If you have ‘simpatia’ with someone it means you click, you empathise. The sort of thing you would say having met someone that you think you could be friends with.
Bearshapedsphere (Eileen Smith)
In Chile #4 is pinchar, which also means a flirtatious connection or hookup. I had never heard of doing it in the states, where I’d never had a cell phone and was troubled when I realized there was no word for it in English!
N.A
‘Ranneh’ in Arabic means the same as Prozvonit,
Ranneh can be translated to mean ‘one ring’,
aka call me once and hang up so I call you back and you save money.
Great list!
Raymond
Twenty words that ought to be adapted into everyday English (among other languages).
“Toska” struck me immediately. “Mamihlapinatapei” is the easiest for me to empathize with; I ought to shorten somehow it and start using it.
Sylvain
There are also some great words in English that are untranslatable. My particular favorite is “serendipity”, for which there are no equivalent in my native French. When you look it up in an English-French dictionary, what it offers you is a definition rather than a translation.
Will
Actually, this word already does exist in English. It is epicaricacy.
Heather Carreiro
Wow I’ve never heard of that one. Would be a good Balderdash word for my English classes.
Šimon Tóth
Apart from the already mentioned ones, there is another mapping to Czech language: “Cafune” -> “Vískat”
It’s kind of funny, Czech language is extremely rich in vocabulary and although you will most likely find a synonymous word for translation the meaning tends to be shifted.
Jason
Thanks for all the helpful comments/new words! I guess I left out the focus of the “translatability” which is that they’re very difficult to find single word equivalents in English, as opposed to all languages. And the extent of my French vocabulary is limited to Bon Jovi…. 😉
Great article!
First of all, thank you Simon C. for correcting “l’appel du vide” 🙂
Second, I’d like to offer a better explanation of the word “dépaysement” : the way you defined it, it just means homesick, whereas dépaysement can be a very positive thing. It’s the fact of being abroad in a country that is very different from your own (i.e. France) and feeling that difference. Some people do not like it, but most people travel abroad with the aim to experience dépaysement. I know, I do 🙂
The best translation of “homesick” would be “avoir le mal du pays”, which roughly translated would be “to be in pain because of missing one’s home country”.
sofia
the greek word Filotimo “φιλότιμο” is another word that does not exist in any other language
Aat
Do you know that the word “Jayus” was actually a person’s name? He told too enough awful jokes to enough people, everybody use his name to refer to very bad jokes!
Marleen
Of course “Gezellig” is the Dutch version of Hyggelig. I didn’t even know there was a word meaning the same in Danish and was always under the impression it was an uniquelly Dutch word. Learn something new everyday it seems.
Noah
“Komorebi” in Japanese literally means, “The scene produced by interplay of sunlight and trees.” Pretty awesome.
mike
litost means regret, you might regret being a loser but its still regret
raphael
Dear Jason,
Instead of “Ya’aburnee” (actually its pronounced like “yo’bornee”) you should have said “to’bornee” which is directly addressing someone (a male) and “to’obreeni” to a female. The way you have it, it means “he should bury me”.
Kabir
#4 Prozvonit: We in India call it ‘giving a missed call’, and usually it’s not for saving money but to inform the other person that you have reached a particular place. For example, if a friend and I plan to meet at a certain marketplace then I would tell him something like: “I’ll give you a missed call when I reach”.
I recently came across an interesting German word, backpfeifengesicht, which means “a face that deserves to be slapped / punched”. However, I don’t know if people in Germany actually use it.
max
You could say that in English, the anti-joke is the equivalent to the Jayus.
Good list though, I especially like the Hyggelig
Laurel
Loved the list!
My favorite untranslatable word for quite awhile now is the Swahili “pole” (pronounced pole-ay). It is the rough equivalent of “sorry” in English but can only be used when the offense isn’t the fault of the apologizer. For example, if your friend stumbles while walking near you, you say pole.
The true closest English equivalent is “Sucks to be you.” Only nicer.
lvleph
You missed my favorite:
Lagom (pronounced [ˈlɑ̀ːgɔm]) is a Swedish word with no direct English equivalent, meaning “just the right amount”.
GP
I’m a fan of the Italian “dietrologia:” the science of finding dark ulterior motives behind otherwise normal actions (especially by government).
salle
In Swedish we have a word called Lagom.
I could probably try and explain it, but there’s a wikipedia article that does it better.
Eva
Cool list. I’m curious, is the one listed as Scottish a Scots Gaelic word, or a regional word used by English speakers in Scotland? What I mean is, would you only hear it if people were actually speaking Gaelic, or did it originate from Gaelic but now gets used when people are speaking English?
Schadenfreude has a Dutch equivalent, too: leedvermaak (which is pretty much a literal translation). 🙂
Katherine
Cool list – I would add “sisu” in Finnish, meaning Finnish spirit, or strength of will, determination, perseverance, and acting rationally in
the face of adversity.
I am giving you an old turkish word. It s old cuz Chekoslavakia doesnt exist anymore. damnt :p
Çekoslavakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmısınız?
means : Are you one of those that We couldn’t turn into a Chekoslavakian 😀
Elizabeth
I agree with Schadenfreude. Sure it can be explained in English, but with a whole sentence. In German it’s neatly defined in one word.
Australian comedian Adam Hills talked about his favourite non-English words in one of his stand-up shows. I don’t know how to spell the other two words, but I am SO using them!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QedsH14GPUA
An Italian friend of mine told me about a saying they have; vomitare l’anima, which literally means “to vomit your soul”.
I love that saying simply because we’ve all had one of those illnesses where we’ve been so sick it’s felt like that, or eaten something dodgy that has given you food poisoning resulting in this, or had one of *those* nights out where the next morning, this has happened.
Great list. 🙂
Adam
I’ve always said ‘to buzz someone’ for Czech provoznit, having done it in Britain and the Czech Republic. I’ve heard others say ‘to missed call’, or ‘to give a missed call’.
Since the Scots language is a historically independent sister-language to English – with both descending from early middle English, I imagine this is the ‘Scots’ that ‘Tartle’ comes from. Not all the Scots words that don’t seem familiar to English speakers are from other languages – many (most?) are just words that went out of fashion further south…
a
fab post!
the welsh word Cwtch
some say its to have a cuddle others say its a place where your dog/cat sleeps i use it as both 🙂
maddu
I haven’t come across a half-descent translation for the word
And I am sure Sanskrit is filled with such words
–Maddu
i would say “awakening” 🙂
patricia
Thanks for this great compilation! I hope to read you again. I didn’t know that “dépaysement” and “l’appel du vide” had no equivalents in English. Does “l’appel des profondeurs” have one, though? (to be drawn by the depth of the sea when diving)
max
tiefenrausch in german
Nick
dépaysement in German is heimweh or in English is homesick. Although these two words do not necessarily refer to the home country
aaron_yume
There is no such thing as an untranslatable word, just people who are too lazy or not skilled enough to actually be translators. Point in fact in this article itself you yourself have translated those words.
Lottie
I believe what is meant when said the words do not translate into English is that there are no direct words that share the same meaning. For most words there are direct translations like cat and chat (french). What the article does is give us the definition of the word in English, not the actual translation of the single word.
Alex Schindler
That is exactly what I was about to say. The very existence of this list undermines its heading. By defining these words, you have translated them. Languages evolve all the time to reflect new concepts that need naming, and any of these could be either borrowed into an English word (unless the author denies that boomerang and kangaroo are part of the English language… Scrabble disagrees) or duplicated in one made out the roots and affixes available to us.
Cole
I believe that by “untranslatable” the author means, there is not – in the Enlish language – a one word translation, but only a definition of these words. Although, the first word that came to mind for the first example, was, Melancholy.
Have a great day…
rachiti
You have missed the argument completely. There is no ONE WORD EQUIVALENT for these words. Also, it is so much more than this…some things just do not have the same meaning even if one is placed upon it because it is out of context. Take words like Emo or Chav, for example, they are culturally contextual words that lose their essence in translation.
Heather Carreiro
Thanks Rachiti – you’re right on. We were looking for words whose essence is lost in translation. It’s so much more than just not being able to ‘describe’ what the word means.
StevieTT
Hygge, hyggelig
Good piece. Unfortunately you can’t say “*a* hyggelig” as ‘hyggelig’ is an adjective and the noun is uncountable, too. The noun is ‘hygge.’
Rachel
The Afrikaans word “grillerig”. Difficult to pronounce and describe!
It’s that feeling you get when you know something creepy has happened and you get goosebumps everywhere.
But I can’t describe it very well. You have to come here to South Africa and experience a proper ‘grillerig’ moment.
I think the word “simpatico” in Spanish has no good English translation. It means “nice”, but there is much greater depth to it that that, and also conveys a relationship between two people which may not be shared by others.
Martijn
What about sympathatic? Or in Dutch it would be “sympatiek”. I always thought it had the same meaning in Spanish.
Gabriela
Simpatico ussually means something like “charming” or ” charmingly funny” . Often it is used sarchastically, depending on the tone of voice used.
burcu yuceloglu
” my suggestion ” Çekoslavakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız? ”
Are you one of those that we were not able to make Checkoslavakians”…This word is a miracle of chained prefixes:))
burcu yuceloglu
lol forgot to say İts Turkish 🙂
Heather Carreiro
Wow. Impressive word. Would love to see a morpheme break down of it into its various parts!
Ezel İmancı
Çekoslovakya – lı – laştır – amadık – larımız – dan – mısınız?
Czechoslovakia – n – to make – we were not able to – those – one of – are you?
Ezel İmancı
Actually it is a miracle of suffixes, not prefixes.
angela
I also would add (portuguese) Madrugada. While it does loosely mean dawn, it is not just a physical description of time, madrugada is describes the early, simple, romantic, sometimes longingness of the 1am-5am time of day.
I love this word.
Robert Frost once defined poetry as “that which is lost in translation”.
Eefje
“Gezellig” is Dutch. Is does mean the same as Danish “Hygellig”, but how many times do we have to tell you that Denmark and the Netherlands ARE NOT THE SAME COUNTRY? They’re not even next to each other, germany is in between!
(the Dutch live in the Netherlands. The Danish live in Denmark, and the German live in Germany but call themselves and their language ‘Deutsch’, which is not the same as Dutch.)
Kostas
The greek word “Filotimo” (spelled Fee-lo-tee-mo)
its the word about being ethical, kind,conscientious and generous
all at once!
hank36
btw. the czech word “prozvonit” has its english equivalent: when i want someone to do it, i’d say just “beep me”
Nica
Prosvonit, in Chile we say “pinchar”, which means in literal translation to pinch or poke with something sharp, but in context means to call someone, let it ring once and then hang up to get a callback when you have no credit on your phone.
Also, an AWESOME word that has no translation is “ocioso/a”. It refers to a person that has too much time on their hands and uses it to do useless ridiculous things such as separating m&m’s by colours.
We recently added a word to our dictionary that used to have no translation from english: procrastinate.
Cheers!
Ryan
It always bothered me and my classmates in Spain that they didn’t have a word for “procrastinate!” Some of us (half-)joked that “procrastinar” would eventually join the language.
That’s interesting. Now that I think about it, I don’t think we have a word for procrastinate in Norwegian either. There’s “utsette”, but that means postpone; not entirely the same.
Nica
***Prozvonit**** sorry
eakeith
Great list! I really enjoyed it. I was pretty sure I would come across the Dutch word “gezellig” on there, as it’s used all the time in the Netherlands and tricky to translate, although I noticed you grouped it under the Danish equivalent.
Need to add some of these to my vocabulary!
Drazic
Not translatable to a single word in english obviously isn’t the same thing as untranslatable.
Richard Kaplan
Davka – from Hebrew.
Loosely it would be “because” in spite, not cause and affect. You davka went to see ‘Brigadoon” on the day Van Johnson died.
Might have been intentional, might not have been.
Nichol
The dutch word ‘geuzennaam’, and especially the concept behind it, would be quite useful in many countries. It can be a very effective alternative for the mechanism of Political Correctness, where people are forced to use an, often unwieldy, euphemism.
Geuzennaam: a Dutch term for when an originally negative or derogatory name is appropriated and reclaimed as a positive label of empowerment.
Sara
The Dutch word for Schadenfreude is leedvermaak.
Bryan
and the swedish word skadeglädje.
Jess
I think this is great, and to those who say that defining a word is translating a word, is a little off, sometimes words need a sentence in one language to mean one word in another but many of these are more words that have no single sentence in english and are often about feelings and emotions etc that could almost be put into an essay. To say the description of Toska is its translation is wrong, its just a guide on how it can be used.
Mathilde
I would say “raler”. It’s a French word that would mean “complain” but not exactly. It’s when you critizise a lot everything around you. It’s almost a national sport in France.
Celeste
“Raler” does translate pretty well into Yiddish… The Yiddish word “kvetch” is a good equivalent, but there isn’t really a word in English. I guess the phrase “bitch and moan” comes close, but is a fairly casual expression, unlike “raler”…
Lisa
In Brazilian Portuguese, we say “resmungar”.
Key
Also European Portuguese.
Nica
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Christina
What about the Frisian verb Klünen which means ‘to walk on the ground with your ice skates on”, sometimes needed when there is a whole in the ice.
Miriam
I’m surprised nobody thought of “l’esprit d’escalier”. Literally “the wit of the staircase”, it’s for when you think of just the right thing to say… just a little too late.
Heather Carreiro
Marisa LaValette
Let’s say you land at the airport in Cape Town. You have a really important meeting within the hour. Your contact person / ride to the meeting calls and says he is leaving “just now” to pick you up. Also, there is rush hour traffic on the N2.
Rush hour traffic in Cape Town + “just now” = things are not looking good for your meeting.
You better set up your tent right there on the curb, because it could be a while.
Or, you could be watching a World Cup game at a restaurant. The waitress says she’ll be with you “just now” to take your drink order. She might roll back through sometime during half time.
Amanda
I immediately thought of ‘Ubuntu’ in Bantu in South Africa — “I am because you are”
Amanda
Also, a friend just told me:
“Torschlusspanik” in German is the reason why women marry the wrong man.
Mike
They had some of the same words on the AFAR magazine blog on Sept 24.
Glad my go-to travel info sites are on the same page.
http://www.afar.com/blog/2010/09/10-words-every-traveler-should-know/
Celeste
What about the word “namaste” ? My favourite translation of it is “I bow to the divine within you, which is the divine within me.”
Emily
Prozvonit – in english it is called “drop call”
malganis
In Slovenia prozvonit means zvrcnit. I cant imagine how an English speaking person would pronounce it lol.
Maharapa
Scarpetta – Italian for cleaning and eating the last food on your plate with bread. Literally “little shoe” because of the shape it takes
Juliane
Saudade is for sure the best of them! In Brazil we use this word a lot, but it doesn’t mean lonly to miss someone (or something) it’s much more than that: “saudade” is something that hurts, but at the same time it means that something or somebody really worth for you and you remember it with a will to rewind the time and repeat it. Or you can say that for someone you don’t see for a certain period of time (it can be a long time or just few hours and days), it means that you like and miss that person.
Tiago Gayet
“Saudade”, Portuguese. It’s like “miss” something.
Sinto saudades = I miss you.
steve
Italian ‘Guatare’. It means to stare intensely at something or someone for a long period with great emotion/intent, whether it be with longing, menace, fear, etc., such as how a cat would stare at a bird.
Shrenik
Another good one is the work “aatu”. It’s a Gujarati word used to describe a utensil that has already been in someone else’s mouth, or the act of contaminating a dish with a dirty utensil.
Example – “Don’t use that spoon, it is aatu.” Or “Don’t put that spoon in the serving dish, you’ll aatu everything.”
Great word
Love it! Thanks for sharing.
Andrew
M.
I have never found a translation to “te quiero”.
Literally, it means “I want you”, but how we use it, it’s more like a gentle love. Like the love you feel for a grandmother or a close friend.
Wade
In German, “Gemutlichkeit” is the same as “hygge,” with “gemutlich” as the adjective.
In Arabic, “inshallah” is essentially untranslatable. Although the denotation “God willing” is pretty straightforward, the word carries so much more with it culturally that it’s probably a thought pattern, not simply an expression.
kezia
Jayus!!!!!!!!! hahahahahahahha……i think only Kanisius Gonzaga students around year 1993-1995, know what it means…or who he is…..hahhahahaha met him once when i was studied at Atma Jaya, in his friend’s wedding…..and really really unfunny but still can’t say words just smile or laugh…..poor you all who don’t know the story….only make fun with his name….
somebody
kyoikumama is just two words… Did you even notice the “mama” part? There are hundreds of words that are just two words stuck together. that doesn’t make them untraslatable. that just makes them TWO WORDS.
Jessica
The Hebrew word (also in yiddush) “mechutanim” which describes the relationship between the parents of the bride and groom.
Amanda
Ellie Behling
This is so cool … Nevermind your critics, I agree with your introduction that these are “untranslatable” because no one word in English captures the nuance of their definition. I had always wondered about words out there that might better capture the feeling I have about something.
Isabella
Actually, there’s a direct translation of the word “schadenfreude” in Swedish; “skadeglädje”. Means the exact same thing.
The word “hyggelig” could also be translated into “mysig” in Swedish. hard to translate but the same meaning.
RagingR2
Although I do agree that Schadenfreude is a good word… there are several languages that have such a word, like “leedvermaak” in Dutch. These are a bit tricky examples, as are some more of the entries in this list, since a lot of languages unlike English tend to stick words together to make new words. The German language typically has a lot of somewhat long words that are actually just 2, 3 or 4 words stuck together, and some languages go even further. In the Dutch language 2 or 3 is pretty normal, although technically you could go further; it just isn’t done very often. We do have “joke” words like “Hottentottententententoonstelling” (literally: Hottentotten (or) Khoikhoi tent exhibit”), well actually although that word is pretty long it is a combination of only 3 words 😉 Not nearly as crazy as the German Hottentottenstottertrottelmutterbeutelrattenlattengitterkofferattentäter!”
Anyway… my point is, in English you could make a perfect version of a word like Schadenfreude / leedvermaak, but just because you would put a space between it would be more obvious that it’s actually a phrase comprised of two words. Let’s see… peril pleasure, trouble joy, crash entertainment… there you go. If everyone who reads this says those words out loud 5 times, they’ll be in the next edition of the dictionary! 🙂
Derek
My favorite is the south african word Ubuntu
Rhea
Yiddish farpotchket (spelling?)– something which has been totally screwed up by clumsy attempts to fix a minor problem. I used to work in a frame shop and we got a lot of mileage out of this one.
nuno
What I find most intriging is the verb “to be”.
It has two diferent meanings in Portuguese.
To be = ser
How is it possible for an English not to distinguish these two meanings.
Sara Sörensson
The swedish word ‘lagom’ which means not too much/cold/etc but not too little/etc.
It is slightly different form “just right” in that it is not the ideal state but it is still better than average. I would be very interested to know if any other languages have a similar word?
A very intereresting compilation and I have really enjoyed reading the comments! Many thanks:)
Maria Nikolajeva
I have always heard that Swedish is unique with its “lagom” (I have lived in Sweden for 30 years). The Russian “v meru” is the exact equivalent.
Yes, they like to think it’s unique 😛
We have the same in Norwegian as well: “Passe”
kiaorabro
“mana” is a Maori word we use in New Zealand. It has no translation in english but it is something you have, it refers to a kind of pride that comes from earned respect.
jerryvito
isnt the swedish word “fikka” (or however its spelt) a good example of untranslateables from swedish to english. I always try to tell my scandi friends: “guys, we have the same word SNACK, like in a bite, food or drink”.
But they always reply the same thing. That I wouldn’t understand…………….
Rodica
In Romanian we have the word “dor”. It’s deeper than the act of missing someone or something and somehow it combines sweet memories with nostalgia and a bit of sadness. Many of our songs feature this wonderful feeling of “dor” because it hurts and yet it comprises so much affection.
Arthur Lavenère
Your “dor” is very close to “saudade”. Also, in portuguese “dor” means “pain”.
Oolex
It’s called a scotch-call.
gridaem
prozvonit is “prank-call” in Australian English.
There’s some beautiful words here. Love it.
magnus
prozvonit – it’s “rottima” in estonian
jasna
is ”cimnuti” in slang croatian.
Jennifer
Where I’m from it’s a missed-call.
Verb: to miss-call someone or to give someone a missed-call.
Avi
In Hebrew slang it’s “letsaltek” – a combination of two words: “letsaltsel” which means to call, and “lenatek” which means to hang up.
SFalcon
What about the finnish word epäjärjestelmällistyttömättömyydälläänsäkäänköhän?
“He doesn’t have such a lack of disorder, now does he?”
Heather Carreiro
ricky
There’s this indonesian word: “tanggung”. it’s an adjective to say… hmmm let me think of examples
for example you’re one-hour too early on an important meeting at your office. And you actually have important things to do at home. But the journey from your office to your home is about 25 minutes. So that is ‘tanggung’. You cannot go home because you will only have 10 minutes at home to do your stuffs. But if you don’t go home, you’ll have to wait for an hour doing nothing.
Another example, you have a dinner with your friend. Your friend eats an expensive dish like hmmm prawns. And then he’s full and he leaves 3 prawns on the plate. That is ‘tanggung’.
Well, it’s difficult to find the exact definition of this word. I once had to translate it and oh I didn’t even know how to say that in English.
Courtney
@ricky Try “stuck/caught between a rock and a hard place.”
dd
ironic?
Tracey
Also culturally telling: the words which *don’t* exist in a specific language. To wit: there is no word in Italian for privacy. They use the English, pronounced something like PRYE-va-see.
Maria Nikolajeva
There is no Russian word for privacy. Since the phenomenon does not exist, there is no need for a word.
Nikola Harnisch
referring to #12.
The word Germans use is “Torschusspanik”. Somehow you have gotten an ‘l’ in there that shouldn’t be. ‘Tor’ means ‘goal’, and ‘schuss’ means ‘to shoot’ or ‘to shoot into’. The correct translation is then ‘panic before shooting a goal’, as in a soccer game or a sports game in general. This does not refer to middle age and midlife crisis as you say, but rather to the panic that often ensues right before something is about to happen that one has previously committed to. A good example of ‘Torschusspanik’ wold be to not show up for one’s own wedding.
CricketB
Actually, while the German language does accommodate a word like “Torschusspanik” by combining nouns, the commonly used word is, in fact, TorschLusspanik. It is a combination of “Tor” meaning not just goal but also gate, “Schluss” as the shutting of something, and panic.
Sam
A favorite of mine that didn’t make the list: “tulpa” – tibetan – something or someone constructed in the imagination. If one designs a new product, then the design is a tulpa until the product is made. One’s partner during a romantic daydream is a tulpa.
I like best the definition of saudade that it is a nostalgia-like longing for not that which is gone, but that which cannot be.
Du
When I make sort of an archetype for my life in the future, like: “I am gonna mary and have two children”. Am I “Tolp’ing”?
In portuguese we have another beautiful word “Utopia”, is kind of close to “Tolpa”. Utopia is like a dream that can’t come true, is kind of a fantasy, but if it comes real, it’s not an utopia, in fact, if its capable of becoming real, its never an utopia.
Tim
In English, we have a word, utopia, which was invented by an author in AD 1516 for a book he wrote. It means an ideal society or community and comes from the greek words for “not” and “place,” giving it a double meaning as a nonexistently perfect place.
Ellen
I agree that saudade is untranslatable – at least not without using lots of words, as it’s way more heartful than simply longing and definitely not as cheesy as nostagia – but to my understanding it’s not only used for things that can’t be had. One can have saudade for Brasil when not there, no? And for someone far away, with whom you might reunite one day…
Du
You’re totally right, you can feel saudade for things that have gone and you’ll never see again, as well as you can feel it for things that you might have or find.
It’s a mix of nostalgia, with love, a bit of pain and a feel more feelings. As you said, is more than just that, because saudade is a kind of a real feeling.
Malenka
I love the article…but instead of the “20 Awesomely Untranslatable Words” I was only able to find 10 (as a Czech I was amused to see two of them are Czech :)). Definitely ready for more 🙂
Heather Carreiro
Hey Malenka! Just click “next page” at the bottom of the first page to get to the second set of the words. It was a long article so we split it up into 2 pages.
Cat
Was totally hoping duende was on there, and glad to see dar un toque, too! Jason, are you an auxiliar? I worked in the Sevilla province for a few years and lived with a girl from La Línea! I didn’t see any gibraleño on the list, though!
un abrazo, Cat
That I am, Cat. Loving life here in La Linea. I’ll have to get some Ganito up on the next one!
Natacha Cohen
“Prozvonit” = “flash” in Ghanaian English.
Laura Blumenthal
My favourite when I was learning Turkish was “estağfurullah”, a borrowed word from Arabic, but which I believe has a different meaning in Turkish. It’s used when you someone has praised you or thanked you, and you want to accept the praise or thanks humbly while expressing that it was not necessary or you were not worthy of it. I felt truly victorious when I learned how and when to use this one.
Arthur Lavenère
In portuguese we have the words “modéstia” and “falsa modéstia”. The first is used for when you truly belive that you are not worthy of the prizes, but you are worthy of it, indeed. The second is for when you are faking modéstia to appear more noble or something alike( “falsa” meaning fake).
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Andy
Shalom. It gets translated as “peace” but in fact is so much more than that, particularly as the English word “peace” is generally used to mean an absence of war, or absence of noise, rather than a more holistic meaning.
Atosa
Yes I have a word for you: Roodarvasi which means in word-for-word translation “standing in front of the face”. It’s Persian and means you are shy and cautious about some people. For example, if your boss visits you at home, you have too much “roodarvasi” to serve him sandwiches as dinner or not to clean the living room. You don’t tell your colleague that her dress makes her look fat because you have too much “roodarvasi”. And if you ask somebody to drive him home and he says: No thanks, I don’t want you to trouble yourself on my account, you can answer: Oh please don’t have any “roodarvasi”. A friend can also act offended if you show too much “roodaravasi” because it is usually used between people who are not very close.
I hope you get it now :)) I don’t speak English well but I could not find a similar word in English or German (a language I speak much better than English) or any other western language. It must be a Middle East thing 😉
Tracey C.
You may have gotten this already, since i see some Finns that have responded, but in Finnish the word ‘sisu’ has no direct translation in English (don’t know about other languages). It’s… guts. Indomitable spirit. Inner strength.
Effie
One of my favorite untranslatable words is the Swahili word “pole” (pronounced pole-ay) which is usually translated in English as “sorry.” This translation does not begin to encompass all that “pole” means, however.
In Tanzania, whenever you see someone working, or simply pass someone walking on the road, you say “pole” and they respond “pole na wewe” or “pole to you too.” It is an acknowledgment that life is hard, along the lines of “I feel your pain, life is hard for me as well.”
Carla
As a native Spanish speaker, the explanation of 19 was a bit strange. Maybe you can say that in Spanish from Spain it has that different meaning, which I never heard of in Latin American Spanish.
As for number 20, I always connected it to the idea of “spleen” in French. Can anybody enlighten me? And number 1 also made me think of “spleen”… is there a connection between these three?
diamond
Many people realize that some words are difficult to translate from other languages to English, but often forget that some are hard to translate from English to other languages. I have found that the word “home” is often difficult to describe because it is both a feeling and a place, and that place could be one’s house, one’s hometown, or one’s country, and it includes the sentiments of every aspect of the culture surrounding that. It is commonly translated to “hogar” in Spanish, but the Spanish word does not carry anywhere near the depth of meaning of the word in English.
Lara
I once heard that Tagalog (Phillippine language), has got a word for the feeling you have when you see something incredibly cute – like a little puppy or similar.
I think we need that word! Instead of just feeling shaky and saying “AWWWW” and cuddling said cute thing.
larry
I think that word is “nakakakilig”. It involves a tingling sensation of seeing something cute or someone like a crush. Or knowing that someone is infatuated with you.
niko
“dar un toque” in spanish would actually translate to “to give a ring”, not a touch
😀
The Old Wolf
No time to read 173 comments, but no list of untranslatables is complete without “mamihlapinatapei”, Yaghan (Tierra del Fuego) for “a look shared by two people with each wishing that the other will initiate something that they both desire but which neither one wants to start.”
The Old Wolf
Duh. Forget that last comment – there it is, screaming at me from No. 2…
Hermina
Prozvonit is beep in romanian and english!
Katja
The word hyggelig also exists in Norwegian, with an equivalent which is koselig.
Hyggelig is slightly less personal than koselig. Koselig is warmer, you would use it to describe like, a gathering with some close friends, and hyggelig you might use to describe a meeting with someone you know a bit or have known in the past.
We also have the word skadefryd, which means the same as schadenfreude.
The word “pålegg” which is what we put on bread, like cheese, ham etc. would you say…toppings?
In norway we say the phrase “Takk for maten” after eting which literally means thank you for the food, but that sounds quite….lame… Also the phrase “Takk for sist” which you say when meeting someone not long after meeting them previously, it means “thank you for the last time” directly translated. So if there is anything alternative to that in english I would be quite interested to know 🙂
I think there might be some other words which don’t exist in english, but I can’t recall any at the moment
Constant Nomad
This is a great article! I love those kinds of words that you just can’t translate. There are some really beautiful ones in here. Words like this are why I love learning languages. A single word can say so much about the people who speak and the culture.
Madeeha Ansari
Arabic – “Ehsaan” – giving someone more than he/she deserves out of pure goodness of heart. Altruism doesn’t quite cover it.
Jenny
Prozvonit: The English word for this is ‘prank’ – to call and hang up before the person on the other end of the line can pick up. I know this word has a similar meaning (practical joke etc) but this term is quite universally understood in England.
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Mia
The Dutch word ‘gezellig’ sounds quite similar in meaning to hyggelig and is meant to be equally untranslatable.
Thanks for your fantastic post, it actually inspired me to write my own about untranslatable words in Chinese. You can check it out here http://carlgene.com/blog/?p=318
Cheers!
Dorcas
Gell–Pennsylvania German. It means “Isn’t that right?” and assumes a “yes” answer, usually while catching the other person’s eye with a significant look, as in your aunt glancing at your mom over your head and saying, “Gell, she has a lot of Aunt Edna in her,” and then your mom says “Ya,” and you know they both know exactly how you are too much like Aunt Edna, and it’s not good, but you’re scared to ask.
The negative equivalent is “Gell net,” which always assumes a No answer and shared knowledge, as in “You don’t feel well today, gell net?”
Davka – from Hebrew. It means something between “just because” and “precisely why”, many times used as an explanation for acts of willfulness
Rachel Randall
I’d translate 9., Prozvonit, as ‘to drop-call’. At least that’s what it’s referred to amongst my friends in south-east London, UK.
Thanks so much for the list – its fascinating. I particularly like ‘cafune’ an ‘tartle’!
Hope you’re having a good time in Spain, Jason. At the moment I’m teaching English in Galicia, in a small town called Viveiro!
isa
“praskozorje” is a moment between night and dawn, in serbian. (dawn is zora. it’s a very beautiful and ancient sounding word, i don’t know if there’s a word for that moment in any other language?)
cph
re: ““praskozorje” is a moment between night and dawn, in serbian.”
i think that would be ‘twilight’. its most commonly used to describe the sky just between sunset and nightfall, but can also be used to describe the time period of the sky lighting up as dawn approaches, but far before the sun comes over the horizon.
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Nance A.
The Yiddish word “haimish” is similar to number 16 – Hyggelig. It means “warm” but connotes homelike, cozy, friendly. A person can be haimish, and event can be haimish and a place can be haimish.
There are lots of fun Yiddish words – courtesy of German as well as Hebrew – that are relatively untranslatable.
Milander
All languages have words like this, you could make a point that all languages that belong to different families, say, finno-ugric (hungarian, finnish) and the romance family (english, french, italian, etc are made up entirely of words that are untranslatable. You simply attach a meaning to them that corresponds to an agreed definition. All the above words listed are translatable otherwise this article would be very difficult to discuss.
Your last comments are great and something that EFL teachers often miss out when teaching, to the students detriment.
Possible untranslateable word – In Welsh there is the word ‘gwlad’ which is chorused in the national anthem. It means literally ‘land’ a more correct translation would be ‘land of my Fathers’, the empathy of the word is stronger though towards an inhereted feeling of ‘MY’ land (caps for empathis), MY land of birth, MY home, the place where MY people are buried/live/die – it’s a very powerful word in welsh.
FYI I’d have though dépaysement could be easily translated as ‘homesickness, to be homesick – but as I’M certainly not a french speaker I’ll happily dow to anyone who can say otherwise 🙂
Doris Jaffe
The word TINGO, #15, could be translated into the Yiddish word SHNORRER, which means someone who always borrows without repaying. SHNOR is the verb to borrow or to coyly beg or ask for something knowing you’ll never reciprocate while SHNORRER is the person borrowing or acquiring that which belongs to someone else. An example of a SHNORRER is a person who sees you bringing home groceries and tells you they didn’t have a chance to shop, so could they please borrow a can of soda – knowing you bought a case but they have no intention to replace it. They keep asking for things – it’s not a one-time occurrence. SHNORRING is their act of asking you.
Yiddish words that have no English equivalent are:
Machatunim – your married children’s parents-in-law are your machatunim. That’s plural. Mechutan is the father of your child-in-law and Machataynista is the mother of your child-in-law. So your son’s wife’s parents and your daughter’s husband’s parents are all your machatunim. In most families the machatunim forge close relationships. When a couple gets married, it certainly helps their relationship if all their parents get along well.
Number 9. in Colombian Spanish is “Timbrar” or “Pegar/Dar um timbrazo”
Jocelyn Lee
加油 in Chinese translates to “to add oil”. Pronounced as “jia you”.
1. We yell 加油 when we watch a race or, a friend is going to participate in a race.
2. We say it to someone who has a deadline to catch and heaps of work left to be done.
3. When someone loses something, be it a missing cat or pen, they try so hard but still can’t find it, we wish them 加油.
It’s a wish and a cheer at the same time. It’s more of like a combination of “go for it”, “you can do it”, “don’t give up”, “good luck”.
mmc
Dar un toque, at least in Spain, just means “to call someone” or “to give someone a ring.” Una llamada perdida is what we call it when we call someone so they have our number. If someone gives you a llamada perdida, it’s like leaving a message. The recipient is expected to call back.
Victor
My favorite is “toska”, a Russian word.
“No single word in English renders all the shades of toska. At its deepest and most painful, it is a sensation of great spiritual anguish, often without any specific cause. At less morbid levels it is a dull ache of the soul, a longing with nothing to long for, a sick pining, a vague restlessness, mental throes, yearning. In particular cases it may be the desire for somebody of something specific, nostalgia, love-sickness. At the lowest level it grades into ennui, boredom.”
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Arrgh
To be more accurate, all of these supposedly untranslatable words can be translated into any other language, you just might not be able to translate it into a single word. Just look at the definitions given on this page to see what I mean.
Jacqueline
“Mitzvah” in Hebrew. It refers to an action that is both an obligation (or responsibility) and a blessing, simultaneously and equally. An example: taking care of a sick child or elderly relative. There is no equivalent in English, and I don’t think there is one in French, Portuguese or Greek (my other languages.)
roxi
I didn’t see this one come up, but a personal favorite of mine is ‘mokita’. In New Guinea, ‘mokita” is the truth that everyone knows, but no one speaks. The elephant in the room, so to speak.
toska is a funny word its unfortunate there is no english translation for it. also there are a couple of spanish and chinese words which dont have direct translation
Wiz
– Gezellig – No English eq. might have one in other languages.
denotes a cosy environment with friends, often referring to a place and/or situation among friends: ‘Its ‘gezellig here’. can also mean, cosy, quint, nice or general togetherness
Kiwi
We in Holland/The Netherlands do have a word for 11. Schadenfreude.
We call that leedvermaak. Which means: leed (suffering) vermaak (entertainment). Getting entertained by other people’s suffering. Same thing.
🙂
Keren
Lehitchadesh – a Hebrew verb discribes the state of having recenetly purchased a new product or service. It’s usually used in its imperative form when someone is being saluted for having made a new aquisition of any form.
claudiomet
Prozvonit, the number 9, has a single word in Spanish, at least in Venezuela: “Repicar”. It´s exactly the same use and meaning.
einat
try this one,Eyjafjallajokull?
Batsheva
No, gloating is a verb. It’s an expression that you make when you’re excessively proud of your achievements. Gloating, by definition is a public thing. Schadenfreude is a noun. It’s a feeling that is internal and private. Something a person is actually more likely to be ashamed to admit they feel, as opposed to someone who gloats, and is out in the open about it. Schadenfreude would be a situation where a friend loses his job, and you secretly feel happy about it because you were always jealous that he had a better position than you. That’s not at all something you’d gloat about or ever even admit.
Judy Jones
There’s a great song from the Broadway musical ‘Avenue Q’ about Schadenfreude. Here’s a link to a YouTube video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4XmZIcmRKkc
fionn
What does that have to do with the topic of the article?
I feel such epicaricacy when I see people make the mistake of thinking that Schadenfreude has no English equivalent.
“Epicaricacy”. It’s English.
Go Look It Up.
Jane
Actually, it’s Greek. “Epicaricacy” is mentioned in some early dictionaries, but there is little or no evidence of actual usage until it was picked up by various “interesting word” websites around the turn of the twenty-first century.
John
Epicaricacy is a loan from Greek epikhairekakia. We can use both “epicaricacy” and “schadenfreude” in English, but neither of them are as native to the language as “epikhairekakia” is to Greek or “schadenfreude” is to German, though the existence of another word in English does contradict the idea that schadenfreude is untranslatable. Even so, epicaricacy is in the working vocabulary of about ten people; I’ve never seen it actually used before, and I have seen “schadenfreude.” So I’d say that for practical purposes schadenfreude remains untranslatable.
Carla
While that is one aspect of Schadenfreude, it’s not always that. Often, it can be very public, similar to a feeling of vindication but about something that might not involve you personally. It could be a situation where in English you might say “He got what he asked for.” for example.
renee
Gloating suggests simple self-satisfaction, but not necessarily at someone else’s misfortune. You gloat if you win a game you played with someone else. Whereas someone not involved in the game at all and with no personal stake in the game might feel shadenfreude towards the person who lost.
ittls
in italian a Prozvonit is a squillo. but it is so much more than just a sign to be called back. it can mean ‘i’m thinking of you’ when you are in a couple, it can mean ‘yey!’ when your team scored a goal and you do a squillo to a mate who isn’t watching with you or it simply means ‘yes’ when someone sent you a message with a yes or no question. or it means ‘i’m there’ when you pick somebody up by car or something like that. it’s awesome!!
There’s a word for that in English: hangover.
Also, maggot, if you want the primary meaning of “kveis”.
swagmonkey
That’s not the same thing at all. Hangover usually refers to alcohol, and requires only a physical feeling, which may or may not be accompanied by any uneasiness about anything you’ve done.
David Rault
“Cuite” is like the English word “baked”- typically a term used for after using marijuana. 😉
Ryan
Isn’t duende just an elf?
Eva
Duende can be both, elf or the spirit of art. Both meanings dont relate to each other. Duende can be aplied to many things, for example “el duende de tu mirada” roughly as “the special something of your eyes”
Laura Fisher
“gemütlich/gemütlichkeit” is a German word that I love isn’t included on this list–it describes an overall warm, cozy feeling; a good example is the atmosphere of a room full of longtime friends sharing a drink or two. Wikipedia does a pretty good job of explaining it: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gem%C3%BCtlichkeit
ro
Sounds like #16 to me.
Jet
Like ‘gezelligheid’ in Dutch – the only translation that comes close to that is the German gemutlichkeit.
But then, that’s from the same stem as the Dutch ‘gemoedelijkheid’, which is still not the same as ‘gezelligheid’. ‘Gemoedelijk’ means something along the same lines, but is more a sort of ‘going along’ a the same time.
‘Gezelligheid’ has (as far as I know) no exact translation in other languages.
The wikisite you mention says about this: “Somewhat similar is the term gezellig in Dutch. Gezellig is used frequently by Dutch speakers and is one of the most important Dutch words because it describes the ideal cultural setting, one that is cozy and inclusive.”
Kevin Brubeck Unhammer
“gezellig” in Norwegian is “koselig” (apparently related to German “liebkosen”) — I’m pretty sure it’s the exact same thing, but then there are a lot of influences between Dutch and Norwegian.
We also say “hyggelig”, though that has …almost a slightly more formal feel to it, to my ears at least.
Liutgard
There’s an Anglo-Saxon word best known from _Beowulf_: ‘ofermode’. It’s multi-valent and pretty well untranslatable, and can range from hubris to braggadocio to over-confidence to… well, all of those are in the neighborhood, but none really fit the bill. Ask 10 Anglo-Saxonists and you’ll get 11 answers.
Curly Linguist
Awesome article, though I’m pretty sure that “Prozvonit” (“to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money”) has an exact equivalent in British English – ‘pranking’? You ‘prank call’ or ‘prank’ someone when you don’t have credit/money/minutes on your phone. Has this one not spread around yet?
Heather Carreiro
In the US, we use “prank” to mean when you call someone as a joke. In Indian and Pakistani English “prozvonit” is “miss call,” so I’ve just started using that in the US as well.
Kevin Brubeck Unhammer
It’s not a prank, it’s done because you don’t want to pay and get a huge cell phone bill. I used to do it when I was a teenager calling my parents. We just said something like “give one ring” (“gi ett ring”).
Chuck
“Prozvonit” = This is what I did for my mother every time I returned to college, after a visit at home, 45-years ago. The single ring let her know I had arrived, back at school, safely. Of course, we didn’t have mobile phones in those days but I saved the cost of a call and always got my quarter back.
Joshua D. Lichterman, Ph.D.
Hey, if you like this kind of word play there’s a whole card line based
on words like these! Just follow this link: http://www.connectingdotz.com !!
I think you will find them really enjoyable, educational, and they make good gifts, what with the holidays around the corner.
Duende (SP) = Duende (PT-BR) = ELF (EN-US/EN-UK/EN-AUS/EN-SA)
Dépaysement would be homesickness unless I got the explanation wrong…
And the expression “Dar un toque” isn’t present only in Spanish, but also in PT-BR.
I’m glad that I speak the language that has “saudade” 🙂
I just love the fact it doesn’t exist in any other language.
MaryLou
I was so excited to learn this word that I had to quickly find a website that pronounced it so I could hear it out loud! I WISH I knew the language that had this word.
Arthur Lavenère
Have already found a website with the pronounce? In case of you haven’t, give that one a try: http://www.forvo.com/word/saudade#pt
It’s an interesting project where people record the pronunciation of words of their native languages.
Jacinthe
Dépaysement is more a feeling of disorientation in a new environment. You don’t necessarily miss home. Dépaysement can also apply to a situation, not just a geographical context.
Miriam Brodersen
There’s a German word “Ohrworm,” which literally means ear-worm, but means a song that gets stuck in your head all day!
lordsebastianflyte
Michael Batey
I recently learned about lagom – a Swedish word that encapsulates the concept of ‘everything in moderation’, ‘just enough and no more’, with connotations of ‘don’t go overboard’, ‘don’t show off’. Although we don’t have a direct translation, it’s something that the English instinctively understand as well.
Martine
I believe the word “Sisu” is another. It is a Finnish term loosely translated into English as strength of will, determination, perseverance, and acting rationally in the face of adversity.
foible
I can’t really get on board with all of this. Firstly, the French one isn’t a word, it’s a phrase. If they don’t actually have a “word” for it, why should we? It’s just the urge for adrenaline, really. Daredevil comes to mind. Anywho, some thoughts;
1. Simply compiles all stages of depression/mourning/sorrow/grief into one lump word. How ’bout, unhappiness?
2. Barroom glance. Fewer letters, fewer syllables, easier to say.
3. I know there’s a word we use to to describe ultra-cheesy jokes that you can’t help but giggle. Can’t think of it off the top of me head.
4. Frankly, we have windows. They didn’t and most still prolly don’t.
5. Yet another dreadful sorrow/depression.
6. Nag, bitch, soccer mom.
7. Brain-fart.
8. Certainly can’t think of any single words that work well for this one, but “three strikes and you’re out.”
9. I like to call it “pinging” your friends/family.
10. No idea.
11 & 12. Being that Germans are notorious for just mashing all the root words together into one giant word, it’s really no surprise that they have so many words which there is no single word in any other language to describe them.
13. True and original “Paganism.”
14. Homesickness.
17. Not even a word in itself.
18. I’ll give ya that one.
19. Sprite = elf, power = awe.
20. Mourning again.
Is the grinch warming up for Christmas already?
Foible
The French “phrase” really set me off. I can’t believe someone with an English major would publish something like this. I haven’t even finished one year of university in my days and I have a better understanding of my language than he does. I stand by stumps but the gray area that people like to communicate on several of these words is simply ridiculous or incredulous.
swagmonkey
No, you don’t have a better understanding of the language than the writer does. You just have greater arrogance. Yes, it’s true that you can find other words/phrases in other languages that convey vaguely similar sentiments, but there’s a whole range of subtlety here that your simplified translations completely miss. You don’t seem to understand that there is beauty in language, or that details can be important. If you don’t care about interesting words, then don’t read an article about interesting words. You’re not doing us any favors by showing us how much “better” you know the language, by being able to translate these into single words that lose all the interest.
Alpha Rebel I
You really need to learn another language if you’re ever going to be able to understand the premise of this article.
Alpha Rebel I
Oh – sorry, swagmonkey; that was directed at foible, not you.
Aline
One who feels saudade is not necessarily mourning. It’s closer to nostalgia – there are tints of both sadness and happiness in saudade.
Anne
att 16. I would point out that “hyggelig” is not only joyful it is so much more. But is indeed a positive word.
Ts Flock
I will put this lightly; you are an ignorant, little pedant. You don’t have a better mastery of the language than this writer. In fact, I’d say you don’t understand the finer points of nuance at all. You’re probably the sort of fellow who believes that any word listed from a Thesaurus is a perfect synonym and will work in every situation. To my mind, there are no true synonyms in any language, and every language has a different mindset, not just a different lexicon. I’ve studied Japanese, Germanic (including the extinct Gothic) and Romance languages and have encountered 100s of words that could be on this list, but I find this one charming and diverse. None of the 20 reductive translations you offered are adequate. God forbid you should ever go into translation. Your arrogance, ignorance, lack of subtlety, and dismissive attitude toward other cultures really makes you suitable for one career: Conservative Politician.
swagmonkey
Oh, I’m sure there are plenty of other jobs that don’t require decent understanding of language. :-p
Elizabeth
If I could be bothered, I’d sit and pick apart your answers, but they in themselves simply highlight your ignorance and arrogance. Not to mention your inability to spell.
In your answer of #4. It’s “probably”, not prolly.
Jessica
Gezellig (Nederlans) close in meaning to the Danish Hygge and the German Gemütlichkeit. The Dutch swear that it is untranslatable.
Sourav Roy
Obhimaan (Bengali): Sulking out of pride. Waiting for others to ‘there, there’ and mollycoddle you. (The Sanskrit / Hindi ‘Abhimaan’ has quite different meaning.)
Entho (Bengali) / Jutha (Hindi): Something which has already been tasted / partially by someone else and might have traces of that person’s saliva in it.
Caecilia Nita
JAYUS = word for a joke so poorly told and so unfunny that one cannot help but laugh… was first spoken and popularized by Mr. Michael Da Lopez (Biyiq – Jamaica Cafe – Gonzaga ’94) to Mr. dJAYUSman Soepadmo (FB name – Gonzaga ’94) between the years 1992 – 1994… I was one of hundreds of witnesses living witness that there is life…
Nick
A great number of my friends and I call number 9 -‘Prozvonit’ a ‘Dodgy’. As in it’s like dodging the price of a call. It has since also expanded to include calling someone once so that the phone gets your number, so as to save the effort of readinbg it all out and double checking when giving someone your phone number. As in”I’ll give you a dodgy to save time”.
mexe
hey.. awsome list
in Chile we also use “pincha/poke (pinchame y te devuelvo el llamado/ poke me and ill call you back) or “hacer un ring” /make a ring … (hazme un ring y te llamo / make me a ring and ill call you) :), but thats just us. Sometimes I think we have a different lenguage xD
Oh and duende is also translated as leprechaun or elf.
Santa’s elfs: Los duendes del Viejito Pascuero
The leprechaun and the pot of gold: el duende y la olla de oro
🙂
maddee
“Prozvonit” = prank where I come from too.
Duende: Quite apart from the question of whether or not it translates as ‘elf’, I’ve never come across that particular ‘translation’ before.
dez
If you’re saying these are untranslateable, haven’t you disproved this by giving translations? Okay, so there’s not one English word the has the exact same meaning as these, (well, in your variety of English, maybe others have equivalents), but so what? Most of the meanings we convey with language are compositional, ie you need to put words together to represent them. Maybe you should take a look at LanguageLog .
loyly is a Finnish word describing the beads of sweat appearing on the of a person when
taking a sauna.
appearing on the body of a person…
Aline
As a non-native English speaker, I must say I love “serendipity”. It’s such a beautiful word! In Portuguese we do have “serendipidade” (straight from English, same meaning), but it sounds terrible, and you wouldn’t find it anywhere but on dictionaries.
For Prozvonit, we simply say “Give me a missed call.” here in India.
Even
number 11. Has a norwegian translation Skadefryd.
And nr. 16, is the same in norwegian
Virtual Linguist
Who would have thought that there was a language with one word that meant “to condemn and humiliate (a husband) publicly for beating his wife, typically by causing a disturbance outside his house by beating pots and kettles, singing and chanting loudly, etc., and sometimes also by beating him, chasing him from the town or compelling him to ride the stang”.
There is, and it’s English. That’s the Oxford English Dictionary of the English verb ran-tan.
Marco
Schadenfreude translates very nicely into Dutch: “Leedvermaak”.
It’s semantic composition is pretty much the same: leed (schade) and vermaak (freude): suffering and entertainment. It’s laughing at somebody else’s misfortunes.
Jane
Freude, in my experience as a German speaker, is “pleasure” or “joy” rather than “entertainment”, i.e. schadenfreude is the feeling of joy or pleasure at someone’s misfortune. Technically, you are ‘entertained’ when the event occurs, but you are feeling more joyful or happy as a result, rather than being entertained, which is not a feeling, but rather an act or event or sequence of acts/events that evoke feelings.
Another great German term is ‘zeitgeist’ . . .
George
In ‘The Key to Rebecca’ Ken Follet uses the arabic word ‘mactleesh’ that he translates as meaning somewhere between ‘sorry’ and ‘so what’
bob
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Ra Lu
The Roumanian `dor`, meaning a strong, hurtful, tourmenting, passionate wish to see someone (that you love) or something again, or the wish to do something that you miss (to come back to your country ot to your childhood town, for instance). The word describes a powerful and untranslateble feeling. `To miss someone` is not an accurate translation, it misses out on the `saudade`, only that the persone is not necessarily dead. `To long after` would be better, but still not quite.
swagmonkey
Although I don’t know it through the original Portuguese, I didn’t interpret that the definition of saudade here implied the person had to be dead. Why not a lover who has left you, or a friend who moved far away, or even someone from whom you’ve just drifted away over time but still recall fondly?
Ra Lu
Yes, you are right, maybe the `saudade` doesn`t imply that `someone is lost` in the sense that `someone died`. When I first red the post, I automaticly interpreted the transitive verb `to lose somebody` as `that somebody died` (the expression is often used also to express death: `to lose someone in a war`, or `to lose a pacient`). But it is true that `to lose someone` is not used exclusively for these situations and it reffers to all types of loss. What matters in the explanation of `saudade` is the feeling one has when experiencing a loss (by death or other means, definitive or temporary).
Austin
How about adding pronunciations?
Haldor
German doesn’t count because it is standard practice to just keep adding syllables until you have combined a paragraph into a single word if necessary. That is why Germans are so fond of abbreviations and acronyms.
Example: FLAK is taken from Fliegerabwehrkanone which literally translates as Flyer-Defense-Cannon. That is no more one word than anti-aircraft-cannon is.
Despite the thrust of this blog, my experiance is that it is English is typically the most consise way of expressing a thought. I think it has something to do with how large the English vocabulary is (My OED has over 300,000 entries in it). I am a software developer and have seen numerous multi-lingual prompt files. What I have learned is that inevitably other languages take up more display space than the English equivilent does. It really surprised me that even Kangi takes more display space (because the characters have to be bigger to be legible).
Here is an example of this from German. The classic longest German word is:
Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaftskapitän
In English this translates to:
Danube steamship company captain
Notice that the English phrase is shorter than the “Single” German word.
Don’t believe me? Try typing just about any phrase into google translate and see how long the translation is in various languages.
swagmonkey
Although it may be true that most things can be expressed in less space in English than most other languages, to have a decent test one would have to start with samples in all different languages. If your samples all were originally in English and became longer in translation, it wouldn’t prove anything, because samples originally written in, say, Spanish might also grow longer when translated to other languages, including English. Or even if they didn’t all originate in English, you might still have a skewed sample in other ways because they are all programming prompts. Different languages may be better at expressing different things.
For example, Chinese is a very concrete language. It is difficult to convey abstract concepts in Chinese. At trainings for work, where a great deal of what is said in English must be translated into Chinese for some of my co-workers, the Chinese always seems substantially longer. If we spoke consistently about more concrete things, which might be the case by default if we expressed our thoughts in Chinese originally, which encourages concrete thought and language, we might find that those thoughts were expressed more concisely in Chinese. Or that English still expressed whatever it expressed in less space, but that it lost enough meaning in the process that it isn’t comparable. (Especially true if you’ve chosen a route like Google translate to do the test, as opposed to human translators who actually understand both languages.)
For the record, what I know of Chinese is only second-hand, though I work with many Chinese people. I apologize for any inaccuracies in those specifics, however I think the point stands in the general case even if the specifics of my Chinese example are way off base.
Jane
Of course, German counts. It’s the language of a few countries and the Teutonic culture. Its structure calls for concepts to be a conglomeration of expressions. One cannot just dismiss it because it’s not put together in the same way as other languages . . .
ro
Here is another German word that came to my mind while reading your comment:
“Fremdschämen”.
It’s also not directly translatable, but it’s a feeling of shame that you have when someone is doing something cringeworthy. A feeling that one is having more and more these days about reality shows on TV, but also about any forum or comments page, really.
Jane
Good one!
agerman
You are right – in german you can add a lot of words in some UBERword. But the interesting thing is, that they can get a new meaning through this process (look at zeitgeist?!).
Btw: I don’t really see more abbreviations in german than in english. Only because you do find any doesn’t mean its common.
Also it is kind of easy to create new words this way – and it’s not exclusive to german. Take the automobile or a motorbike for example 😉 And I think it’s highly popular in mandorin: “The most common way used to form polysyllabic words in Mandarin is to aggregate words according to their meaning. For instance, the word for “computer” is 电脑 (diànnǎo). The first word means “electric” whilst the second means “brain”.”)
Otherwise it isn’t really bright to compare german word conglomerates to the separated english words, because the words that make this conglomerate are longer itself than the english counterparts. But I guess you could find any example where other languages are shorter than english.
Yeah, the english version is shorter, BUT you kinda forgot one part: “fahrt”. It means “trip, journey, ride”. Maybe you don’t necessarily need it, but it could be either a company that produces steamships or (what is meant here!) a company that provides journeys on a steamship… => Little bit longer, but you get a well defined word 🙂
If you would insert it you would see that only one word is really longer in german:
“Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaftskapitän
“Danubesteamshipride company captain”
And the question is: If the english version is shorter & better: Why are there such words as Zeitgeist, Schadenfreude, Kindergarten, Ersatz etc. used if there are shorter versions available?
But this whole thing is vain anyway because such words are reaaaally rare! You either find it in some weird place (like your example or the military), the military (who likes to be very exact about every little sh*t -> FLAK – and don’t tell me that the military in anglophone countries are any different [just look at USSOCOM?) or in a highly technical field (which includes the military).
@last paragraph of this article: That should be the top priority in learning (and teaching) new languages. (For most people) It doesn’t really matter if you can translate a sentence word by word, but that you understand the meaning of it.
Nicknameless
Personally, I like the Mandarin 厉害 or “li hai.” It’s normally used as an adjective to describe any extremely powerful attribute you might have from “ferocious” to “talented.” It can be both a compliment or an insult. It’s pretty 厉害.
Bob Coppock
A symptom I suffer from is I think called “l’esprit d’escalier,” coming up with a great bon mot or comment or question just after a conversation has ended and the respondent is no longer there. It literally is the ghost on the stairway, referring to the time when there were salons in Paris apartments with witty discourse. You would think of the clever thing to say on your way down the stairs.
Eric
Ron Davis
The Hungarian word “tegezlek” means (all packed into the one word) “I address you in a grammatically familiar manner.”. English does not even have a term for a grammatically familiar manner. (French: tutoiement; German: Duzen; Hungarian: tegezés) The word is also self-referential. The act of saying that word makes it true.
Vazir Mukhtar
English needn’t have a one-word equivalent for using a “familiar” form, as it doesn’t now distinguish “formal” from “familiar” in second person verb forms. Perhaps one of the posters who has ready access to an OED can find a one-word equivalent from an earlier period in the history of English when such a distinction was made, though I doubt the OED records such.
Not that it would be interesting and certainly of no use, still in this age of computerized data bases I’m surprised that apparently no one has compared pairs of languages to see which has the larger number of one-word equivalents (I use the word advisedly) with respect to a third language. Anyone up for this?
Anita
Not a one-word equivalent, but people have used “thou” or “thee” as a verb occasionally, referring to the act of using the familiar pronoun.
Marty
Machatenista (phonetic):
Yiddish term describing my relationship to my married child’s inlaws. She may be HIS motherinlaw, but she and I are Machatenistas (or, technically, Machatunim).
Juddie
There is a wonderful Japanese word, natsukashii (懐かしい), which might be considered similar to saudade, although it is often used in reference to the nostalgic feelings that arise when remembering happy experiences or childhood fun.
It’s useful when you want to express something like “Awww! I remember that! I loved it so much/wasn’t it fun?! etc.” Luckily many of my friends and family also learnt Japanese, so we use this word often even when we’re speaking English for everything else..
Juddie
Another really useful word is the German word “Doch!”. I guess it translates as “on the contrary”, but it’s also used more casually to emphasise a refuted position. It’s generally a positive (less aggressive) way of contradicting someone, where in English we would really only be able to answer yes or no.
e.g. if some one suggests that you dislike a particular thing, when in fact you do like it, you would say “Doch!”, thereby asserting that the initial suggestion is refuted. Or someone might say “Don’t you have any money?”, to which you could answer “Doch!” (i.e.: yes, I do!).
Doch can also be used to intensify statements, show doubt, question, and more … what a useful word!
Alpha Rebel I
Sounds a little similar to the French “sí”, which like its Spanish cognate means ‘yes’ but is only used in the sense of ‘yes, but…’
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Jane
Beyond the magic language performs between two human beings, isn’t it wonderful to be able to read about terms in one language than does not exist in another, yet identify with the spirit, emotion and sheer humanity of the expression? Bravo – great article!
Jane
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Noura
Ya’aburnee is actually just a word some Arabic nationalities use. Mostly the northern Arabs like Syrians, Lebanese, Jordanian, and Palestinian =p
The translation is quite accurate though!
Drew
I also tend to disagree with much of the premise of the article. Firstly, it should say that some of them are untranslatable by one word into English. All of them are translatable as evidenced by the author translating them for the article. A word like schadenfreude is used in English much like many other words in English that were borrowed from other languages, so an English equivalent is not necessary. A few of the words are actually phrases hence making them difficult to translate with only one word. And other words…especially the Czech words can be translated. My wife and I just talked about it(she speaks Czech). But it was an interesting article anyhow!
Vazir Mukhtar
Odd that Nabokov would be cited for the Russian word “toska.” His comments on the word “poshlost'” would make for more interesting reading, as it is harder to render in English than “toska.” It means something like “cheap vulgarity,” but that doesn’t capture the full force of the word.
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Amelia
甘える (AMAERU) is often translated to relying on one’s kindness, but there are several definitions such as the ‘attempt to deny the fact of separation that is such an inseparable part of human existence and to obliterate the pain of separation or cherishment of a non-sexual nature. It becomes a problem when translating to English since notions of dependence have slight more negative connotations than the Japanese notion of dependence.
HLB
Isn’t no.9 just dropcalling?
Anna
“Han” a Korean Work
roughly translated to “a state of mind, of soul really. A sadness. A sadness so deep no tears will come, and yet still, there’s hope. “
“Tengal” in Balinese same as “Jayus” in Indonesian.
Nal
We have 11, Schadenfreude, in Danish, too. Here it’s called “skadefryd”.
Also, good description of the word hyggelig. 🙂
Your Obedient Serpent
The author misses an important point: If English doesn’t have the right word for an untranslatable concept, it just abducts it from a language that DOES.
“We are the Anglophones. You will be assimilated. Your linguistic and semantic distinctiveness will be added to our own. Resistance is futile.”
Jiri
Yah, right, but most importantly, while the author rightly recognizes problems associated with translations, he, and I am afraid also Nabokov and Kundera (with all due respect) is missing a point. There is seldom a one-to- one ratio in translation – in other words – it may take a sentence to render a certain word (in case of Nabokov and “toska” it took him a couple of pages – but there is always a way to do it. Moreover, while “toska” in Nabokov’ s case and “litost” in Kundera’s case may be difficult to render, because of the hundreds of meanings that are attached to these words, in certain contexts they do not have hundreds of meanings, but rather only one. And that’s where translators face a real dilemma – which of the meanings to pick.
cll
No matter how hard you try, you can never precisely translate those words to English – you can merely get close – without the cultural context and experience, they remain vague concepts for the most part (with the exception of Mamihlapinatapei). Mamihlapinatapei – what an awesome word.
My favourite word: gider ikke, which is Danish for ‘I would if I had the energy to, but I don’t so I can’t be bothered’.
jiri
I really don’t quite understand this concept of “precise” translation when it comes to literature. But, just the same, any word in any language has many meanings and Nabokov’s “toska” or Kundera’s “litost” are no exceptions. And in any context there is that one specific meaning the author had in mind – maybe more, if the author wishes to be ambiguous, but certainly not hundreds. It is the “feeling” that a particular word should evoke in different contexts that counts. It is always a bit of a challenge to know what kind of feeling the author tried to convey, in the language it was written, never mind translation, but if one remembers that looking for one to one ratio in translation is rather silly and that you are looking for that specific meaning in that specific context, it will work. And all those “cultural” contexts and famous examples such as Sapir’s example of 50 different names Eskimos are using for 50 different types of snow which are not “translatable” because we do not have that cultural experience – well, there is that misconception again that there has to be one to one ratio. The English language (Czech, Russian, etc.) are quite capable of describing the quality of any of those “snow” terms, but it would probably take more than one word.
Tosh
In Hebrew, we have a word for phrase number 6.
When you tell a mother she is acting “Polish” it means the same thing: A mother who relentlessly pushes her children toward academic achievement.
Also, in phrase number 11, we have a slang word for it: “Tzintuk”.
It is actually a mashup of two words: “Tziltzool” (a call) and “Nituk” (a hangup).
Together they make up this word that means to call someone and hang up before he answers so he would call back. It is also considered quite rude to do so.
Peter Hansen
Isn’t #14 just the same as “homesick”? I don’t see why it should be untranslatable?
ciber71
correct! like Heimweh in german
Bamboo
It does not mean homesick at all. I t means that you can feel from many things (culture, language…) that you are not home, but it does not carry the notion that you miss home.
I use homesick when I am out of the country and am longing for my native land. A common use of the word is not for a house or building, but for our native land/environment.
~Heather W~
So, basically along the lines of “we’re not in Kansas anymore, Toto”?
Elizabeth
Sort of. It can have many depths to it’s meaning really. It can be as simple as recognising that the scenery has changed (simply that things are different here compared to home), but it can also imply a certain amount of disorientation or even sadness that things are different where you are now, compared to where you’re from.
Veronika
Since Norwegian is a german language we also have the word Schadenfreude, “skadefryd”.
We also have our own version of Hyggelig, namely “koselig”. And yes, it is incredibly hard to translate, and actually incorporate a distinct feature of our culture, in which the consept of “kos” is an important part of everyday life. The word is used (with different suffixes) as a verb, a noun and an adjective. Fits everywhere!
SP
gezellig in Dutch, and it means the same feeling with no English equivalent.
Jocon307
“our own version of Hyggelig, namely “koselig”. And yes, it is incredibly hard to translate, and actually incorporate a distinct feature of our culture, in which the consept of “kos” is an important part of everyday life. The word is used (with different suffixes) as a verb, a noun and an adjective.”
That is very interesting, it seems to me that “kos” is close to the English word “cozy” which my mother once told me was basically untranslatable in it’s precise meaning.
I guess I’d give a quick definition of “cozy” as “warm, comfortable, homey”. It does not imply, to me at least, the idea of company, unless that company is being with one’s cat, lol. But I don’t think it necessarily implies solitude either.
Cozy is most often an adjective: a cozy room, a cozy scene.
As a noun it is used for a cover for a tea pot: a tea cozy (and maybe other things that snuggle things)
As a verb it is used in the phrase: to cozy up to someone, to try and get close to them, not physically, but emotionally.
Thomas
Schadenfreude translates as “leedvermaak” (literally: being entertained by someone’s grief) in Dutch.
As for “gezellig”, I’ve always used “cosy” to describe that in English — being a native Dutch speaker. I’m not an etymologist, but it does look like it’s related to “koselig”.
Mish
Cozy is the wrong translation for ‘gezellig’. Cozy translates to ‘knus’ in Dutch.
Cozymore describes an environment where as ‘gezellig’ describes an atmosphere. I can sit on the sofa with my nan, drinking a cup of hot chocolate and it can be very gezellig (and cozy aswell). But I can go down the pub with my mates and have a great time which is very gezellig too (but not necessarily cozy).
eline
In Dutch Schadenfreude is translated as “Leedvermaak”.
And the Danish “Hyggelig” is “Gezellig” in Dutch.
kd
What about “Magari” (Italian). It’s somewhere between ‘perhaps’, ‘if we’re lucky’, ‘we live in hope’ – word to optimistically express hope about a possible future outcome.
Laura Blumenthal
That one is the same in Greek – makari.
b
How about “Casino” (italian)? It’s somewhere between “trouble” and “mess”, but it also might carry a neurotic connotation.
lithiumeyes
Tyendinaga comes from Iroquois for either “two sticks bound together for strength” or “he who places two bets”
Mistletoe
“Hyggelig” sounds like it may be Danish for the Irish word “craic” (pronounced like “crack”). The latter refers to public houses especially; the warm feeling of community that comes with good times, good music, and good drink.
Greg
I may be a craic addict.
Maria Ines
I love the word “convivir” in Spanish and the sentiment that it invokes. I always picture families strolling around the plaza, chatting with other townspeople and neighbors helping neighbors. “To live in harmony” is the closest I can come to the meaning in English; it means so much more than “coexist.” Amoungst Spanish speakers, “convivir” is a value and a way of life.
mike
English has a very similar word with the same general meaning: convivial.
Mich
You missed “lagom” (Swedish) = “there is virtue in moderation” or “enough is as good as a feast” or “not too much and not too little, but the perfect amount.” You can say someone has “lagom” amount of money, or that a dress is “lagom bra” (lagom good) on the wearer. This is a pretty dominating concept in all Scandinavian cultures, actually.
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Shirley Keyser
I like words too. Someone has done a fair job of translating these words into English for this article, albeit it may take a dozen words to say one.
I love the moment of enlightenment when I find the background meaning of phrases I’ve used all my life, but only now learned how that jargon came to be.
rowboat
I don’t know if other languages have a word like the Filipino (specifically, Tagalog) word “tampo.” “Tampo” what you feel and the way you behave when you are cross (but not angry) with someone whom you have a lot of affection for, so you withdraw your affection from that person in the hopes that the other person will “woo” you by making amends or by apologizing in a loving way.
We also have a word “magkatukayo” which means, “two people with the same name.” If I am speaking to someone with the same name, it is awkward to call them my name so instead I call them, “Katukayo.”
Bárbara
Katukayo? That’s lovely.
I don’t know a thing about Filipino, but I guess it must have some kind of connection with Spanish. Does it?
I say it because in Spanish there’s this word “tocayo” (with the same meaning) that is very similar to katucayo and seems to have latin origin.
In brazilian portuguese we have a word that has this same meaning: “xará”. It comes from Tupi, a native language.
John
These are just awesome. I love the other languages’ names for random things.
Also, let’s not forget ennui–not simply translated as boredom.
Shannon
There is also “sai-sai,” the Wolof word referring to a man who is convinced that all heterosexual women should find him amazingly and instantaneously attractive, a self-concept that seems to give him license to sidle up to a woman and attempt to seduce her. When i was in Senegal, we US Americans referred to this act as “sai-sai’ing all over a woman.” There just isn’t an equivalent word in English!
rodrigo r. moraes
The word saudade refers to persons, things or places not only lost but that you miss, or feel melancholy about, for being distant.
wayne
Saudade Alexandrina
Stefano
Indeed, this whole list errs a bit in the anglo-centric. I think that saudade is very akin to my understanding of toska based on the definition provided, and certainly “depaysement” is almost perfectly translated by “spaesamento” in Italian (although it is more commonly expressed as “sentirsi spaesato”). With that being said, an entertaining bit for sure.
Rob
In his statements following the list the Author likens grasping the full meaning of a term in a foreign language to tasting some barbecued ribs. For the purpose of elaborating this concept further I would point out that each and every language has something that we could refer to as a “semantic map” inherent in it. Every word, verb, preposition, idiomatic expression has its own semantic borders, it has bordering semantic areas belonging to other terms and expressions, and so on. Once we grasp the semantic map of an idiom, there’s no chance that we can take that map and coat it with a different varnish, ie another language, because a language carries within it its history, traditions and historical events that helped forge it the way it is now. Therefore, bilingual and trilingual individuals make unconscious adaptations when sequentially expressing a concept in two languages, involving a leap from one semantic map to another.
Alteredstory
There’s also the Swahili word “pole”, which translates to an apology, but it can also mean “you have my sympathy for all the stuff that’s wrong with your life, but that you are too polite to complain to me about”
This is a good word to have in Swahili also because it’s considered rude to say things are bad when a casual acquaintance asks you how you are.
Deborah
The Dutch have the same word as the Danes and it means the same thing. Hyggelig in Danish = Gesellig Dutch ..
Great article!
Jeremy
My guess for the Arabic term is that is a highly colloquial statement and not one easily recognized by a majority of Arabic speakers. The word عبر itself has the connotation of “crossing over to death” in some circumstances, but I very much doubt that most Arabic speakers would intuit the meaning naturally. If one were to say this phrase stand alone, it would probably evoke little other than puzzlement. For pure singularity, I would offer the word “nasnaas” (alternatively pronounced “nisnaas”; نسناس) as the best untranslatable word in Arabic: “a fabulous creature of the forest, having one arm and one leg”. Also very obscure, but singular and universal in meaning (compare Hans Wehr and al-Munjid).
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Flowdeeps
I agree that this article is missing Lagom but I would also say that it’s missing the English word maudlin which if I’m right doesn’t have a like anywhere else. The state in which you’re tearfully sentimental, usually after several alcoholic drinks.
Also if you’re going to have a one French phrase, which isn’t a word why would you not include spirit d’escalier, the moment on the stairs after you’ve left an argument and just thought of the perfect come back.
take2la
and anything followed by -shizzle
swagmonkey
take2la —
Really?
“Um” is in EVERY language. They might use a different syllable, but they all have a sort of speech crutch that you use while you’re thinking or searching for the right words.
“Like” — the modern sense of, like, using the word like, like, all the time has basically, like, no meaning at all. If you mean it more in the senses of similar, or of thinking something is good, or of perhaps a weaker variant on “love”, then maybe you wouldn’t find them all in one word, but they don’t seem like terribly distinctive meanings either.
And “shizzle”? I guess it vaguely indicates that you think something’s cool, but it can be (and is) used so indiscriminately on virtually anything, within the subculture where it’s used at all, that it almost ceases to have meaning beyond communicating “hey, I’m part of this street culture that uses this word”. IMO, one of the least meaningful words you could possibly have chosen, compared with all the rich layers of meanings in words the author actually chose.
jabelar
Um, like, this guy was kidding and totally, like, um, made you look like a shizzle.
swagmonkey
Perhaps. If he was joking, though, there was a complete failure of being even slightly funny. Just comes off as ignorant, in my view.
Paula
I personally believe that the best part of this article is the follow up of comments that is has prompted. My heart is certainly happier at having found so many language lovers.
That being said, and not being an English native, I always found that the sound and rhythm of the word ‘lonely’ had no translation into the harsher Spanish versions.
Cheers!
By the way, I am looking into ‘tocayo’, since it also called my attention. I will post an answer as soon as have one.
Jocon307
You are right about “lonely” being a great, although so simple, word in terms of it’s sound conveying it’s meaning.
If you are not already familiar with it you should search out the song “Lonely (I’m so lonely)”. The actual title seems to be “Mr. Lonely” and it was sung by Bobby Vinton. I always thought it captured the essence of that word very well.
Sue
In Hebrew, there is the wonderfully useful word with no English equivalent: “davka”, (which comes from the root meaning “exact”) variously approximately rendered as “of all things” or “precisely” but usually has a bit of “despite what you’d think” or “despite what you should have done” in it. E.g. “He davka took the one I was sure he wouldn’t like,” “You davka bought peanut butter ice cream even though you know I’m allergic to peanuts?” “Why did he davka have to show up today, the one day I am working?” Once you’ve got davka, you never go back–it’s a very useful word.
Leah
poshlust’—Russian for something that is falsely beautiful, vulgar in its pretentions to real beauty or goodness. Much more meaning than gaudy. Think of those fifties advertisements with the blond, blue-eyed, white mother and the clean-cut, suit-wearing father and the perfect children of that blessed union, one boy and one girl, along with their all-American dog. They sit around the breakfast table and just gush about how they absolutely LOVE (insert brand name) cereal. How it basically makes their whole existence meaningful. Stuff like that. Nabokov has a really good essay on it.
Mark
The author’s definition of schadenfreude is ‘close but no cigar.’ The author fails to convey that schadenfreude is the shame of feeling joy at someone’s misfortune, not simply the joy. I hope the other definitions are somewhat more exact …
Mike
The author here didn’t do his research very well…
1. Toska – exact translation to English is – Sorrow.
2. Prozvanit – is not only Czech it’s also exactly the same in Russian and and translates directly as – Ring Through.
The problem with some Americans is the lacking in attention to details.
Can’t speak for the other languages, but I’m a native Russian speaker and know Czech as well.
eva
it is prozvonit (ring through), not prozvanit–that means to waste time talking!
Orland
This is a really interesting list, interesting how the ability to think in these terms might help shape the concepts themselves.
One small complaint – if I’ve understood the definition you gave of “Prozvonit” correctly, there’s an obvious English enquivalent that’s been around in my estimation for about 10 years now, which is a new meaning of the verb “prank” – as an English speaker I would generally understnd, if someone said they’d “prank” me so I could let them know about something, that they’d call my phone and let it ring once.
Heather Carreiro
Orland, which dialect of English do you speak? Here in Massachusetts, ‘prank’ means to call someone and pull a joke – ie call your friend and pretend to order a pizza, etc.
Elizabeth
Ah, but Heather, where I am in Sydney, Australia, it means the same as it does for you.
But a friend of mine in Melbourne, Australia, tells me it means the same for them as it does for Orland.
Same word, different meaning.
jabelar
“as an English speaker I would generally understnd, if someone said they’d “prank” me so I could let them know about something, that they’d call my phone and let it ring once.”
I’ve never heard of this use of “prank” in North America. In North America “to prank” someone means to play a mean joke on someone (which may or may not involve a phone).
I don’t think Prozvonit is a joke, it is just a way to save money.
jd
hilarious list though!
Katheryn
Thai has a word, “gran jai” And it means to say “no” out politeness, like if a host offers you something and you say “no” because you don’t want them to bother. But this is often said in a way of, don’t gran jai. The host will literally say, “don’t be polite,” eat if you want it.
I’ve been told that the Turkish word “huzun” is much like toska and suadade…
Janeen
In Lakota (American Indian, South Dakota, U.S.) we have a word called “Ughneea” which describes a repugnant or or distasteful feeling that certain people give you. someone who is irritating and who rubs you the wrong way…but not strong enough to hate or be angry with. But you definitely would not have to be around them.
Laura Blumenthal
My favourite word to master when I was learning Turkish was “estagfurullah”. It is a borrowed word from Arabic, but the meaning in Turkish is different. It is a way of saying “you’re welcome”, but it implies the utmost humility, something like “I’m unworthy of your thanks or praise”. If you can use it properly, it opens a lot of doors.
Yao
In Ghanaian english, we use “flash” as in, “I’ll flash you” for 9. Prozvonit. Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money.
The meaning is identical.
JJ
To flash someone means something quite different in American English! I think having a specific word for the act of letting the phone ring once is a good one. I may well adopt prozvonit.
Hrishi
The colloquial phrase for #9 in India is “missed call”.
Marathi has another another concept which doesn’t translate concisely into English: “kitwa” (कितवा). Always used in a question, it *very* loosely translate as “which-eth” . for example, “Tu ranget kitwa ahes?” (what’s your position in the queue), or “tu kitwa mulga/mulgi?” (the answer would be “I am the third son/daughter”, the question would be “which-eth son/daughter are you?”)
As a Brit who lives in Brazil is was nice to see “saudade”, which could really be translated as “longing” which has similar connotations in English as how it’s applied in Portuguese.
WestCoastRich
Alistair Horne in his book “The Battle of Verdun” described another German word that would be more spittle than vocabulary, regarding the German pioneer Feldwebel Kunze who single handedly took Fort Douamont:
Unternehmungslustig, which roughly means to be bezerk in battle, besides oneself in fury.
Stan da Man
Toska is nowhere near to Sorrow. Sorrow in Russian is Pechal. Toska can be translated in English as melancholy though its not realy the same. Nabokov was right there is no word in English rendering all the shades of toska
Alberto
I think the author while not saying it means “untranslatable to English” and not specifically untranslatable in any other language.
Having said that, I have often tried to explain to my English speaking friends the significance of “simpatico” from Italian (or sympathique in French [going back to the initial point]) Well, it describes someone who is nice, makes you laugh, and is nice to be around, and just the word nice does not fully describe a simpatico person. Of course there are better descriptions of the word, but my point is to let this word be known and not to be Encyclopaedia Brittanica perfect.
elrodro
I like “tingo” best. Partly because it’s an interesting concept. Mostly because I like saying it: “tingo, tingo, tingo.”
Cary Broder
Japanese has some great ones. The language is parsimonious and filled with expressions with no real direct translation but are apt like this.
Natsukashii…..”This brings me back/….How nostalgic…../how old school…..”
Bimiyo: Probably the best word in the language: Literally means ‘ambiguous’ but can roughly translate to ‘sketchy/dodgy/seems a bit fishy to me/there’s a chance but it probably won’t work”. It’s a very excellent, subtle way to dis something as well.
Karen
For me, the French phrase “champs lexique” is not covered by “semantic map.” It describes not only the extent (or limits) of a given word, but also how and when it might be used. It tickles me that this phrase does not have a good equivalent in English, covering a different, oh, “champs lexique”
Petr Kriz
Now I am Czech and have been living in the US now for two decades.
Kundera’s obsession with “litost” is naturally overrated for artistic effect. Sadly, the word generically means *sorrow*, or the feeling of being sorry for something or someone — nothing more.
The other Czech word, “prozvonit”, is exactly on mark. It reminded me of another Czech word, “profackovat”, which means *to slap someone’s face repeatedly until desired effect is achieved*. I once have seen a cat do that to another cat.
Tmonster
Wife from La Linea disagrees with 19. And 11 = sadistic lol
#1 and #13 are great!
tim
The Mama in Kyoiku Mama isn’t even Japanese… that’s a loan-word from English. They also use it in Mamachari… those cruiser bicycles with the baskets and the fenders and the curved handlebars.
I would have preferred to see Motainai on the list. It’s an expression used to express regret at something being wasted, or to chastise the waster.
Natsukashi should also be on here. It’s an exclamation for when you’re overwhelmed with nostalgia.
So, for example, you walk into a friends home, and he’s rocking The Legend of Zelda on an original NES, you shout out, “Natsukashi!” ~ maybe in English, “Oh, dude! Old school!”
Jimsi
The Cantonese word “won gut” has always amused me: wasting a shopkeeper’s time by acting as though you’re interested in some item that you actually have no intention of buying.
For untranslatability, I find the Buddhist concept of “dukkha” to be sine qua non. It encompasses at times Toska and Saudade, but has an incredibly rich spectrum of meaning from discomfort, unease and restlessness to sorrow, grief, pain, suffering and anguish. In fact, if you need to use the word dukkha, it’s best to simply leave it untranslated. A full understanding of dukkha takes a lifetime; in fact, it is a lifetime.
jabelar
It’s actually interesting how many common experiences don’t have good words for them.
For example, what about that uncomfortable feeling when a toilet seat is still warm from the last person who used it? Or what about when you are at work and you start walking one way and then realize you should walk the other way? Or what do you call a woman who dyes her hair in a way that is uglier than her natural hair?
There are lots of common human experiences that still do not have succinct words to describe them.
Denise
How come the only words for a male prostitute are Italian? The words “gigolo” and “cortigiano” both mean a male hooker/escort, yet there is no word in English for such a person. Says something about the English, don’t you think?
Heather Carreiro
Never realized that – it is quite interesting!
Tzen N. Itch
Number 19 is the equivalent of gnome. These guys need to check sources a little better. PFT.
Anthony Doherty
I’m no expert, but I think Yiddish offers some great possibilities, especially in derogatory terms with precise shades of meaning. A friend of mine once patiently tried to sort out nebbish, nudnik, schlemiel, putz, and a dozen or so more for me. It’s been a long time, and I’ve got them all mixed up, but his definitions were along the lines of: a guy at a party who spills his drink on himself, a guy who spills his drink on somebody else, a guy who spills his drink on somebody else on purpose, and so on. All of those terms are beautifully balanced by mensch, which, if I have it right, is a man who steps up to the plate and does the right thing for the needs and benefit of others from the generosity in his heart. Much richer than “be a man” or “man up.”
And which sounds more appetizing: calamari (yum!) or squid (yuk!)?
AJC @ 7million7years
The best, most untranslatable yiddish word is not directly derogatory (although, it can have negative connotations) is Chutzpah.
The closest translation to English is to describe a person as having ‘front’, but I can only really describe it by giving an example:
Most personal finance authors and gurus BECAME rich ONLY because they first sold expensive how-to courses books on becoming rich …
… now, that’s CHUTZPAH!
Vazir Mukhtar
You perhaps know another definition of chutzpah. This one concerns a young man on trial for having murdered his mother and father. (If you like big words you may use ‘parricide’.) He pleads for mercy on the grounds that he is an orphan.
Joyce
One of the most elusive words to pin down in English is the Finnish sisu. It’s more than courage, more than true grit. There is no sense of false bravado. No sense of victimization. Perseverance with good humor. Grace under fire, but no superiority implied. Pushing through without being pushy.
Corine Samwel
Fun list! Look at #16. I am Dutch, and looked this up in Wikipedia.com:
Gezelligheid (Dutch pronunciation: [ɣəzɛlɪɣhɛit]) is a Dutch abstract noun (adjective form gezellig) which, depending on context, can be translated as convivial, cosy, fun, quaint, or nice atmosphere, but can also connote belonging, time spent with loved ones, the fact of seeing a friend after a long absence, or general togetherness. The word is considered to be an example of untranslatability, and is one of the hardest words to translate to English.[1] Some consider the word to encompass the heart of Dutch culture.[2]
In German: Gemütlichkeit
Good call on Gemuetlichkeit–I hadn’t thought of that one.
Ruth
Thanks Corine, that was the first word I thought of. I’m also Dutch and still have not found a way to translate this to my friends here in the States.
Ivo
Prozvonit = Meaning is quite easy. If you don’t want to pay, but give someone a kind of message, you ring him/her. It is like one way purpose to give a notice. Example: to tell a friend: “Prozvon(ring) me when you are at my house.” | Or your father has a cellphone. And you as student don’t want to pay for the call. So you just “prozvon”(ring) him. He will then call back.
Indirect it means like ring someone, whitout the other side taking the call. Call is not established, so noone pays for it. It is only useable if you have a phone or cellphone with CLIP ability (see name of who is calling).
MlnwY
In Hebrew we have a word with the exact same meaning – “letzantek”, but it’s actually a hybrid of the words for “to call” = “letzaltzel” and “to hang up” = “lenatek”. It’s a very used verb now a days.
Azrael
Actually, the point of the article is not to ascribe a meaning to the word utilizing many, but accurate provide a direct, one word translation.
jiri
and that’s the problem of this article – it is just silly to look for this type or rendition one to one- most often it does not exist
Finlay
#9 is “to prank call someone” in English (possibly just British English). As a secondary meaning of course, but people tend to say it nowadays when exchanging numbers – you prank call your friend’s mobile so that your number comes up on her caller id, for instance.
Lewis
I know that some people use “prank call” in this context (I’m british), but I still feel it inadequate as it still has the mischievous (and not practical at all) connotations so I’ve always used “dry call” for this (e.g. “Dry call me so I have you’re number..”)
My favourite of all time is the french: “L’esprit de l’escalier” – spirit of the stairs which is often translated often into “staircase wit”: That feeling that, as you reach the bottom of the stairs after a party (metaphorically or not) you suddenly realise the perfectly witty thing you should have said in response to a previous comment.
Shoshi
schpilkes, davenen, verklempt . . . to name a few in yiddish . . . but there are definitely several in every language I speak.
Sean
“Arrangiarsi” is a Neapolitan term that literally translates as “to arrange one’s self” but really connotes a mentality of persevering and making the best out of meager means or a bad situation. It’s a state of mind and a point of pride.
Wolf
The term “Arrangiarsi” is often used in the meaning of “doing on my own”…
Thin
While I love things like this to no small end, I just wish that we could be given more context on their use. I’d love to know how to use “toska” or “cafuné” in a sentence. I find words like these to be of great use to an author who has an international cast in a story; when a character must be fluent in english for the sake of the reader, the rare sprinkling of words like these (where the character must fight to find a translation) can help to remind the reader that no, this isn’t their native language. Just remember not to do it too often or else it becomes annoying.
Raphael
About Cafuné, you do it on someone. Well, actually I’m not quite sure as the word for make and do in portuguese is only one (fazer), but anyway, a good example would be “Mum, would you do me a cafuné?”, as mothers are the best in doing it.
-…-
Rodnaya/Rodnoy (in Russian) it is best descrbied as someone very dear to you, someone who’s your family, part of your heart and soul. The word motherland (Rodina) stems from the word Rodnaya. This word is usually used to describe family members and some very close friends, who are by all means and purposes family.
Rumia
Rodnaya/Rodnoy is also related to the ones who is sharing your way of thinking and your visions to life :). Someone is very close not obligatory to be a relative.
fizzle
My favorite word was one one of my Jewish friends taught me in high school. I’m not sure how it’s spelt, but it sounds like “meeshkite.” Apparently it means that something is so ugly it’s cute. Like a pug, I guess. =D
cutlass
in kitchens we use the term “all day”. its a sort of patois word. it can mean very many things, but the closest definition is “a total”. when I asked the cable operator what he difference bin praice between three cable packages “all day” she was confused. i was asking what the total, including tax, of each package was, and the difference in price from one to the next. almost any other professional cook would understand that, ut doubt many people outside my industry use that term. i wonder if other languages have a similar expression.
mousemouse
“Prozvonit” – In English (UK), I’ve always said “drop-call” – as a verb and a noun.
Also, I love the semantc map concept and the cultural unity that comes from each languages shared by a group.
Anonimo
For “Prozvonit” I have also heard in English “to make a miss call”.
Kelvin
http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=miss%20call
Nana
We in Ghana call Prozvonit(word no.9) ‘flashing’. Example : He flashed the clerk the whole day but couldn’t get a hold of him. i hope you get the meaning
Roman
Marko
Karoshi (japanese); “death by overwork” – A kind of death that I (hope) certainly will not suffer Ha ha ha
Banzo (brazilian portuguese); From unknowed african origin, a word born at the time of the slavery in Brazil, meaning “An deep and sad ‘Saudade’ (see above word nr 20) that kill, be by depression, or by leading to the suicide or madness”
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L
Afrikaans is also a very vibrant language with many phrases and words that are untranslatable. mostly derived from Dutch but are a mix of English and some of the local black languages.
Martijn
Great post!
Scahdenfreude has a direct translation in Dutch, leedvermaak. Showing our blunt terseness, there’s even a proverb that goes “Geen beter vermaak dan leedvermaak”, i.e. nothing more fun than … Schadenfreude.
Seb
I agree with your thoughts on language and translation. For me translation has acedemic ad technical uses but is basically useless in real world senarios like speaking.
Swedish has a word which they consider unique. It is ‘lagom’. It’s used to describe something that is not too much and not too little while being absolutely perfect at the same time. It also has many variances. For example a 20c day could be lagom or if you fill up my cup of coffee to the perfect spot or an item of furniture that takes up just the right amount of space in relation to the rest of the room.
James
How could you miss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sehnsucht ?
Ron
Fun. There is no other word, that I know of, in any other language that directly translates as fun. A uniquely American creation.
Douglas
You’re forgetting another: Saudade, in portuguese. This word exists only in Portuguese and Galician.
Saudade is a Portuguese and Galician word difficult to translate adequately, which describes a deep emotional state of nostalgic longing for something or someone that one was fond of and which is lost. It often carries a fatalist tone and a repressed knowledge that the object of longing might really never return.
Saudade has been described as a “vague and constant desire for something that does not and probably cannot exist … a turning towards the past or towards the future”.
A stronger form of saudade may be felt towards people and things whose whereabouts are unknown, such as a lost lover, or a family member who has gone missing. It may also be translated as a deep longing or yearning for something which does not exist or is unattainable.
Saudade is # 20.
richard
Saudade and the Japanese noun Natsukasa (懐かしさ）have the same meaning and are used often in songs in the same way ala “Saudade e uma Pedra” and almost every other Japanese enka (演歌) ever composed. (Just kidding)
One difference is that Natsukashii as an adjective is used in everyday Japanese conversation frequently while Saudade is not.
Ana
I am Brazilian – we do use “Saudade” in everyday conversation…when we say we miss something or long for something.
richard
Olivier Roland
The word “Prozvonit” have an equivalent in French : it’s “bipper”, a verb.
Also we don’t use “L’appel du vide” very often, it is an expression almost exclusively used by specialists.
You could use “l’appel de” or “l’appel du” to forge expressions about approximately everything. For example, “l’appel de la gloire” : its means that “the glory call me : I am motivated and want to become famous” 😉 .
Saudade is used not just for something/someone that is lost, but for those that are far away. I’ve heard that the Portuguese felt saudade for their homeland and their families when they went off & explored the world.
You can “matar saudades” (kill the saudades) by visiting those that you miss.
Karen
Ron, I believe that the German “Spass” translates “fun” quite effectively.
Another Portuguese word: bagunça. It is used as “a total mess, whole impossible situation, total chaos, overwhelming confusion.”
Maria
That would be in French “un bordel” or “un bazar”, and in Spanish of Rio de la Plata “un relajo” o “un quilombo”. I actuatlly think that it translates as a “mess” with pretty much the same meaning, but less color! 🙂
Bárbara
“Un bordel” and “un quilombo” have a perfect equivalent in portuguese: “Uma zona”
They all have one thing in commun. Besides the meaning of “mess”, they also mean (or meant) whorehouse.
It’s an interesting example of similar metaphors between languages.
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Dan De Luego W.
I’m fond of the Catalan “Seny” as difficult to translate. Seems to have connotations of common sense, methodical, ordered. And then you combine it with “Rauxa,” which is somewhat the opposite. The Catalan Gov’t translating site gives seny i rauxa “wisdom and impulse.”
Would number 9 not be translated as a one-ringer? or perhaps that’s something that we only say in Newcastle..?
Lukas
Torschlusspanik actually has a more narrowly defined meaning, it’s the fear of an aging woman to not find a man.
Adam Roy
I like the Japanese verb “ganbaru.” It doesn’t have a good equivalent in English, but it’s something like “persevere,” “do your best,” “hang in there,” “stay strong,” etc. The imperative form, “ganbatte,” is what people say to marathon runners during a race or to high school students before a big exam–kind of equivalent to “échale ganas” for you Spanish speakers.
richard
Yes, 頑張る ganbaru, that’s a good one.
Really hard to translate correctly in English.
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Jennifer
How about the Swedish word ‘lagom’ which means ‘just right’ – not too much, not too little, although still, it does not mean perfect.
Dane
Schadenfreude is translatable into Danish aswell. “Skadefro” – Which literally means “injury happy”. Skade = Injury, Fro = Happy or amused.
Fun is also very much translatable into many languages in opposition to what Ron said earlier. In Danish its called “sjov”.
The articles definition of “Hygge” is quite precise 🙂
I don’t even speak French, but Dépaysement is definitely home sickness, no big brain needed there. Author should maybe spend more time actually learning the languages and not just bullshiting us about them.
Litost (Czech) = sorrow.
etc. etc.
Wolf
“Dépaysement” as for the italian word “Spaesamento” is the sensation of not being fitted well with, mostly, people and costumes surrounding
Zelos
Bullshit, the german one got eqialence in swedish :3
Ana
I highly recommend Bill Bryson’s book, “The Mother Tongue”, to those of you who enjoyed this article!
Heather Carreiro
Thanks for the recommendation Ana!
Karl
I also like the German word “Schadenfreude” which in English would translate to something like “to laugh at someone else’s misfortune”
Vazir Mukhtar
May I kick this topic up just a bit? Does anyone know any foreign language palindromes s/he would care to share?
A handful of English-language examples:
Madam, I’m Adam.
Able was I ere I saw Elba.
radar
Richard
山本山 (Yama moto Yama) in Japanese is one that comes to mind….A Japanese food company…. that uses its name as its catch phrase…”Read it from the top it’s
山本山 read it from the bottom it’s 山本山!!!!
Corine Samwel
Dutch: parterretrap (stairs from the first floor)
Charlie
What about one of the most famous untranslatable words? Namaste
Wikipedia offers all of the meanings and interpretations:
“I honor the Spirit in you which is also in me.” — attributed to but not claimed by author Deepak Chopra[4]
“I honor the place in you in which the entire Universe dwells, I honor the place in you which is of Love, of Integrity, of Wisdom and of Peace. When you are in that place in you, and I am in that place in me, we are One.”[5][6]
“Your spirit and my spirit are ONE.” — attributed to Lilias Folan’s shared teachings from her journeys to India.[citation needed]
“That which is of God in me greets that which is of God in you.”[7]
“The Divinity within me perceives and adores the Divinity within you.”[8]
Clint
#11 Schadenfreude also exist in Danish … it is called “skadefryd”. Skade means “injury” or “damage” and fryd means “joy” or “pleasure”.
Wolf
“Prozvonit” in italy we use the therm “squillo”, in the frase “fare uno squillo”, that litteraly translated is “to give a ring”…^^
M G
In arabic, the word أدهم “Ad-ham” (a common name nowadays) translates as a pitch black, pure-bred Arabian stallion with a white stroke on its forehead!
Flo
I love the article! Thank you!!!
Zeitgeist = spirit of our times. And by the way: “Torschusspanik” also as a meaning in football (soccer) which is the Angst (yet another word – which not only holds the meaning of fear) when a player is under pressure to score. In German we use it, in the sense of panik to find a partner “for life” (whatever that would be) like correctly stated in the Blog!
Both Hyggelig and Schadenfreude exists as words in Swedish
(as Hygglig and Skadeglädje)
Robin Message
Prank is used in British English for number 9, as in to prank someone is to call their phone so it rings without them answering. Probably derives from prank calling, but is useful for sending a signal or sending someone your number.
As for calling someone to let it ring once, in Nepal, in English, they call it a “missed-call”. It’s not one word, but they use it like one. For instance:
I’ll missed-call him tomorrow.
Michael
Nice to see that “saudade” made the list. As an American living in northern Portugal I remember hearing this word for the first time and the person on the other end of the conversation trying to explain it to me. Since then it has come up in a separate conversation with a Portuguese person that no other language in the world has an equivalent to “saudade.” The more I learn, the more I tend to agree.
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Alex Greene
I know of a few words, from various languages. I think “Torsk” comes from Norway, and it refers to a man who consorts with prostitutes; and the Japanese word moe does not even have a direct English translation: at least “kawaii” means “cute.”
However, my favourite general untranslatable Welsh word is “hiraeth,” which generally translates as “Homesickness,” but which might have more in common with the Portuguese word “saudade” above, in that it is a longing for the feelings of home life, family and nostalgia rather than a literal longing to want to be back home.
Vlad Tolbin
Toska is melancholy in english, with all its shades of nuance. There’s only confusion here because many people don’t understand what melancholy means. It means toska.
Richard
I have never heard the word “moe” in Japanese except maybe in the Osaka dialect, which would mean “Enough already!” or something like that.
It also could might be found in a comic book as the sound someone makes before they are going to puke….
If you could explain the context or knew the Chinese character it might help….
Peter
#11. German Schadenfreude is in swedish = skadeglädje – exactly the same …. (insert smiley or not)
blaha
And skadefryd in Norwegian, still exactly the same.
It is of course possible that engslisspeaking people doesn’t have this feeling, and that they because of this are nicer people than we are…
Derk J. Dallinga
And in Dutch is is ‘leedvermaak’ (leed = sorrow; vermaak = amusement)
Justin
ANArKH
It almost means a damned fate and inevitability, but the whole of the word can only be fully understood through reading The Hunchback of Notre Dame
moose
Haha no way. I’m in La Linea. Great article. Does Molly Bloom’s and Cinic translate as well? : )
Jason Wire
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El Gordo
Hey, you forgot another untranslatable Czech word: Picovina (pronounced peechoveena) which can best be defined as “something so stupid as to defy explanation.” Used quite a bit in ordinary “street Czech” conversations. Not something you’d see in the dictionary.
Tlustoch
I’m guessing the editors were looking for untranslatable phrases with elegance and wit rather than crude expressions of spectacular vulgarity.
Vazir Mukhtar
If the editors sought what you suggest, the must take the attitudes of the French Academy and the Russian Academy of Sciences.
One might make a list of untranslatable words that apply to religious ceremonies, everyday situations, and the like. I’d prefer a list that includes words from the entire spectrum of vocabulary, marking them appropriately. Here we are unlikely to come across words not typically used in “polite” society. But we may very well hear them in the streets or encounter them in reading.
Toward the end of our fourth year one of my foreign language teachers (a highly educated and “refined” woman) at university called us into her office one by one, gave us a list of words not then found in dictionaries, each with typical uses, pronounced the words and phrases, then told us she never wanted to hear any of them from us.
Knowing that if not immediately after graduating but surely sometime in the near future, we would find ourselves in the country in question, she did not want us not to understand such words & expressions. In addition to the classics we usually read, she gave us contemporary materials lest we speak excellent XIX century language.
Your point is well taken and perhaps for those interested another post could be devoted to aeschrology (a $.50 cent word I learned while translating).
horton jupiter
yuk. nothing so Vulgar as those that use the word “Vulgar”
Drew
El Gordo…the reason that “picovina” would not be found in the dictionary is because it is extremely vulgar. There are multiple words that end with -vina or -tiny with similar meanings. It does indeed mean what you said it does in some conversations, but it actually means “material that originates from the female genitalia(however using the C word in English). You can see why it is so vulgar and sad that people throw it around in day to day conversations on the street. There are many such words in Czech and Slovak…if you wanted a translation for the word…it would simply be “B.S.”
Prix Dekanun
Sorry, but a good translation of “toque” in “Dar um toque” is “ring” (that’s actually Brazilian Portuguese not spanish). In English, “the telephone rings” portuguese “O telefone toca”. In this case, translate “toque” for “touch” is like to trade “red” (verb) for “red” (color).
lina
actually <> is right in spanish for touch. I speak spanish the author is right it is a way for us to say <> or <>. it is probably right in both languages except for un and um and the kind of different words exactly but same meaning.
lina
actually ‘dar un toque’ is right in spanish for touch. I speak spanish the author is right it is a way for us to say ‘to touch someone or ‘make someone else call’. it is probably right in both languages except for un and um and the kind of different words exactly but same meaning.
Zonzo
I would say that “dar un toque” just means to call someone, whereas the expression to ring someone once and hang up is “hacer una llamada perdida”.
NickDiallo
I (an American) was taken slightly aback when a female Ghanaian colleague of mine here in Accra gave me her number and then promptly asked me to “flash” her. Turns out that it in fact wasn’t a case of sexual harassment, but rather that in Ghanaian English at least, there is a direct translation for this word.
Stephen
In South Africa we call it a ‘miscall’
ZIK
In Pakistan, we call it a ‘missed call’ 🙂
Tina D.
Yiddish has many untranslatables! take Shlamazel, eg
Vazir Mukhtar
Those interested in Yiddish might take a look at a thoroughly enjoyable book by Leo Rosten, the title of which is, I believe, “The Joys of Yiddish.” It is in no way complete, but gives many of the commonly used words (in alphabetical order) with definition(s) and examples of use.
“Goyim” [no offence intended] or gentiles will profit from reading it. Yiddish speakers may want to add words Mr Rosten omitted.
There are, of course, other books, but this one is a gem.
morr
Nikhil
“Prozvonit” – In India, we call it a “missed call” – a missed call is often used to indicate something determined beforehand (come to the cafe when I give you a missed call) or in the case where I call someone, and they couldn’t pick up the phone, so later they give me a missed call stating they are available and I should call them (since I did the original call, I have some job and so it is my responsibility to pick up the charge 🙂 )
How about the word Tao – everything is connected, the whole is god.
No whitebeard on a cloud dispensing justice: just us. But “Us” is the univ-us.
Haven’t quite a few of these proved … err … translatable? Interesting words all the same!
Judy Jones
I speak Swedish fairly well, but haven’t come across that word before. Thanks for adding to my vocabulary! 🙂
The most pungent definition of “saudade” is in the lyrics of a song by brazilian singer Gal Costa: “Saudade é arrumar o quarto do filho que já morreu” (Saudade is to clean the room of a recently deceased son)
hiergiltdiestfu
“9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money.”
This is not unique: There’s a german verb for it, too: “anklingeln”.
Ithilien
We also have ‘a da bip’ in Romanian, which is ‘to give a beep’ or ‘to beep’ in English. It is like the French biper. While I was in UK I heard people refering to this kind of ‘short call’ as a ‘missed call’. ‘Give me a missed call when you’re on messenger and I’ll go online as well.’ It is usually used as a signal and is amed as saving money on an otherwise really short conversation on the phone.
Vanessa
Gemütlich – German adjective. Usually translated as “comfortable” or “cozy” but the feeling of the word is more the emotional satisfaction from the coziness of a situation.
yse
Hebrew word: “Lehitpanek” which is the reflexive for of the word “to spoil” (as in a child). It’s the act of requesting to be spoiled. Like at your gradmas when you stare at her until she gives you lots of cookies or when you’re sick and you beg to be taken care of by someone else or when your dog or cat demands to be petted. Often used in the negative-imperative form “Al-t’hitpanek al-eye” (do not spoil yourself upon me) usually when the second actor has had enough because the first person is too lazy to get up and get his own damn tea.
Ithilien
We have this as an expression in Romanian ‘a se alinta’, to spoil oneself, which means to beg for attention, or to exaggerate the predicament one is in. For example if a child complains of having a tummy ache to receive attention or to get out of having to go to school. You would also use it if a child speaks deliberately in a childish way, leaving out the verb, or mispronouncing words.
Alan
“Pratt” and “Plonker” come to mind. I have tried in vain to express the exact shade of meaning to my American friends. There just isn’t an American expression that conveys the non-malicious, friendly yet disparaging meaning of these UK expressions.
I thought the German word Fernweh is unique? It describes the opposite of homesickness, iow the longing/desire to travel, to leave.
Phil
Fernweh sounds like it would translate to “wanderlust”, so not really untranslatable?
Vanessa
Actually, wanderlust is a German word!! LOL
Ithilien
We have it as ‘dor de duca’ in Romanian. Dor is a word somewhere between Saudade and Toska, it has many connotations of ‘missing’ something, and ‘duca’ is a noun that means travel, a going away of sorts. So it’s a longing for travel, which applies to someone who is a wanderer, an adventurer, someone who either wants to leave his village and experience the world, or someone who cannot settle because of this same reason.
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nickdiallo
A few English words I’ve often struggled to translate, at least into French or (as an American) across other anglophone cultures:
nerd
cheesy
sappy
I wonder how close other languages come to having equivalents – any ideas? I’m especially stumped by the words “cheesy” and “sappy” (both somewhat similar in meaning). It’s often hard to explain to people here in West Africa why I’m not a big fan of Nigerian soap operas, most country music and what they call “slow” music – the late ’80s / early ’90s -style Western pop music exemplified by Celine Dion, Disney tunes like “A Whole New World” or Whitney Houston’s “I Will Always Love You”, which is still as popular as ever out here. Ugh!
Lewis
For cheesy or sappy, the germans use “Kitsch” which can be used as an adjective, but primarily as a noun – Kitsch being the useless, tasteless and tacky (another great word) stuff you find at tourist stalls for example.
Interestingly, this is also used by the french and english – just in a french or english accent – though in my experience, they are used differently: the french use it in a more general adjective way (directly as cheesy – e.g. “le film, c’était kitsch!”) whereas english use it in the noun way (“I hate all this tourist kitsch”, or for the music artist Regina Spektor fans, the “Soviet Kitsch” album)
It’s a wonderful word.
It’s a wonderful word,
Ithilien
In Romanian we have one word that cover ‘nerd’ and ‘geek’ – TOCILAR. It is a noun formed from the verb ‘a toci’ – to wear out, to erode, but also to spend one’s time trying to learn (often by heart), in a way wearing out the pages of the book or one’s sleeves on the desk. It usually refers to the quiet kids with glasses that always have their lesson ready, but it is rarely used outside the school environment. It is also not used to indicate an inability to integrate in a social environment or a fashion choice. Also, someone who is a huge fan of Star Wars would not be called a Tocilar. Maybe it would translate in English as ‘swot’?
We do not have a word for cheesy, we would most likely exxplain it as ‘de prost gust’ which means in poor taste, or having questionable taste, but that’s harsher than the original.
Jutta
For cheesy or sappy, the germans use the adjective “schmalzig” The romantic aspect e.g. in a song or a film is hopelessly exaggerated, which gives you a feeling of embarrassment.
Russ Tokyo
I think the key to understanding “cheesy” is it always involves a gap in the attitude of the subject towards itself and its perception by others. Generally this involves the oblivious over-application of a trait, e.g., strings in music, soundtracks in movies, cologne on a bachelor, etc. It is easy to see how the word suggests the over-application of something that might be attractive when used with restraint.
“Corny” seems tricky as well. I suppose the idea is that the joke is of such a bad quality that a country person might tell it.
Kate
I think there are as many untranslatable English words as in other languages – namely, lots! The one that immediately comes to mind is “spooky,” which I taught to my Ecuadorian students when I used the Santana song of that name for a fill-in-the-blanks exercise. I described it as something that’s a little scary, but in a fun way rather than a dangerous one. They loved it!
Since Spanish speakers tend to add “e” to the start of spoken words with an s+consonant formation (special, smoking, etc), there was a whole class of students talking in the halls about the “espooky” new horror film. Thanks for the happy memories!
B. Darr
“Tsaved tan em”- Armenian
Litterally means “I take your pain”. Used (usually with men) to indicate friendship and a warm regard to the person you say it to. It is said with happiness and is usually lightheartred.
D. Hankin
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Joshua McD
Re Prozvonit – maybe it’s just an Australian term, but ‘to sting’ someone means exactly the same, to call with only one ring so they will call you back.
Andrea
In Melbourne, Australia, the term “to prank” means exactly the same as prozvonit.
tlajous
Shadenfreude translates as pixairekaka in Greek. And apparently in other languages too, check out The Study of Words by Trench (via the OED).
Laura Blumenthal
That doesn’t look like Greek to me – how would it be spelled in Greek?
tlajous
Ancient greek. Look for Schadenfreude in the OED.
Page
Also, Pascuense is another translation based on Chile’s domain over the territory. In the language of Easter Island (Rapa Nui), the language is called Rapa Nui (as well as in English, I believe). Lovely idea for an article, though!
Ly
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Lise
In Norwegian, we have the verb “gidde”. It is perhaps best understood in its negation: “Not gidde” is the act of not doing something, either out of laziness, or because it isn’t worth the effort. We use the word a lot 😉
Jenn
Is “gidde” the same or approximately the same as “orka” in Swedish, I wonder? That’s one of several great Swedish words that don’t have English equivalents!
E Gwyn
Hiraeth- Welsh
Similar to Saudade- Hiraeth is the emotion one feels when we are longing for something/someone/somewhere. It’s a nostalgic longing.
E Goff
I was wondering if anyone would mention any Welsh! I am English but grew up in Wales. The word “cwtch” (spelling?) was always my favourite – like “cuddle”, as in “let’s have a cwtch” / “cwtching up” to someone, etc.
Monique Simmer
it’s “melancholy” on english
Konradl
The finnish word ‘Sisu’ should also be mentioned. Seeing as it embodies most of the Finnish Spirit in a single word.
Bluntly translated it means strength, but it in meaning it is closer to the strength to persevere through resilience. As in the ability to overcome great hardships and also to withstand that hardship over time.
An example would be that to climb a huge, steep hill that keeps going for miles require great sisu. To keep going if you are lost in the deep finnish forests in the dead of winter, without giving up requires great sisu.
Lihai (mandarin: 厉害) – means something along the lines of “hardcore,” but it can verge into “strict,” or “mean.” Examples of usage:
1. He worked 14 hours a day for 4 months to finish this job, so lihai!
2. His dad beat him because he failed a test, he’s too lihai.
Another variation on the term “hardcore” is the term “niu” “牛” or cow. When you add “cunt” to the end of it then it means “hardcore” in the punk rock sense of the word – i.e. it almost exclusively applies to rock bands or people who get into bar fights… you wouldn’t say it in front of your Chinese grandmother though.
Mono no aware is a Japanese term literally translating to “the awareness of things,” and its means something along the lines of “an awareness of the tragedy of life”
Two Swedish words spring to mind as fitting in this category;
“orkar” which roughly translates as “having the energy/inclination to”. Often used in the negative; e.g.
“lagom” which I have never found a direct, single-word translation for anywhere. The best approximation is “not too much and not too little”, yet it is used in such a way as to mean more than just this clumsy phrase. As it is such a subjective experience, everyone’s “lagom” is a little different, which adds to the beauty of the word.
Shy
Surely number 9, prozvonit, is ‘drop call’???
(This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money.)
Lisa
Gemutelichkeit- a comfortable ambiance, is one attempted translation, but doesn’t quite capture it completely. My friend’s family in Germany had it, and fostered it, especially at Christmastime. Unhurried, cozy, joyful, atmosphere shared with family and friends, enhanced with traditions.
molly
nepalis will translate “alchi” as “lazy”, but in use it turns out to mean lazy/bored/tired/sick of what you’re doing. it’s exactly how you feel in the office at 3:30 on a thursday.
Laura Blumenthal
That is like the Turkish “canım sıkıldı” – often translated as “I’m bored”, but it actually can mean “I’m bored”, “I’m annoyed”, “I’m sad”, or “I’m uncomfortable” (not physically) – literally, it means “my soul is squeezed”.
ronja
I too was looking for the Swedish word “lagom” when reading the list. I’ve read several essays (in Swedish and in English) trying to define the word. It isn’t just “enough” in English. I’ve often thought of it as a personalized “comfortable perfect.” Like your favorite jeans once you break them in fit “lagom.” Or different people have different ideas of what a “lagom” Sunday morning is like. But it can be negative too. It would be deeply insulting to describe your boyfriend as “lagom.” And Swedes sometimes disparagingly refer to their own country as “the land of lagom”
“orkar” is good too.
I like “vemod” too, which is often translated into English as “melancholy” but I’ve heard Swedes get very poetic when trying to describe “vemod.” Some will describe it as a very yin-yang experience, that there is “vemod” in the midsommar celebrations because even though there is happiness and light, in your heart you know that it has reached the peak of brightness and after this it only gets darker. I once saw someone translate it as “a beautiful sadness.”
But one noun I miss particularly from Swedish is “blast,” as in the phrase “ta bort blasten.” This refers to the act of “taking away the leaves from a vegetable.” You can (and do) “shuck corn” in English, but what do you call it when you take the ferny tops off of carrots? or the leafy tops of radishes/beats/turnips? or the leaves around a head of cauliflower? or the plant over the ground that potatoes grow from? All of these parts that are taken away are “blast” in Swedish. Sometimes you are expected to do this at the store, and then a “blast-tunna” is provided (a trash can for “blast”). Many recipes have the phrase “ta bort blasten…”
alangenh
The German word that always led to unsatisfactory translations in English for me is “doch.” You can sort of get there with “of course” or “on the contrary, the answer is yes/positive!”… but not really. I’m curious as to whether other languages have a word like this!
Jenn
Swedish has the word “jo” which translates as “yes” in response to a negative question (ie “Wasn’t it great?) or “on the contrary” (ex: “I didn’t do that.” Response “jo… yes you did.”). A yes in resonse to a positive question (“Is it good?”) in Swedish is “ja.”
Victor LaCerva
Love the whole idea. Loved it so much in fact that I wrote a book called Worldwords: global reflections to awaken the spirit.
Still available directly from me at [email protected]
Written in a daily meditation format….so there are 365 different words!
Some favorites?
Aji: (Japanese) the physical changes in an object that occur over time because of the loving handling by human beings. Brings life to the feelings stored in that old family piece of jewelry.
Ma ta la shol? Myan greeting roughly translated as How is your heart?
Mai pen rai (Thai) Let it go, forget about it, not worth hassling over. good advice for many situations in this crazy modern world.
“Hyggelig” is a much used word also in Norwegian. As well as “koselig”, which is about the same as “cozy”.
Another word is “sus”, which is “the sound of the wind in the trees”.
Luke
I think you need to reword the opening paragraph:
“There are at least 250,000 words in the English language. However, to think that English – or any language – could hold enough expression to convey the entirety of the human experience is as arrogant of an assumption as it is naive.”
In my opinion, it is neither ignorant nor naïve to say that English can “hold enough expression to convey” the human experience. In fact, you prove in this article that the English language can, through the combination of multiple words, convey the same exact meaning of single words in other languages. Thus, you should have said that no single word in English can convey the meaning of certain single words in other languages, which would have been a more accurate statement.
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A reader from the UK
Prozvonit – calling someone once so they can ring you back is called “flashing” in Kenya, if not mainstream English
JimmyGaydos
Nadia
The Japanese equivalent to the Czech word
for calling a phone for just a sec and have the other person call back to save money is
wangiri
🙂 it was popular to do this five yrs ago.. Nowadays people don’t really do it anymore in japan I think… Unless very desperate!
nickdiallo
The French have the expression “du courage”, whose meaning is something like, “take courage” or “take heart”, but which is used in contexts where in English we would usually say, “Good luck”. In French you can also say “Bonne chance!” (literally, “Good luck!”), but “Du courage!” is a much more encouraging alternative that we just don’t really have in English (or at least, if we do have one, we don’t take advantage of it).
are we suppose to adapt them to the english language?
Heather Carreiro
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Daniela
I love how you have putted Cafune on the list!! I am Brazilian, but I just never realized how this word has no translation in the English language. People always talk about saudade….but never cafune! It just comes to show how warm our culture really is…
me
Depaysment=morriña (gallego) y bastante similar a la palabra “saudade”, que también se utiliza en gallego por cierto.
me parece q no tienes ni idea
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lydia
“Enrolado” an extremely common word in Brazil meaning something like “all rolled up”, it can refer to someone who is unreliable, or who is juggling many different things and apt to be late, not do what was promised, etc. etc. It can also be used as a verb. One can become “enrolado” by life or by another person who makes it impossible to do what was promised or expected.
Richard
Estou assim.
Rebecca
My husband and I use an expression that describes “enrolado.” We say that so-and-so will probably be late because he’s all bogged down in his Jell-o. A person cannot move fast or do what was promised because he/she is hindered by all his/her Jell-o.
Gabriela
Enrolar en Puerto Rico es también de la palabra “roll” en inglés, pero se usa para cuando se va a formar un cigarillo de marihuana, o un fili como se conoce aqui :P.
‘Enrolar’ in Puerto Rico comes from the word “roll”, but here it means to roll a joint (as in marihuana cigarette).
Thank you for compiling, explaining, and sharing these rare, beautiful words and concepts into English.
Don’t be surprised if your list makes its way onto many intercultural and multicultural workshops.
Pete
Prozvonit – In the UK, we call this “pranking” someone.
Nick
And in Nigeria it’s called “flashing” someone.
Finn
In Finland it’s called either “pommi” (bomb) or “piikki” (spike). I’m sure there are even more words for it in Finnish. So this one wasn’t so untranslatable after all, was it? 🙂
Halapande
Translation is easy.. it’s the meaning behind that word that is hard to explain.. that it’s not pranking someone.. but it has a meaning of “thinking of you” or “call me back” 🙂
yeah in Vietnamese it also means “flashing” someone
hatya
“Prozvonit” in Turkish is “çaldırmak”. As a word, it would translate to “to ring”; but it is only used when you let the phone ring only once. otherwise you would use the word “aramak” (which means “to call” in this context).
I am familiar with the Nigerian use “to flash someone”, but when talking with Western English speakers, I generally find that they understand “missed call” more readily than “flash”.
Carolyn
In Canada we call that “missed call” as a verb.
eg. “Just missed call me when you get here.”
In Spain we say “hacer una llam-per”, to do a missed call, a “llamada perdida”.
🙂
In Argentina we say “hacer una perdida”, but it’s still not a single word.
Ross Mack
We call it “pranking” pretty commonly in Australia, too.
anais
In French it’s “biper” . “Bipe moi” means “give me missed call”.
liz
we also call it drop calling.
Jo
Hi,
I love this list – nice work. I’d add two German words to i:
– Gemuetlich – a word that has affected me over the years and always has me stumbling when I try to tell people what it means in English. Means something close to cozy or comfortable, but also is deeper than that and hard to translate.
– Strohwitwer (or Strohwitwe) – the person left behind with the ids when a partner goes on a trip
And a plea for help to coin a new term: the feeling one has when one realizes one’s web browser is about to crash and there’s nothing you can do to save whatever important text you were working on.
Cheers,
Grass widow – there are more meaninigs to that – but one of them does correspond.
Mici
Hi, gemuetlich and Strohwitwe(r) you find in Swedish as well – gemytlig and Gräsänka /Gräsänkling. The meanings are exactly the same as in German.
One word in Swedish that is known for being unique is lagom, which means neither too much nor too little and about pretty much everything. It can be “lagom” cool or lagom warm, you can have lagom amount of work.
Jack B
I’ve always enjoyed gemutlich or, better, gemutlichkeit because it tastes so good when you pronounce it well.
Dagmar
Another German word that doesn’t translate really well into English is “anstrengend”. It is used to describe mostly a person who or a situation which is difficult or just wears you out. Difficult just doesn’t completely envelope the meaning that “anstrengend” implies.
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Jiri
By the way, I had mentioned it already – it is not advisable to look for one to one ratio when translating and that most expressions are translatable. There are many reasons for this and one of them is that every word has many meanings and it really depends on any particular context how one would understand and then render the word. And author’s Russian and Czech examples are a very good proof of that (I have absolutely no doubt that the same applies to other languages, but unfortunately, I am limited only to Czech and Russian. And, for instance, “prozvonit” as defined by the author is correct, except that this word could also mean that I would give someone a casual call – “ja te vecer prozvonim” could mean at least two things – I will call you tonight – implying, I am going to take my chances – you might not be at home, but I will try anyway, or there is the meaning the author quoted. And with “toska” and “litost” – give me the context and I promise to find a relatively good English rendition which would fit that given context just fine.
Matt
“Mamihlapinatapai … from the Yaghan language of Tierra del Fuego” meaning “a look shared by two people with each wishing that the other will initiate something that they both desire but which neither one wants to start”.
jay
you translated them pretty well… does English fall short?
Elation
Abysmal
Vinted
all languages are tricky, dont hate on english because you dont see it as art… and to hell with grammar… no one talks like that anyways
Old Fart
Clearly these words are translatable since not only did you provide translations for them, but they’re all things to which we can relate, hence the article. They can simply not be translated by just one word. Ask any translator and they’ll tell you that you never translate word for word anyway.
Hal
Schadenfreude is quite translatable for finns, I believe the Finnish word “vahingonilo” is rather accurate.
Mici
Sleepless In KL
There’s ngilu in Malay, ngilo in Tagalog that refers to the feeling one gets when a nail is scraped across a blackboard or a spoon & fork are rubbed against each other or one who has sensitive teeth drinks a glass of ice cold water.
Chuck
Punatera
Michelle
Schadenfreude “translates” because it exists in English, is commonly used in English, and listed in English dictionaries. If it’s “untranslatable” than every loanword from taco to bungalow is “untranslatable.”
A much better example is the German word “Fremdscham”–the vicarious embarrassment one feels when someone else does something shameful.
sam norton
Fremdscham sounds great to an English ear that doesn’t speak German because it sounds like ‘friend shame’. It’s a nice thing to have a word for actually, as shame is rarely thought of as empathetic.
Lika
I love the word “saudade”. I mean, I don’t like to feel it, but it’s beautiful and sad at the same time.
Oh, and “duende” we have in Portuguese too.
Steve
The reason English has so many words in its lexicon is that it incorporates words from other languages (10,000 or so of English words come from French, for instance).
I suggest the strength of English isn’t the size of its lexicon, but its ability to adopt words from other languages — its flexibility, if you wil — while some French speakers famously resist adoption of English words.
If you give English a few years and these 20 words will be acquired. Schadenfreude already has been.
Heather Carreiro
Thomas
Schadenfreude in Hungarian we have the same exact word Káröröm.
Happyness over someon’s misfortune. We even have a saying, You are the happyest when the cause of your happyness is other’s misfortune. (The best happyness is Schadenfreude.)
Isiik
In Czech it is “škodolibá radost”. “Škodolibost” does literaly mean “to delight in someone’s misery” ..I mean, what a word!
Or as we say in German: Schadenfreude ist die reinste Freude (Schadenfreude is the truest happiness)
Hazel
“Pole” (pronounced po-leh) is a Swahili word that expresses empathy and could sometimes be translated to “sorry”. For example if you tell someone you had a bad day, they would answer pole. Or if you are doing physical work and someone passes by you, they would tell you pole.
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Pernilla
I’m surprised that “lagom” isn’t on the list. It’s a very subjective word which refers to an exact amount according to an individual. The English word ‘adequate’ comes close but still fails to deliver the essence of “lagom”.
Heather Carreiro
Great blog post! I love the words “jayus” and “tartle”. 🙂
“Prozvonit” also exists in Italian: “fare uno squillo”.
dalbaby
I don’t speak German, and don’t remember what the word is, but my German neighbor once told me a word that I think translates to something like “looking inward”… she used it in regard to the look on my toddler’s face when he was “filling his diaper.” Anybody familiar with this?
Lauramaki
You might be looking for the German word “Nachvollziehen”. I’m bilingual myself (Danish/German) and have always been frustrated about the fact that it translates so badly. In English you might translate it to “to comprehend”, but with an added level of empathy, so it’s more like: you can imagine yourself being in that other person’s shoes, thus understanding how he/she feels at that moment.
englishpatient
My favourite french word is : sympathique, or sympa for short.
You would say that somebody is ‘sympa’. It’s like calling somebody thoughtful, selfless, patient, kind-spirited, approachable, caring, all rolled into one word. When you meet somebody who is sympa, hold onto them!
mai
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Paul
I once read of a Brazilian Portuguese word used in coffee harvesting, which translates as ‘making a pile of beans at the end of each row’. However, I can’t for the life of me remember the word but it was very short, no more than three syllables.
ko
In Spanish I can think of a word that I never really know how to translate: hostigoso. While it’s translated as “sickly or cloying food”, it’s not really accurate because it makes it sound bad (which hostigoso necessarily isn’t). It’s something that is sticky and extremely rich, it leaves your mouth somewhat pasty or thick. It generally tastes pretty good, except due to richness, only a bite or two suffice (unless you down loads of water after them).
Words in Chinese are a funny thing too since they tend to combine words to create new ones. For example, ganbei （干杯） means “cheers!” but it breaks down into dry/empty (gan 干) cup (bei 杯) or renao （热闹）means “bustling with noise and excitement” which is warm/hot/heat (re 热) and noisy. Well one of those untranslatable words into a single word in English is yuanfen （缘分）which means “fate or fortune by which people are brought together”. It loosely translates into destiny, but it feels like more than that. 🙂
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Gabriela
In Puerto Rico, a ‘Jayus’ is a ‘chiste mongo’. A direct translation is english would be ‘floppy joke’
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Mark
Another Swedish word I love is “sambo” – literally translated is “same living” but actually means “a lover you live with but are not married to”. The distinction of a special word for an unmarried couple living together is fascinating to me.
While studying Swedish, the “lagom” word was explained to me as “something just right according to that individual”. I always think of “Goldilocks and the Three Bears” in reference to things like soup temperature and the softness of beds – lagom is always a different thing for each person.
malpa
Ilunga
Tshiluba (Southwest Congo) – (…) the stature of a person “who is ready to forgive and forget any first abuse, tolerate it the second time, but never forgive nor tolerate on the third offense.”
My proposal for this in English : “Even Bouddha slaps the mosquito that comes close for the third time”
Excuse my poor English. It is a personal rendition from Japanese.
I don’t know a proper equivalent of the Tamil word “Saandraanmai” (சான்றாண்மை). Though it is generally described as “being good”.
Eva
Schadenfreude translates exactly to the Hungarian “karorom”. A hard concept to explain in English other than taking joy in another’s misfortune.
Saudade is very easily translated into English. To ‘miss’ something or someone!!
Of course, it sounds much sexier in Portuguese. 😉
Bruce
This is fun, but why are these “untranslatable” when you actually give their translations?
Anyway, here is a cool list of words from the Lule Saami language spoken in Norway and Sweden:
bahtuha – the remaining potatoes that did not sprout roots, were collected and boiled.
bálggo – the hottest part of summer when annoying insects force the reindeer to search for cooler places higher up in the mountains.
sjtassjkit – to trample on wet snow in such a way as to leave a trail behind you.
nuvár – ankle-deep loose snow that has fallen on snow that has been trampled hard.
halkadit – to howl long and monotone howls (about a dog that is tied up).
luogñel- something that easily creeps through a little hole.
ráddat – to become ice cold (about water in the autumn).
ruhtsuhit – to eat without waiting to be served.
And my personal favorite:
hadjat – to yell and scream (about mothers when they cannot take their children’s nagging any more).
martin
litost (lítost, or ľútosť in slovak) = sorrow. That’s it.
graeme dorrans
A. Keating
my favorite “untranslatable” word is the french “se débrouiller,” which means to manage, or to come up with a solution, or, as I think to myself, to *macguyver* a problem!
the hardest english words to translate or even define in english for me have always been “cheesy” or “corny.” impossible to do without using the other!
Elisa
“Prozvonit” has an Italian equivalent that I really love: “squillo.” While studying here, I’ve used it as a verb, but for Italians the phrase is “fare uno squillo.”
Kat
I also like the Swedish word “duktig” – it describes a person who is busy, hard working, productive, positive, capable…
Also, in my experience, there are lots of untranslatable words that describe grants and positions in small and medium level bureaucracies, organizations and government forms, especially in the grants and programs that they run. But they aren’t as interesting as these common words.
There’s this expression in Swiss German, “Röschtigrabe”, which stands for an imaginary (cultural) border between the Swiss German and French speaking population of Switzerland.
Literally translated, it means “hashbrown/potato gap”.
In Germany we have the Weisswurstäquator between the southern part that does eat Weisswurst and the northern part of the country that doesn’t.
Thundergod
Great selection of words! We should start a collection!
At least one German and two Bengali words should be added to this list.
The German: “Steigerung”, meaning an increase in intensity, a powerful one-word expression sadly missed in the English language.
And Bengali: “obhiman”, meaning hurt pride or, more accurately, an expectation of getting hurt by someone who should know better than to hurt you.
Another lovely Bengali example is ‘turi”, defined as the sound made by grazing the middle finger and the thumb against each other.
For those who know Bengali, the spelling of “turi” is with dontyo t and Doye shunyo r.
Nynke
I use Steigerung in Dutch to describe a training-exercise in which you slowly increase your speed (running, skating).
Wonderful article!!!!
senski
“Prozvonit” in Bulgarian is “clip” or “click”. (When joking, it could be called also “Jewish SMS”, no pun intended.)
Gezellig: A dutch untranslatable word that stands for having a good time with friends or familie. A room can also be gezellig. It can sometimes be translated with cozy but it is not the same.
yosaka
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Beatrice
Oh God! I love German, and I love English too!! It’s amazing what you can do with word formation and composition. When I was in Germany, I heard, read and even used words that couldn’t be found in a dictionary…one of them, which I don’t remember unfortunately, could be translated with the erected position of a certain bird, accompained by a whistle. I heard incredible words in English too. One I love is the insult “cunt-sucker”…which somehow means they are calling you a “cunt” too, since that is the first thing you hear. English and Germans are not aware of how funny and interesting their language can be! You cannot combine words this freely in Italy!!!!!
Dominic
Here in the Philippines, we have a cuss word, “gago” which has no definite English meaning. Depending upon the usage, it can be defined as idiot, dumbass or asshole. It is what we call “salitang kanto” or street talk. Generally, it is a term for a person who has done something stupid.
We also have a saying, “bato, bato sa langit, ang matamaan huwag magagalit” which translates directly into: “throw a stone into the sky and whoever gets hit with it shouldn’t get mad”. This is said when you say something (esp. advice) which could be offensive or controversial-it is trying to say that you aren’t trying to offend anyone, you are simply trying to express your opinion.
Joe
Pretty sure the definite English translation would be idiot. Easy enough. Doesn’t seem special at all to me. In fact English has practically thousands of words
(many of them street slang as yours is) that would fit that…
Imbecile
Take your pick.
Joe
Also, your phrase is ridiculous. Of course you should get mad at anyone who throws up a stone that hits you. He shouldn’t have thrown the stone up, as it could hurt someone and did. I’m surprised your people couldn’t think of a more suitable situation to compare with people getting offended by someone stating their opinions.
Emma
“L’esprit de l’escalier”, a french phrase roughly translates to “staircase wit”, is the act of thinking of a clever and witty comeback only after it is too late to deliver it
hatya
a Turkish word (with Islamic roots) that I can never explain to my foreign friends: “helalleşmek” (ş is read as sh).
this is a word used when two people are parting ways and they don’t expect to see each other ever again/for a long while. you ask the other person to make “helal” all his/her deeds/rights to you.
It is derived from the word “helal” which is Arabic; it can translate to lawful, legitimate, in accordance with religious laws, etc.
like I said, it has religious roots. It means that religiously, you ask the other person to absolve you from every bad deed/debt in case you never see each other again.
Is there anyway to explain this in English in less than 450 words?? 😀
Heather Carreiro
A Romanian
Regarding the last word in the post, Saudade, there is an equivalent in Romanian -> Dor.
They used to tell us in school that this word (Dor) has no equivalent in any other language.
Well, apparently there is one in the Portueguese language 🙂
No wonder the two languages are sister languages, both from the Latin tree.
Very nice site.
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Joe
These words and the concepts behind them are all known and very familiar to me, an english speaker. Just because there’s no single word doesn’t mean that a few strung together don’t mean the same thing and are just as special. They’re all very easily translatable and understood with a few (and sometimes even one!) word. Might I add that some of them are not words, but phrases?
Ex. L’appel du vide: The call of the void (there you go! you translated it, and directly! How is that untranslatable? L’appel du vide, the feeling of wanting to jump from a high place can be used the same in English as “the call of the void”. Makes sense. Is translatable. I do believe I’ve grasped the “essence”) :O
A most beautiful Arabic word is Nasihah or Naseeha.
It is commonly translated to mean ‘sincere advice, to counsel’ etc.
but the deeper meaning which is gorgeous means:
“Contemplation is broken with wisdom to articulate the truth”
I love this word. Its meaning is slightly similar to the French name Monique. (my own name), meaning advisor/counsellor. I am a Psychologist, so this is very apt. 🙂
Mau
“Saudade” in italian is “Nostalgia” 😀 (first element of the list)
Juliana
saudade and nostalgia are not the same, completely different.
sonicgirl
actually there is a correspondent for “saudade” in Romanian and that is “dor”, it’s got the exact meaning 🙂
Sam
“I miss you so much” = I feel “saudade” of you
or i’m with so much “saudade”
Nostalgia is just about saudade of some time period.
“dor” = pain
I think the verb “to miss” is more close to express the noun “saudade”, but just in part. miss someone far away, a broken relashionship, an old home, or who passed away, feel nostalgic about some time period, etc. It is feel “saudade” of this things.
Miss I.
Wait a minute…the word “dor” does not only mean pain. Actually, very few people use it to express pain nowadays, even if they are considered to be synonyms. It can also be used to express one’s wish, nostalgie and it can also be a sort of “to long”.
e.g. “Mi-e dor de tine!” = “I miss you!”.
“Mai am un singur dor” = “I have only one wish left.” (this is from a poem of Mihai Eminescu)
“Mi-e dor să te am aproape” = “I long to have you close to me.”
So actually it can be a sort of “saudade” in some ways. What I wanted to make clear is “pain” is not the main meaning, nor the most used 🙂
Cheers!
januce
there is an untranslateable word in turkish spelled “can” pronounced like “john” in english…
“can” is the thing that keeps a living thing alive and certainly non-livings do not have it…but it can not be translated as life…because life is “hayat” in turkish…
“can” is simply the thing that separates livings from non-livings but it is not the spirit as well….because spirit is “ruh” in turkish…
i wonder if teher is a a word equivalent to “can” in any other language 😀
hossein jaan
Yes the word “Jaan”comes from Persian. Persian poetry has many exmples of it. Long live ataturk
ml
actually jaan can be translated as life from persian just as hayat and zendegi
Kenji
This has been borrowed into Albanian as “xhan” (same pronunciation as the Turkish, Albanian xh being like an English j), where it means dear, precious, beloved, as in “Të kam xhan” (“You are dear to me”, or more literally “I have you dear”).
Andrea
I really enjoyed this post. I find words and expressions in other languages best approached as poetry. I have been experimenting with on line translators to turn Spanish into English. I am relieved to realize that I understood the phrase and sentence perfectly without translating word for word as a poem. The literal translation is nonsense.
So these 20 words are awesome in their richness which a dictionary cannot touch.
Thanks so much.
P.S. I always wondered what the oft used phrase “Saudade” meant.
Erik
-‘Gezelligheid’- (Dutch) is not translatable in English. It means ‘cozy’ and/or warm feelings among family or friends. Danish ‘Hyggelig’ is most comparable to ‘Gezelligheid’ or ‘Gezellig’
chrisis
The Danish “hyggelig” sounds like it’s the same as the German “heimelig” (with all its many meanings). Or even gemütlich, I don’t think the word gemütlich with all its meanings exists in the English language.
And for the Czech “Prozvonit” I would use the word “anläuten [lassen]” in German, means pretty much the same
spicemaan
Prozvonit has a Japanese counterpart:
“wangiri”
“wan” is the Japanese pronunciation for the English word “one” and
“giri” means to cut, clash, cancel etc.. (as the “kiri” in harakiri)
srJones
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Sophia
In Afrikaans (South African derivative of Dutch) we use the informal word “lekker” all the time to describe something pleasureable, pleasant, tasty or extra, yet it’s not as formal and polite as any English equivalent and has a more sunny feel to it than “nice” or “well”. It could be used as adjective, adverb or exclamation… it would best translate into revelling in something (even in someone’s misfortune!). It’s also used for the word “sweet”, as in confectionary. What does that say about us?
Cosmic Jay
We actually have the almost the same word in swedish, “Läcker” or “Läckert”, which can be used on everything from good food to beautiful girls!
Very interesting..
Ask
That’s a great word, Sophia.
In Danish, we have the word “lækker”, which can be used in the exact same way as you describe.
In German, you also have the word “lecker” but I think that is used more narrowly.
In a Danish context, when you want to “hygge”, you will often eat a “lækker” dinner. You can also meet “lækre” women or men, when you go out:-)
EKJ
We have a word in swedish which is Lacker (The A here is an A with two dots, here pronounced like the EA in BEAR.), which refers to a person who is really hot in a tasty way 🙂
Fr34k
My favourite untranslatable word in german is “ach so”, it could be translated with “Now I know what you mean” or “I understand” or “something’s now clear and before I didn’t understand it quite right”. I also like “egal” very much but it’s best translatable with “doesn’t matter” although “egal” is sometimes more or less than “doesn’t matter”. I really do love the scottish word tartle in your list, this always happens to me!
I think we have those concepts in Mandarin too; “ach so” and “egal” could be translated as 原来如此 ( http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%9D%A5%E5%A6%82%E6%AD%A4 ) and 无所谓 ( http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E6%89%80%E8%B0%93 ) respectively.
kk
Ah, no. “Eureka” is used when one happens upon a sudden discovery. It’s much too strong for “ach so”.
Kenji
How about “Ohhhh, okay”? Maybe a little quotidian, but it sounds to me like it means the same thing.
Leila Jisr Moussa
MABROUK is a fabulous Arabic word. It is a warm, kind, generous word. We use it each time someone gets something new. It means “may you were it/use it/ with joy and luck, may you be blessed with it”. Mabrouk is much more than congratulations, as it involves spirituality and GOD and genuinely means that we are happy for the other person.
Heather Carreiro
I love the word “mabrouk!” It’s used in Urdu as well, although pronounced as “mubarak” and used with the Urdu verb “to be” since you can’t drop the verb in Urdu.
Kenji
There’s an expression with the same meaning and use in Albanian: “E gëzofsh”, literally “May you enjoy it”. It’s a normal thing to say when somebody acquires a new possession.
Karl
9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money. In Spanish, the phrase for this is “Dar un toque,” or, “To give a touch.” (Altalang.com)
I wouldn’t say #9 is not in English. Brits say something along the lines of “prank” but I think there are other words as well. Anyway, when you prank someone you call them long enough to produce a signal for them to call you back. Sometimes it’s just used as a signal that you have reached somewhere but you save costs having no phone time talking.
Ann
The word ‘jayus’, by that definition can also be the same as ‘garing’, which can mean both crispy and corny.
Really, jayus is our way of saying that a joke is corny. Even though yes, I think ‘jayus’ means something more than corny.
Oh, the joy of one’s country being mentioned <3
Nina
There IS a German equivalent for no. 9 at least:
anklingeln (there’s even a (German) Wiki entry for that, so it cannot be an uncommon word)
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Julia
In German, Hyggelig also exists, only it’s called “Gemütlichkeit.” It’s like a feeling of peace, acceptance and coziness… I like to think of it as reading your favorite book, sitting in the sunshine on a dock, dipping your feet into the water.
PS. I adore #2!
My favorite Italian word is “magari” – the closest equivalent in English is ‘if only’ – but it really doesn’t capture the same sentiment. That being said, I LOVE this list!
Ty Kendall
I think you will find this comes from Greek:
From Greek μακάρι (makári)
It means “if only/i wish” in Greek too.
Deana
Ah, magari:)
Magari is a word that expreses way more feelings than ‘if only’ does. Magari includes hope and sadness, anxiety and happiness, nostalgia… It really one of the most beautiful words in italian.
Magari… and my heart tingls a bit
jack
In Canadian English we say, “Eh”, pronounced as a question “Ay?” and not one of us has even the slightest idea what it means 🙂
Midare
The ‘eh’ has a lot of parallels in other languages though, I hear it used a lot. Japanese comes to mind with their ‘ne’ to imply a questioning or emphasis tot he end of a sentance. Sounds a lot like our Canadian ‘eh’, eh?
Ed
I’m British (with a fetish for learning the word for ‘toothpick’ in every country I visit.)
One of my favourite non-translatables is the French ‘mots d’escalier’.
It describes those witty responses you only think of when it’s far too late for them to be of any use. Like when you’re climbing the stairs to bed, I suppose.
Jo
I’m danish, living in Japan and I would agree that “hyggelig” can’t be translated into other languages. When I was growing up my mom would always say that now we were going to have it “hyggeligt”. Its all sorts of things, and it just can’t be described. I don’t like using it in English because it’s just not the same.
Another word I think can’t be translated, is the Japanese word “ganbaru” or “ganbarimasu”. It’s a verb that is used quite frequently and I think its sums up the Japanese so beautifully. I would translate it to “work hard, do your best, have fighting spirit!”. I use it when I’m facing something hard and tidious, and you can say it to others when they are in a similar situation.
Tomas
Not to mention it means “Good luck” and “break a leg” or that’s what other languages uses.
Luddepop
The Russian word Toska is similar to the German Sehnsucht and the Portuguese saudade, both of which are used in the English language. I’ll remember it though.
an
In the UK we call #9 “Drop Calling” someone
Nordmann
“Hyggelig” in english is basically “cozy” or “nice”. Nothing more than that.
The connotations of words are purely open to perspective and not some undefinable translation.
Anthony Doherty
How wonderful to see such a wire-spread appreciation for the subtleties of language. Just a guess, but I’ll bet that there are some Yiddish words that would require a paragraph or two to explain. A friend of mine once tried to educate me on the subtle differences between nebbish, nudnik, schlemiel, putz, and shmuck (and I may be omitting one or two), and the best I could do was rate them in terms of intensity. As I recall, all of my friend’s examples were illustrated by spilling a drink on someone else at a cocktail party, which may have resulted from innate klutziness, clumsiness (not quite the same thing), irritation, schadenfreude (see?), or misanthropy in various subtle combinations and permutations.
Heather Carreiro
Oh I’m sure! One of the books I checked out for this article is “Joys of Yiddish” by Leo Rosten. Really interesting stuff.
Ruben Nielsen
hey, i’m sorry to tell you that we have Shadenfreude in danish too. it’s skadefryd.
Hans
Silvius Brabo
9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money. In Spanish, the phrase for this is “Dar un toque,” or, “To give a touch.”
In portuguese we use the word “toque” for this, very similar to spanish tho…
Eric Roth
Your delightful and expanding list of cool phrases from other tongues has inspired me. So I did a little more research, and purchase a 1988 book called “They Have a Word for It: A Lighthearted Lexicon of Untranslatable Words and Phrases” by Howard Rheingold… before he became a famous media critic.
Heather Carreiro
Yes! This was one of the books I checked out for our second article on untranslatable words: 20 More Awesomely Untranslatable Words .
Zakki
I’am an Indonesian.
as far as i know about “JAYUS” word, it’s begin from someone named “jayus”, he was known as a people who always trying to make a joke but his joke always not funny and not make people laugh.
from there, if someone trying for joking but it’s not funny, their called like jayus. yup their joke is jayus (not funny and can’t make the others laugh),,
sorry if my english so bad i just a kid who try help the world to answer it.
Martin
I’m a Dutchie, and I can say that hyggelic can be translated as “heugelijk”, gemütlich as “gemoedelijk”, and gezellig as, well, gezellig, since it’s a Dutch word; they all have different meanings/connotations in Dutch. I’m guessing some of these words stuck better in certain regions, where others were forgotten.
“Schadenfreude” also sounds remarkably similar to our concept of “leedvermaak”, but perhaps I’m not well versed enough in German to draw that comparison.
Just a brainfart btw, but concerning the etymology of the word “gezellig”, I think the main root of the word is “gezel” or “zel”, from dutch “gezelschap” and German “geselschaft” (sorry if my spelling is off), which means “company”. Perhaps it’s possible to describe “gezellig” as “that feeling of comfort and cosiness generally associated with intimate company”, or something similar. It would make sense, since I don’t think I’ve ever heard someone say how “gezellig” something was when they were all alone having a good time.
Hi, my name is Armand and I host a music podcast called Post-Rock Paper Scissors. This article inspired me to start a 20-part series where we to attempt to sonically translate each word into podcast form.
Here is the first episode of our Untranslatable series: http://www.mixcloud.com/babarm87/episode-52-saudade/
If you enjoy the show, please visit http://postrockpaperscissors.com/ for more info.
Thanks,
Armand, what a cool idea! Thanks for sharing.
Deana
In Croatian we say: POZVONIT. I suppose the pronaunciation is very similar to the Chezch one (prozvonit) and the meaning is exactly the same. We use it all the time.
One hell of an article!
cheerio
sam
I’m guessing this has already been mentioned but there is an English word for “Prozvonit”, it’s ‘prank’ or ‘prankie’. I don’t think it’s officially been recognised yet but then I’m guessing Prozvonit hasn’t either since mobiles haven’t been around that long.
lizzard
“Prank” in US English is not equivalent to prozvonit. A prank caller does not usually wish to be found out, his intention is only to annoy and harass. With prozvonit, however, there is an understood etiquette attached, and the called one knows that he’s expected to return the call – whether or not that may be an annoyance to him.
I don’t know about the US, but in Australia “to prank someone” is equivalent to prozvonit. It means to leave a missed call on someone’s mobile to notify them that you want them to call you.
Kyle
i find it funny that that it states in the beginning that it states “However, to think that English – or any language – could hold enough expression to convey the entirety of the human experience is as arrogant of an assumption as it is naive.” Then it goes on to describe the definition of “untranslatable” words…. ah the irony 🙂
morgondag
Although the explanation of the word is correct, however it does not clearly explain its usage.
18. Ya’aburnee
Arabic – Both morbid and beautiful at once, this incantatory word means “You bury me,” a declaration of one’s hope that they’ll die before another person because of how difficult it would be to live without them.
Ya’aburnee is primarily used by mothers while talking to or about her child. Since language translates feelings & traditions within a culture. Hence, it is not a matter of “how difficult it would be to live without them” but rather it is the utmost tragedy for the survivor.
The Arabic language goes one step further to give a name to a mother that lost a child i.e. “Thaqla”. The same way the there are words as widow or orphan. The thaqla is the word that is used to refer to the grieved mother that lost her child (no matter how old the son or daughter at the time of death). So, this is why mothers use the word Ya’aburnee.
Heather Carreiro
I am actuary, for most people, I am a numbers man. However, I have deep interest in languages, in particular the Arabic language. I was intrigued with this blog, thank you Jason for the initiative and continuous work.
I hope I will have the chance to contribute the other related posts:
20 More Awesomely Untranslatable Words From Around the World
Why Hindi-Urdu is One Language and Arabic is Several
10 Blogs for Language Lovers
Hugo Vázquez
This is totally fake. Duende does not means that in Spanish, I would know, I’m a native speaker.
David
True, “Duende” is not what it says here, sad because there are many words in Spanish that could do well in the list.
In Spanish it looks like the author was “vacilado”, which means that made to believe as true some obvious bullshit so everybody can laugh at his/her expense.
🙂
richard
I’d like to nominate “awesome” as an untranslatable word used to indicate the state of being good without actually being awesome.
Karlo David
Don’t mean to be a kill joy here, but I’d like to clarify “untranslatable” there. You see, in Structuralist semiotics, a “word,” which is a symbol, is composed of a “signifier” (the word’s evident part, i.e. letters, sound etc.) and a “signified” (the “concept” behind it, i.e. it’s definition). So to say that “schadenfreude” is an “untranslatable” word would be incorrect, since translation involves reassigning the signified with a different signifier. By giving us the definition of “pleasure derived from seeing other people’s misfortune,” the word is thereby translated to English, already. Perhaps the best description for these fascinating words would be “most unique,” in that there is a “lexical gap”: they have no “equivalent” words in other languages.
Be that as it may (pardon the structuralists, they’re notorious for “killing” truth in Literature), this is a fascinating list of words. Mamihlapinatapei is a mouthful, but it’s worth the effort! Just to follow the other comments, I’d like to mention my own. In Tagalog, there’s an expression “bahala na,” whose closest equivalent would be “come what may,” but whose literal meaning is difficult to determine even in Tagalog (the phrase in Tagalog would be “Darating ang darating”). It could be appended with an actor (“bahala na si (actor)”) to roughly mean “let (actor) worry over it,” but that isn’t the exact translation either. What’s beautiful about this expression though is how, in lacking that actor, it captures the passivity it tries to convey. Of course, any expert in Tagalog is welcome to answer to this.
Oh, and there’s the Japanese morpheme “-ne,” which may mean “isn’t it?” (complete with rhetorical meaning, “sou desune” would mean “isn’t that so?”) But the way the Japanese use it so liberally is unique to the language, showing just how much the culture puts value on harmony.
linguist
No word is untranslatable, but many do not have single-word-equivalents in other languages. This is an interesting list. A certain derogatory term for black people in America (Nigg@#) is such taboo that a non-black person saying it, especially to a black person, would most likely be physically injured, and justifiably so (in many peoples eyes). I do not know of any word that holds so much power in other languages, and it is always very hard explaining the severity of this word to people who are not from the united states. Does anyone know of any other words like this?
Alex
Hege
This is one of the themes I spend a lot of time pondering on. To add to your list, I’ll link to my blog-post from last year about words that don’t translate, or that I’m only able to use in one of the languages I use.
http://hegelincanada.wordpress.com/2010/08/09/living-with-untranslatables/
Heather Carreiro
Thanks for sharing! I like when you say, “Translating may always be a betrayal of experience and betrayal of the original words but, by God, living in this field of linguistic tension makes me feel alive.” Language is fascinating.
Michael
The Finnish word Sisu is widely acknowledged as having no counterpart in other languages.
Loosely translated into English as strength of will, determination, perseverance, and acting rationally in the face of adversity.
Duende in Spanish means gnome. Nothing else.
elena
One of my favorite “untranslatables” is a Hebrew word “davka” – could mean the opposite of what is expected. Any suggestions?
Angelique
English is my first language, but I have been speaking fluent Mexican Spanish since I was a kid, so I understand exactly what you’re talking about when you say the literal translation doesn’t quite cut it. Specific words and phrases don’t come to mind off the top of my head, but I’ve had the experience of trying to relay a funny conversation is Spanish to someone in English, and all the humor is lost in translation. I’ve watched movies like Los Amores Perros and Nicotina, scoffing at the inadequate subtitles while laughing my ass off.
Jordan
L’appel du vide
Wouldn’t that be an idiom rather than a word? Thats cheating considering that idioms by definition can not be directly translated.
KateG
Hey everyone,
How about the very Japanese concept of ‘umami’ now being adopted by every chef with a tv deal? It describes the fifth sense of taste, and makes utter sense to me in Japanese, but barely any when I attempt to translate into English, French or Italian.
Much fun – causing endless debate!
San Juan
9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money. In Spanish, the phrase for this is “Dar un toque,” or, “To give a touch.” (Altalang.com)
In Filipino, this means “miscol”.Yes it derives from “missed call”, but the additional element of having to call back is also in play. Although sometimes, the meaning is arbitrarily determined by the two persons who will use the “miscol”. It can even mean “I love you”. LOL
Rommel de Jesus
And then, there is the Tagalog word, “ano,” which can just mean anything at all.
RJR
My favorites have always been Weltschmertz (german) or Ennui (french). Both meaning some kind of world-weariness or that physical reality will never satisfy demands of the mind or imagination. Literally meaning “boredom” but I always feel that it means more than that when used in context.
rntvgz
кеф [kef- bulgaria] also кайф [kaif- russia] and no doubt many other slavic countries
a state of pleasure, variously described as dreamy, high, fun on various websites, but best described to me by a Bulgarian as all the types of earthy, sensual pleasures such as those experienced through the sense of taste, through sex, through drugs, through touch. Some examples would be the pleasures of good coffee, chocolate, a sauna or spa, orgasm, massage, etc
I can’t do Cyrillic, so my reply to “kif” is that I seem to remember hearing it used in Iranian/Persian, Arabic and/or other Near Eastern languages to mean essentially the same. Am I wrong?
rntvgz
Probably right. The person who told me about this word said that it had come to the Bulgarian language via the Turkish, who invaded Bulgaria and ran the country from the 14th century to the 19th, and many of whose words have been assimilated into their ancient Slaviclanguage. But the existence of such a close analogue in Russia might imply what others believe; that much older migrations right across Asia might have spread this word. Although perhaps it has acquired different senses in the different places to which it has spread. It might no longer mean the same thing it once meant where it originated. Bulgarians perceive themselves as less accomplished than Turks in the culture and skills of hedonism to which for them the word ‘kef’ belongs, and so it may have a specialised meaning there as distinct from other places.
Kenji
A cognate of this word also exists in Albanian: qejf, with more or less the same meaning, although maybe a little weaker. It means pleasure, gladness, as in the expression “Më bëhet qejfi” (I’m glad, lit. “The pleasure becomes to me”).
Haitham
Kaela
After finishing reading “The Alchemist” by Paulo Coelho, they use the word “maktub”… apparently you could only appreciate the work if you are Arab, but it translates to something like “it is written.” referring to the word of God, and the Koran. I thought it was beautiful, and felt somewhat to the extent of “everything happens for a reason.” and allowed the main character to trust in himself and follow his dream.
Peter
“maktub” simply means “written”. The word itself is just like any other word, there is no magic in it. Especially for Arab people who can use it in normal daily conversation about school, offices etc. It is only your brain that makes it sound magic saying “there is no spoon” 😉
Haitham
This word also means ordained. Meaning that something has been written/destined by God along time ago.
Daniel
“Saudade”, more less equivalent to “I miss you”, like the auhor said it’s this feeling for someone or something that you really miss or lost – like some love or someone, some remembrance (childhood for example), etc.
In Cuban Spanish, duende is a long unused (one only reads it in books) word meaning a ghost.
Andrés
As always, people translating incorrectly. Duende is elf, And no it is not long unused, not in Latin América or anywhere else.
chi
In the Philippines which was colonized by the Spanish, duende is known as duwende which means elf 🙂
Matt Davies
According to the Spanish poet, García Lorca, duende is: “un poder y no un obrar, es un luchar y no un pensar. Yo he oído decir a un viejo maestro guitarrista: «El duende no está en la garganta; el duende sube por dentro desde la planta de los pies». Es decir, no es cuestión de facultad, sino de verdadero estilo vivo; es decir, de sangre; es decir, de viejísima cultura, de creación en acto.”
Rough translation:
Duende is “a power, not a piece of work, a struggle and not a thought. I have heard an old master guitarrist say: “Duende is not in the throat; duende comes from the soels of your feet.” That’s to say, it’s not a question of faculty but a true, living style; that’s to say, from blood; that’s to say, from an ancient culture, from creation as it happens.”
Sof
Duende means “Espíritu fantástico del que se dice que habita en algunas casas y que travesea, causando en ellas trastorno y estruendo. Aparece con figura de viejo o de niño en las narraciones tradicionales..” –> Fantastical spirit which is said to be living in some houses creating mess and noises. It manifests as an old man or a child
in the traditional narratives.
From the Real Academia Española online dictionary.
Ryan
I LOVE number 2, 5, and 15.
#10, however has an African English equivalent. It’s called “flashing.” You flash a friend so that they call you back. In the US, we just don’t have a word for it, because our cell plans are set up that both people pay for the call, rather than just the caller (unlike a lot of the rest of the world).
kilgore
The term for calling someone then hanging up so you call back has a direct English equivalent. At least in the UK it does, its called “drop-calling”.
Kevin Brayne
I’ve not heard of that phrase personally (I’m from Liverpool, UK), here we call it ‘one-belling’ somebody, meaning just wait for one dial tone to know it’s registered as a call, and then hang up without cost and their missed call to return.
One word I’ve noticed another language has similarities but nothing quite the same is ‘Jouissance’.
Ujjal
In India, it is called “giving a missed call”. Sometimes one gives a “missed call” to let the person being called know that everything is fine (he has reached safely or whatever) without spending on the call and not expecting the call to be returned. On other occasions it is a request to call back.
Matt
Seconded!
nagato04
In Croatian we have equivalent for the Czech word ‘pozvonit’ – it’s ‘cimnuti’. But it’s used only in informal speech, and it also has some other meanings.
Gurrier
“Ladhar”, pronounced “lyre”, is an Irish word meaning the piece of land in the fork of a road, or where two rivers meet. It also means the space between two fingers or toes, the bit of webbing there.
Eyy, Hyggelig is a Norwegian word too n_n
Lars
It’s a Dutch word too: Gezellig. Means the same thing 😀
ritchie
‘egal’ in German means ‘indifferent’, but it’s most often used by itself in everyday speech as shorthand for ‘I’m happy either way’. while it’s ‘translatable’, it’s used very commonly and is a very useful & efficient linguistic tool. in a heated moment, it can be used with intonation to very effectively say ‘I really don’t give a ….’.
also, I wish we had an English equivalent to ‘gemütlich’, an adjective used to describe the intimacy, comfort, sense of goodwill or even ‘warm fuzziness’ of a situation, physical space, gathering of people, dinner party etc- even a marketplace can be gemütlich. we really don’t have a word that captures that sense as well as ours.
Lars
Again: It literally translate in to Dutch: ‘Gezelligheid’ (also in Norwegian and Danish)
Miriam
Here in South Africa we have a word: Ubunto. It relates to the concept of “I am, because we are.” The feeling of interdependence, of shared destiny.
I am Portuguese and I’m so happy that you included Saudades! Also, in Dutch, Hyggelig, is Gezellig, which roughly translates as “Cozy” or a nice warm, wonderful with friends and family, experience. (my husband is dutch)
Prozvonit-
In Spanish the verb “tocar” means not only to touch, but also to play music.
“Dar un toque” in this case literally means to give a ring (as in phone ring)
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Francisco Galecio
there’s one, I use a lot: “ojalá”. It is translated literally as “hopefully” but there’s much more into it… It’s the desire of something to happen, given that an invincible force wanted to. (the word comes from the arabic “if God wanted to” It is not a noun, not an adjective, it’s just an interjection. ojalá I made the true meaning of the word be understood!
Meggan
i feel like “insh’allah” does this as well — it can run the gamut from “we’ll see” (as in “i think not but i dont want to say so”) to “hopefully” to “dear god please help me make this happen” — it applies so often, unfortunately i know hardly anyone back in the usa who gets it.
Matt Davies
I think ojalá derives from insh’allah.
For a great musical use of the word ojalá, listen to the Cuban Silvio Rodríguez song of the same title ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u80ocuvZxmY )
mahasti
My favourite is ‘oeillades’, a French word that can be translated as ‘winks’ or ‘flirty glances’ but is better defined as ‘the secret looks exchanged by lovers’.
Henning
The direct translation of “schadenfreude” into norwegian is “skadefryd”, a widely used term that means exactly the same.
RaLT
In Lithuanian there is “piktdžiuga” (`pik-joo-gha) which means the same as well. It ‘decodes’ as spite/viciousness + cheeriness/rejoicing. For English meaning i would constructruct it as ~”malejoy”, not sure you’de be actually able to use it though.
Nynke
In Dutch we use ‘leedvermaak’. My mothertongue is Frisian (from the North of the Netherlands). I recently stumbled upon ‘waldzje’ (long a in that and sort of skip the l when you say it). It is the way you walk in a pair of oversized rubber boots.
Helen
The direct translation of the Turkish word “kara sevda” is “black love” – it means being lovesick but I think it´s beautiful and there is a different perspective to it… 🙂
Dave T
Welsh “hiraeth” – it can mean longing, homesickness, nostalgia, wistfulness – often a sort of unfocussed desire or feeling that something is lost or missing. Also has a beautiful sound, like most Welsh words.
alexandra
Weltschmerz doesn’t have a t. yes, I like that word, too. it is also used a bit ironically, someone suffering from “weltschmerz, it’s, oh, so deep…There’s also Zeitgeist, which the English seem to ahve pinched from the Germans. the spirit of the Age we live in.Something like that. I don’t think it exists elsewhere, except, as I say, they have pinched it. But that’s it, language wanders, isn’t it.
So I’m kind of thinking…untranslatable…into what ?
Sasha
You should check the word Mamihlapinatapai. It refers, in a dialect from Argentinian Patagonia, to “a look shared by two people, each wishing that the other would initiate something that they both desire but which neither wants to [initiate].”
Don´t know why they needed to create that word. But it’s quite something.
Duende is translated as leprechaun in english… stupid
Gabriel
I really enjoy untranslatable words and have seen many lists of them but what I liked in particularly about this list is your comparison about understanding the words and eating a good steak. I like it because I couldn’t before understand why I enjoyed the lists so much and now I do.
Barbara
So glad to see the word saudade. I had planned to suggest it if it weren´t included.
My favorite untranslatable has to be from the Spanish poet Unamuno. “El hombre se es”.
Translators, a word: buena suerte.
Here’s one, from Iñupiaq (a fading dialect of Inuit):
Qarrtsiluni
“Sitting together in the darkness, waiting for something to burst.”
I regret I can’t cite a source for this.
Beth
Schadenfreude has an equivalent in Danish = Skadefro! Exact same meaning!
Erik
I went back some pages and didn’t see these:
Mono no Aware – “The bittersweet-ness of things” Where as Aware is often translated as, ‘pathos,’ but has a much more darker feel to it.
Mottainai – “The Regret of Waste” A phrase, just simply implying the regret of spending your efforts just to see them go to waste, roughly equivalent to, “Pearls before swine.”
Mushin – “No mind” i.e. ” a mind not fixed or occupied by thought or emotion and thus open to everything.”
Selah – “Stop and Listen,” is a hebrew phrase used a lot to simply mean to think about one’s actions and what’s around them.
Ñaupa – “Ancient,” [Spanish from Quechua] but that doesn’t do it justice, it has a very specific feel to it, a very, ‘pan’s labyrinth’ feel to it. Almost as in the intrinsic beauty and oldness of nature. (Used almost exclusively in the phrase, ‘del año de ñaupa.’
Many will disagree but I really think, ‘habib’ from Arabic fits in here, because it details, from what I’ve been told, a very specific type of love, that is very different than many western and far eastern interpretations.
and of course, the famous Om – meaning roughly, the entirety of everything and all forever and always.
FilipinoGuy
In Tagalog (or Filipino), a curious word commonly used in common speak is “gigil” (pronounced “GEE-gil”), which is basically that uncontrollable urge to pinch something a person finds adorable or cute. It’s what you call that “UGH I WANT TO PINCH YOU YOU’RE SO CUTE” feeling you get when seeing a baby, or a plush toy or whatever.
Curiously though, it can also be used to describe the feeling of having to contain one’s anger, or some other passionate, powerful emotion waiting to explode from inside of you (like sexual tension).
Translation
Well there is a exact translation of Dépaysement to german. Its called “Heimweh” or opposite “Fernweh” (If you feel like you should travel soon.)
zy
Awesome, as mentioned before the dutch (my language) equivalent for this would be “heimwee” (which I believe is a beautiful word), but I’ve never heard of somthing like “fernweh” (which could maybe be something like “verwee” but that doesn’t sound right. We don’t actually use the stem “heim-” anymore to mean anything resembling home except for the in heimwee, I guess that makes it special as well and shows the connection between languages
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me
The Spanish “Duende” means gnome. The supposed translation is totally wrong, unless it was taken as a metaphor.
Elena
Actually the German word Schadenfreude exists in the Finnish language too!
Elena
Okay so looking at the other comments, this list seems to be totally incorrect..
maarten
Dutch has actually translations for a couple of these words:
11. Schadenfreude – is “Leedvermaak”
but theres probably more that I can’t think of right now
Ehlyah
Heimwee is a desire to return to your home. That’s not necessarily the same as wanting to go back to your home country (especially as heimwee can occur while in the very same country).
LoreleiHH
LOVE ‘gezellig’ – but you have to say the g’s with the gutteral – one of those words whose sound does not communicate its meaning! But a fabulous word!
kirstana
I don’t think gezellig really has exactly the same meaning as hyggelig. Hyggelig you can also be alon. your bed kan be hyggelig, or a fire.
Ben
I think it has the same meaning.
In Dutch you can say: “Gezellig zat ik daar met een goed boek aan het vuurtje.”
This is an alone action of one person: “I sat ‘hyggelig’ by the fire with a good book.”
Dutch is a very rich and beautiful language with little nuances (the second hardest language in the world, so I’ve heard) of which I have the privilege of having learned it as my mother tongue. (:
I disagree – Dutch and Danish languages are closely related, cultures rather similar too. But “hyggelig” tends to be used in rather different contexts – I enjoy “hyggelig” situations, but find “gezellig” situations nice but more boring 😉
kip
gezellig can mean exactly that, actually it sounds rather the same – i think they are related somehow.
Stine
They probably are, gezellig reminds me of the Norwegian, and probably Danish, word “koselig”. Then again, that word is related to the English word “cosy”. Hyggelig is an adjective that you can use about people or situations, unlike “cosy”. Is gezellig similar to the English word cosy?
nevermind
Yes and no. You can have a cosy/gezellig home. But you can also have a gezellige time with your friends. Cosy does not apply here.
People can be gezellig, an experience or environment can be gezellig.
Hyggelig reminded me of the Dutch woord behagelijk. Which is also close to cosy, but also to comfortable, it’s the feeling of nestling, having a “warm blanket” around you.
Michiel
No, it’s not! ‘Cozy’ and ‘gezellig’ are two things that are totally different, at least in the eys of a Dutch person. ‘Gezellig’ actually means exactly the same as hyggelig. Hyggelig isn’t as unique as the Danes think it is. 😛
Anna
Heimwee would be “mal du pays” in french, dépaysement is not so much missing home more like feeling lost but in a good way in another country/culture.
Rando
Also, heimwee is more just homesickness. I’m not sure if the French word dépaysement is used outside of the reference of longing for one’s home country.
With heimwee, you can have heimwee on a camping trip, despite being within the Netherlands.
yoplait
no dépaysement is not Heimwee (homesick in Englisch)
Heimwee would be “mal du pays”, as in “J’ai le mal du pays” (a bit old)
Wangocopperboom
Dépaysement I assume to be displacement…which you would also feel away from your home country. Nice words, but most are translatable.
Claire
Actually it’s rather different; the explanation in the list is a poor one. You can feel dépaysé without being away from your home country. It’s a sense of being away from what grounds you, but not always necessarily in a negative sense – it can almost mean ‘transported’, sometimes, in the sense of an experience that really takes you out of your comfort zone and might leave you feeling a bit like a fish out of water, but might alternatively – or even kinda simultaneously – be a bit of a breath of fresh air. It might meen disorientated, or you might enjoy the newness of the experience, whether it’s a metaphorical or a physical displacement.
I’d add “shindoi” which means “tired, body and soul” more or less. It’s Japanese.
Ryterga
pretty sure the english word for that is grit.
jaanek
in estonian ‘sisu’ means ‘content’ 🙂
Slund
Gezellig and hyggelig are not entirely the same.
schadenfreude in german translates into skadefro in danish and means the same.
Brian Melican
Like the article a lot, but must disagree that “prozvonit” is untranslatable. London English certainly has “to drop-call” for the credit-saving cheap-ass habit of letting the phone ring and then ‘dropping’ the call immediately. It’s certainly pronounced as one word.
Claire
I’m from London and I’d say ‘prank’ instead of ‘drop-call’. As in, ‘if you haven’t got free minutes, prank me and I’ll call you back’, or ‘prank me so I get your number’.
A.H. Gillett
I’ve always known it as a ‘Scots ring’. Possibly a bit rude to use in public.
Heidii
zeitgeist – i know english has a translation, but zeitgeist sounds better.
Boringadress
We have a word for Prozvonit in Chilean Vernacular: Pinchar (To Pinch)
Neteb_vampire
One thing:
14. DépaysementFrench – The feeling that comes from not being in one’s home country.In Galician (Northwest of Spain) there’s a word which means exactly the same: “morriña”. Sorry for the French but nº14 should be vacant.
“Saudade” is sometimes translated as “I miss you”.
Ehlyah
Will have to disagree about “dépaysement”. Welsh has something that means much the same: hiraeth. A homesickness for Wales.
tom dissonance
“Prozvonit” is pretty easily rendered into English as “one-ring” or “one-ringer”, noun or verb. e.g. “I gave him a one-ringer before, but he hasn’t answered yet” or “She one-ringed me because she was low on credit”.
Can anyone tell me the meaning of “CHARVIN” in any language? It will be great if anyone could help me to find it..
Laelia
Number 9. In Romania we have the sintagm “a da un beep/bip”, or the verb “a bipui” with the same meaning.
Also, no1. we have a correspondent, “dor”
Kma9980
‘Jeong’ in Korean… I even cannot explain.
Eli Sadoff
Davka in hebrew is untranslatable.
Nicki
How about the Dutch word ‘gezellig’. I have never heard of any language that has a proper translation for it. It means a really nice atmosphere that is achieved by being in the company of nice people and having nice conversations or it can also say something about the way your house is decorated. When used in the latter context it means your house is homely.
Nicki
How about the German expression ‘Figerspitzengefuhl’. It means you have a special knack for something.
mimi
. . . it looks like you used the english translation for the word you are describing in the description of the word. if it means having a knack for something, then isn’t the translation having a knack?
Taco
Schadenfreude, translated into English, could be Sadistic. Sadistic people get pleasure from the misery/misfortune of others. So that one does have an English word.
Allyssumdays
Sadistic describes the person feeling this, though. “That’s a sadistic person,” right? I think Schadenfreude is more to describe the actual feeling/thought process through which a person goes.
Joeri
Hyggelig in Danish would translate in ‘gezellig’ in Dutch.
Ida
Prozvonit translates into Croatian slang as “cimnuti”.
kirstana
Better, than Hyggelig, would be the verb, “at hygge sig” (to hygge oneselv) it’s a verb literally meaning, doing the act. So “at hygge sig” means: to sit with friends at a cosy fireplace with a cold beer 😉 or anything else, seen as very cosy, comfortable and nice action.
Samuel Taylor
Fika – from Sweden – it’s a sort of short break you take with friends and drink coffee. Fike refers to both the coffee and the break at the same time. I guess it’s similar to ‘Smoko’ in english/australian slang, referring to a cigarette break.
Brian Melican
Yes, and while we’re talking of Swedish and coffee breaks, they also have the word “kaffésugen”, which means “really thirsty for a coffee”. As far as I know, the “-sugen” can also be transferred to other beverages. In English, you certainly need a few words to express a thrist for a certain drink – e.g. “I’m dying for a cup of tea” or “I could murder a beer” (both BE, I assume).
Merovinqian
It’s “Lítost” not Litost
Jenna
Pokka-Finnish
Steve
Inuit isn’t a language… Inuktitut, Yupiq and a bunch of other languages are spoken by Inuit, but there isn’t one Inuit language…
Jason – totally stumbled upon this post – <3. 🙂
Wantse L
Actually, English speakers in southeast Asia use “misscall” the same way as Prozvonit.
Luiza
Yay! I’m brazilian, so I can totally understand how English lacks the word “cafuné”! When I wanna translate it, I never know quite how to! But when I see all those other awesome words, I wanna speak all the languages in the world…or have them in Portuguese so people can use them!
Mike
In Nigerian English “prozvonit” is called “flashing.” Poor youth in a country where all phones are prepaid who have only a few seconds of credit left call their friends phone and hang up before it is answered. After they have “flashed” them, they expect the friend will call back and pay for the call. If their friend answers to quickly they have “cut my credit.” If someone has flashed you several times in a row and you don’t want to talk to them you can cut their credit and they will no longer be able to flash you.
Yahspher
there is one more word but its a name that cannot be translated and that ” YAHWEH”….
its the name of the creator that He told the Hebrews to remember for generation upon generation for all generations….tel-aviv, Israel did an archaeological dig thru solomon’s temple and found items that have YHWH on them the 4 letter tetragramaton-meaning that it cannot be translated into any other language….for more info please look up…
http://www.yahweh.com for the truth will set you free from this pagan elohim worshipping world for HE calls u out at this time from this world and to be part of his family.
Clara
Swedish-Lagom it’s almost like enough but not really.
Emrich
Schadenfreude is English too, isn’t it?
Trust Christ
“chi ku” (吃苦） in Chinese literally translates into “eat bitterness”.
It actually means the ability of persons to endure hardship without becoming embittered.
“Preserving your good cheer even under the most adverse circumstances” would be a good description of this Chinese term.
The lack of a corresponding term in Western languages reflects the absence of such a virtue in occidental civilizations.
00000
I wouldn’t say it’s absent, just hard to understand. I feel that way sometimes.
mimi
True, but the concept of bitterness isn’t very profound in the West, either. Bitterness is seen as a weakness, and it isn’t something people talk about. I can’t speak for other cultures, but in the U.S., dealing with hardship isn’t a question of enduring but overcoming. We have hundreds, probably thousands, of synonyms in English for words like “strong” and “defeat” and fewer for words like “endure” (actually, our idea of endurance is also about strength). The closest thing I can think of to the concept you are talking about is the idea of having an “indomitable spirit,” but even that is more about strength than about living through hardship.
I’m not saying this is good or bad, just pointing out why there’s no word for that, in English at least.
Viscerotika
There is an English equivalent for schadenfreude. Epicaricacy.
Hungarian
They might be translations but they are commonly used.
Let me contribute some untranslatable Hungarian phrases:
honfibú -> Patriotic melancholy. It usually involves some apathy and resentment. These days it’s often said with ironic or sarcastic undertones because of the collective self-pitying element it evokes.
sírva vigad – Lit. “having a good fun/a good time (among friends)… while crying”. It’s a kind of an emotional state which can be related to the above.
talpraesett – Lit. “fallen on their feet” – when somebody has the wits and finds his ways to manage no matter what
testvér / Lit. “body-blood”: brother or sister. However it can refer to spiritual relation, too, i.e. brotherhood or sistership. “testvér” is completely gender-neutral. “testvériesen” means “in good faith, justly, with no selfishness”
ErynnSilver
Prozvonit is a “drop-call” O.o
vietgirl
“Nhõng nhẽo” – Vietnamese for “To behave like a brat, but in a cute way, towards your parents, older brother, sister or loved one, to get what you want, because you know they love you and will indulge you.”
Christina Grey
Inuktitut us probably one of the most complex languages in the world.. being a fluent Inuktitut and English speaker, there’s a lot of words that just cant be translated..
My favourite example being the word “Ilirasuk”
It means to have a respectful sense of fear towards an authority figure or someone you did wrong to.. examples, i would be ilirasuk of my mother, my boss at work, or if i crashed someone’s car, i would be ilirasuk of the owner of the car..
Plantevl
taroof… iranian.
Final Deadline
Guys, do you really think “dépaysement” refers directly to homesickness? Because every language I can think of has a translation for that, including English.
Anne Jerome
“Tao” from Taoism, a simple but complex word that suggests an infinite unknowable essence and intelligence that is everywhere but is seen nowhere. John Wong
Anne jerome
“Tao” from Taoism, a simple but complex word that suggests an infinite unknowable essence and intelligence that is everywhere but is seen nowhere. John Wong
indy
I can think of some more words:
Onoroke is a great one in Japanese, and it is used to pejoratively denote a man who is proud and boastful of his wife.
Dharma in Sanskrit has been continuously mistranslated ever since the west heard that term. It roughly denotes an ethical code, and can be suffixed to an individual or group. When suffixed to the word “Sanaatan” (or eternal), it denotes the eternal code of ethics that has been found to resonate with people across cultures and religions and usually forms a subset of our larger individual ethical codes.
strawberryjoy
Actually the japanese one is no longer untranslatable into english, since the “tiger mom” book came out. You can’t really call the english version cumbersome when it precisely the same and uses fewer syllables…
Helen Vandeman
The Italians have a new word: “mamone” – a man who still lives w/his mother, a common Italian experience.
talulah
this page assume that when it is not translatable into English therefore it cannot exist in any other nu. 11 exist in danish ‘skadefro’ and I have a good feeling that Norwegian and swedish have that word too. However, it is correct that most words of significance has a cultural meaning to them that do not translate merely by finding the equivalent in another language. However, in the case of nu 11, is is fully translatable, just not into english..
Erica
Great post thank you! My favorite French expression is: “n’importe quoi’ there is kind of no way to translate it in any other language that I know. It means if someone says something completely ridiculous or silly and you want to comment that what they said is ridiculous, silly, outlandish or out of control… you would say: ‘n’importe quoi!’
Manila1
#9 Prozvonit – In the Philippines we call it “miss-call,” as if it were a verb. For instance, “I will miss-call you so that you’d know that I’m already at the lobby.”
Bob in Burnt Store Marina
Try:
GREEK WORDS
Jkennery64
l’espirit de l’escalier= french. When ones ponders what they should have said in a previous conversation.
bingbangboom
better than that is Trepverter- Yiddish
used by Saul Bellow in Herzog
guest
German – Treppenwitz
Maxbest
not excactly the same as l’esprit de l’escalier, which is much much more powerful.
Qovie
“Hyggelig” _ This is just Danish propaganda..because the danes are rarely nice to anyone even their friends they gave it a special name any time you meet up with friends and are nice to them.
“Hyggelig”-This is just Danish propaganda because danes are actually rarely nice to anyone even their “friends” they gave it a special name any time you meet up with friens and are nice to them. preferably under the influence of alcohol since this is not normal for danes.
To Normal people else where in the wolrd..hyggelig..is just ordinary expected human behavior which is so rare in denmark..being nice to people when you have an event/meeting”.. it has to have “a special name”, in this self centered small socialist country they think its something only danes are capable off.
Source: I am Danish. Lived there so many f..ng depressing years.
Claese
You obviously never lived there. I’m Danish, and have lived in Canada, Denmark and various other places. Denmark has super-nice people, not to mention everyone is happy. You’re obviously from somewhere else.
Qovie
Janteloven har ikke noget med solidaritet at gøre. Vi er alle forskellige, og skal alle realisere forskellige potentialer. Derfor bliver vi nødt til at adskille os fra hinanden, og have lov til at blive udfordret og blive gode til det, som vi nu engang føler en glæde ved.
Mike L
I agree … although I have no idea what you just said … lol 🙂
Rivka
Ah, a discussion that could only exist on the Internet. In real life, two people could argue about the qualities of people in Denmark. Online they can argue over whether or not either of them are actually from there…
Lewsor
Hindsight*
Muriel Coudurier-Curveur
Not exactly. It isn’t necessarily something that would have changed the outcome. It’s when the perfect answer or action comes to mind out of the blue when it is no longer fitting to say or do it.
well it is a figurative phrase coined by diderot (according to wikipedia) things like that are always so beautiful though
eBunny
I have that all the time.
Jdelillegomory
Hindsight,please. But esprit d’escallier is slightly different. Sort of: one thing leads to another….
Alex Durden
Are you illiterate? The word is hindsight, as if you are having sight at something behind you.
that’s not a word. that’s a phrase.
Steve
Exactly. It’s the very statement which would have clinched the argument. Settled the matter, cleared things up or put the other person in their place. Not just *hindsight* which implies you’ve had time to reflect. *avec du recul*
Steve
Esprit de l’escalier is what you think of saying frustratingly as soon as it’s too late – or literally, “on the staircase” immediately after having exited the place.
eiapopeia86
Et surtout, le nom exact, sans faute de frappe, c’est ” l’esprit de l’escalier “.
Mike L
“A staircase wit” meaning you remember “it” (remark – whatever that may have been) too late, when you were leaving – hence the staircase…
DogPatchZeroSix
English hit 1 million words last year. 250,000 English words is required for mastery of the language.
Jodie Kane
“There are at least 250,000 words in the English language. However, to think that English – or any language – could hold enough expression to convey the entirety of the human experience is as arrogant of an assumption as it is naive.”
Amen to that. English is my first and, I’m sorry to say, my only language, so I’m biased, but I think it’s wonderfully expressive and I wouldn’t trade it for anything. But that doesn’t mean that other languages don’t have their own means of expression or that they have to express it in the same way that English would.
Take this:
“Tender, fragrant grass. How hard-hearted to trample.”
That’s a sign from China, telling people to keep off the grass. The words might be in English but that’s definitely a Chinese way of phrasing the message. It’s not the way that professional translation agencies would phrase it, it’s not the way a native English speaker would phrase it but the meaning still comes across. I’ve seen people moaning about it, saying that it’s disrespectful towards the English language but I’m not buying that. Apart from anything, I think it’s downright disrespecful of the English to assume that everyone will speak their language. Learning hello, goodbye, please and thank you and little things like that isn’t beyond anyone’s capability.
Lernor Findlay
Agreeeee
Lernor Findlay
A very insightful and soulful perspective on words with ‘soul’ – Reminds me of the Jamaican word ‘irie’ often used to describe situations, one’s state of being (‘ me irie’) or behaviour(s) etc.which in essence describes a heightened state of existence that perhaps transcends words.
I believe it was first used by rastafarians who often prefixed some words with the letter ‘I’ possibly to emphasise the I-ness; thus I-rie could be a heightened state of the I.
Israel
Dear Jason: As to “Schadenfreude” the [supposedly] untranslatable German word – the concept/idea has been mentioned/written in Hebrew sources looooong before it ever appeared in German. In Hebrew it is made of 2 words “Simcha LeEid” (happiness at misfortune, literally) & the wise men of the 2nd Temple period already warned people AGAINST such a sentiment…
It DOES “translate” rather easily, in fact & it may not be a surprise if it “turned-up”, as a German “combination of words”, when the Bible was [finally] translated into German…
Just thought you may care to know.
🙂
Israel in Jerusalem
Salil Joshi
“L’appel du vide” can’t exactly be called a word, can it be? It does not fit in the article.
Zulemazallen
We have a name for number 9 in Jamaica. It’s called a “ghetto page”. lol
Todd Libasci
Garneau
Does anyone have any insight into the Turkish word hüzün?
Orhan Pamuk writes quite a bit on it in “Istanbul: Memories & the City”, as the idea of a communal melancholy shared by a group of people.
Wim
Schadenfreude is also used in the Dutch language which is ‘leedvermaak’
Duende is indeed used in Spanish but more often in flamenco as to desribe a sense
of ‘soul’ or heart in the music, a ‘moment’…….this is more commonly used then the description in the article.
Fulana
Posting from Mexico here, so we may have a case of Our Spanish Is Different.
Tocayo (m.) / Tocaya (f.) is someone who shares the first name as another, though neither one needed to be “named after” the other. It is generally a nice thing to meet a Tocay@, and has in one time helped to save a life of someone I know.
James
I like this one from Serbian:
Inat = To argue about, or take objection to something, simply for the pleasure of being at odds with someone else.
Snjezana
I believe ‘obstinacy’ would be a decent translation.
mimi
or contrarian
Cristian Carlsson
I believe the list lacks the Swedish word “Lagom”. It is when something is just about enough, just right, right where it should be, not too much or too little. A good answer to the question “How much money do you make?”, if you don’t want to brag, or don’t want someone to think you’re poor, you just say “Lagom.” It’s just something you’re fine with, nothing more, nothing less.
joe
french : Dépaysement has a simple meaning in english : homesick ! so it is translatable !!
Solo
Filipino –> Maaliwalas
Sputt
In The King’s English 2nd ed. 1908, they mention the word “schadenfreude ” in the context that it has proper English substitutes and that there’s no reason to use it in the English language.
“To say Schadenfreude for malicious pleasure is
pretension and nothing else. The substitutes we have offered are not
insisted upon; they may be wrong, or not the best; but English can be
found for all these.”
source: http://www.bartleby.com/116/105.html
Leandro
Buksvåger – a swedish word, lit. translated into “bowel in-law”, meaning a person who, atleast once, has had sex with a person which you youself also atleast once has had sex with.
Alfie090
I got $31.68 for a XBOX 360 and my mom got a 17 inch Dell laptop for $95.84 being delivered to our house tomorrow by FedEX. I will never again pay expensive retail prices at stores. I even sold a 46 inch HDTV to my boss for $650 and it only cost me $53.79 to get. Here is the website we are using to get all this stuff GrabPenny.com
Stiffo90+trash
Tica
I’m sure the following word in Spanish isn’t well known: CHINEAR
It’s a word used in Costa Rica that can be a verb or an adjective and it refers to the act of giving tenderness to someone or being a person that loves to be cared for (chineado).
I’m not really sure of the origin of the word, but I heard it has to do with a tradition in the late 1800s and early 1900s to have Chinese nanny’s for the children (hence CHINear). I still haven’t found 1 specific word in another language that expreses what chinear really is.
“The call of the void” – That’s so poetic. Douglas Adams once said something very similar…
“I’ve heard an idea proposed… to account for
the sensation of vertigo. It’s an idea that I instinctively like and it
goes like this. The dizzy sensation we experience when standing in high
places is not simply a fear of falling. It’s often the case that the
only thing likely to make us fall is the actual dizziness itself, so it
is, at best, an extremely irrational, even self-fulfilling fear.
However, in the distant past of our evolutionary journey toward our
current state, we lived in trees. We leapt from tree to tree. There are
even those who speculate that we may have something birdlike in our
ancestral line. In which case, there may be some part of our mind
that, when confronted with a void, expects to be able to leap out into
it and even urges us to do so. So what you end up with is a conflict
between a primitive, atavistic part of your mind which is saying
“Jump!” and the more modern, rational part of your mind which is saying,
“For Christ’s sake, don’t!” In fact, vertigo is explained by some not as the fear of falling, but as the temptation to jump!”
Taso
Urte
pakmiela – Lithuanian slang, derived from Russian, meaning “the drink that you drink the morning after a night of drinking,” specifically with the intent of curing a hangover. Sort of like “hair of the dog that bit you,” but in one word.
Silvia
I would like to say that the Brasilian Portuguese word “saudades” could be translated to the Spanish word “nostalgia”
Dally
“Saudade” is not Brazilian-Portuguese, it´s a Portuguese word. And it´s more than “nostalgia”, it´s really not translatable.
K. Grey
Fantastic article. The thoughts about building foreign language reflexes to connotations: invaluable information to both possess and propagate.
Ajkdkk
Very accurate. “Dor” in Romanian is also untranslatable, :), meaning something like “miss” or “missing” but the sense is much deeper. Anyway, I like a lot the post, 🙂
yoplait
Dépaysement is used with two meanings:
– change of surroundings (by the way there is also “changer d’air”, litterally “change the air”, that has a similar meaning)
-the situation of finding yourself in an unfamiliar environment/place and feeling a bit lost because it is new to you.
Most often, it is used as an adjective, in sentences such as “J’espère que tu ne te sens pas trop dépaysé” or “Au moins tu n’es pas trop dépaysée!” The latter can be ironic when it means “there are negative things here that can remind you of your hometown so at least you can feel at home”. For example, you pick an Indian friend up from the airport and a few minutes later you find yourselves stuck in a horrible traffic jam. Then you can smile and say this, like “at least it feels a bit like home to you”.
The Larousse dictionary says
to feel like a stranger
on fait tout pour que le touriste ne soit pas dépaysé
we do everything possible to make the tourist feel at home
Liam Richardson
Wait, so if these are all untranslatable, how come you have the translations for each one? Seems to me most of these are very translatable, though some are a little more abstract which makes it harder.
Jem
9. Prozvonit would translate as Prank here in SE England
Miss_rathbone
Hmm, not really, a prank would be to wind someone up. The word everyone uses in Liverpool is ‘one-bell’. e.g. Aww, she just one-belled me again, get some credit ya moocher!
Mike Newlad
Words have multiple meaning and whilst “prank” doesn’t officially mean “call me then hang up” it is very commonly used for that, not just in the south east of England either. It’s derived from a particular type of prank call, where someone rings and hangs up to annoy people.
Put it this way, if someone says “prank me” they are expecting you to ring and hang up, not put a milk bottle on their door handle. One-Bell works too but it’s not as commonly used.
Jacob
“Skadefryd” in Norwegian…
Angelique
Where is the dutch “Gezellig”, it’s something we say for when there’s a pleasant atmosphere, or when you’re having a good time, but there isn’t a really great translation available.
Mo
I think you’re trying to really stretch it here. I’ve just glanced at a couple and already found some that words in English can describe.
11) Sadism
14)Homesickness (Based on your short description)
keddo
that’s good to know…
that girl
How about Filipino concepts such as Tampo and Paglalambing?
Flumlove
How about the swedish ‘Fika’ or ‘Lagom’? Fika= the act of having coffee/tea w/ cake, cookie or tart with friends, basically it is more then just taking a coffe with someone… Lagom= not to much, not to little.. basically a middle ground but it can be used with everything..
KC
Prozvonit translates as FLASHING in West Africa. He flashed me. I’m about to Flash tom.
Varebanos
Dépaysement in Spanish would be “morriña”
Aa
Hm. Russians uses word prozvonit (Прозовнить) with same meaning as in czech.
Kamleshkumardiwan
From Belarusian: ” Adkhukac’ ” – to warm with one’s breath
” Ahorac’ ” – to obtain smth through troublesome effort
asrb
9 is to ping someone. that’s not just a Czech practice, they do this almost in any country where most subscribers are on a pay as you go service plan.
Sarah
There’ s a quote in “The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down” that goes as follows: “The Hmong have a phrase, yuav paim quav, which means that the truth will eventually come to light. Literally, it means “feces will be excreted.” I love that it sounds so beautiful initially, and then you find out what the literal translation is!
Chiranjib Mukhopadhyay
Adda=Bengali. It is a chat by close friends that lasts hours. similar in function as the siesta (helps relieve workplace stress if there is an adda in noon). it is the quintessential bengali time-killing activity.
Alan
Being originally from Wales and having lived in Brazil for the past twenty years, I’ve discovered that the Portuguese ‘saudades’ (it’s normally used in a plural form eg. “Eu tenho saudades de…” , translates perfectly into the Welsh ‘hiraeth’
Johhowe
In the Welsh language there is a wonderful word that means all the vile, nasty and dirty things that can be or are. The word is Ychyfi (sometimes ych y fe and pronounced uch a vee – the ‘ch’ as in the Scots ‘loch’).
Augustinus Sextus
Zeitgeist anyone?
Jack
Thank you for writing this. I am enchanted and inspired by this. I think I might use basically all of these words as springboards for Stories or Poetry. They are extremely interesting,
CW
Fine list. Schadenfreude is actually an English word though in the same fashion as résumé and aardvark. They are called loanwords and make up over 75% of the English vocabulary. This has to do with Britain’s tendency to be invaded and conquered and later on thanks to globalization. For instance around 30% of English vocabulary is French -derived or adopted- due largely to the Norman conquest and the subsequent inter-involvement with France. Of course the history and composition of the English vocabulary is even more complicated than this brief correction. I only wanted to point out that schadenfreude, while not as widely prevalent as the word sushi, has been in English common usage at a college graduate to masters level-ish education level for some time and its usage only increases in frequency. I suppose the best affirmation of its adoption is the fact that Firefox is not auto-correcting it. Language, all language, is exceedingly fluid, constantly evolving; not just in terms of vocabulary but even in terms of grammar and syntax. Like cultures, languages do not live in isolation.
Jmellor13
That cell-phone thing is the cheapest, grubbiest thing I have ever heard of. The Czech should also invent a mean name for the kind of person who pulls that nonsense.
Otherwise, awesome article.
Tania Yuki
gemutlichkeit is my favorite non-translatable word from German. It’s been described to me as the feeling you get when you have everyone who is important to you gathered around a fire, and it’s chilly but you’re warm.
“Tingo” should be accompanied by an illustration of Homer Simpson and Ned Flanders.
Jacob
What about “lagom” from Swedish? Most closely defined as just the right amount.
Sophie
Mm, and another Swedish word I don’t know if any language has: “orka”? Often used as “jag orkar inte”, meaning something along the lines of “I can’t be bothered to/I don’t have the energy to/I’m too tired to/I can’t cope”.
minä
At least Finnish has the word “jaksaa” and “(minä) en jaksa” is the same as “jag orkar inte”.
Puckrock2000
French – The feeling that comes from not being in one’s home country.”
“Homesick”.
Pollaqq
I say “saudade” all the time. I am always feeling “saudades”, from people and from places. Nice post.
Profion
… and the ancient greek word Daimon, the romanian Dor…..
Carbajalpedro
Malevo: This argentinian word comes from the lunfardo, and it refers to a person who has a lot of courage and is capable of the worst and the best attitudes at the same time, but also defines a way to dress, to walk, and to carry a weapon.
Daniel Alexander
Maybe “morbo” in spanish? It is the feeling you get when you yourself have a special interest for something, contrary to what most of those surrounding you feel, and which you cannot explain.
The best example of it is when you find somebody incredibly attractive but for no apparent or justifiable reason.
Alternatively it is used to mean just the added interest to an event or occurence, e.g. a football game between two teams with a player in one team who previously played for the other.
Helena
I’m mexican, and the correct spanish traslation for Czech “Prozvonit” would be “pobrellamada”, from the joint of “pobre” (poor) and “llamada” (call). It’s more popular and colloquial. We don’t use “Dar un toque” (“toque” is a word more related to marihuana).
Also, I don’t know where did the author get the “Duende” definition. I’ve never heard of that.
Mccarroll
does the word essentially mean the same as the word only
MeallaAoi
L’chayim = Hebrew. Used as a toast. Literally, ‘to life!’ But conveys many more elements, especially family, and cameraderie.
Haniya Pises
it is such stupid and silly because i wrote i need a saying for knowledge not grades should be the essence of our studies and see what they have written .They are such stupids,crazy,mads and idiots.I am serious,
Apokrypha8
Gezellig? (Dutch) means essentially the same thing as Hyggelig… only one of many similarities between the Danes and the Dutch, the importance of warmth and friendship.
Timwidden
Prozvonit Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money……………….. or to ‘one bell’ in English
Stancu Mihai
We call this “Bip” in Romanian as a phonetic representation of the English word “Beep”.
Laura
“Bakushan” in Japanese refers to a person you think is attractive from the behind but when they turn around, they’re ugly. I think that’s awesome. 🙂
Proseedcake
“acaronar”, a verb meaning “to pull someone closer in a tender way”, is justly celebrated by speakers of the Catalan language.
Exile
The Arabic word at item 18 is يقبرني ; the second character (from the right) is a Qof; not an ‘ayn, so the transliteration should be something more like yuqbarani or yukbarani, or tuqbarani if talking about a third person female, or taqbarani if second person. In any case, the root meaning “to bury is قبر ; the transliteration shown in the article would suggest the root isعبر , which is incorrect, as this has the meaning of to cross (over), breach, broach, etc.
Yeah !!! Very Nice
Hrichards_123
I like the german phrase “Ohrwurm” literally translated it means ear worm but in context it means a sound that is stuck in your head
In fairness to the English language, poor as it might be, I have found certain idioms that have no equivalent richness in my native Spanish.
My two personal favorites are:
1. “cry yourself to sleep”: Only in English is the irony of the situation communicated. In Spanish, it sounds stupid.
2. Or to say that someone is “full of shit”: “lleno de mierda” means absolutely nothing!
It is a great article, language is such a beautiful thing.
Red
tsujigiri- the japanese term for testing your newly purchased katana on an innocent passer by
Luis Sierra
Prozvonit in Spanish is also “Repicar”, which is more commonly used and more succinct than “Dar un toque.”, which by the way just sounds awkward. Perhaps that’s how they say it in Spain, but certainly not in America.
terroir – French, the importance of place to its essence, especially in the making of wine.
asdf;lkj
in malawian english the equivalent of prozvonit is flashing – you ring once when you want somebody to call you back
iPatrickQuinn
There is a similar phrase used by people in and around Southampton, and likely other areas in the UK, for ringing someone’s phone once to get them to call you back, or to otherwise gain their attention – we call it ‘pranking’ someone, e.g. “I’ll prank you when we’re outside.”
rpob1234
jouissance, french. Comes from joie/joy, but means something deeper – it refers to a painful pleasure, one where you realize that for all the (sexual) pleasure you feel, you will always desire more and will never be fully satisfied.
Ladee Dadee
Schadenfreude can be translated in Dutch as leedvermaak, so not so unique. Same goes for hyggelig which translates as gezellig (which Dutch people will also claim can not be translated at all into any other language…)
Vyacksmith
Aprobechar – Spanish , it means to get the very most out of something 🙂
Yentl van Dillen
Hyggelig is like the Dutch Gezellig
Guest
Number 9 also has “Squilo” in Italian for this.
Perkinator
your last comment about language being about the essence and appreciation of the texture and taste of the words is so true. It is good to see someone understanding things so well
There are dozens of untranslatable words in the Hebrew bible.
Gabriellala
This “Jia You” 加油！it literally means add oil
it can be translated in korean “aja aja hwaiting” or of the like and “gambatte” in Japanese. But it lacks the exact translation in English. Usually I would just explain as good luck, you can do it! to encourage someone in ups or downs.
Julia
ganas- spanish
the “want” to do something. eh: tengo ganas de ir a la playa.
not super intricate but I’ve found that I cant find an exact equivalent in any language.
Julia
Acoplarse- spanish
hard to describe…. its like making yourself the third wheel by inviting yourself along with people who don’t want you there or didn’t invite you.
e.g: No queria invitar a Javi pero se ha acoplado.
Cs
“Awkward” is not translatable that I’ve found. It’s a uniquely English (and perhaps just American) sentiment.
Guest
Just because theres isn’t a word for it doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist elsewhere. In French (and probably almost every language), we have several different ways of saying awkward, depending on the situation. It’s just that instead of it being one single word, it’s in the form of expressions. As a translator, I can tell you «awkward» is very much translatable.
Aquiline_jem
really owsome… thanks for sharing
Castro
for number 9.
“dar un toque” means give a hit, and it refers to when smoking a joint.. Just so you guys know
Kaeligh
kyoikumama is three words…
Marc
You wrote: “.. to convey the entirety of the human experience is as arrogant of an assumption as it is naive.” Arrogant OF? As an English teacher, you should know that this is incorrect. It should be “as arrogant an assumption as it is naive” No ‘of”
Cochwy
I’d say that the word “Schadenfreude” has an English equivalent: “Gallows’ humor.” It also refers to the feeling of satisfaction derived from somebody else’s misfortune.
I would be interested in knowing some words in English that may be considered “notoriously untranslatable” for speakers of other languages.
Jjiiujhhgh
Well there are Alot of english words that dont have the translation words in other languiges 😀
agneau
In my experience, the slang used in inner city areas of Southampton, UK in the early part of the 2000’s included the verb “to ding” with exactly the same meaning as the Czech “proznovit” (number 9). This probably spread from/to other UK cities but I have no idea about its extent and currency. I suspect that with the increased use (and reduced cost) of SMS messages, the need for the term (in Czech or English) has diminished and so the term is suffering a natural death.
Joanne
My favourite word is the Chinese word 雅.
It has no true translation in English because it indicates a gentle-spirit, beauty, kindness, manners， elegance and grace all at the same time.
What about the picture? Shouldn’t it be “good intenTion” instead of “intenSion”?
Steve C
Sorry to burst your exoticness bubble but some of these words do have translations in other languages. For example, “hyggelig” in Danish can be translated as “Koselig” in Norwegian, “Gezellig” in Dutch and even “Gemütlich” in German, all of which have approximately the same meaning of “cosy” and “warm”, “nice atmosphere”, etc. Still, if claiming a word as untranslatable makes you more inclined to speak a certain language then why not?
Anthro
Periptero — greek, a streek kiosk! 🙂
Ginh67
I must disagree with “depaysment”. It’s usual translation is “homesickness.” Even in English, context will complete the measure of “homesickness.” As an exchange student, my host mother noted that I was suffering from “depaysment” and it truly was homesickness with all its pains, superficial to profound.
Ab
Lítost can be translated to Slovak! L’útost’ is their equivalent…
Della Jestila
sisu…finnish is a good word…describes the stick-t0-it-iveness prevalent among finns…the guts to see it through..the perseverance and not letting go to fail…the sheer pushing of oneself….
Guest
Prozvonit, in some Spanish-speaking countries, is “repicar”, which means “to ring”.
Halie S.
Gemutlichkeit. It’s kind of like number 16.
Ithinkimtink
Hyggelig is gezellig in Dutch
Noelle Morris
Couldn’t “saudade” be approximated by the word “nostalgia”?
Daniel Mestiz
9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money.
— In Australia, people say, ‘Prank me when you’re downstairs.”
— In the Japan the term is wangiri.
Dirkporsche78
8. translates smoothly to “anklingeln” in German
guest
Swiss french :
la débattue : the unpleasent itch you get on your skin when you are really cold and then get in hot water or in a hotter place. (not sure if it exists in other languages)
Saudade is always translated a bit wrong in this lists. It only means the feeling of missing something/someone. The “which is lost” part is wrong.
Theo Grace
Epicaricacy; the English word for schadenfreude. Just because people don’t know it does not mean it doesn’t exist.
Debbie Doglady
I would like to add “Ohrfeigengesicht” in German and “Faccia da schiaffi” in Italian. Both have the same meaning and no actual direct translation into English. It means “a face you just want to slap”.
Artyem79
The French response “si” for yes, when you are contradicting someone. There is no succinct way to do this in English.
Staimoor41
எத்தனாவது – pronounced as ethanaavadhu, a word in Tamil
example: ராஜீவ் காந்தி இந்திரா காந்திக்கு எத்தனாவது பையன்?
It talks about the ordinal position.Possible you could coin a new word like which’eth
Tricky
In Filipino, it’s “pang-ilan”—exactly means “in what ordinal position” or the beautiful term “which’eth”.
Imatsum
Number 9 has a translation in English it’s known as ‘pranking’
mersan67
Agujetas!! kind of muscle pain suffered when one practice some sports after long time without doing it. this pain is as if someone were puncturing needles (aguja in Spanish) into your muscles!
Carlettigonzalez
genuinely found this fantastic to read as an article, rather magnificent truth be told.
Pechanni
Regarding number 11, Schadenfreude, the scandinavian languages have words with exactly the same meaning (“skadefryd” in danish and norwegian, “skadeglädje” in swedish).
Regarding number 16, Hyggeligt is an adjective which is used the most, whereas “hygge” is a verb. “Nu skal vi hygge”. I believe that originally ‘hyggeligt’ was more or less the same as ‘mysigt’ in swedish and ‘koseligt’ in norwegian, but hyggeligt has since been used so much you can say it about almost anything. A person, running into a person, a carpet, a street, a movie, a day, music, a sock can all be hyggelig(t).
Regarding number 20, Saudades, I think it’s incorrect to say that it necessarily is a longing for something that is “lost”, because friends use it just to say that they miss one another.
I think it was a really fun read, thank you!
Pechanni
When I was there, the only use of “fammi un squillo” or “ti faccio un squillo” I ever came across was when I had entered a person’s phone number into my phone, and I had to ring for a second so they could get my number as well. Or vice versa.
Pechanni
In danish we say “tilpas”, it also means the right amount, but can also mean comfortable. I read that hundreds of years ago, at parties in Denmark there would often be a person passing around a cup, and this cup, or passing the cup to a person, was called a “pas” (probably like pass in english). However, they didn’t just pass the cup to someone randomly. If a person at the party wasn’t drunk enough, absent-minded or boring/bored, they would be given the cup, and were told to drink until they were “tilpas” = comfortable or the right amount.
Guest
Ruska
It’s Finnish and it means the change of foliage when the nature in preparation for the fall and the cold following. It’s the time of the year when the world changes colors and turns into something breathtakingly spectacular.
This forum thread here has photos of ruska. http://forum.thefreedictionary.com/postst11529_Ruska—Autumn-colours.aspx
Maria
Saudade: Is the feeling of missing someone or something not only a love that you lost.
MP
hyggelig (16) translates to dutch is gezellig. not as untranslatable i guess.
Nell
Hiraeth: Welsh for longing, especially for your homeland. It’s like a cross between depaysement and saudade.
ina
Jayus is a made up word… it’s just some slang that everybody can make up to.. now i’m starting to doubt the rest of the words..
Number 9 – The word is “scotch” in English.
Manfred
Gunnen: Dutch word for the act of feeling the wish toward someone else to have some positive experience
Jbdemontety
Néant – French. “Nothingness”
Jrsmusic1
I don’t understand this article. All of these words ARE translatable, just not in a single word. Is that so weird?
veronik
Some cultures have the need to create a word that expresses a situation or particular feeling which other cultures don’t have and that affects their daily living.
Iluvlalala
it’s also that there isn’t just one word for it, eg: zapato=shoe, esposo=husband. there’s no one english word for “mamihlapinatapei”, it’s a hard to explain concept that’s hard to translate into one word. like, there’s no other word in the english language to describe the wordless, meaningful look between two people that want to start something but cant other than the non-english word “mamihlapinatapei”
Sergey
German “Schadenfreude” has an exact equivalent in Russian. Russian “злорадство” (zloradstvo, “zlo” means “evil”, the root “rad” means “joy”) means EXACTLY the same. Russian “toska” is a nice word well-explained by Nabokov. Another nice Russian word is безысходность (usually translated into English as “despair”, literally “nowayoutness”).
Jussi
We have ‘Schadenfreude’ in Finnish as well. The word is ‘vahingonilo’, roughly translating to ‘joy of an accident’. We also have a saying, ‘vahingonilo on paras ilo’, ‘the joy of an accident is the best kind of joy’.
Jon
Jep, although I think the expression comes from the swedish word “skadeglädje” (same meaning) which then originates from German. But I agree Schadenfreude is not that unique or irreplaceable. But myötähäpeä is a really good word that is difficult to translate! To feel shame for someone else basically? A very usable word 😀
B T W
There a welsh word that translation doesn’t translate is properly . The word is “Hiraeth”, which is similar to Saudade. Attempts to translate it is
define it as homesickness tinged with grief or sadness over the lost or departed. It is a mix of longing, yearning, nostalgia, wistfulness, and the earnest desire for the Wales of the past.
Raissa Furtado
Interesting! But can you say I have “saudade” of you? In portuguese, we can say it instead of just say “saudade’ that also give the same meaning..
Laura Menendez Marin
prueba con una palabra catalana: “enraonar” que mas o menos significa el “hecho de entablar una conversacion con alguien con el fin de encontrar la Razón, la Verdad, mediante reflexiones y compartiendo ideas y opiniones.” Siempre he pensado que es una palabra con un gran sentido filosifico, precioso.
Caz
Cwtch. A Welsh word that is wonderful and has no direct translation, I think the closet is ‘safe place’. It is the act of cuddling or feeling comforted.
Bbegliocchi
lol in italian, “i lunga” is how you say the letter J. it literally means “long I”.
tubagida
Schadenfreude isn’t untranslatable, it exists in hungarian too, as káröröm, literally: damage-pleasure(:
Aklamo
and in Finnish, it’s vahingonilo, literally the same as Schadenfreude
Rob
How about English words that do not have simple equivalents in some other languages? I’d imagine a word like “laser” is one of those, because it was originally an acronym.
nkc
there is a french word for “prozvonit” is “biper”
RoisinButler
In England we say we ‘prank’ someone when we call their phone with just one or two rings to save our credit
Cecilia
I can translate both #9 and 11# to Swedish, #9 would be “snålringa” in English “cheap-call” and #11 “Skadeglädje”, which truly is untranslatable to English! 😉 Literally it means injure-happy… Haha.
#16 Exists in the other Scandinavian languages as well and is not unique for Danish…
Sbpnli
I’ve always loved the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which proposes that the structures and vocabulary that make up a language reflect the mentality and thought processes of the people who speak that language. So, according to the hypothesis, the fact that the word “esperar” in Spanish serves for the concepts of “wait”, “hope” and “expect” would infer something about the Spanish mentality, would imply that those three concepts (which are very different in the mind of an English speaker) are somehow much more similar in the mind of a Spanish speaker.
linguistics undergrad
Not to be contrary, but I’m pretty sure that the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis actually states that language is what determines and affects the thought of its speakers, which is the opposite of what you’re saying. I agree with you though (thus disagreeing with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) that language rather reflects the thought processes of the speakers.
Rnsingun
TPEcCAI, too, am a linguistics undergrad. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two versions. The one you are pertaining to is the deterministic/strong version on the hypothesis. Most linguists do not take that version, most are relativists.
Maddyjackson
English–Flash
Fulani–Bippugol (from the french)
those are the only three really simple translations I am aware of, but I am no linguist. In US I don’t know of a carrier that gives free incoming calls which obviates the need to use this word, but it is there is already a word (flash) in other parts of anglophony should the need arise.
Jschwags
silbadeere (fulani) — the part of a rope that remains around a cow’s neck when it has broken free from the tree where it has been tied up
Eepositivo
Point 9:
In Spain “dar un toque” has more meanings than this and is seldom used. The normal frase for calling and let theother call back is “hacer una (llamada) perdida”
Alex Durden
That’s not true at all, even when I was living there my girlfriend who was Andaluza always said “dame un toque cuando estés afuera del edificio”. I think “knock” would be a much better translation than “touch”.
Grr
Ohrwurm (earworm) is a tune you can’t get out of your head.
applesanoranges
I really liked this article until I got to number seven. As a Scot, I have never heard of the word “tartle” and I really don’t think it actually exists. Now I’m starting to doubt the authenticity of all the words on the list..
Jorge
Ey, as a Spaniard, I must clarify a bit number 9. In Spanish, the exact translation for Prozvonit is “hacer una (llamada) perdida” (make a lost (call)). It means exactly what the description says, though it doesn’t have to be made to save money. It can judast sshow that you’re thinking about someone (pretty common for teenagers) or you got somewhere safeas or something along that.
“Dar un toque” (give a touch) is not really the same. It can plainly mean “call” even if in some context you’d say that thinking about a “perdida”.
Janneke
I was just wondering if the word ‘hyggelig’ isn’t the same as the Dutch word ‘gezellig’. I’m Dutch myself and I once saw ‘gezellig’ being translated to ‘a cozy kind of fun’. The Dutch meaning of the word corresponds with the description made above…
Justin__Thyme
So let’s solve the problem. Make up a NEW word in English that has the same meaning, and start using it often enough to get in the dictionary.
Milla
The Danish word “Hyggelig” has an equivalent in the Swedish word “Hygglig” which means the exact same thing, so no, its not “untranslatable”. Try translating the Swedish word “lagom” instead.
Evelyn
Love it. The description of Torschlußpanik is however incorrect. Toschlußpanik is just the fear of losing out on something. It is often used to describe someone who is in a hurry to get married because he/she is afraid they won’t find a mate if they wait any longer.
Spunkyzoo
Has anyone heard of “splin” in Czech? I understand that to be close to Saudedade in Portuguese, an intense longing, nostalgia, etc.
There’s no single word in English to convey this feeling.
KMR
I love the verb ‘oziarsi’ in Italian. It basically means lazing around and relaxing and doing nothing, but without the derogatory meaning in English of laziness.
German- Dasein
Suzkha
The Dutch have a word that captures the ecaxt meaning of ‘Hyggelig’ (Danish) as well: “Gezellig”.
sahar
thanks for these examples, but the Arabic examples is informal and a colloquial word used only by the syrians in specific, so we can’t say that this is a standard Arabic word.
Thanks again
Cagelderblom
“Hyggelig” had the same meaning as the Dutch Word “gezellig”, of which I always have been told it had no translation in Amy other language…well, now I know it translates to “hyggelig”.
Ellie
We do have a translation for this. It’s called ‘being a prick’.
A stranger
There is an English equivalent of “schadenfreude.” It’s “epicaricacy.”
Extern360
Loved to see Cafuné in the list.
The beauty of language and of learning new ones is to have new ways of express ourselves.
Nice Post! 😉
In Vietnamese we have a phrase for No.9 Provoznit which is “nhá máy” or sometimes the verb “nhá” is used alone with the same meaning.
okdrew
according to wiktionary, there is an icelandic word: “tarvotur”, which means damp or wet with tears. i’ve always liked that one.
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%A1rvotur
hadash
Davka — [Hebrew]. Literally, “exactly so.” More commonly, “wouldn’t you know it?” E.g., “The one day I forgot to take the umbrella, davka it had to rain!”
really cool words :p
Jehana
Super post! I enjoyed it very much.. theres one word you’ve missed out though.. “kaizen”. It’s japanese for “constant improvement.. every second, every moment, every day.” it pretty much sums up the culture of the japanese people. Regardless of how good they are at something they always want to be better. That drive towards improvement, so well imbibed into their dictionary is what sets them apart from other cultures.
14 literally translates to de-country-ism
anxietyofinfluence
Actually, it’s lítost, not litost. (it’s quite important because the í is longer that i, i.e. í is pronounced like in “see” [-i:])
anxietyofinfluence
litost means nothing in Czech
Tenerife holiday home insider
Regarding the Spanish word Duende: The Collins Spanish Concise Dictionary gives me goblin and elf for it as well as Tiene duende which means He has a certain magic. Anyway much appreciated to have learned more by by this blog. There is one of best restaurants of Spain in Puerto de la Cruz Tenerife by the name of Duende. Nevertheless, if I hadn’t explained in my page about best Tenerife restaurants how to get there, you would never find it. Sorry I cannot give you it’s link for fear of Penguin Google. You have to type Tenerife holiday home insider to spot the page in my navbar index, in case you want to know more about this famous place.
Tenerife holiday home insider
Funny, I never heard of dépaysement the french expression. Thanks for sharing. Otherwise, have you heard the expression Lekker in Afrikaans. It’s one of most used words and it’s peculiar, as it means so much, even awesome, nice, precious, delicious. stunning, good looking etc etc. And then there is the Jewish word kosher which we all know. In German it also means real, right and similar things.
adam wyett
#6 We’d call the mother ‘pushy’. The parents, if they both push the child in education (or acting/ whatever) are called ‘pushy parents’. I like number 3. We need a word for that, instead of saying “it’s so not funny, it is!”. Nice article.
adam wyett
I’m from Southampton, England. We have a translation for Number 9, in Southampton, as well (not sure if it’s nationwide) . ‘To Prank call’ as in ‘To make a Prank call’ (when you call to take the piss). The prank call used to just be a joke call. One way of prank calling would be to call and hang up before the receiver would pick up, so they got missed calls. Anyway, this translated into “To Prank” as in, to call someone and hang up so you can call you back ’cause you have no credit/ low credit.
Example 1:
Saudade is the saddest u can feel for happy memories
Zamedine
It’s a bit sad that many cultures apparently need a word to describe ‘deep seated existential angst and inner misery’ succinctly.
Nancy
No. 9 in Venezuelan Spanish is called “repicar”.
Susan
Great article Jason! But I have to disagree with Kyouikumama – it’s really two words and just means Education Mother (Mama). Pretty straightforward combination of a Japanese and an English word. There are many stranger words in the Japanese lexicon!
number 9 is called “flash” in nigerian pidgin english
Natalie
Cracked.com has an article with loads of these words. My favourites are Backpfeifengesicht (German: a face badly in need of fist) and Shemomedjamo (Georgian: to eat past the point of being full just because the food tastes good).
Anon.
Prozvonit – We call that drop calling here in London, England.
diane
kreng jai is a difficult one. closest translation from thai to english is respect or deference. more complex i think than that.
Asdas
in romania we have a word for saudade too
it’s doina – a type of song about that
LaPortaMA
My favorite is “cavolfiori riscaldati”.
http://www.amazon.com/They-Have-Word-Lighthearted-Untranslatable/dp/1889330469/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1340478565&sr=1-1&keywords=They+have+a+word+for+it I read this book over 20 years ago.
Rubi not Ruby.
I love the for “desillusionar” (des-e-lou-si-o-nahr) its Spanish for “disillusion.” The best way to describe this word is the knot in your throat when your deeply disappointed, heart broken, and lost hope all wrapped together. Its like when your in madly in love with someone breaks up with you, when you had high hopes and they’re shattered. Its such a powerful word, just thinking about it makes my heart sink and remember all the pain that came with it.
Maykoyo
Evwry English learner in Japan found that it’s so hard to translate the phrase “YOROSHIKU ONEGAISHIMASU” which is probably the most frequently used set phrase, especially in business scenes. If you never use the phrase, they think you don’t know the mannar. It is as important as “Thank you”.
Maykoyo
This has a translation into english now. It’s known as drop calling.
Janet Clark
I’m not easily offended. If you tartle, I won’t go all ilunga on you.
Viktoria Smile
great words <3.
Jaro Marcin
I’d say it’s often more the connotations that are untranslatable rather than the words themselves. We have a perfectly good word for Schadenfreude in Slovak, for instance, because we have embraced the concept entirely. 🙂 And “litost” can also be regret, grief, or compassion, depending on the use.
Arturo Felipe Albacete Fernandez
Actually it’s “hazme una perdida” in spanish!
Arturo Felipe Albacete Fernandez
In my country we say: “repicar”
Stephanie Robi
BANGAG (Filipino) — Being too energetic and happy (sometimes like in a drunk-like state) because you lack sleep :)))).
ARBOR (Filipino, Slang) — Act of happily coaxing your close friends to give you something they’re wearing (or holding during that moment you meet) by means of touching it often or even grabbing it away from them (by showing that you really really really want it!). Even if they don’t want to give it to you (since it’s obviously one the the stuff they like to use), it’s acceptable to do this. Part of doing this is saying “Pa-arbor!/ Arbor!” all the time. Not shouting this while taking the stuff / touching it would seem as if you’re disrespectful.
PHEW! 😀
Anonymous
Saudade is famously untranslatable: you have to hear it a lot to get a real sense of what it means. I would say it runs the whole gamut of longing, nostalgia and homesickness (not necessarily for things lost forever, though). If you come across a friend you have not seen in a while they may greet you with “Qué saudade!”, meaning, they missed you.
Rute Cunha
qué? that word doesn’t exist in portuguese.
and your example in correct terms would be “que saudades” with an s in the end.
Rute Cunha
qué? that word doesn’t exist in portuguese.
and your example in correct terms would be “que saudades” with an s in the end.
Christopher Benn
What about the Scottish word, ‘driech’. A personal favourite of mine…
Brendan Keegans
This article is so cool! Words that don’t transllate.
Transcription Vendors
Cool List..Nice Post.
Cristina Caioli
We use the idea of Prozvonit in Italy. “Fammi uno squillo” – give me a ring. I guess there is no one word to describe the whole concept in Italian.
Milla Byrgazova
I definitely sensed the “l’appel du vide” recently. bungee-jumping while dressed in lingerie in my dreams the other night.
Cristina Caioli
Hahahaha!!! Only you could dream something like that!
Michele Francesco Grech-Cumbo
In South Africa we say, “Giving someone a ‘missed call'”.
Valerie Oliphant
In Nigeria, they call prozvonit “flashing.”
Martin Buštík
foreigners here in Czech republic use “drop-call” as english version of prozvonit
Pavel Švanda
In Czech Republic, we also use it as a some kind of ‘signal’ – for example to let someone know that we’re safe, that he/she should reply to text message or hurry up if we’re waiting for them etc…
Pavel Švanda
In Czech Republic, we also use it as a some kind of ‘signal’ – for example to let someone know that we’re safe, that he/she should reply to text message or hurry up if we’re waiting for them etc…
Pavel Švanda
In Czech Republic, we also use it as a some kind of ‘signal’ – for example to let someone know that we’re safe, that he/she should reply to text message or hurry up if we’re waiting for them etc…
Pavel Švanda
In Czech Republic, we also use it as a some kind of ‘signal’ – for example to let someone know that we’re safe, that he/she should reply to text message or hurry up if we’re waiting for them etc…
Pavel Švanda
In Czech Republic, we also use it as a some kind of ‘signal’ – for example to let someone know that we’re safe, that he/she should reply to text message or hurry up if we’re waiting for them etc…
Michal Polak
Interestingly Urban Dictionary is familiar with the “drop call” phrasal. Unfortunately the example sentences don’t clearly indicate which part of the construction behaves as a verb… ” I drop called you” sounds more natural to me.
Dunja Oblak
squillare /give sb a miscall/ cimati in Serbian 🙂 Cristina, prozvonit is what language?
Dunja Oblak
squillare /give sb a miscall/ cimati in Serbian 🙂 Cristina, prozvonit is what language?
Cars wallpapers
On Serbian for “Prozvonit” we use werb “cimati” or “cimanje”.
Devon Protoxus
The direct translation into danish is Skadefro.
So yeah, it can be translated..
Jack Xu
Modern English is a language of business and utility, not expression. These words may be difficult to translate into English, but a lot of them have well established direct translations in other languages.
Daniel Baker
Cafuné? interesting, always learning more. Between this website and the other I found http://www.thebrazilianlanguage.com , I would say I definately have my hands full of learning.
Schiz O’ Phrenic
Like IR said about “Giigil” and “Kilig” there are a couple of phrases in Thai that are my absolute favourites,
the Thai version of Gigil would be “Mon Khee Ow”(spelling not important or correct, Thai is an inflected language) Mon Khee Ow also means “literally so cute I want to squash you/eat you up etc” used to refer to cute babies a lot.
my favourite Thai phrase which is GENUINELY untranslatable though is “Som Nom Naa”,
Nom means milk(also breasts) so it is kind of a cross between “don’t cry over spilt milk” and “that was your own fault” everything from you tripping and falling, to a politician being caught on the take can get a Som Nom Naa thrown at it, its a great phrase.
Eugene Melnychenko
Russian “toska” means “grief”… there is nothing untranslatable. I know russian as a native speaker.
Guilherme Loureiro
I believe “Dépaysement” would be something like “Homesickness”, or wouldn’t it?
Mariana Wakabayashi
Exactly, these words are not untranslatable.
Anonymous
we use prozvonit in france, “biper”.
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Patricia Romero
“Prozvonit” in Spain Spanish can actually be translated with the more coloquial and accurate”hacer una (llamada) perdida.”
Craig Pipe
It just sounds like that there’s no direct english analog to these, you can still describe the concepts in any language, which doesn’t render them ‘untranslatable’, but more that we just don’t have a single word that contains nearly as many concepts.
Merete Fagertun
Schadenfreud is a word we have and use in Norway: Skadefryd. And ‘hyggelig’ is also a Norwegian word. So your list needs a new title because it is not correct 😉
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Mitch van der Heyden
The words ‘Schadenfreude’ and ‘Hyggelig’ do exist in the Dutch language, as resp. ‘Leedvermaak’ and ‘Gezellig’.
Ben Efits Ski
Fiero
赫倫
this is great, but is it necessary to bash English at the beginning? and what do you mean “untranslatable”? untranslatable into what? English?
Brady Galan
Duende sounds quite similar to Stendhal Syndrome. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stendhal_syndrome
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Marcel Bostelaar
Schadenfreude translates to leedvermaak (leed and shaden mean suffering, vermaak and freude mean amusement) And Hyggelig translates to gezellig in dutch, which means cozy/fun/gaving a good time at someones house, as discribed here.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
Anonymous
9. Prozvonit- It is simply called “Missed Call” or “Single Ring”in English, here in India.
debsaid
I’ve always had trouble translating ‘saudade’ for people. I usually just end up saying “It’s what you feel when you miss someone or something”. There are so many other words that could be added to the list too : ) Gotta love languages.
tayo65000
Estou com saudades, tenho saudade, sinto saudade… I don’t see a problem translating them into the quite appropriate English forms of feeling longing, or missing someone, or feeling homesick. People in Brasil don’t just look at each other, nod appropriately, and say, “Saudade.” The word, a simple noun, exists in a sentence, a context, just as the English words do. As for the dozens of other “words” listed, they do have counterparts, whether a language requires a single word or a small phrase doesn’t matter. Some language structures simply facilitate single word constructions by the use of prefixes and suffixes with verbal or prepositional (or…) meanings. I think sometimes we feel that our own language expresses a meaning more beautifully (or forcefully) than another simply because we speak that language as a native language. An example of what I mean is the use of swear words. In our own native languages, they sound exactly as they are, vulgar, heavy, unacceptable. But most people have no problem using the swear words of another language because they don’t seem to carry the same weight. An example: Porra, a vulgar term for sperm in Portuguese. It would seem silly for an American to exclaim “Sperm” (or cum) if he were angry, but the word carries the same social weight as the F-word. For non-native Portuguese speakers, the word just doesn’t carry the same weight and fits easily into the mouth. Like my students who study English with me who find the F-word easy (and enjoy using it because I blush easily). They know perfectly well the meaning of the word, but don’t feel the weight. I would suggest articles such as this are fun, but not particularly realistic and ultimately serve linguistic nationalistic chauvinist concepts.
debsaid
Just because there is an equivalent word or term doesn’t mean it completely captures the ‘feel’ of the original word. That is why so many things are lost in translation sometimes.
There are many words you can use to translate “chato”, for example, but none of them will reflect the complete essence of the word. It’ll come close, but it won’t be quite the same thing. That’s because words aren’t just words, they carry culture along with them.
By the way, “estou com saudades”, cannot be translated unless you have context (saudades de que? de quem?). And “Que saudades!” is used extensively; that one is not so easy to translate. It’s possible, but it just won’t be the same.
tayo65000
You mean to tell me then that just because Portuguese doesn’t have a modal verb expressing obligation that therefore the Portuguese forms (deve) (tem que…) don’t express the weight of the English “must?” Or the fact that non-Latins find “sinto muito” weak compared to “sorry?” This concept of “essence of the word” is absurd, as if some humans had untranslatable concepts, and therefore differing degrees of understanding conditions that ALL humans are capable of feeling and expressing perfectly well. Your argument serves nationalistic pride, but it isn’t real. “Chato” might not have one single word to translate it.(In fact, there are many words that translate it perfectly well.) That doesn’t mean that any other word in English doesn’t convey the same feelings. Or do you mean to tell me that Brazilians and Portuguese and Mozambicans etc have feelings that native English speakers can’t feel fully? (Or worse, that somehow those who came into the language second-hand have been admitted into some kind of unique club that the rest of their fellows cannot understand, as if it were some new depth of understanding.)
I had a friend from Morocco who learned to speak English very well, but he used to complain that English was a weak comparison to Arabic, that the Arabic words were stronger, more alive, fuller than the English. Pure and utter hogwash. “Patience,” he would say, hands raised, “in Arabic it means the patience of Job, the patience of a thousand million years, while in English it simply means patience.” Yeah, right. Arabic was his first language (actually his second, his local variety of Arabic was his first).
I hear the same kinds of comparisons made every day here in Brazil between Portuguese and English, that somehow Portuguese is stronger than English, more expressive, more alive. And the stupid excuse that everybody uses is the one about saudade, that saudade doesn’t exist in English, leading some to believe that therefore, English speakers don’t feel saudade. Some Brazilian academics recently took issue with that absurd claim and explained that while English has many different words for different kinds of “saudade,” Portuguese has only one, therefore, perhaps, English speakers “feel more articulately.” Argumentos chatos, você não acha? Sou americano-brasileiro e não acho difícil traduzir minhas emoções, levar meus sentimentos para qualquer uma das duas línguas. Também, não sou nacionalista e me sinto perfeitamente à vontade nas duas línguas e nas duas culturas. Sou ser humano. Sinto e falo. I’m human. I feel and speak.
cladovalle
Being Brazilian, I couldn’t help but be touched by this article. Beautiful, delicate and well done!
Todd
Okiksapa = Lakota. It means the lifetime experience that one collects, which enables a person to make wise and correct choices.
namnaho = Mongolian. It means – to ride a horse and shoot an arrow.
yuan fen 緣分 = Mandarin, Chinese. The auspicious coming together of people or coming into situations. .
Karna
We have “schadenfreude” in Sweden too. It’s called “Skadeglädje”, so it’s not just a german word 🙂
Sofia
The word “hyggelig” from Denmark has its equivalent in the swedish language since they are both North Germanic and East Scandinavian languages. The word is almost the same: “Hygglig”.
And there are words from Värmland in Sweden, not the most beautiful words, “trälig” and “tepe”.
South American
Prozvonit in Spanish is “timbrar”.
Lana
You should also add “sevdah”, a popular word in Bosnia 🙂
pete
in liverpool we say “one bell” for :
9. Prozvonit
Czech – This word means to call a mobile phone and let it ring once so that the other person will call back, saving the first caller money. In Spanish, the phrase for this is “Dar un toque,” or, “To give a touch.”
– Uhyrlig. (on English it says = Monstrouse, but we also have that word. Monstrøs).
– Væsentlig(t).
(half of them may have single word translation, i’m not sure, it won’t work for me through)…
I don’t know many other language-words that sound like could be single-word-untranslateable…
Dani Né
that last word has an equivalent in Romanian: “dor” which is a more soulful version of the English “longing”. Kind of a “Toska”, really, but more on the melancholy side. And compared to “saudade”, it doesn’t only refer to people. Moreover, Romania’s trademark music, “Doina” is probably the equivalent to “saudade”, the conveying of “Dor” (saudade) through music. Ijs. (TBH we were also taught that Dor is a unique, untranslatable word, but huh xD the irony)
Sicariusi
There’s actually a translation for the word “prozvonit”. It’s not literal though, more like a slang. In Nigerian pidgin english, it’s called “Flashing”
amaliad
saudade=dor (in romanian) = Sehnsucht (in german)
sk
In Hungarian -Jayus- actually has sort of an equivalent. We call these type of jokes “favicc”, literally “tree jokes” because they are so boring, like a tree.
-Kyoikumama- seems similar to what Asian-Americans refer to as “tiger mom”
-Prozvonit- would be equivalent to the verb “rácsörög”, literally “to ring on someone”.
I’m not sure why -Torschlusspanik- is among the list, since even English has a word for it, called “midlife-crisis” and in Hungarian the word is a literal translation of the German term: “kapuzárási pánik”
-Depaysement- sounds like homesickness – English, Heimweh – German, honvágy – Hungarian
-Schadenfreude- also has a literal translation in Hungarian, “káröröm”
magi
Here in chile we usually said the colloquial word “Pinchar” to the number nine, but it also depends on the context because here, that expression means 2 different things 🙂 I don’t know if it is relevant xDD
Čech
Lítost (long i – í) is more like feeling sorry (litovat) for somebody, or something, so tehre is an element of compassion. But also, you can feel lítost towards yourself – then its “sebelítost” – self-lítost.
Me10
They Might Be Giants wrote a song about Duende.
angie
I quite enjoyed this article! As a person living in an Arab speaking country, I had to turn to my Arabic speaking children and have them explain ya’burnee, Funny!! (I am also one of those people who can’t tell a joke lol)
Leonardo Afonso
“esculhambação” – disorder due to organizational incompetence
quite abundant, actually
Faster Halibut
21.) Graeng-jai (Thai) The unsettling (or angry) feeling of being forced to do something against your will, out of a sense of duty or obligation to the person who is coercing you.
Faster Halibut
Something along the lines of “I’m your boss, and you need to buy $40 worth of candy that you hate, from your measly paycheck, in order to support my son’s soccer team so they can go to All-Stars, in Boca Raton.”
Faster Halibut
Or, “You ran over my cat and killed it, neighbor, and so now you have to take care of the next three strays that I decide to bring home.”
Sadly, something lost in our culture in the last 40 years.
Jordan Kollin
No Greek and Georgian words?? Nice……!
Nova
Because all the languages need to be represented in a list of *20* words…
DanaeLlama
I don’t know about the Georgian but I can sure write down some greek ones! 🙂
– Μεράκι (mer-AA-ki), is the love and hard work you put into something that you like to do. For example, “I have meraki when I fix my car”.
– Φιλότιμο (feel-OO-ti-mo), is the feeling of duty and responsibility when you’re doing something that requires you to be in a certain way (mostly in serious situations). For example, “I have filotimo when I am around my parents, so I don’t swear”.
– Εύνοια (EV-nii-a), a word with two meanings. In ancient greek, it means “a beautiful way of thinking// a beautiful mind”, while in modern greek it means “a possitive stance against someone that makes you be nice to them”.
For example, in modern greek there’s “He has his evnia”.
– Μετάνοια (me-TAA-nii-a), is the way of or becoming aware of something you’ve done, regret for it and then do anything possible to change your whole life or self or heart. Generally, it’s the long journey of becoming a better person (metania is also a term associated with the Greek Orthodox church)
– Παλικάρι (pa-li-KAA-ri), was at first a word to describe young men. Later it became a term for mostly young (and even older) men that are brave, courageous, help the others and have filotimo (HAAA!)
For example, “He’s a palikari for helping me moving this heavy sofa”
– Λεβέντης (le-VE-ndis) [for a man] or Λεβεντιά (le-ve-ndiAA) [the property of a leventis]. The meaning is the same as palikari.
– Καϊμός (ka-ee-MOOS), is a word for the undescribable sorrow and grief that haunts you, something that didn’t happen or it happened and it was bad. It is also used to describe an idea, a desire or complaint that haunts someone’s mind, mostly for something that is never going to be fulfilled.
For ex. “Mary’s kaimos was enormous after Peter died”, or “My kaimos is that I’m never going to be a karate expert”
– Νταλκάς (dal-KAAS), is a turkish-derived word for an even more painful situation than kaimos, and especially for love issues. Unrequired love, being dumped, a breakup, everything can be referred dalkas. It’s also a really heavy word, as if the one with the “dalkas” is at the point of the utter despair, pain and grief.
For ex. “Let him be, he has his dalkas for breaking up with Laura.”
– Ξεροσφύρι (kse-roo-SFEE-ri) is one of the best words ever. Literally translated as “rough hammer”, means drinking alcohol without eating anything in parallel. Eating and drinking at the same time is very important for the Greeks, as they think that they’re the two sides of the same coin; The two ways to be happy.
Alcohol goes always along traditional appetisers which are called “mezedes” (mezes for singular, mezedes for plural), which is read as “me-ZEE-des”, with a soft z like the one in “zoo”.
For ex: “Are we going to drink this kserosfiri?”
I hope I was helpful! 😀
Guillaume Nicoulaud
— “Dépaysement” is more about being somewhere that doesn’t looks like your
usual environment — you might feel “dépaysé” when visiting a distant country but
it may also happen without crossing any border.
— In “appel du vide”, “appel” might be more accurately translated by “appeal”
(same root — sort of “fascination”) and “vide” (void) is mainly used in a metaphorical
way. There is no clear definition of what it means so you can use it in various
contexts (the appeal of nothingness, of chaos etc.).
Asia Epsi
“Ti voglio bene” which is stronger than
I like you but less than I love you
so it’s difficult to translate…
mimi
I wish we had a word for that in America. It would make things so much easier.
Asia Epsi
In German there is this word Schmerz…
SHERIF
haha ya’aburnee in arabic is extremely and commonly used, if a non arab uses it evenyone would laugh and be happy 😀 YA’ABURNEE CRISTIANO RONALDO <3
James Johnson
what do you teach in a nightclub?
nikitasddd
ζαβαρακατρανεμια and πετροπαιχνιδιατορας greek
ira
Saudade does not necessarily mean longing for something that is lost. Its really not all that tragic. It can even be a good thing, almost something you appreciate feeling when you care about something/one
Ken
Re: Prozvonit: The parallel to Spanish is inaccurate, unfortunately. In Spain, the expression is “llamada perdida,” which means the same as the word in Czech listed. “Dar un toque” means simply “to call,” as in “dame un toque” (“give me a call”).
masterblaster
It would be nice if pronouciations were provided.
Guybrush
The german word “heimat”. Roughly translated, it just means home or home country. But it’s more then that. It’s where you really feel at home. It’s what makes the essence of your home.
Also quite nice, german again: “Stallgefühl”. The literal translation is “the feeling in the hatch”, more or less.(Stall=hatch, Gefühl=feeling) It’s the feeling you have when you come home after a long journey. When you get closer to your home, when the surroundings get more familiar and you have the anticipation of being nearly home and feeling safe. (Or in your Heimat).
Mike Newlad
Number 9 is “prank” in English or at it least it will be in a few years, I dare say it’s in the urban dictionary. It’s a very commonly used term. “Prank me when you get home”
Mibber
What’s that word that means ‘the feeling of being alone in the woods’? I think it’s German
MirrorMirror
The word is Waldeinsamkeit
Eamon
amárach (Gaelic) tomorrow as in “manana” but lacking the sense of urgency implicit in the Spanish.
Nelson Ordóñez
Sobremesa: Spanish, literally “after table”, the conversation you have after a meal
Light
Are there words that mean –1. to pursue excellence or 2. To completely love yourself ? Those would be beautiful words.
xiki
how about kaashi, kuruba and kurolhi form maldivian language..
Chris
in japanese words like natsukashii or zutto are hard to translate. It’s a full concept within a word. Natsukashii refers to nostalgia bur in an exclamatory way which is not the case for nostalgia in english. YoU say “natsukashii!!” when you feel somethihng brings memoreis but good or bad not necessarily sad and the feeling is actually enjoyable. Zutto means like when you do something fully like a full circle and that you start back from the beginning. So it means entirely in english but not exactly because it means entirely + return to square one which does not exist in english in one word. There are actually a lot of them in Japanese, I call them “word concepts”
Ethan
You forgot to do Komorebi, light that filters through a tree’s leaves.
Mike L
Love number 3, that is just hilarious!
Mike L
As to number 5, Czech “lítost” I have to disagree a bit. First of all, it is written incorrectly. There should be an “acute accent” on letter i (like this: í), which is used to lengthen a vowel. Second, the word is very close to “feel sorry” translated to English. Though it is a phrase rather than a word (when translated), I think the explanation is overly complicated.
1PeterW
Gemütlichkeit is an untranslatable German word with similar meaning to the description of hyggelig above.
Philippe Gaboury
Dépaysement is perfectly translatable as Homesickness.
Google It
amazing article
Nuno
One portuguese word is missing: “desenrascar”. Is to find a creative solution for a particular problem.
Yousaf
Your Spanish words are incorrect.
DUENDE: literally ‘elf’. defines a certain undefinable force or talent that one may possess and which makes you unique in your art (mainly referring to Flamenco – dance, music, etc). Which projects a certain ‘je ne sais pas’ that makes one project a step beyond just good talent. It is not acquired (as in skill) but inherent in those fortunate.
The Czech ‘Prozvonit’ does not translate in spanish as you have indicated “dar un toque” (which means give a call – by phone; of attention/reprimand. Prozvonit in Spanish would be “hacer una perdida” -literally: make a lost (call).
AlexM
Can’t believe there isn’t a single Hungarian example in the list. So unfair!
curiouschellie
A significant number of Filipino words are borrowed from Spanish, among them Duende (or as we spell it, dwende). This has slightly morphed in usage in our language, depicting a Filipino mythological creature that does not posses, but is capable of both kindness and mischief… so surprised to see that word here!
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In which decade was Mount Everest first climbed?
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Mount Everest | mountain, Asia | Britannica.com
Mount Everest
Alternative Titles: Chomolungma, Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, Peak XV, Qomolangma Feng, Sagarmatha, Zhumulangma Feng
Related Topics
Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner
Mount Everest, Sanskrit and Nepali Sagarmatha, Tibetan Chomolungma, Chinese (Pinyin) Zhumulangma Feng or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, also spelled Qomolangma Feng, mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China , at 27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, the highest point on Earth.
Like other high peaks in the region, Mount Everest has long been revered by local peoples. Its most common Tibetan name, Chomolungma, means “Goddess Mother of the World” or “Goddess of the Valley.” The Sanskrit name Sagarmatha means literally “Peak of Heaven.” Its identity as the highest point on the Earth’s surface was not recognized, however, until 1852, when the governmental Survey of India established that fact. In 1865 the mountain—previously referred to as Peak XV—was renamed for Sir George Everest , British surveyor general of India from 1830 to 1843.
The North Face of Mount Everest, as seen from Tibet (China).
Maria Stenzel—National Geographic/Getty Images
Physical features
Geology and relief
The Himalayan ranges were thrust upward by tectonic action as the Indian-Australian Plate moved northward from the south and was subducted (forced downward) under the Eurasian Plate following the collision of the two plates between about 40 and 50 million years ago. The Himalayas themselves started rising about 25 to 30 million years ago, and the Great Himalayas began to take their present form during the Pleistocene Epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). Everest and its surrounding peaks are part of a large mountain massif that forms a focal point, or knot, of this tectonic action in the Great Himalayas. Information from global positioning instruments in place on Everest since the late 1990s indicates that the mountain continues to move a few inches to the northeast and rise a fraction of an inch each year.
The Mount Everest massif, Himalayas, Nepal.
© Marta/Fotolia
Mount Pinatubo
Everest is composed of multiple layers of rock folded back on themselves (nappes). Rock on the lower elevations of the mountain consists of metamorphic schists and gneisses, topped by igneous granites. Higher up are found sedimentary rocks of marine origin (remnants of the ancient floor of the Tethys Sea that closed after the collision of the two plates). Notable is the Yellow Band, a limestone formation that is prominently visible just below the summit pyramid.
The barren Southeast, Northeast, and West ridges culminate in the Everest summit; a short distance away is the South Summit, a minor bump on the Southeast Ridge with an elevation of 28,700 feet (8,748 metres). The mountain can be seen directly from its northeastern side, where it rises about 12,000 feet (3,600 metres) above the Plateau of Tibet . The peak of Changtse (24,803 feet [7,560 metres]) rises to the north. Khumbutse (21,867 feet [6,665 metres]), Nuptse (25,791 feet [7,861 metres]), and Lhotse (27,940 feet [8,516 metres]) surround Everest’s base to the west and south.
Everest is shaped like a three-sided pyramid . The three generally flat planes constituting the sides are called faces, and the line by which two faces join is known as a ridge. The North Face rises above Tibet and is bounded by the North Ridge (which meets the Northeast Ridge) and the West Ridge; key features of this side of the mountain include the Great and Hornbein couloirs (steep gullies) and the North Col at the start of the North Ridge. The Southwest Face rises above Nepal and is bounded by the West Ridge and the Southeast Ridge; notable features on this side include the South Col (at the start of the Southeast Ridge) and the Khumbu Icefall, the latter a jumble of large blocks of ice that has long been a daunting challenge for climbers. The East Face—or Kangshung (Kangxung) Face—also rises above Tibet and is bounded by the Southeast Ridge and the Northeast Ridge.
Mount Everest (left background) towering above the Khumbu Icefall at the mountain’s base, …
Lee Klopfer/Alamy
Big Radio Burst from Tiny Galaxy
The summit of Everest itself is covered by rock-hard snow surmounted by a layer of softer snow that fluctuates annually by some 5–20 feet (1.5–6 metres); the snow level is highest in September, after the monsoon, and lowest in May after having been depleted by the strong northwesterly winter winds. The summit and upper slopes sit so high in the Earth’s atmosphere that the amount of breathable oxygen there is one-third what it is at sea level. Lack of oxygen, powerful winds, and extremely cold temperatures preclude the development of any plant or animal life there.
Drainage and climate
All About Asia
Glaciers cover the slopes of Everest to its base. Individual glaciers flanking the mountain are the Kangshung Glacier to the east; the East, Central, and West Rongbuk (Rongpu) glaciers to the north and northwest; the Pumori Glacier to the northwest; and the Khumbu Glacier to the west and south, which is fed by the glacier bed of the Western Cwm, an enclosed valley of ice between Everest and the Lhotse-Nuptse Ridge to the south. Glacial action has been the primary force behind the heavy and continuous erosion of Everest and the other high Himalayan peaks.
Frozen pond on the Khumbu Glacier, near Mount Everest, Himalayas, Nepal.
© Shawn McCullars
The mountain’s drainage pattern radiates to the southwest, north, and east. The Khumbu Glacier melts into the Lobujya (Lobuche) River of Nepal, which flows southward as the Imja River to its confluence with the Dudh Kosi River . In Tibet the Rong River originates from the Pumori and Rongbuk glaciers and the Kama River from the Kangshung Glacier: both flow into the Arun River, which cuts through the Himalayas into Nepal. The Rong, Dudh Kosi, and Kama river valleys form, respectively, the northern, southern, and eastern access routes to the summit.
Buddhist prayer flags fluttering in front of the Mount Everest massif; in the foreground is the …
Alan Kearney—Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
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The climate of Everest is always hostile to living things. The warmest average daytime temperature (in July) is only about −2 °F (−19 °C) on the summit; in January , the coldest month, summit temperatures average −33 °F (−36 °C) and can drop as low as −76 °F (−60 °C). Storms can come up suddenly, and temperatures can plummet unexpectedly. The peak of Everest is so high that it reaches the lower limit of the jet stream , and it can be buffeted by sustained winds of more than 100 miles (160 km) per hour. Precipitation falls as snow during the summer monsoon (late May to mid-September). The risk of frostbite to climbers on Everest is extremely high.
The height of Everest
Controversy over the exact elevation of the summit developed because of variations in snow level, gravity deviation, and light refraction. The figure 29,028 feet (8,848 metres), plus or minus a fraction, was established by the Survey of India between 1952 and 1954 and became widely accepted. This value was used by most researchers, mapping agencies, and publishers until 1999.
Attempts were subsequently made to remeasure the mountain’s height. A Chinese survey in 1975 obtained the figure of 29,029.24 feet (8,848.11 metres), and an Italian survey, using satellite surveying techniques, obtained a value of 29,108 feet (8,872 metres) in 1987, but questions arose about the methods used. In 1992 another Italian survey, using the Global Positioning System ( GPS ) and laser measurement technology, yielded the figure 29,023 feet (8,846 metres) by subtracting from the measured height 6.5 feet (2 metres) of ice and snow on the summit, but the methodology used was again called into question.
In 1999 an American survey, sponsored by the (U.S.) National Geographic Society and others, took precise measurements using GPS equipment. Their finding of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), plus or minus 6.5 feet (2 metres), was accepted by the society and by various specialists in the fields of geodesy and cartography . The Chinese mounted another expedition in 2005 that utilized ice-penetrating radar in conjunction with GPS equipment. The result of this was what the Chinese called a “rock height” of 29,017.12 feet (8,844.43 metres), which, though widely reported in the media, was recognized only by China for the next several years. Nepal in particular disputed the Chinese figure, preferring what was termed the “snow height” of 29,028 feet. In April 2010 China and Nepal agreed to recognize the validity of both figures.
Human factors
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Habitation
Everest is so tall and its climate so severe that it is incapable of supporting sustained human occupation, but the valleys below the mountain are inhabited by Tibetan-speaking peoples. Notable among these are the Sherpa s, who live in villages at elevations up to about 14,000 feet (4,270 metres) in the Khumbu valley of Nepal and other locations. Traditionally an agricultural people with little cultivable land at their disposal, the Sherpas for years were traders and led a seminomadic lifestyle in their search for pastureland. In summer , livestock was grazed as high as 16,000 feet (4,880 metres), while winter refuge was taken at lower elevations on sheltered ledges and along riverbanks.
A herders’ shelter in the Mount Everest region of the Himalayas; Lhotse I, just southeast of …
Ted Kerasote/Photo Researchers
Living in close proximity to the world’s highest mountains, the Sherpas traditionally treated the Himalayas as sacred—building Buddhist monasteries at their base, placing prayer flags on the slopes, and establishing sanctuaries for the wildlife of the valleys that included musk deer, monal pheasant, and Himalayan partridge. Gods and demons were believed to live in the high peaks, and the Yeti (the so-called Abominable Snowman ) was said to roam the lower slopes. For these reasons, the Sherpas traditionally did not climb the mountains.
However, beginning with the British expeditions of the early 20th century, surveying and portering work became available. Eventually, the respect and pay earned in mountaineering made it attractive to the Sherpas, who, being so well adapted to the high altitudes, were capable of carrying large loads of cargo over long distances. Though Sherpas and other hill people (the name Sherpa came to be applied—erroneously—to all porters) tend to outperform their foreign clients, they typically have played a subordinate role in expeditions; rarely, for example, has one of their names been associated with a pioneering route on Everest. The influx of foreign climbers—and, in far greater numbers, trekkers—has dramatically changed Sherpa life, as their livelihood increasingly has come to depend on these climbing expeditions.
Industrial Revolution
On the Nepalese side of the international boundary, the mountain and its surrounding valleys lie within Sagarmatha National Park, a 480-square-mile (1,243-square-km) zone established in 1976. In 1979 the park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site . The valleys contain stands of rhododendron and forests of birch and pine, while above the tree line alpine vegetation extends to the feet of the glaciers. Over the years, carelessness and excessive consumption of resources by mountaineers, as well as overgrazing by livestock, have damaged the habitats of snow leopards , lesser pandas , Tibetan bears , and scores of bird species. To counteract past abuses, various reforestation programs have been carried out by local communities and the Nepalese government.
Expeditions have removed supplies and equipment left by climbers on Everest’s slopes, including hundreds of oxygen containers. A large quantity of the litter of past climbers—tons of items such as tents , cans, crampons, and human waste—has been hauled down from the mountain and recycled or discarded. However, the bodies of most of the more than 280 climbers who have died on Everest (notably on its upper slopes) have not been removed, as they are unreachable or—for those that are accessible—their weight makes carrying them down extremely difficult. Notable in the cleanup endeavour have been the efforts of the Eco Everest Expeditions, the first of which was organized in 2008 to commemorate the death that January of Everest-climbing pioneer Sir Edmund Hillary . Those expeditions also have publicized ecological issues (in particular, concerns about the effects of climate change in the region through observations that the Khumbu Icefall has been melting).
Mountaineering on Everest
The human challenge
Mount Everest is difficult to get to and more difficult to climb, even with the great advances made in equipment, transportation , communications, and weather forecasting since the first major expeditions in the 1920s. The mountain itself lies in a highly isolated location. There are no roads in the region on the Nepalese side, and before the 1960s all goods and supplies had to be carried long distances by humans and pack animals. Since then, airstrips built in the Khumbu valley have greatly facilitated transport to the Everest vicinity, although the higher areas have remained accessible only via footpaths. In Tibet there is now a road to the north-side Base Camp.
Climbers on the Nepali side of Mount Everest.
© David Keaton/Corbis
There are only two brief time periods when the weather on Everest is the most hospitable for an ascent. The best one is in April and May, right before the monsoon . Once the monsoon comes, the snow is too soft and the likelihood of avalanche too great. For a few weeks in September, after the monsoon, weather conditions may also permit an attempt; by October, however, the winter storms begin and persist until March, making climbing then nearly impossible.
In addition to the challenges posed by Everest’s location and climate , the effects of high altitudes on the human body are extreme: the region in the Himalayas above about 25,000 feet (7,600 metres) is known as the “death zone.” Climbers at such high altitude have much more rapid breathing and pulse rates (as their bodies try to obtain more oxygen ). In addition, they are not able to digest food well (and often find eating unappealing), they sleep poorly, and they often find their thinking to be confused. These symptoms are manifestations of oxygen deprivation ( hypoxia ) in the body tissues, which makes any effort difficult and can lead to poor decisions being made in an already dangerous environment . Supplemental (bottled) oxygen breathed through a mask can partially alleviate the effects of hypoxia , but it can present an additional problem if a climber becomes used to the oxygen and then runs out while still at high altitude. (See also altitude sickness .)
Two other medical conditions can affect climbers at high elevations. High-altitude cerebral edema (HACE) occurs when the body responds to the lack of oxygen by increasing blood flow to the brain ; the brain begins to swell, and coma and death may occur. High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a similar condition in which the body circulates additional blood to the lungs ; this blood begins to leak into the air sacs , and death is caused essentially by drowning . The most effective treatment for both conditions is to move the affected person to a lower elevation. It has been found that the drug dexamethasone is a useful emergency first-aid treatment when injected into stricken climbers, allowing them to regain movement (when they might otherwise be incapacitated) and thus descend.
Routes and techniques
The southern route via the Khumbu Icefall and the South Col is the one most commonly taken by climbers attempting to summit Everest. It is the route used by the 1953 British expedition when New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay became the first men known to have reached Everest’s summit. The northern route, attempted unsuccessfully by seven British expeditions in the 1920s and ’30s, is also climbed. It is now generally accepted that the first successful ascent via that approach was made by a Chinese expedition in 1960, with Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, Liu Lianman, and a Tibetan, Konbu, reaching the summit. The East Face, Everest’s biggest, is rarely climbed. An American team made the first ascent of it in 1983, and Carlos Buhler, Kim Momb, and Lou Reichardt reached the summit.
Mountaineer Apa Sherpa climbing through the Khumbu Icefall en route to his 20th ascent of the …
Photo courtesy of www.apasherpa.com
Perhaps because most of the early climbers on Everest had military backgrounds, the traditional method of ascending it has been called “ siege” climbing. With this technique, a large team of climbers establishes a series of tented camps farther and farther up the mountain’s side. For instance, on the most frequently climbed southern route, the Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier is at an elevation of about 17,600 feet (5,400 metres). The theory is that the climbers ascend higher and higher to establish camps farther up the route, then come down to sleep at night at the camp below the one being established. (Mountain climbers express this in the phrase, “Climb high, sleep low.”) This practice allows climbers to acclimatize to the high altitude. Camps are established along the route about every 1,500 feet (450 metres) of vertical elevation and are given designations of Camp I, Camp II, and so on. Finally, a last camp is set up close enough to the summit (usually about 3,000 feet [900 metres] below) to allow a small group (called the “assault” team) to reach the peak. This was the way the British organized their expeditions; most of the large commercial expeditions continue to use it—except that all paying clients are now given a chance at the summit. Essential to the siege climbing style is the logistical support given to the climbers by the Sherpas.
American Robert Anderson, leader of the 1988 Everest expedition, follows a fixed rope up a steep …
© Stephen Venables
There had been a feeling among some early 20th-century climbers that ascending with oxygen , support from Sherpas, and a large party was “unsporting” or that it missed the point of mountain climbing. British explorer Eric Shipton expressed the view that these large expeditions caused climbers to lose their sense of the aesthetic of mountain climbing and to focus instead on only achieving the summit. Top mountaineers, disenchanted with the ponderous and predictable nature of these siege climbs, began in the 1970s to bring a more traditional “ Alpine ” style of climbing to the world’s highest peaks; by the 1980s this included even Everest. In this approach, a small party of perhaps three or four climbers goes up and down the mountain as quickly as possible, carrying all needed gear and provisions. This lightweight approach precludes fixing miles of safety ropes and carrying heavy supplemental oxygen. Speed is of the essence. However, at least four weeks still must be spent at and around Base Camp acclimatizing to altitude before the party can consider a summit attempt.
Tents of the Mount Everest Base Camp dotting the background landscape behind a pony, Himalayas, …
© Shawn McCullars
Early expeditions
Reconnaissance of 1921
In the 1890s British army officers Sir Francis Younghusband and Charles (C.G.) Bruce, who were stationed in India, met and began discussing the possibility of an expedition to Everest. The officers became involved with two British exploring organizations—the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) and the Alpine Club—and these groups became instrumental in fostering interest in exploring the mountain. Bruce and Younghusband sought permission to mount an Everest expedition beginning in the early 1900s, but political tensions and bureaucratic difficulties made it impossible. Though Tibet was closed to Westerners, British officer John (J.B.L.) Noel disguised himself and entered it in 1913; he eventually got within 40 miles (65 km) of Everest and was able to see the summit. His lecture to the RGS in 1919 once again generated interest in Everest, permission to explore it was requested of Tibet, and this was granted in 1920. In 1921 the RGS and the Alpine Club formed the Mount Everest Committee, chaired by Younghusband, to organize and finance the expedition. A party under Lieutenant Colonel C.K. Howard-Bury set out to explore the whole Himalayan range and find a route up Everest. The other members were G.H. Bullock , A.M. Kellas, George Mallory , H. Raeburn, A.F.R. Wollaston, Majors H.T. Morshead and O.E. Wheeler (surveyors), and A.M. Heron (geologist).
George Mallory (seated, far left) and Guy Bullock (seated, third from the left), planners of the …
The Granger Collection, New York
During the summer of 1921 the northern approaches to the mountain were thoroughly explored. On the approach to Everest, Kellas died of heart failure. Because Raeburn also fell ill, the high exploration devolved almost entirely upon Mallory and Bullock. Neither had Himalayan experience, and they were faced with the problem of acclimatization besides the difficulty of the terrain.
The first object was to explore the Rongbuk valley. The party ascended the Central Rongbuk Glacier, missing the narrower opening of the eastern branch and the possible line up Everest. They returned eastward for a rest at Kharta Shekar. From there they discovered a pass at 22,000 feet (6,700 metres), the Lhakpa (Lhagba), leading to the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier. The saddle north of Everest, despite its forbidding appearance, was climbed on September 24 by Mallory, Bullock, and Wheeler and named the North Col. A bitter wind prevented them from going higher, but Mallory had from there traced a potential route to the summit.
Attempt of 1922
Members of the expedition were Brigadier General C.G. Bruce (leader), Captain J.G. Bruce, C.G. Crawford, G.I. Finch, T.G. Longstaff, Mallory, Captain C.J. Morris, Major Morshead, Edward Norton , T.H. Somervell, Colonel E.I. Strutt, A.W. Wakefield, and John Noel. It was decided that the mountain must be attempted before the onset of the summer monsoon. In the spring, therefore, the baggage was carried by Sherpas across the high, windy Plateau of Tibet.
Supplies were carried from Base Camp at 16,500 feet (5,030 metres) to an advanced base at Camp III. From there, on May 13, a camp was established on the North Col. With great difficulty a higher camp was set at 25,000 feet (7,620 metres) on the sheltered side of the North Ridge. On the next morning, May 21, Mallory, Norton, and Somervell left Morshead, who was suffering from frostbite, and pushed on through trying windy conditions to 27,000 feet (8,230 metres) near the crest of the Northeast Ridge. On May 25 Finch and Captain Bruce set out from Camp III using oxygen. Finch, a protagonist of oxygen, was justified by the results. The party, with the Gurkha Tejbir Bura, established Camp V at 25,500 feet (7,772 metres). There they were stormbound for a day and two nights, but the next morning Finch and Bruce reached 27,300 feet (8,320 metres) and returned the same day to Camp III. A third attempt during the early monsoon snow ended in disaster. On June 7 Mallory, Crawford, and Somervell, with 14 Sherpas, were crossing the North Col slopes. Nine Sherpas were swept by an avalanche over an ice cliff, and seven were killed. Mallory’s party was carried down 150 feet (45 metres) but not injured.
Attempt of 1924
Members of the expedition were Brigadier General Bruce (leader), Bentley Beetham, Captain Bruce, J. de V. Hazard, Major R.W.G. Hingston, Andrew Irvine, Mallory, Norton, Noel Odell, E.O. Shebbeare (transport), Somervell, and Noel (photographer). Noel devised a novel publicity scheme for financing this trip by buying all film and lecture rights for the expedition, which covered the entire cost of the venture. To generate interest in the climb, he designed a commemorative postcard and stamp; sacks of postcards were then mailed from Base Camp, mostly to schoolchildren who had requested them. This was the first of many Everest public relations ventures.
On the climb itself, because of wintry conditions, Camp IV on the North Col was established only on May 22 by a new and steeper though safer route; the party was then forced to descend. General Bruce had to return because of illness, and under Norton Camp IV was reestablished on June 1. At 25,000 feet (7,620 metres), Mallory and Captain Bruce were stopped when the Sherpas became exhausted. On June 4 Norton and Somervell, with three Sherpas, pitched Camp VI at 26,800 feet (8,170 metres); the next day they reached 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). Norton went on to 28,100 feet (8,565 metres), a documented height unsurpassed until 1953. Mallory and Irvine , using oxygen, set out from the North Col on June 6. On June 8 they started for the summit. Odell, who had come up that morning, believed he saw them in early afternoon high up between the mists.
Initially, Odell claimed to have seen them at what became known as the Second Step (more recently, some have claimed that Odell was describing the Third Step), though later he was less certain exactly where it had been. On the Northeast Ridge there are three “steps”—steep rock barriers—between the elevations of 27,890 and 28,870 feet (8,500 and 8,800 metres) that make the final approach to the summit difficult. The First Step is a limestone vertical barrier about 110 feet (34 metres) high. Above that is a ledge and the Second Step, which is about 160 feet (50 metres) high. (In 1975 a Chinese expedition from the north affixed an aluminum ladder to the step that now makes climbing it much easier.) The Third Step contains another sheer section of rock about 100 feet (30 metres) high that leads to a more gradual slope to the summit. If Odell actually saw Mallory and Irvine at the Third Step at about 12:50 pm, then they would have been some 500 feet (150 metres) below the summit at that point. However, there has long been great uncertainty and considerable debate about all this, especially whether the pair made it to the top that day and if they were ascending or descending the mountain when Odell spotted them. The next morning Odell went up to search and reached Camp VI on June 10, but he found no trace of either man.
When Mallory was asked why he wanted to climb Everest, he replied with the famous line, “Because it’s there.” The British public had come to admire the determined climber over the course of his three expeditions, and they were shocked by his disappearance. (The fate of Mallory remained a mystery for 75 years; see Finding Mallory and commemorating the historic ascents .)
Attempt of 1933
Members of the expedition were Hugh Ruttledge (leader), Captain E. St. J. Birnie, Lieutenant Colonel H. Boustead, T.A. Brocklebank, Crawford, C.R. Greene, Percy Wyn-Harris, J.L. Longland, W.W. McLean, Shebbeare (transport), Eric Shipton, Francis S. Smythe, Lawrence R. Wager, G. Wood-Johnson, and Lieutenants W.R. Smyth-Windham and E.C. Thompson (wireless).
High winds made it extremely difficult to establish Base Camp in the North Col, but it was finally done on May 1. Its occupants were cut off from the others for several days. On May 22, however, Camp V was placed at 25,700 feet (7,830 metres); again storms set in, retreat was ordered, and V was not reoccupied until the 28th. On the 29th Wyn-Harris, Wager, and Longland pitched Camp VI at 27,400 feet (8,350 metres). On the way down, Longland’s party, caught in a blizzard, had great difficulty.
On May 30, while Smythe and Shipton came up to Camp V, Wyn-Harris and Wager set off from Camp VI. A short distance below the crest of the Northeast Ridge, they found Irvine’s ice ax. They reckoned that the Second Step was impossible to ascend and were compelled to follow Norton’s 1924 traverse to the Great Couloir splitting the face below the summit. They crossed the gorge to a height about the same as Norton’s but then had to return. Smythe and Shipton made a final attempt on June 1. Shipton returned to Camp V. Smythe pushed on alone, crossed the couloir, and reached the same height as Wyn-Harris and Wager. On his return the monsoon ended operations.
Also in 1933 a series of airplane flights were conducted over Everest—the first occurring on April 3—which permitted the summit and surrounding landscape to be photographed. In 1934 Maurice Wilson, an inexperienced climber who was obsessed with the mountain, died above Camp III attempting to climb Everest alone.
Reconnaissance of 1935
In 1935 an expedition led by Shipton was sent to reconnoitre the mountain, explore the western approaches, and discover more about monsoon conditions. Other members were L.V. Bryant, E.G.H. Kempson, M. Spender (surveyor), H.W. Tilman, C. Warren, and E.H.L. Wigram. In late July the party succeeded in putting a camp on the North Col, but dangerous avalanche conditions kept them off the mountain. One more visit was paid to the North Col area in an attempt on Changtse (the north peak). During the reconnaissance Wilson’s body was found and buried; his diary was also recovered.
Attempts of 1936 and 1938
Members of the 1936 expedition were Ruttledge (leader), J.M.L. Gavin, Wyn-Harris, G.N. Humphreys, Kempson, Morris (transport), P.R. Oliver, Shipton, Smyth-Windham (wireless), Smythe, Warren, and Wigram. This expedition had the misfortune of an unusually early monsoon. The route up to the North Col was finished on May 13, but the wind had dropped, and heavy snowfalls almost immediately after the camp was established put an end to climbing the upper part of the mountain. Several later attempts to regain the col failed.
Members of the 1938 expedition were Tilman (leader), P. Lloyd, Odell, Oliver, Shipton, Smythe, and Warren. Unlike the two previous parties, some members of this expedition used oxygen . The party arrived early, in view of the experience of 1936, but they were actually too early and had to withdraw, meeting again at Camp III on May 20. The North Col camp was pitched under snowy conditions on May 24. Shortly after, because of dangerous snow, the route was changed and a new one made up the west side of the col. On June 6 Camp V was established. On June 8, in deep snow, Shipton and Smythe with seven Sherpas pitched Camp VI, at 27,200 feet (8,290 metres), but the next day they were stopped above it by deep powder. The same fate befell Tilman and Lloyd, who made their attempt on the 11th. Lloyd benefited from an open-circuit oxygen apparatus that partly allowed him to breathe the outside air. Bad weather compelled a final retreat.
Golden age of Everest climbs
Reconnaissance of 1951
After 1938, expeditions to Everest were interrupted by World War II and the immediate postwar years. In addition, the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 precluded using the northern approach. In 1951 permission was received from the Nepalese for a reconnaissance of the mountain from the south. Members of the expedition were Shipton (leader), T.D. Bourdillon, Edmund Hillary, W.H. Murray, H.E. Riddiford, and M.P. Ward. The party marched through the monsoon, reaching Namche Bazar, the chief village of Solu-Khumbu, on September 22. At Khumbu Glacier they found it possible to scale the great icefall seen by Mallory from the west. They were stopped at the top by a huge crevasse but traced a possible line up the Western Cwm (cirque, or valley) to the South Col, the high saddle between Lhotse and Everest.
Spring attempt of 1952
Expedition members were E. Wyss Dunant (leader), J.J. Asper, R. Aubert, G. Chevalley, R. Dittert (leader of climbing party), L. Flory, E. Hofstetter, P.C. Bonnant, R. Lambert, A. Roch, A. Lombard (geologist), and A. Zimmermann (botanist). This strong Swiss party first set foot on the Khumbu Icefall on April 26. After considerable difficulty with the route, they overcame the final crevasse by means of a rope bridge. The 4,000-foot (1,220-metre) face of Lhotse, which had to be climbed to reach the South Col, was attempted by a route running beside a long spur of rock christened the Éperon des Genevois. The first party, Lambert, Flory, Aubert, and Tenzing Norgay (sirdar, or leader of the porters), with five Sherpas, tried to reach the col in one day. They were compelled to bivouac quite a distance below it (May 25) and the next day reached the summit of the Éperon, at 26,300 feet (8,016 metres), whence they descended to the col and pitched camp. On May 27 the party (less the five Sherpas) climbed up the Southeast Ridge. They reached approximately 27,200 feet (8,290 metres), and there Lambert and Tenzing bivouacked. The next day they pushed on up the ridge and turned back at approximately 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). Also on May 28 Asper, Chevalley, Dittert, Hofstetter, and Roch reached the South Col, but they were prevented by wind conditions from going higher and descended to the base.
Autumn attempt of 1952
Members of this second Swiss expedition were Chevalley (leader), J. Buzio, G. Gross, Lambert, E. Reiss, A. Spöhel, and Norman Dyhrenfurth (photographer). The party found the icefall easier to climb than in the spring and had brought poles to bridge the great crevasse. Camp IV was occupied on October 20. Higher up, however, they were constantly harassed by bitterly cold winds. On the ice slope below the Éperon one Sherpa was killed, and the party took to the glaciated face of Lhotse on the right. The South Col was reached on November 19, but the summit party climbed only 300 feet (90 metres) higher before being forced to withdraw.
The historic ascent of 1953
Members of the expedition, which was sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club, were Colonel John Hunt (leader; later Baron Hunt), G.C. Band, Bourdillon, R.C. Evans, A. Gregory, Edmund Hillary , W.G. Lowe, C.W.F. Noyce, M.P. Ward, M.H. Westmacott, Major C.G. Wylie (transport), T. Stobart (cinematographer), and L.G.C. Pugh (physiologist). After three weeks’ training on neighbouring mountains, a route was worked out up the Khumbu Icefall, and it was possible to start ferrying loads of supplies to the Western Cwm head. Two forms of oxygen apparatus, closed- and open-circuit types, were tried. As a result of a reconnaissance of Lhotse in early May, Hunt decided that Bourdillon and Evans, experts on closed-circuit, should make the first attempt from the South Col. Hillary with Tenzing Norgay as sirdar were to follow, using open-circuit and a higher camp.
Route of Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay to the summit of Mount Everest, May 1953.
Based on the map published by the Royal Geograhical Society
Lowe spent nine days, most of them with Ang Nyima Sherpa, working at the lower section of the Lhotse face. On May 17 a camp was pitched on it at 24,000 feet (7,315 metres). The route on the upper part of the face, over the top of the Éperon, was first made by Noyce and Annullu Sherpa on May 21. The next day 13 Sherpas led by Wylie, with Hillary and Tenzing ahead, reached the col and dumped loads. The fine weather continued from May 14 but with high winds. On May 24 the first summit party, with Hunt and two Sherpas in support, reached the col. On the 26th Evans and Bourdillon climbed to the South Summit of Everest, but by then it was too late in the day to go farther. Meanwhile Hunt and Da Namgyal Sherpa left loads for a ridge camp at 27,350 feet (8,335 metres).
On the 28th the ridge camp was established at 27,900 feet (8,500 metres) by Hillary, Tenzing, Lowe, Gregory, and Ang Nyima, and Hillary and Tenzing passed the night there. The two set out early on the morning of May 29, reaching the South Summit by 9:00 am. The first challenge on the final approach to the summit of Everest was a fairly level ridge of rock some 400 feet (120 metres) long flanked by an ice “cornice”; to the right was the East (Kangshung) Face, and to the left was the Southwest Face, both sheer drop-offs. The final obstacle, about halfway between the South Summit and the summit of Everest, was a steep spur of rock and ice—now called the Hillary Step. Though it is only about 55 feet (17 metres) high, the formation is difficult to climb because of its extreme pitch and because a mistake would be deadly. Climbers now use fixed ropes to ascend this section, but Hillary and Tenzing had only ice-climbing equipment. First Hillary and then Tenzing tackled the barrier much as one would climb a rock chimney—i.e., they inched up a little at a time with their backs against the rock wall and their feet wedged in a crack between the rock and ice.
Edmund (later Sir Edmund) Hillary and Tenzing Norgay preparing to depart on their successful summit …
The Granger Collection, New York
They reached the summit of Everest at 11:30 am. Hillary turned to Tenzing, and the men shook hands; Tenzing then embraced Hillary in a hug. Hillary took photos, and the two searched for but did not find signs that Mallory and Irvine had been to the summit. Tenzing, a Buddhist, made an offering of food for the mountain; Hillary left a crucifix Hunt had given him. The two men ate some sweets and then headed down. They had spent about 15 minutes on the top of the world.
They were met on the slopes above the South Col that afternoon by Lowe and Noyce. Hillary is reputed to have said to Lowe, “Well, George, we knocked the bastard off.” By June 2 the whole expedition had reassembled at the Base Camp.
A correspondent for The Times, James (later Jan) Morris, had hiked up to Camp IV to follow the story more closely and was on hand to cover the event. Worried that other papers might scoop him, Morris wired his story to the paper in code. It reached London in time to appear in the June 2 edition. A headline from another London paper published later that day, “All this, and Everest too!” referred to the fact that Elizabeth II was being crowned on the same day on which the news broke about the success on Everest. After years of privation during and after World War II and the subsequent loss of empire, the effect of the successful Everest ascent was a sensation for the British public. The feat was also celebrated worldwide, but nowhere like in Britain and the Commonwealth, whose climbers had been so closely associated with Everest for more than 30 years. As Walt Unsworth described it in Everest,
And so, the British, as usual, had not only won the last battle but had timed victory in a masterly fashion. Even had it not been announced on Coronation Day it would have made world headlines, but in Britain the linking of the two events was regarded as almost an omen, ordained by the Almighty as a special blessing for the dawn of a New Elizabethan Age. It is doubtful whether any single adventure had ever before received such universal acclaim: Scott’s epic last journey, perhaps, or Stanley’s finding of Livingstone—it was of that order.
Tenzing Norgay (right) and Edmund Hillary showing the kit they wore to the top of Mount Everest, …
AP
The expedition little expected the fanfare that awaited them on their return to Britain. Both Hillary and Hunt were knighted in July (Hunt was later made a life peer), and Tenzing was awarded the George Medal. All members of the expedition were feted at parties and banquets for months, but the spotlight fell mostly on Hillary and Tenzing as the men responsible for one of the defining events of the 20th century.
Everest- Lhotse, 1956
In 1956 the Swiss performed the remarkable feat of getting two ropes up Everest and one up Lhotse , using oxygen. Members of the expedition were A. Eggler (leader), W. Diehl, H. Grimm, H.R. von Gunten, E. Leuthold, F. Luchsinger, J. Marmet, F. Müller, Reiss, A. Reist, and E. Schmied. They followed roughly the British route up the icefall and the Lhotse face. From their Camp VI Reiss and Luchsinger reached the summit of Lhotse on May 18. Camp VI was moved to the South Col, and the summit of Everest was reached from a camp at 27,500 feet (8,380 metres) by Marmet and Schmied (May 23) and Gunten and Reist (May 24).
Attempts of 1960
In 1960 an Indian expedition with Sherpas, led by Brigadier Gyan Singh, attempted to scale Everest from the south. Camp IV was established in the Western Cwm on April 19. Bad weather followed, but a party using oxygen reached the South Col on May 9. On May 24 three members pitched a tent at 27,000 feet (8,230 metres) on the Southeast Ridge but were turned back by wind and weather at about 28,300 feet (8,625 metres). Continued bad weather prevented the second summit party’s leaving the South Col.
Also that spring it was reported that a Chinese expedition led by Shi Zhanzhun climbed Everest from the north. By their account they reached the North Col in April, and on May 24 Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, Liu Lianman, and a Tibetan mountaineer, Konbu, climbed the slab by a human ladder, reaching the top at 4:20 am to place the Chinese flag and a bust of Mao Zedong . The credibility of their account was doubted at the time but later was generally accepted (see below The north approach ).
(Cuthbert) Wilfrid (Francis) Noyce (Henry Cecil) John Hunt Stephen Venables
The U.S. ascent of 1963
The first American expedition to Everest was led by the Swiss climber Norman Dyhrenfurth, who selected a team of 19 mountaineers and scientists from throughout the United States and 37 Sherpas. The purpose was twofold: to reach the summit and to carry out scientific research programs in physiology, psychology, glaciology, and meteorology . Of particular interest were the studies on how the climbers changed physiologically and psychologically under extreme stresses at high altitudes where oxygen deprivation was unavoidable. These studies were related to the U.S. space program, and among the 400 sponsors of the expedition were the National Geographic Society , the U.S. State Department , the National Science Foundation , the Office of Naval Research, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration , the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, the Atomic Energy Commission , and the U.S. Air Force .
On February 20 the expedition left Kathmandu , Nepal, for Everest, 180 miles (290 km) away. More than 900 porters carried some 26 tons of food, clothing, equipment, and scientific instruments. Base Camp was established at 17,800 feet (5,425 metres) on Khumbu Glacier on March 20, one month earlier than on any previous expedition. For the next five weeks the team selected a route toward the summit and established and stocked a series of camps up the mountain via the traditional South Col route. They also explored the more difficult and untried West Ridge route. On May 1 James W. Whittaker and Nawang Gombu Sherpa, nephew of Tenzing Norgay, reached the summit despite high winds. On May 22 four other Americans reached the top. Two of them, William F. Unsoeld and Thomas F. Hornbein, made mountaineering history by ascending the West Ridge, which until then had been considered unclimbable. They descended the traditional way, along the Southeast Ridge toward the South Col, thus also accomplishing the first major mountain traverse in the Himalayas. On the descent, Unsoeld and Hornbein, along with Barry C. Bishop and Luther G. Jerstad (who had also reached the summit that day via the South Col), were forced to bivouac in the open at 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). All suffered frostbite, and Bishop and Unsoeld later lost their toes; the two had to be carried out of Base Camp on the backs of Sherpas. On July 8 Dyhrenfurth and all members of the expedition were presented the National Geographic Society’s Hubbard Medal by President John F. Kennedy .
The Indian ascent of 1965
In 1965 a 21-man Indian expedition, led by Lieutenant Commander M.S. Kohli, succeeded in putting nine men on the summit of Everest. India thus became the fourth country to scale the world’s highest mountain. One of the group, Nawang Gombu, became the first person ever to climb Mount Everest twice, having first accomplished the feat on the U.S. expedition.
The 1970s
The Southwest Face
From 1966 to 1969 the government of Nepal banned mountaineers from climbing in the Nepalese Himalayas. When the ranges were reopened in 1969, the world’s top mountaineers—following the American example of 1963—set their eyes on new routes to Everest’s summit. With Tibet still closed and only the southern approach available, the obvious challenge was the huge Southwest Face rising from the Western Cwm. The crux of the problem was the Rock Band—a vertical cliff 2,000 feet (600 metres) high starting at about 26,250 feet (8,000 metres). A Japanese reconnaissance expedition reached the foot of the Rock Band in the autumn of 1969 and returned in spring 1970 for a full-scale attempt led by Matsukata Saburō. Failing to make further progress on the Southwest Face, the expedition switched to the easier South Col route, getting the first Japanese climbers, including the renowned Japanese explorer Uemura Naomi, to the summit.
Mount Everest, Himalayas, from Nepal.
© Michelle Eadie/Fotolia
Expeditions continued to lay “siege” to the Southwest Face. The most publicized of these climbs was the 1971 International Expedition led by Norman Dyhrenfurth; however, internationalist ideals were savaged by the stresses of high altitude, and the expedition degenerated into rancour between the British and non-British climbers. In the spring of 1972 a European expedition led by the German Karl Herrligkoffer was equally inharmonious.
The battle for the Southwest Face continued in a predictable pattern: large teams, supported by Sherpas acting as high-altitude porters, established a succession of camps in the broad, snow-covered couloir leading to the foot of the intractable Rock Band. Success finally came in the autumn of 1975 to a British expedition led by Chris (later Sir Chris) Bonington, who got the full team and its meticulously prepared equipment to Base Camp by the end of August and made the most of the mainly calm weather during the September time window.
Climbing equipment had changed significantly since 1953. In the mid-1970s rigid box-shaped tents were bolted to aluminum alloy platforms dug into the 45° slope. Smooth-sheathed nylon ropes were affixed to the rock face to make a continuous safety line, which climbers could ascend and descend very efficiently. The 1975 expedition was a smooth operation that utilized a team of 33 Sherpas and was directed by some of the world’s best mountaineers. Unlike previous expeditions, this team explored a deep gully cutting through the left side of the Rock Band, with Paul Braithwaite and Nick Estcourt breaking through to establish Camp VI at about 27,000 feet (8,230 metres). From there Doug Scott and Dougal Haston made a long, bold traverse rightward, eventually gaining the South Summit and continuing over the Hillary Step to the Everest summit, which they reached at 6:00 pm. Rather than risk descending in the dark, they bivouacked in a snow cave close to the South Summit—at 28,750 feet (8,750 metres), this was the highest bivouac in climbing history until Babu Chiri Sherpa bivouacked on the summit itself in 1999. Their oxygen tanks were empty, and they had neither tent nor sleeping bags, but both men survived the ordeal unharmed and returned safely to Camp VI in the morning. Two days later Peter Boardman and Pertemba Sherpa reached the summit, followed by Mick Burke heading for the top in deteriorating weather. Burke never returned; he is presumed to have fallen to his death in the whiteout conditions.
The first ascent by a woman
When Scott and Haston reached the summit of Everest in September 1975, they found a metal surveying tripod left the previous spring by a Chinese team—definitive proof of the first uncontested ascent from the north. The Chinese team included a Tibetan woman, Phantog, who reached the summit on May 27. The honours for the first woman to summit Everest, however, belong to the Japanese climber Tabei Junko, who reached the top from the South Col on May 16. She was climbing with the first all-women expedition to Everest (although male Sherpas supported the climb.)
The West Ridge direct ascent
With the Southwest Face climbed, the next obvious—and harder—challenge was the complete West Ridge direct ascent from Lho Pass (Lho La). Just getting to Lho Pass from Base Camp is a major climb. The West Ridge itself then rises 9,200 feet (2,800 metres) over a distance of 3.5 miles (5.5 km), much of it over difficult rock. In 1979 a Yugoslav team, led by Tone Skarja, made the first ascent, fixing ropes to Camp V at an elevation of about 26,750 feet (8,120 metres), with one rope fixed farther up a steep rock chimney (a crack or gorge large enough to permit a climber to enter). On May 13 Andrej Stremfelj and Jernej Zaplotnik set out from Camp V for the summit. Above the chimney there were two more hard pitches of rock climbing. With no spare rope to fix in place, the climbers realized that they would not be able to descend via these difficult sections. After reaching the summit in midafternoon, they descended by the Hornbein Couloir, bypassing the hardest part of the West Ridge to regain the safety of Camp IV late that evening.
Climbing without supplemental oxygen
Beginning in the 1920s and ’30s, the received wisdom had been that an Everest climb needed a team of at least 10 climbers supported by Sherpas and equipped with supplemental oxygen for the final stages. In 1978 that belief was shattered by the Italian (Tyrolean) climber Reinhold Messner and his Austrian climbing partner Peter Habeler . They had already demonstrated on other high Himalayan peaks the art of Alpine-style climbing—moving rapidly, carrying only the barest essentials, and sometimes not even roping together for safety—as opposed to the standard siege style. Another innovation was their use of plastic boots, which were much lighter than the leather equivalent. In 1978 Messner and Habeler attached themselves as a semiautonomous unit to a large German-Austrian expedition led by Oswald Ölz. At 5:30 am on May 8, the two men left their tent at the South Col and started up the summit ridge carrying nothing but ice axes, cameras , and a short rope. The only external assistance was from the Austrians at their top camp, above the South Col, where the two stopped briefly to melt snow for drinking water. (In those days it was still common practice to place a top camp higher than the South Col; nowadays virtually all parties start their final push from the col, some 3,100 feet [950 metres] below the summit). Maintaining a steady ascent rate of about 325 feet (100 metres) per hour, they reached the summit at 1:15 pm. Habeler was terrified of possibly suffering brain damage from the lack of oxygen and made a remarkable descent to the South Col in just one hour. Messner returned later that afternoon. Exhausted—and in Messner’s case snow-blind from having removed his goggles—the two were escorted back down to the Western Cwm the next morning by the Welsh climber Eric Jones.
Mountaineer Reinhold Messner, who pioneered climbing Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen and …
John MacDougall—AFP/Getty Images
Messner and Habeler had proved that human beings could climb to the top of the world without supplemental oxygen; the German Hans Engl and the Sherpas Ang Dorje and Ang Kami were among several climbers who duplicated this feat in the autumn of 1978. However, for Messner, climbing Everest without supplemental oxygen was not enough: he now wanted to reach the summit completely alone. To do that unroped over the treacherous crevasses of the Western Cwm was considered unthinkable, but it was possible on the less-crevassed northern approach through Tibet; by the late 1970s Tibet was again becoming an option.
The north approach
After China occupied Tibet in 1950, permission was denied to any expeditions from noncommunist countries wishing to climb Everest. In 1960 the Chinese army built a road to the Rongbuk Base Camp, then claimed to have made the first ascent of Everest from the north, following the North Col–North Ridge–Northeast Ridge route earlier explored by prewar British expeditions. Many in the West doubted the Chinese assertion, mainly because the official account—which included the claim that Qu Yinhua had scaled the notorious vertical cliff of the Second Step barefoot and which also made constant references to party solidarity and the inspiration of Chairman Mao—was deemed so improbable. Not for the last time, Everest was used as a vehicle for propaganda .
Since that time, however, people in the West have seen Qu’s feet, mutilated by frostbite, and experts have reexamined the 1960 photos and film—many now believe that Qu, Wang Fuzhou, Liu Lianman, and the Tibetan, Konbu, did indeed reach the summit on May 25, 1960. What none can doubt is the Chinese repeat ascent of 1975 by eight Tibetans (including Phantog) and one Chinese. On that climb the group bolted an aluminium ladder to the Second Step, which has remained there and greatly aided all subsequent ascents on what has become the standard route from the north.
The 1980s
In 1979 the Chinese authorities announced that noncommunist countries could again begin mounting Everest expeditions through Tibet. Japan was first to do so, with a joint Sino-Japanese expedition led by Watanabe Hyōrikō in the spring of 1980. Half of the 1980 team repeated the Chinese North Ridge–Northeast Ridge route, with Katō Yasuo reaching the summit alone—making him the first person to climb Everest from the south and north. Meanwhile, another team made the first complete ascent of the North Face from the Central Rongbuk Glacier. The upper face is split by the Great Couloir on the left and the Hornbein Couloir (first attained from the West Ridge in 1963) on the right. The 1980 team climbed a lower couloir (the Japanese Couloir) that led directly to the base of the Hornbein Couloir, which was then followed to the top. Shigehiro Tsuneo and Ozaki Takashi ran out of oxygen about four hours below the summit but continued without it, reaching the summit late and bivouacking on the way down. Once again, modern insulated clothing and modern psychological attitudes about what was possible on Everest had allowed climbers to push on in a manner unthinkable to the prewar pioneers.
First solo climb
Reinhold Messner arrived at Rongbuk during the monsoon in July 1980. He spent a month acclimatizing, did one reconnaissance to the North Col to cache supplies there, then set off alone from Advance Base on the East Rongbuk Glacier before dawn on August 18. After a lucky escape from a concealed crevasse into which he had fallen, he reached the North Col, collected his gear, and continued to climb higher up the North Ridge. He then slanted diagonally right, as George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce had done in 1922, traversing a full 1.2 miles (2 km) before stopping to pitch his tent a second time, at 26,900 feet (8,200 metres). On the third day he entered the Great Couloir, continued up it, and achieved what had eluded Edward Norton, Lawrence Wager, Percy Wyn-Harris, and Francis Smythe by climbing rightward out of the couloir, onto the final terraces, and to the summit. Messner later recounted,
I was in continual agony; I have never in my whole life been so tired as on the summit of Everest that day. I just sat and sat there, oblivious to everything.…I knew I was physically at the end of my tether.
Back at his tent that night he was too weak even to eat or drink, and the next morning he jettisoned all his survival equipment, committing himself to descending all the way to Advance Base Camp in a single day.
Further exploration from Tibet
Messner’s 1980 solo climb demonstrated just what could be done on the world’s highest mountain. With that same bold spirit, a four-man British team came to Rongbuk in 1982 to attempt the complete Northeast Ridge from Raphu Pass (Raphu La). While he was leading the climb of the first of the three prominent Pinnacles that start at about 26,900 feet (8,200 metres), Dick Renshaw suffered a mild stroke and was invalided home. The expedition leader, Chris Bonington, felt too tired to go back up, and thus it was left to Peter Boardman and Joe Tasker to attempt the final ascent. They were last seen alive between the First Pinnacle and the Second Pinnacle on May 17. Boardman’s body was found 10 years later, sitting in the snow near that point; Tasker has not been found.
Base Camp for the 1988 ascent of Mount Everest via the East (Kangshung) Face, Tibet; prayer flags …
© Stephen Venables
In 1981 a large American team made the first-ever attempt on Everest’s gigantic East Face from Kangshung Glacier. Avalanche risk thwarted the attempt, but the team returned in autumn of 1983 to attempt again the massive central buttress of the face. This produced some spectacularly hard climbing, led by George Lowe . Above the buttress, the route followed a broad spur of snow and ice to reach the Southeast Ridge just below the South Summit. Carlos Buhler, Lou Reichardt, and Kim Momb reached the Everest summit on October 8, followed the next day by Jay Cassell, Lowe, and Dan Reid.
In 1984 the first Australians to attempt Everest chose a new route up the North Face, climbing through the huge central snowfield, dubbed “White Limbo,” to gain the Great Couloir. Then, like Messner in 1980, the Australians cut out right, with Tim Macartney-Snape and Greg Mortimer reaching the summit at sunset before making a difficult descent in the dark.
The most remarkable achievement of this era was the 1986 ascent by the Swiss climbers Jean Troillet and Erhard Loretan. Like Messner, they snatched a clear-weather window toward the end of the monsoon for a lightning dash up and down the mountain. Unlike Messner, they did not even carry a tent and sleeping bags. Climbing by night, resting during the comparative warmth of the day, they took just 41.5 hours to climb the Japanese and Hornbein couloirs up the North Face; then, sliding most of the way on their backsides, they descended in about 4.5 hours.
Developments in Nepal
While the most dazzling deeds were being done on the Tibetan side of Everest, there was still much activity in Nepal during the 1980s, with the boldest pioneering expeditions coming from eastern European countries. For dogged teamwork, nothing has surpassed the first winter ascent of Everest. Completed in 1980 by a team of phenomenally rugged Polish climbers, this ascent was led by Andrzej Zawada; expedition members Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki reached the summit on February 17. To crown this success, Zawada then led a spring expedition to make the first ascent of the South Pillar (left of the South Col), getting Andrzej Czok and Jerzy Kukuczka to the summit. Kukuczka, like Messner, would eventually climb all of the world’s 26,250-foot (8,000-metre) peaks, nearly all by difficult new routes.
Several teams attempted to repeat the Yugoslav West Ridge direct route without success, until a Bulgarian team did so in 1984. The first Bulgarian to reach the summit, Christo Prodanov, climbed without supplemental oxygen, was forced to bivouac overnight during the descent, and died—one of four summiteers who climbed without oxygen in the 1980s and failed to return.
The first Soviet expedition to Everest, in 1982, climbed a new route up the left-hand buttress of the Southwest Face, involving harder climbing than the original 1975 route. Led by Evgeny Tamm, the expedition was highly successful, putting 11 Soviet climbers on the summit.
The end of an era
The last of the great pioneering climbs of the decade was via a new route up the left side of the East Face to the South Col. Led by American Robert Anderson, it included just four climbers who had no Sherpa support and used no supplemental oxygen. British climber Stephen Venables was the only member of this expedition to reach the summit, on May 12, 1988. After a harrowing descent, during which Venables was forced to bivouac overnight without a tent, all four members of the team made it back to the Base Camp.
During the same period, more than 250 members of the “Asian Friendship Expedition” from China , Nepal, and Japan staged a simultaneous traverse of the mountain from north and south, which was recorded live on television. Also in 1988 the Sherpas Sungdare and Ang Rita both made their fifth summit of the mountain. That autumn the ace French climber, Marc Boivin, made the first paragliding descent from the summit; New Zealander Russell Brice and Briton Harry Taylor climbed the infamous Pinnacles on the Northeast Ridge; and four Czech climbers disappeared in a storm after making an Alpine-style climb of the Southwest Face without supplemental oxygen. The following year five Poles were lost in an avalanche on the West Ridge.
The increasing activity on Everest in 1988 foreshadowed what was to come. At the start of the spring season that year, fewer than 200 individuals had summited Everest. However, by the 2003 season, a half century after the historic climb by Hillary and Tenzing, that number exceeded 1,200, and more than 200 climbers had summited Everest two or more times. Both statistics grew dramatically in the succeeding decade, particularly the proportion of climbers with multiple ascents; by the end of the 2013 climbing season, the tally of successful ascents of the mountain was approaching 7,000, and some 2,750 had climbed it more than once.
Since 1990
Commercialism and tragedy
In the 1950s and ’60s the expense of mounting an expedition to Everest was so great and the number of climbers familiar with the Himalayas so few that there were many years in which no team attempted the mountain. By the 1970s expeditions had become more common, but Nepal was still issuing only two or three permits per year. In the 1980s permits became available for both the pre- and post- monsoon seasons and for routes via China as well as Nepal , and the total number of expeditions increased to about 10 per year. During the 1990s it became normal for there to be at least 10 expeditions per season on each side of the mountain, and those numbers continued to increase after 2000.
Australian climber Lincoln Hall on Mount Everest in May 1996, a survivor of the deadly events on …
Jamie McGuinness—Project-Himalaya.com/AP
One of the most successful operators, New Zealander Rob Hall, had led teams up the South Col route to the summit in 1990 and in 1992, ’93, and ’94. On May 10, 1996, his group and several other teams were caught at the summit in a bad afternoon storm. Hall and his American client, Doug Hansen, both died at the South Summit. An American guide from a separate commercial expedition, Scott Fischer, also died, along with several other climbers, including three Indians, on the Northeast Ridge. Although the deaths in the late 1980s had gone almost unnoticed, those from the 1996 storm were reported instantly over the Internet and generated massive press coverage and disaster literature. In all, 12 climbers died in that year’s pre-monsoon season, and an additional 3 died after the monsoon. The 1996 disaster may have caught the world’s attention, but it did nothing to decrease the lure of Everest. If anything, commercial traffic increased dramatically, despite the obvious message that no guide can guarantee a climber’s safety at such great heights. Indeed, after 2000 the number of climbers making it to the top of Everest continued to rise, reaching a peak of some 630 in 2007 and exceeding 650 in 2013.
It became increasingly common for several expeditions to be operating simultaneously on the mountain and for dozens of climbers to reach the summit on a single day; on May 23, 2001, nearly 90 accomplished the feat, and in succeeding years daily totals typically approached or exceeded that number during the peak of the May climbing season. An unprecedented 234 climbers made it to the top on May 19, 2012. Such large throngs of climbers inevitably created traffic jams in some of the narrower passages. One of the more notorious of those instances was on the record day, May 19, 2012, when the climbers became dangerously backed up at the Hillary Step. Four people died then, prompting expedition leaders to better coordinate their final ascent attempts with each other.
Southern (Hillary-Tenzing) summit route up Mount Everest showing the location of the April 18, …
Photo: Lee Klopfer/Alamy Art: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Over the years, considerable improvements in climbing gear and equipment, technology (including mobile wireless availability on the mountain), and expedition planning have improved the safety of those climbing Everest. However, the region remains a highly dangerous place where tragedy can strike at any time. Two notable examples occurred almost exactly a year apart. On April 18, 2014, an avalanche struck a group of Sherpas who were carrying supplies through the Khumbu Icefall. A total of 16 died (13 confirmed; 3 missing and presumed killed), making it the deadliest single day in Everest climbing history to that date. On April 25, 2015, however, a massive earthquake in central Nepal triggered avalanches on Everest, one of which swept through Base Camp, killing or injuring dozens of climbers and workers there. The known death toll on the mountain was 19—which included one climber who died after being evacuated to a hospital—surpassing the total from the previous year. In addition, the route through the Khumbu Icefall was severely damaged, stranding dozens of climbers at Camps I and II above the icefall, who then had to be rescued by helicopter.
Climbers walking to a helicopter landing site prior to evacuation from Mount Everest Base Camp, …
Phurba Tenjing Sherpa—Reuters/Landov
The 2014 disaster put an end to the Nepalese-side climbing season, after the Sherpas decided that they would not climb. One Chinese woman did reach the summit after being helicoptered to and from Camp II, and some 125 climbers made it to the top from the north (Chinese) side. Soon after the 2015 Nepalese-side avalanche, Chinese officials announced that the climbing season on the north side was canceled. For a time, there was some discussion of trying to repair the damaged route through the icefall, but it was deemed not possible, thus effectively ending climbing on the south side also for that year’s spring season. The icefall route was repaired during the summer, and the Nepalese government issued a climbing permit to a Japanese mountaineer. In September he made a solo summit attempt before turning back at an elevation of about 26,740 feet (8,150 metres). As a result, 2015 was the first year in more than four decades that not one person had reached the top of Everest.
Extraordinary feats
In pure mountaineering terms, the big achievements of the 1990s were the first winter ascent of the Southwest Face in 1993 (by a Japanese team led by Yagihara Kuniaki), the first complete ascent of the Northeast Ridge in 1995 (by another Japanese team led by Kanzaki Tadao), and the first ascent of the North-Northeast Couloir in 1996 (by a Russian team led by Sergei Antipin). Most of the activity, however, became concentrated on the two “normal” routes via the South Col and North Col; there the majority of expeditions were commercial operations, with clients paying for (generally) efficient logistics , satellite weather forecasts, the use of a copious amount of fixed ropes, and an increasingly savvy Sherpa workforce.
Meanwhile, a few individuals continued to achieve astounding new feats. In 1990 Tim Macartney-Snape traveled on foot all the way from sea level in the Bay of Bengal to the summit of Everest, without supplemental oxygen. Goran Kropp took this a step further in 1996 by bicycling all the way from his native Sweden before ascending Everest; he then cycled home. In 2001 the first blind person, American Erik Weihenmayer, summited Everest; he was an experienced climber who had already scaled peaks such as Denali (Mount McKinley) in Alaska and Kilimanjaro in eastern Africa before his climb of Everest.
Blind American climber Erik Weihenmayer on his successful summit ascent of Mount Everest in 2001.
© Didrik Johnck/Corbis
For sheer physiological prowess, however, few could match the Sherpas: in 1999 Babu Chiri climbed the southern route from Base Camp to summit in 16 hours 56 minutes. However, this accomplishment was surpassed by two Sherpas in 2003— Pemba Dorje and Lakpa Gelu, with Lakpa summiting in just 10 hours 56 minutes. Not to be outdone, Pemba returned the next year and reached the top in 8 hours 10 minutes. Perhaps as remarkable were the achievements of Apa Sherpa . In 2000 he reached the summit for a record 11th time, and he continued to break his own mark in succeeding years. Beginning in 2008, Apa’s summit climbs were undertaken as a member of the Eco Everest Expeditions; he recorded his 21st ascent on May 11, 2011. Apa’s total was matched by another Sherpa, Phurba Tashi, in 2013.
Mountaineer Apa Sherpa on the summit of Mount Everest, 2009.
Mingma Sherpa
The record for the youngest person to reach the summit has been set several times since the advent of commercial Everest climbs. For some time it remained at 16 years after Nepal banned climbing by those younger than that age. However, at the time, China imposed no such restrictions, and in 2003 Ming Kipa Sherpa, a 15-year-old Nepalese girl, reached the summit from the Tibetan side. Her record was eclipsed in 2010 when American Jordan Romero, 13, reached the top—again from the north side—on May 22. Romero’s accomplishment was made all the more notable because it was the sixth of the seven continental high points he had reached.
Beginning in the early 2000s, the record for the oldest person to ascend Everest alternated between two men, Japanese Miura Yūichirō and Nepalese Min Bahadur Sherchan. Miura—a former extreme skier who gained notoriety for skiing down the South Col in 1970 (the subject of an Academy Award -winning 1975 documentary, The Man Who Skied Down Everest)—set the standard at age 70, when he reached the top on May 22, 2003. On May 26, 2008, when he was 75, he made a second successful ascent, but Sherchan, age 76 and a former soldier, had summited the day before, on May 25, to claim the record. Miura regained the honour on May 23, 2013, at the age of 80. The oldest woman to reach the summit was another Japanese climber, Watanabe Tamae, who set the record twice: first on May 16, 2002, at age 63, and again on May 19, 2012, at age 73.
Some of the most-remarkable of the “stunts” attempted since 1990 have been unusual descents. In 1996 Italian Hans Kammerlander made a one-day ascent and descent of the north side, the latter partly accomplished on skis. In 1999 Pierre Tardivel managed to ski down from the South Summit. The first complete uninterrupted ski descent from the summit was by Slovenian Davo Karničar in 2000, upstaged a year later by the French extreme sportsman Marco Siffredi with his even more-challenging snowboard descent of the North Face.
Finding Mallory and commemorating historic ascents
Two notable Everest events bracketed the turn of the 21st century. In the spring of 1999, 75 years after George Mallory and Andrew Irvine had disappeared climbing Everest, an expedition led by American Eric Simonson set out to learn their fate. On May 1 members of the team found Mallory’s body lying on a scree terrace below the Yellow Band at about 26,700 feet (8,140 metres). It was determined that Mallory had died during or immediately after a bad fall: he had skull and compound leg fractures, and bruising was still visible on the preserved torso—probably caused by a rope that was still tied around his waist. The team could not determine if the body was the same one found by a Chinese climber in 1975 or if that one had been the body of Irvine. It was clear, however, that both Mallory and Irvine had been involved in a serious fall that broke the rope which undoubtedly joined them. Personal effects found on Mallory included his goggles, altimeter , and a pocketknife, but not the camera he is thought to have taken with him when he left for the summit. It had been hoped that the film from it (if it could be developed) might have revealed more about the climb, especially if the pair had reached the summit.
The 50th anniversary of Tenzing and Hillary’s historic ascent was widely observed in 2003. Commemoration of the event had actually begun the previous May, when second-generation summiteers—Hillary’s son Peter and Barry Bishop ’s son Brent—scaled the peak (the younger Hillary speaking to his father in New Zealand from the top via satellite phone); Tenzing’s son, Jamling Norgay, also participated in the expedition but did not make the final summit climb. In the spring of 2003 scores of climbers were able to reach the top of Everest before the May 29 anniversary date. Celebrations were held in several locations worldwide on the day itself, including one in Kathmandu where hundreds of past summit climbers joined Hillary and other members of the 1953 expedition.
Several milestone anniversaries were observed in 2013. A variety of events were tied to remembering the 60th anniversary of Tenzing and Hillary’s climb, including summiting of Everest by hundreds of climbers and treks by others on and around its lower slopes. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) hosted a special lecture on May 29 that included Peter Hillary, Jamling Tenzing, and Jan Morris—the latter being the last surviving member of the 1953 expedition. In March the RGS also hosted a 25th-anniversary reunion of members from the 1988 East Face expedition. Several members of the first U.S. ascent (1963), including James Whittaker and Norman Dyhrenfurth, gathered in San Francisco in February for an observance of the 50th anniversary of that expedition. In addition, the 80th anniversary of the first airplane flight over the mountain was remembered during the year.
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Mount Everest | mountain, Asia | Britannica.com
Mount Everest
Alternative Titles: Chomolungma, Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, Peak XV, Qomolangma Feng, Sagarmatha, Zhumulangma Feng
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Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner
Mount Everest, Sanskrit and Nepali Sagarmatha, Tibetan Chomolungma, Chinese (Pinyin) Zhumulangma Feng or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, also spelled Qomolangma Feng, mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China , at 27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, the highest point on Earth.
Like other high peaks in the region, Mount Everest has long been revered by local peoples. Its most common Tibetan name, Chomolungma, means “Goddess Mother of the World” or “Goddess of the Valley.” The Sanskrit name Sagarmatha means literally “Peak of Heaven.” Its identity as the highest point on the Earth’s surface was not recognized, however, until 1852, when the governmental Survey of India established that fact. In 1865 the mountain—previously referred to as Peak XV—was renamed for Sir George Everest , British surveyor general of India from 1830 to 1843.
The North Face of Mount Everest, as seen from Tibet (China).
Maria Stenzel—National Geographic/Getty Images
Physical features
Geology and relief
The Himalayan ranges were thrust upward by tectonic action as the Indian-Australian Plate moved northward from the south and was subducted (forced downward) under the Eurasian Plate following the collision of the two plates between about 40 and 50 million years ago. The Himalayas themselves started rising about 25 to 30 million years ago, and the Great Himalayas began to take their present form during the Pleistocene Epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). Everest and its surrounding peaks are part of a large mountain massif that forms a focal point, or knot, of this tectonic action in the Great Himalayas. Information from global positioning instruments in place on Everest since the late 1990s indicates that the mountain continues to move a few inches to the northeast and rise a fraction of an inch each year.
The Mount Everest massif, Himalayas, Nepal.
© Marta/Fotolia
Mount Pinatubo
Everest is composed of multiple layers of rock folded back on themselves (nappes). Rock on the lower elevations of the mountain consists of metamorphic schists and gneisses, topped by igneous granites. Higher up are found sedimentary rocks of marine origin (remnants of the ancient floor of the Tethys Sea that closed after the collision of the two plates). Notable is the Yellow Band, a limestone formation that is prominently visible just below the summit pyramid.
The barren Southeast, Northeast, and West ridges culminate in the Everest summit; a short distance away is the South Summit, a minor bump on the Southeast Ridge with an elevation of 28,700 feet (8,748 metres). The mountain can be seen directly from its northeastern side, where it rises about 12,000 feet (3,600 metres) above the Plateau of Tibet . The peak of Changtse (24,803 feet [7,560 metres]) rises to the north. Khumbutse (21,867 feet [6,665 metres]), Nuptse (25,791 feet [7,861 metres]), and Lhotse (27,940 feet [8,516 metres]) surround Everest’s base to the west and south.
Everest is shaped like a three-sided pyramid . The three generally flat planes constituting the sides are called faces, and the line by which two faces join is known as a ridge. The North Face rises above Tibet and is bounded by the North Ridge (which meets the Northeast Ridge) and the West Ridge; key features of this side of the mountain include the Great and Hornbein couloirs (steep gullies) and the North Col at the start of the North Ridge. The Southwest Face rises above Nepal and is bounded by the West Ridge and the Southeast Ridge; notable features on this side include the South Col (at the start of the Southeast Ridge) and the Khumbu Icefall, the latter a jumble of large blocks of ice that has long been a daunting challenge for climbers. The East Face—or Kangshung (Kangxung) Face—also rises above Tibet and is bounded by the Southeast Ridge and the Northeast Ridge.
Mount Everest (left background) towering above the Khumbu Icefall at the mountain’s base, …
Lee Klopfer/Alamy
Big Radio Burst from Tiny Galaxy
The summit of Everest itself is covered by rock-hard snow surmounted by a layer of softer snow that fluctuates annually by some 5–20 feet (1.5–6 metres); the snow level is highest in September, after the monsoon, and lowest in May after having been depleted by the strong northwesterly winter winds. The summit and upper slopes sit so high in the Earth’s atmosphere that the amount of breathable oxygen there is one-third what it is at sea level. Lack of oxygen, powerful winds, and extremely cold temperatures preclude the development of any plant or animal life there.
Drainage and climate
All About Asia
Glaciers cover the slopes of Everest to its base. Individual glaciers flanking the mountain are the Kangshung Glacier to the east; the East, Central, and West Rongbuk (Rongpu) glaciers to the north and northwest; the Pumori Glacier to the northwest; and the Khumbu Glacier to the west and south, which is fed by the glacier bed of the Western Cwm, an enclosed valley of ice between Everest and the Lhotse-Nuptse Ridge to the south. Glacial action has been the primary force behind the heavy and continuous erosion of Everest and the other high Himalayan peaks.
Frozen pond on the Khumbu Glacier, near Mount Everest, Himalayas, Nepal.
© Shawn McCullars
The mountain’s drainage pattern radiates to the southwest, north, and east. The Khumbu Glacier melts into the Lobujya (Lobuche) River of Nepal, which flows southward as the Imja River to its confluence with the Dudh Kosi River . In Tibet the Rong River originates from the Pumori and Rongbuk glaciers and the Kama River from the Kangshung Glacier: both flow into the Arun River, which cuts through the Himalayas into Nepal. The Rong, Dudh Kosi, and Kama river valleys form, respectively, the northern, southern, and eastern access routes to the summit.
Buddhist prayer flags fluttering in front of the Mount Everest massif; in the foreground is the …
Alan Kearney—Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
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The climate of Everest is always hostile to living things. The warmest average daytime temperature (in July) is only about −2 °F (−19 °C) on the summit; in January , the coldest month, summit temperatures average −33 °F (−36 °C) and can drop as low as −76 °F (−60 °C). Storms can come up suddenly, and temperatures can plummet unexpectedly. The peak of Everest is so high that it reaches the lower limit of the jet stream , and it can be buffeted by sustained winds of more than 100 miles (160 km) per hour. Precipitation falls as snow during the summer monsoon (late May to mid-September). The risk of frostbite to climbers on Everest is extremely high.
The height of Everest
Controversy over the exact elevation of the summit developed because of variations in snow level, gravity deviation, and light refraction. The figure 29,028 feet (8,848 metres), plus or minus a fraction, was established by the Survey of India between 1952 and 1954 and became widely accepted. This value was used by most researchers, mapping agencies, and publishers until 1999.
Attempts were subsequently made to remeasure the mountain’s height. A Chinese survey in 1975 obtained the figure of 29,029.24 feet (8,848.11 metres), and an Italian survey, using satellite surveying techniques, obtained a value of 29,108 feet (8,872 metres) in 1987, but questions arose about the methods used. In 1992 another Italian survey, using the Global Positioning System ( GPS ) and laser measurement technology, yielded the figure 29,023 feet (8,846 metres) by subtracting from the measured height 6.5 feet (2 metres) of ice and snow on the summit, but the methodology used was again called into question.
In 1999 an American survey, sponsored by the (U.S.) National Geographic Society and others, took precise measurements using GPS equipment. Their finding of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), plus or minus 6.5 feet (2 metres), was accepted by the society and by various specialists in the fields of geodesy and cartography . The Chinese mounted another expedition in 2005 that utilized ice-penetrating radar in conjunction with GPS equipment. The result of this was what the Chinese called a “rock height” of 29,017.12 feet (8,844.43 metres), which, though widely reported in the media, was recognized only by China for the next several years. Nepal in particular disputed the Chinese figure, preferring what was termed the “snow height” of 29,028 feet. In April 2010 China and Nepal agreed to recognize the validity of both figures.
Human factors
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Habitation
Everest is so tall and its climate so severe that it is incapable of supporting sustained human occupation, but the valleys below the mountain are inhabited by Tibetan-speaking peoples. Notable among these are the Sherpa s, who live in villages at elevations up to about 14,000 feet (4,270 metres) in the Khumbu valley of Nepal and other locations. Traditionally an agricultural people with little cultivable land at their disposal, the Sherpas for years were traders and led a seminomadic lifestyle in their search for pastureland. In summer , livestock was grazed as high as 16,000 feet (4,880 metres), while winter refuge was taken at lower elevations on sheltered ledges and along riverbanks.
A herders’ shelter in the Mount Everest region of the Himalayas; Lhotse I, just southeast of …
Ted Kerasote/Photo Researchers
Living in close proximity to the world’s highest mountains, the Sherpas traditionally treated the Himalayas as sacred—building Buddhist monasteries at their base, placing prayer flags on the slopes, and establishing sanctuaries for the wildlife of the valleys that included musk deer, monal pheasant, and Himalayan partridge. Gods and demons were believed to live in the high peaks, and the Yeti (the so-called Abominable Snowman ) was said to roam the lower slopes. For these reasons, the Sherpas traditionally did not climb the mountains.
However, beginning with the British expeditions of the early 20th century, surveying and portering work became available. Eventually, the respect and pay earned in mountaineering made it attractive to the Sherpas, who, being so well adapted to the high altitudes, were capable of carrying large loads of cargo over long distances. Though Sherpas and other hill people (the name Sherpa came to be applied—erroneously—to all porters) tend to outperform their foreign clients, they typically have played a subordinate role in expeditions; rarely, for example, has one of their names been associated with a pioneering route on Everest. The influx of foreign climbers—and, in far greater numbers, trekkers—has dramatically changed Sherpa life, as their livelihood increasingly has come to depend on these climbing expeditions.
Industrial Revolution
On the Nepalese side of the international boundary, the mountain and its surrounding valleys lie within Sagarmatha National Park, a 480-square-mile (1,243-square-km) zone established in 1976. In 1979 the park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site . The valleys contain stands of rhododendron and forests of birch and pine, while above the tree line alpine vegetation extends to the feet of the glaciers. Over the years, carelessness and excessive consumption of resources by mountaineers, as well as overgrazing by livestock, have damaged the habitats of snow leopards , lesser pandas , Tibetan bears , and scores of bird species. To counteract past abuses, various reforestation programs have been carried out by local communities and the Nepalese government.
Expeditions have removed supplies and equipment left by climbers on Everest’s slopes, including hundreds of oxygen containers. A large quantity of the litter of past climbers—tons of items such as tents , cans, crampons, and human waste—has been hauled down from the mountain and recycled or discarded. However, the bodies of most of the more than 280 climbers who have died on Everest (notably on its upper slopes) have not been removed, as they are unreachable or—for those that are accessible—their weight makes carrying them down extremely difficult. Notable in the cleanup endeavour have been the efforts of the Eco Everest Expeditions, the first of which was organized in 2008 to commemorate the death that January of Everest-climbing pioneer Sir Edmund Hillary . Those expeditions also have publicized ecological issues (in particular, concerns about the effects of climate change in the region through observations that the Khumbu Icefall has been melting).
Mountaineering on Everest
The human challenge
Mount Everest is difficult to get to and more difficult to climb, even with the great advances made in equipment, transportation , communications, and weather forecasting since the first major expeditions in the 1920s. The mountain itself lies in a highly isolated location. There are no roads in the region on the Nepalese side, and before the 1960s all goods and supplies had to be carried long distances by humans and pack animals. Since then, airstrips built in the Khumbu valley have greatly facilitated transport to the Everest vicinity, although the higher areas have remained accessible only via footpaths. In Tibet there is now a road to the north-side Base Camp.
Climbers on the Nepali side of Mount Everest.
© David Keaton/Corbis
There are only two brief time periods when the weather on Everest is the most hospitable for an ascent. The best one is in April and May, right before the monsoon . Once the monsoon comes, the snow is too soft and the likelihood of avalanche too great. For a few weeks in September, after the monsoon, weather conditions may also permit an attempt; by October, however, the winter storms begin and persist until March, making climbing then nearly impossible.
In addition to the challenges posed by Everest’s location and climate , the effects of high altitudes on the human body are extreme: the region in the Himalayas above about 25,000 feet (7,600 metres) is known as the “death zone.” Climbers at such high altitude have much more rapid breathing and pulse rates (as their bodies try to obtain more oxygen ). In addition, they are not able to digest food well (and often find eating unappealing), they sleep poorly, and they often find their thinking to be confused. These symptoms are manifestations of oxygen deprivation ( hypoxia ) in the body tissues, which makes any effort difficult and can lead to poor decisions being made in an already dangerous environment . Supplemental (bottled) oxygen breathed through a mask can partially alleviate the effects of hypoxia , but it can present an additional problem if a climber becomes used to the oxygen and then runs out while still at high altitude. (See also altitude sickness .)
Two other medical conditions can affect climbers at high elevations. High-altitude cerebral edema (HACE) occurs when the body responds to the lack of oxygen by increasing blood flow to the brain ; the brain begins to swell, and coma and death may occur. High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a similar condition in which the body circulates additional blood to the lungs ; this blood begins to leak into the air sacs , and death is caused essentially by drowning . The most effective treatment for both conditions is to move the affected person to a lower elevation. It has been found that the drug dexamethasone is a useful emergency first-aid treatment when injected into stricken climbers, allowing them to regain movement (when they might otherwise be incapacitated) and thus descend.
Routes and techniques
The southern route via the Khumbu Icefall and the South Col is the one most commonly taken by climbers attempting to summit Everest. It is the route used by the 1953 British expedition when New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay became the first men known to have reached Everest’s summit. The northern route, attempted unsuccessfully by seven British expeditions in the 1920s and ’30s, is also climbed. It is now generally accepted that the first successful ascent via that approach was made by a Chinese expedition in 1960, with Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, Liu Lianman, and a Tibetan, Konbu, reaching the summit. The East Face, Everest’s biggest, is rarely climbed. An American team made the first ascent of it in 1983, and Carlos Buhler, Kim Momb, and Lou Reichardt reached the summit.
Mountaineer Apa Sherpa climbing through the Khumbu Icefall en route to his 20th ascent of the …
Photo courtesy of www.apasherpa.com
Perhaps because most of the early climbers on Everest had military backgrounds, the traditional method of ascending it has been called “ siege” climbing. With this technique, a large team of climbers establishes a series of tented camps farther and farther up the mountain’s side. For instance, on the most frequently climbed southern route, the Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier is at an elevation of about 17,600 feet (5,400 metres). The theory is that the climbers ascend higher and higher to establish camps farther up the route, then come down to sleep at night at the camp below the one being established. (Mountain climbers express this in the phrase, “Climb high, sleep low.”) This practice allows climbers to acclimatize to the high altitude. Camps are established along the route about every 1,500 feet (450 metres) of vertical elevation and are given designations of Camp I, Camp II, and so on. Finally, a last camp is set up close enough to the summit (usually about 3,000 feet [900 metres] below) to allow a small group (called the “assault” team) to reach the peak. This was the way the British organized their expeditions; most of the large commercial expeditions continue to use it—except that all paying clients are now given a chance at the summit. Essential to the siege climbing style is the logistical support given to the climbers by the Sherpas.
American Robert Anderson, leader of the 1988 Everest expedition, follows a fixed rope up a steep …
© Stephen Venables
There had been a feeling among some early 20th-century climbers that ascending with oxygen , support from Sherpas, and a large party was “unsporting” or that it missed the point of mountain climbing. British explorer Eric Shipton expressed the view that these large expeditions caused climbers to lose their sense of the aesthetic of mountain climbing and to focus instead on only achieving the summit. Top mountaineers, disenchanted with the ponderous and predictable nature of these siege climbs, began in the 1970s to bring a more traditional “ Alpine ” style of climbing to the world’s highest peaks; by the 1980s this included even Everest. In this approach, a small party of perhaps three or four climbers goes up and down the mountain as quickly as possible, carrying all needed gear and provisions. This lightweight approach precludes fixing miles of safety ropes and carrying heavy supplemental oxygen. Speed is of the essence. However, at least four weeks still must be spent at and around Base Camp acclimatizing to altitude before the party can consider a summit attempt.
Tents of the Mount Everest Base Camp dotting the background landscape behind a pony, Himalayas, …
© Shawn McCullars
Early expeditions
Reconnaissance of 1921
In the 1890s British army officers Sir Francis Younghusband and Charles (C.G.) Bruce, who were stationed in India, met and began discussing the possibility of an expedition to Everest. The officers became involved with two British exploring organizations—the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) and the Alpine Club—and these groups became instrumental in fostering interest in exploring the mountain. Bruce and Younghusband sought permission to mount an Everest expedition beginning in the early 1900s, but political tensions and bureaucratic difficulties made it impossible. Though Tibet was closed to Westerners, British officer John (J.B.L.) Noel disguised himself and entered it in 1913; he eventually got within 40 miles (65 km) of Everest and was able to see the summit. His lecture to the RGS in 1919 once again generated interest in Everest, permission to explore it was requested of Tibet, and this was granted in 1920. In 1921 the RGS and the Alpine Club formed the Mount Everest Committee, chaired by Younghusband, to organize and finance the expedition. A party under Lieutenant Colonel C.K. Howard-Bury set out to explore the whole Himalayan range and find a route up Everest. The other members were G.H. Bullock , A.M. Kellas, George Mallory , H. Raeburn, A.F.R. Wollaston, Majors H.T. Morshead and O.E. Wheeler (surveyors), and A.M. Heron (geologist).
George Mallory (seated, far left) and Guy Bullock (seated, third from the left), planners of the …
The Granger Collection, New York
During the summer of 1921 the northern approaches to the mountain were thoroughly explored. On the approach to Everest, Kellas died of heart failure. Because Raeburn also fell ill, the high exploration devolved almost entirely upon Mallory and Bullock. Neither had Himalayan experience, and they were faced with the problem of acclimatization besides the difficulty of the terrain.
The first object was to explore the Rongbuk valley. The party ascended the Central Rongbuk Glacier, missing the narrower opening of the eastern branch and the possible line up Everest. They returned eastward for a rest at Kharta Shekar. From there they discovered a pass at 22,000 feet (6,700 metres), the Lhakpa (Lhagba), leading to the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier. The saddle north of Everest, despite its forbidding appearance, was climbed on September 24 by Mallory, Bullock, and Wheeler and named the North Col. A bitter wind prevented them from going higher, but Mallory had from there traced a potential route to the summit.
Attempt of 1922
Members of the expedition were Brigadier General C.G. Bruce (leader), Captain J.G. Bruce, C.G. Crawford, G.I. Finch, T.G. Longstaff, Mallory, Captain C.J. Morris, Major Morshead, Edward Norton , T.H. Somervell, Colonel E.I. Strutt, A.W. Wakefield, and John Noel. It was decided that the mountain must be attempted before the onset of the summer monsoon. In the spring, therefore, the baggage was carried by Sherpas across the high, windy Plateau of Tibet.
Supplies were carried from Base Camp at 16,500 feet (5,030 metres) to an advanced base at Camp III. From there, on May 13, a camp was established on the North Col. With great difficulty a higher camp was set at 25,000 feet (7,620 metres) on the sheltered side of the North Ridge. On the next morning, May 21, Mallory, Norton, and Somervell left Morshead, who was suffering from frostbite, and pushed on through trying windy conditions to 27,000 feet (8,230 metres) near the crest of the Northeast Ridge. On May 25 Finch and Captain Bruce set out from Camp III using oxygen. Finch, a protagonist of oxygen, was justified by the results. The party, with the Gurkha Tejbir Bura, established Camp V at 25,500 feet (7,772 metres). There they were stormbound for a day and two nights, but the next morning Finch and Bruce reached 27,300 feet (8,320 metres) and returned the same day to Camp III. A third attempt during the early monsoon snow ended in disaster. On June 7 Mallory, Crawford, and Somervell, with 14 Sherpas, were crossing the North Col slopes. Nine Sherpas were swept by an avalanche over an ice cliff, and seven were killed. Mallory’s party was carried down 150 feet (45 metres) but not injured.
Attempt of 1924
Members of the expedition were Brigadier General Bruce (leader), Bentley Beetham, Captain Bruce, J. de V. Hazard, Major R.W.G. Hingston, Andrew Irvine, Mallory, Norton, Noel Odell, E.O. Shebbeare (transport), Somervell, and Noel (photographer). Noel devised a novel publicity scheme for financing this trip by buying all film and lecture rights for the expedition, which covered the entire cost of the venture. To generate interest in the climb, he designed a commemorative postcard and stamp; sacks of postcards were then mailed from Base Camp, mostly to schoolchildren who had requested them. This was the first of many Everest public relations ventures.
On the climb itself, because of wintry conditions, Camp IV on the North Col was established only on May 22 by a new and steeper though safer route; the party was then forced to descend. General Bruce had to return because of illness, and under Norton Camp IV was reestablished on June 1. At 25,000 feet (7,620 metres), Mallory and Captain Bruce were stopped when the Sherpas became exhausted. On June 4 Norton and Somervell, with three Sherpas, pitched Camp VI at 26,800 feet (8,170 metres); the next day they reached 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). Norton went on to 28,100 feet (8,565 metres), a documented height unsurpassed until 1953. Mallory and Irvine , using oxygen, set out from the North Col on June 6. On June 8 they started for the summit. Odell, who had come up that morning, believed he saw them in early afternoon high up between the mists.
Initially, Odell claimed to have seen them at what became known as the Second Step (more recently, some have claimed that Odell was describing the Third Step), though later he was less certain exactly where it had been. On the Northeast Ridge there are three “steps”—steep rock barriers—between the elevations of 27,890 and 28,870 feet (8,500 and 8,800 metres) that make the final approach to the summit difficult. The First Step is a limestone vertical barrier about 110 feet (34 metres) high. Above that is a ledge and the Second Step, which is about 160 feet (50 metres) high. (In 1975 a Chinese expedition from the north affixed an aluminum ladder to the step that now makes climbing it much easier.) The Third Step contains another sheer section of rock about 100 feet (30 metres) high that leads to a more gradual slope to the summit. If Odell actually saw Mallory and Irvine at the Third Step at about 12:50 pm, then they would have been some 500 feet (150 metres) below the summit at that point. However, there has long been great uncertainty and considerable debate about all this, especially whether the pair made it to the top that day and if they were ascending or descending the mountain when Odell spotted them. The next morning Odell went up to search and reached Camp VI on June 10, but he found no trace of either man.
When Mallory was asked why he wanted to climb Everest, he replied with the famous line, “Because it’s there.” The British public had come to admire the determined climber over the course of his three expeditions, and they were shocked by his disappearance. (The fate of Mallory remained a mystery for 75 years; see Finding Mallory and commemorating the historic ascents .)
Attempt of 1933
Members of the expedition were Hugh Ruttledge (leader), Captain E. St. J. Birnie, Lieutenant Colonel H. Boustead, T.A. Brocklebank, Crawford, C.R. Greene, Percy Wyn-Harris, J.L. Longland, W.W. McLean, Shebbeare (transport), Eric Shipton, Francis S. Smythe, Lawrence R. Wager, G. Wood-Johnson, and Lieutenants W.R. Smyth-Windham and E.C. Thompson (wireless).
High winds made it extremely difficult to establish Base Camp in the North Col, but it was finally done on May 1. Its occupants were cut off from the others for several days. On May 22, however, Camp V was placed at 25,700 feet (7,830 metres); again storms set in, retreat was ordered, and V was not reoccupied until the 28th. On the 29th Wyn-Harris, Wager, and Longland pitched Camp VI at 27,400 feet (8,350 metres). On the way down, Longland’s party, caught in a blizzard, had great difficulty.
On May 30, while Smythe and Shipton came up to Camp V, Wyn-Harris and Wager set off from Camp VI. A short distance below the crest of the Northeast Ridge, they found Irvine’s ice ax. They reckoned that the Second Step was impossible to ascend and were compelled to follow Norton’s 1924 traverse to the Great Couloir splitting the face below the summit. They crossed the gorge to a height about the same as Norton’s but then had to return. Smythe and Shipton made a final attempt on June 1. Shipton returned to Camp V. Smythe pushed on alone, crossed the couloir, and reached the same height as Wyn-Harris and Wager. On his return the monsoon ended operations.
Also in 1933 a series of airplane flights were conducted over Everest—the first occurring on April 3—which permitted the summit and surrounding landscape to be photographed. In 1934 Maurice Wilson, an inexperienced climber who was obsessed with the mountain, died above Camp III attempting to climb Everest alone.
Reconnaissance of 1935
In 1935 an expedition led by Shipton was sent to reconnoitre the mountain, explore the western approaches, and discover more about monsoon conditions. Other members were L.V. Bryant, E.G.H. Kempson, M. Spender (surveyor), H.W. Tilman, C. Warren, and E.H.L. Wigram. In late July the party succeeded in putting a camp on the North Col, but dangerous avalanche conditions kept them off the mountain. One more visit was paid to the North Col area in an attempt on Changtse (the north peak). During the reconnaissance Wilson’s body was found and buried; his diary was also recovered.
Attempts of 1936 and 1938
Members of the 1936 expedition were Ruttledge (leader), J.M.L. Gavin, Wyn-Harris, G.N. Humphreys, Kempson, Morris (transport), P.R. Oliver, Shipton, Smyth-Windham (wireless), Smythe, Warren, and Wigram. This expedition had the misfortune of an unusually early monsoon. The route up to the North Col was finished on May 13, but the wind had dropped, and heavy snowfalls almost immediately after the camp was established put an end to climbing the upper part of the mountain. Several later attempts to regain the col failed.
Members of the 1938 expedition were Tilman (leader), P. Lloyd, Odell, Oliver, Shipton, Smythe, and Warren. Unlike the two previous parties, some members of this expedition used oxygen . The party arrived early, in view of the experience of 1936, but they were actually too early and had to withdraw, meeting again at Camp III on May 20. The North Col camp was pitched under snowy conditions on May 24. Shortly after, because of dangerous snow, the route was changed and a new one made up the west side of the col. On June 6 Camp V was established. On June 8, in deep snow, Shipton and Smythe with seven Sherpas pitched Camp VI, at 27,200 feet (8,290 metres), but the next day they were stopped above it by deep powder. The same fate befell Tilman and Lloyd, who made their attempt on the 11th. Lloyd benefited from an open-circuit oxygen apparatus that partly allowed him to breathe the outside air. Bad weather compelled a final retreat.
Golden age of Everest climbs
Reconnaissance of 1951
After 1938, expeditions to Everest were interrupted by World War II and the immediate postwar years. In addition, the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 precluded using the northern approach. In 1951 permission was received from the Nepalese for a reconnaissance of the mountain from the south. Members of the expedition were Shipton (leader), T.D. Bourdillon, Edmund Hillary, W.H. Murray, H.E. Riddiford, and M.P. Ward. The party marched through the monsoon, reaching Namche Bazar, the chief village of Solu-Khumbu, on September 22. At Khumbu Glacier they found it possible to scale the great icefall seen by Mallory from the west. They were stopped at the top by a huge crevasse but traced a possible line up the Western Cwm (cirque, or valley) to the South Col, the high saddle between Lhotse and Everest.
Spring attempt of 1952
Expedition members were E. Wyss Dunant (leader), J.J. Asper, R. Aubert, G. Chevalley, R. Dittert (leader of climbing party), L. Flory, E. Hofstetter, P.C. Bonnant, R. Lambert, A. Roch, A. Lombard (geologist), and A. Zimmermann (botanist). This strong Swiss party first set foot on the Khumbu Icefall on April 26. After considerable difficulty with the route, they overcame the final crevasse by means of a rope bridge. The 4,000-foot (1,220-metre) face of Lhotse, which had to be climbed to reach the South Col, was attempted by a route running beside a long spur of rock christened the Éperon des Genevois. The first party, Lambert, Flory, Aubert, and Tenzing Norgay (sirdar, or leader of the porters), with five Sherpas, tried to reach the col in one day. They were compelled to bivouac quite a distance below it (May 25) and the next day reached the summit of the Éperon, at 26,300 feet (8,016 metres), whence they descended to the col and pitched camp. On May 27 the party (less the five Sherpas) climbed up the Southeast Ridge. They reached approximately 27,200 feet (8,290 metres), and there Lambert and Tenzing bivouacked. The next day they pushed on up the ridge and turned back at approximately 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). Also on May 28 Asper, Chevalley, Dittert, Hofstetter, and Roch reached the South Col, but they were prevented by wind conditions from going higher and descended to the base.
Autumn attempt of 1952
Members of this second Swiss expedition were Chevalley (leader), J. Buzio, G. Gross, Lambert, E. Reiss, A. Spöhel, and Norman Dyhrenfurth (photographer). The party found the icefall easier to climb than in the spring and had brought poles to bridge the great crevasse. Camp IV was occupied on October 20. Higher up, however, they were constantly harassed by bitterly cold winds. On the ice slope below the Éperon one Sherpa was killed, and the party took to the glaciated face of Lhotse on the right. The South Col was reached on November 19, but the summit party climbed only 300 feet (90 metres) higher before being forced to withdraw.
The historic ascent of 1953
Members of the expedition, which was sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club, were Colonel John Hunt (leader; later Baron Hunt), G.C. Band, Bourdillon, R.C. Evans, A. Gregory, Edmund Hillary , W.G. Lowe, C.W.F. Noyce, M.P. Ward, M.H. Westmacott, Major C.G. Wylie (transport), T. Stobart (cinematographer), and L.G.C. Pugh (physiologist). After three weeks’ training on neighbouring mountains, a route was worked out up the Khumbu Icefall, and it was possible to start ferrying loads of supplies to the Western Cwm head. Two forms of oxygen apparatus, closed- and open-circuit types, were tried. As a result of a reconnaissance of Lhotse in early May, Hunt decided that Bourdillon and Evans, experts on closed-circuit, should make the first attempt from the South Col. Hillary with Tenzing Norgay as sirdar were to follow, using open-circuit and a higher camp.
Route of Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay to the summit of Mount Everest, May 1953.
Based on the map published by the Royal Geograhical Society
Lowe spent nine days, most of them with Ang Nyima Sherpa, working at the lower section of the Lhotse face. On May 17 a camp was pitched on it at 24,000 feet (7,315 metres). The route on the upper part of the face, over the top of the Éperon, was first made by Noyce and Annullu Sherpa on May 21. The next day 13 Sherpas led by Wylie, with Hillary and Tenzing ahead, reached the col and dumped loads. The fine weather continued from May 14 but with high winds. On May 24 the first summit party, with Hunt and two Sherpas in support, reached the col. On the 26th Evans and Bourdillon climbed to the South Summit of Everest, but by then it was too late in the day to go farther. Meanwhile Hunt and Da Namgyal Sherpa left loads for a ridge camp at 27,350 feet (8,335 metres).
On the 28th the ridge camp was established at 27,900 feet (8,500 metres) by Hillary, Tenzing, Lowe, Gregory, and Ang Nyima, and Hillary and Tenzing passed the night there. The two set out early on the morning of May 29, reaching the South Summit by 9:00 am. The first challenge on the final approach to the summit of Everest was a fairly level ridge of rock some 400 feet (120 metres) long flanked by an ice “cornice”; to the right was the East (Kangshung) Face, and to the left was the Southwest Face, both sheer drop-offs. The final obstacle, about halfway between the South Summit and the summit of Everest, was a steep spur of rock and ice—now called the Hillary Step. Though it is only about 55 feet (17 metres) high, the formation is difficult to climb because of its extreme pitch and because a mistake would be deadly. Climbers now use fixed ropes to ascend this section, but Hillary and Tenzing had only ice-climbing equipment. First Hillary and then Tenzing tackled the barrier much as one would climb a rock chimney—i.e., they inched up a little at a time with their backs against the rock wall and their feet wedged in a crack between the rock and ice.
Edmund (later Sir Edmund) Hillary and Tenzing Norgay preparing to depart on their successful summit …
The Granger Collection, New York
They reached the summit of Everest at 11:30 am. Hillary turned to Tenzing, and the men shook hands; Tenzing then embraced Hillary in a hug. Hillary took photos, and the two searched for but did not find signs that Mallory and Irvine had been to the summit. Tenzing, a Buddhist, made an offering of food for the mountain; Hillary left a crucifix Hunt had given him. The two men ate some sweets and then headed down. They had spent about 15 minutes on the top of the world.
They were met on the slopes above the South Col that afternoon by Lowe and Noyce. Hillary is reputed to have said to Lowe, “Well, George, we knocked the bastard off.” By June 2 the whole expedition had reassembled at the Base Camp.
A correspondent for The Times, James (later Jan) Morris, had hiked up to Camp IV to follow the story more closely and was on hand to cover the event. Worried that other papers might scoop him, Morris wired his story to the paper in code. It reached London in time to appear in the June 2 edition. A headline from another London paper published later that day, “All this, and Everest too!” referred to the fact that Elizabeth II was being crowned on the same day on which the news broke about the success on Everest. After years of privation during and after World War II and the subsequent loss of empire, the effect of the successful Everest ascent was a sensation for the British public. The feat was also celebrated worldwide, but nowhere like in Britain and the Commonwealth, whose climbers had been so closely associated with Everest for more than 30 years. As Walt Unsworth described it in Everest,
And so, the British, as usual, had not only won the last battle but had timed victory in a masterly fashion. Even had it not been announced on Coronation Day it would have made world headlines, but in Britain the linking of the two events was regarded as almost an omen, ordained by the Almighty as a special blessing for the dawn of a New Elizabethan Age. It is doubtful whether any single adventure had ever before received such universal acclaim: Scott’s epic last journey, perhaps, or Stanley’s finding of Livingstone—it was of that order.
Tenzing Norgay (right) and Edmund Hillary showing the kit they wore to the top of Mount Everest, …
AP
The expedition little expected the fanfare that awaited them on their return to Britain. Both Hillary and Hunt were knighted in July (Hunt was later made a life peer), and Tenzing was awarded the George Medal. All members of the expedition were feted at parties and banquets for months, but the spotlight fell mostly on Hillary and Tenzing as the men responsible for one of the defining events of the 20th century.
Everest- Lhotse, 1956
In 1956 the Swiss performed the remarkable feat of getting two ropes up Everest and one up Lhotse , using oxygen. Members of the expedition were A. Eggler (leader), W. Diehl, H. Grimm, H.R. von Gunten, E. Leuthold, F. Luchsinger, J. Marmet, F. Müller, Reiss, A. Reist, and E. Schmied. They followed roughly the British route up the icefall and the Lhotse face. From their Camp VI Reiss and Luchsinger reached the summit of Lhotse on May 18. Camp VI was moved to the South Col, and the summit of Everest was reached from a camp at 27,500 feet (8,380 metres) by Marmet and Schmied (May 23) and Gunten and Reist (May 24).
Attempts of 1960
In 1960 an Indian expedition with Sherpas, led by Brigadier Gyan Singh, attempted to scale Everest from the south. Camp IV was established in the Western Cwm on April 19. Bad weather followed, but a party using oxygen reached the South Col on May 9. On May 24 three members pitched a tent at 27,000 feet (8,230 metres) on the Southeast Ridge but were turned back by wind and weather at about 28,300 feet (8,625 metres). Continued bad weather prevented the second summit party’s leaving the South Col.
Also that spring it was reported that a Chinese expedition led by Shi Zhanzhun climbed Everest from the north. By their account they reached the North Col in April, and on May 24 Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, Liu Lianman, and a Tibetan mountaineer, Konbu, climbed the slab by a human ladder, reaching the top at 4:20 am to place the Chinese flag and a bust of Mao Zedong . The credibility of their account was doubted at the time but later was generally accepted (see below The north approach ).
(Cuthbert) Wilfrid (Francis) Noyce (Henry Cecil) John Hunt Stephen Venables
The U.S. ascent of 1963
The first American expedition to Everest was led by the Swiss climber Norman Dyhrenfurth, who selected a team of 19 mountaineers and scientists from throughout the United States and 37 Sherpas. The purpose was twofold: to reach the summit and to carry out scientific research programs in physiology, psychology, glaciology, and meteorology . Of particular interest were the studies on how the climbers changed physiologically and psychologically under extreme stresses at high altitudes where oxygen deprivation was unavoidable. These studies were related to the U.S. space program, and among the 400 sponsors of the expedition were the National Geographic Society , the U.S. State Department , the National Science Foundation , the Office of Naval Research, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration , the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, the Atomic Energy Commission , and the U.S. Air Force .
On February 20 the expedition left Kathmandu , Nepal, for Everest, 180 miles (290 km) away. More than 900 porters carried some 26 tons of food, clothing, equipment, and scientific instruments. Base Camp was established at 17,800 feet (5,425 metres) on Khumbu Glacier on March 20, one month earlier than on any previous expedition. For the next five weeks the team selected a route toward the summit and established and stocked a series of camps up the mountain via the traditional South Col route. They also explored the more difficult and untried West Ridge route. On May 1 James W. Whittaker and Nawang Gombu Sherpa, nephew of Tenzing Norgay, reached the summit despite high winds. On May 22 four other Americans reached the top. Two of them, William F. Unsoeld and Thomas F. Hornbein, made mountaineering history by ascending the West Ridge, which until then had been considered unclimbable. They descended the traditional way, along the Southeast Ridge toward the South Col, thus also accomplishing the first major mountain traverse in the Himalayas. On the descent, Unsoeld and Hornbein, along with Barry C. Bishop and Luther G. Jerstad (who had also reached the summit that day via the South Col), were forced to bivouac in the open at 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). All suffered frostbite, and Bishop and Unsoeld later lost their toes; the two had to be carried out of Base Camp on the backs of Sherpas. On July 8 Dyhrenfurth and all members of the expedition were presented the National Geographic Society’s Hubbard Medal by President John F. Kennedy .
The Indian ascent of 1965
In 1965 a 21-man Indian expedition, led by Lieutenant Commander M.S. Kohli, succeeded in putting nine men on the summit of Everest. India thus became the fourth country to scale the world’s highest mountain. One of the group, Nawang Gombu, became the first person ever to climb Mount Everest twice, having first accomplished the feat on the U.S. expedition.
The 1970s
The Southwest Face
From 1966 to 1969 the government of Nepal banned mountaineers from climbing in the Nepalese Himalayas. When the ranges were reopened in 1969, the world’s top mountaineers—following the American example of 1963—set their eyes on new routes to Everest’s summit. With Tibet still closed and only the southern approach available, the obvious challenge was the huge Southwest Face rising from the Western Cwm. The crux of the problem was the Rock Band—a vertical cliff 2,000 feet (600 metres) high starting at about 26,250 feet (8,000 metres). A Japanese reconnaissance expedition reached the foot of the Rock Band in the autumn of 1969 and returned in spring 1970 for a full-scale attempt led by Matsukata Saburō. Failing to make further progress on the Southwest Face, the expedition switched to the easier South Col route, getting the first Japanese climbers, including the renowned Japanese explorer Uemura Naomi, to the summit.
Mount Everest, Himalayas, from Nepal.
© Michelle Eadie/Fotolia
Expeditions continued to lay “siege” to the Southwest Face. The most publicized of these climbs was the 1971 International Expedition led by Norman Dyhrenfurth; however, internationalist ideals were savaged by the stresses of high altitude, and the expedition degenerated into rancour between the British and non-British climbers. In the spring of 1972 a European expedition led by the German Karl Herrligkoffer was equally inharmonious.
The battle for the Southwest Face continued in a predictable pattern: large teams, supported by Sherpas acting as high-altitude porters, established a succession of camps in the broad, snow-covered couloir leading to the foot of the intractable Rock Band. Success finally came in the autumn of 1975 to a British expedition led by Chris (later Sir Chris) Bonington, who got the full team and its meticulously prepared equipment to Base Camp by the end of August and made the most of the mainly calm weather during the September time window.
Climbing equipment had changed significantly since 1953. In the mid-1970s rigid box-shaped tents were bolted to aluminum alloy platforms dug into the 45° slope. Smooth-sheathed nylon ropes were affixed to the rock face to make a continuous safety line, which climbers could ascend and descend very efficiently. The 1975 expedition was a smooth operation that utilized a team of 33 Sherpas and was directed by some of the world’s best mountaineers. Unlike previous expeditions, this team explored a deep gully cutting through the left side of the Rock Band, with Paul Braithwaite and Nick Estcourt breaking through to establish Camp VI at about 27,000 feet (8,230 metres). From there Doug Scott and Dougal Haston made a long, bold traverse rightward, eventually gaining the South Summit and continuing over the Hillary Step to the Everest summit, which they reached at 6:00 pm. Rather than risk descending in the dark, they bivouacked in a snow cave close to the South Summit—at 28,750 feet (8,750 metres), this was the highest bivouac in climbing history until Babu Chiri Sherpa bivouacked on the summit itself in 1999. Their oxygen tanks were empty, and they had neither tent nor sleeping bags, but both men survived the ordeal unharmed and returned safely to Camp VI in the morning. Two days later Peter Boardman and Pertemba Sherpa reached the summit, followed by Mick Burke heading for the top in deteriorating weather. Burke never returned; he is presumed to have fallen to his death in the whiteout conditions.
The first ascent by a woman
When Scott and Haston reached the summit of Everest in September 1975, they found a metal surveying tripod left the previous spring by a Chinese team—definitive proof of the first uncontested ascent from the north. The Chinese team included a Tibetan woman, Phantog, who reached the summit on May 27. The honours for the first woman to summit Everest, however, belong to the Japanese climber Tabei Junko, who reached the top from the South Col on May 16. She was climbing with the first all-women expedition to Everest (although male Sherpas supported the climb.)
The West Ridge direct ascent
With the Southwest Face climbed, the next obvious—and harder—challenge was the complete West Ridge direct ascent from Lho Pass (Lho La). Just getting to Lho Pass from Base Camp is a major climb. The West Ridge itself then rises 9,200 feet (2,800 metres) over a distance of 3.5 miles (5.5 km), much of it over difficult rock. In 1979 a Yugoslav team, led by Tone Skarja, made the first ascent, fixing ropes to Camp V at an elevation of about 26,750 feet (8,120 metres), with one rope fixed farther up a steep rock chimney (a crack or gorge large enough to permit a climber to enter). On May 13 Andrej Stremfelj and Jernej Zaplotnik set out from Camp V for the summit. Above the chimney there were two more hard pitches of rock climbing. With no spare rope to fix in place, the climbers realized that they would not be able to descend via these difficult sections. After reaching the summit in midafternoon, they descended by the Hornbein Couloir, bypassing the hardest part of the West Ridge to regain the safety of Camp IV late that evening.
Climbing without supplemental oxygen
Beginning in the 1920s and ’30s, the received wisdom had been that an Everest climb needed a team of at least 10 climbers supported by Sherpas and equipped with supplemental oxygen for the final stages. In 1978 that belief was shattered by the Italian (Tyrolean) climber Reinhold Messner and his Austrian climbing partner Peter Habeler . They had already demonstrated on other high Himalayan peaks the art of Alpine-style climbing—moving rapidly, carrying only the barest essentials, and sometimes not even roping together for safety—as opposed to the standard siege style. Another innovation was their use of plastic boots, which were much lighter than the leather equivalent. In 1978 Messner and Habeler attached themselves as a semiautonomous unit to a large German-Austrian expedition led by Oswald Ölz. At 5:30 am on May 8, the two men left their tent at the South Col and started up the summit ridge carrying nothing but ice axes, cameras , and a short rope. The only external assistance was from the Austrians at their top camp, above the South Col, where the two stopped briefly to melt snow for drinking water. (In those days it was still common practice to place a top camp higher than the South Col; nowadays virtually all parties start their final push from the col, some 3,100 feet [950 metres] below the summit). Maintaining a steady ascent rate of about 325 feet (100 metres) per hour, they reached the summit at 1:15 pm. Habeler was terrified of possibly suffering brain damage from the lack of oxygen and made a remarkable descent to the South Col in just one hour. Messner returned later that afternoon. Exhausted—and in Messner’s case snow-blind from having removed his goggles—the two were escorted back down to the Western Cwm the next morning by the Welsh climber Eric Jones.
Mountaineer Reinhold Messner, who pioneered climbing Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen and …
John MacDougall—AFP/Getty Images
Messner and Habeler had proved that human beings could climb to the top of the world without supplemental oxygen; the German Hans Engl and the Sherpas Ang Dorje and Ang Kami were among several climbers who duplicated this feat in the autumn of 1978. However, for Messner, climbing Everest without supplemental oxygen was not enough: he now wanted to reach the summit completely alone. To do that unroped over the treacherous crevasses of the Western Cwm was considered unthinkable, but it was possible on the less-crevassed northern approach through Tibet; by the late 1970s Tibet was again becoming an option.
The north approach
After China occupied Tibet in 1950, permission was denied to any expeditions from noncommunist countries wishing to climb Everest. In 1960 the Chinese army built a road to the Rongbuk Base Camp, then claimed to have made the first ascent of Everest from the north, following the North Col–North Ridge–Northeast Ridge route earlier explored by prewar British expeditions. Many in the West doubted the Chinese assertion, mainly because the official account—which included the claim that Qu Yinhua had scaled the notorious vertical cliff of the Second Step barefoot and which also made constant references to party solidarity and the inspiration of Chairman Mao—was deemed so improbable. Not for the last time, Everest was used as a vehicle for propaganda .
Since that time, however, people in the West have seen Qu’s feet, mutilated by frostbite, and experts have reexamined the 1960 photos and film—many now believe that Qu, Wang Fuzhou, Liu Lianman, and the Tibetan, Konbu, did indeed reach the summit on May 25, 1960. What none can doubt is the Chinese repeat ascent of 1975 by eight Tibetans (including Phantog) and one Chinese. On that climb the group bolted an aluminium ladder to the Second Step, which has remained there and greatly aided all subsequent ascents on what has become the standard route from the north.
The 1980s
In 1979 the Chinese authorities announced that noncommunist countries could again begin mounting Everest expeditions through Tibet. Japan was first to do so, with a joint Sino-Japanese expedition led by Watanabe Hyōrikō in the spring of 1980. Half of the 1980 team repeated the Chinese North Ridge–Northeast Ridge route, with Katō Yasuo reaching the summit alone—making him the first person to climb Everest from the south and north. Meanwhile, another team made the first complete ascent of the North Face from the Central Rongbuk Glacier. The upper face is split by the Great Couloir on the left and the Hornbein Couloir (first attained from the West Ridge in 1963) on the right. The 1980 team climbed a lower couloir (the Japanese Couloir) that led directly to the base of the Hornbein Couloir, which was then followed to the top. Shigehiro Tsuneo and Ozaki Takashi ran out of oxygen about four hours below the summit but continued without it, reaching the summit late and bivouacking on the way down. Once again, modern insulated clothing and modern psychological attitudes about what was possible on Everest had allowed climbers to push on in a manner unthinkable to the prewar pioneers.
First solo climb
Reinhold Messner arrived at Rongbuk during the monsoon in July 1980. He spent a month acclimatizing, did one reconnaissance to the North Col to cache supplies there, then set off alone from Advance Base on the East Rongbuk Glacier before dawn on August 18. After a lucky escape from a concealed crevasse into which he had fallen, he reached the North Col, collected his gear, and continued to climb higher up the North Ridge. He then slanted diagonally right, as George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce had done in 1922, traversing a full 1.2 miles (2 km) before stopping to pitch his tent a second time, at 26,900 feet (8,200 metres). On the third day he entered the Great Couloir, continued up it, and achieved what had eluded Edward Norton, Lawrence Wager, Percy Wyn-Harris, and Francis Smythe by climbing rightward out of the couloir, onto the final terraces, and to the summit. Messner later recounted,
I was in continual agony; I have never in my whole life been so tired as on the summit of Everest that day. I just sat and sat there, oblivious to everything.…I knew I was physically at the end of my tether.
Back at his tent that night he was too weak even to eat or drink, and the next morning he jettisoned all his survival equipment, committing himself to descending all the way to Advance Base Camp in a single day.
Further exploration from Tibet
Messner’s 1980 solo climb demonstrated just what could be done on the world’s highest mountain. With that same bold spirit, a four-man British team came to Rongbuk in 1982 to attempt the complete Northeast Ridge from Raphu Pass (Raphu La). While he was leading the climb of the first of the three prominent Pinnacles that start at about 26,900 feet (8,200 metres), Dick Renshaw suffered a mild stroke and was invalided home. The expedition leader, Chris Bonington, felt too tired to go back up, and thus it was left to Peter Boardman and Joe Tasker to attempt the final ascent. They were last seen alive between the First Pinnacle and the Second Pinnacle on May 17. Boardman’s body was found 10 years later, sitting in the snow near that point; Tasker has not been found.
Base Camp for the 1988 ascent of Mount Everest via the East (Kangshung) Face, Tibet; prayer flags …
© Stephen Venables
In 1981 a large American team made the first-ever attempt on Everest’s gigantic East Face from Kangshung Glacier. Avalanche risk thwarted the attempt, but the team returned in autumn of 1983 to attempt again the massive central buttress of the face. This produced some spectacularly hard climbing, led by George Lowe . Above the buttress, the route followed a broad spur of snow and ice to reach the Southeast Ridge just below the South Summit. Carlos Buhler, Lou Reichardt, and Kim Momb reached the Everest summit on October 8, followed the next day by Jay Cassell, Lowe, and Dan Reid.
In 1984 the first Australians to attempt Everest chose a new route up the North Face, climbing through the huge central snowfield, dubbed “White Limbo,” to gain the Great Couloir. Then, like Messner in 1980, the Australians cut out right, with Tim Macartney-Snape and Greg Mortimer reaching the summit at sunset before making a difficult descent in the dark.
The most remarkable achievement of this era was the 1986 ascent by the Swiss climbers Jean Troillet and Erhard Loretan. Like Messner, they snatched a clear-weather window toward the end of the monsoon for a lightning dash up and down the mountain. Unlike Messner, they did not even carry a tent and sleeping bags. Climbing by night, resting during the comparative warmth of the day, they took just 41.5 hours to climb the Japanese and Hornbein couloirs up the North Face; then, sliding most of the way on their backsides, they descended in about 4.5 hours.
Developments in Nepal
While the most dazzling deeds were being done on the Tibetan side of Everest, there was still much activity in Nepal during the 1980s, with the boldest pioneering expeditions coming from eastern European countries. For dogged teamwork, nothing has surpassed the first winter ascent of Everest. Completed in 1980 by a team of phenomenally rugged Polish climbers, this ascent was led by Andrzej Zawada; expedition members Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki reached the summit on February 17. To crown this success, Zawada then led a spring expedition to make the first ascent of the South Pillar (left of the South Col), getting Andrzej Czok and Jerzy Kukuczka to the summit. Kukuczka, like Messner, would eventually climb all of the world’s 26,250-foot (8,000-metre) peaks, nearly all by difficult new routes.
Several teams attempted to repeat the Yugoslav West Ridge direct route without success, until a Bulgarian team did so in 1984. The first Bulgarian to reach the summit, Christo Prodanov, climbed without supplemental oxygen, was forced to bivouac overnight during the descent, and died—one of four summiteers who climbed without oxygen in the 1980s and failed to return.
The first Soviet expedition to Everest, in 1982, climbed a new route up the left-hand buttress of the Southwest Face, involving harder climbing than the original 1975 route. Led by Evgeny Tamm, the expedition was highly successful, putting 11 Soviet climbers on the summit.
The end of an era
The last of the great pioneering climbs of the decade was via a new route up the left side of the East Face to the South Col. Led by American Robert Anderson, it included just four climbers who had no Sherpa support and used no supplemental oxygen. British climber Stephen Venables was the only member of this expedition to reach the summit, on May 12, 1988. After a harrowing descent, during which Venables was forced to bivouac overnight without a tent, all four members of the team made it back to the Base Camp.
During the same period, more than 250 members of the “Asian Friendship Expedition” from China , Nepal, and Japan staged a simultaneous traverse of the mountain from north and south, which was recorded live on television. Also in 1988 the Sherpas Sungdare and Ang Rita both made their fifth summit of the mountain. That autumn the ace French climber, Marc Boivin, made the first paragliding descent from the summit; New Zealander Russell Brice and Briton Harry Taylor climbed the infamous Pinnacles on the Northeast Ridge; and four Czech climbers disappeared in a storm after making an Alpine-style climb of the Southwest Face without supplemental oxygen. The following year five Poles were lost in an avalanche on the West Ridge.
The increasing activity on Everest in 1988 foreshadowed what was to come. At the start of the spring season that year, fewer than 200 individuals had summited Everest. However, by the 2003 season, a half century after the historic climb by Hillary and Tenzing, that number exceeded 1,200, and more than 200 climbers had summited Everest two or more times. Both statistics grew dramatically in the succeeding decade, particularly the proportion of climbers with multiple ascents; by the end of the 2013 climbing season, the tally of successful ascents of the mountain was approaching 7,000, and some 2,750 had climbed it more than once.
Since 1990
Commercialism and tragedy
In the 1950s and ’60s the expense of mounting an expedition to Everest was so great and the number of climbers familiar with the Himalayas so few that there were many years in which no team attempted the mountain. By the 1970s expeditions had become more common, but Nepal was still issuing only two or three permits per year. In the 1980s permits became available for both the pre- and post- monsoon seasons and for routes via China as well as Nepal , and the total number of expeditions increased to about 10 per year. During the 1990s it became normal for there to be at least 10 expeditions per season on each side of the mountain, and those numbers continued to increase after 2000.
Australian climber Lincoln Hall on Mount Everest in May 1996, a survivor of the deadly events on …
Jamie McGuinness—Project-Himalaya.com/AP
One of the most successful operators, New Zealander Rob Hall, had led teams up the South Col route to the summit in 1990 and in 1992, ’93, and ’94. On May 10, 1996, his group and several other teams were caught at the summit in a bad afternoon storm. Hall and his American client, Doug Hansen, both died at the South Summit. An American guide from a separate commercial expedition, Scott Fischer, also died, along with several other climbers, including three Indians, on the Northeast Ridge. Although the deaths in the late 1980s had gone almost unnoticed, those from the 1996 storm were reported instantly over the Internet and generated massive press coverage and disaster literature. In all, 12 climbers died in that year’s pre-monsoon season, and an additional 3 died after the monsoon. The 1996 disaster may have caught the world’s attention, but it did nothing to decrease the lure of Everest. If anything, commercial traffic increased dramatically, despite the obvious message that no guide can guarantee a climber’s safety at such great heights. Indeed, after 2000 the number of climbers making it to the top of Everest continued to rise, reaching a peak of some 630 in 2007 and exceeding 650 in 2013.
It became increasingly common for several expeditions to be operating simultaneously on the mountain and for dozens of climbers to reach the summit on a single day; on May 23, 2001, nearly 90 accomplished the feat, and in succeeding years daily totals typically approached or exceeded that number during the peak of the May climbing season. An unprecedented 234 climbers made it to the top on May 19, 2012. Such large throngs of climbers inevitably created traffic jams in some of the narrower passages. One of the more notorious of those instances was on the record day, May 19, 2012, when the climbers became dangerously backed up at the Hillary Step. Four people died then, prompting expedition leaders to better coordinate their final ascent attempts with each other.
Southern (Hillary-Tenzing) summit route up Mount Everest showing the location of the April 18, …
Photo: Lee Klopfer/Alamy Art: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Over the years, considerable improvements in climbing gear and equipment, technology (including mobile wireless availability on the mountain), and expedition planning have improved the safety of those climbing Everest. However, the region remains a highly dangerous place where tragedy can strike at any time. Two notable examples occurred almost exactly a year apart. On April 18, 2014, an avalanche struck a group of Sherpas who were carrying supplies through the Khumbu Icefall. A total of 16 died (13 confirmed; 3 missing and presumed killed), making it the deadliest single day in Everest climbing history to that date. On April 25, 2015, however, a massive earthquake in central Nepal triggered avalanches on Everest, one of which swept through Base Camp, killing or injuring dozens of climbers and workers there. The known death toll on the mountain was 19—which included one climber who died after being evacuated to a hospital—surpassing the total from the previous year. In addition, the route through the Khumbu Icefall was severely damaged, stranding dozens of climbers at Camps I and II above the icefall, who then had to be rescued by helicopter.
Climbers walking to a helicopter landing site prior to evacuation from Mount Everest Base Camp, …
Phurba Tenjing Sherpa—Reuters/Landov
The 2014 disaster put an end to the Nepalese-side climbing season, after the Sherpas decided that they would not climb. One Chinese woman did reach the summit after being helicoptered to and from Camp II, and some 125 climbers made it to the top from the north (Chinese) side. Soon after the 2015 Nepalese-side avalanche, Chinese officials announced that the climbing season on the north side was canceled. For a time, there was some discussion of trying to repair the damaged route through the icefall, but it was deemed not possible, thus effectively ending climbing on the south side also for that year’s spring season. The icefall route was repaired during the summer, and the Nepalese government issued a climbing permit to a Japanese mountaineer. In September he made a solo summit attempt before turning back at an elevation of about 26,740 feet (8,150 metres). As a result, 2015 was the first year in more than four decades that not one person had reached the top of Everest.
Extraordinary feats
In pure mountaineering terms, the big achievements of the 1990s were the first winter ascent of the Southwest Face in 1993 (by a Japanese team led by Yagihara Kuniaki), the first complete ascent of the Northeast Ridge in 1995 (by another Japanese team led by Kanzaki Tadao), and the first ascent of the North-Northeast Couloir in 1996 (by a Russian team led by Sergei Antipin). Most of the activity, however, became concentrated on the two “normal” routes via the South Col and North Col; there the majority of expeditions were commercial operations, with clients paying for (generally) efficient logistics , satellite weather forecasts, the use of a copious amount of fixed ropes, and an increasingly savvy Sherpa workforce.
Meanwhile, a few individuals continued to achieve astounding new feats. In 1990 Tim Macartney-Snape traveled on foot all the way from sea level in the Bay of Bengal to the summit of Everest, without supplemental oxygen. Goran Kropp took this a step further in 1996 by bicycling all the way from his native Sweden before ascending Everest; he then cycled home. In 2001 the first blind person, American Erik Weihenmayer, summited Everest; he was an experienced climber who had already scaled peaks such as Denali (Mount McKinley) in Alaska and Kilimanjaro in eastern Africa before his climb of Everest.
Blind American climber Erik Weihenmayer on his successful summit ascent of Mount Everest in 2001.
© Didrik Johnck/Corbis
For sheer physiological prowess, however, few could match the Sherpas: in 1999 Babu Chiri climbed the southern route from Base Camp to summit in 16 hours 56 minutes. However, this accomplishment was surpassed by two Sherpas in 2003— Pemba Dorje and Lakpa Gelu, with Lakpa summiting in just 10 hours 56 minutes. Not to be outdone, Pemba returned the next year and reached the top in 8 hours 10 minutes. Perhaps as remarkable were the achievements of Apa Sherpa . In 2000 he reached the summit for a record 11th time, and he continued to break his own mark in succeeding years. Beginning in 2008, Apa’s summit climbs were undertaken as a member of the Eco Everest Expeditions; he recorded his 21st ascent on May 11, 2011. Apa’s total was matched by another Sherpa, Phurba Tashi, in 2013.
Mountaineer Apa Sherpa on the summit of Mount Everest, 2009.
Mingma Sherpa
The record for the youngest person to reach the summit has been set several times since the advent of commercial Everest climbs. For some time it remained at 16 years after Nepal banned climbing by those younger than that age. However, at the time, China imposed no such restrictions, and in 2003 Ming Kipa Sherpa, a 15-year-old Nepalese girl, reached the summit from the Tibetan side. Her record was eclipsed in 2010 when American Jordan Romero, 13, reached the top—again from the north side—on May 22. Romero’s accomplishment was made all the more notable because it was the sixth of the seven continental high points he had reached.
Beginning in the early 2000s, the record for the oldest person to ascend Everest alternated between two men, Japanese Miura Yūichirō and Nepalese Min Bahadur Sherchan. Miura—a former extreme skier who gained notoriety for skiing down the South Col in 1970 (the subject of an Academy Award -winning 1975 documentary, The Man Who Skied Down Everest)—set the standard at age 70, when he reached the top on May 22, 2003. On May 26, 2008, when he was 75, he made a second successful ascent, but Sherchan, age 76 and a former soldier, had summited the day before, on May 25, to claim the record. Miura regained the honour on May 23, 2013, at the age of 80. The oldest woman to reach the summit was another Japanese climber, Watanabe Tamae, who set the record twice: first on May 16, 2002, at age 63, and again on May 19, 2012, at age 73.
Some of the most-remarkable of the “stunts” attempted since 1990 have been unusual descents. In 1996 Italian Hans Kammerlander made a one-day ascent and descent of the north side, the latter partly accomplished on skis. In 1999 Pierre Tardivel managed to ski down from the South Summit. The first complete uninterrupted ski descent from the summit was by Slovenian Davo Karničar in 2000, upstaged a year later by the French extreme sportsman Marco Siffredi with his even more-challenging snowboard descent of the North Face.
Finding Mallory and commemorating historic ascents
Two notable Everest events bracketed the turn of the 21st century. In the spring of 1999, 75 years after George Mallory and Andrew Irvine had disappeared climbing Everest, an expedition led by American Eric Simonson set out to learn their fate. On May 1 members of the team found Mallory’s body lying on a scree terrace below the Yellow Band at about 26,700 feet (8,140 metres). It was determined that Mallory had died during or immediately after a bad fall: he had skull and compound leg fractures, and bruising was still visible on the preserved torso—probably caused by a rope that was still tied around his waist. The team could not determine if the body was the same one found by a Chinese climber in 1975 or if that one had been the body of Irvine. It was clear, however, that both Mallory and Irvine had been involved in a serious fall that broke the rope which undoubtedly joined them. Personal effects found on Mallory included his goggles, altimeter , and a pocketknife, but not the camera he is thought to have taken with him when he left for the summit. It had been hoped that the film from it (if it could be developed) might have revealed more about the climb, especially if the pair had reached the summit.
The 50th anniversary of Tenzing and Hillary’s historic ascent was widely observed in 2003. Commemoration of the event had actually begun the previous May, when second-generation summiteers—Hillary’s son Peter and Barry Bishop ’s son Brent—scaled the peak (the younger Hillary speaking to his father in New Zealand from the top via satellite phone); Tenzing’s son, Jamling Norgay, also participated in the expedition but did not make the final summit climb. In the spring of 2003 scores of climbers were able to reach the top of Everest before the May 29 anniversary date. Celebrations were held in several locations worldwide on the day itself, including one in Kathmandu where hundreds of past summit climbers joined Hillary and other members of the 1953 expedition.
Several milestone anniversaries were observed in 2013. A variety of events were tied to remembering the 60th anniversary of Tenzing and Hillary’s climb, including summiting of Everest by hundreds of climbers and treks by others on and around its lower slopes. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) hosted a special lecture on May 29 that included Peter Hillary, Jamling Tenzing, and Jan Morris—the latter being the last surviving member of the 1953 expedition. In March the RGS also hosted a 25th-anniversary reunion of members from the 1988 East Face expedition. Several members of the first U.S. ascent (1963), including James Whittaker and Norman Dyhrenfurth, gathered in San Francisco in February for an observance of the 50th anniversary of that expedition. In addition, the 80th anniversary of the first airplane flight over the mountain was remembered during the year.
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Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible - Biblical Archaeology Society
Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible
Lawrence Mykytiuk’s feature article from the January/February 2015 issue of BAR with voluminous endnotes
Lawrence Mykytiuk • 12/03/2016
Read Lawrence Mykytiuk’s article “Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible” as it originally appeared in Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 2015. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily in 2014.—Ed.
THE MAN CHRIST JESUS. Did Jesus of Nazareth exist as a real human being? Outside of the New Testament, what is the evidence for his existence? In this article, author Lawrence Mykytiuk examines the extra-Biblical textual and archaeological evidence associated with the man who would become the central figure in Christianity. Here Jesus is depicted in a vibrant sixth-century C.E. mosaic from the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy. Photo: Sant’Apollinare Nuovo Ravenna, Italy/Bridgeman Images.
After two decades toiling in the quiet groves of academe, I published an article in BAR titled “Archaeology Confirms 50 Real People in the Bible.” a The enormous interest this article generated was a complete surprise to me. Nearly 40 websites in six languages, reflecting a wide spectrum of secular and religious orientations, linked to BAR’s supplementary web page . b Some even posted translations.
I thought about following up with a similar article on people in the New Testament, but I soon realized that this would be so dominated by the question of Jesus’ existence that I needed to consider this question separately. This is that article: 1
Did Jesus of Nazareth, who was called Christ, exist as a real human being, “the man Christ Jesus” according to 1 Timothy 2:5?
The sources normally discussed fall into three main categories: (1) classical (that is, Greco-Roman), (2) Jewish and (3) Christian. But when people ask whether it is possible to prove that Jesus of Nazareth actually existed, as John P. Meier pointed out decades ago, “The implication is that the Biblical evidence for Jesus is biased because it is encased in a theological text written by committed believers. 2 What they really want to know is: Is there extra-Biblical evidence … for Jesus’ existence?” c
Therefore, this article will cover classical and Jewish writings almost exclusively. 3
In the free ebook Who Was Jesus? Exploring the History of Jesus’ Life , examine fundamental questions about Jesus of Nazareth. Where was he really born—Bethlehem or Nazareth? Did he marry? Is there evidence outside of the Bible that proves he actually walked the earth?
Tacitus—or more formally, Caius/Gaius (or Publius) Cornelius Tacitus (55/56–c. 118 C.E.)—was a Roman senator, orator and ethnographer, and arguably the best of Roman historians. His name is based on the Latin word tacitus, “silent,” from which we get the English word tacit. Interestingly, his compact prose uses silence and implications in a masterful way. One argument for the authenticity of the quotation below is that it is written in true Tacitean Latin. 4 But first a short introduction.
Roman historian Tacitus. Photo: Bibliotheque nationale, Paris, France / Giraudon / Bridgeman Images.
Tacitus’s last major work, titled Annals, written c. 116–117 C.E., includes a biography of Nero. In 64 C.E., during a fire in Rome, Nero was suspected of secretly ordering the burning of a part of town where he wanted to carry out a building project, so he tried to shift the blame to Christians . This was the occasion for Tacitus to mention Christians, whom he despised. This is what he wrote—the following excerpt is translated from Latin by Robert Van Voorst:
TACIT CONFIRMATION. Roman historian Tacitus’s last major work, Annals, mentions a “Christus” who was executed by Pontius Pilate and from whom the Christians derived their name. Tacitus’s brief reference corroborates historical details of Jesus’ death from the New Testament. The pictured volume of Tacitus’s works is from the turn of the 17th century. The volume’s title page features Plantin Press’s printing mark depicting angels, a compass and the motto Labore et Constantia (“By Labor and Constancy”). Photo: Tacitus, Opera Quae Exstant, trans. by Justus Lipsius (Antwerp, Belgium: Ex officina Plantiniana, apud Joannem Moretum, 1600). Courtesy of the Philadelphia Rare Books & Manuscripts Co. (PRB&M).
[N]either human effort nor the emperor’s generosity nor the placating of the gods ended the scandalous belief that the fire had been ordered [by Nero]. Therefore, to put down the rumor, Nero substituted as culprits and punished in the most unusual ways those hated for their shameful acts … whom the crowd called “Chrestians.” The founder of this name, Christ [Christus in Latin], had been executed in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate … Suppressed for a time, the deadly superstition erupted again not only in Judea, the origin of this evil, but also in the city [Rome], where all things horrible and shameful from everywhere come together and become popular. 5
Tacitus’s terse statement about “Christus” clearly corroborates the New Testament on certain historical details of Jesus’ death. Tacitus presents four pieces of accurate knowledge about Jesus: (1) Christus, used by Tacitus to refer to Jesus, was one distinctive way by which some referred to him, even though Tacitus mistakenly took it for a personal name rather than an epithet or title; (2) this Christus was associated with the beginning of the movement of Christians, whose name originated from his; (3) he was executed by the Roman governor of Judea; and (4) the time of his death was during Pontius Pilate’s governorship of Judea, during the reign of Tiberius. (Many New Testament scholars date Jesus’ death to c. 29 C.E.; Pilate governed Judea in 26–36 C.E., while Tiberius was emperor 14–37 C.E. 6 )
Tacitus, like classical authors in general, does not reveal the source(s) he used. But this should not detract from our confidence in Tacitus’s assertions. Scholars generally disagree about what his sources were. Tacitus was certainly among Rome’s best historians—arguably the best of all—at the top of his game as a historian and never given to careless writing.
Earlier in his career, when Tacitus was Proconsul of Asia, 7 he likely supervised trials, questioned people accused of being Christians and judged and punished those whom he found guilty, as his friend Pliny the Younger had done when he too was a provincial governor. Thus Tacitus stood a very good chance of becoming aware of information that he characteristically would have wanted to verify before accepting it as true. 8
CHRESTIANS OF CHRIST. Book XV of Tacitus’s Annals is preserved in the 11th–12th-century Codex Mediceus II, a collection of medieval manuscripts now housed in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence, Italy, along with other manuscripts and books that belonged to the Medici family. Highlighted above is the Latin text reading “… whom the crowd called ‘Chrestians.’ The founder of this name, Christ, had been executed in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate …” Photo: Codex Mediceus 68 II, fol. 38r, the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, Italy.
The other strong evidence that speaks directly about Jesus as a real person comes from Josephus, a Jewish priest who grew up as an aristocrat in first-century Palestine and ended up living in Rome, supported by the patronage of three successive emperors. In the early days of the first Jewish Revolt against Rome (66–70 C.E.), Josephus was a commander in Galilee but soon surrendered and became a prisoner of war. He then prophesied that his conqueror, the Roman commander Vespasian, would become emperor, and when this actually happened, Vespasian freed him. “From then on Josephus lived in Rome under the protection of the Flavians and there composed his historical and apologetic writings” (Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz). 9 He even took the name Flavius, after the family name of his patron, the emperor Vespasian, and set it before his birth name, becoming, in true Roman style, Flavius Josephus. Most Jews viewed him as a despicable traitor. It was by command of Vespasian’s son Titus that a Roman army in 70 C.E. destroyed Jerusalem and burned the Temple, stealing its contents as spoils of war, which are partly portrayed in the imagery of their gloating triumph on the Arch of Titus in Rome. 10 After Titus succeeded his father as emperor, Josephus accepted the son’s imperial patronage, as he did of Titus’s brother and successor, Domitian.
Yet in his own mind, Josephus remained a Jew both in his outlook and in his writings that extol Judaism. At the same time, by aligning himself with Roman emperors who were at that time the worst enemies of the Jewish people, he chose to ignore Jewish popular opinion.
Josephus stood in a unique position as a Jew who was secure in Roman imperial patronage and protection, eager to express pride in his Jewish heritage and yet personally independent of the Jewish community at large. Thus, in introducing Romans to Judaism, he felt free to write historical views for Roman consumption that were strongly at variance with rabbinic views.
Jewish historian Josephus is pictured in the ninth-century medieval manuscript Burgerbibliothek Bern Codex under the Greek caption “Josippos Historiographer.” Photo: Burgerbibliothek Bern Cod. 50, f.2r.
In his two great works, The Jewish War and Jewish Antiquities, both written in Greek for educated people, Josephus tried to appeal to aristocrats in the Roman world, presenting Judaism as a religion to be admired for its moral and philosophical depth. The Jewish War doesn’t mention Jesus except in some versions in likely later additions by others, but Jewish Antiquities does mention Jesus—twice.
The shorter of these two references to Jesus (in Book 20) 11 is incidental to identifying Jesus’ brother James, 12 the leader of the church in Jerusalem. In the temporary absence of a Roman governor between Festus’s death and governor Albinus’s arrival in 62 C.E., the high priest Ananus instigated James’s execution. Josephus described it:
Being therefore this kind of person [i.e., a heartless Sadducee], Ananus, thinking that he had a favorable opportunity because Festus had died and Albinus was still on his way, called a meeting [literally, “sanhedrin”] of judges and brought into it the brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah … James by name, and some others. He made the accusation that they had transgressed the law, and he handed them over to be stoned. 13
James is otherwise a barely noticed, minor figure in Josephus’s lengthy tome. The sole reason for referring to James at all was that his death resulted in Ananus losing his position as high priest. James (Jacob) was a common Jewish name at this time. Many men named James are mentioned in Josephus’s works, so Josephus needed to specify which one he meant. The common custom of simply giving the father’s name (James, son of Joseph) would not work here, because James’s father’s name was also very common. Therefore Josephus identified this James by reference to his famous brother Jesus. But James’s brother Jesus (Yehoshua) also had a very common name. Josephus mentions at least 12 other men named Jesus. 14 Therefore Josephus specified which Jesus he was referring to by adding the phrase “who is called Messiah,” or, since he was writing in Greek, Christos. 15 This phrase was necessary to identify clearly first Jesus and, via Jesus, James, the subject of the discussion. This extraneous reference to Jesus would have made no sense if Jesus had not been a real person.
JAMES, BROTHER OF JESUS. In Jewish Antiquities, parts of which are included in this mid-17th-century book of translations, Josephus refers to a James, who is described as “the brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah.” Josephus’s mention of Jesus to specify which James was being executed by the high priest Ananus in 62 C.E. affirms the existence of the historical Jesus. Photo: Josephus, Famovs and Memorable Works of Josephvs, trans. by Thomas Lodge (London: J. L. for Andrew Hebb, 1640).
Few scholars have ever doubted the authenticity of this short account. On the contrary, the huge majority accepts it as genuine. 16 The phrase intended to specify which Jesus, translated “who is called Christ,” signifies either that he was mentioned earlier in the book or that readers knew him well enough to grasp the reference to him in identifying James. The latter is unlikely. First-century Romans generally had little or no idea who Christus was. It is much more likely that he was mentioned earlier in Jewish Antiquities. Also, the fact that the term “Messiah”/“Christ” is not defined here suggests that an earlier passage in Jewish Antiquities has already mentioned something of its significance. 17 This phrase is also appropriate for a Jewish historian like Josephus because the reference to Jesus is a noncommittal, neutral statement about what some people called Jesus and not a confession of faith that actually asserts that he was Christ.
This phrase—“who is called Christ”—is very unlikely to have been added by a Christian for two reasons. First, in the New Testament and in the early Church Fathers of the first two centuries C.E., Christians consistently refer to James as “the brother of the Lord” or “of the Savior” and similar terms, not “the brother of Jesus,” presumably because the name Jesus was very common and did not necessarily refer to their Lord. Second, Josephus’s description in Jewish Antiquities of how and when James was executed disagrees with Christian tradition, likewise implying a non-Christian author. 18
This short identification of James by the title that some people used in order to specify his brother gains credibility as an affirmation of Jesus’ existence because the passage is not about Jesus. Rather, his name appears in a functional phrase that is called for by the sense of the passage. It can only be useful for the identification of James if it is a reference to a real person, namely, “Jesus who is called Christ.”
This clear reference to Jesus is sometimes overlooked in debates about Josephus’s other, longer reference to Jesus (to be treated next). Quite a few people are aware of the questions and doubts regarding the longer mention of Jesus, but often this other clear, simple reference and its strength as evidence for Jesus’ existence does not receive due attention.
The longer passage in Josephus’s Jewish Antiquities (Book 18) 19 that refers to Jesus is known as the Testimonium Flavianum.
If it has any value in relation to the question of Jesus’ existence, it counts as additional evidence for Jesus’ existence. The Testimonium Flavianum reads as follows; the parts that are especially suspicious because they sound Christian are in italics: 20
Around this time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one ought to call him a man. 21 For he was one who did surprising deeds, and a teacher of such people as accept the truth gladly. He won over many Jews and many of the Greeks. He was the Messiah. When Pilate, upon hearing him accused by men of the highest standing among us, had condemned him to be crucified, those who in the first place came to love him did not give up their affection for him, for on the third day, he appeared to them restored to life. The prophets of God had prophesied this and countless other marvelous things about him. And the tribe of Christians, so called after him, have still to this day not died out. 22
All surviving manuscripts of the Testimonium Flavianum that are in Greek, like the original, contain the same version of this passage, with no significant differences.
The main question is: Did Flavius Josephus write this entire report about Jesus and his followers, or did a forger or forgers alter it or possibly insert the whole report? 23 There are three ways to answer this question: 24
Alternative 1: The whole passage is authentic, written by Josephus.
Alternative 2: The whole passage is a forgery, inserted into Jewish Antiquities.
Alternative 3: It is only partly authentic, containing some material from Josephus, but also
some later additions by another hand(s).
Regarding Alternative 1, today almost no scholar accepts the authenticity of the entire standard Greek Testimonium Flavianum. In contrast to the obviously Christian statement “He was the Messiah” in the Testimonium, Josephus elsewhere “writes as a passionate advocate of Judaism,” says Josephus expert Steve Mason. “Everywhere Josephus praises the excellent constitution of the Jews, codified by Moses, and declares its peerless, comprehensive qualities … Josephus rejoices over converts to Judaism. In all this, there is not the slightest hint of any belief in Jesus” 25 as seems to be reflected in the Testimonium.
The bold affirmation of Jesus as Messiah reads as a resounding Christian confession that echoes St. Peter himself! 26 It cannot be Josephus. Alternative 1 is clearly out.
Regarding Alternative 2—the whole Testimonium Flavianum is a forgery—this is very unlikely. What is said, and the expressions in Greek that are used to say it, despite a few words that don’t seem characteristic of Josephus, generally fit much better with Josephus’s writings than with Christian writings. 27 It is hypothetically possible that a forger could have learned to imitate Josephus’s style or that a reviser adjusted the passage to that style, but such a deep level of attention, based on an extensive, detailed reading of Josephus’s works and such a meticulous adoption of his vocabulary and style, goes far beyond what a forger or a reviser would need to do.
Even more important, the short passage (treated above) that mentions Jesus in order to identify James appears in a later section of the book (Book 20) and implies that Jesus was mentioned previously.
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THE TESTIMONY OF JOSEPHUS. This 15th-century manuscript, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, contains the portion of Josephus’s Testimonium Flavianum that refers to Jesus (highlighted in blue). The first sentence of the manuscript, highlighted in green, reads, from the Greek, “Around this time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one ought to call him a man.” The majority of scholars believe this passage of the Testimonium is based on the original writings of Josephus but contains later additions, likely made by Christian scribes. Photo: Codex Parisinus gr. 2075, 45v. Courtesy Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
The best-informed among the Romans understood Christus to be nothing more than a man’s personal name, on the level of Publius and Marcus. First-century Romans generally had no idea that calling someone “Christus” was an exalted reference, implying belief that he was the chosen one, God’s anointed. The Testimonium, in Book 18, appropriately found in the section that deals with Pilate’s time as governor of Judea, 28 is apparently one of Josephus’s characteristic digressions, this time occasioned by mention of Pilate. It provides background for Josephus’s only other written mention of Jesus (in Book 20), and it connects the name Jesus with his Christian followers. The short reference to Jesus in the later book depends on the longer one in the earlier (Book 18). If the longer one is not genuine, this passage lacks its essential background. Alternative 2 should be rejected.
Alternative 3—that the Testimonium Flavianum is based on an original report by Josephus 29 that has been modified by others, probably Christian scribes, seems most likely. After extracting what appear to be Christian additions, the remaining text appears to be pure Josephus. As a Romanized Jew, Josephus would not have presented these beliefs as his own. Interestingly, in three openly Christian, non-Greek versions of the Testimonium Flavianum analyzed by Steve Mason, variations indicate changes were made by others besides Josephus. 30 The Latin version says Jesus “was believed to be the Messiah.” The Syriac version is best translated, “He was thought to be the Messiah.” And the Arabic version with open coyness suggests, “He was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders.” Alternative 3 has the support of the overwhelming majority of scholars.
We can learn quite a bit about Jesus from Tacitus and Josephus, two famous historians who were not Christian. Almost all the following statements about Jesus, which are asserted in the New Testament, are corroborated or confirmed by the relevant passages in Tacitus and Josephus. These independent historical sources—one a non-Christian Roman and the other Jewish—confirm what we are told in the Gospels: 31
1. He existed as a man. The historian Josephus grew up in a priestly family in first-century Palestine and wrote only decades after Jesus’ death. Jesus’ known associates, such as Jesus’ brother James, were his contemporaries. The historical and cultural context was second nature to Josephus. “If any Jewish writer were ever in a position to know about the non-existence of Jesus, it would have been Josephus. His implicit affirmation of the existence of Jesus has been, and still is, the most significant obstacle for those who argue that the extra-Biblical evidence is not probative on this point,” Robert Van Voorst observes. 32 And Tacitus was careful enough not to report real executions of nonexistent people.
2. His personal name was Jesus, as Josephus informs us.
3. He was called Christos in Greek, which is a translation of the Hebrew word Messiah, both of which mean “anointed” or “(the) anointed one,” as Josephus states and Tacitus implies, unaware, by reporting, as Romans thought, that his name was Christus.
4. He had a brother named James (Jacob), as Josephus reports.
5. He won over both Jews and “Greeks” (i.e., Gentiles of Hellenistic culture), according to Josephus, although it is anachronistic to say that they were “many” at the end of his life. Large growth
in the number of Jesus’ actual followers came only after his death.
6. Jewish leaders of the day expressed unfavorable opinions about him, at least according to some versions of the Testimonium Flavianum.
7. Pilate rendered the decision that he should be executed, as both Tacitus and Josephus state.
8. His execution was specifically by crucifixion, according to Josephus.
9. He was executed during Pontius Pilate’s governorship over Judea (26–36 C.E.), as Josephus implies and Tacitus states, adding that it was during Tiberius’s reign.
Some of Jesus’ followers did not abandon their personal loyalty to him even after his crucifixion but submitted to his teaching. They believed that Jesus later appeared to them alive in accordance with prophecies, most likely those found in the Hebrew Bible. A well-attested link between Jesus and Christians is that Christ, as a term used to identify Jesus, became the basis of the term used to identify his followers: Christians. The Christian movement began in Judea, according to Tacitus. Josephus observes that it continued during the first century. Tacitus deplores the fact that during the second century it had spread as far as Rome.
As far as we know, no ancient person ever seriously argued that Jesus did not exist. 33 Referring to the first several centuries C.E., even a scholar as cautious and thorough as Robert Van Voorst freely observes, “… [N]o pagans and Jews who opposed Christianity denied Jesus’ historicity or even questioned it.” 34
Nondenial of Jesus’ existence is particularly notable in rabbinic writings of those first several centuries C.E.: “… [I]f anyone in the ancient world had a reason to dislike the Christian faith, it was the rabbis. To argue successfully that Jesus never existed but was a creation of early Christians would have been the most effective polemic against Christianity … [Yet] all Jewish sources treated Jesus as a fully historical person … [T]he rabbis … used the real events of Jesus’ life against him” (Van Voorst). 35
Thus his birth, ministry and death occasioned claims that his birth was illegitimate and that he performed miracles by evil magic, encouraged apostasy and was justly executed for his own sins. But they do not deny his existence. 36
Lucian of Samosata (c. 115–200 C.E.) was a Greek satirist who wrote The Passing of Peregrinus, about a former Christian who later became a famous Cynic and revolutionary and died in 165 C.E. In two sections of Peregrinus—here translated by Craig A. Evans—Lucian, while discussing Peregrinus’s career, without naming Jesus, clearly refers to him, albeit with contempt in the midst of satire:
It was then that he learned the marvelous wisdom of the Christians, by associating with their priests and scribes in Palestine. And— what else?—in short order he made them look like children, for he was a prophet, cult leader, head of the congregation and everything, all by himself. He interpreted and explained some of their books, and wrote many himself. They revered him as a god, used him as a lawgiver, and set him down as a protector—to be sure, after that other whom they still worship, the man who was crucified in Palestine because he introduced this new cult into the world. 37
For having convinced themselves that they are going to be immortal and live forever, the poor wretches despise death and most even willingly give themselves up. Furthermore, their first lawgiver persuaded them that they are all brothers of one another after they have transgressed once for all by denying the Greek gods and by worshiping that crucified sophist himself and living according to his laws. 38
Although Lucian was aware of the Christians’ “books” (some of which might have been parts of the New Testament), his many bits of misinformation make it seem very likely that he did not read them. The compound term “priests and scribes,” for example, seems to have been borrowed from Judaism, and indeed, Christianity and Judaism were sometimes confused among classical authors.
Lucian seems to have gathered all of his information from sources independent of the New Testament and other Christian writings. For this reason, this writing of his is usually valued as independent evidence for the existence of Jesus.
This is true despite his ridicule and contempt for Christians and their “crucified sophist.” “Sophist” was a derisive term used for cheats or for teachers who only taught for money. Lucian despised Christians for worshiping someone thought to be a criminal worthy of death and especially despised “the man who was crucified.”
▸ Celsus, the Platonist philosopher, considered Jesus to be a magician who made exorbitant claims. 39
▸ Pliny the Younger, a Roman governor and friend of Tacitus, wrote about early Christian worship of Christ “as to a god.” 40
▸ Suetonius, a Roman writer, lawyer and historian, wrote of riots in 49 C.E. among Jews in Rome which might have been about Christus but which he thought were incited by “the instigator Chrestus,” whose identification with Jesus is not completely certain. 41
▸ Mara bar Serapion, a prisoner of war held by the Romans, wrote a letter to his son that described “the wise Jewish king” in a way that seems to indicate Jesus but does not specify his identity. 42
Other documentary sources are doubtful or irrelevant. 43
One can label the evidence treated above as documentary (sometimes called literary) or as archaeological. Almost all sources covered above exist in the form of documents that have been copied and preserved over the course of many centuries, rather than excavated in archaeological digs. Therefore, although some writers call them archaeological evidence, I prefer to say that these truly ancient texts are ancient documentary sources, rather than archaeological discoveries.
Some ossuaries (bone boxes) have come to light that are inscribed simply with the name Jesus (Yeshu or Yeshua‘ in Hebrew), but no one suggests that this was Jesus of Nazareth. The name Jesus was very common at this time, as was Joseph. So as far as we know, these ordinary ossuaries have nothing to do with the New Testament Jesus. Even the ossuary from the East Talpiot district of Jerusalem, whose inscription is translated “Yeshua‘, son of Joseph,” does not refer to him. 44
As for the famous James ossuary first published in 2002, d whose inscription is translated “Jacob, son of Joseph, brother of Yeshua‘,” more smoothly rendered, “James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus,” it is unprovenanced, and it will likely take decades to settle the matter of whether it is authentic. Following well established, sound methodology, I do not base conclusions on materials whose authenticity is uncertain, because they might be forged. 45 Therefore the James ossuary, which is treated in many other publications, is not included here. 46
As a final observation: In New Testament scholarship generally, a number of specialists consider the question of whether Jesus existed to have been finally and conclusively settled in the affirmative. A few vocal scholars, however, still deny that he ever lived. 47
“Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible” by Lawrence Mykytiuk originally appeared in the January/February 2015 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily on December 8, 2014.
Lawrence Mykytiuk is associate professor of library science and the history librarian at Purdue University. He holds a Ph.D. in Hebrew and Semitic Studies and is the author of the book Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E. (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2004).
b. See biblicalarchaeology.org/50 .
c. John P. Meier, “The Testimonium,” Bible Review, June 1991.
d. See André Lemaire, “Burial Box of James the Brother of Jesus,” BAR, November/December 2002; Hershel Shanks, “‘Brother of Jesus’ Inscription Is Authentic!” BAR, July/August 2012.
1. I gratefully dedicate this article to my brother, Thomas S. Mykytiuk, to the memory of his wife, Nancy E. Mykytiuk, and to their growing tribe of descendants. I wish to thank Dr. Stuart D. Robertson of Purdue University, a Josephus scholar who studied under the great Louis H. Feldman, for kindly offering his comments on an early draft of this article. As the sole author, I alone am responsible for all of this article’s errors and shortcomings.
The previous BAR article is supplemented by two more persons, officials of Nebuchadnezzar II, mentioned in the “Queries and Comments” section, BAR, July/August 2014 , bringing the actual total to 52. That previous article is based on my own research, because few other researchers had worked toward the twin goals I sought: first, developing the necessary methodology, and second, applying that methodology comprehensively to archaeological materials that relate to the Hebrew Bible. In contrast, this article treats an area that has already been thoroughly researched, so I have gleaned material from the best results previously obtained (may the reader pardon the many quotations).
Another contrast is that the challenge in the research that led to the previous article was to determine whether the inscriptions (down to 400 B.C.E.) actually referred to the Biblical figure. In the present article, most of the documents very clearly refer to the Jesus of the New Testament. Only in relatively few instances, such as some rabbinic texts, is the reference very unclear. The challenge in this article has been to evaluate the relative strength of the documents about Jesus as evidence, while keeping in mind whether they are independent of the New Testament.
2. Of course, the New Testament is actually a small library of texts, as is the Hebrew Bible.
3. Because Meier only covered writings of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, his article stays within the first century. This article covers writings that originated in the first several centuries C.E. These non-Christian sources deserve to be welcomed and examined by anyone interested in the historical aspect of Scripture. At the same time, Christian sources found in the New Testament and outside of it have great value as historical evidence and are not to be discounted or dismissed.
The Gospels, for example, are loosely parallel to writings by members of a Prime Minister’s or President’s cabinet, in that they are valuable for the firsthand information they provide from inner circles (F. F. Bruce, Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament, Knowing Christianity [London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1974], pp. 14–15). While allowance must be made for human limitations (at least lack of omniscience) and bias (such as loyalty to a particular person or deity), no good historian would completely discard them.
An example that is more to the point is Bart D. Ehrman’s strong affirmation of Jesus’ existence in his Did Jesus Exist? (New York: HarperOne, 2012), pp. 142–174. It is based on New Testament data and is noteworthy for its down-to-earth perception. Ehrman bases his conclusion that Jesus existed on two facts: first, that the apostle Paul was personally acquainted with Jesus’ brother James and with the apostle Peter; and second, that, contrary to Jewish messianic expectation of the day, Jesus was crucified (Did Jesus Exist?, p. 173).
In the last analysis, all evidence from all sources must be considered. Both Biblical and non-Biblical sources “are in principle of equal value in the study of Jesus” (Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide [Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998], p. 23). An excellent, up-to-date resource on both Christian and non-Christian sources is Craig A. Evans, ed., Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus (New York: Routledge, 2008).
4. “As Norma Miller delightfully remarks, ‘The well-intentioned pagan glossers of ancient texts do not normally express themselves in Tacitean Latin,’ and the same could be said of Christian interpolators” (Norma P. Miller, Tacitus: Annals XV [London: Macmillan, 1971], p. xxviii, quoted in Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000], p. 43).
5. Annals XV.44, as translated in Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 42–43. Instead of the better-documented reading, “Chrestians,” the word “Christians” appears in a more traditional translation by Alfred J. Church and William J. Brodribb, Annals of Tacitus (London: Macmillan, 1882), pp. 304–305, and in an even earlier edition, which appears at www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Tacitus_on_Christ.html .
6. Along with these corroborations, Tacitus’s statement also contains difficulties that might cause concern. Three that I consider the most important are treated in this note. Although debates will continue, proper use of historical background offers reasonable, tenable solutions that we may hold with confidence while remaining open to new evidence and new interpretations if they are better. Every approach has difficulties to explain. I prefer those that come with this article’s approach, because I consider them smaller and more easily resolved than the problems of other approaches.
First, it is common for scholars to observe that Pontius Pilate’s official title when he governed Judaea (26/27–36 C.E.) was not procurator, as in the quotation from Tacitus above, but praefectus (in Latin, literally, “placed in charge”; in English, prefect), as stated on the “Pilate stone” discovered in 1961. This stone was lying in the ruins of the theater in the ancient city of Caesarea Maritima, on Israel’s northern seacoast. The stone had been trimmed down to be re-used twice, so the first part of the title is broken off, but the title is not in doubt. With square brackets marking missing letters that scholars have filled in, two of its four lines read “[Po]ntius Pilate . . . [Pref]ect of Juda[ea]”:
line 2 […PO]NTIUS PILATUS
line 3 […PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E
The inscription could potentially be dated to any time in Pilate’s career, but a date between 31 and 36 C.E. seems most likely. See Clayton Miles Lehmann and Kenneth G. Holum, The Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Caesarea Maritima, Joint Expedition to Caesarea Excavation Reports V (Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research, 2000), pp. 67–70, no. 43, p. 249 Pl. XXVI.
The family name Pontius was common in some parts of Italy during that era, but the name Pilatus was “extremely rare” (A. N. Sherwin-White, “Pilate, Pontius,” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 3 [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986], p. 867). Because of the rarity of the name Pilatus and because only one Pontius Pilatus was ever the Roman governor of Judea, this identification should be regarded as completely certain.
It is possible that “procurator” in the quotation above is a simple error, but the historical background reveals that it is not so much an error as it is an anachronism—something placed out of its proper time, whether intentionally or by accident. As emperor until 14 C.E., Augustus gave governors of western and southern Judea the title praefectus. But later, Claudius (r. 41–54 C.E.) began conferring the title procurator pro legato, “procurator acting as legate” on new provincial governors. A procurator, literally, “caretaker,” was a steward who managed financial affairs on behalf of the owner. Roman governmental procurators managed taxes and estates on behalf of the emperor and had administrative duties. The English verb to procure is derived from the same root.
From then on, the title procurator replaced praefectus in many Roman provinces, including Judea. “So the early governors of western and southern Judea, after it became a Roman province in A.D. 6, were officially entitled praefecti. Later writers, however, usually referred to them anachronistically as procurators or the Greek equivalent …” (A. N. Sherwin-White, “Procurator,” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, p. 979.)
Writing in 116 or 117 C.E., Tacitus, who was above all a careful writer, might have intentionally chosen to use the then-current title procurator in keeping with the anachronistic way of speaking that was common in his day. Even today, we accept titles used anachronistically. One might read comparable statements about “U.S. Secretaries of Defense from Henry Stimson during World War II to Chuck Hagel,” even though Stimson’s actual title was Secretary of War, and the current title is Secretary of Defense. Readers who are unfamiliar with Stimson’s title would nevertheless understand which position he held in the government.
Whether procurator was used intentionally or not, in effect this anachronistic term helped readers quickly understand Pilate’s official position and avoided confusing people who were not familiar with the older title.
The second difficulty is that Tacitus’s word for “Christians” is spelled two different ways in existing Latin manuscripts of Annals: both Christianoi and Chrestianoi. The name Chrestus, meaning “good, kind, useful, beneficent,” was commonly given to slaves who served Roman masters. In spoken conversation, people in Rome could easily have mistakenly heard the Latinized foreign word Christus as the familiar name Chrestus. Chrestianoi, “good, kind, useful ones,” is found in the oldest surviving manuscript of this passage in Tacitus.
[T]he original hand of the oldest surviving manuscript, the Second Medicean (eleventh century), which is almost certainly the source of all other surviving manuscripts, reads Chrestianoi, “Chrestians.” A marginal gloss “corrects” it to Christianoi. Chrestianoi is to be preferred as the earliest and most difficult reading and is adopted by the three current critical editions and the recent scholarship utilizing them. It also makes better sense in context. Tacitus is correcting, in a way typical of his style of economy, the misunderstanding of the “crowd” (vulgus) by stating that the founder of this name (auctor nominis eius) is Christus, not the name implicitly given by the crowd, Chrestus. Tacitus could have written auctor superstitionis, “the founder of this superstition,” or something similar, but he calls attention by his somewhat unusual phrase to the nomen [name] of the movement in order to link it directly—and correctly—to the name of Christ (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 43–44. See also John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, vol. 1: The Roots of the Problem and the Person, Anchor Bible Reference Library [New York: Doubleday, 1991], p. 100, note 7.).
It is very common for ancient classical writings to be represented by manuscripts that were copied many centuries later. For example, the earliest manuscript of the Odyssey is from the 900s C.E., yet it is traditionally ascribed to the blind Greek poet Homer, who is dated variously from about the 800s to the 500s B.C.E., roughly 1,400 to 1,700 years earlier. Similarly, it is not unusual for the earliest surviving manuscripts of various works of the Greek philosopher Plato to date from over 1,000 years after he wrote.
For a technical, critical discussion of Christus and Chrestus in English, see Robert Renahan, “Christus or Chrestus in Tacitus?” Past and Present 23 (1968), pp. 368–370.
The third difficulty is more apparent than real: Why did it take about 85 years for a classical author such as Tacitus to write about Jesus, whose crucifixion occurred c. 29 C.E.? (The A.D. system, devised by the Christian Scythian monk Dionysius Exiguus [“Dennis the Small”] in the 525 C.E. and used in our present-day calendar, was not perfectly set on the exact year of Jesus’ birth, though it was close. As a result, Jesus was born within the years we now refer to as 6 to 4 B.C.E. That would put the beginning of his ministry, around age 30 (Luke 3:23), at c. 25 C.E. In the widely held view that Jesus’ ministry lasted 3.5 years before his death, a reasonable date for the crucifixion is c. 29 C.E.)
The following two observations made by F. F. Bruce are relevant to works by Tacitus and by several other classical writers who mention Jesus:
1. Surprisingly few classical writings, comparatively speaking, survive from the period of about the first 50 years of the Christian church (c. 29 to 80 C.E.). (Bruce, Jesus and Christian Origins, p. 17.)
2. Roman civilization paid almost no attention to obscure religious leaders in faraway places, such as Jesus in Judea—just as today’s Western nations pay almost no attention to religious leaders in remote parts of the world, unless the national interest is involved. Rome became concerned only when Christians grew numerous. (Bruce, Jesus and Christian Origins, pp. 17–18. For thorough discussion, see Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 68–71.)
A time factor that affects Tacitus in particular is:
3. In the Annals, the reference to Jesus appears only in connection with the cruel treatment of Christians in Rome by Nero, as part of a biography of Nero (d. 68 C.E.). By happenstance, Tacitus did not get around to composing Nero’s biography until the last group of narratives he wrote before he died. A writer for most of his life, Tacitus began with works on oratory, ethnography of German tribes and other subjects. His book Histories, written c. 100–110, which covers the reigns of later Roman emperors after Nero, was actually written before his book Annals, which covers the earlier reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. Thus Tacitus wrote his biography of Nero at the end of his career.
7. Asia was the name of a Roman province in what is now western Turkey (Asia Minor).
8. Perhaps he compared it to Roman records, whether in general governmental archives or in records concerning various religions. I have read one analysis by an author who arbitrarily assumes that Tacitus got his information only from Christians—no other source. Then, on the sole basis of the author’s own assumption, the analysis completely dismisses Tacitus’s clear historical statement about “Christus.” This evaluation is based on opinion, not evidence. It also undervalues Tacitus’s very careful writing and his discernment as a historian. He likely had access to some archives through his status, either as Proconsul of Asia, as a senator—or, as is often overlooked, from his connections as a high-ranking priest of Roman religion. In 88 C.E., he became “a member of the Quindecimviri Sacris Faciundis [“The Board of Fifteen for Performing Sacrifices”], the priestly organization charged, among other things, with … supervising the practice of officially tolerated foreign cults in the city … [and facing] the growing necessity to distinguish illicit Christianity from licit Judaism” (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 52), or, given Jewish resistance to oppressive measures taken by Rome, at least to keep a close watch on developments within Judaism. Indeed, “a Roman archive … is particularly suggested by the note of the temporary suppression of the superstition, which indicates an official perspective” (Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, p. 83). Membership in this priestly regulatory group very likely gave Tacitus access to at least some of the accurate knowledge he possessed about Christus. With characteristic brevity, he reported the facts as he understood them, quickly dismissing the despised, executed Christus from the Annals (see Meier, Marginal Jew, vol. 1, p. 90).
Tacitus himself tells us … that in 88 [C.E.] both in his capacity as priest of the college of quindecimviri sacris faciundis and as a praetor he had been present at and had paid close attention to the ludi saeculares [“secular games”] celebrated by Domitian in that year… [Annals, XI.11, 3–4]. It rather sounds as if he took his religious office seriously …
Tacitus presents himself as a man concerned to preserve traditional Roman religious practice, convinced that when religious matters are allowed to slide or are completely disregarded, the gods will vent their anger on the Roman people to correct their error. What on his view angers the gods is not so much failure to observe the niceties of ritual practice, as disdain for the moral order that the gods uphold” (Matthew W. Dickie, “Magic in the Roman Historians,” in Richard Lindsay Gordon and Francisco Marco Simón, eds., Magical Practice in the Latin West: Papers from the International Conference Held at the University of Zaragoza, 30 Sept. – 1st Oct. 2005, Religions in the Greco-Roman World, vol. 168 [Leiden: Brill, 2010], pp. 82, 83).
Tacitus was in his twenties in 79 C.E., when an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius annihilated the city of Pompeii. One can reasonably suppose how he might have interpreted this disaster in relation to the Roman gods.
9. Quoted from Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, p. 64.
10. Titus’s troops captured and treated as war booty the sacred menorah that had stood in the holy place inside the Temple. See articles on the menorah as depicted on the Arch of Titus, in Yeshiva University’s Arch of Titus Digital Restoration Project, etc., at yeshiva.academia.edu/StevenFine/Menorah-Arch-of-Titus-Digital-Restoration-Project .
11. Jewish Antiquities, XX.200 (or, in Whiston’s translation of Jewish Antiquities, XX.9.1).
12. James’s name was actually Jacob. Odd as it may seem, the English name James is ultimately derived from the Hebrew name Jacob.
13. Jewish Antiquities, XX.9.1 in Whiston’s translation (§200 in scholarly editions), as translated by Meier, Marginal Jew, vol. 1, p. 57. Meier’s original passage includes the phrases in square brackets [ ]. The omitted words indicated by the ellipsis (…) are in Greek, to let scholars know what words are translated into English.
14. Winter asserts that Josephus mentions about twelve others named Jesus. Feldman puts that number at 21. See Paul Winter, “Excursus II: Josephus on Jesus and James: Ant. xviii 3, 3 (63–64) and xx 9,1 (200–203),” in Emil Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, 3 vols., rev. and ed. by Geza Vermes, Fergus Millar, Matthew Black and Martin Goodman (Edinburgh: Clark, 1973–1987), vol. 1, p. 431; Louis H. Feldman, “Introduction,” in Louis H. Feldman and Gohei Hata, eds., Josephus, Judaism, and Christianity (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1987), p. 56.
15. See Meier, Marginal Jew, vol. 1, pp. 57–58. Messiah, the Hebrew term for “anointed (one),” came through Greek translation (Christos) into English as Christ.
16. See Meier, Marginal Jew, vol. 1, p. 59, note 12; pp. 72–73, note 12.
17. Richard T. France, The Evidence for Jesus, The Jesus Library (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986), p. 26.
18. Josephus says James was executed by stoning before the Jewish War began, but Christian tradition says he was executed during the Jewish War by being thrown from a height of the Temple, then, after an attempt to stone him was prevented, finally being clubbed to death. See Meier, Marginal Jew, vol. 1, p. 58.
19. XVIII.63–64 (in Whiston’s translation: XVIII.3.1).
20. It was modern scholar John P. Meier who put these passages in italics.
21. Christians believe that Jesus was fully human, but also fully Divine, having two natures in one person. To refer to him as “a wise man,” as the earlier part of the sentence does, would seem incomplete to a Christian. This clause seems intended to lead toward the two boldly Christian statements that come later.
22. This straightforward translation from Greek, in which I have italicized three phrases, is by Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, pp. 65–66.
In his Bible Review article (Meier, “The Testimonium,” Bible Review, June 1991, p. 23), John P. Meier subtracts these three apparently Christian portions from the Testimonium. What remains is a very plausible suggestion, possibly the authentic, smoothly flowing report written by Flavius Josephus—or very close to it. Here is the remainder:
Around this time there lived Jesus, a wise man. For he was one who did surprising deeds, and a teacher of such people as accept the truth gladly. He won over many Jews and many of the Greeks. When Pilate, upon hearing him accused by men of the highest standing among us, had condemned him to be crucified, those who in the first place came to love him did not give up their affection for him. And the tribe of Christians, so called after him, have still to this day not died out (Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, pp. 65–66, after deleting the apparent Christian additions as Meier would).
23. Regarding differing religious convictions of readers that have generated disagreements about this passage at least since medieval times, see Alice Whealey, Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times, Studies in Biblical Literature, vol. 36 (New York: Peter Lang, 2003). Whealey’s observations in her conclusion, pp. 203–207, may be summarized as follows:
In the High Middle Ages (c. 1050–1350), Jewish scholars claimed it was a Christian forgery that was inserted into Josephus’s text, and Christians simply claimed it was entirely authentic. The problem was that with few exceptions, both sides argued from a priori assumptions with no critical examination of evidence. In the late 1500s and the 1600s, some Protestant scholars made the public charge of forgery. By the mid-1700s, based on textual evidence, scholarly opinion had rejected the authenticity of the Testimonium Flavianum and the controversy largely ended for over two centuries.
Twentieth-century scholars, however, revived the controversy on the basis of “new” variations of the text and whole works from ancient times that had been overlooked. Instead of the generally Protestant character of the earlier controversy, the controversy that began in the twentieth century is “more academic and less sectarian … marked by the presence of Jewish scholars for the first time as prominent participants on both sides of the question, and in general the attitudes of Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish, and secular scholars towards the text have drawn closer together” (p. 206).
24. Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, p. 65–69. Meier, “The Testimonium,” Bible Review, June 1991, gives the third answer.
25. Steve Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003), p. 229.
26. Matthew 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20.
27. According to Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, pp. 66–67, unless otherwise noted, these phrases that are characteristic of Josephus include: 1) Calling Jesus “a wise man” and calling his miracles “surprising deeds”; 2) Use of one of Josephus’s favorite phrases, “accept the truth gladly,” that in the “gladly” part includes the Greek word for “pleasure” which for Christian writers of this era, as a rule, had a bad connotation; 3) The reference to attracting “many of the Greeks” (meaning Hellenistic Gentiles), which fits better with Rome in Josephus’s time than with the references to Gentiles in the Gospels, which are few (such as John 12:20–22). On the style being that of Josephus, see also Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 89–91; 4) “The execution of Jesus by Pilate on the denunciation of the Jewish authorities shows acquaintance with legal conditions in Judaea and contradicts the tendency of the Christian reports of the trial of Jesus, which incriminate the Jews but play down Pilate’s responsibility” (Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, p. 67); 5) Calling Christians a “tribe” tends to show a Jewish perspective.
28. On whether the Testimonium Flavianum interrupts the structure of its literary context, see Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, pp. 67–68, under “The interpolation hypothesis.” They describe E. Norden’s analysis (in German) of the context in Jewish Antiquities. Also see France, Evidence for Jesus, pp. 27–28, which mentions that Josephus’s typical sequencing includes digressions. Josephus’s key vocabulary regarding revolts is absent from the section on Jesus, perhaps removed by a Christian copyist who refused to perpetuate Josephus’s portrayal of Jesus as a real or potential rebel political leader.
29. Various scholars have suggested that Josephus’s original text took a hostile view of Jesus, but others, that it took a neutral to slightly positive view of him. See Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, pp. 68–71 (hostile views) and pp. 71–74 (neutral to slightly positive views).
30. Josephus scholar Steve Mason observes, “Long after Eusebius, in fact, the text of the testimonium remained fluid. Jerome (342–420), the great scholar who translated the Bible and some of Eusebius into Latin, gives a version that agrees closely with standard text, except that the crucial phrase says of Jesus, ‘He was believed to be the Messiah’” (Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, p. 230, italics his. A decades-long, simmering debate continues about whether Jerome’s translation accurately represents what Josephus wrote.).
Besides Jerome’s Latin version, other examples of variation in manuscripts that are mentioned by Mason include an Arabic rendering and a version in Syriac. The Syriac language developed from Aramaic and is the (or an) official language of some branches of Orthodox Christianity.
A passage in a tenth-century Arabic Christian manuscript written by a man named Agapius appears to be a version of the Testimonium Flavianum. Shlomo Pines gives the following translation from the Arabic:
Similarly Josephus [Yūsīfūs] the Hebrew. For he says that in the treatises that he has written on the governance [?] of the Jews: ‘At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus. His conduct was good, and [he] was known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and the other nations became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die. But those who had become his disciples did not abandon his discipleship. They reported that he had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive; accordingly, he was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders.
This is what is said by Josephus and his companions of our Lord the Messiah, may he be glorified (Shlomo Pines, An Arabic Version of the Testimonium Flavianum and Its Implications [Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1971), pp. 8–10).
Feldman thinks that Agapius mixed in source material from writers besides Josephus and provided “a paraphrase, rather than a translation” (Louis H. Feldman, Josephus and Modern Scholarship, 1937–1980 [New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1984], p. 701). John P. Meier tends not to attribute much significance to Agapius’s description of the Testimonium Flavianum; see Meier, Marginal Jew, vol. 1, pp. 78–79, note 37.
Of the three apparently Christian portions that are italicized in the translation of the Greek text above, the first is missing, and the other two are phrased as neutral statements (“they reported” he was alive, “he was perhaps” the Messiah), rather than as affirmations of Christian faith, such as, “He was” the Messiah, “He appeared” alive again.
Mason also refers to Pines’s translation of a version in Syriac found in the writings of Michael, the Patriarch of Antioch:
The writer Josephus also says in his work on the institutions of the Jews: In these times there was a wise man named Jesus, if it is fitting for us to call him a man. For he was a worker of glorious deeds and a teacher of truth. Many from among the Jews and the nations became his disciples. He was thought to be the Messiah. But not according to the testimony of the principal [men] of [our] nation. Because of this, Pilate condemned him to the cross, and he died. For those who had loved him did not cease to love him. He appeared to them alive after three days. For the prophets of God had spoken with regard to him of such marvelous [as these]. And the people of the Christians, named after him, has not disappeared till [this] day” (Pines, Arabic Version, pp. 26–27).
Pines adds a note about the Syriac text of the sentence “He was thought to be the Messiah”: “This sentence may also be translated Perhaps he was the Messiah.”
These Latin, Arabic and Syriac versions most likely represent genuine, alternative textual traditions. “The Christian dignitaries who innocently report these versions as if they came from Josephus had no motive, it seems, to weaken their testimony to Jesus” (Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, p. 231). Actually, Christians tended to make references to Jesus more glorious. Nor is there any indication that anti-Christian scribes reduced the references to Jesus from glorious to mundane, which would likely have been accompanied by disparagement. “It seems probable, therefore, that the versions of Josephus’s statement given by Jerome, Agapius and Michael reflect alternative textual traditions of Josephus which did not contain” the bold Christian confessions that appear in the standard Greek version (Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, p. 231). They contain variations that exhibit a degree of the fluidity that Mason emphasizes (Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, pp. 230–231). But these versions are not so different that they are unrecognizable as different versions of the Testimonium Flavianum. They use several similar phrases and refer to the same events, presenting phrases and events in a closely similar order, with few exceptions. Thus, along with enough agreement among the standard Greek text and the non-Greek versions to reveal a noteworthy degree of stability, their differences clearly exhibit the work of other hands after Josephus. (It is by this stability that we may recognize many lengthy additions and disagreements with the manuscript texts of the Testimonium Flavianum that are found in a passage sometimes called the Testimonium Slavianum that was apparently inserted into the Old Russian translation, called the Slavonic version, of Josephus’s other major work, The Jewish War.)
In the process of finding the similarities of phrases and references in extant manuscripts, one can come to recognize that the standard Greek form of the Testimonium Flavianum is simply one textual tradition among several. On balance, the Greek version is not necessarily supreme over all other textual traditions (Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, pp. 234–236). Despite a degree of stability in the text, the fluidity that is evident in various textual traditions is plain evidence that what Josephus wrote was later altered. When viewed from the standpoint of the Latin, Arabic and Syriac versions, the Greek text looks deliberately altered to make Josephus seem to claim that Jesus was the Messiah, possibly by omitting words that indicated that people called him Christos or thought, said, reported or believed that he was. Also, although of course the evidence is the crucial factor, alternative 3 also happens to have the support of the overwhelming majority of scholars, far more than any other view.
31. Almost all of the following points are listed and elaborated in Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 99–102.
32. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 99.
33. “The non-Christian testimonies to Jesus … show that contemporaries in the first and second century saw no reason to doubt Jesus’ existence” (Theissen and Merz, Historical Jesus, p. 63).
34. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 15. His footnote attached to this sentence states, with reference to Justin Martyr:
The only possible attempt at this argument known to me is in Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho, written in the middle of the second century. At the end of chapter 8, Trypho, Justin’s Jewish interlocutor, states, “But [the] Christ—if indeed he has been born and exists anywhere—is unknown, and does not even know himself, and has no power until Elijah comes to anoint him and make him known to all. Accepting a groundless report, you have invented a Christ for yourselves, and for his sake you are unknowingly perishing.” This may be a faint statement of a nonexistence hypothesis, but it is not developed or even mentioned again in the rest of the Dialogue, in which Trypho assumes the existence of Jesus (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 15, note 35).
Even in this statement, in which Trypho tries to imply that an existing report of Jesus as the Christ is erroneous, his reason is not necessarily that Jesus did not exist. Rather, he might well have wanted to plant the doubt that—although Jesus existed, as Trypho consistently assumes throughout the rest of the dialogue— the “report” that Jesus was the Christ was “groundless,” and that later on, someone else might arise who would prove to be the true Christ. Trypho was attempting to raise hypothetical doubt without here stating any actual grounds for doubt. These suggestions, more likely taunts, from Trypho, which he immediately abandons, cannot be regarded as an argument, let alone a serious argument. They are simply an unsupported doubt, apparently regarding Jesus’ being the Messiah.
35. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 133–134.
36. The chief difficulty in working with rabbinic writings that might be about Jesus is that
it is not always clear if Jesus (variously called Yeshua or Yeshu, with or without the further designation ha-Noṣri [meaning “the Nazarene”]) is in fact the person to whom reference is being made, especially when certain epithets are employed (e.g. Balaam, Ben Pandira, Ben Stada, etc. … Another serious problem in making use of these traditions is that it is likely that none of it is independent of Christian sources (Craig A. Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” in Bruce Chilton and Craig A. Evans, eds., Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research, 2nd impression, New Testament Tools and Studies, vol. 6 (Boston: Brill, 1998, 1994), pp. 443–444).
Thus Van Voorst finds that “most passages alleged to speak about him in code do not in fact do so, or are so late as to have no value” (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 129).
From among the numerous rabbinic traditions, many of which seem puzzling in their potential references to Jesus, a fairly clear example is as follows:
And it is tradition: On the eve of the Passover they hanged Yeshu ha-Noṣri. And the herald went forth before him for forty days, “Yeshu ha-Noṣri is to be stoned, because he has practiced magic and enticed and led Israel astray. Anyone who knows anything in his favor, let him come and speak concerning him.” And they found nothing in his favor. And they hanged him on the eve of the Passover. Ulla says, “Would it be supposed that Yeshu ha-Noṣri was one for whom anything in his favor might be said? Was he not a deceiver? And the Merciful has said, ‘Thou shalt not spare, neither shalt thou conceal him’ [Deuteronomy 13:8]. But it was different with Yeshu ha-Noṣri, for he was near to the kingdom’” (Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 43a; compare Sanhedrin 67a).
The following paragraph summarizes Craig A. Evans’s comments on the above quotation from the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 43a:
According to John 18:28 and 19:14, Jesus’ execution occurred during Passover. The phrase “near to the kingdom” might refer to the Christian tradition that Jesus was a descendant of King David (Matthew 1:1; Mark 10:47, 48), or it could refer to Jesus’ proclamation that the kingdom of God was at hand (Mark 1:15). Deuteronomy 13:1–11 prescribes death by stoning for leading other Israelites astray to serve other gods, giving a sign or wonder, and Deuteronomy 21:21–22 requires that “when a man has committed a sin worthy of death, and he is put to death, you shall hang him on a tree” (compare the Mishnah, Sanhedrin 6:4, “All who have been stoned must be hanged”). When Judea came under Roman rule, which instituted crucifixion as a legal punishment, apart from the question of whether it was just or unjust, Jews roughly equated it with hanging on a tree. (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 448)
The passage above simultaneously implies the rabbis’ view that Jesus really existed and encapsulates the rabbis’ uniformly negative view of his miracles as magic and his teachings as deceit (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 120).
37. Passing of Peregrinus, §11, as translated in Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 462.
38. This paragraph is a separate quotation from Passing of Peregrinus, §11, again as translated in Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 462.
39. On Celsus: in c. 176 C.E., Celsus, a Platonist philosopher in Alexandria, wrote The True Word (this title is also translated as The True Doctrine, or The True Discourse, or The True Account, etc.) to lodge his severe criticisms of Judaism and Christianity. Although that work has not survived, it is quoted and paraphrased in Origen’s reply in defense of Christianity, Against Celsus (c. 248 C.E.). Prominent among his many accusations to which Origen replies is as follows:
Next he makes the charge of the savior that it was by magic that he was able to do the miracles which he appeared to have done, and foreseeing that others also, having learned the same lessons and being haughty to act with the power of God, are about to do the same thing, such persons Jesus would drive away from his own society.
For he says, “He was brought up in secret and hired himself out as a workman in Egypt, and having tried his hand at certain magical powers he returned from there, and on account of those powers gave himself the title of God” (Origen, Against Celsus, 1.6, 38, as translated in Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 460).
It is unknown whether Celsus became aware of information about Jesus, including reports of his miracles, from the Gospel tradition(s) or independently of them. Thus it cannot be said that Celsus adds any new historical material about Jesus, though it is clear that in accusing Jesus of using magic for personal gain, Celsus assumed his existence.
Charges that Jesus was a magician are common in ancient writings, and Christian replies have been published even very recently. Evans refers readers to “an assessment of the polemic that charges Jesus with sorcery”: Graham N. Stanton, “Jesus of Nazareth: A Magician and a False Prophet Who Deceived God’s People?” in Joel B. Green and Max Turner, eds., Jesus of Nazareth: Lord and Christ: Essays on the Historical Jesus and New Testament Christology, I. Howard Marshall Festschrift (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994), pp. 166–182 (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 460, note 45).
40. On Pliny the Younger: A friend of Tacitus, and like him the governor of a Roman province (in 110 C.E.), Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (c. 61–113 C.E.), known as Pliny, seems to have been excessively dependent on the Emperor Trajan for directions on how to govern. In his lengthy correspondence with Trajan, titled Epistles, X.96, along with his inquiries about how to treat people accused of being Christians, Pliny wrote:
They [the Christians] assured me that the sum total of their error consisted in the fact that that they regularly assembled on a certain day before daybreak. They recited a hymn antiphonally to Christus as to a god and bound themselves with an oath not to commit any crime, but to abstain from theft, robbery, adultery, breach of faith, and embezzlement of property entrusted to them. After this, it was their custom to separate, and then to come together again to partake of a meal, but an ordinary and innocent one (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 459)
The things that Pliny wrote about Christians can be found in or deduced from the New Testament. He reveals nothing new about Jesus himself, nor can his letters be considered evidence for Jesus’ existence, only for Christian belief in his existence. One may note what seems to have been early second century Christian belief in Jesus as deity, as well as the sizable population of Christians worshiping him in Pliny’s province, Bithynia, in Asia Minor, despite Roman prohibition and punishments.
41. On Suetonius: In c. 120 C.E., the Roman writer, lawyer and historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 70–140 C.E.), a friend of Pliny, wrote the following in his history, On the Lives of the Caesars, speaking of an event in 49 C.E.: “He [Claudius] expelled the Jews from Rome, because they were always making disturbances because of the instigator Chrestus” (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 30).
In the first place, the term “the Jews” could refer to Christians, whom Romans viewed as members of a Jewish sect. So the “disturbances” could be understood as riots among Jews, among Christians viewed as Jews, or, most likely, between those whom we would call Jews and Christians.
The use of the name “Chrestus” creates more ambiguity in this passage than the term “Chrestians” did in the passage in Tacitus treated above. Tacitus implicitly corrected the crowd. Here, with Suetonius speaking of events in 49 C.E., we have two options to choose from. The first option is that it’s a spelling of a mispronunciation of Christus, which Romans thought was Jesus’ name. If so, then Suetonius misunderstood Christus, whom he called “Chrestus,” to be an instigator. Suetonius’s key appositive phrase, “impulsore Chresto,” is much more accurately translated “the instigator Chrestus” (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 31) than the usual “at the instigation of Chrestus” (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 29). Another logical result would be that the uproarious disputes in 49 C.E. were actually disturbances sparked by disagreement about who Jesus was and/or what he said and did. Considering the two sides, namely, the rabbinic view that he was a magician and deceitful teacher, versus early Christians whose worship was directed to him “as to a god” (as described from the Roman perspective of Pliny the Younger), one can see how synagogues could become deeply divided.
The second option is that it refers to an otherwise unknown “instigator” of disturbances who bore the common name of slaves and freedmen, Chrestus. Actually, among hundreds of Jewish names in the catacombs of Rome, there is not one instance of Chrestus being the name of a Jew (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, p. 33). For this and other reasons, it seems more likely that Suetonius, who often uncritically repeated errors in his sources, was referring to Christus, that is, Jesus, but misunderstood him to be an agitator who lived in Rome in 49 C.E. (Van Voorst, Jesus Outside, pp. 29–39).
42. On Mara bar Serapion: In the last quarter of the first century C.E., a prisoner of war following the Roman conquest of Samosata (see under Lucian), Mara bar Serapion wrote a letter to his son, Serapion. In Stoic fashion, he wanted his son to seek wisdom in order to handle life’s misfortunes with virtue and composure.
For what advantage did the Athenians gain by the murder of Socrates, the recompense of which they received in famine and pestilence? Or the people of Samos by the burning of Pythagoras, because in one hour their country was entirely covered in sand? Or the Jews by the death of their wise king, because from that same time their kingdom was taken away? God justly avenged these three wise men: the Athenians died of hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea; the Jews, ruined and driven from their land, live in complete dispersion. But Socrates did not die for good; he lived on in the teaching of Plato. Pythagoras did not die for good; he lived on in the statue of Hera. Nor did the wise king die for good; he lived on in the teaching which he had given (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” pp. 455–456)
All we know of the author comes from this letter. Mara does not seem to have been a Christian, because he does not refer to a resurrection of Jesus and because his terminology, such as “wise king,” is not the usual Christian way of referring to Jesus. It is entirely possible that Mara received some knowledge of Jesus from Christians but did not name him for fear of displeasing his own Roman captors. His nameless reference makes the identification of “the wise king” as Jesus, though reasonable, still somewhat uncertain.
43. Doubtful sources contain “second- and third-hand traditions that reflect for the most part vague acquaintance with the Gospel story and controversies with Christians. These sources offer nothing independent” (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 443). Doubtful sources include the following:
Many rabbinic sources, including the Sepher Toledot Yeshu, “The Book of the Generations of Jesus” (meaning his ancestry or history; compare Matthew 1:1). It might be generally datable to as early as the eighth century C.E. but “may well contain a few oral traditions that go back to the third century.” It is “nothing more than a late collection of traditions, from Christian as well as from Jewish sources … full of fictions assembled for the primary purpose of anti-Christian polemic and propaganda,” and has no historical value regarding the question of Jesus’ existence (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 450).
The Slavonic (or Old Russian) Version of Josephus’s Jewish War “contains numerous passages … [which] tell of Jesus’ amazing deeds, of the jealousy of the Jewish leaders, of bribing Pilate,” etc. (Evans, “Jesus in Non-Christian Sources,” p. 451). These additions have no demonstrated historical value. The Yosippon (or Josippon) is a medieval source which appears in many versions, often with many additions. Its core is a Hebrew version of portions of Josephus’s writings that offers nothing from before the fourth century C.E. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain no contemporary references to Jesus or his followers. Islamic traditions either depend on the New Testament or are not clearly traceable to the early centuries C.E.
44. Regarding archaeological discoveries, along with many other scholars, I do not find that the group of ossuaries (bone boxes) discovered in the East Talpiot district of Jerusalem can be used as a basis for any conclusions about Jesus of Nazareth or his family. See the variety of views presented in James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Tomb of Jesus and His Family? Exploring Ancient Jewish Tombs Near Jerusalem’s Walls (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008), especially the essay by Rachel Hachlili, “What’s in a Name?” pp. 125–149. She concludes, “In light of all the above the East Talpiot tomb is a Jewish family tomb with no connection to the historical Jesus family; it is not the family tomb of Jesus and most of the presented facts for the identification are speculation and guesswork” (p. 143).
45. See Nili S. Fox, In the Service of the King: Officialdom in Ancient Israel and Judah, Monographs of the Hebrew Union College (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 2000), pp. 23–32; Christopher A. Rollston, “Non-Provenanced Epigraphs I: Pillaged Antiquities, Northwest Semitic Forgeries, and Protocols for Laboratory Tests,” Maarav 10 (2003), pp. 135–193, and his “Non-Provenanced Epigraphs II: The Status of Non-Provenanced Epigraphs within the Broader Corpus of Northwest Semitic,” Maarav 11 (2004), pp. 57–79.
46. See Craig A. Evans, Jesus and the Ossuaries (Waco, TX: Baylor Univ. Press, Markham Press Fund, 2003), pp. 112–115. Regarding identification of the people named in the James ossuary inscription, even if it is authentic, the question as to whether it refers to Jesus of Nazareth has not been clearly settled. It is worth observing that its last phrase, “the brother of Jesus,” whose authenticity is disputed, is not the characteristic Christian way of referring to Jesus, which would be “the brother of the Lord,” but this observation hardly settles the question.
47. On G. A. Wells and Michael Martin, see Gary R. Habermas, The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ (Joplin, MO: College Press, 1996), pp. 27–46. On others who deny Jesus’ existence, see Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist? , especially pp. 61–64, 177–264.
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Aramaic language
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Batwing, Corkscrew, Hammerhead turn, Heartline roll, Horseshoe and Immelmann are elements of what form of entertainment?
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What Language Did Jesus Speak? Why Does It Matter? - Mark D. Roberts
Mark D. Roberts
What Language Did Jesus Speak? Why Does It Matter?
What Language Did Jesus Speak?
Why Does It Matter?
by Rev. Dr. Mark D. Roberts
Copyright © 2010 by Mark D. Roberts
Note: You may download this resource at no cost, for personal use or for use in a Christian ministry, as long as you are not publishing it for sale. All I ask is that you acknowledge the source of this material: http://www.patheos.com/blogs/markdroberts/ . For all other uses, please contact me at [email protected] . Thank you.
Some of My Other Writings on Jesus:
Why Did Jesus Have to Die?
Introduction
Six years ago, people all of a sudden became interested in the language spoken by Jesus. The occasion for this burst of curiosity was the release of Mel Gibson’s film, The Passion of the Christ. Although responses to this movie varied widely, just about every viewer was struck by the fact that not one word of English was spoken in the film. All dialogue was in one of two ancient languages: Aramaic or Latin. Without the English subtitles, most of us wouldn’t have been able to understand a word in The Passion of the Christ. (Photo: A statue of Jesus in his passion, from a church on the Mediterranean island of Menorca.)
Many who saw this movie wondered about its antique languages. What is Aramaic, anyway? Was this really the language spoken by Jesus? Didn’t he speak Hebrew, the primary language of the Hebrew Scriptures? And, since the New Testament Gospels are preserved in Greek manuscripts, is it possible that Jesus also spoke Greek?
In February 2004, the month when The Passion of the Christ was released, I wrote a short blog series on the language(s) of Jesus. Drawing from my background in New Testament studies, I tried to explain in non-technical terms the issues associated with the language or languages spoken by Jesus. My answer to the question “What language(s) did Jesus speak?” was representative of what most scholars of the New Testament believe, and was based on key passages from the New Testament itself, as well as an understanding of life in Judea during the first century A.D. In a nutshell, I showed that it’s most likely that Jesus spoke Aramaic as his primary language, and that he almost certainly knew Hebrew and perhaps Greek as well. It was unlikely, I argued, that Jesus spoke Latin, as envisioned in The Passion of the Christ.
During the past six years, thousands of people have visited my series on the language(s) of Jesus, thanks to the power of Google and similar search engines. The vast majority of readers did not contact me, which is just fine. They had no particular reason to do so. A few dozen people emailed me to thank me for what I had written.
And then there were the others, those who were not happy with me and what I had written. Sometimes they wrote nasty notes, criticizing my scholarship and even my Christian character. Sometimes they wrote extensive treatises, arguing at length for a position different from the one I had taken in my series. Among those who wrote, a few referred to credible scholars who have argued that Hebrew and/or Greek were commonly used by Jews in Judea during the time of Jesus. Some who contacted me seemed to believe that because the Old Testament was written in Hebrew, Jesus must have spoken Hebrew, otherwise somehow his mission as the Messiah would have been deficient. Some were worried that if Jesus spoke Aramaic, this would contradict passages in the Gospel of John that refer to Hebrew being spoken (though not by Jesus, actually).
In the last couple of years, I have run into a new reason why some people dispute the notion that Jesus spoke Aramaic. It has to do with the passion among some Muslims for an Aramaic-speaking Jesus. Presumably, and I have not followed these arguments carefully, certain Muslims use the idea that Jesus spoke Aramaic as a support for the truth of Islam. In response, some Christians have taken up arms in favor of the Hebrew-speaking Jesus. Those who fight this battle have accused me of giving aid and comfort to the “opponents of Christianity” by suggesting that Jesus probably spoke Aramaic. (Note: If you are aware of other reasons why the language(s) of Jesus matter so much to some people, please let me know by leaving a comment below.)
I must admit that I was stunned by the extent to which some people get worked up about the language(s) of Jesus. As one who believes about Jesus all the things orthodox Christians do, it would not impact my faith one jot or tittle if Jesus spoke Hebrew rather than Aramaic, or Greek rather than Hebrew. Thus I am not caught up in the emotional maelstrom of this language of Jesus debate.
But I do think the language of Jesus matters. Knowing which language or languages Jesus spoke helps us understand his teaching with greater accuracy. Moreover, it reminds us of one salient fact that almost everyone affirms: Jesus did not speak English. (Okay, I’ve had a couple of people object to this on the grounds that Jesus was God, and that God knows everything, so therefore Jesus knew how to speak English. Apart from the theological problems with this view, it is surely true that Jesus did not actually speak English, no matter whether or not he had a miraculous ability to do so. Nobody in the first-century A.D. spoke English, least of all those who lived in Judea. So we can be sure that Jesus, Son of God and all, did not speak English.)
The fact that Jesus did not speak English serves as a reminder to those of us who do that we need to work hard if we wish to understand the original meaning of Jesus’ teachings. Now, you don’t have to spend the next several years learning ancient languages because English translations of the biblical text are quite reliable. Moreover, there are plenty of commentaries and teachers who can bridge the gaps in your linguistic understanding. In fact, careful study of the English text of the Bible will allow you to discern Jesus’ true meaning in most instances, even if you don’t know the language(s) he spoke. But this careful study requires time and effort. And it requires acknowledging the gap between Jesus’ culture and our own. Many common misunderstandings of Jesus stem from the projection of English meanings and American culture onto Jesus’ words and ways.
In the next few posts, I will offer a revised and improved (I hope!) version of my original series on the language of Jesus. I hope to show why most historians believe that Jesus spoke Aramaic, as well as to consider the possibility that he also spoke Hebrew and/or Greek and/or Latin. When I finish with my historical survey, I’ll offer some further reasons why it matters to us what language(s) Jesus spoke.
Confession and Context
In yesterday’s post, I explained that I was beginning a series that seeks to answer the questions: What language did Jesus speak? Why does it matter? Before I delve into these questions, however, I need to make a confession and offer a bit of context.
Confession – My Scholarly Credentials (or Lack Thereof)
I am not an expert in the study of ancient languages. I’m not a historian of the languages in the Ancient Near East. Nor am I a sociolinguist (who studies the relationship of languages and societies). Nor am I an expert in the cultures of first-century Judea, where Jesus lived and spoke. In what I write in this series on the language of Jesus, I am standing on the shoulders of many fine scholars. I am also, therefore, open to correction from those who are experts in the academic disciplines that help us to determine the language or languages spoken by Jesus. In several ways, these experts have helped my thinking to mature since I first wrote about the language of Jesus six years ago.
Yet I do have more knowledge about these subjects than the average man on the street. During my doctoral work in New Testament, I did learn a great deal about the life of Jews in the time of Jesus, and I have kept on learning about this subject during the last twenty years since I finished my Ph.D. As a grad student, I studied all three languages that Jesus might have spoken: Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic. I had plenty of Greek (five years) and Hebrew (2 ½ years), but only one semester of Aramaic. That’s enough to help me understand the technical discussions surrounding the question of Jesus’ language, but not enough to allow me to translate things into Aramaic. (In the last few years, I’ve received a couple of requests for this sort of translation, no doubt because someone read my piece on the language of Jesus and figured I was proficient in Aramaic.)
Finally, I should mention again that I have no particular bias in this conversation about the language(s) of Jesus. Yes, I have gone on record saying that I think Aramaic was his first language. But it wouldn’t trouble me to be wrong about this. In fact, my opinion is a little more nuanced now than it was six years ago. No matter which language or languages Jesus spoke, I have confidence in the historical authenticity of the Gospels and believe about Jesus everything contained in the Nicene Creed and the Symbol of Chalcedon. That’s a technical way of saying that I am an orthodox Christian.
Context – What is Aramaic?
If you’ve been hanging around churches for as long as I have, you’ve probably heard the word “Aramaic.” It was used often during the time when Mel Gibson released The Passion of the Christ, since most of the movie script was in Aramaic. But that didn’t exactly make “Aramaic” a household word. Before we try to figure out which language(s) Jesus spoke, it would be good to have some basic notion of Aramaic, since it is a leading candidate for the starring role in this drama.
Aramaic is a Semitic language, related to Hebrew, Arabic, and similar languages. According to an expert linguist whom I consulted, Hebrew and Aramaic are related much as French and Spanish or Cantonese and Mandarin. During the time of the Assyrian Empire (8th century BC), Aramaic became used throughout the Ancient Near East as the language of diplomacy. In the time of the Persian Empire (6th-4th century BC), Aramaic was the predominant language of the region. Since Judea was part of the Persian Empire, Jews for whom Hebrew was a primary language began to speak Aramaic, especially those of the upper classes. By the time of Jesus, Aramaic was the most common language in Judea, though Hebrew may have been dominant in certain areas, such as Jerusalem or the Qumran community by the Dead Sea. Greek usage was also widespread in those regions during the first century A.D.
The widespread use of Aramaic among Jews is illustrated by the fact that portions of the Old Testament are in Aramaic, not Hebrew (Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Daniel 2:4-7:28; Jeremiah 10:11). This means, for example, that one of the most important passages in the Old Testament for our understanding of Jesus appears in Aramaic. Daniel’s vision of “one like a son of man” is described in Aramaic (kebar ‘enash; 7:13). Moreover, around the time of Jesus, though probably after his death, the Hebrew scrolls of the Old Testament were translated into Aramaic for use in the synagogues, because so many Jews did not understand Hebrew.)
During and before the time of Jesus, there wasn’t just one version of Aramaic being used in Judea and beyond. Some Aramaic was official and formal. This is preserved, as you would expect, in official documents and inscriptions. Some was informal and common. This was spoken and has mostly been lost to modern scholars. The fact that Aramaic was used by Jews in Judea is supported by its use in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls (which are mostly in Hebrew, however), and in some ancient documents and inscriptions. Even many grave inscriptions around Jerusalem are in Aramaic, not Hebrew. It’s most likely that in Galilee, where Jesus was raised and where he began his ministry, Aramaic was the most common language of the people, though many would have been able to understand Hebrew and to get along in Greek as well.
In my next post in this series I’ll look at the evidence for Jesus’ use of Aramaic.
The Circumstantial EvidenceIf we take the Gospel record at face value, and I believe we have good reason to do so, then Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea and spent his earliest years in Egypt. Then his parents returned to their hometown of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up and lived until his began his itinerant ministry. This means he spent somewhere around 25 years in Nazareth.
A view of Nazareth. © holylandphotos.org. Used by permission.
The question of Jesus’ primary language would be settled if we knew what people in Nazareth in the first decades of the first century A.D. were speaking. Unfortunately, this knowledge is more elusive than we might like. As far as I know, there is no specific evidence about the language spoken in Nazareth during the life of Jesus. We don’t have inscriptions or ancient manuscripts that can be placed in Nazareth at this time.
There is evidence, however, that points to the use of Aramaic in Galilee, the region where Nazareth was located. Such evidence includes inscriptions, contracts, and other ancient writings. It makes sense that residents of Nazareth spoke Aramaic, given the fact that Aramaic became the official language of Galilee from the sixth-century B.C. onward. Thus, it seems likely that ordinary residents of Galilee, including Nazareth, spoke Aramaic as their first language. This was the language of common discourse among Jesus’ family and friends.
A few scholars believe that people in Nazareth spoke Hebrew as their primary language. This is possible, but unlikely. Hebrew may well have been used primarily among some people in Judea (south of Galilee), among Jewish separatists (those who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls), and among Jewish theologians, but even among these people Aramaic is prevalent. As far as I know, we have no strong evidence for the common use of Hebrew in Nazareth and the surrounding region of Galilee. However, Hebrew was the language of theological inquiry and debate among Jews, in addition to the language of their Scriptures. Scholars from the Jerusalem School of Synoptic Research acknowledge the multilingual environment of Jesus’ culture, but insist that Jewish teachers ordinarily taught in Hebrew. It’s certainly possible that Jesus himself taught in Hebrew at times (see below), but, given his widespread interaction with common people and not just scholars and the fact that his early teaching was in Galilee, it seems more reasonable to assume that Jesus spoke Aramaic and used this language for much of his teaching.
In recent years, more scholars are taking seriously the possibility that Jesus spoke Greek. I’ll examine relevant evidence from the Gospels later in this series. For now, it is worth nothing that Greek was commonly used in certain strata of Galilean society. This began when Alexander the Great conquered the region in 332 B.C. Under his rule, and under the rule of those who followed him (the Ptolemies and the Seleucids), Greek was the language of government and commerce. The Romans used Latin for official communication, but Greek was the common language of the Empire.
Would people in Nazareth have spoken Greek? Not as their first language. But many of them would have been familiar with Greek and used it in their businesses. In fact, Nazareth was a short walk from Sepphoris, one of the major cities of Galilee, where Greek would have been the everyday language of the marketplace. As a craftsman living near Sepphoris, Jesus might well have known enough Greek to do business with the people there.
So where does the circumstantial evidence for the language of Jesus leave us? It points to Aramaic as his first language. But the multi-lingual context of Galilee suggests that Jesus and his fellow residents of Nazareth might have spoken Hebrew and/or Greek as well. Thus, we would do well to heed the word of caution penned by Richard A. Horsley in his book, Galilee: History, Politics, People : “It is difficult in the extreme to interpret the fragmentary evidence available and draw conclusions for the use of languages in late second-temple Galilee” (p. 247). Horsley’s discussion of this issue, which is the best of which I am aware, supports the common use of Aramaic in Galilee, but documents the use of Hebrew and Greek as well (pp. 247-250).
So, the circumstantial evidence for Jesus’ use of Aramaic is strong. Yet nothing in this evidence demands that Jesus could not have known and used either Hebrew or Greek or both in his teaching.
Jesus and Aramaic in the GospelsThe earliest manuscripts of the New Testament Gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John – are written in Greek. Though a few scholars argue that Matthew first appeared in Hebrew or Aramaic, most believe that the four biblical Gospels were composed in Greek. Their writers might well have known Aramaic and/or Hebrew, and they may well have drawn upon oral and written sources in these Semitic languages, but when they put stylus to papyrus, then wrote in common Greek.
Yet the New Testament Gospels do include non-Greek words in the text (spelled with Greek letters). And some of these words are Aramaic. Others are probably Aramaic, though they might be a variety of Hebrew. The word Abba, for example, which means “father” or “papa” in Aramaic, can also be found in certain later Hebrew dialects. So, while Jesus’ use of Abba probably reflects his Aramaic speech, we can’t be 100% sure of this.
In Mark 3, we find the story of Jesus’ calling of the twelve disciples. In the list of those whom he called, we find these names: “James son of Zebedee and John the brother of James (to whom he gave the name Boanerges, that is, Sons of Thunder)” (Mark 3:17). The word boanerges is a Greek transliteration of an Aramaic phrase, though the precise phrase is not altogether clear. Several Aramaic options are possible.
A painting of the Crucifixion of Jesus, from a church in Taormina, on the island of Sicily.
One of the most striking Aramaic sentences found on the lips of Jesus in the Gospels is: eli eli lema sabachthani (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34 uses eloi instead of eli). The sentence is then translated into Greek by Matthew and Mark, with the English meaning: “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” This, as it turns out, is a quotation from Psalm 22:1, which reads in Hebrew: ‘eli ‘eli lama ‘azavtani. (Here you can see, by the way, an example of the similarity between Aramaic and Hebrew.) The fact that Matthew and Mark have Jesus speaking in Aramaic does suggest that this line was remembered by the early Christian community in its original language, namely, Aramaic. But the ancient manuscripts of the Gospels include a variety of options, so we can’t be completely positive of what Matthew and Mark wrote, or which language Jesus spoke. He could have used Hebrew, which was translated and passed down in Aramaic by the early church.
The clearest example of Aramaic on the lips of Jesus in the Gospels occurs in Mark 5:41. Jesus entered the home of a synagogue leader whose daughter had died. “Holding her hand, he said to her, ‘Talitha koum,” which means “Little girl, get up!” Both Matthew and Luke tell this same story, but without the Aramaic sentence (Matt 9:24; Luke 8:54). Matthew simply describes the healing while Luke includes only the Greek translation. Mark, however, passes on what appears to be the actual words of Jesus, word in Aramaic.
Mark 5:41 provides persuasive evidence for Jesus’ use of Aramaic in this particular instance. But the text does not tell us exactly what to make of this usage. One could argue that Mark’s account of the raising of the girl shows that Jesus’ use of Aramaic was unusual, and that’s why it was remembered. Or one could conclude that Jesus used Aramaic in this situation, which was not, at any rate, a teaching time.
The existence of Aramaic words and phrases on the lips of Jesus, combined with what we know about the probably use of Aramaic in Jesus’ homeland, convinces me beyond any doubt that Jesus spoke Aramaic and used it in his ministry. I think it would be very difficult to argue otherwise. However, the fact that Jesus used Aramaic at times does not prove that he used only Aramaic. Living and ministering in a multi-lingual environment, Jesus might have used other languages as well, namely Hebrew and/or Greek. I’ll consider these possibilities in more depth below.
Did Jesus Speak Hebrew?
Thirty years ago, when I was studying New Testament in graduate school, it was widely assumed that Jesus spoke Aramaic as his first language and taught in Aramaic. I can’t remember a conversation in which the possibility that Jesus spoke or taught in Hebrew was seriously considered.
Since my days in grad school, however, some credible scholars have begun to argue that Jesus either spoke Hebrew as his first language, or used Hebrew when he taught, or both. (By “credible scholars,” I mean people who have mastered the relevant languages and historical/cultural data, whose arguments are taken seriously by others with similar credentials, and who don’t seem to have an agenda that forces the evidence in a predetermined direction.) I am thinking, for example, of members of the Jerusalem School of Synoptic Research . Unfortunately, many of those who make the case for a Hebrew-speaking Jesus seem to be motivated by something other than a desire to know which language(s) he actually spoke.)
So what evidence do we have that Jesus spoke Hebrew?
We do not have in the New Testament Gospels a quotation of Jesus in Hebrew such as we have in Aramaic (Talitha koum). We do have his use of words, such as abba, that are Aramaic but are also found in some Hebrew dialects. More importantly, we do have a few instances in which a Hebrew word is preserved in the Gospels as having been spoken by Jesus. Perhaps the most well-known example is his frequent use of amen, which is a Hebrew word (for example: Matt 5:18, John 3:11, and many others). (I think amen was absorbed into Aramaic at some point in its history, but I can’t remember the details.)
There is one story in the Gospels that strongly suggests Jesus knew and spoke Hebrew. In Luke 4, Jesus went to his hometown synagogue in Nazareth. In the midst of the gathering, he read from the scroll of the prophet Isaiah. This reading was most certainly in Hebrew. Even though he spoke Aramaic as his first language, Jesus had learned Hebrew, like almost all Jewish men in his day. But we don’t know whether Jesus, upon finishing his biblical reading, continued to speak in Hebrew, or rather transitioned into Aramaic.
Many stories in the Gospel also support the theory that Jesus could use Hebrew when it suited his purposes. Jesus frequently found himself in conversations and debates with Jewish religious leaders. These dialogues usually happened in Hebrew, even among those for who Aramaic was a first language. For Jesus to be credible as a debate partner, and for him to impress his audience as a learned teacher, in all likelihood he would have used Hebrew when engaging in theological discourse with the Pharisees, the Scribes, and other Jewish leaders.
Many of those who believe that Jesus spoke Hebrew primarily and taught in Hebrew primarily (or exclusively), point to the evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. The scrolls demonstrate that Hebrew was being used in the time of Jesus, and had not been completely eclipsed by Aramaic.
One of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 4Q22, a portion of Exodus in Hebrew.
Yet this evidence of the scrolls is not nearly as strong as some believe, in my opinion, for three reasons. First, the community that wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls was a highly nationalistic and separatistic community. Of all Jews, the folks at Qumran were perhaps the most likely to reject foreign languages and to use Hebrew as a political and religious statement. Assuming that the Dead Sea Scrolls tell us something about the average Jew in the time of Jesus would be a little like arguing that since Amish people speak Pennsylvania Dutch (German) that language is used throughout the United States. Second, we have evidence that Hebrew was used among some Jews in Judea, where the scrolls were found. But we have virtually no evidence for the conversational or official use of Hebrew in Galilee in the time of Jesus. It’s a mistake to assume that what was done in Judea would also have been done in Galilee. Third, even among the Dead Sea Scrolls we find documents in Aramaic. This is surprising, given the Qumran community’s apparent and understandable preference for Hebrew. This suggests that Aramaic was commonly used by Jews who were not part of Qumran, and was even known and used by members of the Qumran community.
Given Jesus’ roots in Nazareth, and given his early ministry among common folk in Galilee, it seems most likely that he usually employed Aramaic in his teaching, and this is confirmed by the data of the Gospels. But, given the likelihood that Jesus knew Hebrew as a second language, and given his frequent debates with Jewish religious teachers, and given the movement of his ministry to Judea, where Hebrew was more common, I am convinced that Jesus did teach in Hebrew at times.
For some, this conclusion is not acceptable. They argue that Jesus spoke and taught exclusively in Hebrew. In my next post in this series, I’ll examine the arguments for this position.
Examining the “Biblical Truth” that Jesus Spoke HebrewFor some Christians, the fact that Jesus spoke Hebrew is a matter of biblical truth. Therefore, any claim that he spoke Aramaic is not just a difference of opinion about history. It’s a threat to the very authority of Scripture. So, you’ll find a number of theologically conservative Christians (of which I am one, by the way) who argue passionately for a “Hebrew-only” Jesus.
The so-called “biblical case” for the Hebrew speaking Jesus rests mainly on one verse in, not in the Gospels, but in Acts of the Apostles. It is in Paul’s story of his conversion on the road to Damascus, where Jesus appeared to him. Here is this verse in the ESV, one of the most literal translations today:
And when we had all fallen to the ground, I heard a voice saying to me in the Hebrew language,* ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me? It is hard for you to kick against the goads.’ (Acts 26:14).
The asterisk points to this note: “*Or the Hebrew dialect (that is, Aramaic),” which provides a literal translation of the Greek of this phrase (te Hebraidi dialekto). As a reader of English, you can see in this Greek transliteration words that are similar to “Hebrew” and “dialect.”
Here, some argue, is the definitive answer to the question of Jesus’ language. He spoke Hebrew! That’s it. There is no need for further conversation. Any claim that Jesus spoke Aramaic or Greek is inconsistent contradicts the Bible, and must be jettisoned.
Andrea Schiavone, “The Conversion of St. Paul,” c. A.D. 1550
Unfortunately, however, the truth is not nearly so tidy as this. First of all, even if Acts 26:14 does mean that Jesus spoke Hebrew to Paul, one cannot use this as proof that he always spoke Hebrew, or mainly spoke Hebrew, or even spoke Hebrew in any other circumstance. In no other place does the New Testament tell us that Jesus spoke Hebrew. So, even if he did speak Hebrew to Paul on the road to Damascus, this in no way invalidates the proposition that Jesus spoke Aramaic and/or Greek in other settings. One could hold that Jesus usually (or always) taught in Aramaic during his earthly ministry, but chose to speak to Paul in Hebrew for special reasons. And one could hold this view and still affirm the absolute inerrancy of Scripture. (I’m not making this argument, by the way. I’m simply allowing that it is possible and still consistent with the highest view of biblical authority.)
The second reason why Acts 26:14 does not establish the fact that Jesus spoke Hebrew has to do with the meaning of the Greek phrase te Hebraidi dialekto. The ESV, as we have seen, translates this as “in the Hebrew language,” but adds in a note that it could mean “in the Hebrew dialect (that is, Aramaic).” Elsewhere, in fact, the ESV translates a similar word, Hebraisti, as “in Aramaic” (see, for example, John 19:17). But notice how other English translations render Acts 26:14:
“in the Hebrew tongue” – KJV “in the Hebrew language” – NRSV “in Aramaic” – NIV “in Aramaic” – TNIV (with note: Or Hebrew). “in Aramaic” – NLT(SE) “in Hebrew” – The Message
Many of the top biblical translators, including those with conservative theological convictions, believe that the phrase te Hebraidi dialekto actually means “in Aramaic,” not “in Hebrew.” So when Paul used this phrase and when the author of Acts included it in his account of early Christianity, they were actually referring to what we would call Aramaic, not Hebrew.
Some Christians see this translation as utterly unacceptable. Douglas Hamp, for example, in his book, Discovering the Language of Jesus: Hebrew or Aramaic? explains:
This belief [that Aramaic was used by Jews in the time of Jesus] became so commonplace that the New International Version (NIV) translation of the Bible followed suit with the assumption by systematically translating the words Hebraidi and Hebraisti (both mean Hebrew) as Aramaic. . . . For example, in John 5:2 the NIV translates “. . . near the Sheep Gate a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda . . .” instead of the literal translation Hebrew (though “or Hebrew” is in the footnotes). Obviously, the rationale for doing so stems from the belief that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew. Is this justifiable when the word is clearly Hebrew? (Hamp, p. 4)
Is Hamp correct? Are biblical translators, such as those who translated the NIV, plainly wrong? Does the Bible itself actually reveal that Jesus spoke Hebrew? Tomorrow I’ll examine these arguments more closely.
Examining the “Biblical Truth” that Jesus Spoke Hebrew: Part 2
In yesterday’s post, I began looking at a particular kind of argument for the position that Jesus spoke Hebrew. This argument is based on “biblical truth,” because it points to Acts 26:14, a text that reads in the ESV, “And when we had all fallen to the ground, I heard a voice saying to me in the Hebrew language,* ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me? It is hard for you to kick against the goads.’” (Acts 26:14, “*Or the Hebrew dialect [that is, Aramaic]“).Many modern English translations actually prefer the rendering found in the ESV footnote, going with something like “in Aramaic” (NIV). But some, such as Douglas Hamp, author of Discovering the Language of Jesus: Hebrew or Aramaic? disputes this translation:
This belief [that Aramaic was used by Jews in the time of Jesus] became so commonplace that the New International Version (NIV) translation of the Bible followed suit with the assumption by systematically translating the words Hebraidi and Hebraisti (both mean Hebrew) as Aramaic. . . . For example, in John 5:2 the NIV translates “. . . near the Sheep Gate a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda . . .” instead of the literal translation Hebrew (though “or Hebrew” is in the footnotes). Obviously, the rationale for doing so stems from the belief that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew. Is this justifiable when the word is clearly Hebrew? (Hamp, p. 4)
According to the Calvary Chapel Costa Mesa website, where Douglas Hamp is employed in their School of Ministry, he has an MA in the Hebrew bible from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. So he clearly has some background in Hebrew, and presumable Aramaic. Thus it is surprising that he should make such an obvious mistake in his writing. He asks, “Is this [translating Hebraisti as Aramaic] justifiable when the word is clearly Hebrew?” But it is not clearly Hebrew. You cannot find the letters “H-e-b-r-e-w” in the text, even in Greek letters. Truly, Hebraisti looks quite a bit like Hebrew, to be sure. But it is not the English word Hebrew. And one cannot argue that just because an old Greek work looks and sounds like a modern English word therefore that Greek word means what the English word means.
Take, for example, the Greek word gar. It looks and sounds exactly like the English word gar. But gar in Greek does not mean “a freshwater fish of North America.” In fact, gar in Greek meant “for” or “because.” Similarly, the words Hebraisti and Hebraidi, which look and sound like Hebrew, may or may not mean Hebrew. The question is not similarity of form or sound. Rather, it’s a question of how these words were used in the first century. When Paul said that Jesus spoke to him te Hebraidi dialekto, did he mean “in Hebrew” or “in Aramaic” or even “in a Hebrew dialect that could be either Hebrew or Aramaic.” We cannot answer this question by the way the words look and sound, but only by how they were used at the time.
Consider another example. When one learns to speak Spanish, one discovers that there are many, many words in Spanish that look like words in English. This makes understanding and translation much easier. So, suppose you meet a young woman who speaks Spanish. You’re not very good at Spanish, but you want to ask her if she’s intelligent. So you take a stab at it and say, “¿Eres intelligente?” She smiles and says “Sí.” Job well done. But suppose you want to ask her if she’s embarrassed. So you make another educated guess and ask, “¿Eres embarazada?” Sounds good, right? But the young woman slaps you in the face and stomps off. What went wrong? Well, embarazada looks and sounds a lot like embarrassed, but it doesn’t mean that. It means pregnant. Oops. Linguistic error. Not prudent to ask a young woman if she’s pregnant. ¡Que vergüenza! (How embarrassing!) (Besides, a Spanish speaker would not use the verb “eres” with “embarazada,” since this verb implies a permanent situation, which is rarely the case when one is pregnant. Thanks to Ramiro Rodas for this observation.)
So the only way of knowing the meaning of Hebraisti and Hebraidi in Acts 26:14 is by a careful study of how these words were used both in the New Testament and in other related texts from the first century A.D. These words show up in the New Testament ten times, all in John, Acts, and Revelation (John 5:2; 19:13; 19:17; 20:16; Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14; Rev. 9:11; 16:16). In several instances, we cannot tell whether the word means “in Hebrew” or “in Aramaic.” But there are two cases that lend clarity to our investigation.
John 19:13 reads: “When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the judge’s bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew Gabbatha [Hebraisti de Gabbatha].” Gabbatha is an Aramaic word that means “height” or “eminence.” Thus, in this case, Hebraisti means “in Aramaic,” not “in Hebrew.”
One of the possible locations for Golgotha, chosen because it looks rather like a skull. Golgotha represents an Aramaic expression that means “place of the skull.” Photo used by permission of www.holylandphotos.org.
John 19:17 says: “[A]nd carrying the cross by himself, [Jesus] went out to what is called The Place of the Skull, which in Hebrew is called Golgotha [ho legetai Hebraisti Golgotha].” Once again, the word Golgotha is in Aramaic.
The fact that place names in Jerusalem were in Aramaic surely supports the common use of Aramaic among Jewish people in that city and surrounding area. Indirectly, it supports the use of Aramaic by Jesus. This is verified by other evidence from the New Testament. In Acts 1:19, for example, we find this description of the field in which Judas killed himself: “This became known to all the residents of Jerusalem, so that the field was called in their language Hakeldama, that is, Field of Blood.” Hakeldama is an Aramaic expression. Notice that Acts refers to the fact that this Aramaic name was “in their language,” that is, in the language of the residents of Jerusalem. So, we should not be surprised that Gabbatha and Golgotha are also Aramaic words, words that are described in John as Hebraisti. Even though this word looks like “in Hebrew,” it actually means, or at least can mean, “in Aramaic.”
In sum, the argument that Jesus must have spoke Hebrew because of Acts 26:14 fails on several counts. Not only does this verse not tell us what language Jesus spoke in other contexts, but also the phrase te Hebraidi dialekto, which looks to us like “in the Hebrew dialectic” turns out to mean, in all likelihood, in the Aramaic dialect.
This should give reassurance to Christians who fear that the argument that Jesus spoke Aramaic somehow undermines the authority of Scripture. In fact, it does nothing of the kind. Whether Jesus spoke Aramaic or Hebrew, or, as I believe, a combination of the two depending on his context, either option concords with a fully authoritative Bible.
The same is true, by the way, if Jesus spoke Greek. In my next post in this series I examine this possibility.
Did Jesus Speak Greek?
So far in this series, I’ve presented the case that Jesus spoke Aramaic as his first language and in a substantial portion of his teaching, especially when he was speaking with average people in Galilee, where Aramaic was the common language of the day. I have also suggested that it’s likely that Jesus spoke Hebrew, which he learned as a Jewish boy in a faithful family. His facility with Hebrew enabled him to read the biblical text in the synagogue and to engage in respectable debate with other Jewish teachers of the day (the Pharisees, the scribes, etc.).But could Jesus have known Greek as well? Might he have used Greek at times in his teaching, or at least in some of his conversations?
Because the manuscripts of the Gospels are in Greek, we do not have the advantage such as we have in the case of Aramaic, where Aramaic words and phrases are actually transliterated and included in the Greek text of the Gospels. Quotations of a Greek-speaking Jesus would not stand out, and would simply flow with the Greek text.
Every now and then, I have run into commentators who argue that some of the sayings of Jesus imply that he knew Greek. If, for example, there is a play on words that works in Greek but not in Aramaic or Hebrew, this points to a Greek original. At this moment I can’t remember any specific examples. Perhaps a commenter can fill us in. But, to this point, I have not been convinced that any of the sayings must have had a Greek origin. I have been more convinced by those who propose a Semitic (Aramaic or Hebrew) original for the sayings of Jesus.
So, the evidence for Jesus’ speaking Greek will be circumstantial only. But this evidence is not insignificant.
The fact that the Gospels are written in Greek shows that many if not most of the earliest Christians, including some who followed Jesus during his earthly ministry, knew Greek and used it often, perhaps as their first language. Many Jewish writings from the era of Jesus were written in Greek, including works such as 2 Maccabees and 1 Esdras. Other Hebrew writings were being translated into Greek in Jerusalem (the book of Esther, for example, in 114 B.C.). Speaking of Jerusalem, scholars have found some ninety Greek inscriptions on ossuaries (boxes for bones) that date to around the time of Jesus and were found in or around Jerusalem.
Ever since Alexander the Great conquered Judea in 332 B.C., Greek had been the language of government and, increasingly, commerce and scholarship. Though Aramaic continued to be spoken by many, Greek grew in its popularity and influence. In the time of Jesus, well-educated Jews, mainly those of the upper classes, would have known and used Greek. So would those who were involved in trade or government. But many other Jews would have had at least a rudimentary knowledge of Greek which they used in their business and travels to the larger cities.
A portion of the scroll found at Nahal Hever. This shows a passage from Habakkuk 2-3. Notice that the letters are all capitals and there are no spaces between words. That was commonplace in the first century.
The presence and pervasiveness of Greek in Judea is demonstrated by a discovery in the Nahal Hever region of the Judean Desert near the Dead Sea. In a cave, a scroll was found that contains substantial portions of the minor prophets in Greek. The so-called Nahal Hever Minor Prophets Scroll, dated around the time of Jesus, shows the influence and popularity of Greek, even among highly religious Jews.
Though the New Testament Gospels do not tell us whether Jesus spoke Greek or not, they do describe situations in which it’s likely that Greek was used. In Matthew 8:5-13, for example, Jesus entered into dialogue with a Roman centurion. The centurion almost certainly spoke in Greek. And, as Matthew tells the story, he and Jesus spoke directly, without a translator. Of course it’s always possible that a translator was used and simply not mentioned by Matthew. Still, the sense of the story suggests more immediate communication, which would have been in Greek.
The same could be said about Jesus’ conversation with Pontius Pilate prior to his crucifixion (Matthew 27:11-14; John 18:33-38). Once again, there is the possibility of an unmentioned translator. But the telling of the story points to a Greek-speaking Jesus. (Pilate would have used Greek, not Latin, as imagined by Mel Gibson in The Passion of the Christ. And it’s unlikely that he would have known or used Aramaic. Pilate was not the sort of man who would stoop to use the language of common Jews.)
If Jesus knew enough Greek to converse with a Roman centurion and a Roman governor, where did he learn it? Some have suggested that he might have learned it during his early years in Egypt. A more likely explanation points to his location in Galilee. Though Aramaic was the first language of Nazareth, Jesus’ hometown was a short walk from Sepphoris, which was a major city and one in which Greek was spoken. Jesus quite probably had clients in Sepphoris who utilized his carpentry services, and he would have spoken with them in Greek.
But given the multi-lingual context in which Jesus lived, it’s not surprising that he would have been reasonably fluent in Greek and Hebrew, in addition to Aramaic. People in the United States often have a hard time understanding this. But if you’ve known people who have grown up in Europe, for example, they often can get by in several languages, including English, German, Spanish, and French, even if their first language is Italian.
Can we know for sure that Jesus spoke Greek? No. Is it reasonable to assume that he could speak Greek and did upon occasion? Yes, I believe so. In fact, it wouldn’t surprise me if some of the variations in the Gospels among the sayings of Jesus reflect that fact that he said more or less the same things in Aramaic, Hebrew, and/or Greek.
In my next and final post in this series, I’ll suggest some reasons why I think the language of Jesus matters . . . or, better, why the languages of Jesus matter.
The Language of Jesus: Why Does It Matter?
If you’ve been following this series on the language(s) of Jesus, you know that I have argued that Jesus spoke Aramaic as his first language and in a substantial chunk of his teaching. I think it’s highly probable that he also spoke Hebrew, and used Hebrew in contexts when that was appropriate (reading the Scripture in the synagogue, conversing with Jewish scholars, etc.). I also believe that Jesus spoke Greek, though the evidence for his use of Greek is not as strong as it is for Aramaic (very strong) and Hebrew (strong). But why does this matter? Does the question of Jesus’ language make any difference to us, especially to those of us who are followers of Jesus today?
Yes, I believe the language of Jesus does matter. I began this series by offering one reason. When we pay attention to the language of Jesus, we remember that he did not speak English. Therefore, we are encouraged to pay close attention to the meaning of his teaching in light of his cultural and religious milieu, and not to read Jesus as if he were speaking in 21st century America. I’ll say more about this in a moment.
I do not believe that the language spoken by Jesus makes any difference for our understanding of the authority of Scripture. I dealt with the argument that Scripture teaches that Jesus spoke only Hebrew, and therefore any claim that he spoke Aramaic or Greek undermines biblical authority. This argument is based on a misunderstanding of the biblical text. One can uphold the inerrancy of Scripture and believe that Jesus spoke Aramaic, Hebrew, and/or Greek.
A 4,000 seat theatre in Sepphoris, just modest walk from Nazareth. Jesus grew up not far from a major center of Greco-Roman culture. Used by permission of HolyLandPhotos.org
The fact that Jesus may have spoken Greek may help us to think differently about him and his ministry. For many years it was common to envision Jesus as growing up in the countryside of Galilee, far removed from multi-cultural hodge-podge of the Roman Empire. But this idealized view of the rustic Jesus is far from the truth. Though he grew up in a small town, he was not at all cut off from the broader Roman world. In fact Jesus grew up with ample exposure to Greco-Roman language, culture, commerce, politics, religion, and philosophy. When he eventually entered Jerusalem to confront the Roman and Jewish authorities there – and to give his life in the process – Jesus was no naive country bumpkin making his first trip to the big city. Rather he was well aware of powers and perils he faced, and he faced these knowing, as he ultimately said to Pontius Pilate (in Greek, I believe), “My kingdom is not from this world” (John 18:36).
Jesus’ use of the language of the kingdom of God (or heaven) provides a striking illustration of why it matters to know the language of Jesus. Let me explain.
Throughout the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus continually refers to the kingdom of heaven, as in “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near” (Matt 3:2). Many Christians take the phrase “the kingdom of heaven” as a description of what we call heaven: the place where we go to be with the Lord after we die. This makes good sense in English, because “kingdom” signifies a place ruled by a king, and “heaven” is the place we believers go after we die, the place where God rules (Matt 6:10).
But this is not what Jesus meant when he used the Aramaic phrase malkuta dishmaya (which appears in the Greek of Matthew as he basileia ton ouranon). For one thing, the Aramaic word we translate as “kingdom” referred, not only to the place where a king rules, but to the authority of the king. Thus malku could be translated as “kingly authority, rule, or reign,” and should be translated this way in the case of Jesus’ usage. He’s not saying that the place where God rules in coming near, or that we can now enter that place, but rather that God’s royal authority is about to dawn, and is in fact dawning in Jesus’ own ministry. Moreover, the Aramaic term we translate as “heaven,” literally a plural form meaning “heavens,” was often used as a circumlocution for God, much as my grandmother used to say “Good heavens!” rather than “Good God!”
So when Jesus said “malkuta dishmaya has come near,” he didn’t mean that the kingdom of the “the place we go when we die” has come near, but rather that God’s kingly authority was at hand. Jesus proclaimed the reign of God and demonstrated its presence through doing mighty deeds, such as healings and exorcisms. By the way, everything I’ve just said about malkuta dishmaya in Aramaic would also be true if Jesus were speaking Hebrew and said malkuth hashamayim or Greek and said he basileia ton ouranon. For a right understanding of Jesus in this case, it doesn’t matter which ancient language he was speaking. But it does matter greatly that he wasn’t speaking contemporary English.
Please don’t misunderstand me. I’m not saying that there isn’t such a thing as a blessed afterlife or that Jesus has nothing to do with how we enter this afterlife. But I am saying that when we understand Jesus to be talking continually about what we call heaven when he speaks of “the kingdom of heaven” or “the kingdom of God,” we are fundamentally missing his point. He’s speaking, not so much about life after death, as about the experience of God’s kingly power in this life and on this earth, both now and in the age to come. (I have written extensively on the topic of Jesus’ teaching on the kingdom of God. See my series: What Was the Message of Jesus?)
Given the excellence of English translations of the Bible by translators who have mastered all of the relevant languages, it’s not necessary for the ordinary Christian to learn Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic in order to understand the teaching of Jesus. (In my days teaching Greek in seminary, I did have a few students who were not planning to pursue ordained ministry, but simply wanted to be able to study the New Testament in greater depth!) I do think that any who are going to teach the Bible in a serious way, both clergy and lay, should gain deep familiarity with the primary biblical languages (Greek and Hebrew). But the good news is that we can understand and grapple with the teaching of Jesus without knowing the language or languages he actually spoke. You don’t need to speak any ancient language to hear Jesus’ proclamation of the reign of God or to be challenged by his invitation.
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Kostya2
Thanks for that interesting article that I just fell upon. When we go to modern Israel we find that many people are multi-lingual. I speak English and Russian and that got me by 90 percent of the time. It failed when I met Arabs who only spoke Arabic and Hebrew. I know many Israelis who speak Hebrew,Russian and English fluently. Some even speak Arabic as well. So it is feasible to me that Jesus spoke Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic. Look at Paul. He seemed to fluent in all three.
My other comment is a question: What is the difference between Syriac and Aramaic? A muslim colleague would be insistent that Jesus spoke Syriac, not Aramaic. Are they the same. What is the politics in this?
Anonymous
I can only answer this question on the basis of what I’ve been taught by experts in Semitic languages. Syriac is related closely to Aramaic, but is not the same language. Yes, there is a lot of political interest here. Many Muslims really want Jesus to have spoken Aramaic/Syriac and not Hebrew. In reaction, many Christians have tried hard to deny that Jesus spoke Aramaic.
Keith Cleland
Thankyou so much for your explanation. I was particularly enlightened by the more accurate translation of the ‘kingdom of heaven’, although I had assumed that Jesus was referring to the coming of the God’s presence and power to all believers, as exhibited by Jesus following baptism by John the Baptist.
The logic underlying Jesus reference to John – ‘no man was as great as John the Baptist but the least in the kingdom would be greater’ – speaks volumes in itself: preceding the salvational death of Jesus and the advent of the Holy Spirit of God and Christ, John did not gain entry to the heavenly family of believers who could legitimately call God Father.
Blessings indeed!
S Wills
Hello I hope you do not mind my thoughts..
I believe that Jesus spoke in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek… I believe that Our Lord was able to speak in the language of His listener at the time. While He was in town and cities that were mostly Greek speaking (as Greek was as English is now in many countries) He spoke Greek.. In towns that spoke Hebrew, He spoke Hebrew, and so on.. Jesus knew the mind and hearts of those He addressed and would address them in the language that they would understand.. May it be in a formal or informal speech.. His words reached to all in away that pierced their hearts..
So for anyone to conclude that Jesus only spoke one language would for me mean He would of needed many interpreters to follow Him. In the day of pentecost we see the different languages that were spoken with in Israel so for one to think that Jesus only spoke one language, I believe is an injustice to the Son of God who I believe could speak any language need for those recieve His word.
Also we must remember that the Holy Spirit was present and spoke to each of persons heart according to God’s will and in the language that they were more fluent in. Our God is not a God of language but of hearts and can speak to each of us in our mother tongue..
I hope this makes sense.. It hard to express what is upon my heart but I believe this argument/debate is just a way for the evil one to twist scripture and tickle the ears with teachings that are not Truth…
Soaring Eagle
Hearts can and do speak to each other … they link to a dimension beyond that of the 3D restriction of the Physical mind, they always have. Humanity has just forgotten how to listen along the way but soon that truth will be revealed again. It is been already if you know where to look.
Anonymous
Thanks for adding your comment.
Anonymous
Thanks for your addition to this conversation.
Ron King
I will share a personal experience when I had just become a Christian that tells me that jesus’s language was in fact Aramic.I was talking to an acquaintance that was from Pakistan and sharing my new found salvation. He was very negative and said “I’ll bet you don’t even know what language Jesus spoke. I did not have any knowledge but I thought Lord help me. The answer I gave him was Aramic, and I did not have a clue that this language even existed. I firmly believe “The Holy Spirit” provided this answer and the individual never challenged my belief after that.
Fascinating. Thanks for sharing this story.
Kennydisco
Dear Rev. Roberts, This was a nice article… and I agree it is “very” important to know (or try as best we can to know) the language that Jesus spoke, and the phrases and words He used that were remembered and written down from memory by the writers of the Gospels, etc. Some of your respondents have said something about “translations” – and it is true that in translating one language into another sometimes things get murky, lost, or mis-tranlated. Some scholars believe that there was an extent Aramaic original of the Gospels, before they were translated into Greek – since the Greek (they say), is imperfect or uneven, yet when translated “backwards” into ancient Aramaic is is smoother. You might be familiar with the work of the late Dr. George Lamsa, an Eastern Oxthodox Catholic scholar (1970s), who was familiar with the ancient Aramaic (of the Galilean dialect), which was mostly lost – though its derivative is still alive in a few tribes who reside in Northern Iraq? On one trip to Isreal, I, as a pilgrim, even asked of one of the Cathoic priests at the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth “How could I learn the Lord’s Prayer in the language Jesus spoke?” (to hear & feel the tone of the words and manner of praying). He said, “Oh… they don’t speak that language in Galilee anymore,” and he told me of how the language changed over time, but, that a few tribes far to the East might still have retained it. (Iraq). A line in the Lord’s Prayer always bothered me some as being a little too negative to be accurate – and that line is Matthew 6:13 “And, lead us not into tempatation”. In Lamsa’s Aramaic translation into English, it is (as he says) more accurately translated “And, do not let us enter into tempatation”, more to the tone of a Father’s protective love for a child – I thought. There are other glaring… (and probable mis-translations) in the Greek-Latin-to-English Bibles we read today, that Lamsa points out – drawing from his upbringing and understanding of the culture and language of the early Christians – the ancient Aramaic of Jesus’s time. So, to understand that Jesus spoke mainly in Aramaic – is doubly important for us – and then, translators to go back and try to “recover” the original ideas, thoughts, and expressions (in their cultural context also), so that we can get a clearer picture of the ‘truth’ of the word – as much as is humanely possible. It is true, I would say that translators “all” try their best because they “know” how delicate a job it is to translate sacred texts from any language into another. Since no extent versions of the Bible in ancient Aramaic exist and only extent fragments of the Greek exist it’s hard for scholars to want to make that “leap” into the seeminly “unknown” – though Lamsa was credited with making that jump – believing the flowing language was more accurate… with less bumps than the Greek provided.
One thing is probably certain – as you agree – Jesus did speak in a Galilean dialect… since the scene at his betrayal by Peter in Matthew 26:73 when a girl said to Peter, “Surely, you too are one of them, even your speech gives you away.” Though this is directed at Peter it is fair to assume that Jesus being raised in the same locale… would have learned the similar dialect wiht its own accent. Beyond just an accent the language itself would have been modelled after the people of the region… and His expressed language with it. Hope you enjoyed the read – and I wonder what are your thoughts on an ancient Aramaic primacy of the original texts?
Buddhatt
Very interesting indeed. Great insight. I am far from a scholar on the subject of Jesus, but, I have read my fair share, and I convinced the Jesus did not live quietly in Galilee from 14-29.
Anonymous
Thanks. Is there an implication to what you’re saying for the language of Jesus?
Buddhatt
Very interesting indeed. Great insight. I am far from a scholar on the subject of Jesus, but, I have read my fair share, and I am convinced that Jesus did not live quietly in Galilee from the ages of 14-29.
Sam Jayaraj
Thank you Dr.Mark for your insightful research and easy presentation. Just a question: The third word of Jesus from the cross says, “Woman, behold your son….” Any comments on the use of the word ‘woman’ here as well as in some other places like addressing the Samaritan woman. What could ‘woman’ instead of mother, imply in Aramaic/Hebrew as spoken by Jesus or even the Greek translation of the word ‘woman’ (presuming John wrote in Greek and this word appears only in John’s Gospel)?
Anonymous
Great question. I’m not sure we can get an answer from the meaning of the word “woman.” The context is crucial here. It may be that Jesus called his mother “woman” because he was entrusting her to another person. She would now be the “mother” of another. This is just a guess, though.
Garettwise
TRUTH
Jesus spoke Hebrew, Greek, Konie Greek, Syrian, Babayolian, Aramaic, Latin, French, Spanish, Russin, Chineese, English, German, etc etc. He was “God” in human form. He spoke any language you did back then so you understood his words. He invented all the languages in the entire world. Now he speaks an unknown language that only a true believer’s heart can understand. He also speaks through his “Word” to us. Talk to him. He’ll understand you clearly.
Anonymous
Interesting. Thanks for your comment. To whom would Jesus have spoken English?
Haslam Judy
What does it matter what language He spoke while here on Earth with us humans. HE SPOKE TO US AND ALL UNDERSTOOD. He is God’s Son, He knew ALL the languages from the beginning of time until our end. Don’t doubt He didn’t speak or KNOW them ALL!! Whatever He spoke to them then is what they needed..all they knew. When He speaks to us, it’s what WE need RIGHT NOW! Guys, come on….You ALL know that Jesus knew ALL when He was here…..Then and NOW! Stop questioning, our Jesus! What language does He speak to you???? Regardless of what language, when HE whispers in your ear, ” I love you.” Do you argue? No matter, He hears us, talks to us and SPEAKS OUR LANGUAGE. His Father MADE our languages…SO WHAT’S THE REAL ISSUE? Let Jesus love you. Understand that He and God Know ALL. Why are you questioning these guys? Let them LOVE you!
Anonymous
Yes, that is what really matters.
Beto69
Gracias for contributing to the understanding of Jesus and His place of birth.
markdroberts
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i don't know
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What sugar substitute, also known as glucitol, is named after the sorb fruit of the sorbus tree?
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New insights into the evolutionary history of plant sorbitol dehydrogenase
"A previously identified SDH from apple fruit [9] was found to be the single Class II SDH (MDP0000305455) in M. domestica in the present study. This SDH has a much lower affinity for sorbitol (K m 247 mM [9] ) compared to other SDHs purified (K m 40.3 mM [76], 86.0 mM [7]) or cloned (K m 83.0 mM [10]; SDH Class I) from apple species. While the kinetic differences were suggested to be due to protein configuration changes between the fusion protein and native protein [9], the present analysis indicated that they might have been be due also to amino acid substitutions at the catalytic site. "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH, EC 1.1.1.14) is the key enzyme involved in sorbitol metabolism in higher plants. SDH genes in some Rosaceae species could be divided into two groups. L-idonate-5-dehydrogenase (LIDH, EC 1.1.1.264) is involved in tartaric acid (TA) synthesis in Vitis vinifera and is highly homologous to plant SDHs. Despite efforts to understand the biological functions of plant SDH, the evolutionary history of plant SDH genes and their phylogenetic relationship with the V. vinifera LIDH gene have not been characterized. A total of 92 SDH genes were identified from 42 angiosperm species. SDH genes have been highly duplicated within the Rosaceae family while monocot, Brassicaceae and most Asterid species exhibit singleton SDH genes. Core Eudicot SDHs have diverged into two phylogenetic lineages, now classified as SDH Class I and SDH Class II. V. vinifera LIDH was identified as a Class II SDH. Tandem duplication played a dominant role in the expansion of plant SDH family and Class II SDH genes were positioned in tandem with Class I SDH genes in several plant genomes. Protein modelling analyses of V. vinifera SDHs revealed 19 putative active site residues, three of which exhibited amino acid substitutions between Class I and Class II SDHs and were influenced by positive natural selection in the SDH Class II lineage. Gene expression analyses also demonstrated a clear transcriptional divergence between Class I and Class II SDH genes in V. vinifera and Citrus sinensis (orange). Phylogenetic, natural selection and synteny analyses provided strong support for the emergence of SDH Class II by positive natural selection after tandem duplication in the common ancestor of core Eudicot plants. The substitutions of three putative active site residues might be responsible for the unique enzyme activity of V. vinifera LIDH, which belongs to SDH Class II and represents a novel function of SDH in V. vinifera that may be true also of other Class II SDHs. Gene expression analyses also supported the divergence of SDH Class II at the expression level. This study will facilitate future research into understanding the biological functions of plant SDHs.
Full-text · Article · Apr 2015
Polyol specificity of recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana sorbitol dehydrogenase studied by enzyme kinetics and in silico modeling
"We believe that this can be attributed to the fact that the latter assays were performed at 2 mM NAD + and 50 mM xylitol, concentrations which produce substrate inhibition , as shown inFigure 2B. Nevertheless, the K m of recombinant AtSDH with xylitol (0.27 mM) is very similar to that of HsSDH (0.22 mM; Maret and Auld, 1988) and substantially lower than with the other substrates, as also found in purified apple SDH (37 mM; Negm and Loescher, 1979), translating into a higher specificity constant with this 5-carbon molecule than with either sorbitol or ribitol (Figure 2A;Table 1 ). At xylitol concentrations greater than 5 mM in the presence of 1.36 mM NAD + , the specific activity was significantly inhibited, a phenomenon not observed with the other two polyol substrates. "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Polyols are enzymatically-produced plant compounds which can act as compatible solutes during periods of abiotic stress. NAD+-dependent SORBITOL DEHYDROGENASE (SDH, E.C. 1.1.1.14) from Arabidopsis thaliana L. (AtSDH) is capable of oxidizing several polyols including sorbitol, ribitol and xylitol. In the present study, enzymatic assays using recombinant AtSDH demonstrated a higher specificity constant for xylitol compared to sorbitol and ribitol, all of which are C2 (S) and C4 (R) polyols. Enzyme activity was reduced by preincubation with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), indicating a requirement for zinc ions. In humans, it has been proposed that sorbitol becomes part of a pentahedric coordination sphere of the catalytic zinc during the reaction mechanism. In order to determine the validity of this pentahedric coordination model in a plant SDH, homology modeling and Molecular Dynamics simulations of AtSDH ternary complexes with the three polyols were performed using crystal structures of human and Bemisia argentifolii (Genn.) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) SDHs as scaffolds. The results indicate that the differences in interaction with structural water molecules correlate very well with the observed enzymatic parameters, validate the proposed pentahedric coordination of the catalytic zinc ion in a plant SDH, and provide an explanation for why AtSDH shows a preference for polyols with a chirality of C2 (S) and C4 (R).
Full-text · Article · Feb 2015
Identification of Novel Knockout Targets for Improving Terpenoids Biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
"Deletion of these genes might enhance the supply of acetyl-CoA to the MVA pathway in S. cerevisiae, which ultimately affects downstream exogenous terpenoid production. Among the positive targets identified, there are five genes encoding enzymes related to oxidative or reduced reactions: SOR1 and Gre3 are NAD + and NADH-specific dehydrogenase/reductase for sorbitol and fructose metabolism, respectively [29,30]; IDP1 corresponds to the mitochondrial isocitrate dehydrogenase isoenzyme in the TCA cycle and its activity is NADP + -dependent [31,32]; SER3 and SER33 are phosphoglycerate dehydrogenases in the serine biosynthesis pathway [33]. It was not clear why disruption of these redox enzymes stimulated the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway. "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Many terpenoids have important pharmacological activity and commercial value; however, application of these terpenoids is often limited by problems associated with the production of sufficient amounts of these molecules. The use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) for the production of heterologous terpenoids has achieved some success. The objective of this study was to identify S. cerevisiae knockout targets for improving the synthesis of heterologous terpeniods. On the basis of computational analysis of the S. cerevisiae metabolic network, we identified the knockout sites with the potential to promote terpenoid production and the corresponding single mutant was constructed by molecular manipulations. The growth rates of these strains were measured and the results indicated that the gene deletion had no adverse effects. Using the expression of amorphadiene biosynthesis as a testing model, the gene deletion was assessed for its effect on the production of exogenous terpenoids. The results showed that the dysfunction of most genes led to increased production of amorphadiene. The yield of amorphadiene produced by most single mutants was 8-10-fold greater compared to the wild type, indicating that the knockout sites can be engineered to promote the synthesis of exogenous terpenoids.
Full-text · Article · Nov 2014
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Sorbitol
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What are the fatty compounds/derivatives which store energy, signal, and provide structure in the cells of living things?
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New insights into the evolutionary history of plant sorbitol dehydrogenase
"A previously identified SDH from apple fruit [9] was found to be the single Class II SDH (MDP0000305455) in M. domestica in the present study. This SDH has a much lower affinity for sorbitol (K m 247 mM [9] ) compared to other SDHs purified (K m 40.3 mM [76], 86.0 mM [7]) or cloned (K m 83.0 mM [10]; SDH Class I) from apple species. While the kinetic differences were suggested to be due to protein configuration changes between the fusion protein and native protein [9], the present analysis indicated that they might have been be due also to amino acid substitutions at the catalytic site. "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH, EC 1.1.1.14) is the key enzyme involved in sorbitol metabolism in higher plants. SDH genes in some Rosaceae species could be divided into two groups. L-idonate-5-dehydrogenase (LIDH, EC 1.1.1.264) is involved in tartaric acid (TA) synthesis in Vitis vinifera and is highly homologous to plant SDHs. Despite efforts to understand the biological functions of plant SDH, the evolutionary history of plant SDH genes and their phylogenetic relationship with the V. vinifera LIDH gene have not been characterized. A total of 92 SDH genes were identified from 42 angiosperm species. SDH genes have been highly duplicated within the Rosaceae family while monocot, Brassicaceae and most Asterid species exhibit singleton SDH genes. Core Eudicot SDHs have diverged into two phylogenetic lineages, now classified as SDH Class I and SDH Class II. V. vinifera LIDH was identified as a Class II SDH. Tandem duplication played a dominant role in the expansion of plant SDH family and Class II SDH genes were positioned in tandem with Class I SDH genes in several plant genomes. Protein modelling analyses of V. vinifera SDHs revealed 19 putative active site residues, three of which exhibited amino acid substitutions between Class I and Class II SDHs and were influenced by positive natural selection in the SDH Class II lineage. Gene expression analyses also demonstrated a clear transcriptional divergence between Class I and Class II SDH genes in V. vinifera and Citrus sinensis (orange). Phylogenetic, natural selection and synteny analyses provided strong support for the emergence of SDH Class II by positive natural selection after tandem duplication in the common ancestor of core Eudicot plants. The substitutions of three putative active site residues might be responsible for the unique enzyme activity of V. vinifera LIDH, which belongs to SDH Class II and represents a novel function of SDH in V. vinifera that may be true also of other Class II SDHs. Gene expression analyses also supported the divergence of SDH Class II at the expression level. This study will facilitate future research into understanding the biological functions of plant SDHs.
Full-text · Article · Apr 2015
Polyol specificity of recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana sorbitol dehydrogenase studied by enzyme kinetics and in silico modeling
"We believe that this can be attributed to the fact that the latter assays were performed at 2 mM NAD + and 50 mM xylitol, concentrations which produce substrate inhibition , as shown inFigure 2B. Nevertheless, the K m of recombinant AtSDH with xylitol (0.27 mM) is very similar to that of HsSDH (0.22 mM; Maret and Auld, 1988) and substantially lower than with the other substrates, as also found in purified apple SDH (37 mM; Negm and Loescher, 1979), translating into a higher specificity constant with this 5-carbon molecule than with either sorbitol or ribitol (Figure 2A;Table 1 ). At xylitol concentrations greater than 5 mM in the presence of 1.36 mM NAD + , the specific activity was significantly inhibited, a phenomenon not observed with the other two polyol substrates. "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Polyols are enzymatically-produced plant compounds which can act as compatible solutes during periods of abiotic stress. NAD+-dependent SORBITOL DEHYDROGENASE (SDH, E.C. 1.1.1.14) from Arabidopsis thaliana L. (AtSDH) is capable of oxidizing several polyols including sorbitol, ribitol and xylitol. In the present study, enzymatic assays using recombinant AtSDH demonstrated a higher specificity constant for xylitol compared to sorbitol and ribitol, all of which are C2 (S) and C4 (R) polyols. Enzyme activity was reduced by preincubation with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), indicating a requirement for zinc ions. In humans, it has been proposed that sorbitol becomes part of a pentahedric coordination sphere of the catalytic zinc during the reaction mechanism. In order to determine the validity of this pentahedric coordination model in a plant SDH, homology modeling and Molecular Dynamics simulations of AtSDH ternary complexes with the three polyols were performed using crystal structures of human and Bemisia argentifolii (Genn.) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) SDHs as scaffolds. The results indicate that the differences in interaction with structural water molecules correlate very well with the observed enzymatic parameters, validate the proposed pentahedric coordination of the catalytic zinc ion in a plant SDH, and provide an explanation for why AtSDH shows a preference for polyols with a chirality of C2 (S) and C4 (R).
Full-text · Article · Feb 2015
Identification of Novel Knockout Targets for Improving Terpenoids Biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
"Deletion of these genes might enhance the supply of acetyl-CoA to the MVA pathway in S. cerevisiae, which ultimately affects downstream exogenous terpenoid production. Among the positive targets identified, there are five genes encoding enzymes related to oxidative or reduced reactions: SOR1 and Gre3 are NAD + and NADH-specific dehydrogenase/reductase for sorbitol and fructose metabolism, respectively [29,30]; IDP1 corresponds to the mitochondrial isocitrate dehydrogenase isoenzyme in the TCA cycle and its activity is NADP + -dependent [31,32]; SER3 and SER33 are phosphoglycerate dehydrogenases in the serine biosynthesis pathway [33]. It was not clear why disruption of these redox enzymes stimulated the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway. "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Many terpenoids have important pharmacological activity and commercial value; however, application of these terpenoids is often limited by problems associated with the production of sufficient amounts of these molecules. The use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) for the production of heterologous terpenoids has achieved some success. The objective of this study was to identify S. cerevisiae knockout targets for improving the synthesis of heterologous terpeniods. On the basis of computational analysis of the S. cerevisiae metabolic network, we identified the knockout sites with the potential to promote terpenoid production and the corresponding single mutant was constructed by molecular manipulations. The growth rates of these strains were measured and the results indicated that the gene deletion had no adverse effects. Using the expression of amorphadiene biosynthesis as a testing model, the gene deletion was assessed for its effect on the production of exogenous terpenoids. The results showed that the dysfunction of most genes led to increased production of amorphadiene. The yield of amorphadiene produced by most single mutants was 8-10-fold greater compared to the wild type, indicating that the knockout sites can be engineered to promote the synthesis of exogenous terpenoids.
Full-text · Article · Nov 2014
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i don't know
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The western part of the US/Mexico border runs through which desert, named after the Mexican state it adjoins?
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The U.S.-Mexico Border's 150 Miles of Hell - Men's Journal
The U.S.-Mexico Border's 150 Miles of Hell
By Jeff Tietz
Credit: Photograph by Peter van Agtmael
In late 2010, after the ninth corpse or body part had been discovered on his ranch in a span of 12 months, David Lowell sat down and drafted a document that he later took to calling, with a grain of dark pride, "my map of atrocities." Lowell lives in southern Arizona, 11 miles north of Mexico, in a hinterland canyon in the middle of the busiest drug- and human-smuggling corridor in the United States. Lowell's map, "Sites of Recent Border Violence Within the Atascosa Ranch," renders the ranch boundary as a thick black line. Inside the line glow 17 red dots, each stamped with a number. Among the descriptions in the corresponding key: "Rape tree with women's underwear" (2); "Fresh human head without body" (3); "Skull" (3A); "Body found 500 yards west of Lowell home" (6); "Body found 100 yards south of Lowell home" (7); and "Patrolman Terry killed by Mexican bandits" (12).
Lowell, who is 84, has owned and run the Atascosa Ranch for more than 35 years. He is slight and chalk-pallid but possessed of a steady vigor. He handed me a copy of the map in his office before taking me on a tour of the ranch. "In the case of the human head," Lowell said as I was examining the map, "one of our cowboys came to the house holding a Safeway bag and said, 'You wanna see something interesting?' And I said, 'Sure,' and I opened the bag and inside there was a fairly fresh human head. Meat. Fresh-looking meat."
After telling the cowboy, Martin, to put the head back exactly where he'd found it, Lowell called the Santa Cruz County sheriff's office. Neither the responding deputies nor Lowell nor Martin could find a corpse. Eventually, the county medical examiner matched the head to the remains of a body recovered a mile away. The deceased was an illegal immigrant who had probably been abandoned by his guide and died of hunger or exposure. Animals had dissected his corpse.
About five years earlier, the Sinaloa Cartel, one of Mexico's most powerful drug-trafficking organizations, had assumed control of the smuggling corridor, which runs from Nogales to Phoenix and is roughly 8,000 square miles. All of the human smugglers work for the cartel now. ("The days of the independent coyote are gone," several locals told me.) Decapitated enemies and illegal immigrants left to die are the detritus of a newly disciplined, unitary system.
The Nogales–Phoenix corridor is one of the roughest, least-accessible swaths of land along the U.S.–Mexico border. It became the Sinaloa Cartel's primary trafficking route not long after the 9/11 attacks, when "border security" was a touchstone phrase and lawmakers worried that bomb-bearing terrorists posing as illegal immigrants would exploit the country's permeable southwestern border. The Department of Homeland Security sought to move beyond mere deterrence and achieve "operational control" of the border. It assigned the Border Patrol a special "priority mission": to prevent "terrorists and terrorists' weapons, including weapons of mass destruction, from entering the United States." Legislation in 2004 and 2006 provided funding for 10,000 additional Border Patrol agents, mandated 700 miles of new fencing, and authorized the deployment of advanced surveillance systems: laser range finders, mobile ground radar, unmanned aerial vehicles, infrared cameras.
The technology and agents are in place, and much of the fence is complete, but the new tactics seem to have rerouted illicit traffic as much as decreased it. With superior fencing and detection equipment, and a recent burst of manpower, DHS has successfully shielded populated areas and shut down some major trafficking routes. Elsewhere, though, agents are scarcer, and the new fence is not continuous or uniform: Pedestrian fencing alternates with vehicle barriers and long stretches of open border. Much of the Nogales–Phoenix corridor is, in any event, so mountainous as to be unfenceable, and its isolation and immensity make it inimical to law enforcement. As DHS selectively tightened the border and drug seizures increased, the cartel moved into the corridor. The infrastructure and counter-surveillance systems it has established there make its operations virtually ineradicable. It now ships an enormous volume of narcotics through the corridor each year, including as much as a quarter of all the marijuana that enters the United States.
Lowell occasionally sees smugglers hiking through canyons on the ranch. There are typically 10 porters and two armed guards. "They're very often a matched team, all about the same size, muscular and in good condition. Our policy is to turn off at a right angle or go back the way we'd come. I've had one or two experiences where I've thought, 'Somebody might really take a shot at us.'"
It is unlikely that a trafficker would deliberately shoot at a U.S. citizen. The more attention traffickers attract, the less efficient they become, and cartel bosses prioritize efficiency. "The Sinaloa Cartel includes some of the best entrepreneurs of all time," a senior DEA agent based in Tucson told me. "These guys know how to make billions of dollars better than anybody." They prefer their assault rifles to be used against bandits.
Confrontations between traffickers and bandits, or "rip crews," account for most of the violence here. When bandits become too disruptive, the cartel reportedly deploys teams of assassins. In 2010, a sheriff in Florence received an intelligence report from the DHS: Cartel leaders planned to send "a group of 15 very well-equipped and armed sicarios [assassins]" into the Vekol Valley, south of Phoenix. A month later, two men were killed there, in what appeared to be a sicario ambush.
We left the office, taking with us Lowell's springer spaniels, Ginger and Spook. The Sonoran monsoon had greened the canyon. Lowell's house, built of stone and 100-year-old adobe, stands above the canyon's wash, which had just received a braid of water. To the west, the canyon climbs into the foothills of the Atascosa Mountains. To the east, it widens into a valley that approaches the Santa Rita Mountains.
Lowell said that the cartel had scouts on mountaintops across the ranch. "I'm sure people will be watching us today," he said.
I said that must be disturbing.
"Oh, we kind of forget about it," he said. "But one of the dilemmas we do run into is that, fairly often, we see groups coming past our house – maybe a hundred feet away."
Until recently, Lowell and his wife, Edith, reported these sightings to the Border Patrol. "But after 2010 – 14 dead bodies, or people shot at, or people killed – we're not quite so enthusiastic about calling," he said. In the last two years, unknown assailants shot and killed an Arizona rancher named Rob Krentz and a New Mexico landowner named Larry Link. Rumors along the border hold that they were murdered in retaliation for reporting drug activity.
Edith, who had been running errands in Nogales, pulled up to the house and came over to say hello. "There was a helicopter hovering over the ridge, and two cars stopped where I drove in, and two female Border Patrol agents were out of their vehicle," she said. "So, a little action today." She told us to have a good time and walked inside.
The helicopter returned and hovered at the end of the Lowells' driveway. The Border Patrol had increased its presence in the canyon after bandits killed an agent named Brian Terry in December 2010 (number 12 on Lowell's map), but until then traffickers had used the intersection of the driveway and a county road, Avenida Beatriz, as a vehicle-staging area.
The concentration of agents has just pushed traffic into adjacent canyons, Lowell said. "The cartel is still bringing drugs down this canyon on a regular basis."
We climbed into his SUV and started down the driveway, immediately passing the ranch junkyard and hay barn. Loads of dope had been found in both places on multiple occasions. Border Patrol agents once found paraphernalia in the hay barn; a drug mule had been smoking marijuana out of a soda-can pipe. "Which was not optimal from our point of view," Lowell said, "because of the risk of fire."
One night Edith found a car parked in the middle of the driveway. Annoyed, she approached it. "To her horror, the trunk was open and two fellows were filling it with marijuana," Lowell said. "They looked at her, and she looked at them, until they'd gotten all the marijuana in the car and rode off."
We passed the Border Patrol SUV at the end of the driveway and began a steep climb up the canyon ridge. The road turned to dirt and the ridge narrowed. Ravines fell away on either side. In all directions sharp canyonlands stretched to spurred foothills and peaks. It was a landscape human beings should be moving around, not through. Sheriff's deputies sometimes had to be lowered into it by helicopter.
"One dead body was over there," Lowell said, stopping and indicating a point on a ridge. "Between there and our canyon were two others. The human head was found near where that road disappears. A second human head was found in the last year in about the same place. But it was an older head, more of a skull. We have one rape tree" – where the smugglers rape women they're guiding – "that I know about. But we have a neighbor who likes everything tidy, and she went up and collected all the women's underwear."
Two friends of Lowell's, out hiking southwest of the ranch, had found a tree with 32 pairs of women's underwear hanging from its branches.
"Some of them showed signs of having been there for a year or two," Lowell said. "It was a repeated rape site. There's some really bad people involved in this."
Later, back at the house, Edith joined us in the living room. The windows afford a view of the wash and the ridge beyond. I asked if it was hard to relax in the evenings.
"Well, we're careful to pull the curtains," she said.
"And we automatically lock all the doors," Lowell said. "We have a sophisticated alarm system with motion-sensing lights and three sirens, and we have guns."
Someone had tried to break into their bedroom once, but the dogs had scared him off. Six men had snuck up to the house and demanded money and food from Lowell's secretary, but she'd run them off with the dogs, too. A few years earlier, they had hosted an event for a state representative who was looking into the trafficking situation. Edith told the representative that drug carriers walked right by the house, and pointed out a window. "And right then I looked out, and here came a group of drug mules," Lowell told me. "In our yard! Fifty feet from the house. And they didn't pay any attention to us. They just hiked by with their packs."
One night, he said, Ginger started growling, and when he let her out she stopped on the porch and pointed. "I pretended that her head was a rifle sight, and I got behind her and sighted between her ears and over her nose. Soon two fellows walked through a gap in the bushes. Maybe 150 feet away."
"If Ginger starts barking loudly, we know there's someone around," Edith said. "Once in a while we hear noises getting closer, and our lights go on, and we get alarmed enough to get up and look out. Otherwise, we have peaceful evenings."Lowell's neighbor Jim Chilton owns a 50,000-acre ranch that shares a five-mile border with Mexico. Hundreds of smuggling trails cross it. Guided by scouts and aided by a paucity of roads and law-enforcement patrols, the smugglers move easily through the terrain.
When I showed up at his house, Chilton opened a small barred window set into his heavy front door and scrutinized me for a moment, then invited me in for cowboy coffee in his kitchen with his wife, Sue. Chilton is 72, Sue, 69. They are relaxed and of modest stature. Sue, a naturalist, said that at 3,500 feet, mesquite grassland gives way to oak grassland and that the region has a bimodal weather pattern (convective and frontal). With a cackle and sidelong glance, Chilton said, "I just read cowboy things."
"Oh, don't believe him," said Sue. "He has a great, great interest in history."
Chilton, whose family has been ranching in Arizona for five generations, has a large library where he likes to sit and read Bancroft's Works or 19th-century magazine articles with titles like "My Adventures in Zuñi."
Chilton brought a Ruger .44 pistol and a Ruger .223 rifle with us out to his pickup, and we drove south into a landscape that lay furrowed or broken between mountain ranges. Ranchers here lease most of their land from the state or federal government, and their permits restrict material improvements. The majority of the corridor runs through national forests or monuments, or semiautonomous, undeveloped Native American reservations. Law-enforcement officers consequently have very few roads to use and no operating bases – 96 percent of Chilton's ranch is publicly owned. Its scarce roads are gashed and serpentine.
"How on Earth," Chilton asked, "would a border patrolman ever see anyone coming through this country?" He slowed above a notably green arroyo called Yellowjacket Pasture. "The Border Patrol rarely get out of their vehicles – they patrol the roads. Now imagine you got people down there in Yellowjacket Wash. Look down there. Look at all the hiding spots."
The wash had produced thick stands of mesquite trees, and an opaque profusion of ocotillo and guajilla and creosote and prickly pear cactus.
As we continued south, Chilton began pointing out trail after trail coming down through the hills: little switchback scars, bare tracks descending arroyos. "There are literally hundreds," he said. "There's no way law enforcement can cover all these trails." Smugglers could cross the border at night without resistance, Chilton said, climb the mountains, come down these trails, and disappear.
Like Lowell, Chilton told me that scouts have stationed themselves on mountaintops all across his ranch. According to the DEA, the Sinaloa Cartel employs between 200 and 300 surveillance teams along the length of the corridor. Drug loads can be passed from one team to another, all the way north. Scouts have night-vision goggles, infrared telescopes, and military-grade two-way radios with rolling encryption. Land-mobile radio repeaters boost the strength of outgoing transmissions, so no signal degradation occurs as the radio waves flow north. Portable solar panels power the devices. The cartel can reprovision its surveillance teams over a period of months a hundred miles into the United States.
Individual scouts can be chased from their locations, but only temporarily, and they usually succeed in remaining invisible. The mountains are full of caves – "spider holes," Border Patrol and DEA agents call them – and when scouts can't find caves they remain deep in brush, beneath rock overhangs or under camouflage tarps. When scouts are spotted and flushed, they're rarely caught. If you see them, they see you, and they have strict orders, Chilton said, to drop everything and run. The cartel doesn't care about losing equipment; it worries about giving up information. "Chasing a scout," one Border Patrol agent told me, "is like chasing a unicorn."
Shortly afterward, we saw a Border Patrol SUV parked on the side of the road. "He's there to prevent vehicle traffic," Chilton said. "He'll just sit there." In the Border Patrol's Tucson sector, which encompasses the corridor, the agency has at most one agent for every 21 square miles of territory. We would spend seven hours traversing the ranch that day and not see another patrol unit.
The farther south we drove, the rougher the terrain became. We entered the Bartolo Mountains. Halfway down a narrow canyon, Chilton pulled over. The other side of the canyon, he said, was Mexico. He grabbed his rifle, and we got out and climbed down to a small plateau. A cattle fence, making acute angles as it traveled through the mountains, marked the border. The fence was so low and insubstantial, it disappeared as soon as you shifted your gaze. We were far beyond the scope of any patrol, Chilton said. He doubted the cartel even bothered to station scouts here.I returned to the border the following day with Deputy Omar Rodriguez, a member of the Santa Cruz County sheriff's office. A good portion of the southern half of the smuggling corridor runs through Santa Cruz County. Our patrol was part of Operation Stonegarden, an anti-trafficking initiative whose objective was to get more "eyes on the ground." A guarded, thoughtful, crew-cut realist, Rodriguez had been a deputy since 2006, and there were parts of the county he still hadn't seen. In addition to the detection problem so evident during my ride with Chilton, law enforcement also faced an apprehension problem. To maximize coverage, Rodriguez said, deputies went out alone – but couldn't apprehend armed traffickers without backup. And the traffickers usually got away before backup arrived.
The patrol with Rodriguez would serve as a kind of inventory of the advantages enjoyed by the traffickers: cartel engineers who devised methods for circumventing physical barriers; U.S. citizens on the traffickers' payroll who provided logistical support; scouts who meticulously documented the habits of U.S. law enforcement. From Nogales, the county seat, we drove northeast into the Coronado National Forest, passing through the Patagonia Mountains, some of whose peaks approach 7,000 feet. Several signs along the road read smuggling and illegal immigration may be encountered in this area. Now and again we saw trailers and houses. I asked Rodriguez whether he'd be comfortable living there, or even hiking. "Me, personally?" he said. "No."
We turned south, descended steadily, and came upon a handful of singlewide trailers and tar-shingled bungalows. Ahead of us, an arroyo widened into a weedy field, and the road ran under a steel gate. "That's Mexico," Rodriguez said. A derelict sign on the gate faintly read '1975' and 'Lochiel Port of Entry.' Low, anti-vehicle Normandy barriers, recently installed, ran along the border. Rodriguez said that traffickers use flatbed tow trucks to drop dope-filled vehicles over the barriers. They drive over higher vehicle barriers on portable, custom-built metal bridges. When I asked him how much of the Border Patrol's most formidable fencing – deeply anchored steel posts with concrete cores, 30 feet high – protects Santa Cruz County, the fullness and duration of his laugh surprised me. "Not much," he said. Later I got the exact figure: 2.8 miles.
Traffickers know a lot about law enforcement on this side of the border. They see almost everything. They hire U.S. citizens to collect intelligence. A person living on a fixed income in a mobile home in the Coronado National Forest might accept a stack of bills from a stranger if all they have to do in exchange is call a number on a prepaid cellphone when a sheriff's deputy drives by or a Border Patrol technician installs a sensor. Traffickers hire locals to obtain police reports and press releases after major seizures and debrief drug mules forced to drop their loads. They will know which agencies were involved, which kinds of vehicles were used, whether air support was available.
Cartel surveillance teams generally know how long it will take a law-enforcement unit to get from one point to another – they measure response times. They are familiar with the protocols of Border Patrol shift changes. They know that there are fewer agents in the field on weekends. They have mapped everything – all the forest lanes wavering away from the Lochiel gate, for example, as well as the dead-end spur roads. They know whether the Border Patrol has been using trackers in an area and how much lead time a group will need to outpace them.
If a vehicle crossing the border at Lochiel trips a sensor or is otherwise detected and law enforcement responds, scouts direct it onto a spur road, where its driver covers it with brush and a camouflage tarp. (Scouts may also note the potential presence of a new sensor.) Already provisioned for this eventuality, drivers will wait for minutes or hours or days, until the roads are clear.
Traffickers use decoy groups to walk across the border at known sensor locations. Or they may employ banzais, who simultaneously scale border fences and scatter, vacuuming up manpower. Jim Chilton told me that 12 men with assault rifles once marched across the border and straight at a National Guard surveillance post. The men paused while the alarm rippled through the system and then crossed back. As Border Patrol units and tactical teams and sheriff's deputies and helicopters descended on the post, smugglers crossed en masse for miles on either side.
From Lochiel, we headed to the Santa Cruz River, which runs into Mexico about 10 miles east of Nogales. Drug mules often cross the border and hide in the brush along its banks until scouts signal them to continue. We pulled over a few miles north of the border and began walking along the river's south bank until we came to a camp. Amid a jetsam of empty water bottles and bleached shreds of cloth and bits of clothing stood improvised shelters: a lean-to of tarp and driftwood stakes, a canopy of tarp pulled through a lattice of low branches, a roof of viney undergrowth and cardboard on legs of salvaged PVC pipe. We found another camp close by, and then another, and another.
Rodriguez said that traffickers pay locals to resupply people in the camps. He had stopped river-bound cars full of pizza, roasted chicken, and soda, all purchased in bulk from Walmart. In one scenario, a driver picks up provisions at Walmart while three sentinels with cellphones and binoculars station themselves between the store and a drop-off point along the river. If no law enforcement is present, the sentinels authorize the drop and the driver deposits the supplies and leaves. None of these U.S. citizens interacts with cartel traffickers or visibly break the law, and none have information beyond a simple set of instructions for performing a discrete task.The corridor's smuggling routes complete their convergence in Pinal County, which extends south from Phoenix. For the past five years, the county has seen unprecedented levels of drug trafficking and violence.
"It's hard to tell how much violence there actually is because there's so much shit that goes on out here we don't see," Lt. Matthew Thomas, commander of the Pinal Regional SWAT team, told me. The county's 220 deputies patrol 5,500 square miles. Thomas conducts some of the most aggressive anti-narcotics operations in the smuggling corridor.
I met Thomas one morning before dawn at a sheriff's office substation in the dilapidated desert town of Arizona City. We climbed into his unmarked silver Chevy Tahoe and turned onto Sunland Gin Road, a thoroughfare sometimes used by traffickers. He wore a long-sleeve SWAT T-shirt, desert army pants, and beige combat boots. He had a tactical knife in a scabbard strapped to one leg.
Earlier that morning, Thomas told me, blacked-out SWAT vehicles had dropped off eight deputies near surveillance positions in two nearby mountain ranges that smugglers use to move north through the county.
"If we keep relatively current on the activity of smuggling routes, we might catch somebody," Thomas said. "The smugglers switch routes, but they might keep a successful one going a little longer than they should."
Because the cartel's own surveillance coverage is so advanced and comprehensive, Thomas can never be sure whether his men will make it to their positions unseen.
"The bosses know when the dope is moving, and they'll start asking, 'What's out there?'" Thomas said. "They've mapped the area and all their scout locations. If it's hot they'll say, 'Shut it down,' and the smugglers will run their load into a wash, cover it with camo and brush, and wait. When they do that, it's very hard to find them. They're very good at hiding. And they'll wait as long as days."
The cartel's resupply vehicles sometimes spend all night provisioning scout positions, making the rounds from one peak to the next. Occasionally they drop off prostitutes for a day or two. Two weeks earlier, Thomas had impounded a car containing 200 pounds of dope and copious supplies for scouts. He pulled out his cellphone and showed me pictures of the supplies: packets of socks and underwear; Levi's jeans with the tags still on them; cans of beans and bags of tortillas; cases of Sprite, Coke, and Gatorade; bottles of tequila and beer; a carton of Marlboros; a Glock 9mm pistol; a two-way radio charger and two phone chargers, all wired to portable solar panels; Remington and American Eagle ammunition (9mm, .38 super, .22); and an all-weather Puma smartphone with embedded solar panels. Still in its case, the phone had just been released in Europe. It wasn't available yet in the United States.
Traffickers make their own roads, running one three-quarter-ton pickup right behind another, crushing vegetation and replacing tires and vehicles as needed. The drivers navigate a landscape of washes, mesquite thickets, irrigation berms, and foothill canyons.
"I'll tell you what, their drivers amaze me," Thomas said. If the SWAT team can't overtake smugglers, they'll try to push them toward Border Patrol tactical teams. "But at night we have to have an air asset in front of us with infrared and night vision, because if we're pushing them we need to know where to set up choke points."
SWAT operations yield apprehensions and seizures, but to be effective they mostly rely on the criminals making mistakes. Thomas and his men have to hope that smugglers will overuse routes, that cartel scouts won't discover SWAT surveillance positions, that traffickers' evasion techniques will fail, that an air asset will be available.
"There's no misconception that we're ever ahead on any of this stuff," he said. "They've got more time and more money and more manpower."
The sky lightened as we drove through cotton fields and mesquite flats. We entered a construction zone, slowed to a crawl, and passed a dented pickup in the opposite lane. Its occupants glanced at us, then glanced again.
"It's highly likely they're a lot more than farmworkers," Thomas said. From a distance, the Tahoe looked like any other SUV, but up close you noticed its antennas and the maximum tint of its windows. "If we think we've been made by scouts, we try to act natural. Let them think it's just some dumb cop on a regular patrol."
One by one, Thomas' men radioed in to say that they'd seen no activity that night and dawn had revealed no traces of movement along the routes. Another SWAT team member radioed in. He'd picked up a drug mule standing by the side of the road. The mule had delivered his load sometime earlier that night – he had the telltale backpack ruts on his shoulders – and he knew that he could only be charged with illegal entry. He would likely be processed and bused home, which he preferred to walking. The dope in his pack might sell for $70,000, nearly twice the salary of a first-year deputy.
Thomas agreed to show me the notorious Vekol Valley, the last leg of an alternate smuggling route running up the western edge of Pinal County. We drove west on Interstate 8 and entered the Sonoran Desert National Monument on Vekol Valley Road. Scouts often sit in the brush here, guiding smugglers north through the desert to load-out spots along the highway. We turned onto a Bureau of Land Management road, which was hardly graded and not easily distinguishable from the land itself, and stopped at a hollow below a ridge joining two low hills. Thomas told me a trafficker had recently killed a rip crew member here.
We climbed one of the hills. The Vekol Valley opened out below us. In some directions, you could see for 20 miles. Law-enforcement vehicles would be easy for an unaided eye to pick out. With night-vision goggles, you could spot a blacked-out SUV. Disciplined scouts with high-powered binoculars and infrared telescopes would see everything that moved in the valley.
We drove back to I-8 and pulled over. "There's so much traffic that any place that's a natural hiding spot along the highway, you can go in there and it's pretty much guaranteed to be a load-out spot," Thomas said. We climbed down an embankment and into a brushy arroyo. In the arroyo were backpacks, blankets, sweatshirts, empty bottles of the rehydrating sports drink Electrolit, disposable razors, burlap sacks for marijuana bundles, four pairs of "carpet shoes" (or "sneaky feet") to confuse trackers, and the same sort of improvised shelters I'd seen along the banks of the Santa Cruz River, 150 miles to the south.
On the way back to Arizona City, Thomas said, "Realistically, we know we're not stopping the flow. When you debrief people on the cartel side, when you get all the drugs and people you seize and you know how much actually makes it north, it's not much. On a good day we might get 20 percent. Normally we're probably getting five to 10 percent. And I would say that's everyone: Border Patrol, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, the other task forces." A few years back, he said, Pinal SWAT seized an unprecedented 10,000 pounds of dope in a month. Later, one of Thomas' informants told him that the cartel was moving 15,000 pounds through the county every week.Some law-enforcement officials, and many conservative politicians, advocate militarizing the border. "We need 6,000 armed soldiers on our border to protect America," Matthew Thomas' boss, Sheriff Paul Babeu, recently said. "Commit the military to this border," former Colorado congressman and 2008 Republican presidential candidate Tom Tancredo has demanded. "We have a war. We are facing a military on the other side." Texas Governor Rick Perry has said that he considers the border "a war zone as dangerous as Iraq."
It's instructive to imagine what militarizing the border would actually require. Rich Stana, the former director of homeland security for the U.S. Government Accountability Office, has said that a zero-incursion barrier would be "something akin to the inner German border during the Cold War, where very few, if any, could penetrate it without fear of losing one's life." A militarization project would entail blasting and grading a security zone from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, erecting 1,900 miles of double or triple fence along its length, and deploying many thousands of soldiers to man guard towers and patrol the zone. (South Korea, by way of comparison, has more than 250,000 troops stationed along its 150-mile border with North Korea.) The soldiers would be authorized to shoot and kill Mexican citizens. In the meantime, demand for drugs in this country would remain stable. Our coasts and airspace and wide-open 5,500-mile-long border with Canada would welcome pioneering importers.
Sheriff Tony Estrada, Deputy Omar Rodriguez's boss, does not take militarization seriously. "I always say, 'The border is more secure than it's ever been; it's just not sealed,'" he told me. "It cannot be sealed. You have tourism, you have international commerce. If you want zero everything – mission impossible." He measures border security by the local crime rate, which is low in his county. He understands the suffering of ranchers like David Lowell and Jim Chilton, but his priority is the overall safety of the county.
Unless we're willing to establish a DMZ along the southwestern border, this is the only rational perspective available. The Department of Homeland Security has already adopted it. "The specific theory of action [is] to push people out of easy urban places to cross the border and get into the transportation network," the former commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Alan Bersin, said last summer. DHS deters and apprehends wherever it can, and it forces traffickers around populous areas. That strategy, of course, will always be problematic for the people living in the traffic's redirected currents, who justifiably feel as though they have accidentally moved out of their own country.Consider in that context the residents of the Silverbell Estates, arguably the most cartel-oppressed subdivision in the United States. An exurban isolate in the open desert of southern Pinal County, it is too remote for timely police response and is by design diffuse and unassuming. The streets, named for Greek gods and the signs of the Zodiac, are unlighted; the landscaping is muted; the faux-adobe homes sit on multi-acre lots. It is also almost perfectly centered in the corridor.
Not long ago, a resident of the Estates was surveying the desert landscape from his rooftop deck when he noticed a form on nearby Wildcat Peak. He examined it through binoculars he kept on the roof for viewing wildlife. A cartel scout was standing outside of a cave.
I heard this story at the home of a retiree named Pat Murphree. We were sitting at his dining room table, drinking iced tea with his wife, Pennee, and their neighbors, Jay Stewart and Sam Schreiner. At one end of the table a picture window framed Wildcat Peak. A telescope on a tripod pointed at the scout's cave, but you could see it clearly with a glance.
People here first became aware of the trafficking in 2007, when the sound of three-quarter-ton pickups bludgeoning their way through the desert began waking them up in the middle of the night. Running without lights, the trucks tore up the two-mile fence encircling the Estates.
"We repaired, what, 11 breaks in the fence about two years ago?" Murphree asked.
"About a quarter mile of fence, wasn't it?" Stewart said.
"And about a year ago, 14 breaks were repaired, and there's probably five or six of them out there now," Murphree said.
Residents called the Border Patrol and the sheriff's department, but the trucks were usually gone before they got there, and the traffic followed no pattern.
Stewart, a US Airways pilot, flies a single-prop plane recreationally, taxiing it out of his hybrid hangar-garage and onto a short unpaved runway. From the air he started spotting caches of goods in the desert. There were also pickups and SUVs camouflaged for future use or totaled and abandoned, jugs of gasoline, spare tires with mounted rims, cases of bottled water. He once landed near a Humvee, fully loaded with features, a Coach purse on the front seat.
"That was a guy's dream vehicle. He'd worked his butt off, owns a framing company, and here these SOBs steal it," Stewart said.
Dozens and dozens of vehicles were appearing in the desert, and the numbers haven't declined. "There's so many vehicles I've quit counting," Stewart said. He has found abandoned smugglers' vehicles at the end of his driveway and groups of illegal immigrants at the end of his runway. One day he took off, looked down, and saw 40 people.
"But that's what it's like living out here," he said. "You never know what's coming."
When he sees a group, he contacts the Border Patrol, sometimes staying up and "orbiting" the illegal immigrants, holding them in place until the agents arrive.
"So you've been an air asset of the Border Patrol?" I asked.
"More than once," he said. "But I moved down here to have fun, not to fight the drug cartel."
After the scout sighting, Pinal SWAT stormed and cleared Wildcat Peak, and Stewart and Murphree hiked to the cave and began cleaning it up.
"The trash, you can't imagine," Stewart said. "They'd been going up there at least six months, and you couldn't see it – they had it all covered with camo tarp."
"I think we took out 19 bags of trash," Murphree said. "That stuff stunk so bad."
"I was standing knee-deep in that rubbish pile," Stewart said. "It was all cans of menudo, and full of scorpions and black widows, and it was gag-a-maggot. It was bad."
There are also the casualties of human trafficking.
"They cram the pickup beds with people standing up and put a rope around them," Schreiner said. "And the sway of the bodies can bend the sides of the bed about 45 degrees. They lie on the cab roof, they lie on the hood, they take all the seats out."
About four years ago, just before dawn, in front of the big white stucco pillars of the subdivision's entrance, a pickup carrying 35 illegal immigrants took a turn too fast.
"I had to dodge dead bodies going to work that morning," Stewart said.
Murphree remembers seeing 26 people lying on the ground. Four of them, he could tell, were dead. Ten eventually died. Six rescue helicopters evacuated the dead and wounded. The helicopters had to queue up in the air. The cleanup took seven hours.
Early that evening, Murphree took me to visit Susan and Nathan Cary, who live at the southern edge of the Estates and are most exposed to the traffic. The Carys are children's advocates for an international organization called Compassion in Jesus' Name, whose motto is "Releasing Children From Poverty."
In their living room, they told me that they have always tried to feed and shelter illegal immigrants abandoned by their guides. It's become frightening, though. They have suffered break-ins, and they don't know whether the perpetrators are desperate immigrants, armed drug mules, or scouts. Of a man who showed up one winter, Nathan said, "He was cold, he was cold, and I thought, 'What am I going to do with him, this poor soul.' But you don't know who they are, who they're with."
One night, Nathan said, someone killed their dog. The animal's senses had shielded the property for many years. The killer had stabbed the dog in the eye with a fine-pointed object or shot it in the eye with an air gun, Nathan couldn't tell. He recognized the pointlessness of reporting the incident, but he felt that he should somehow mark the death of a loved creature.
"I don't feel safe walking here anymore," Susan said. "When we moved here, I walked all the time."
"I walk in the morning, but I take the dog, and I take a firearm," Nathan said.
They recently fenced in the property, which has helped hold down the number of people who come to the house unbidden. They keep the gate closed, but not locked.
"I'm not a hateful man, and if people want to come in because they need to, then they can," Nathan said. "The closed gate says, 'We're not expecting you, approach respectfully.'" Although they offer strangers the shelter of their covered front porch and food and water, they also call the Border Patrol. They will allow the house to be used as a comfort station, but not a refuge.
"When you're alone, it's unsettling, but when we're together we work as a team," Susan said. "He speaks more Spanish than I do, and I stay in here with the phone and the gun locked and loaded."
"So if I get knocked off, she'll make the call and have the gun ready," Nathan said.
When I left, he came out with me to open the gate and make sure I had my bearings. He held a rifle in one hand and a law-enforcement flashlight in the other. He kept the rifle barrel down but held the flashlight just above it like a scope – ready, should the worst happen, to sight and shoot a figure coming out of the night.
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US-Mexico Border | SOUTHWEST PHOTO JOURNAL
SPANISH ENTRADA SEARCHES FOR CITY OF GOLD, CORONADO FINDS AMERICAN SOUTH WEST, SEES LITTLE TO VALUE EVEN LESS TO CARRY OFF!
THE SPANISH ENTRADA AND CORONADO VISITED MANY OF THE RIO GRANDE PUEBLOS. THE TAOS PUEBLO (above) WAS VISITED BY OUT-RIDERS AFTER DEFEATING CIBOLA OR TODAY’S ZUNI PUEBLO IN NEW MEXICO.
Crossing into the US from Mexico at this spot in the San Rafael Valley, the Franciscan friar FRAY MARCUS de NIZA with his Moorish guide, Estevan, entered from Mexico at this spot in Arizona’s San Rafael Valley, where this concrete cross stands as a memorial of decades of Spanish rule in North America which was followed by a “tidal wave of white men”. De Niza’s journey ended South West prehistory and marked the beginning of written history.
Beside this dusty dirt road only a short distance north from Lochiel, Az, stands the 20 foot cross with a metal plaque that proclaims “On this spot FRAY MARCUS de NIZA entered this Valley of San Rafael, as Commissary of the Franciscan Order and a Delegate of the Viceroy of Mexico, de Niza entered Arizona the first European west of the Rockies on April 12, 1539. Here began the friar’s historic journey to explore the American Southwest, his journey ignited a decade of searching by conquistadors for the gold and riches they hoped to exist in the legendary “Seven Cities of Cibola”.[caption id="attachment_5114" align="aligncenter" width="950"]
Marks de Niza Entry
Spain’s journey into Arizona and New Mexico was controversial then and remains controversial today. Some researchers argue de Niza never made his journey, he only pretended to have seen New Mexico. Some historians say de Niza faked the report in conspiracy with Viceroy Mendoza to encourage the conquest of the North. The friar’s trip did set off a contest between the governor of Cuba and Viceroy Mendoza Governor of New Spain, both sent their champions, Conquistadors Coronado and De Soto were chosen, edging out others, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado went through Arizona and Hernando de De Soto landed in Florida, both sought to find untold riches and make them all rich.
CONQUISTADORS CLIMBED INTO THE SKY CITY OF ACOMA, THEY WISHED THEY HADN’T.
NATURAL WATER CATCHMENTS ARRESTED RUNOFF ON THE MESA FLOOR
A POTTERY TRADITION EXISTS IN MOST PUEBLOS.
NORTH CENTRAL NEW MEXICO
De Niza’s visit to Arizona’s opened the door for Spanish exploration that defined the size, the people and the nature of today’s American West. FRAY MARCUS de NIZA, found himself about 15 miles east of what is today’s Nogales, Arizona and Sonora as their horses picked their trail through the rich Arizona grasslands. De Niza was guided by Estevan, an Moor slave who had survived the same decade of slavery and walking through Texas to Mexico after being ship-wrecked off the Florida coast with the Spanish mariner named Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca who reported to the Viceroy of Mexico the riches of Cibola. The Viceroy sent the Friar de Niza and Estevan to learn the truth about “Cibola”, was it made from gold or wasn’t it? Estevan knew from his travels the Indian of the time perceived “Cibola” as the “greatest thing in the world”, so-the servant said. Survival had taught him how to excite the average Indian village, the large charismatic black man who wore tinkers and led a large entourage of slaves and women whom he had collected. Estevan had learned it was better to be the point of the spear ahead of the main expedition finding water and probing their path for guides and information, rather than playing the role of a slave. Estevan was charged to send back runners with crosses, if news was promising about riches ahead send a big cross, he had been told, if chances were poor, then send a small cross. Estevan decided to promote his own agenda sending back crosses that got progressively larger. Estevan was the original Kokopelli, he captivated the locals, wowed the maidens, had a few and moved on to the next village before the larger expedition arrived.
FIREARMS, HORSES AND CROSSBOWS TOOK A TOLL ON THE INDIAN
De Niza, upon his first return to Mexico City from Cibola, he had reported finding “good and prosperous lands” others soon twisted that translation into a new land of riches, equal to the wealth of gold, silver and gemstones, taken from the Aztec and Inca civilizations of Mexico and South America. Cibola was soon thought to be where “trees hung with golden bells and people whose pots and pans were beaten gold”, so with that promise of riches, finding soldiers and patrons to fund the journey became easy, everyone wanted a piece of the action. De Niza’s companion Estevan de Dorantes was killed at Cíbola, as de Niza watched from afar, but from that range the friar affirmed that the “grand city” report was true. The Friar’s report had inspired Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to make his famous expedition to Zuni Pueblo, using Fray Marcos as his guide; their journey had many hardships: thirst and hunger, many died and most were left penny-less. So it’s an understatement the expedition had a great disappointment, when they had finally saw Cibola for themselves, Coronado then sent Friar de Niza back to Mexico City for his own protection. Fray Marcos returned in shame and became the provincial superior of his order in Mexico and performed the highest office of the Franciscans Order in Mexico before dying in 1558.
In “Cities of Gold” by Doug Preston 1992 Simon/Schuster narrates the rich history of the American South West as the author retraces the Route of Coronado from the US-Mexico Border through a very rugged Arizona and into a waterless New Mexico. Preston and with his cowboy/photographer/artist/sidekick, Walter, with four horses found the trip, life-imperiling as well as life-changing. Another author, Paul Wellman wrote in his book; “Glory, God and Gold” that “Every Spaniard in the expedition” he wrote “would plunge his arms elbow-deep in gold ingots before he returned,” that’s why not a peso came from the King and each participant paid what they could. Captains paid $55,000 pesos, average guys paid $35,000 pesos and Coronado himself paid $85,000 pesos, taking a loan out on his wife’s estate. In preparation for this journey, Coronado had taken seven slaves four men and three women, others took their wives, children and companions.
Scholars say there were 2,000 in the expedition, with 67 plus European soldiers-45 fellas carried European metal helmets, 1300 natives were from central and western Mexico, some were servants, wranglers and herdsmen so writes Richard Flint in the Kiva article entitled “What they never told you about the Coronado Expedition”. He points out there were 19 crossbow, 25 arquebusiers and additional slaves to tend the 1,000 extra horses, 500 head of cattle, and more than 5,000 sheep was taken to feed the expedition. These folks were not trailblazers-they followed well established paths, each village they passed they would enlist guides to lead the way to the next water hole, to make introductions at the next village and to show the Spanish the road to the Seven Cities of Gold.
Just a few years earlier the chosen champion of the Cuban governor, Conquistador Hernando de Soto, who learned the Indian slave trade in South America. There the Spanish looted temples and ransacked graves for their mortuary offerings. Finally De Soto captured the Inca emperor who offered him a room 22′ by 17′ stacked 9′ to the ceiling with gold ornaments, vases, goblets and statues plus another smaller room filled twice over with silver for his freedom. De Soto accepted the gold and silver treasure, still killed the king and soon returned to Spain and became a favorite in the King’s court to whom he loaned money and soon was given the license to explore Florida. In return the King was to receive “one-fifth of all spoils of battle, one-fifth of any precious metal taken from the ground and one-tenth of everything taken from graves. De Soto was to finance the entire expedition, at its end he would received 50,000 acres of his choice and an annual salary of $60,000, in return he would pacify all the natives, and provide the necessary priests and friars needed to convert them.
DESOTO; Followed the footsteps of his heroes, Balboa and Ponce de Leon….
CORONADO: Freely joined the chase for gold and riches ….
Meanwhile in Mexico, Viceroy Mendoza ordered 29 year old Francisco Vazques de Coronado to explore “Nuevo Tierra” and to bring back all the treasure he discovers.
EL MORRO NATIONAL MONUMENT STOOD OUT FROM THE FLAT LAND AND BECAME A BEACON FOR TRAVELERS. CORONADO DIDN’T LEAVE HIS JOHN HANCOCK, BUT HE DID VISIT
Once reaching Zuni, groups broke off one went to the Hopi Villages, another to the Grand Canyon and another to the Rio Grande Valley to claim those lands for the Spanish empire. One group of explorers pushed on to the Colorado River hoping to be re-supplied by ship but they found a note saying their supplies had come and gone. Sore, sick, hungry, constantly looking for water and upset by the lack of riches, Coronado strayed farther eastward with dreams of another unconquered province named Quivera. His expedition went through the plains of Kansas past today’s Liberal Kansas, in hopes of finding yet another Aztec Civilization rich with gold and silver. The Spanish told themselves they had come to North America “to serve God and His King, to give light to those who were in darkness and to grow rich, as all men desire to do”. Hernando de Soto , and the Mendoza expedition led by Coronado, beat out several other conquistadors: Cortes, Beltran de Guzman and Pedro de Alvarado, all of whom wished to establish lives of “ease and honor” by “performing feats of war”. De Soto and Coronado motivated the native Indian along their way to join them, many did, they hoped to take prisoners for themselves, and to become slave holders. Everyone had an angle how this journey was going to make them rich. The conquistadors were tough, disciplined and ruthless, their weapons outmatched the stone age weapons of the Indians who were no match against European arms and tactics.
The native Americans believed the Spanish horses were supernatural creatures.
But it was the horses that carried the battle every time in the today’s West, rock art and intaglio exist that document the first meeting of the horse with North American Indians. In Mexico and South America the Aztec and Inca had fought in formation and were outclassed by the warriors of Europe, but the native Americans of the north soon learned stealth and avoided open combat. Their skilled archers could drive an arrow through armor. the crossbow and musket proved useless while the sword, lance and infantry was very deadly in close combat.
This rock art in southern Utah commemorates the first time the indian and the horse meet.
So eighty years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. Spanish Explorers visited Kansas: Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, seeking gold in New Mexico, was told of Quivera where “people’s pots and pans were beaten gold”. With 30 picked horsemen and a Franciscan Friar, Coronado marched “north by the needle” from the Texas panhandle until he reached Kansas. Here he found no gold, but a country he described as “the best I have ever seen for producing all the products of Spain.” The expedition entered present Kansas near Liberal and moved northeastward across the Arkansas River to what is now Rice and McPherson counties perhaps probing to present day Lawrence near the Kansas River before turning back. The guide, they called the Turk, confessed he had deceived the Spaniards and one night he went into his tent and the next morning when they broke camp he left only a dirt mound. He was strangled, buried and forgotten. For 25 days in the summer of 1541 the Turk had led Coronado among the grass-hut villages of the Quivira Indians, hoping to lose Coronado and men in the tall grass and waterless plains.
PECOS PUEBLO stood at the Cross Roads of the Great Plains and the Rio Grande Pueblo Communities.
After this month spent exploring central Kansas, the expedition disappointed in their quest for riches were still impressed by the land itself. Coronado’s Lieutenant Juan Jaramillo, wrote: “It is a hilly country, but has table-lands, plains, and charming rivers… I am of the belief that it will be very productive of all sorts of commodities. According to legend, Seymour Rogers, the first settler in the mid-1880’s, was said to have been “mighty liberal” with water from his well, from that came the name Liberal Kansas established in 1888, on the northwest border of Texas.
Statue of the Conquistador Coronado stands next to a traffic circle in Liberal, Kansas near where the Spanish entered from Texas. JOHN MADSEN, BELOW
CORONADO AND QUIVIRA
Hartmann Map for Tracking the Expedition’s Route: Sleuthing for Clues and Artifacts
For over 100 years, the exact route of Coronado has been an American mystery. Generations of scholars have tried to retrace the steps of the army from their descriptions of villages, rivers, mountains, and native communities. National commissions have grappled with the problem of designating a “Coronado Trail” that tourists could follow, but clues were sparse, and politics raised its head when various factions tried to claim parts of the route for their state. Because we don’t know just where they were, it is tantalizingly hard to interpret the Coronado chronicles’ descriptions of native villages and other sites they visited.
GREENLEE COUNTY ARIZONA
In our lifetimes, many potential Coronado sites are being destroyed by urban growth, vandalism, and plowing of fields for agriculture. However, if amateur sleuths report possible Spanish artifacts, it may still be possible to locate more of Coronado’s campsites and document exactly where the army went. Recent discoveries have found Coronado campsites near Albuquerque and another in the Texas panhandle at Blanco Canyon both help to pin down the expedition’s route. See the web page on helping scholars locate Coronado sites….
Archaeologists William K.Hartmann, his wife Gayle and Richard Flint have worked tirelessly to sleuth out the route of the Coronado Expedition being guided by de Niza who the year before had seen Cibola from a distance. They found he might have followed the Rio Sonora to the river’s headwaters and then crossed the Cananea grasslands for four days past Arizape picking up the San Pedro River North turning east toward the Wilcox Playa North past present day Safford or the present day Sulfur Springs Valley crossing the Gila River cresting the Mogollon Rim past Point of Pines. William and Gayle Hartmann sees them moving east from the San Pedro, stopping at Turkey Creek in the Chiricahua’s then moving east through Apache Pass via Portal and into New Mexico and eventually into Texas. For more explanation visit their website… .http://www.psi.edu/epo/coronado/coronadosjourney.html
WEST TURKEY CREEK, IN THE CHIRICAHUA MOUNTAIN RANGE, ONE PROPOSED STOP ALONG CORONADO’S ROUTE.
REPORTED DISCOVERY OF CHICHILTICALE The most exciting development is the apparent discovery of the long lost Coronado camp site at the Chichilticale New Mexican exploration geologist Nugent Brasher devoted several years to this problem. With brilliant deduction, mapping, and hard work, he began metal detecting surveys at several water-source sites he reported finding an iron cross bow point and other possible fragments from the Kuykendall ruin, a large pueblo ruin site at the foot of the Chiricahuas. The site appears definitely to be a the first Coronado camp site known in Arizona, and almost certainly is the Chichilticale ruin.
Following the shooting death of Robert Krentz along the US-Mexico Border residents ask government to protect their families, friends and homes.
IS AMERICA’S BORDER BROKEN?
US-Mexico Border Security in the 1970s was the key in Father Lambert Frembling’s pocket, it opened Mexico from the US and it opened the US from Mexico, it was the typical swinging gate for which US Customs had given him a key to the lock so he could shuttle between his flock as he held mass, funerals, baptisms and wedding in the small Tohono Oodham villages and outlaying chapels. Some of these small chapels were first started by Padre Kino or the early Spanish but today many are on Tohono O’odham Land that spans both sides of the US-Mexico Border.
Spent his life ministering to the Tohono O’odham on both sides of the US-Mexico Border.
The beloved German-born Catholic priest had stopped in Pisinemo on his way to California and he never left! Today Star Wars virtual sentries have been installed to monitor for crossers. Ground sensors, trackers on horseback, overhead drones, helicopters, planes, satellites all fly by, game cameras on popular trails beam up images to satellites who download to Fort Huachuca. The Tethered Aerostat Radar System, or TARS, uses the Aerostat as a stationary airborne platform for a surveillance radar, the system is capable of detecting low altitude aircraft at the radar’s maximum range by mitigating curvature of the earth and terrain masking limitations. TARS provides a detection and monitoring capability along the United States-Mexico border, the Florida Straits, and a portion of the Caribbean in support of the Department of Defense Counterdrug Program.
The Tethered Aerostat Radar uses the aerostat as a stationary airborne platform for surveillance.
The Eye-in-the-Sky peeking over the mountains from Fort Huachuca made famous by chasing Geronimo into Mexico, today Aerostat can see over the horizon and it is constantly getting better. In spite of early, expensive virtual fence ($1 Billion wasted) failures (the fence-ware couldn’t see the difference between a crosser and a wind-blown bush) and if it did see someone, it didn’t know who to call. As a public relations tool HomeLand Security now has placed a (1-877-USBP-HELP) phone number on the back of all new HomeLand Secuirty vehicles.
The Lochiel Arizona crossing was closed in 1983 due to budget retraints.
Back in the day the US-Mexico Border was four strains of barbed wire and with some artfully poured concrete markers. In those days, ranchers dropped the fence to work their land and fields, places like Lochiel, Arizona where the San Rafael Valley links to Mexico, pioneering families like the De La Ossa Family who settled on the line between the two countries around 1886.
Vehicles with visas or Sonoran plates could access the area east of Nogales without going to Nogales first.
For decades the Naco, Az gate was this low tech relic of the 20th Century, since the National Border Industrial Complex has become fully engaged, billions of dollars have changed everything about the US-Mexico Border. At the new Naco Border Patrol Station numerous agents watch monitors showing folks in the darken rooms who and what is hanging out on the Border. If you drive past one, be friendly and wave.
The De La Ossa pioneer family settled on the US-Mexico Border from Spain and for generations they have ranched on both sides of the fence.
East of Nogales, AZ the Lochiel Gate was open from 10am to 4pm daily during the 1970-80’s allowing residents of Santa Cruz (headwaters of the river) Sonora access to the US and hospitals without going to Nogales first and then crossing.
Over the decades settlers found the sleepy valley nirvana, they even had their own border gate that was open daily and their children wandered into the U.S. every day to attend their one-room school and then walked 200 yards back home to Mexico but the gate was closed in 1983 due to budget constraints. Today the US-Mexico Border is an armed camp.
MEXICO-US BORDER FENCE runs east from Lochiel and served as a geological border and each evening this fence was often cut and penetrated at will by smugglers, mules (men carrying backpacks of contraband) and coyotes (guides who escort undocumented crossers and either deliver their cargo or dump them in the desert.
Today it has been militarized and stands as an armed barrier which inspects every vehicle that enters or exits the United States. Smuggling has always existed and folks who grew up along the border, they know the people who profit on both sides of the border, they grew up with them.
But in recent years Mexican Drug Cartels have militarized their approach to smuggling by hiring ex-military elite, who have trained load bearing drug smugglers to walk with a shotgun backing them up to negotiate any
First time I crossed at the Sasabe, I drove past the small shack on the US side and as I approached the Mexican one-room entry post I heard gun shots. Ahead of me standing in the entry lane my Mexican border agent was target-practicing while on duty. But as I approached he holstered his pistol and reloaded as I departed. On the US side, the small shack is now this lovely compound with all the 21st century Customs technology.
difficulties incurred along the way. Border bandits have been always a huge issue, ruthless people who prey upon anyone who comes along, robbing folks of whatever cash they carry, rape and kidnapping has always been a risk. The Zeta shotgun always cuts through that red tape. In recent years, cartels have created their own trails walking mountain ridges skirting around ground senors laid out there and go around all the boots now on the ground there. Many tools have been deployed by Homeland Security who spent millions on border surveillance systems that were set off by the movement of animals, trains and wind. Driving the Sasabe stretch of the border where the virtual fence employs silent sentinels to watch your every move I met a deer hunter who has hunted those same canyons for the past dozen years and usually hides in his blind and waits for his deer. In the past, from his blind he often watched as between 100-150 illegal crossers daily walked into the U.S. and just keep going… but not today. When I meet him he had been out three days and had not seen a soul.
The US National Guard takes a forward operating position on Coronado Peak to Monitor smuggling routes to the east and illegal immigration toward the west. “They know we are here, says one Guard member, “we’re just a deterrent !” “They pay me $5000 a month to sit on a rock, for that kinda money I can do that all year-long.”
COPTERS, DRONES, SENSORS, RADAR PATROL THE LINE AS BULLDOZERS SCRAP THE BORDER CLEAN
This virtual fence watches more than 50 miles east and west of Sasabe, AZ
If the new virtual fence doesn’t work! It is a well kept secret in Mexico. One additional deterrent, the National Guard, has established forward operating positions to monitor smuggling and crossing trails and at least in the remote Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge, the Altar Valley which is encircled by seven mountain ranges, is the only place in the United States where the Sonoran-savanna grasslands that once spread over the entire region can still be seen. The fragile ecosystem was almost completely destroyed by overgrazing, and a program to restore native grasses is currently in progress. In 1985 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service purchased the Buenos Aires Ranch—now headquarters for the 115,000-acre preserve—to establish a reintroduction program for the endangered masked bobwhite quail. At the same time Border crossers and smugglers were moving large groups of crossers who would begin their journey from the village of Altar, Sonora across the flat, friendly, grasslands and into the U.S. where their endless foot traffic was crushing the fragile habitat where bird-watchers considered Buenos Aires unique because it’s the only place in the United States where they can see a “grand slam” (four species) of quail: Montezuma quail, Gambel’s quail, scaled quail, and masked bobwhite. Unlike quail, however, undocumented border crosser are usually unseen keeping to themselves and hoofing it to their destinations and seldom bothering the ranchers and residents who have chosen to live along the line between two countries. In 1976, three Mexicans were tortured and robbed after they illegally crossed a ranchers land to look for work in the U.S..
Tucson’s Tom Miller has written about Life along the U.S. Border for more than 30 years. Miller, a veteran of the underground press of the 1960s, has appeared in Smithsonian, The New Yorker, LIFE, The New York Times, Natural History, and many other publications. He wrote the introduction to Best Travel Writing – 2005, and has led educational tours through Cuba for the National Geographic Society and other organizations. His collection of some eighty versions of “La Bamba” led to his Rhino Records release, “The Best of La Bamba.” His book On the Border has been optioned by Productvision for a theatrical film.
“All right, you fucking wetbacks. You’re not going anywhere.” The gringos built a mesquite fire near the naked migrants, burning their clothes and sacks of food while threatening and taunting the men. “Let’s see if your Virgin of Guadalupe can help you now,” George Hanigan sneered. One of the Hanigan boys pulled a long iron out of the fire and dangled its hot end over the naked men’s bodies. The other young Hanigan allegedly took it from him and touched it to one of the men’s feet, again and again, until the stink of burning flesh mingled with the mesquite. The old man grabbed a knife and threatened to cut off one of the men’s testicles. One of the men had a rope tied around his neck and was dragged through the scorching desert sand. “When they’d had their fun,” recalls long-time community activist Max Torres, “they cut them free one at a time, pointing them to Mexico and opening fire with birdshot.” One of the men ended up with a back full of 47 pellets; another had 125. Brothers Tom and Pat Hanigan were arrested and charged with 11 counts in the kidnapping and torture. Both ranchers were acquitted by an all-white jury in Cochise County Superior Court but then later indicted in federal court, and eventually, one was convicted and the other acquitted. Racism is not their friend and most fear everyone they meet because they have no idea who they can trust. For the next two decades, vigilantism broke out sporadically in Southeast Arizona. In 1980, a local rancher captured and chained a 16-year-old Mexican immigrant by the neck to an outhouse toilet, torturing and starving him for four days. More recently, militia have taken positions on the border, capturing those crossers who were in the wrong place at the wrong time, having their fun, and passing them along to Border Patrol when they were done. Today, the state of Arizona, has now the clout to field a militia to backup law enforcement and utube shows at numerous groups working independently of the state of Arizona. One is out of California, another hails from Cochise County and another can be found in Scottsdale, Arizona-in a state whose legislature passed the controversial SB10-70 “show your papers law” and that recently tossed the Mexican-American Studies Program out of Tucson high schools. For decades, folks I met living on the line often reported hearing noise in the night, perhaps a water faucet was taped to top off the tradition gallon water jug carried by most border crossers. Some might come to the back door and ask for food, many residents said they helped, others say they reported the visit, most didn’t because they found these folks to be honest hard-working people down on their luck in a land they didn’t understand.
After the shooting ranchers and residents of the four corners region of Southeast Arizona, Southwest New Mexico, and the Mexican States of Sonora and Chichuahua meet at the Apache, Arizona one room school house after Congress women Gabby Giffords brought in media from Tucson, Phoenix and the New York Times to hear the needs and concerns of these folk living on the Border. Before the meeting, everyone bowed their heads and paid tribute to their dead friend and fellow rancher Robert Krentz, who like themselves, had tried to make the best of this difficult situation and Krentz and his dog died trying.
Many residents complained to the Border Patrol that they had called and called, reported and reported and no one ever came. Congress Women Gabbie Giffords (far right) brought in media from Tucson and Phoenix “what good is Homeland Security if no one ever shows up when you need them”? Customs vehicles now carry this phone number 1-877-USBP-HELP painted on the back of all vehicles.
On Saturday, March 27th, 2010 the body of Robert Krentz, a longtime rancher, was found on his property near the border with Mexico on Saturday, March 27, 2010. Krentz and his dog were gunned down shortly after he reported spotting someone who appeared to be in trouble.
ROBERT KRENTZ
Foot tracks were followed from the shooting scene about 20 miles south, to the Mexico border, and authorities suspect an illegal immigrant. The killing of the third-generation rancher has become a flashpoint in the immigration debate as politicians cite the episode as further proof that the U.S. must do more to secure the violent U.S.-Mexico border.
Today smugglers have moved off the flats and into the rugged mountain ranges where smugglers now carry their large backpacks and the crossers have moved further west onto the Tohono Oodham Reservation where the desert is less hospitable and where many unprepared for the desert have perished. Homeland Security has now deported more people this year than any year in the past decade. Homeland detained 212,000 in 2010, 120,000 in 2011 and less than 100,000 is expected to be picked up and detained in 2012. Death from failed summer crossing have dropped from 212 in July, 2010, 138 were reported in 2011 and in 2012 the numbers continues to drop but the proportion of those dying trying to cross into the U.S. continue to increase because of the increased difficulty. Border deaths were sparse throughout the 1990s. But in 2000, the numbers jumped drastically, increased border enforcement in California has moved migration routes east into some of Arizona’s most remote and inhospitable terrain. Unusually hot weather, even by Arizona standards, also may be contributing to the large number of deaths this year. Some migrants try to time their journeys to the summer monsoon season with its cooling rains, Kat Rodriguez told the Huffington Post. Rodriguez works with the human rights group Coalicion de Derechos Humanos who supply water stations in the desert to keep crossers alive who lack enough water to survive their journey. “The border experience 10 years ago is completely different than now,” Rodriguez said. (Today) “It’s brutal and ruthless.”
Total border deaths by calendar year: 2001: 77…..2002: 147…..2003: 196…..2004: 219…..2005: 246…..2006: 224…..2007: 250…….2008: 190….2009: 224…..2010: 249…..2011: 182
The 182 bodies of illegal border crossers recovered in fiscal year 2011 from New Mexico to Yuma County (the area within the Border Patrol’s Tucson Sector) are the fewest since fiscal 2002 when 147 bodies were found, indicates the Arizona Daily Star’s border death database.
WATER STATIONS are a political hot potato along the US-Mexico Borderlands but volunteers backing up southwest humanitarian groups walk a fine line helping out undocumented crossers and some have been arrested for their troubles. photo by Francisco Medina
Conservative critics of the water stations maintained by Tucson-based Coalicion de Derechos Humanos say the water stations enable “successful crossings” instead of “unsuccessful border crossings” where crossers are either picked up or turn themselves in to avoid death, or die in the desert. Conservatives say knowing the water is there encourage crossers to attempt the journey and without water stations–fewer people would attempt to cross the border–their deaths are their fault for trying and a deterrent to others attempting the trip. Some say many who cross have no idea of what lies before them, many are from the jungles of southern Mexico and South America, and have never seen a desert, let alone, crossed one.
Customs helicopter tracked these crossers, called in ground support and all where taken to holding pins where they await buses to take them back to the border.
Three Border Patrol agents guide 78 illegal immigrants through the desert near Arivaca after they were found when helicopter pilots followed fresh tire tracks to trees in wash where they were hiding. PHOTOS BY GARY GAYNOR
As the U.S. Customs and Border Protection continues to secure the border, the number of border crossings has declined dramatically in the last five years, the number of deaths has not decreased at the same pace. Human rights organizations say the increased militarization of the U.S.-Mexico border and the absence of government policy addressing the motivations that prompt migrants to cross, despite the dangers. “We never thought that we’d be in the business of helping to identify remains like in a war zone, and here we are,” said Isabel Garcia, co-chair and founder of the Coalicion de Derechos Humanos.
While the precise number of individuals crossing the U.S.-Mexico border without authorization is impossible to tally, Border Patrol’s apprehensions and death data offer the most accurate picture available. Each year the Border Patrol reports the number of bodies found along the Southwest border and the number of migrants that agents bring into custody. In 2011, 327,577 migrants attempted to cross the border illegally, down from 858,638 in 2007 — a nearly 62 percent drop. A close look at the numbers reveals that illegal border traffic has slowed and deaths have slightly declined, but the proportion of people dying in an attempt to cross has continued to rise. With no official record-keeping system, the exact number of illegal border crossers who died along Arizona’s stretch of U.S.-Mexican border will never be known. In the summer of 2004, the Arizona Daily Star in Tucson started compiling border deaths recorded by Pima, Cochise and Yuma County medical examiners in an effort to present an accurate tally of the numbers of people who die coming into the United States illegally through Southern Arizona. The Pima County Medical Examiner’s Office handles bodies found in Santa Cruz and Pinal Counties as well.
To report somebody who is missing who tried crossing the border through Arizona or for help trying to locate them, contact:
• Pima County Medical Examiner’s Office: 520-243-8600
• Mexican Consulate Call Center: 1-877-632-6678
• Coalición de Derechos Humanos: 520-770-1373
• National Missing and Unidentified Persons System website: http://www.namus.gov
This new wall was suck almost 10′ under ground to deter tunneling. With two months following its completion. Customs found two tunnels to parking spots on the US side, the driver of a car with a false bottom would park and go to lunch and when he returned. He had a fresh load of contraband for the drive home.
Traffic awaits their turn at customs at the DeConcini Border Crossing…
Even after he said it twice, Arizona Senator Lori Klein still insists “Joe the Plumber”– a.k.a. Sam Wurzelbacher — was “joking” about shooting people who illegally cross the U.S./Mexico border.”Put troops on the border, start shootin’;
Sam Wurzelbacher, aka Joe the Plumber
I bet that solves our illegal immigration problem real quick,” he said at a rally for Klein’s campaign. “It’s not because I’m blood-thirsty; it’s not because I want to kill illegal — illegal — immigrants. It’s because I want my border secure, that’s all it comes down to” said the conservative pundit made famous by Arizona’s Senator John McCain who believe his Arizona border is open and recently offered a 10 point plan to stop illegal traffic.
McCain has a 10 Point Plan to secure the southern Border…
“While our border with Mexico has always seen some level of illegal immigration, McCain said, it has not seen the powerful threat of deadly violence that exists today as a result of Mexico’s ongoing war against its drug cartels.”. “I recently returned from a visit to our southern border and we are seeing progress along our land borders, but progress is not success. We must remain vigilant and continue to make every effort to secure our border.” “While Senator McCain and I have successfully fought to increase funding for border security efforts, most in Washington have yet to appreciate that a whole lot more still needs to be done. The Obama Administration claims that the border is ‘more secure than ever,’” said Senator Jon Kyl.
All traffic from the US-Mexico Frontier is funneled through road check points scattered all over Southern Arizona. New roads has been graded parallel to the Border so Homeland Security is able to access the entire region rapidly.
THIS CONTROVERSIAL I-19 CHECK POINT HAS BEEN A SORE POINT WITH LOCAL RESIDENTS
DOUGLAS BORDER WALL
This new wall was installed in Nogales on the Arizona and Sonora line.
To help the country out the conservative left has tried to raise enough money to build a second border wall to backstop the present wall. One hysterical conservative fund initially raised $265,00 for the second wall, but six months later money for the project has dried up and the existing funds will not construct one mile of border wall. Still advocates say start the construction and more money will begin to flow in to preserve our democracy. The new wall just installed this year in Nogales is designed to halt a 10 ton truck going 40 mph. But it fails to keep out people who can quickly scale the fence, some fall and break bones but many more find a way over the wall. Every night border fence is cut and repaired the next day, critics say Mexican smugglers are able to cut the fence at its base bend it flat and use it as a ramp for trucks to enter the U.S., all in five minutes. The wall will not stop people unless you watch it and if you watch it–you don’t need a wall. One utube video shows two girls climbing the wall in less than 18 seconds! Is this really worth $4 million a mile ?
Presidential candidate Mitt Romney’s plans didn’t take notice of what’s already been done along the U.S-Mexico, including record-high staffing levels along the border and the failure of a Bush-era virtual-fence plan. Today the Border Patrol has more than 18,500 agents working on the southern border. In the year budget ending last September, agents apprehended about 340,000 illegal immigrants, the fewest in nearly 40 years – an average of 18 apprehensions per agent. The decrease in apprehensions has been linked to a weak economy producing fewer jobs in the U.S. and to more law-enforcement agents and technology being deployed along the border. Under the Bush administration, the government built hundreds of miles of fencing along the Mexican border. A planned virtual fence was also started, but was scrapped by the Obama administration in 2010 after the project was deemed a failure. About 53 miles of virtual fencing is in place near Sasabe, Az, at a cost of about $1 Billion. An exit-verification system has been sought since after the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, but efforts to build one have been repeatedly stymied, most often because of the projected costs. Earlier this year, John Cohen, deputy counter terrorism coordinator for the Homeland Security Department, told a congressional panel that the agency was finalizing plans for a biometric data system to track who leaves the country and when. He didn’t give any details. Arizona’s unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Governor however does have some very specific ideas how best to secure the border…
“YOU WANT A CLOSED BORDER, HERE’S HOW BY FORMER ARIZONA ATTORNEY GENERAL TERRY GODDARD…
National Geographic has produced a”Border Wars” website produced from Nogales, Arizona, where the men and women of U.S. Customs and Border Protection are at ground zero in the war against drug trafficking, illegal immigration, and terrorism. Officers and agents work around the clock patrolling 1100 square miles of terrain, including some 32 miles of international border between the U.S. and Mexico. Border Wars follows these men and women as they fight a daily battle at one of the busiest border crossings in the U.S. The cameras were there as officers raced to save suffering migrants in the desert, uncovered a shocking cartel smuggling strategy, rescued two little girls as they were smuggled into the United States, and broke a port record for a single seizure. They also captured video of a drug-ladden ultralight airplace dropping his load in the U.S and flying back into Mexico. These agents’ and officers’ work goes on 24/7 as they protect the nation from the front lines, click here to see them work.</a>
<a href=”http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/videos/ultralight-drug-drop/embed/” title=”DRUG DROP” target=”_blank”>CLICK HERE TO SEE ULTRA-LIGHT AIRPLANE DROP HIS LOAD OF DRUGS…
Congress women Gabby Giffords shortly before being shot a a townhall meeting in Tucson Arizona, the Tucson lawmaker passed legislation making ultralight flights over the US-Mexico Border illegal. This new law handed local law enforcement a new weapon against illegal drug smuggling for border bound law enforcement agencies.
“Ten Years of Waste, Immigrant Crackdowns and New Drug Wars” written by Tom Berry on his Friends of Justice blog …CLICK HERE
Just as the Bush administration launched the “global war against terrorism” and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan in a burst of misguided patriotism, the administration also thrust us into a new era of “homeland” and border security with little reflection about costs and consequences. Without a clear and steady focus on the actual security threats, “homeland” and border security have devolved into wars against immigrants and drugs. Instead of prioritizing intelligence and interagency communication – the failures of which made 9/11 possible – the Bush administration, and now the Obama administration, have mounted security-rationalized crackdowns on the border and in the interior of the “homeland.”
As a result, the criminal justice system is overwhelmed, our prisons are crowded with immigrants and the flagging “war on drugs” has been given new life at home and abroad. Absent necessary strategic reflection and reform, the rush to achieve border security has bred dangerous insecurities about immigration and the integrity of our border.
Tightened control has made illegal crossings more difficult and more expensive. It has also turned what were previously routine, nonviolent crossings into dangerous undertakings that regularly involve dealings with criminal organizations. An indirect and certainly unintended consequence of the US border security buildup has been the increasingly violent competition between criminal organizations and gangs as they both struggle to maintain markets and trafficking corridors. Despite the border security buildups and $100 billion spent along the southwestern border, no terrorists or terrorist weapons have been seized. DHS does point out, however, that every year it regularly apprehends illegal border crossers from countries designated as state sponsors of terrorism. Those apprehended are mostly from Cuba, with single digit numbers from Iran, Syria, Sudan, Somalia, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Yemen. Border security hawks point to these arrests of citizens from “special interest countries” as evidence that the “broken border” keeps Americans vulnerable and that the border should be completely sealed.
Ten years after the federal government undertook a new commitment to domestic and border security, the nation deserves to know what the tens of millions of dollars spent on securing the southwestern border have accomplished. Before more tax dollars are dedicated to border security, we need new policy frameworks for immigration and illegal drugs that disaggregate these issues from homeland and national security.
The post-9/11 imperative of securing “the homeland” set off a widely played game of one-upmanship that has had Washington, border politicians and sheriffs, political activists and vigilantes competing to be regarded as the most serious and hawkish on border security. The emotions and concerns unleashed by the 9/11 attacks exacerbated the long-running practice of using the border security issue to further an array of political agendas – immigration crackdowns, border pork-barrel projects, drug wars, states’ rights and even liberal immigration reform.
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The 'degree' symbol ° indicates what variation of a musical chord?
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How to Read Guitar Chord Symbols
How to Read Guitar Chord Symbols
By Brett McQueen | Guitar Chords | 8 Comments
Guitar chords, or any chords for that matter, can be expressed in a variety of different ways. Sometimes this means guitar chords might include weird symbols or numbers.
I want you to be able to identify the different ways guitar chords can be written, even if you don’t quite have a full grasp of what the chord might be representing. For that reason, I’m not going to go too deep into the theory behind these ways of writing guitar chords or show you how to play these chords. To learn how to play guitar chords, visit our growing list of guitar chords with chord chart diagrams here .
1. Major guitar chords
Often major guitar chords are just represented by a capital letter. For example: G, D, C. Sometimes major chords might have an added “maj” attached to the letter like: Gmaj, Dmaj, Cmaj. Those can all be understood as major guitar chords.
2. Minor guitar chords
Minor guitar chords will often be represented by a capital letter followed by a lowercase “m” or “min.” For example: Em, Amin, C#m. Sometimes a minor chord will just be represented with a lowercase letter like: e, a, or c#. This is uncommon though in pop music.
3. Chord Inversions
Examples: G/B, C/G, D/F#
The above examples are ways to express a chord inversion. The first letter before the slash is the type of chord. The letter after the slash is a note taken from the chord that will be put in the bass. G/B reads: a G major chord with a B note in the bass. The notes in a G major chord are G, B, & D. In other words, the lowest note of the G major chord will be the B note of the G major chord.
4. Seventh (7th) chords
Seventh (7th) chords are represented by the number ‘7.’ Examples of seventh chords are: G7, Gmaj7, Em7, C#m7.
You might be wondering, “What’s the difference between a G7 and a Gmaj7 chord? Aren’t they both major chords?”
There is a difference. A G7 chord is a dominant seventh chord, while a Gmaj7 is a non-dominant seventh chord.
5. Diminished chords
Diminished chords are represented often with a little circle or a degree symbol superscripted next to the letter name of the chord. The letters “dim” will also commonly follow too. Examples are: B°, F#dim, C#°.
6. Augmented chords
Augmented chords will either be represented by plus (+) sign or the letters “aug.” Examples of augmented chords are: E+, Daug, G+.
7. Altered chords
Altered chords are chords with extra markup in them like b5, add9, #5. These chords require a bit of music theory to fully understand. Again, we won’t go into this here. Examples of altered chords are: Cadd9, Gmin7b5, D9.
In the examples above, the number represents a note. In the case of Gmin7b5, the 5th note of a G minor chord is a D. The flat symbol or ‘b’ preceding the number 5 indicates that the 5th note should be lowered one half step or “flatted.” So a Gmin7b5 chord would be understood as a G minor chord with an added seventh and with a flat fifth.
Let me know if you have any questions about this. Let’s plan on diving into the theory behind all of this soon!
About Brett McQueen
Brett McQueen is a musician, songwriter, and the founder and editor of Guitar Friendly and Ukulele Tricks . Learn more about him here and follow him on Twitter at @GuitarFriendly .
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Diminished
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A chalice - as in the expression 'poisoned chalice' - is literally a?
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Music Theory: Chord Progressions
Chord Progressions
Use this interactive map to create chord progressions for your own songs.
(Click on image above.)
Have a Question?
If you have a music theory question, I invite you to contact me, Tom Michero at the email listed below. I welcome your inquiries and will respond personally to your question promptly.
Email me: service(at)lotusmusic.com.
Books & Tools
On a computer or from a book, learning music is too important to wait. Choose the books and tools that are right for you.
"When the student is ready, the teacher will appear." -Buddha
Chord Progressions
The number of ways chords can go together to produce new and interesting sounds is nearly infinite. Musicians use their intuition and experience to arrange chords in ways that move the music along. This notion of movement is important to understanding how to compose and improvise a piece of music. Chord progressions are what gives a piece of music its harmonic movement.
Harmonic Movement
Usually the interplay between chords in a piece of music creates the feeling of movement and change. Some chord combinations sound uplifting, others sound somber, and some sound like ocean waves. While these harmonies and how we interpret them are nearly endless, there is a very simple principle at work.
Most pieces of music tend to first establish a feeling of stability, depart from it, create tension, then return to the feeling of stability. Though some pieces of music demonstrate this more dramatically than others, as you train your ear you will become increasingly aware of it.
Progression Formulas
The way chords are placed one after the other in a piece of music is called a chord progression. The chords in a progression have different harmonic functions. Some chords provide the stability, some the departure, and some provide the dynamic tension.
Roman numerals are used to indicate the chords in a progression. The numerals are based on the scale pattern of the diatonic scale. For example, in the key of C major a I, IV, V7 (one, four, five) progression indicates the chords Cmaj, Fmaj, and Gdom7. In the key of F these chords would be Fmaj, Bbmaj, and Cdom7.
The diagram below shows the formulas of the more common chord progressions in major and minor keys.
The Roman numerals in a chord progression formula signify the triad form of the chord. It is harmonically permissible to extend these chords with additional diatonic tones to create different chords. In other words, you can add notes to these chords as long as the notes are part of the diatonic scale. The harmonic function of the chord does not change.
The Roman numerals refer to the position of each chord in the diatonic scale. The diagram below shows how the Roman numeral scale degree can be interpreted with different chords. All of the examples below can be interpreted from the same chord formula.
Chord formulas are written in Roman numerals to represent the generic form of the progression. Often musicians will learn a piece of music by its chord progression formula. One reason for this is that it is easier to remember since many songs are based on the same formula. Another reason is, it is easier to play a song in different keys if you know the formula. However, this assumes you know which chords make up which keys.
It's not uncommon for a rehearsal conversation to go like this:
Singer: "Hey, I've got this new song I want to do. It's basically a six-two-five progression."
Pianist: "What key do you like?"
Singer: "I don't know. Maybe Bb."
You can see if you are the pianist you need to be ready to play the same progression in several keys.
The chords indicated by the Roman numerals also have names. For instance, the first chord of the scale is the tonic. The fifth chord is the dominant. The diagram below shows the functional names and scale degree of the diatonic scale. Beneath this are notes from several common keys that match the function and degree.
Other scales whose scale patterns differ from the diatonic scale are assigned chord degrees according to the sharpness or flatness of their notes. That is, the diatonic scale creates a "ruler" that other scales are measured against. That is why the resulting chord based on the third note of the C natural minor scale is bIIIm (Ebm) and not III as in the diatonic scale.
The chart below shows how different scales compare. Because the notes of the scales are spaced differently they produce different chords.
Chord Substitutions
To add variety to the movement you can substitute chords, play dominant chords in place of minor chords, and vise versa. Play diminished chords instead of a dominant. Play chords with extensions. In other words, explore the different ways you can link chords together to create harmonic movement.
Example:
One of the most common progressions in music is the I, IV, V (one, four, five) and say we want to explore this progression in the key of C major.
Since we are in the key of C Major our tonic chord will be a major chord with C as its root. There are several chords we could choose but for this example let's pick Cmaj7.
Next, we've got the IV (the four chord). It's also a major chord but since it is derived from the fourth degree of the C Major scale its root must be F. Normally we might choose Fmaj7 but let's bend the rules and experiment. Let's make this an Fm7b5 chord (F,Ab,B, Eb). F7 has an Eb and an Ab, neither which belong to the key of C Major. However, most importantly we are changing the major chord into a minor. That creates a completely different sound. That's where we are bending the rules. However, the most basic rule in music theory is that if it sounds okay, it's allowed.
The V chord can act as a stronger dominant chord if we add the 7th note of the Mixolydian mode. In this case we produce a Gdom7 (G, B, D, F). Now we have a I, IV7, V7 progression. We can spice up this progression even more.
The V (five chord) is the chord that expresses the most tension in a progression and if we want to add more tension we can alter the chord. This means we can add notes that don't belong to the key which almost always produces a dissonant harmony that creates tension.
So, if we sharp the fifth and the ninth degree of the G7 chord we end up with G7#5#9 (G, B, Eb, Bb). Our final formula is: Imaj7, IVm7b5, V7#5#9. Notice how this sounds compares to the original I, IV, V.
There are more substitutions that can be made. This is just the beginning. Experiment and explore to create different harmonic movements. Let your ear decide what's right and not right.
This is a chart of the chord symbols and their meaning.
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Apples, plums, cherries, apricots, raspberries and strawberries all belong to which plant family?
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strawberry | plant and fruit | Britannica.com
plant and fruit
spirea
Strawberry (genus Fragaria), genus of more than 20 species of flowering plants in the rose family ( Rosaceae ) and their edible fruit . Strawberries are native to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and cultivated varieties are widely grown throughout the world. The fruits are rich in vitamin C and are commonly eaten fresh as a dessert fruit, are used as a pastry or pie filling, and may be preserved in many ways. The strawberry shortcake—made of fresh strawberries, sponge cake, and whipped cream—is a traditional American dessert.
The flowers and fruits of a garden strawberry plant (Fragaria ×…
Ed Young/Corbis
Overview of efforts to create more-flavourful strawberries.
Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz
Strawberries are low-growing herbaceous plants with a fibrous root system and a crown from which arise basal leaves. The leaves are compound , typically with three leaflets, sawtooth-edged, and usually hairy. The flowers, generally white, rarely reddish, are borne in small clusters on slender stalks arising, like the surface-creeping stems, from the axils of the leaves. As a plant ages, the root system becomes woody, and the “mother” crown sends out runners (e.g., stolons ) that touch ground and root, thus enlarging the plant vegetatively. Botanically, the strawberry fruit is considered an “accessory fruit” and is not a true berry . The flesh consists of the greatly enlarged flower receptacle and is embedded with the many true fruits, or achenes , which are popularly called seeds.
Strawberry plant (Fragaria species) in bloom.
© Ekaterina Bykova/Shutterstock.com
The cultivated large-fruited strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa) originated in Europe in the 18th century. Most countries developed their own varieties during the 19th century, and those are often specially suitable for the climate, day length, altitude, or type of production required in a particular region. Strawberries are produced commercially both for immediate consumption and for processing as frozen, canned, or preserved berries or as juice. Given the perishable nature of the berries and the unlikelihood of mechanical picking, the fruit is generally grown near centres of consumption or processing and where sufficient labour is available. The berries are hand picked directly into small baskets and crated for marketing or put into trays for processing. Early crops can be produced under glass or plastic covering. Strawberries are very perishable and require cool dry storage.
Cartons of commercial strawberries (Fragaria ×ananassa) in a …
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Rose
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D'addario, Elixir, Rotosound and Ernie Ball are leading makers of what musical accessory?
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Beware Of False Pennies Used In Size Relationships
Most of the apples grown commercially are diploid (2n), although there are many triploid varieties. For example, 'Gravenstein' apples are triploid with a chromosome number of 51 (3n=51). They are produced by the union of a diploid egg (2n=34) and a haploid sperm (n=17). This is accomplished by crossing a tetraploid plant (4n=68) with an ordinary diploid plant (2n=34). Because the triploid (3n) varieties are sterile, they must be propagated by grafting, where the scions of choice cultivars are grafted to hardy, pest-resistant root stalks.
Apples are mentioned throughout most of recorded human history. The generic name Malus is derived from the Latin word malus or bad, referring to Eve picking an apple in the Garden of Eden; however, some biblical scholars think the fig, and not the apple, was the forbidden fruit picked by Eve. One of the earliest records of any fruit eaten by people of the Middle East is the common fig (Ficus carica). Remnants of figs have been found in archeological excavations dating back to the Neolithic era, about 1000 years before Moses. The fig is also the first tree mentioned in the Bible in the story of Adam and Eve. There are some scholars who think the apricot is a more likely candidate because it was an abundant fruit (along with figs) in the ancient Palestine area. Other interesting tales about apples include Johnny Appleseed, William Tell, Sir Isaac Newton, and Apple Computers.
Assorted cultivars of apples (Malus domestica): A. 'Fuji,' B. 'Granny Smith,' C. 'Braeburn,' D. 'Red Delicious,' and E. 'McIntosh.'
Homegrown 'Granny Smith' apples and Anita Marks' delicious homemade apple pie.
Fruits With Stone Cells In Flesh (Sclereids): Pears & Quince
Pears and quince also produce fruits called pomes. There have essentially the same structure as apples, except they contain numerous stone cells in their fleshy mesocarp tissue. Stone cells (sclereids) are isodiametric cells (with equal diameters) and with very thick, sclerified cell walls. They appear like square cells with rounded off corners under high magnification (400 X). Stone cells are responsible for the gritty texture of pears and quince. Quince fruits have even more stone cells than pears and are used mostly for preserves and jellies.
Varieties of the common pear (Pyrus communis): A. and B. Red and yellow 'Bartlett' pears, C. 'Comice', D. 'Seckel' and E. 'Bosc.'
Other species with gritty stone cells in the juicy (fleshy) mesocarp: F. Asian Pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) and G. Quince (Cydona oblonga). Like apples and pears, the quince is a pome, and the freshly-cut mesocarp quickly becomes oxidized and turns brown when exposed to the air. Quinces are commonly made into preserves and jellies.
Magnified view of stone cells (sclereids) from the juicy mesocarp of a 'Bartlett' pear. The cells are about 50 micrometers in length (0.00196 inches). They have a very thick cell wall with branched (ramiform) pit canals. The central cell cavity (lumen) is small and inconspicuous.
Greatly magnified stone cell (sclereid) from the juicy mesocarp of a 'Bartlett' pear. Its shape superficially resembles a microscopic Cheerio®. Each cell is smaller than the squamous epithelial cells (cheek cells) that line your buccal mucosa inside your mouth. Photo taken with a Sony W-300 digital camera mounted on an Olympus compound laboratory grade microscope. Note: Stone fruits of the genus Prunus have stone cells (sclereids) in the hard endocarps (pits) of their fruits (drupes). See section of peaches, cherries, etc, below).
Japanese flowering quince (Chaenomeles speciosa), a small tree or shrub in the rose family (Rosaceae) native to China. The fruits (pomes) are used for jellies and jams. Note: Jelly is a transparent spread of clear fruit juice boiled with sugar and pectin. Jam contains crushed fruit boiled with sugar.
Loquat
Another interesting pome in the rose family (Rosaceae) with a flavor reminescent of apples and pears is the loquat (Eriobotrya japonica). The loquat is a small evergreen tree with broad, prominently-veined leaves and fragrant white flowers. This species was once placed in the genus Photinia, along with California holly (Heteromeles arbutifolia). It is native to eastern China and Japan where it is commonly cultivated. It is also grown in California, Florida and the Gulf states. The fruit is eaten fresh and is made into jellies, pies and sauces.
The loquat fruit (Eriobotrya japonica) is also a pome.
There are many additional pome fruits from the rose family, including the medlar (Mesipulus germanica), a small deciduous tree native to Europe and Asia Minor. The ripe, apple-shaped fruits are eaten raw and used in preserves.
Stone Fruits Of The Genus Prunus
The rose family also includes many economically-important fruit trees known as stone fruits in the genus Prunus. Botanists have moved some of these species into separate genera, including Amygdalus (peach) and Armeniaca (apricot). Some examples of stone fruits are fuzzy-skinned peaches (P. persica syn. Amygdalus persica), smooth-skinned peaches called nectarines (another variety of P. persica), plums (P. domestica), apricots (P. armeniaca syn. Armeniaca vulgaris), and cherries (P. avium and P. cerasus). Like apples and pears, there are hundreds of cultivated varieties. These fruits are technically referred to as drupes because they consist of an outer skin or exocarp, a thick, fleshy middle layer or mesocarp, and a hard, woody layer (endocarp) surrounding the seed. The part of these fruits that is eaten by people is the mesocarp layer and also the exocarp if you don't bother to peel them. The woody endocarp layer protects the seed and probably aids in the dispersal of drupaceous fruits by hungry herbivores. In wild plants with drupes, the seeds can pass through the entire digestive system of grazing animals and be planted in new locations. The almond (Prunus amygdalus syn. Amygdalus communis) is also a drupe with a green exocarp and thin mesocarp surrounding the pit. When you crack open an almond to get the seed, you are actually cracking open the endocarp layer.
Pluot
Some species of Prunus have been artificially crossed to produce some unusual hybrids. The peachcot (Prunus persica x P. armeniaca) is a hybrid between the peach and apricot; the cherrycot (P. besseyi x P. armeniaca) is a hybrid between the cherry and apricot; the plumcot (P. domestica x P. armeniaca) is a hybrid between the plum and apricot. Some of these hybrids have many different named cultivars, depending on which varieties of stone fruits have been crossed together. In addition, hybrids often retain more characteristics of one parent and are given special names. For example, some cultivars of plumcots are called "pluots" because these resemble plums more than apricots. Plumcots called "apriums" resemble apricots more than plums.
Plumcots, a delicious hybrid between the plum (Prunus domestica) and apricot (P. armeniaca). Since this cultivar resembles its plum parent more than its apricot parent, it is called a "pluot." Plumcot cultivars that resemble apricots more than plums are called "apriums."
Stone fruits of the genus Prunus typically contain poisonous hydrocyanic (prussic) acid (HCN) in the pits and foliage. Since the poisonous cyanide is combined with one or more sugars, these molecules are referred to as cyanogenic glucosides. If you crush the leaves of a stone fruit tree, such as a cherry or apricot, you can smell the faint, almond-like odor of cyanide. The effects of hydrocyanic acid (cyanide) on the human body is disastrous because it inhibits the action of the vital enzyme cytochrome oxidase during cellular respiration. Without the oxidation of glucose, ATP production ceases. Therefore, HCN poisoning is essentially asphyxiation at the cellular level, because oxygen is not utilized at key steps in the Krebs (citric acid) cycle. The cells thus die from lack of oxygen even though oxygen is plentiful in the blood. As little as 0.06 gram has caused death in some people. This is why it is considered unwise to dine on the seeds inside the pits of stone fruits. The exception appears to be almonds; however, some people feel that almonds should be consumed in moderation. The cyanogenic glucoside found in the seeds of apricots, bitter almonds, cherries and plums is called amygdalin. It is used in the preparation of Laetrile, a highly controversial, alternative treatment for certain cancers.
Peach
A 'California' peach (Prunus persica), a freestone peach grown in California's fertile Central Valley. The fruit is called a drupe because it is composed of three distinct layers: An outer skin or exocarp (A), a fleshy middle layer or mesocarp (B), and a hard, woody layer (endocarp) surrounding the seed. The lower pit (removed from another peach) has been sectioned to show the thick, woody layer or endocarp (C) surrounding a single seed (D).
The pit of a peach (Prunus persica) showing the seed that is contained inside the hard, woody endocarp layer. The endocarp is the inner layer of the fruit wall or pericarp. It is surrounded by a fleshy mesocarp and a thin outer skin or exocarp. Fruits with a distinct endocarp layer surrounding the seed are called drupes. The endocarp protects and aids in the dispersal of the vulnerable seed, especially when it is swallowed by a hungry herbivore.
Almond
The fresh, greenish fruit of an almond (Prunus amygdalus) contains the familiar one-seeded endocarp (unshelled almond) that is commonly sold in supermarkets during the holiday season. Each hard-shelled endocarp contains a single seed.
Apricot
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) showing fleshy drupe containng a hard, stony endocarp. The endocarp contains a single seed that is toxic because of high levels of cyanogenic glucosides.
Cherries
See Poop Gall On Choke Cherry
Buckthorn Family: Rhamnaceae
The buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae) is well-represented in the chaparral of California, including numerous species of California lilac (Ceanothus), coffeeberry (Rhamnus californica), redberry (Rhamnus crocea), and an interesting, spiny endemic shrub called adolphia (Adolphia californica). The potent laxative called cascara sagrada comes from the bark of Rhamnus purshiana, also native to California. An asian tree called jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) is cultivated for its small brownish or rust-colored fruits (technically called drupes) which superficially resemble olives in general shape and structure. The fruits are picked when they reach their typical rust color, but must be left to wither for some time until the pulp (mesocarp) becomes spongy and sweet. The fruits are soothing to sore throats and are used to flavor certain medicines. In Asia this is one of the trees inhabited by the lac insect, the excretions of which are the source of shellac. A native species of jujube (Z. parryi) occurs in the desert mountains of San Diego and Imperial Counties, California.
The ripe drupes of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba). This cultivar is called 'Li' and is only one of several pomological varieties.
The dried, datelike drupes of a jujube called annab (Ziziphus jujuba) for sale in a Middle Eastern market.
The ripe drupes of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba). This may be the cultivar 'Li', one of the many varieties.
Desert jujube (Ziziphus parryi), a native species of this interesting genus in the Anza-Borrego Desert region of San Diego and Imperial Counties, southern California. Like the cultivated jujube, this spiny shrub produces small drupes. The drupes and foliage are often mistaken for another native shrub in this region called desert apricot (Prunus fremontii).
Olive Family: Oleaceae
Olive fruits are drupes produced by Olea europea, a Mediterranean tree commonly grown in California. Fresh olives are extremely bitter due to oleuropein, a phenolic glucoside. They are soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide) to remove (hydrolyze) the bitter oleuropein. Commercially grown olives are picked green and are oxidized in air (aerated) to produce the black color. The black color of canned olives is intensified and stabilized with ferrous gluconate. After the lye treatment, green olives are kept submerged to prevent oxidation in order to retain the green color. Pitted green olives are often stuffed with pimento, a bright red Capsicum pepper cultivar. Unlike most unsaturated plant oils which come from seeds, monounsaturated olive oil is obtained from the pulp or mesocarp of the fruit. Virgin olive oil is obtained from the 1st pressing.
Mature olive drupes (Olea europea), a Mediterranean tree commonly grown in California. A. Fresh olive at the picking stage. [To the lower right is a sectioned olive showing the stony endocarp (pit) surrounding the seed.] B. Fresh olive that is turning black on tree. C. Pitted, canned olive treated with ferrous gluconate. D. Pitted, canned green olive stuffed with pimento, a bright red Capsicum pepper cultivar. Fresh olives are soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide) to remove the bitter oleuropein. Commercially grown olives are picked green and are oxidized in air (aerated) to produce the black color. The black color of canned olives is stabilized with ferrous gluconate. Oxidation is prevented in green olives to preserve their color.
See A Green Pimento Sweet Pepper
Laurel Family: Lauraceae
The avocado or alligator pear (Persea americana) is a member of the laurel family (Lauraceae), along with cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), camphor (C. camphora), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), European bay (Laurus nobilis), and California bay or Oregon myrtle (Umbellularia californica). It is called an "alligator pear" because of the rough-skinned, pear-shaped fruits; however, true pears (Pyrus communis) belong to the rose family (Rosaceae). The nutritious, fleshy, berry-like fruit of the avocado contains a single large seed. It is not a drupe because the seed is not enclosed by a hard, woody endocarp layer, as in peaches and apricots. In fact, the dispersal of wild avocados by prehistoric animals remains an enigma because the vulnerable seed is relatively unprotected.
There are numerous cultivated varieties of avocados, but they are all derived from three main groups: The West Indian, Guatemalan and Mexican. West Indian cultivars have large, smooth, shiny-skinned fruits containing more water and less fat (monounsaturated oil) than the other groups. They are sometimes marketed as "lite" avocados with fewer calories. They are typically grown in warm, tropical climates, such as southern Florida and the Hawaiian Islands. The Guatemalan group was originally from the highlands of Guatemala. Cultivars in this group can be grown in more temperate climates than the West Indian group. A popular Guatemalan cultivar grown in southern California is the 'Hass,' easily recognizable by its thick, black, rough-skinned fruit. The Mexican group includes some of the hardiest and most commonly grown cultivars in southern California, including 'Duke,' 'Mexicola,' and 'Zutano.' One of the most important commercial avocados in California is 'Fuerte,' a Mexican x Guatemalan hybrid.
Avocado fruits (Persea americana): A. West Indian cultivar, B. Guatemalan cultivar ('Hass'), and C. Mexican x Guatemalan cultivar ('Fuerte'). There are numerous additional cultivars.
See Herbs & Spices In The Laurel Family
Mahogany Family: Meliaceae
Although not related to peaches, the little-known fruits called santol or kechapi (Sandoricum koetjape) actually smell like ripe peaches. They are produced by a Malaysian tree in the mahogany family (Meliaceae). This is probably the only commercially important fruit in the mahogany family.
Ripe fruits of santol (Sandoricum koetjape), a Malaysian tree in the mahogany family (Meliaceae). The fruits have a firm rind and a white, translucent, juicy pulp that is firmly attached to the large seeds. The pulp is slightly acid and sweet. It is eaten fresh and made into jams, jellies and marmalade. Santol marmalade made in the Philippines is sometimes imported into the United States and sold in Asian markets. It is difficult to remove the pulp from the seeds, and there are reports of people swallowing the seed whole. This practice is hazardous to one's health because the seeds can stick together and cause serious intestinal blockage. There are reports of the sharp end of the seed piercing the intestinal wall.
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i don't know
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The term 'mondegreen' refers to?
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Sweet Slips Of the Ear: Mondegreens - The New York Times
The New York Times
Technology |Sweet Slips Of the Ear: Mondegreens
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Sweet Slips Of the Ear: Mondegreens
By PAMELA LICALZI O'CONNELL
Continue reading the main story
THERE is something consoling about Web pages that collect ''mondegreens.'' Sites featuring these often hilarious examples of misheard song lyrics offer proof, at last, that botching the words to popular songs is a nearly universal human failing. Rest assured: a quick glance through the lyrical mishaps to be found on such sites is sure to reveal a mondegreen far sillier than any you have sung in the shower.
How about this one: ''Hold me closer, Tony Danza'' (correct lyric: ''Hold me closer, tiny dancer,'' from Elton John's ''Tiny Dancer''). Or this: ''The girl with colitis goes by'' (correct lyric: ''The girl with kaleidoscope eyes,'' from the Beatles' ''Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds'').
According to the word watcher William Safire of The New York Times, the term mondegreen dates from a 1954 magazine article by Sylvia Wright in which she said she had misheard the folk lyric ''and laid him on the green'' as ''and Lady Mondegreen.'' But it remained relatively obscure until its recent adoption by Web sites. The 1954 article employed the term to refer to any aural misinterpretation of a song, hymn, aphorism, advertising slogan, and the like. But on the Net, it applies almost exclusively to misheard lyrics, especially in rock songs.
More than 1,300 bungled lyrics have been submitted by Web visitors to the mondegreen archive Kiss This Guy (www.kissthisguy.com). The name of the archive is taken from perhaps the most famous rock mondegreen of all: '' 'scuse me while I kiss this guy'' for '' 'scuse me while I kiss the sky,'' from ''Purple Haze'' by Jimi Hendrix. That mishearing has been so prevalent, legend has it, that Mr. Hendrix himself would occasionally stop and kiss a guy after singing this line in concert.
Jessica Ross collects mondegreens on a site called The Ants Are My Friends, named for a common mishearing of ''the answer my friends'' from Bob Dylan's ''Blowin' in the Wind'' (www.mcs.net/bingo/ lyrics). Ms. Ross says certain performers are ripe for mondegreens: ''The most misquoted artist is Elton John, especially 'Bennie and the Jets.' Second would be the Rolling Stones. I think this is probably because most people who submit mondegreens are American, and they have a harder time understanding the Brits.''
The more unintelligible the original lyrics, the more likely it is that listeners will hear what they want to hear -- to invent their own meaning. Even though song lyrics are now easier than ever to check at Web databases like the International Lyrics Server (www.lyrics.ch), it can be difficult to shake a belief in a mondegreen that someone has been singing for years. A survey at Kiss This Guy found that 77 percent of those who had submitted mondegreens believed their versions were better than the originals and that 40 percent said they had convinced others that their lyrics were the correct ones.
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Soramimi
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The AZERTY keyboard layout is standard in?
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mondegreens Archives - Refined Guy
Mondegreen: Short Film Pays Tribute to Misheard Lyrics (Video)
You may not be familiar with the term “mondegreen,” but you’ve undoubtedly experienced one in real life. It refers to the phenomenon of mishearing words in a song and thinking they’re something other than those intended by the songwriter and singer. The most famous is probably “‘scuse me while I kiss this guy” from the […]
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The expression 'sour grapes', from one of Aesop's Fables, involves which creature?
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Helen Ward Helen Ward trained as an illustrator at Brighton School of Art, under the direction of well-known children's illustrators such as Raymond Briggs, Justin Todd, Chris McEwan and John Vernon Lord. In 1985, her final year at Brighton, Helen was awarded the first Walker Prize for Children's Illustration. Awards for Helen's work include The National Art Library Awards 1998 and 2001 for HYPERLINK "http://www.templarpublishing.co.uk/picture_books/helen_ward/hare_tortoise.html" The Hare and the Tortoise and her version of Kenneth Grahame's The Wind in the Willows in the Templar Classic series. She was shortlisted for the prestigious Kate Greenaway Award in 2003 for HYPERLINK "http://www.templarpublishing.co.uk/picture_books/helen_ward/cockerel_and_fox.html" The Cockerel and the Fox. This book also won the award in the children�s trade category at the British Book Design and Production Awards presented in November 2003. The Boat won the UKLA Children�s Book Prize 2006. 2. Book Notes 2. a Unwitting Wisdom: An Anthology of Aesop�s Animal Fables The Tales This large format book comprises twelve animal fables from Aesop: Sour Grapes: It is easy to despise what you cannot obtain The Trapping so Power: The more honour, the more danger All Dressed Up: Fine feathers do not make fine birds Pot Luck: Harm seek, harm find A Time to Dance: Do not put off until tomorrow what you should do today A Dinner Invitation: Do as you would be done by Steady and Slow: Slow and steady wins the race Upon Reflection: Be grateful for what you have Size Isn�t Everything: It holds through the whole scale of creation that the great and the small have need, one of the other Not Flying, But Falling: Accept your limitations Fools Gold: Those who want everything may end up with nothing Hard Cheese: Beware of false flattery Characters Animals which are used to represent human characteristics e.g.: Fox, cunning and sly Hare, boastful Tortoise, slow and steady Crow, subject to flattery Jackdaw, vain Goose, greedy Narration/Point of View/Style Third person narration in the voice of the traditional storyteller e.g. �The aperture �There once was�..� is used to open every story in the collection and is used for Helen�s biography. Being non-specific in time or place reinforces the timeless, universal aspect of the stories. Elevated, poetic style is employed e.g. �He wanted just for once to look down on the earth and to enjoy the vast freedom of the high thin air where the eagle circled, master of the sky.�(Not Flying, but Falling) �He breathed upon the mouse the very breath of doom� (Size isn�t Everything) Illustration Water colour using a fine brush to pick out detail and black pen work. The point of view in the illustration varies (eye level with the lion in Size Isn�t Everything) 2.b The Cockerel and the Fox Synopsis: Chanticleer the cockerel has a dream about a terrible beast. The one day a fox enters the farm yard and in spite of Chanticleer�s alarm, is quick to put him at his ease. Flattering the vain bird he tricks him onto crowing and when his eyes are closed, grabs him by the throat running back to his den with the farm animals in pursuit. The animals declare that he is the cleverest of all creatures. He opens his mouth in reply and Chanticleer escapes. A retelling of a traditional story, familiar from Chaucer�s Canterbury Tales and the fables of La Fontaine. Characters: Chanticleer, the vain Cockerel Pertelote, his adoring mate The fox A cast of rare breed farm animals Setting: A farmyard in an unspecified time �Over the rolling hills, beyond the wood, there was once a small farm.� Narration: Traditional, third person story teller �And so it was� �A month later�.� ��..for the fox and his prize had slipped beneath the gate.� 3. Curriculum Context These notes are most appropriate for children at the top end KS2 (Years 5 & 6) though the ideas can be adapted for use with younger children. Pupils studying art in secondary school will also benefit from some of the suggestions for Art. The literacy framework specifically recommends that pupils study fables in year 3 and year 5. Unwitting Wisdom and The Cockerel and The Fox are suitable for using with pupils in either year group. 4. Author/Illustrator Study, Helen Ward Before studying the books in detail, give the pupils an overview of Helen�s work and set up a stimulus display in the classroom. You might read the biographical notes at the end of Unwitting Wisdom, which are written in the same traditional storytelling voice as the fables: �There was once a little girl�� Books include those which Helen has both written and illustrated: The Animal�s Christmas Carol Old Shell, New Shell The Hare and the Tortoise Unwitting Wisdom The Cockerel and the Fox The illustration of classics in the Templar Classic series Wind in the Willows The Just So Stories White Fang Collaborations with other illustrators Moon Dog (Wayne Anderson) The Tin Forest (Wane Anderson) The Dragon Machine (Wayne Anderson) Twenty Five December Lane (Wayne Anderson) The Boat (Ian Andrew) Templar � ology series Egyptology Dragonology Pirateology Wizardology 5. Teaching Ideas 5. a. Literacy: Unwitting Wisdom What are fables? (2/3 lessons) Objectives To provide pupils with an understanding of fables and their features To find out what pupils already know about fables Introduction Ask the class to brainstorm the word fable, perhaps in pairs, and discuss what they have written down. Use this information to draw up a class list of features which can be added to later. This could be done on the Interactive Whiteboard and saved for later additions. Alternatively, use a large piece of card/paper. Discuss the fables the pupils already know e.g. The Hare and the Tortoise. The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse Development The idea of fables having a moral and animal characters may be suggested by the pupils. If not, guide them to consider what the fables have in common (characters, moral) Discuss what a moral is and consider the reasons Aesop might have started telling stories with morals in them. Use a range of dictionaries to look up definitions of �moral�. Write definitions on large sheets of paper and display them in the classroom. Choose one of the stories from Unwitting Wisdom (e.g. The Hare and the Tortoise). Provide each group with a selection of morals, real and invented (e.g. Don�t rush about; Don�t fall asleep; Slow and steady wins the race; Make sure you get off to a good start, It helps to have a hard shell) Read the story aloud � or have copies available for children to read in pairs or small groups. After reading ask each group to choose the moral that they think goes with the story. Discuss choices and encourage pupils to justify them with evidence from the text. The most able pupils in the class can create their own morals. Split the class into groups and give each of them a picture of an animal that features in Unwitting Wisdom e.g. fox, hare, tortoise, cricket crow, wolf, sheep etc. Ask them to choose one and either draw or find pictures of the selected animal. Label the picture with the characteristics they would expect that animal to have (see below): Discuss each animal with the class and whether anyone can add to another group�s ideas. Display in the classroom for reference when reading the fables. Does the animal in the fable have the characteristics that we expect or not? In what ways do they meet/confound expectations? Conclusion Review what has been learnt about fables Consider why fables might have been told and who would have heard them. Share ideas Explain that in the next lesson they are going to learn about Aesop. Who was Aesop? (1 lesson) Objectives To present information about Aesop and consider why he told his stories. Introduction Start with a game of Chinese Whispers. Give one pupil a long or tricky phrase ask them to remember it and whisper to the next pupil and the next and so one. Ask the last pupil to receive the message to repeat it. Was it the same? How had it changed? Where did the changes take place? Explain to the class that there are no records that Aesop ever wrote down his fables. So how do they still exist after all this time? Discuss oral storytelling with the class. What advantages and disadvantages are there to oral storytelling? Are there any frequently told �family stories� that might be told often but are never written down? Choose one of the fables from Unwitting Wisdom and tell it orally (without reading the text). Now ask the pupils to work in small groups to retell the story. They should sit in a circle. One person starts to tell the story and when they have told as much as they want, the story is passed to the person on their left. An object can be passed around the circle to signify the story being passed along. Development Although not much is known about Aesop, This website provides some easy to read background information. HYPERLINK "http://www.kyrene.org/schools/brisas/sunda/fab_fables/aesop.htm" http://www.kyrene.org/schools/brisas/sunda/fab_fables/aesop.htm Discuss the fact that the audience for these stories would have been adults, yet now they are mainly read by children. Why do they think that this is the case? Why is an owl an appropriate bird to illustrate on the page that tells us about Aesop? Why is the collection called Unwitting Wisdom? Conclusion Ask pupils to work in groups and discuss/write their thoughts on the following questions: Read and reflect on Helen Ward�s dedication �To Aesop and all tellers of moral tales who, despite a monumentally ineffective history, still gently try to point the human race in a better direction.� If Aesop lived today, what morals would he want to convey? Would they be the same or different? What remains the same? What has changed? Could he still tell stories using animals? Would oral storytelling still be used to convey these morals? What other means of storytelling are available to us in the 21st century? Reading and Responding to the Fables in Unwitting Wisdom (3/4 lessons) Objectives To further develop pupils� knowledge and understanding of the fables collected in Unwitting Wisdom. To develop pupils� discussion skills and encourage them to have a personal response to what they have heard. To encourage all pupils to write and illustrate their own fable. To publish a class collection of fables. Introduction Read a selection of Helen Ward�s elegantly written and beautifully illustrated fables. You might take a theme e.g. use fables that all have a fox in them �or fables that have similar morals e.g. greed. The following suggestions are based on the fables that feature a fox. Ensure that children have access to the book or use a visualiser to project the pages as you read. Read and discuss Sour Grapes. Was the fox doing anything wrong? How does the rest of nature contrast with the fox�s frustration e.g. discuss sentences such as, �butterflies flew by with casual ease, while on the ground below the fox lay panting and exhausted.� Consider what is added to the telling by personifying the tree: �Everything about the tree was unhelpful. It refused to so much as twitch a twig when he tried to shake it.� Why does the fox decide that the grapes must be �Horrid, disgusting, revolting, inedible, indigestible? Reflect on the meaning of the moral �It is easy to despise what you cannot obtain.� Invite pupils to draw on their own experiences e.g. to think of a time when they have been determined to obtain something or go somewhere and it has been denied to them e.g. have they really wanted to go to a party, not been invited and decided that it would have been a really bad party anyway? Make a glossary of new words e.g. inedible, indigestible Read and discuss A Dinner Invitation: Was the fox being a bad host? Why do you think that he was doing this? How should a good host behave Is the stork�s behaviour acceptable? What does the moral �Do as you would be done by� mean Invite pupils to think of other morals or sayings with similar meanings e.g. An eye for an eye; One bad turn deserves another. Ask them if the know other morals that contradict the moral of this story e.g. �turn the other cheek�, �Two wrongs don�t make a right� You might extend this work by having a debate between those who favour the moral �Do as you would be done by� and those that favour the moral �Two wrongs don�t make a right.� Make a glossary of new words e.g. tantalised, sumptuous, perplexed. Encourage the children to use these words in their own writing. Read and discuss Hard Cheese: The crow was uneasy at the presence of the fox; how did the fox get him to overcome this unease? Notice that the narrative reminds us that this is just a story �when a fox wandered into the story.� Can pupils think of other morals that could be applied to this story e.g. �pride comes before a fall�? Activities for all fables The Fox: What does each fable tell you about the fox�s characteristics? Add suggestions to the posters of characteristics produced in Activity 1. Beginnings Discuss the sentences that Helen Ward uses to start her fables: �Sour Grapes in which a fox tries to hide his disappointment with insults�; �A Dinner Invitation in which a fox is a bad host and a hungry guest�; �Hard Cheese in which a fox persuades a crow out of his lunch�. And Endings: Compare the morals that conclude them. What is the effect of having the openings and the morals frame the story? Language: Consider how this retelling compares to another version e.g. Fox and the Grapes HYPERLINK "http://www.aesopfables.com/cgi/aesop1.cgi?sel&TheFoxandtheGrapes2" http://www.aesopfables.com/cgi/aesop1.cgi?sel&TheFoxandtheGrapes2 The Fox and the Stork HYPERLINK "http://www.bartleby.com/17/1/19.html" http://www.bartleby.com/17/1/19.html The Fox and the Crow HYPERLINK "http://www.pagebypagebooks.com/Aesop/Aesops_Fables/The_Fox_and_the_Crow_p1.html" http://www.pagebypagebooks.com/Aesop/Aesops_Fables/The_Fox_and_the_Crow_p1.html Helen Ward�s retellings are more detailed, poetic and descriptive. Discuss the meaning of words/phrases that might be unfamiliar, e.g. �inedible�, �the shadows had lengthened�, �an all too apparent gusto�, �mellifluous� etc. Invite pupils to suggest favourite phrases and sentences. These can be written on large sheets of paper and displayed. Alliteration e.g. �twitch a twig� in Sour Grapes. Why effect is created by using alliterative phrases? Discuss font size and how it is varied to emphasise specific words/phrases. Development In paired and independent reading, read more stories from the anthology Develop small group improvisations based on the morals from these stories but with contemporary settings. Give further suggestions e.g.; One good turn deserves another; Honesty is the best policy; Look before you leap; Little friends may prove great friends. Ask pupils to write a few sentences about which of the fables was their favourite and why? Share favourites with the whole class. Pupils could write a diary entry for the fox based on one of these fables e.g. in A Dinner Invitation, the fox could write 2 diary entries � one expressing his feelings after his dinner party and one expressing contrasting feelings after the stork�s dinner party. Pupils could write their own fables about a fox. Writing fables is a good task both for stretching more able pupils and for encouraging less able pupils. A fable does not have to be long, so encouraging less able pupils to write. Ask pupils to choose an introductory sentence and a concluding moral for their fable in the style of the fables in Unwitting Wisdom. Ask pupils to illustrate their fables (further suggestions in Art activities) Conclusion Produce a class book or library display. Pupils might produce their own biographies using the traditional storytelling voice that Helen has used 5c Art � Illustrating Fables (3/5 lessons) Objectives: To develop an appreciation of contemporary illustration and understand that art arises from histories of art and tradition To encourage close looking at illustration, design and layout To create illustrations to accompany own fables 1. Histories of Art and Tradition Helen Ward�s beautiful watercolours of animals and plants fit within the tradition of natural history illustration. Create a display of books and prints showing the world of naturalist illustrators For example, research the work of Franz Bauer, William MacGillivray, Joseph Wolf, John Gould, John James Audubon Hortus Eystettensis, Robert Thornton, Mark Catesby, Maria Merian Use the internet and other sources to research the lives of these illustrators. Ask pupils to consider why natural history illustration was so important in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 2 Creating an Inspiration Wall or Scrapbook In her studio, Helen Ward has an inspiration wall, which is a collection of postcards, reproductions of favourite paintings. The natural world is well represented along with medieval and early renaissance interiors, decorated manuscripts, Indian court painting and samples of her own work. Some of the artists whose work is included in Helen�s collection are Henri Rousseau, Ucello, Piero di Cosimo, Fra Angelica, Holbein, and William Morris. Pupils can make collections of these artists� work and display alongside Helen�s books. Encourage pupils to keep their own inspiration scrapbooks. 3. Appreciation Invite pupils to give a personal response to the illustrations in Unwitting Wisdom. Ask them to select favourite illustrations and talk about why they like them. Encourage close looking Helen says: I like illustrations with a lot of air around them. Explore how white space is used in the images of the falling tortoise and the cricket on his blade of grass Notice that the mice are crying in the illustration on the title page of The Trappings of Power. Helen says this is because she was painting the illustration when she heard the news about the 9/11 attack on the Twin Towers. She says that she often includes subtle reference points so that she will remember when she painted them Consider how colour, shape, line, arrangement, scale and point of view are used to convey meaning. For example, Sour grapes: from where are we viewing this picture? Why might this point of view have been selected? Compare this to the point of view in Size isn�t Everything. Compare the use of colour on the title pages for All Dressed Up and Pot Luck. How do the colours used emphasise the meaning of the story? A Time to Dance: the arrangement of the stem of wheat and the way this is mirrored in the curve of the cricket�s antennae. The arrangement of the swallows and the tortoise in Not Flying, but Falling The scale of the lion and the mouse in Size isn�t Everything. Notice how the lion fills the page and no white space is left. Encourage the children to look closely to observe techniques used e.g. the fine lines used to suggest feathers on the breast of the Canada Goose (Fools Gold) and the sheep�s� fleece (Pot Luck) and the lion�s mane (Size Isn�t Everything) 3. Experimenting with media and materials Helen�s pictures are painted in watercolours; line is picked out using very fine brushes or a fine black pen. She says that �Waterrcolours have a nature of their own�. Different colours respond in different ways when water is added. Provide materials for children and show them how to apply watercolour. Encourage them to experiment by blending colours and varying the quantities of paint and water used for less saturated colour. Allow the paint to draw and describe the effect that it creates once dry. 5. Drawing animals � movement These teaching suggestions relate to QCA Unit of work, which focuses on human movement. These ideas relate to the observation of animal movement and could extend a unit of work on human movement. Helen closely observes how animals move by examining their skeletal structure. Most mammals, she says, are jointed in the same way as humans, though the length of bones varies from creature to creature. Look again at the picture of the fox on the title page of Sour Grapes. What is suggested by the fox�s body language? Notice the flattening of the ears against the head, the low level of the tail, the position of the head. Now look at the fox on the title page of A Dinner Invitation. What is suggested by the body language in this illustration? Study the different images of the fox in The Cockerel and the Fox, paying particular attention to the body language (e.g. the fox lurking among the cabbages, sitting watching the Cockerel on the fence, opening his mouth to speak, slinking away at the end of the story) Use video and photographic sources as a starting point for making work in two dimensions. 6. Design � layout Helen works closely with her designer. Consider the different fonts used. What effect is created by using these fonts? Notice how the text is laid out on the page with white margins and a feint floral border. Find examples of the text being laid out to emphasize meaning e.g. Gravity of the Wind being pulled towards the bottom of the page (Not Flying, But Falling). Increasing size TWENTY, THIRTY, FIFTY (Fool�s Gold). Notice how illustrations are interspersed with text to enhance but not swamp the story. 7. Create illustrations for your own fable Ask pupils to research and draw the animal characters for their own fables and to layout their stories as in Unwitting Wisdom with a title page and decorated story page. Use large white sheets of paper to encourage greater freedom. 5b Drama - Dramatising The Cockerel and the Fox (4/5 lessons) Objectives To consolidate/introduce the features of play scripts To write a scene for The Cockerel and the Fox To build pupils� confidence in performing To encourage reflection and friendly criticism of each other�s work Introduction Explain to the class that this fable is not from Aesop�s, although he did tell similar tales. Rather this one appears in Chaucer�s, The Canterbury Tales (The Nun�s Priest�s Tale, Chanticleer and the Fox) and appeared before that in French in the 12th century. Read the background information presented at the back of the book before or after reading the story. Ward makes reference to the characteristics of the fox and these could be compared with the characteristics that the pupils drew up previously. Pupils can further investigate the role of the fox in English and French folklore, and in modern literature. Produce a display of sources (e.g. Reynard the Fox, Ben Jonson, Volpone; Janacek The Cunning Little Vixen; Roald Dahl Fantastic Mr Fox, The Bellstone Fox, Chris Wormell, Henry and the Fox; Beatrix Potter, The Tale of Mr Tod, Colin Dann The Naimals of Farthing Wood; Disney Robin Hood; Joel Chandler Harris, Tales of Uncle Remus; Brian Jacques, Redwall: The Bellmaker). Pictures of foxes in art and photographs can add visual interest and can be used as reference for pupils� art work Read the book to the class and discuss whether it has the feature of a fable (refer to class list that was drawn up in the first lesson). Does it remind them of any of the other fables that they have read? Discussion: What does the expression, �Pride comes before a fall,� mean? How does the fox play to Chanticleer�s vanity? Note the similarities with Hard Cheese. A table showing the similarities and differences could be constructed. Discuss why stories originating in different parts of the world often have the same basic story (e.g. the Cinderella Story) Why do the farmyard animals not want to venture beyond the boundaries of the farm? How does Chanticleer give the fox a taste of his own medicine? What lesson do both of these animals learn? Language: Ask pupils to find examples of alliteration and comment on how this affects the story e.g. �bumbling bees�. When the fox flatters Chanticleer, he speaks in rhyme, �I don�t mean to be alarming, but I heard that voice of yours and it really is quite charming� � what effect does this create? Discuss the onomatopoeic words in the text, particularly those used to describe how the animals sound e.g. �squawked�, quacked�, �honking�. Investigate the verbs used to describe the way animals move. Encourage pupils to use some of these words in their own writing, where appropriate. Development Use a storyboard to identify a number of key scenes from the story ( 6 � 8). Develop small group improvisations around each scene and use this as a basis for scriptwriting. Discuss features of a play script and how tit differs from the prose of The Cockerel and the Fox. Depending on pupils familiarity with play scripts, it might be useful to show them an example and compare it to prose extract to highlight the differences. List the features of a playscript and display as a prompt to support pupils� writing. The book could be divided into sections and each group of a section to work on. Vary the length of the sections to allow for different abilities within the class. Pupils should be made aware of which audience they are writing for � perhaps it is simply for each other or to perform to younger pupils or to parents. Discuss how this might affect their script writing. Assemble a script using the scenes that each group has worked on. Edit to ensure seamless transitions from one scene to the next. Rehearse and dramatise the script Pupils could be encouraged to really think about the characteristics of each animal and how they might portray these, the importance of body language and how to use their voice to make their characters believable. Adding sound effects might also be an important element for the groups to think about � this could be done in a music lesson. In Art, they could make masks to reflect whichever animal that they are representing in the play. Video the performance. View and evaluate Conclusion Develop skills in peer evaluation. Get each group to comment on other groups� clarity, expression, actions etc. Cross-Curricular Links RE � Parables could be discussed as they are also stories with a message or a moral. The following website is a lovely website for children about the parables: HYPERLINK "http://just4kidsmagazine.com/rainbowcastle/parables.html" http://just4kidsmagazine.com/rainbowcastle/parables.html Science/Geography � Helen Ward includes a really interesting section at the back of her book about the rare breeds of animal that she has drawn. This could be explored further with the class, perhaps through looking at variation and classification of animals, how they adapt to suit their environment or how rare breeds can be protected. The following website may be of use as it highlights which breeds are vulnerable/endangered/at risk: HYPERLINK "http://www.rbst.org.uk/watch-list/main.php" http://www.rbst.org.uk/watch-list/main.php Helen Ward uses a range of reference sources for her animal pictures. All of them from the tiniest insect to the elephant are real animals or pnats and can be identified from her pictures. Use a range of sources (e.g. book of birds or book of butterflies to identify some of these animals. Music - Pupils could compose a piece of music to accompany one of their fables or a fable that they have read. The Carnival of the Animals. Composed by Saint Sa�ns could be used to show pupils how animals have been represented in music. The book, The Carnival of the Animals by Gerard Benson & Satoshi Kitamura, includes poems inspired by Saint Saens� music and a CD. PSHCE � All of the fables in Unwitting Wisdom could be read as a stimulus for discussion in PSHCE. Fools Gold provides a good starting point for talking about greed and why it is an undesirable characteristic to have. Steady and Slow is a good way to open a discussion with pupils about talent, effort and success. Taking it Further Poetry � The fables could be compared with poems that have a moral, such as Hilaire Belloc�s Cautionary Verses. These can be found on the following website: HYPERLINK "http://www.theotherpages.org/poems/belloc01.html" http://www.theotherpages.org/poems/belloc01.html Language �Explore with pupils the Middle English that Chaucer used and how it compares with Modern English. The following website might be useful as it offers a glossary of Chaucer�s language: HYPERLINK "http://geoffreychaucer.org/language/" http://geoffreychaucer.org/language/ Comparing � Different versions of the same fable could be compared. Which version did they like the least/most? Why? What are the similarities and difference between the versions? The websites below contain different versions of the same fable. Spelling investigate animal spellings and their plurals or adverbs could be looked for within the text etc. Useful Internet Links HYPERLINK "http://www.pubwire.com/DownloadDocs/AFABLES.PDF" http://www.pubwire.com/DownloadDocs/AFABLES.PDF This is a fantastic resource � it is an electronic book containing many of Aesop�s fables. It provides background information to Aesop and what fables are and each fable has accompanying questions to stimulate discussion. HYPERLINK "http://www.umass.edu/aesop/fable.php?n=0" http://www.umass.edu/aesop/fable.php?n=0 This website is useful as it tells traditional versions of the fables alongside modern versions. HYPERLINK "http://www.pacificnet.net/~johnr/aesop/" http://www.pacificnet.net/~johnr/aesop/ This website contains copious fables, some of which can be listened to as they are recorded on the website. Although It does not just contain Aesop�s fables you will find Bierce�s and La Fontaine�s fables here. HYPERLINK "http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=237" http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=237 A lesson plan for fables and trickster stories. This is particularly useful as a cross-cultural resource, as it includes a range of fables from many different cultures and countries. HYPERLINK "http://www.literacymatters.com/resources/Weekly_Plan_Y5T2W1.pdf" http://www.literacymatters.com/resources/Weekly_Plan_Y5T2W1.pdf A lesson plan for a year 5 class about myths, legends and fables. Nikki Gamble Nikki is a lecturer, writer and inservice provider. She has taught in primary and secondary schools in the UK and is currently tutoring the Advanced Diploma in Language, Literature and Literacy at the University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education. Nikki is an Associate Consultant at the University of London, Institute of Education where she contributes to CPD courses and the primary PGCE. She also works with trainee teachers at the Urban Learning Foundation in Tower Hamlets, London. Kathryn Saeb-Parsy Kathryn is currently Head of Year 6 at a primary school in Cambridge. She completed her Bachelor of Education at Queen's University in Belfast, an MPhil in Education at the Faculty of Education, Cambridge, as well as a Postgraduate Diploma in Law. She is completing her Advanced Diploma in Language, Literature and Literacy, also�at the Faculty of Education,�Cambridge. 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Creighton University :: Aesop's Fables: 1900 to 1909
1900 to 1909
1908 - 1909
1900 - 1901
1900 A First Greek Reader. With notes and vocabulary by Charles M. Moss. New Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. See 1885/1900.
1900 A Hundred Fables of LaFontaine. With pictures by Percy J. Billinghurst. Apparent first edition. Hardbound. London/NY: John Lane The Bodley Head. $24.95 from Harvest Book Company LLC, Fort Washington, PA, through Advanced Book Exchange, Feb., '89.
After spending $120 for a third printing and then $70 for a second, I have worked my way back to a first printing for much less money. When I earlier reviewed the "1920?" printing, I thought that the best of the illustrations were "Death and the Woodman" (56), "The Council Held by the Rats" (62), "The Rat and the Oyster" (114, the best of all), and "The Rats and the Weasels" (198). Now I would add "The Lion and the Ass Hunting" (9), SS (73), and DLS (167). The illustrations come alive here more than they do in the frequent Billinghurst reproductions. There is an AI at the front. The spine is suffering a split at 80. Like the third edition, this has a beautifully colored cover. There is on 203 an advertisement for the Aesop edition "uniform with this volume" with a date of 1899.
1900 A Hundred Fables of LaFontaine (American Edition). With pictures by Percy J. Billinghurst. Apparent first edition. Hardbound. London/NY: John Lane The Bodley Head. $40 from Michael Weinberg, Pelham, MA, through Ebay, Oct., '01.
Before placing a bid on this book, I checked but found no record of my having a first edition. Soon after I placed the bid, I found the record. I felt bad since then--until I just checked the book out against the book I had already catalogued. To my surprise, this book has several differences. Where that book had on the verso of the title-page only "Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co. at the Ballantyne Press," this has "Copyright by John Lane 1899" and "Riggs Printing Co., Albany, N.Y." I presume, then, that this is the American first edition, done by John Lane in New York, whereas that was the first edition, printed in Great Britain. A second structural difference lies in the book's finish. That edition follows 202 with an advertisement for the companion volume of Aesop, on the verso of which are press notices for the advertised volume. This volume simply stops with 202, which is followed immediately by a blank end-paper. This volume is generally in poorer condition and lacks the slip-sheet between frontispiece and title-page. It has also been colored lightly, even nicely, with one color on a number of illustrations. A good example is 25. Did the artist plan to come back with other colors? See my comments on that volume and on the editions I list under "1900/10?" and "1900/20?"
1900 Choix de Fables Traduites en Arabe parl�. Mejdoub ben Kalafat. Deuxieme edition. Hardbound. Constantine, Algeria: Imprimerie J�r�me Marle et F. Biron. $53.09 from Librairie L'Alliance, Toulon, France, through abe, March, '04.
As the closing bilingual T of C makes clear, there are here twenty-eight Arabic fables taken from La Fontaine, Florian, and Fenelon, with notes in French on the Arabic expressions and grammar. While all the texts are in Arabic and only in Arabic, all of the title-page and introductory material and notes are in French. These twenty-eight fables cover 1-77 in a very nicely made book. Further parts of the book present contes and anecdotes. There is an extensive dictionary just before the T of C. Here is an out-of-the-way member of the collection!
1900 Fabelbuch: Eine Auswahl deutscher Fabeldichtungen. Eingeleitet und in geschichtlicher Anordnung zusammengestellt von Julius Ziehen. Hardbound. Leipzig/Dresden/Berlin: Deutsche Schul-Ausgaben #33: L. Ehlermann. Gift of Martin K�lle, August, '07.
The first third of this 81-page book is taken up with an introduction. As the closing T of C shows, we turn first to Lessing's verse fables and then to his prose fables. The usual suspects follow in order: Hagedorn, Gleim, von Keist, Gellert, Pfeffel, Lichtwer, Claudius, Willamow, Goethe, and Fr�hlich. Lessing has twenty prose fables and four in verse. Gellert has thirteen, Lichtwer nine, and Hagedorn eight. The book is printed in Gothic script. I could not read the introduction carefully, but Ziehen has clear issues with La Fontaine's approach to fable-writing. For a hundred-year-old book, this compact little volume is in very good shape!
1900 Fables d'�sope: Fables Choisies: Texte Grec. E[mile] Chambry. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Victor Lecoffre. $16.30 from Xavier Mendieta, Barcelona, Spain, through abe, March, '15.
"Avec Notice, Commentaire et Lexique." I noticed this book because I am aware of Chambry's later work for "Les �ditions Belles Lettres," commonly known as Bud� editions. Chambry's first bilingual Aesop for that collection was in 1927, and the most recent update was in 2012. Here is a schoolbook for Greek students a whole generation earlier. The book contains 62 Greek fables with bilingual Greek and French titles. It has not one but two Jesuit seals on its title-page. One is from the school at Veruela, though another inside the book says that it is from the "Biblioteca de la Casa," presumably the Jesuits' library. The other is from the Collegium Maximum of the Province of Tarragon? And is this latter identical with "S. Cugat del Vall�s"? Their stamp is on the last page. Some of the most interesting books in this collection are discards from old Jesuit schools and seminaries!
1900 Lights to Literature: Book Two: A Second Reader. By Sarah E. Sprague. Chicago: Rand, McNally and Company. See 1898/1900.
1900 More Fables. George Ade. Illustrated by Clyde J. Newman. First edition. Chicago and NY: Herbert S. Stone. $15 in trade from Linda Schlafer from Margolis and Moss, Santa Fe, May, '93.
A companion in the same format to Fables in Slang. The fun continues! The title-page, cover, and spine have the title listed above, while the page before the title-page has More Fables in Slang. My favorites here are the first few ("The Fable of How Uncle Brewster was Too Shifty for the Tempter," "The Fable of the Grass Widow and the Mesmeree and the Six Dollars," and "The Fable of the Honest Money-Maker and the Partner of His Joys, Such as They Were") and the last ("The Fable of the Author Who was Sorry for What He Did to Willie"). The first edition was first sold by Purnell in Sacramento.
1900 Muthon Aisopeion Ekloge (Greek): Choix de Fables d'�sope: Texte Grec suivi d'un lexique. Hardbound. Tours: Livres Classiques a l'usages des Coll�ges: Maison Alfred Mame et Fils. $5.99 from Provencher Gaetan through eBay, Sept., '04.
The first surprise in this little book of 84 pages is the Jesuit seal on the title-page. Where does that come from? A two-page notice on Aesop precedes some forty-one Greek fables on 26 pages. A Greek-French dictionary takes up the next fifty-two pages, followed by a T of C. This is the quintessential French high-school text. Notice that the students are meant to understand the fables without the help of notes!
1900 New Education Readers: A Synthetic and Phonic Word Method: Book Two: Development of the Vowels. By A.J. Demarest and William M. Van Sickle. Hardbound. NY: American Book Company. $9.50 from Brass Armadillo, Gretna, NE, June, '12.
Twelve years ago I found Book Three of this series in Knoxville. I have it listed under 1901. Now I have found Book Two in an antiques collective outside Omaha. There is only one fable included here -- TMCM (119) -- and it is handled in an unusual fashion. Many city mice visit the country, and many country mice then visit the city. There human beings intrude twice, and that is enough to send the country mice home. The moral goes in a slightly different direction from the morals of most versions of this fable: "Those who have the plain things of life are sometimes more happy than the rich" (120). This reader is in very good condition.
1900 Phaedri Fabulae Aesopiae. �dition nouvelle, avec notice, commentaire et lexique. Par E. Chambry. Paris: Librairie Victor LeCoffre. From the library of Rev. Richard Arnold, S.J. Gift of Rev. Earl Muller, S.J., March, '91.
A compact paperbound edition of Phaedrus with helpful notes and a very extensive vocabulary--perfect for students. The copy has its own history, since it belonged earlier to the "High School Library of St. Louis University" and then to the "Prof's Library" before it belonged to Fr. Arnold. Aesop keeps travelling!
1900 Queer Stories for Boys and Girls. Edward Eggleston. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. See 1884/1900.
1900 Select Fables of Phaedrus, Edited for the Use of Schools. By A.S. Walpole. Hardbound. Elementary Classics. Printed in Glasgow. London: Macmillan and Co. See 1884/1900.
1900 The Animals of Aesop: Aesop's Fables Adapted and Pictured. By Joseph J. Mora. First edition. Hardbound. Printed in Boston. Boston: Dana Estes and Co. $100 from Page Books, Kingston, AR, by mail, Oct., '98.
I have been looking hard for this book since Ash and Higton featured it in their 1990 Aesop's Fables: A Classic Illustrated Edition." It now proves to be worth the hunting! Mora writes a moving introduction on his loss of the dream-like contact with Animaldom that he cherished in his youth. There follow one hundred fables in a very regular pattern of a prose text embellished with figures on the left page and a full-page black-and-white (and sometimes colored) illustration on the right. The very first illustration is typical: a lamb dressed as a maiden sees through and rejects the pleading for a drink by a trouser-and-shoe-wearing wolf lying exhausted on the ground. The ass and the lapdog are owned by a hippo, who experiences the former's unwelcome attentions in a hammock! In fact, Mora always substitutes animals for humans. He enjoys spicing up a tale. Thus it is a puma who receives a horse's kick (18); his jaw swells up so greatly that it is mistaken for mumps, and he has to miss a lawn party for which he has had a date with Miss Reynard! For the first time, I see made into a fable the episode from the life of Aesop on drinking up the ocean (34). CP has a good moral that is new to me: "Little and often does the trick" (46). Instead of a MM, we have a squirrel upsetting her basket of nuts from a log when she kicks up her heels (48). The dissatisfied buck is polishing his antlers in a hedge when they get caught (50). The story about a mule reflecting on its parentage changes when it is a woman working at a swell job and standing before her mirror (76)! The satyr and traveller become, respectively, a bear and a jackal (88). "The Differing Humours" (96) is new to me. This DLS illustration (104) is excellent! This stork serves up his meal in "long-necked jars that were fastened to the floor" (124). The dancing fish actually answer the piper's question about their dancing now but not earlier (128). The owl offers the loud grasshopper an invitation not to drink something, but rather to hear the Nightingale's compliment about the grasshopper's singing (144). I am happy to see an old friend of a story that does not get told as much as it deserves: "The Mastiff and the Curs" (208) with its great punch line: "If there were no Curs in this world, you would not be an Aristocrat." For great sets of illustrations, try "The Unwelcome Lodger" (126), "The Fatal Courtship" (132), and "The Lovesick Lion" (196). Colored illustrations are on 25, 33, 55, 69, 83, 96, 111, 125, 139, 153, 167, 181, 193, and 207. Mora likes to depict animals winking. 39-40 is mis-inserted between 32 and 33. There is a T of C at the front. Good condition. A great find!
1900 The Animals of Aesop: Aesop's Fables Adapted and Pictured. By Joseph J. Mora. Hardbound. Boston: Dana Estes and Co. $150 from Bryn Mawr Books, Boston, July, '16.
Here is a slightly different copy of a book with the same date, title, and publisher. I will repeat the comments from that copy after mentioning the differences. This book has not a colored cover with five trousered animalsl laughing but a simpler cover with the green and black frontispiece of animals listening to a satyr by moonlight. That picture is the frontispiece in both copies. This copy lacks the lovely colored illumination strip just inside the edge of both covers. Like the other copy, this copy has red ink for the information on the title-page, but the date (1900) has been removed from the title page. Both copies have a copyright date of 1900 on the verso of the title-page. This copy finally does not make the pagination mistake noted in the other copy concerning pages 39-40. The first colored illustration page is loose buit still present. Otherwise the copies seem identical. As I wrotel then, I have been looking hard for this book since Ash and Higton featured it in their 1990 "Aesop's Fables: A Classic Illustrated Edition." It now proves to be worth the hunting! Mora writes a moving introduction on his loss of the dream-like contact with Animaldom that he cherished in his youth. There follow one hundred fables in a very regular pattern of a prose text embellished with figures on the left page and a full-page black-and-white (and sometimes colored) illustration on the right. The very first illustration is typical: a lamb dressed as a maiden sees through and rejects the pleading for a drink by a trouser-and-shoe-wearing wolf lying exhausted on the ground. The ass and the lapdog are owned by a hippo, who experiences the former's unwelcome attentions in a hammock! In fact, Mora always substitutes animals for humans. He enjoys spicing up a tale. Thus it is a puma who receives a horse's kick (18); his jaw swells up so greatly that it is mistaken for mumps, and he has to miss a lawn party for which he has had a date with Miss Reynard! For the first time, I see made into a fable the episode from the life of Aesop on drinking up the ocean (34). CP has a good moral that is new to me: "Little and often does the trick" (46). Instead of a MM, we have a squirrel upsetting her basket of nuts from a log when she kicks up her heels (48). The dissatisfied buck is polishing his antlers in a hedge when they get caught (50). The story about a mule reflecting on its parentage changes when it is a woman working at a swell job and standing before her mirror (76)! The satyr and traveller become, respectively, a bear and a jackal (88). "The Differing Humours" (96) is new to me. This DLS illustration (104) is excellent! This stork serves up his meal in "long-necked jars that were fastened to the floor" (124). The dancing fish actually answer the piper's question about their dancing now but not earlier (128). The owl offers the loud grasshopper an invitation not to drink something, but rather to hear the Nightingale's compliment about the grasshopper's singing (144). I am happy to see an old friend of a story that does not get told as much as it deserves: "The Mastiff and the Curs" (208) with its great punch line: "If there were no Curs in this world, you would not be an Aristocrat." For great sets of illustrations, try "The Unwelcome Lodger" (126), "The Fatal Courtship" (132), and "The Lovesick Lion" (196). Colored illustrations are on 25, 39, 55, 69, 83, 96, 111, 125, 139, 153, 167, 181, 193, and 207. Mora likes to depict animals winking. There is a T of C at the front.
1900 The Fables of Aesop in Words of One Syllable. No author acknowledged, but at least some texts are from Godolphin. No illustrator acknowledged, but illustrations come from at least Billinghurst, Weir, and Heighway. Altemus' Illustrated One Syllable Series for Young Readers. Philadelphia: Henry Altemus Co. $17.50 at Serendipity Books, Berkeley, Oct., '96. .
This book is a triumph of pirating! The very first story, WL, comes straight from Godolphin. Note that Altemus has used the same text in The Fables of Aesop (1899), both in and outside the " Altemus' Young People's Library " series. As to the illustrations, we get a lovely colored version of Dor�'s " The Hares and the Frogs " on the cover. Inside there is plenty of Billinghurst and Weir, with some Heighway. I have just checked ten illustrations of which I was unsure; nine are from Weir, and the tenth seems to be in his style (SW, 103). Of course no one is acknowledged. Very good condition. Cloth cover is blue. Inscribed in 1906.
1900 The Fables of Aesop in Words of One Syllable. Various illustrators. Hardbound. Philadelphia: Altemus' Illustrated One Syllable Series for Young Readers: Henry Altemus Co. $6.50 from The Old Book Shop, Independence, MO, May, '93.
This book replicates the book from the same publisher with the same title, except that it stops abruptly after 128, not even including the illustration for LM on 128. See my comments there. Its cover is white cloth, and it is inscribed in 1914.
1900 The Myths and Fables of To-Day. Samuel Adams Drake. Illustrated by Frank T. Merrill. Boston: Lee and Shepard. $7.50 at Brattle Book, June, '91.
I include this book in the collection partly because of the sheer wackiness of some of its contents but mostly because it gives wonderful evidence of what the word "fable" meant in 1900. My search suggests that "fable" is used only once in the book (4), in a context of "ghosts, giants, and goblins." Gay is mentioned once (68), without any connection to a story; Aesop is not mentioned at all. In fact, no fables are recounted. The book is really a tracing of the extent of superstition, mostly in the U.S., from a very non-scientific viewpoint. As such, it is fun. No index. Many pages after 45 are uncut. I did not cut them because I thought it might bring bad luck....
1900 Tom McNeal's Fables. By T.A. McNeal. Illustrated by Albert T. Reid. First edition? Topeka: Crane & Company. $36 from Stage House II, Boulder, March, '94.
I have read the first thirty and scattered other of these 200 or so fables and I come away unimpressed. The author is presented as editor of The Mail and Breeze, and the fables may well have been columns. These are brief homey lessons, referring to some modern appliances and using some contemporary slang. "Narrative" seems, for example, to be the word of choice for "rear end." The stories seem quite predictable. For a typical story, try "A Kansas Cow" (30). The accompanying cartoons may have some historical value. The preface contains a funny popularized life of Aesop and ends with an engaging invitation to the reader: "If the point to any fable is not clear to him...call on the publisher. He has agreed to do his best in making the application of these fables clear to the earnest and thoughtful reader." The accompanying cartoon shows a man at his desk with a shotgun. Its caption is "The Publisher will explain."
1900 Walter Crane's Picture Book Comprising The Baby's Opera, The Baby's Bouquet, and The Baby's Own Aesop. With the original designs in colour printed by Edmund Evans. Aesop text adapted from W.J. Linton. #499 of 500 done in the United Kingdom; 250 were done in the United States. London: Frederick Warne and Co. $110 from Florence Shay at Titles, Highland Park, August, �96.
A beautiful large-format book which Florence had forgotten that she had. It starts with a preface written by Crane for this edition, in which he has fun with the notion of his "triplets" and offers a new sketch of the proper sort of perambulator for them to ride in. I find the coloring of the Aesop section brilliant! See my comments on the original edition under 1887. There is some finger-smudging here in the ample margins presented by the size of the book. A treasure!
1900/02 More Fables. George Ade. Illustrated by Clyde J. Newman. Hardbound. Chicago/NY: Herbert S. Stone. $10 from Book Cellar, Bethesda, Sept., '91.
Here is a later printing of a book whose 1900 printing I also have. A companion in the same format to Fables in Slang. The fun continues! The title-page, cover, and spine have the title listed above, while the page before the title-page has More Fables in Slang. My favorites here are the first few ( " The Fable of How Uncle Brewster was Too Shifty for the Tempter, " " The Fable of the Grass Widow and the Mesmeree and the Six Dollars, " and " The Fable of the Honest Money-Maker and the Partner of His Joys, Such as They Were " ) and the last ( " The Fable of the Author Who was Sorry for What He Did to Willie " ).
1900/10? A Hundred Fables of La Fontaine. With pictures by Percy J. Billinghurst. No editor acknowledged. Second Edition. London: John Lane The Bodley Head. From Claire Leeper, who bought it for $70 from Cottonwood Books, Baton Rouge, Feb., '89.
This book has excellent illustrations. It is thinner than my 1900/1920? third edition. See my comments there. Like the third edition, this has a beautifully colored cover.
1900/20? A Hundred Fables of La Fontaine. With pictures by Percy J. Billinghurst. No editor acknowledged. Third Edition. Dust jacket. London: John Lane The Bodley Head. $120 at Midway, St. Paul, Nov., '92.
A beautiful book in very good condition, "scarce in dust jacket" as Midway's note proclaims. The cover under the fine dust jacket is beautifully colored. Apparent companion to the Lane/Dodd and Mead A Hundred Fables of Aesop (1898/1924). I can find no repeaters between the two books. My 1900 date for the first edition comes from my favorite private collector. I have two reproductions of this book: 1983 and 1988. The best of the illustrations are "Death and the Woodman" (56), "The Council Held by the Rats" (62), "The Rat and the Oyster" (114, the best of all), and "The Rats and the Weasels" (198). A magnificent find!
1900? Aesop's Fables. With numerous illustrations by Ernest Griset and Harrison Weir. Hardbound. NY: McLoughlin Brothers. $15 from Powell's, Portland, July, '93. Extras for $20 at Titles, Highland Park, June, '93, and for $10 from Laurie, St. Paul, July, '85.
The colored frontispiece is, as the appraiser noted, what makes this book: it is lovely. This version of the book does not print "McLoughlin Bros., New York" on the cover, and the title on the spine reads from top to bottom--in contrast to another version of the book listed under the same title, publisher, and year. This version has blotter-like paper that makes good printing of the black-and-white illustrations difficult. The full-page illustrations (from Griset) are the best but, alas, often poorly printed. The varying quality of the illustrations leads me to keep both the Powell's and the Titles copies of this edition in the collection.
1900? Aesop's Fables. (Down-to-up spine). With numerous illustrations by Ernest Griset and Harrison Weir. Hardbound. NY: McLoughlin Brothers. $14.50 from a rural antiques store in Nebraska, May, '12.
This book is the same as that listed under the same title and year except that it prints "McLoughlin Bros., New York" on its cover, presents a leaf-pattern on its end papers, and has the title on the spine read from the bottom to the top. Also, this edition uses paper that gives a sharper impression of the black-and-white prints than is common in the other edition. In fact, the Griset illustrations come off unusually well here. I am happy at last to have found a fair to good copy of this book after earlier finding two poor copies.
1900? Aesop's Fables. (Title Page Missing.) Illustrations apparently by Ernest Griset and Harrison Weir. NY: McLoughlin Brothers? $10 at Atlanta Vintage Books, April, '94.
This book is almost identical with the McLoughlin Brothers edition I have listed already under the same year with a question mark. In comparison, this book has a different, cream-colored cover. It has the same end papers as the Lien copy of that book. Its paper--and so its illustrations--are far superior to the paper and illustrations in any of those copies. The colored frontispiece illustration of TMCM is present. The book has received a good deal of pencilling from a young hand. Yet again I thought I was picking up an extra copy of a book I already had. Surprise!
1900? Aesop's Fables. (Aesops Fables on cover.) No author or illustrator acknowledged. 135--Favorite Fairy Tales Series. Chicago: M.A. Donohue and Co. $15 from Richard Kopp in Fort Dodge, Sept., '95.
This book seems to be a surprising congeries of elements from other editions. The front cover has the same central illustration of WC that was used by Donohue on its 1892? edition, which also contains the same apostrophe-less Aesops Fables on its cover. Here the colors of the cover's title are reversed. The back cover is also identical, with images of Mother Goose and various nursery-rhyme figures in red line drawings. I list the content of each beginning page of the book to make identification of parallel elements from other editions easier: Mother Goose end-papers, one blank page, a vignette on Aesop's life, a full-page illustration of a kid and a wolf with a reference to 38, a title page identical with that in Donohue's 1892? edition, an insignia of a lamp with a large "D," and the first story with "Aesop's Fables" italicized across the top of the page. I know I have seen this italicized page-title, but I cannot find it! Forty pages of fables, concluding with "The Sick Kite." The inside binding has been crudely repaired.
1900? Aesop's Fables. (Aesops Fables on cover). Canvas-bound. 135--Favorite Fairy Tale Series. Chicago: M.A. Donohue and Co. $9.99 from Kelly Fowler, Uniontown, OH, through Ebay, Feb., '99.
I include this book separately in the collection because of the publishing curiosities it presents. Basically, it is the same book as that listed under the same title, year, and publisher. It has the same cover illustration of WC inside a frame with two heads facing in opposite directions. It has the same congeries of elements inside. See my comments on the publishing oddities there. What does it have that is different? The printing of the cover substitutes gold where the other cover uses blue to outline the letters of the title, the frame, and the lamps above and beneath it. The spine is now red rather than gold canvas. The back cover pictures not Mother Goose scenes but a young girl reading a book; I noticed this same scene on the back cover of Donohue's Reynard the Fox Profusely Illustrated (1910?). The pictures of Mother Goose on the inside covers have changed directions; she now flies outwards rather than inwards. The first page, on which Mother Goose appeared (flying outward), is now blank. The book is in fair condition.
1900? Aesop's Fables. No author or illustrator acknowledged. Canvas spine. Chicago: 135--Favorite Fairy Tales Series: M.A. Donohue and Co. $1.75 from Sharon Barker, Bellevue, MI, Jan., '00.
This book is very similar to another title I have listed under the same year and the same series. This one matches all the way down to the page sequence. Its biggest difference is that it substitutes a LM cover for the WC cover there. A second difference is that it adds an apostrophe on the cover; it had been lacking there (but not on the title-page). This book is in poor condition, but it would be hard to complain at this price! Again, I presumed it was simply another copy of something I already had. Wrong again--and delighted! See my comments there.
1900? Aesop's Fables Told in Easy Words. (Aesop's Fables on cover.) With 25 Coloured Illustrations by Harrison Weir. London: George Routledge/NY: E.P. Dutton/Toronto: The Musson Book Company. �17 at Marchpane, May, '97.
I have often looked down on Weir's work because so much of it appears in poorly printed editions. There is, by contrast, a great deal to like here! There are forty-four fables, with an AI at the front. Some of the best illustrations include: FG (5), "The Stag at the Pool" (10), and "The Wolf and the Lion" (28). The binding is loose around stapled pages in this paperbound booklet. I am surprised that I did not know of this book earlier. I tested two of the texts to see if there is a match with anything I have catalogued yet, and there is not.
1900? Aesop's Fables Told in Easy Words. Harrison Weir. First edition? Hardbound. London: George Routledge/NY: E.P. Dutton/Toronto: The Musson Book Company. $36.72 from David Griffiths, Hornchurch, UK, through abe, Jan., '04.
This book reproduces with hard boards and a blue cloth spine the soft-covered printing I have under the same date by the same publisher. Like it, the cover's title is "Aesop's Fables," while the title-page has "Aesop's Fables Told in Easy Words." Griffiths calls it a first edition and mentions that it has twenty-five illustrations. The binding is repaired with tape in several places. Let me repeat the comments I made there. I have often looked down on Weir's work because so much of it appears in poorly printed editions. There is, by contrast, a great deal to like here! There are forty-four fables, with an AI at the front. Some of the best illustrations include: FG (5), "The Stag at the Pool" (10 and also on the cover), and "The Wolf and the Lion" (28). I tested two of the texts to see if there is a match with anything I have catalogued yet, and there is not.
1900? Aesop's Fables in Words of One Syllable. Mary Godolphin. Printed in the Learner's Style of Pitman's Shorthand. Twentieth Century Edition. London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons. $15 from Bill and Barbara Yoffee, Oct., '91.
A curiosity to go along with Gregg (1919/30) and French stenography (1875?). Thirty-seven fables without illustration follow a T of C. The cover has come loose from the body of this quaint little book.
1900? Alesovy Kresby. All bibliographical data lacking. No title-page. Illustrations by Alesovy Kresby? Hardbound. $12.50 from Bookworks, Chicago, Dec., '97.
This book represents a recurrent experience and a frustration. The recurrent experience is that of turning over a rock and often finding something. I have looked so often in a book that seems to have nothing to do with Aesop and I have found fables. Here I found a book that had no identification and, daring myself, I looked and found four pages dealing with Aesop. What is the book? I do not know, and there is the frustration. I suspect that it is a book in Czech dealing with an artist named Alesovy Kresby and showing a number of his illustrations, among which are several that he seems to have done for some Aesopic fables in 1886. Until I find a native reader, I will have to offer these hesitant comments. On 105, an ass is carrying a holy image, I believe (Perry 182). On 111, we have Perry 54: a boy asks snails how they can sing when their houses are burning. There are four Aesopic images written into nitials on 116: a snake and a bird around a K, a satyr (Perry 35) in an S, a beetle in an O, and palm trees around a letter I cannot make out. On 125, a lute and a hatchet are crossed. Here is a chance for serious detective work!
1900? Autori Latini. Sciuto. [Title-page missing.] Gift of Rev. Giuliano Gasca, S.J., Turin, Sept., '97.
Here is an old collection of Latin authors that includes sixty of Phaedrus' fables (including three of the four I spoke on in Turin) on 61-154. There are lots of notes on these fables, which follow Phaedrus' order. Other authors represented are Cornelius Nepos, Eutropius, Ovid, Tibullus. It was so gracious of Fr. Gasca to let me find and take these books! This book is a treasure I would never otherwise have had access to.
1900? Fables: Aesop. NY: H.M. Caldwell Company. See 1894/1900?.
1900? Fables de Lafontaine. Paperbound. �5.50 from Joseph Raffin, Bazoges en Paillers, France, through eBay, Dec., '05.
This is a pleasant sixteen-page pamphlet, about 6�" x 9". It includes eight full-page colored illustrations, generally in the style of Epinal. Only some portions of these illustrations are colored in. There are, e.g., about four colors at work on the cover: green, blue, yellow, and red. The rest is left in black-and-white. The cover is one of the pamphlet's best illustrations. I have never before seen this fable's lamb using a little pitcher to scoop up water along the shoreline. The poem for the cover's WL is apparently never presented. Each text tends to be on the verso of its illustration. Among the better illustrations are "Le Cygne et le Cuisinier" on 7 and FC on the back cover. The purple clusters for FG on 10 are visually strong. Individual pages with their headers confirm the reading "Fables de Lafontaine" without a space after the first two letters of the third word.
1900? Fables de La Fontaine. Nouvelle �dition illustr�e par Desandr� et Hadamar. �mile Gu�rin, �diteur. Paris: Librairie de Th�odore Lef�vre. $20 at Time Traveller, June, '88.
This book gets the award for the most lavish cover in my collection. The excellent illustrations raise lots of questions. There seem to be two sets: smaller engravings (some marked A.G.) and full-page illustrations (marked Greenaway and H. Weir). Compare on 46-7. None of them match Grandville, Griset, Tenniel, or Weir. The best illustrations are of FS (14) and of the lion in love (56). The table on 245 is arranged alphabetically by the first noun in a fable's title.
1900? Fables de La Fontaine. �mile Gu�rin, �diteur. Nouvelle �dition illustr�e par Weir, Desandr� et Hadamar. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie de Th�odore Lef�vre. $30 from Old Erie Street Book Store, Cleveland, April, '99.
Here is another case where I thought I was getting a second copy of a book. In this case I went for it because it is beautiful and relatively inexpensive. The copy I had found earlier provoked a question about its illustrators. This copy starts to answer the question, since its only real change from the other is that it now lists Weir on the title page as one of its illustrators. The other version used his illustrations but nowhere acknowledged him. This book still gets an award for the most lavish cover in my collection. See my comments on the earlier find in the adjacent listing.
1900? Fables de La Fontaine. Beaux encadrements, vignettes sp�ciales et vingt-quatre gravures (by Weir, NA). Hardbound. Printed in Limoges. Paris?: Librairie Nationale d'�ducation et de R�cr�ation. $10.50 from Max Surkont, Ashaway, RI, through eBay, Jan., '04.
This pretty but frail book includes one-hundred and thirty-seven numbered fables, with a T of C at the end on 239-40. Like other such editions, it seems to know nothing of La Fontaine's division of fables into twelve books. The "beaux encadrements" refers to a pleasant repeated red frame around every page, with animals, humans, and vine-like designs. I have yet to find the promised vignettes. The gravures are signed by Weir and usually engraved by Greenaway. They are thus quite standard. As often with reprintings of Weir's illustrations, especially as here on cheaper paper, they are dark and sometimes less than optimally distinct. A frontispiece sets four famous fables around a portrait of La Fontaine. Of them three are clear to me: WL, OF, and FC. Is the fourth, which features a hare, TH? The front cover and endpaper have pasted on them two large cameos, either with the title "An American Detective." La Fontaine might not have rejoiced to see his fables put to uses like that! This book comes from the son of a baseball pitcher for the Milwaukee Braves whom I revered in my youth. The impressive cover of red and gold is, like the spine, deteriorating.
1900? Fables de La Fontaine. Trente Dessins par Weir. Hardbound. Limoges: Librairie du XXe Si�cle. $39.99 from Hugues et Mich�le de la Roche, Quebec, through eBay, May, '05.
"Avec une Notice Biographique, un Portrait de l'Auteur et Trente Dessins par Weir." I think this book may be related to another which I have also listed under "1900?" It was published by "Librairie Nationale d'�ducation et de R�cr�ation" and also printed in Limoges. It has the same frontispiece described below. By contrast with that book, this has thirty full-page illustrations by Weir, and he is acknowledged as the artist here. Most of the illustrations are also signed by Greenaway. Strangely, the book concludes with the end of the eleventh book on 299. What happened to the twelfth book? There is a T of C at the back. The Notice Biographique is two pages long. There are no other additions to the fable texts and illustrations. The printing of the Weir illustrations is, as often, sometimes dark, though this edition may present them better than most. A frontispiece sets four famous fables around a portrait of La Fontaine. Here it is clear that they are WL, OF, FC, and TH. Monkey, snake, owl, and rats are positioned around him too. It is signed, not by Weir, but by a "Trichon." The impressive cover combines marbling and embossed red material. The worn outer spine has the simple word "Biblioth�que," not mentioned elsewhere in the book.
1900? Fables de La Fontaine. Em Dupuis. Paperbound. G. G�rardin Imp - �dit. �3.99 from Dougherty, Little Farm Studio, Coneyhurst, UK, through eBay, Sept., '06.
"L'Imagerie de Paris" is the only further clue in this charming little pamphlet, about 5�" x 7". The booklet's cover shows the fox sitting at a tall pitcher, as in FS. It is signed "Em (?) Dupuis." Inside there are twelve early chromolithographs featuring La Fontaine's text of a fable included in the design of a full-page colored picture. The printing here is on normal paper. I am surprised that the pamphlet has lasted this long. The twelve fables featured here include WL, TH, "The Heron," FG, GGE, MM, DW, GA, "The Worker and His Children," FS, FC, and BF. They are printed on only one side of the page, the left for the first six and the right for the last six. I have seen these illustrations before, though perhaps not the bicycle image for TH. I wonder if I have not seen them on cards rather than in books. The cover just came off of the book in this reading.
1900? Fables for the Young Folks. By Mrs. Prosser. No illustrator acknowledged. Reprinted from the London Tract Society. Boston: The American Tract Society. $5.95 at the Brattle Bookshop, Jan., '89. Extra copy with blue rather than red cover for $14.95 from Jean Doane, Cumberland Center, ME, through Ebay, July, '99.
Reprinted from the London Tract Society. There is nothing from Aesop here, and I would urge that it affects the quality of the book. The fables are long and preachy and not very imaginative. There are a half-dozen illustrations of varying quality. Since both copies are of only fair quality, I will keep both in the collection.
1900? La Fontaine. T. Rombaldi, �diteur. Paperbound. Collection des Po�tes: Les Roses de France. Paris: �ditions de l'Abeille d'Or. Anonymous gift, August, '97.
Here is a small (3�" x 4�") and very fragile paperbound booklet of 169 pages featuring a selection of La Fontaine's fables. There is a T of C at the back. Many of the pages are uncut. There seem to be no selections after Book Nine. At the same time, I received editions in the same series covering Lamartine, Saint-Simon, Sevigne, and Moli�re. The spine is all but gone.
1900? La Fontaine: Fables II. Miniature. Hardbound. Paris: C. Marpon et E. Flammarion. $9.98 from Second Story Books, Rockville, through Ebay, Dec., '03.
Here are Books VII-XII of La Fontaine's fables in a lovely little volume. Half-leather. Marbled covers and end-papers. No commentary or illustrations. About 2" x 3". The binding is unusually tight and well preserved for a book this small and this old. Marpon and Flammarion collaborated also on the 1896 Barboutau Florian volumes.
1900? La Fontaine: Fables Choisies. Illustrations (NA): H. Vogel, Gaston G�libert, Mangonot, Godefroy, Etienne-Maurice-Firmin Bouisset, (Anatole Paul?) Ray, Job (=Jacques Marie Gaston Onfroy de Breville), and Gustave Fraipont. Canvas spine. Paris: L. Martinet: Librairies-Imprimeries R�unies. 400 Francs from Anthare de Schuyter, Clignancourt, Paris, August, '99.
Bodemann 368.3. There are twenty-eight strong full-page colored illustrations here. Each of them echoes a page in the two volumes of Imagerie Artistique: 20 Fables de La Fontaine and are signed by the same artists. These are not the same works in the two publications, but they are very close. Could those be some kind of copy or photograph of these? Sometimes the picture here is only a section of the larger poster-like page there, e.g., in FG (25). And of course there the text is inserted somewhere on the page. The medium here is sharper, the paper stronger and shinier, the format smaller. My favorite, "Les deux Ch�vres," is here on 29. Manganot's signature is very hard to read on the lovely GA (31), if in fact that is the correct deciphering. This illustration is dated 1887; it is the only one that I can find dated. Particularly lively and dramatic here is "Le Charretier embourb�" (53). It is nice to see some things come together! Bodemann treats this edition as "verkleinerte Abz�ge der Tafeln der 'Imagerie Artistique'" and estimates the publication date at about 1910. Mistakenly, I think, she says that there are thirty-three fables here. Perhaps she mistakes the five that run over onto the next page.
1900? La Fontaine: Fables Choisies. H. Vogel, Gaston G�libert, Mangonot, Godefroy, Etienne-Maurice-Firmin Bouisset, (Anatole Paul?) Ray, Job (=Jacques Marie Gaston Onfroy de Breville), and Gustave Fraipont. Hardbound. Paris: L. Martinet: Librairies-Imprimeries R�unies. $9.99 from Dr. Douglas Yarbrough, Palm Harbor, FL, Nov., '11.
I already have a copy of this book found in 1999 for more than six times the cost of this copy. I include this book in the collection not simply because I am so fond of it but also because it has a different number on the bottom right of the last printed page. Where that copy had 8007, this copy has 14284. The cover may also be slightly different: notice the stripes now at the top and bottom. There is a small tear on the bottom of 37. Are these pages even shinier than those? Let me repeat comments from there. Bodemann 368.3. There are twenty-eight strong full-page colored illustrations here. Each of them echoes a page in the two volumes of Imagerie Artistique: 20 Fables de La Fontaine and are signed by the same artists. These are not the same works in the two publications, but they are very close. Could those be some kind of copy or photograph of these? Sometimes the picture here is only a section of the larger poster-like page there, e.g., in FG (25). And of course there the text is inserted somewhere on the page. The medium here is sharper, the paper stronger and shinier, the format smaller. My favorite, "Les deux Ch�vres," is here on 29. Manganot's signature is very hard to read on the lovely GA (31), if in fact that is the correct deciphering. This illustration is dated 1887; it is the only one that I can find dated. Particularly lively and dramatic here is "Le Charretier embourb�" (53). It is nice to see some things come together! Bodemann treats this edition as "verkleinerte Abz�ge der Tafeln der 'Imagerie Artistique'" and estimates the publication date at about 1910. Mistakenly, I think, she says that there are thirty-three fables here. Perhaps she mistakes the five that run over onto the next page.
1900? La Fontaine�s Fables Choisies. Edited, with introduction and notes, by Leon Delbos. NY: Henry Holt and Company. $10 at Cheever, San Antonio, August, �96.
A selection of seventy-eight fables for English-readers. Notes on vocabulary and sources (81) and advertisements for Holt�s many French texts follow. Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of this book for us today lies in the way Delbos starts the book. He begins by vigorously condemning La Fontaine�s character. He was not kind, modest, simple, careful, moral, or sensitive to children. Lazy, shrewd, and apathetic, "he found it was easier to live at other people�s expense�." Take heart, however. His style is matchless.
1900? Russian literature: Krylov's fables (Russian). Hardbound. St. Petersburg: Cheap Library: Association A. S. Suvorin: New Time. $25 from A. Borissov, Tallinn, Estonia, through eBay, August, '11.
"Full Collection. With a biography and notes." LXII, 302 pages. This small book (4�" x 6") features at its beginning two portraits of Krylov, a view of his monument, and a view of his tomb. LXI-LXII present an overview of the nine books of fables and the number of fables in each book. This number seems to range between twenty-seven and thirty-five. There are also fifteen illustrations within the text of the fables, starting from a good FC (2). Among the better illustrations are "The Monkey and the Spectacles" (23); "The Ass and the Nightingale" (66); "The Pug and the Elephant" (74); "Quartet" (104); "The Farmer and the Bear" (117); and WC (176). Some pictures have been colored in a bit, and is that an angry doodle on the bottom of 220? Apparently there is a life of Krylov and an AI at the back.
1900? The Book of Fables Containing Aesop's Fables. Complete, with text based upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. With Copious Additions from other Modern Authors. Illustrated. NY: F.M. Lupton. $5.95 at Powell's, Portland, March, '96.
This edition seems a standard Lupton edition, with its "Later Fables" beginning on 157. Compare it with my Lupton copies under 1901? and 1902?. The big surprise in this copy comes when one pages through and finds no illustrations at all! Were they removed, or may there be a printer's oversight at work here? In still other respects, this is a non-frills version. It lacks the preface, T of C, and AI that other editions include. The book is inscribed in 1900.
1900? The Book of Fables: Containing Aesop's Fables. Complete, with text based upon Croxall, La Fontaine and L'Estrange. With copious additions from other modern authors. Profusely illustrated by Ernest Griset. NY: Hurst and Co. $10 at Book Gallery, El Paso, August,'96.
Like the adjacent listing from Lupton, this unusual book claims to have art but has none at all! It is paginated and has in fact the same plates as my Hurst Arlington editions listed under "1899?" but lacks all the illustrations in between. As with the Arlington and other copies somewhere in the "Rundell" text tradition, there is a set of "Later Fables" beginning on 141. This book is inscribed in 1907.
1900? The Fables of Aesop. Complete, with text based upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. Selected from the Most Reliable Sources. Illustrated. NY: A.L. Burt. Gift of Thomas Beckman, March, '95.
A wonderfully curious gift. As Tom points out, the book starts with a nice cover design modelled on Heighway's "The Fisher and the Little Fish" (116) with the addition of a background including modern ships. Adding things will be the keynote to this book. For it takes most basically the frequently-used text of moral-less fables that I have first in The Book of Fables (1880) and adds to it a few of Jacobs' texts, many of Jacobs' morals, and many of Heighway's illustrations--none of these acknowledged. The colored frontispiece (unfortunately separated) of a bagpiping fisherman is developed from Heighway's illustration (e.g. on 101 in my 1894/1929 Heighway edition) but, like the cover, much embellished. Jacobs' version, used here, makes more sense of this baffling fable than most by having one fish give a moral "When you are in a man's power you must do as he bids you." Other borrowings from Jacobs include FC (13), "The Wolf and the Kid" (141), and a line of "The Cat and the Fox" (169) used to introduce the moral and simply added on to the text from The Book of Fables. Fifteen full-page Heighway illustrations, each with blank verso, are inserted outside the text's pagination. At 198 the book, like The Book of Fables, moves to "Later Fables"; unlike it, it does not acknowledge the addition on the title-page. This book selects 52 of the 132 fables offered there and inserts three (216, 232, 244) of Ernest Griset's thirty-nine illustrations used there. "The Mastiff and the Cubs" (232) includes the printer's scribbling of its dimensions within the illustration--"31/2 x 6"! Close comparison with the Book of Fables, where this illustration is the frontispiece, shows that the Burt book's image has been cropped to remove Griset's signature. There are slight cracks in the binding at 164 and 190. This book has really been fun to investigate!
1900? The Fables of Aesop. With Seventy-five Illustrations. Newark: Charles E. Graham & Co. $2.50 from Vintage Bookshop, North Platte, Jan., '94.
This book drives me crazy because it seems to be composed of things I have seen before. The frontispiece is a colored picture (the book's only one) of a wolf and a lamb, and I know I have seen it elsewhere. The top of the opening AI is from Heighway, and almost all of the illustrations are from Billinghurst, many of them crayoned in poorly by a young hand. Even the camel on 177 and the stork on 185 are done after Billinghurst. The versions are very frequently but not always from the standard "J.B.R." (Rundell) collection.
1900? The Fables of Aesop in Words of One Syllable. Hardbound. Philadelphia: Altemus' Illustrated One Syllable Series for Young Readers: Henry Altemus Co. $0.50 from an unknown source, March, '09.
This book replicates another, listed under 1900, except for the cover. Whereas that book has a colored version of Dor�'s "The Hares and the Frogs," this version has a multicolored cloth presentation of BF. I will repeat comments from that description. This book is a triumph of pirating! The very first story, WL, comes straight from Godolphin. Note that Altemus has used the same text in The Fables of Aesop (1899), both in and outside the "Altemus' Young People's Library" series. Inside there is plenty of Billinghurst and Weir, with some Heighway. I have just checked ten illustrations of which I was unsure; nine are from Weir, and the tenth seems to be in his style (SW, 103). Of course no one is acknowledged. Poor condition.
1900? The Fox and the Owl: Aunt Matilda's Series. NY: Aunt Matilda's Series: McLoughlin Bros. $12.50 from O'Gara's, Hyde Park, Dec., '97.
This is a 16-page pamphlet slightly smaller than those in McLoughlin's "Aunt Louisa" series. It features six full-page chromolithographs. The fox entices the baby owl first onto the branch and then the ground and devours him. In revenge, the parent owl summons the hunter and his dogs to chase down the fox. Mostly simple verse, with a few prose passages. The (resewn?) cover is coming loose.
1900? Three Hundred Aesop's Fables Literally Translated from the Greek. By the Rev. Geo. Fyler Townsend. With Fifty Illustrations by Harrison Weir. Paperbound. NY: Golden Gem Library #47: Optimus Printing Co. $4 from C. Wetzel, Vermontville, MI, through eBay, Nov., '07.
This is a forerunner of the modern paperback book. Is it equivalent to a "railroad book"? It contains the full "Three Hundred Aesop's Fables" edition by Townsend and Weir, complete with the opening picture of an older man near ships' masts talking to a younger man near some stairs. There follow in succession Preface (v-xxiv); Life of Aesop (xxv-xxviii); List of Illustrations (xxix-xxx); Fables (31-188); and AI (189-92). I have at least five other editions of this combination of three hundred fables and fifty illustrations. The closest to this little edition is a Routledge edition listed under "1885?" with the same page size, about 4.5" x 6.25". That Routledge edition, at least in its present condition, lacks the opening picture and follows different pagination; for examples, fables there begin on 9 and here on 31. The first and last pages here, which serve as front and back cover respectively, are loose. There are advertisements for Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup on the obverse of the title-page and on the back cover. This was a surprising find on eBay, and the price was right!
1900? Three Hundred Aesop's Fables. (And One Hundred Picture Fables with Rhymes bound behind it without acknowledgement at the book's beginning.) Literally Translated from the Greek by the Rev. Geo. Tyler (sic) Townsend. With 114 woodcuts designed by Harrison Weir and ten original colored plates. Caldwell's Juvenile Classics. NY: H.M. Caldwell Company. (Rear title page continues: by Otto Speckter. With Four Full-page Colored Plates and One Hundred Wood-cuts.) See 1885?/1900?.
1900? Three Hundred Aesop's Fables. Rev. George Fyler Townsend, M.A.. With one hundred and fourteen illustrations designed by Harrison Weir and engraved by J. Greenaway. Hardbound. London: George Routledge and Sons. See 1885?/1900?.
1900? Toy Books. No bibliographical information. Ten toy books sewn together, perhaps as a salesman's sample? $15 from Richard Barnes, Evanston, Oct., '94.
The ten books betray a heavy Protestant moralizing ethic. Each of the ten books has about six full-page illustrations in very good condition. Six verse fables make up the third book: LM, "The Birds in Council" (who want a king with power, not looks), DM, DLS, "The Wolf and the Kids," and "The Bear and the Bees." Uncle Fred tells these fables to several of the little ones and homilizes each time on the fable's morality. The illustrations seem very well preserved. There are lovely marbled endpapers and gilt edges all the way around. Loose covers, damaged spine. All pages are printed on just one side.
1901 Aesop's Fables. With one hundred and thirty-five illustrations by Ernest Griset. The text based chiefly upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. NY: McLoughlin Brothers. $40 from Kelmscott, Aug., '94.
This edition stands out from others by Griset from McLoughlin in that it gives its own date (on a rock in the cover illustration). It has the lovely colored TMCM frontispiece one can find in both 1900? editions from McLoughlin. That same illustration was the cover illustration in the 1898? McLoughlin version. The present edition claims eight fewer illustrations than that 1898? McLoughlin. This edition prints Rundell's usual preface but omits the "J.B.R." attribution at the end. The book has some strong markings from a child's hand, especially in pencil on the title page. The cover is a masterpiece in itself, with the turtle holding his boots in his hand, so as not to awaken the sleeping hare.
1901 Aesop's Fables. No author or illustrator acknowledged. NY: McLoughlin Bros. $38.25 at Aamstar, Colorado Springs, gift of Mary Pat Ryan, March, '94.
A magnificent large-format booklet. The six colored single-page pieces are breathtaking! In particular, the booklet makes great use of human clothes on its animals. Perhaps the most intriguing story and illustration is "The Cat's Paw" on the last page: the monkey coaxes the cat to help him but also physically takes the cat's paw and forces the cat despite shrieks of pain. The ass in a lion's skin is perhaps visually the best I have encountered. He is discovered by two lions who notice his strange ears. Significant staining. What a lucky find!
1901 Aesop's Fables in Verse. By Elizabeth Eyears. Fully Illustrated (by H. Weir and by C. Butterworth, neither acknowledged). Hardbound. Printed in London. London: Elliot Stock. $47 from Alibris, May, '00.
This is a slim book containing fifty-one verse fables on 99 pages. I had never seen nor heard of the book before, and so was willing to spend some money on it. In her three-page preface, Eyears chooses verse because it attracts the young, is learned faster, and is fastened better in the memory. She returns to the popular image of putting familiar things into new garb. Her criterion of selection? "Some of the best known and most popular" (vii). She does well to start with "Aesop at Play" (1). Her second fable finishes well: "And the huntsman chases the timid hare/Still as in days gone by,/And the frogs still jump from the river bank,/But not like the hares to die" (3). I had never seen this clever distinction between the jumps before. Her moral: "No ill so great but others share it;/No lot so hard but we may bear it." In "The Ass and the Lion Hunting" (8), she plays on the name of the former. It was the lion's fancy "to employ/An ass to assist in the chase�" (italics mine). The lesson of GGE (26) is "Let well alone." In "The Lion in Love" (20), the woodman kills the lion and sells his skin for gain. I read the first half of the book. My sense is that the need to rhyme and to fill out the meter exacts a serious price in these fables. I find especially the full-page Weir illustrations (5, 17, and 43) well done. Weir did some of the smaller illustrations, and I find "C. Butterworth" on two others.
1901 Babrii Fabulae Aesopeae. Edidit F.G. Schneidewin. Paperbound. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. DEM 16,5 from Eastern Germany, July, '96?
This paperbound little volume reproduces what I already have listed for Schneidewin's Babrius under "1880." Other than the change of date and the inclusion of advertising at the end of this paperbound volume, I can find no change. Note the same date at the end of the introduction (xx). See my comments there.
1901 Columbus Series: Fourth Reading Book. By W.T. Vlymen. Various illustrators, including Boutet de Monvel (unacknowledged) for Aesop. NY: Schwartz, Kirwin and Fauss. $.30 in Omaha, Nov., '89. Extra copy missing title page for $2 from Country Collectibles, Louisville, NE, Oct., '92.
So Catholic a book! Boutet de Monvel's illustrations in black-and-white set off the four traditionally told fables: TH (64); "The Fox and the Goat" (94); WS (117); and MSA (203). There are stories on St. Dominic and the rosary.
1901 Fable Nook and Story Book: A Collection of Catchy Rhymes and Amusing Stories for the Little Ones Together with an Illuminated Alphabet. Profusely Illustrated With Original Drawings in Colors and Black by Walter Crane and Others. Hardbound. Chicago: The John C. Winston Company. $33.69 from Stacy Lautzenheiser, Fort Wayne, IN through Ebay, April, '00.
The book pulls together very diverse materials. Most frequent among them are rhymes of all sorts. Crane is illustrator for relatively little in the book, which may be of interest historically because of all the different simple designs that are included. Representatives of fables include, in monochrome, the pre-title-page of "The Bundle of Sticks" and "The Blind Doe" and later LM and "The Miser & His Gold." The colored representatives are the frontispiece (FK and "Horse and Man") and a page including FG and TH. In all these cases one full-design (square) and one half-design of Crane's are put together to fill out the page.
1901 Fables. Paperbound. Chicago: Student's Series of Four Penny Classics, Vol. 2, No. 26, May 15, 1901: The Orville Brewer Publishing Company. $9.99 from Randy Cooper, Trotwood, OH, through eBay, Jan., '06.
This 6" x 9" booklet has stood the test of time well. Its cover still has a bright pink cameo of a classical scene nicely set in an ornate green background. Inside there are eleven fables presented in attractive, clear print. Three of the longer stories come from Andersen. "The Flax" follows the career of flax from flower through processing into linen and from there to paper. "The Little Match Girl" is the very sad story of the freezing death on New Year's Eve of a penniless match seller. Also from Andersen is "The Ugly Duckling." Standard Aesopic fables here are AD, BC, TMCM, "The Man and the Wood," GA, and "Jupiter and the Bee." "The Fox and the Cat" and "The Fox and the Wolf" (and the hunter) are attributed to Grimm's Fairy Tales. It is curious that the list of Four Penny Classics on the inside back cover lists this number as "Fables and Stories." The booklet was once the property of Morton School in Winchester, Indiana. Published in Illinois, it was read in Indiana, sold in Ohio, delivered in California, and will reside in Nebraska. Not bad for a second-and-third grade reader!
1901 Fables & Folk-Tales from an Eastern Forest. Collected and translated by Walter Skeat. Illustrated by F.H. Townsend. Hardbound. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $17.50 from Michael Tourville, Lexington Park, MD, through eBay, Oct., '13.
This book presents twenty-six good peasant tales collected during a Cambridge expedition through the remoter states of the Malay Peninsula in 1899. A T of C and a list of the ten illustrations precede the introduction at the beginning of the book. The first story, "Father 'Lime-Stick' and the Flower-Pecker," is true to the fable tradition. A caught bird promises, if freed, to bring the birdcatcher a valuable stone as big as a coconut. Freed, he mocks the birdcatcher for believing such a preposterous story. The next table echoes another well-known Western fable with changed characters. The crown prince of tigers recommends to the sick king of tigers to taste flesh of every creature in his kingdom. The mouse-deer, who is the hero of many Malaysian folktales, stays away. When he appears and the king is angry with him, he reports a dream of medicine that will cure the king. "Seize and devour that which is nearest your majesty." The crown prince tiger is of course closest to the king. "The Pelican's Punishment" (18) is very close to the "Kalila and Dimna" story of the crane and the crab. "The Tiger Gets His Deserts" (20) is the familiar story of a trapped animal first being released, then turning on its savior, and then being tricked back into his trap, in this case a cage. The savior in this story is again a mouse-deer. "The Tiger and the Shadow" (28) is the familiar story of bringing a large cat to water, where he sees a rival and jumps in to attack him. "Regulated sacrifice" is part of this tale as it is told here. The ten illustrations are helpful. Even better rendered are the tailpiece silhouettes of Malaysian creatures.
1901 Fables de la Fontaine. Pr�c�d�es de la vie d'�sope, accompagn�es de notes nouvelles. Illustrations par K. Girardet. (Many engravings are signed "Sargent.") Nouvelle �dition, dans laquelle on aper�oit d'un coup d'oeil la moralit� de la fable. Cardboard covers. Tours: Alfred Mame et Fils. See 1890/1901.
1901 Fables de La Fontaine (Cover: Fables de La Fontaine Illustr�es). Jean-Baptist Oudry. Hardbound. Paris: L. Sanard, �diteur. $22 from Eddy Ordonez, West Toluca Lake, CA, through eBay, Oct., '15.
The specialty of this broken little volume is the full-page reproduction of 76 of Jean-Baptist Oudry's illustrations. The book has a surprising organization. It is divided into thirds, with a list of illustrations and their page numbers at the beginning of each third (9-10; 71-71; 131-132). There is a T of C of all 75 fables at the end of the volume. A first illustration before the first third of the book offers Oudry's frontispiece of Aesop honoring La Fontaine. After the title-page is a full-page portrait of La Fontaine. Some of the Oudry illustrations are marked with a Roman numeral number, which seems not to be the number of the fable here and is certainly not the number in La Fontaine's twelve books of fables. Both covers are separated, as is the first signature. The choice of illustrations to present is good and the reproduction is, for the size of the pages, better than adequate. The back cover is embossed "�cole Professionelle de l'Etoile." This copy was apparently a school prize.
1901 Fables de la Fontaine: Nouvelle Edition. Edited by L. Cl�ment. Fifth edition. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Armand Colin. $3 from JLG Livres Anciens et Modernes, Saint Maur des Foss�s, France, through ABE, Nov., '16.
Here is a quite standard full edition of La Fontaine for students, with introduction, notes, grammar, and dictionary of terms from La Fontaine's era. Armand Colin seems to have published a number of La Fontaine fable editions in which fables were classified according to the order of their difficulty above each fable, but this is not one of those. The source, however, of each fable is listed just after its title. AI at the back, followed by a T of C that does not go deeper than the titles of the twelve books of fables.
1901 Fables for the Fair. Josephine Dodge Daskam. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. $10 at Goodspeed's, April, '89.
Enjoyable sardonic contemporary fables � la George Ade. Each is titled "The Woman Who..." Good samples are "Used Her Theory" (15) and "Looked Ahead" (19). The morals are cute. "She laughs best who laughs least" and "Nothing succeeds like distress." A sociologist or cultural historian would have a field day with this book!
1901 Fables in Slang. George Ade. Clyde J. Newman. Sixty-ninth thousand. Hardbound. Chicago/NY: Herbert S. Stone. See 1899/1901.
1901 Forty Modern Fables. George Ade. First edition. NY: R.H. Russell. $30 from Marilyn Braiterman, Baltimore, Nov., '91.
My fifth Ade, and maybe the best, starting from the nattily clad ass reading on the cover. Ade here covers a wide range: European travel, marriage rituals, poker games, big city and little town. His staple is "girl hooks man," followed by "man tries to deal with wife." Typical: "Springfield's Fairest Flower and Lonesome Agnes" (#11). My favorite: "Wise Piker" (#12). Great language: "The Cousin from Down East" (#15). Also good: "Uncle Silas" (#9) and "The Husband Who Showed Up" (#7).
1901 Indian Fables. Collected and Edited by P.V. Ramaswami Raju. With 18 Plates by F. Carruthers Gould. Second edition. Hardbound. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. �19.99 from Penny Jackson, Clackmannan, Scotland, through eBay, Nov., '13.
There are 106 fables here, few of which seem to come from the usual Indian sources: "Panchatantra" and "Kalila and Dimna." These are genuine fables, though not always of rare quality. Frequently the moral is delivered within the fable as an endomythium, pronounced by one of the characters. I have read the first ten of the fables. In the very first, a glow-worm about to be eaten by a daw asks if the daw would rather not eat all of the glow-worms. She proceeds to lead him to a fire to encourage him to eat the glow-worms emerging from the fire. The daw does, only of course to burn his mouth. The glow-worm proclaims as the fable ends "Wickedness yields to wisdom!" A monkey shows a mirror to all the beasts, who dislike what they see, shatter the mirror, and proclaim that ignorance is bliss (6). The first edition was done in 1897. There is a T of C at the beginning of the book.
1901 Les Fables de La Fontaine. Illustr�es de 81 gravures du XVIIIe si�cle tir�es du "La Fontaine en Estampes", de 31 fac-simile des dessins d'un manuscrit du XIVe si�cle et du portrait de La Fontaine d'apr�s Ch. Lebrun. Hardbound. Paris: �dit�es specialement pour les Magasins du bon March�. $24.99 from Kathy Flamez, Roseville, MI, through eBay, June, '04.
This book reduplicates editions I already have listed under 1897 and 1907. It was already then a derivative but lovely book. Its eighty-one gravures from the eighteenth century "La Fontaine en Estampes" seem to be mostly details from Oudry. That is certainly the case on 9 (DW) and 59 (SS). They suffer only from their relatively small size of 2.5" x 3.5". To them is added the series of smaller drawings from a fourteenth-century manuscript, either identical with or reproduced from those in Fables In�dites des XIIe, XIIIe et XIVe Si�cles et Fables de la Fontaine of 1825 by A.C.M. Robert. The covers are part marble and part leather. The leather on the spine and at the top of the covers is rubbing off. AI at the back.
1901 New Education Readers: A Synthetic and Phonic Word Method: Book Three: Development of Obscure Vowels, Initials, and Terminals. By A.J. Demarest and William M. Van Sickle. Hardbound. NY: American Book Company. $3 in Knoxville, April, '00.
The preface mentions that, to help the child maintain interest, the larger part of stories in this book consists of myth, legend, fable, biography, and fairy tale. There certainly are many fables included. Let me first mention those that handle their stories differently or are otherwise noteworthy. "The Quarrel of the Lion and the Bear" (10, illustrated) features a good use of "If it had not been for" by all three characters. In OR (20, illustrated), we find not a reed but a willow. The first phase involves only the oak and the wind. The last phase has the oak made into planks. For a change, it is a greedy little girl that needs to take a fistful of nuts from the pitcher (26). The owner of the goose in GGE is a woman in France (27). In DM (30, illustrated), the goat, sheep, cow, and horse all come by, one by one. "The Fox and the Cock" (30) opens with the fox asking the cock how many tricks he can do; the cock wants to learn more tricks, and the fox is willing to show him the trick where he closes an eye and shouts�. In BW (32, illustrated), the boy makes his call three or four times before the men stop coming. In "The Dog and the Wolf" (35, illustrated), the dog caught out in the open on a chair does not mention a wedding feast and does not specify a date when the wolf could come back and eat him. There is no first phase at the mouse's place in FM (79, illustrated), and the frog is "only thinking of the fun he will have." The girl in MM (82, illustrated) practices tossing her head at other milkmaids! "The Fox, the Bear, and the Farmer" (103, twice illustrated) is new to me, and I enjoy it. It works like "The Tiger and the Brahmin" and then adds a second phase. "The Story of Tommy and the Crows: A Fable" (116, twice illustrated) is a pointed story about going to school. Other fables included here are FG (10), CP (12, illustrated), BC (13), SW (19, poor version), TH (34, illustrated), "The Swallow" (120, twice illustrated), and "The Farmer and the Larks" (157, illustrated). It pays to find books on the road; I have time in hotel rooms to review them thoroughly!
1901 The International Library of Masterpieces, Literature, Art, and Rare Manuscripts. The Bibliophile Edition de Luxe. Editor-in-Chief Harry Thurston Peck. Volume 1 of 30. Number 27 of 1000 copies. NY: The International Bibliophile Society. $15 at Schroeder�s, Milwaukee, August, �96.
Fourteen fables show up (90-96) under "Aesop" in this volume that handles "A" up to Antar. In LS (92), the lion was in league with "several," but only three others, unnamed, happened to be present at this time of the deer�s capture. TMCM (93) is Horatian. Long texts with no morals and no attribution.
1901 Turkish Literature Comprising Fables, Belles-Lettres, and Sacred Traditions. Translated into English for the first time with a special introduction by Epiphanius Wilson. Revised edition. Hardbound. NY and London: The Cooperative Publication Society. $5 from Webster's Bookstore Caf�, State College, PA, through ABE, April, '00.
Fables comprise 3-24 in this collection. They are translated by Wilson himself. Many of the forty-six fables are straight Aesopic, like "The Fly" (4). One of these has a nice twist: in "The Two Young Men and the Cook (5)," the thief himself puts what he stole into his friend's pocket, and the latter when questioned says "I have not seen it." One Aesopic fable has degenerated, I believe. In "The Tortoise and the King of Animals" (8), King Lion is angry because the tortoise has come late to his entertainment. In a rage the lion cries "At some future time you will have a house of stone which you can never leave." There is no indication that the lion can make this prophecy come true. The fable has lost by substituting the lion for Jupiter as the giver of the feast, and it needs in any case to make clear that the turtle's shell is just the punishment predicted here. I enjoy this edition's presentation of a fable whose variations I have often tried to trace. In "The Converted Cat" (20-21), the cat first becomes a monk and announces that she will never again shed blood. She then covers herself with a dust rag and smears herself with flour. Then she plays dead, and the mice say that they would not believe that she has changed even if a purse were made of her. I have seen and enjoyed before the story of the ass painted green. The ass is talked about at first but then taken for granted ("The Widow and Her Friend," 4). That is what the widow can expect if she marries again. I especially like "The Bear and His Mate" (9). The former, in a fight with his mate, tore her eyes out with a swipe of his paw. In sorrow, he bit off his claws and announced that fact to her. Her answer was "What good is that to me, now that I am blind, and derpived by you of my precious eyes?" The point is that "Repentance cannot repair an injury once inflicted." Also good is the story of the candle that wanted to become as hard as a brick and jumped into the fire to make it happen (12). There is a T of C at the front.
1901/2 Forty Modern Fables. George Ade. NY: R.H. Russell/Grosset and Dunlap. $4.65 from The Yesteryear Shoppe, Nampa, Idaho, March, '96. Extra copy for $3.50 from A. Amitin, St. Louis, March, '95.
See my comments under the first edition in 1901. This book lists one publisher on the spine (Grosset and Dunlap) and another (R.H. Russell) on the title page! It has a simpler gray cover than does the 1901 edition--and lacks its wonderful reading donkey. Though someone has written "First edition" on the first page of the Amitin copy, it seems that this book cannot be called a first edition. This book uses the same plates as did the 1901 edition, but has slightly smaller side and much smaller bottom margins. Note the great inscription in the Amitin copy: "Read this when you are feeling blue." Good advice!
1901/10? Ein Fabelbuch. (Theodor) Etzel und (Hanns Heinz) Ewers. H. Frenz, (Paul) Horst-Schultze, J(ohn) J(ack) Vriesl�nder. Vierte Auflage. Hardbound. Munich: Albert Langen. DM 28 from Stern-Verlag, Janssen & Co, D�sseldorf, July, '95.
Etzel (20) and Ewers (24) contribute together 44 verse fables on some 115 pages. An original -- and attractive! -- feature of this book is that diverse monograms indicate who authored and who illustrated each fable. The key to the monograms is on 8. The first fable (11) sets a good tone: a May beetle sits on tree and eats leaf after leaf and then crawls onto the body of his wife. "You gourmand," a spider says with wrinkled brow, "how soon you will perish! People who misspend their present with such a lifestyle will be their own hangmen! Look at me for example. I sit here chaste and eat only what comes to me of its own will. That is why I live healthy and.." She wants to say "long," but a finch flies by and eats her and then poops what is left of her, digested, onto the lawn. The Maybug laughs out loud: "Here lies a moralist!" A strong fable and illustration are "Im Karpfenteich" (23). A corpse appears in a carp pond. A young carp comes by and opines "Surely the victim of rejected love!" A second seems to comment "He drank too much and fell in here." An hundred-year-old carp says nothing but goes to work eating and thinking "Nicht immer giebt's im Teiche/solch' eine sch�ne, schleimig-weiche/und bl�ulich-bleiche Wasserleiche!" What a tour de force! A nicely formed echo of the fable tradition comes in "Das Schneiderlein und der Tod" (32). Philipp Fips, the tailor, complains steadily and finally wishes death would appear. Death does appear as a skeleton and asks "What do you want?" Philipp outdoes himself giving death clothes, and then his Sunday clothes, and then his own clothes and wedding ring -- all to ask that Death spare him. The book is in fragile condition. The spine and inside front cover have already both been taped. At least one whole signature has separated from the binding. There is some lovely Jugendstil work on the parrot-cover and the bird back-cover. Bodemann #383.1.
1901/60 Fables de La Fontaine. Pr�ced�es de la vie d'�sope, accompagn�es de notes nouvelles. Illustrations de Karl Girardet. Tours(?): Mame. Gift of Tom Caldwell, Dec., '89.
A beautiful little gift. The small, delightful engravings reproduce but do not repeat Girardet: the format is different, and a keen eye can spot plenty of differences. The book exemplifies the combined continuity and development that mark the tradition of Aesop. The moral-bearing part of the text is still italicized, as in earlier Mame editions. The typesetting is new. A Christmas joy!
1901/2007? Skeealyn Aesop: A Selection of Aesop's Fables. Edward Farquhar. Introduction by Charles Roeder. Hardbound. Douglas, Isle of Man/Whitefish, Montana: Legacy Reprints: S.K. Broadbent/Kessinger Publishing. $14.77 from Amazon.com, June, '08.
This book reprints a book of bilingual fables along with poems by Edward Farquhar of Cregneish. There is nothing in this book that was not in the original, I believe, except for three things: the covers with their simple texts on the front and advertisement for Kessinger on the back; the "Publishing Statement" on the verso of the title-page, which deals with possible defects arising from reproducing an old book in its original condition; and several items, like "Printed in the United States" and the ISBN and its barcode, on a page between the last page and the end-paper. Charles Roeder does both the introduction and a sketch of Old Creignish. Pages 30-79 offer twenty-five fables, Manx-Gaelic on the left and English on the right. Do I understand correctly that Manx is the Gaelic spoken on the Isle of Man? The pages themselves are of two types. Most are dark photographic reprints of original pages. The remaining pages have a much lighter background and may have been freshly typeset for this edition. Cregneish, I learn from Wikipedia, is a "populated place." Is that a term for what might be less organized than a village or town? The introduction focuses on the Isle of Man and its life in 1901 and on Farquhar, who led a spirited life of fishing and hard drinking. His poems "brought him more wormwood than golden opinions" (10). Farquhar's poems follow on 13-28. After the fables there is a sketch of life in Old Cregneish, and a listing of old Cregneish family names. Now here is an unusual fable book!
1901? Aesop's Fables. Edited by J.B. Rundell. Illustrated by Ernest Griset. Hardbound. Boston: Lothrop Publishing Company. $35 from Titles, Highland Park, March, '93.
I am very happy to get a copy of Rundell's version, quoted by Hobbs on 102. The Griset illustrations are well done here. Still, this book's special offering lies in the four full-color illustrations. These often render a scene that Griset has already done in black-and-white, and often lie far from their respective stories. They are of the lion, ass, and fox (frontispiece); WL (facing 90); TB (154, the best of the group, I think); and WC (210). Note that more than one bear is involved in the encounter with the travellers. No T of C or index. By contrast with two other copies that are bibliographically equivalent, this copy has a green cloth cover with a variety of animals. The spine shows King Stork.
1901? Aesop's Fables. Edited by J.B. Rundell. Illustrated by Ernest Griset. Boston: Lothrop Publishing Company. $30 from Donald Dupley, Omaha, Jan., '93.
I am very happy to get a copy of Rundell's version, quoted by Hobbs on 102. The Griset illustrations are well done here. Still, this book's special offering lies in the four full-color illustrations. These often render a scene that Griset has already done in black-and-white, and often lie far from their respective stories. They are of the lion, ass, and fox (frontispiece); WL (facing 34 in in Dupley and 90 in Titles); TB (154, the best of the group, I think); and WC (210). Note that more than one bear is involved in the encounter with the travellers. No T of C or index. Don Dupley had notified me to come to the sale for another Aesop; he did not know that he had this book. This copy has FC on the front-cover and Alice on the back-cover. It is inscribed in 1902. I found the two copies of this book with different covers within six weeks of each other.
1901? Aesop's Fables. Edited by J.B. Rundell. Illustrated by Ernest Griset. Hardbound. Boston: Lothrop Publishing Company. $6.50 from the House of Fiction, Pasadena, August, '93.
This book is almost identical with another I have from the same publisher, but which I bought from Don Dupley in Omaha in January of 1993. Like it, this book has FC in strong colors on its front-cover. However it has on its back-cover not Alice but a lion looking into water and seeing its own reflection. Both of these copies are different from the copy purchased from Titles, which has a green cloth cover picturing many animals, with King Stork on its spine. I will include my remarks on the Dupley copy. I am very happy to get a copy of Rundell's version, quoted by Hobbs on 102. The full-color illustrations are placed differently here, and one of the four seems to be missing. They are of the lion, ass, and fox (frontispiece); TB (86, the best of the group, I think); and WL (facing 157). WC seems to be missing; TB has already separated and may not have been bound in at 86. Note that more than one bear is involved in the encounter with the travellers (36). The spine is cracked between 30 and 31. No T of C or index. I found the three copies of this book with different covers within eight months of each other.
1901? Fables de La Fontaine: �dition annot�e a l'usage de la jeunesse. �mile Gu�rin, �diteur. Illustrations de Hadamar et Desandr�. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie de Th�odore Lef�vre & Cie. $50 from Academy Book Store, NY, Jan., '99.
Bodemann #339.2. The special feature of this fragile little volume is the series of nine (hand-colored?) full-page illustrations inserted with slipsheets into the book. They include: "L'Enfant et le maitre d'ecole" (19), "L'Astrologue qui se laisse tombe dans un puits" (39), MSA (41), "Le Berger et la mer" (59), TB (a favorite of mine, 101), MM (133), "L'Ours et l'amateur des jardins" (159), "Le Gland et la citrouille" (190), and "Le Vieillard et les trois jeunes hommes" (241). The illustrations, printed on only one side of the page, are carefully inserted so that they refer to the text facing them. There is an AI at the back. See now under "1881?" my comments on the earlier edition of this book. Inscribed in French in 1909. Ex Libris Gertrud Goldschmid with a German ex libris label.
1901? Fables de La Fontaine: �dition annot�e a l'usage de la jeunesse. �mile Gu�rin, �diteur. Illustrations de Hadamar et Desandr�. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie de Th�odore Lef�vre & Cie. $9.99 from Klaas Kee, Zwolle, Netherlands, through eBay, May, '09.
This book is exactly identical with another copy in the collection except for the very last line on the last page. Where that book has "1835-0-- Corbeil. Imprimerie Cr�t�" this volume has "10593-00. -- Corbeil. Imprimerie Cr�t�." Perhaps someday having this copy at hand will help someone comparing various printings of the same book. For me the difference in hand-painting of the nine illustrations is fascinating! I will excerpt some of my comments there but note that this volume is even more fragile. Bodemann #339.2. The special feature of this fragile little volume is the series of nine (hand-colored?) full-page illustrations inserted into the book. The lack of slipsheets with them constitutes, I suppose, a second difference. The illustrations include: "L'Enfant et le maitre d'ecole" (19), "L'Astrologue qui se laisse tomber dans un puits" (39), MSA (41), "Le Berger et la mer" (59), TB (a favorite of mine, 101), MM (133), "L'Ours et l'amateur des jardins" (159), "Le Gland et la citrouille" (190), and "Le Vieillard et les trois jeunes hommes" (241). The illustrations, printed on only one side of the page, are carefully inserted so that they refer to the text facing them. There is an AI at the back. See now under "1881?" my comments on an earlier edition of this book.
1901? Fables de La Fontaine: �dition annot�e a l'usage de la jeunesse. Illustrations de Hadamar et Desandr�. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie de Th�odore Lef�vre & �mile Gu�rin. $14.50 from Chars Books and Collectibles through eBay, Sept., '15.
I think I have just made a discovery. I thought I was ordering yet another copy of a book I have four times over. I bought it to see how the hand-colored illustrations would turn out in yet another copy. That experiment worked, for "L'Enfant et le Maitre d'Ecole" (19), for example, is indeed different in detail from the other four copies. But there is an additional surprise here. All four of those copies were published by "Th�odore Lef�vre, �diteur." This copy is published by "Librairie Th�odore Lef�vre et �mile Gu�rin." Elsewhere I have guessed that Gu�rin joined the operation between 1881 and 1901. Otherwise this copy seems identical with those four. Let me note the exceptions to this general declaration. The title-page has a "TL" insignia, as in two of the four. Its last page has "8372-87 Corbeil. Typ, et Ster. Cr�t�." None of the other four have this combination of elements. I wrote earlier "Perhaps someday having this copy at hand will help someone comparing various printings of the same book. For me the difference in hand-painting of the nine illustrations is fascinating!" The illustrations include: Enfant et le maitre d'ecole" (19), "L'Astrologue qui se laisse tomber dans un puits" (39), MSA (41), "Le Berger et la mer" (59), TB (a favorite of mine, 101), MM (133), "L'Ours et l'amateur des jardins" (159), "Le Gland et la citrouille" (190), and "Le Vieillard et les trois jeunes hommes" (241). The illustrations, printed on only one side of the page, are carefully inserted so that they refer to the text facing them. There is an AI at the back.
1901? The Book of Fables: Containing Aesop's Fables. Complete, with text based upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. With Copious Additions from other Modern Authors. No illustrations. NY: F.M. Lupton. Gift of Mary Pat Ryan from Pleasant Street Books in Woodstock, Vermont, Dec., '89.
Identical plates with the edition by the same publisher that I have listed under "1902?." This edition has a different cover and different paper; it also lists an address for the Lupton Publishing Company. This book has not held up well with the years. The paper and inking remind one of the Arlington Edition (1899?) by Hurst.
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1902 - 1903
1902 Babrius: Fables: Texte Grec. Publi� � l'usage des classes avec une introduction, des notes et un lexique. Par A.M. Desrousseaux. Quatri�me �dition revue et corrig�e. Paris: Hachette. $6 at Straat in Amsterdam, Dec., '88.
A standard small text in a series I had not known. AI of the fables at the back.
1902 Child Life in Tale and Fable: A Second Reader. By Etta Austin Blaisdell and Mary Frances Blaisdell. Illustrations by Sears Gallagher. Hardbound. NY: MacMillan. See 1899/1902.
1902 Fables. Robert Louis Stevenson. With Six Etchings by Ethel King Martyn. Hardbound. Printed in Edinburgh. London, NY, and Bombay: Longmans, Green and Co. $50 from Tomasz Wysocki, Annandale, VA, through Ebay, Sept., '00.
See my comments under two Scribner editions (1914 and 1923) of the same twenty short pieces. A preface by the illustrator's brother ("G.K.M.") offers the rationale for this book: "The book is the outcome of the wish of a few to possess in a separate form the Fables of Robert Louis Stevenson, hitherto included with other work, and also to have bound with them the Etchings of my sister." The etchings, he notes, had already been seen at the Exhibition of the Painter-Etchers in 1902. As Richard Drury has explained to me, the fables were first published in two numbers of Longmans Magazine in 1895 and then as part of the volume of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde with Other Fables. He sees no reason to doubt Longmans' claim here that this is the first time that they are brought together and published separately. In fact a two-page introductory comment titled "Fables" (xi-xii) relates the same history in more detail. Stevenson had enough traditional fables by 1887-88 together with a few longer ones to promise a book of them to Longmans in spring of 1888. One or two were added to the group in the next six years, though his mind seemed to be elsewhere. The collection was certainly not what its author had meant it to be. After his death, his representatives thought the fables of sufficient interest to be handed to Longmans for publication first in their magazine and then in a new edition of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. This comment. signed "S.C.," is in my Scribner's edition of 1923 but not in their fancy large edition illustrated by Herman in 1914. The etchings are listed on ix. The last of them, "The Song of the Morrow" (91), may be the most engaging.
1902 More Fables. George Ade. Illustrated by Clyde J. Newman. Hardbound. Chicago/NY: Herbert S. Stone. See 1900/02.
1902? Fables for Little Folks. Untearable linen. Paperbound. New York/London/Paris: Father Tuck's "Little Pets" Series: Raphael Tuck & Sons, Co. �2 from T. Jacombs, South Devon, England, through eBay, Dec., '03.
This little pamphlet-like booklet with cardboard covers and "untearable linen" pages almost replicates a booklet from Raphael Tuck & Sons for which I have guessed a date of 1905. But a good deal is different in the book. The cover is not itself linen and it rearranges several elements, including the placement of "Untearable Linen" and the coloring, along the branch of a tree, of "Father Tuck's 'Little Pets' Series." This cover adds "Printed in Germany." In fact, the "linen" here has the feel of cardboard! The colored illustrations actually come out much better on this surface than on the linen. The plates are the same, but the ink for text has changed from brown to green. The final contrast is that I paid over $50 less for this book! The booklet contains several inscriptions dating it to 1902, 1904, and 1948. Let me adapt the comments I made there. Fourteen fables, generally about two to a page. Each has one illustration, either green-and-white (the same green as the print) or colored. DM happens to have both. FC's colored picture is the front cover. Besides the cover, there are four pages of colored illustrations. The only new story element I find here is that the hare finds the tortoise dozing at the finish line! I love the old colored pictures here, especially the FC on the cover and BC.
1902 (Palmer Cox's) Juvenile Budget. Containing Queer People with Paws, Claws, Wings, Stings, And Others Without Either; Goblins, Giants, Merrymen and Monarchs, Stories of Their Mischievous Pranks and Humorous Doings. By Palmer Cox. Chicago: M.A. Donohue and Company. $5 at Jackson Street, March, '93.
I am glad to have an excuse for including among fable editions this oversize book in terrible condition with board covers and almost no spine left. My excuse is that it contains LaFontaine's story about the two rats and the egg (Fables 9.19). Here the two rats have become three mice. Cox excells in lively grotesqueries, and this volume is no exception. The cheap paper and time have worked together to make the impressions of many of the engravings blotted. Unpaginated.
1902 Stepping Stones to Literature: A First Reader. Sarah Louise Arnold and Charles B. Gilbert. NY: Silver, Burdett. See 1897/1902.
1902 Stepping Stones to Literature: A Second Reader. Sarah Louise Arnold and Charles B. Gilbert. Special State Edition. NY: Silver, Burdett. See 1897/1902.
1902 Stepping Stones to Literature: A Third Reader. Sarah Louise Arnold and Charles B. Gilbert. NY: Silver, Burdett. See 1897/1902.
1902 The Animal Story Book. Edited by Ernest Thompson-Seton. Volume VI of "Young Folks' Library" in 20 volumes, Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Editor-in-chief. Boston: Hall and Locke. $3 at Delavan Booksellers, Aug., '87.
Includes some eleven fables from Aesop and four from LaFontaine (and Piers Plowman's BC). Abundant black-and-white illustrations, done by a variety of people: Dor�, Fellman?, Prunair?. There are colored illustrations elsewhere in the book.
1902 The Fables of Phaedrus. For the Use of Schools with introduction, notes and vocabulary by the Rev. G[eorge] H[erbert] Nall. Elementary Classics. London: Macmillan and Co. See 1895/1902.
1902 The Fables of Phaedrus Books I and II. Edited with Introduction, Notes and Vocabulary by J.H. Flather. Apparent first edition. Hardbound. The Cambridge series for schools and training colleges. Printed in England. Cambridge: At the University Press. $10 from Gibson's Books, Owens Cross Roads, AL, June, '98.
Lamb #829. Carnes #733a. With its Latin texts and English notes, this text is meant for students "not sufficiently advanced to commence the study of Caesar." There is an introduction at the front of the book and a vocabulary at the back. This is one book in Carnes and Lamb that seems not to have been reprinted or reproduced.
1902 The Heart of Oak Books: First Book. Rhymes, Jingles, and Fables. Edited by Charles Eliot Norton. Illustrators not acknowledged. Boston: D.C. Heath and Co. See 1895/1902.
1902 The Heart of Oak Books: Second Book. Fables and Nursery Tales. Revised Edition. Edited by Charles Eliot Norton. Illustrator apparently Frank T. Merrill. Boston: D.C. Heath and Co. See 1895/1902/07.
1902? Aesop's Fables: New Series: Books for the Bairns.-XXVI. Edited by W.T. Stead. With 152 Sketches by Brinsley le Fanu. Hardbound. London: "Review of Reviews" Office. See 1899?/1902?.
1902? Fables de La Fontaine racont�es par l'Oncle Tuck. Paperbound. Paris: Librairie Artistique de la Jeunesse, No. 610: Raphael Tuck & Fils. �25 from Johanson Rare Books, Baltimore, at the Paris International Book Fair, July, '09.
This French pamphlet seems to replicate two editions of Fables for Little Folks, for which I have guessed dates of 1902 and 1905. This has neither cardboard nor linen covers nor linen pages. The series is not "Father Tuck's 'Little Pets' Series" but rather "Librairie Artistique de la Jeunesse, No. 610." Texts are in blue and green ink. There are fourteen fables, generally about two to a page. Each has one illustration, either the same color as the print or many-colored. DM happens to have both. FC's colored picture is the front cover. Besides the cover, there are four pages of colored illustrations. I love the old colored pictures here, especially the FC on the cover and BC. The edges are crumbling, and the spine has been repaired.
1902? Fables for Little Folks. Untearable linen. Paperbound. New York/London/Paris: Father Tuck's "Little Pets" Series: Raphael Tuck & Sons, Co. �2 from T. Jacombs, South Devon, England, through eBay, Dec., '03.
This little pamphlet-like booklet with cardboard covers and "untearable linen" pages almost replicates a booklet from Raphael Tuck & Sons for which I have guessed a date of 1905. But a good deal is different in the book. The cover is not itself linen and it rearranges several elements, including the placement of "Untearable Linen" and the coloring, along the branch of a tree, of "Father Tuck's 'Little Pets' Series." This cover adds "Printed in Germany." In fact, the "linen" here has the feel of cardboard! The colored illustrations actually come out much better on this surface than on the linen. The plates are the same, but the ink for text has changed from brown to green. The final contrast is that I paid over $50 less for this book! The booklet contains several inscriptions dating it to 1902, 1904, and 1948. Let me adapt the comments I made there. Fourteen fables, generally about two to a page. Each has one illustration, either green-and-white (the same green as the print) or colored. DM happens to have both. FC's colored picture is the front cover. Besides the cover, there are four pages of colored illustrations. The only new story element I find here is that the hare finds the tortoise dozing at the finish line! I love the old colored pictures here, especially the FC on the cover and BC.
1902? The Book of Fables: Containing Aesop's Fables. Complete, with text based upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. With copious additions from other modern authors. No illustrations. NY: F.M. Lupton. $4 at Renaissance, June, '88.
Quite similar to the Arlington Edition (1899?), except for rearrangement and different spellings in titles. A "note" added to the editor's preface indicates the addition of 130 fables not in the first and second editions. Exhaustive T of C. After 156 pages of Aesop, there are "Later Fables." In fact, the text is so eager to get to the later fables that there is no 157 or 158! The text seems exactly identical with that in the Homewood edition. This book contains the customary 266 fables from Rundell found generally in "JBR" versions, and the 132 later fables.
1903 Aesop's Fables in rhyme for children. By Richardson D. White and Margaret D. Longley. Decorated by Charles Livingston Bull. Hardbound. Akron, OH: The Saalfield Publishing Company. $75 from Smith & Co. Booksellers, Reno, NV, through ABE, March, '00.
The charm of this very charming oversized (9�" x 12") book begins with the front and back covers, which show, respectively, the two scenes of FS. In the first, the fox winks at the viewer over an empty soup-bowl. In the latter, he is in profile with his visible eye closed as he sits before a tall vase. The book contains fifty fables, each presented in a two-page spread with text on the left and a full-page half-tone illustration right. The illustrations are, as the bookseller's description mentions, "powerful and sometimes slightly disturbing." A good example is BW (17). Among the best illustrations are TB (7), DS (8), CW (14), "The Bald Man and the Fly" (16), "The Miser" (21), "The Ass's Brains" (32), "The Hares and the Frogs" (33), and DM (46). The texts are all done in verse. The text for DS (8) speaks of meat but the illustration shows a bone. In FK (9), Jupiter relents and takes away the stork king! I have never seen that before! The cat maiden's chase takes place at the banquet, where the mouse has entered by chance (14). There is no reprisal here for her behavior. Jupiter had changed her to prove that a being's nature could change. SW (28) is told in the poorer form. LS includes the jackal, fox, and wolf as the lion's three "partners." "The Sick Lion" (45) is not about the shame of being attacked by an ass, but about the shame of being attacked by any creatures while dying. There is an AI at the front, which gives the number of the story in order. There are no page numbers in the book.
1903 Fifty Fables by La Fontaine. With introduction, notes, and vocabulary by Kenneth McKenzie. NY: American Book Company. $3 at The Book House on Grand, St. Paul, July, '94. Extra copy for $.89 at Constant Reader, Jan., '94.
This book provides just what its title and subtitle promise. The notes are helpful tips at the bottom of the page. The book is valuable among other things for showing which fables were considered well known or especially worthy of consideration around the turn of the century.
1903 Language Lessons: A First Book in English. Wilbur Fisk Gordy and William Edward Mead. Hardbound. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. $7.50 from Daedalus & Daedalus East, Charlottesville, VA, April, '98.
This beginning textbook uses a number of fables early in varying ways to teach its lessons. MM (10), DS (16), GGE (38), "The Flies and the Honey" (41), "The Boys and the Frogs" (42), and "Fable" by Emerson (44) start the parade. In "The Stag at the Lake" (49, with illustration), the stag complains not about his legs but about his feet as "thin and ugly." "The Owl and the Grasshopper" (56) has two illustrations. "The Cat, the Monkey, and the Chestnuts" (60) is well told. For "The Wise Man and the Stars" (62) only brief hints are given about how to tell this fable. In "The Farmer's Sons" (74), the farmer mentions that the treasure is hid within a foot of the surface: "You will find it if you dig carefully." For "Two Goats" (79, illustrated) the story is just begun. In "The Miser and His Gold" (87) he buries his bright gold dollars not in a hole but in a chest, and a neighbor gives him a bag of smooth pebbles and recommends that he hide them. Last in the parade is "The Blind Man and the Lame Man" (92). The book is in excellent condition.
1903 Modern Fables and Parables or Moral Truth in a Nutshell. Rev. W. S. Harris. Illustrated by Paul Krafft, J.R. Connor, Harry E. Knouse, and others. Elgin, IL: Brethren Publishing House. $17.50 through the web from Joann White, White Papers, Independence, CT, Sept., '97.
This book seemed so promising! I have to admit that I am disappointed, even though it is a genuine curiosity, and I am delighted to have it. The cover features an embossed Heighway illustration of FS. The book includes 111 stories. Eighty-two of them are illustrated. The beginning has a T of C, as well as a list of illustrations. Two sections of Harris' preface strike me: "The great majority of these fables and parables are entirely new and were wrought out with careful analysis and patient toil." "No patience or time was spared to make these many illustrations the best that can be found in any book of its kind in the world." Wow! One example of an adapted fable is "The Vain Dog," FC all over again (328). The stories disappoint me because they are exaggerated or contrary to nature. Thus a hireling works so hard that he drops dead as he finishes meeting a challenge with a lucrative prize (47). A homeowner dynamites a rat hole and thus destroys the floor of his house (51)! A hen pecks her favorite eggs and so spoils them (108). A fish tires out a bird in a fight (109). A camel buys a dynamite-laden candle to see his way through the night (159). For all this criticism, there is something naturally fetching in this book for me. Not the least of its attractions is the good sense one finds in a moral like this: "When you measure yourself with your own hand, count twelive inches for a foot and then deduct one-half" (53). "The Bug and the Capitalist" (26) presents social criticism of capitalism that I would not have expected here.
1903 Slang Fables from Afar. Al Kleberg. Baltimore: Phoenix Publishing Co. Good copy with green cover for $14 from Roger Carlson at Bookman's Alley, Evanston, August, '96. Extra copy with red cover for $9 from Roger.
A surprising find full of questions, first of all because it seems George Ade is not the sole proprieter of the "slang fable" genre. Secondly, we have here two books with nothing to differentiate them but the different-colored background of their covers. Asked why they should be different, Roger theorized that the publisher ran out of one sort of stock and began to use the other. Thirdly, why are these fables "from afar"? Fourthly, why put quotations marks after the title (on the cover) but not before it? The most frequent theme seems to be that in romance, the bigger they come, the harder they fall. Often big talkers meet their match or their Waterloo�or both in one! There is a great moral on 63: "Everyone has a calling but most of us answer someone else�s." Though the work�s charm is not as great as that of Ade�s, the locus is principally the same, in the fun of well-used idiom, now almost a century old. Like Ade, Kleberg likes to turn to capital letters for emphasis.
1903 The Fables of Aesop and Others with Designs on Wood. By Thomas Bewick. A New Edition. Reproduced in facsimile from the Editions printed at Newcastle by E. Walker for T. Bewick and Son in 1818 and 1823. NY: D. Appleton & Company. See 1818/1903.
1903 The Fables of Aesop Based on the Texts of L'Estrange and Croxall. Smaller format (5�"x 6�"). Edited by J. Walker McSpadden. Illustrations by Percy Billinghurst (unacknowledged). Hardbound. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. $15 from Bailey's Internet Book Store, Farmington, Iowa, through Bibliofind, Oct., '98.
This book is to a large extent identical with the one from the same publisher that I have listed under "1910?" The selection and placement of illustrations seem to be slightly different (though in both cases from Billinghurst). There the title-page is missing, and so it is not clear whether J. Walker McSpadden is there identified as editor as he is here. In some similar editions, there is no further indication of editing than the initials "J.W.M." at the end of the "Introduction." Further, the only indication of date is here on the back of the title-page, and so that information is lacking there too. See my comments there and also my comments on the "Books, Inc." editions listed under "1925?" and "1930?" Here the eight Billinghurst black-and-white illustrations are FC (frontispiece), LM (10), "The Fox and the Goat" (28), FWT (48), FS (86), FG (116), FK (170), and TH (218). There is an AI on xi. There are 230 pages and 330 fables. A quick check suggests that some narratives are taken verbatim from the Rundell versions that are based on "Croxall, La Fontaine and L'Estrange" but without using their morals, while some other texts are adapted from there. Tracking that development among knock-off texts around the turn of the century would be interesting someday. The text plates of this book are identical with those in the two copies I have of a 1903 book from Crowell in larger format with a similar cover and an identical title-page. This copy was inscribed in 1916.
1903 The Fables of Aesop Based on the Texts of L'Estrange and Croxall. Larger format: 5�"x 7�". Edited by J. Walker McSpadden. Illustrations by Percy Billinghurst (unacknowledged). Hardbound. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. Green-covered copy from an unknown source sometime before May, '00. Extra copy with a cream cover for $15 from The Gallagher Collection, Denver, June, '98.
These two books use the identical plates used to make the smaller format book published by Crowell in the same year. Thus they have 230 pages and 330 fables. See my comments there. These books have a slightly larger format and use wider margins. They also take a slightly different approach to the illustrations, removing the FC frontispiece and putting it on 202. Instead there is a frontispiece of DS that may be done after a Billinghurst illustration, but it lacks the typical frame given his illustrations here. In the good green-covered copy the frontispiece includes pink tint. Several other illustrations are moved slightly. The roster of Billinghurst illustrations here is thus LM (10), "The Fox and the Goat" (26), FWT (42), FS (90), FG (122), FK (171), and TH (218). The cream-colored copy lacks the FS illustration. There is no illustration in either copy for FK, though there is a suspicious gap in the green-covered copy between 170 and 171. The cream-colored copy is inscribed in 1921. It is especially clear on the green cover that the eyes of the peacock's feathers are imprinted into the book's cover.
1903 The First Reader: The New Century Catholic Series. No author or illustrator acknowledged. NY: Benziger Brothers. $6.50 at Adams Avenue, San Diego, Aug., '93.
Five fables, several of them interrupted by a few pages and then abruptly started again. There is a good deal of Spanish vocabulary written into the book near the appropriate English words. Fables here include: FC (58), BC (65, 70), "The Fox and the Goat" (72, 77, illustrated), FG (96, illustrated), and TH (100). Some foxing.
1903 The Girl Proposition. A Bunch of He and She Fables. By George Ade. With illustrations, in imitation of the old-style wood-cuts, by John T. McCutcheon, Frank Holme, Carl Werntz, and Clyde J. Newman. NY: (c)1902 by Robert Howard Russell. $3.50 at Powell's, Portland, July, '93.
More vintage Ade, concentrated this time on questions of marriage. I have read three stories here and enjoyed them. This may be a first edition; it is difficult to know what to do with a book from the original publisher with a title-page date just one year after its copyright date. The simple illustrations are delightful.
1903 The Golden Windows. A Book of Fables for Young and Old. By Laura E. Richards. Capitals by J.W.R. Illustrations by Arthur E. Becker. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. $20 by mail from Burstein, Waltham, Dec., '93.
Perhaps the most attractive feature of this book is the lovely hand-coloring of the title page and of the fable-beginning capitals. The book is in excellent condition. The texts are too much for me: heavy on angels, do-gooder philosophy, and sentiment. The purpose seems to be to impart spiritual lessons. I stopped reading when a "play angel" appeared in the nursery in "The Great Feast."
1903 The Third Reader: The New Century Catholic Series. No author or illustrator acknowledged. NY: Benziger Brothers. $2 at Country Collectibles, Louisville, NE, Oct., '92.
This reader has all sorts of uplifting little stories, but includes among them MSA (194). There is one striking black-and-white illustration. This version differs from the usual in that the donkey breaks his cords and gallops away at the end of the story.
1903 Wheeler's Graded Readers: A Second Reader. Gail Calmerton and William H. Wheeler. Chicago: W.H. Wheeler and Company. $2 at Pageant, NY, May, '91.
Six Aesopic fables without illustration. DS (35) has an engaging pre-history. TH (113) has rabbit visit his friends after a rest; he asks at the finish how long he will have to wait. WS (134) has a bet over who can "make him take off his coat." The other stories are "The Merchant and the Donkey" (76), FG (108), and "The Hare and the Hound" (116). Page 85 has the same picture as 44 of Rational Reading (1899).
1903/04 The Girl Proposition. A Bunch of He and She Fables. By George Ade. With illustrations, in imitation of the old-style wood-cuts, by John T. McCutcheon, Frank Holme, Carl Werntz, and Clyde J. Newman. (c)1902 by Robert Howard Russell. NY: Harper & Brothers. $12 at Booknook Parnassus, Evanston, Dec., '92.
See my comments on the Russell edition of 1903. The margins are bigger here, but the plates seem exactly the same. I am still betting that the copyright date (1902) is not the date of original publication (1903?) and that my Russell copy of 1903 is thus a first edition.
1903/06 The Silver-Burdett Readers: Second Book. By Ella M. Powers and Thomas M. Balliet. No illustrator acknowledged. NY: Silver, Burdett, and Co. $.10, Summer, '89.
This schoolbook is in very poor shape: a few pages are missing, and the worms have eaten some good holes into the book. There are eleven fables, most with good simple illustrations. The maid carries not milk but eggs, and the moral gets easier; the illustration follows that version and would be worth using.
1903? Golden Days. Story Book. No authors or illustrators mentioned. NY: McLoughlin Bros. $3, Spring, '86.
A big old kids' book in terrible shape, but it has one fable in it: FG in poetry. The illustration has three foxes jumping for the grapes.
1903? The Book of Fables: Containing Aesop's Fables. Complete, with text based upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. No illustrations. NY: F.M. Lupton. $27 at Green Apple, March, '97.
Very close to my "1902?" Lupton edition, right down to the good paper, the good printing, and the numerous empty pages at the end. As is usual for these Lupton editions (see 1900?, 1901?, and 1902?), a "note" added to the editor's preface indicates the addition of 130 fables not in the first and second editions, there is an exhaustive T of C, and after 156 pages of Aesop, there are "Later Fables." In fact, the text is so eager to get to the later fables that in each of these Lupton copies there is no 157 or 158! Unlike other Lupton editions, this book does not say "With Copious Additions from Other Modern Authors" on the title-page or anywhere. This book adds a design on the title-page, and is larger, with larger margins. It has a gold-printed floral pattern on its red cover and spine. Its pages show an unusual riff on their side-edges.
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1904 - 1905
1904 A Child's Version of Aesop's Fables. J.H. Stickney. Illustrations by Gustave Dor�, Harrison Weir, and F. Myrick, none of them acknowledged. Hardbound. Boston: Home and School Library: Ginn and Co. $4 from Cathy & Tom Mamoone, Canandaigua, NY, through EBay, Sept., '03.
This seems to be an exact reprinting of the 1891 version, of which I have a copy. As I mention there, various people worked on the text, and the illustrations seem to be from Dor�, Weir, and a certain F. Myrick. Let me expand a bit on my short remarks there. The body of the work contains 125 fables. A supplement brings fourteen verse fables from La Fontaine and eleven prose "Russian Fables of Krilof." Several fables in the supplement repeat in their own way the stories that were presented in the body of the work. Thus FG occurs on 15 and again on 147. Almost every page lists several words at the top with helps for pronouncing them. This copy is in good condition. From the library of Jean Quirk.
1904 A Little Book of Profitable Tales. Eugene Field. Hardbound. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. Gift, Sept., '06.
I was tempted to bypass this book in my cataloguing. But I chanced to read "The Oak-Tree and the Ivy" (105-112). Though longer than a traditional fable, its basic structure is that, I believe, of a fable. The oak grandly accepts the love of the ivy at his feet. Condescendingly, even, he will protect her and be good to her. In the meantime, she keeps growing upwards. She follows his invitations to cling close in storms. After some time, they are married, but he still sees himself as the protector and still sees her as the young thing at his feet. One fierce storm comes that knocks down many trees. When the oak prevails against the storm, the storm king in anger hurls a thunderbolt that cracks the oak into two. But the tender ministrations of his loving ivy bind up his wounds so that no one can see them. She now tells him stories: not his stories of the heroes, winds, and oceans but rather sweeter "tales of contentment, of humility, of love" (111). Nice!
1904 Aesop's Fables. Based on L'Estrange. Illustrated by Maud U. Clarke. Hardbound. Printed in London. London: Cassell and Company. From Bruce Monroe, Solon, Maine, through Ebay, June, '00.
There are several surprises in this book. The first is that I had never heard of this book before it appeared on Ebay. The second is the simple but striking colored cloth pictorial cover showing a frog and a mouse battling, with an eagle about to swoop down on them. The third surprise is the quantity of fables here. This is a heavy book! I find no less than 527 fables here. That is even more than the 500 that L'Estrange had offered. There is a list of Clarke's 101 illustrations on xi-xiv. What strikes me most about these black-and-white illustrations is their varied form. Contrast the two simple designs on x and xi, for example. One is an asymmetrical landscape, while the other is an almost complete circle with a defining band around it. Still others come in complex and unusual shapes, like the cat hanging from the peg on xiv. I have seldom seen as vivid a presentation of "The Cock and the Dog on a Journey" as in the illustration on 89. Some pages are torn and some loose, but all seem to be present. There is a T of C at the beginning and an AI at the end. This book has spent some of its ninety-seven years in someone's damp basement.
1904 Aesop's Fables (Cover and Spine: Aesop's Fables for Children). Arranged for children by Nellie Perkins Dobbs. Illustrated by Lydia Grant. Topeka: Crane & Company. $7.47 from Lindall James, Whitman, NE, through eBay. Extra copy for $22 from Drusilla, July, '95.
I have found a surprising amount in this unprepossessing little book of ninety-four fables based on the versions of Croxall and l'Estrange. The introduction finds that there are 231 fables attributed to Aesop, apparently in addition to those attributed to Babrius. "Fables which, like `The One-Eyed Doe,' present an offense insufficient to justify the punishment, excite pity in the reader to such an extent that the teaching of the fable is lost sight of" (7-8). The introduction further argues that "In the illustrations of the commonly known editions, the triumph of the strong over the weak and helpless, and the death agonies of our dearly loved pet animals, play, we believe, a too important part." The pictures of this book thus aim "to portray the quainter, friendlier, and more lovable aspect of the characters" (8). Finally, there are no morals here because children are quick to grasp the flaw that leads to the tragedy. Several fables here are new to me: "The Cock and the Fox" (83), "A Cock and Horses" (99), and "The Mouse and the Boasting Rat" (103). Several are differently told. The old woman had three maids; she somehow had learned that they killed her cock and awakened them at midnight as revenge for that murder (19). "The Hares and the Frogs in a Storm" (25) adds new background in the storm, in the hares' desire simply to change their habitat, and in their path being blocked by a lake. "The Ass Eating Thistles" (36) shortens Croxall's version so much as to lose pointedness. Is it usual for the ass to run away while its owner and the man who hired it are arguing (73)? There are two different versions of DLS here (72 and 88), with the owner and the fox, respectively, finding the ass out. In "Jupiter and the Two Wallets" (97), "it took some pains to see the one behind him," whereas he usually cannot see the rear wallet at all. In TH (100), there is a distance--five miles--and a sum indicated: five pounds in a book published in the United States! There is no rock mentioned in the suggestion to the miser who had buried his gold (105). "The Bear and the Gardener" (119) has the bear paid with food and lodging for the work of keeping off the flies. On the other hand, "The Monkey and the Cat" (57) is unusually well told. The illustrations are initials and therefore unfortunately small. Perhaps the best of them presents the orator frog on 15. T of C at the beginning. The good copy is in excellent condition. Several pages of the extra copy are slightly torn: 48, 69, 110, 112.
1904 Anna Karenin, Volume III; Fables and Stories for Children; Miscellaneous Articles. By Count Lev N. Tolstoy, Translated from the Original Russian and edited by Professor Leo Wiener. First edition. Hardbound. Illustrated Sterling Edition. Printed in Boston. Boston: Dana Estes & Company, Publishers. $20 from Books Galore, DeSoto, MO, through Interloc, Feb., '98.
Two volumes seem to be bound together here, at least according to the publisher's pagination. After Anna Karenin finishes on 411, there is a new T of C including "Aesop's Fables" on 3, "Adaptations and Imitations of Hindoo Fables" on 19, and "Stories for Children" on 39. Among the forty-five texts in "Aesop's Fables" there is only one surprise. A polecat substitutes for a snake in licking his own blood from a file (3). Among the thirty-two fables of the Hindoo section, the snake's head and tail separate, and the tail immediately falls into a hole and is lost (19). Many of these are new to me--and good! Enjoy these stories for starters: the thread so fine that it cannot be seen (19); the servant who when shopping has to take a bite out of each pear to know if they are all good (22); the hen who does not know how to raise her chicks and so asks them to go back into their shells (34); and the goat who sees the cow being rewarded for standing still during milking and so stands still the next day when he is supposed to move (36). Among the "Stories for Children" one finds "The Peasant and the Cucumbers" (40) but no others that might qualify as fables. The five illustrations listed on vii are concerned with other literature than the fables.
1904 At the Big House. Where Aunt Nancy and Aunt 'Phrony Held Forth on the Animal Folks. By Anne Virginia Culbertson. Illustrated by E. Warde Blaisdell. Inscribed in 1908. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company. Gift of Diana Gunderson at Demontreville Retreat House, July, '94.
A wonderful and surprising gift! Diana is the secretary and brought the book for me to look at when I mentioned Aesop's fables. I never would have found it on my own. The book contains some fifty stories put into the mouths of, respectively, a Black (Nancy) and a mixture of Black and Native American ('Phrony). Nancy's stories borrow from Aesop, as the introduction points out; I would add "somewhat distantly." The dialect is delightful and heavy. A normal reader might have to work at it for a while. I read the first few stories and enjoyed them thoroughly. Aunt Nancy points out at the beginning of her first story that Mis' Molly Hyar generally beats Mistah Slickry Sly Fox because it is the special gift of ladies that they get their own way, not with their fists but with their brains. "Menfolks is kind er clumsy an' lumbersome 'bout sech ez dat...." (6). The setting is delightful: a mother who grew up in the South returns there with her children one year after the end of the Civil War. The stories were collected from elderly story-tellers and edited. There is about one illustration per story. T of C at the front. Some of the early pages are loose.
1904 Classic Fables Selected and Edited for Primary Grades. Edna Henry Lee Turpin. Illustrations from Percy Billinghurst. NY: Maynard, Merrill, and Co. $1.50 from Constant Reader.
I think this little book's only distinguishing feature is its huge print! Complete T of C on 3 is helpful.
1904 Drittes Lesebuch f�r die deutschen katholischen Schulen in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nord-Amerika. Bearbeitet von mehreren Priestern und Lehrern. NY: Benziger Brothers. See 1873/1904.
1904 Fables Choisies de J. de La Fontaine/Fabulae Selectae J. Fontani Traduites en Prose Latine Par F�n�lon. F. de Salignac F�n�lon ; L'abb� J. B�zy. Paperbound. Paris: Alphonse Picard et Fils. �40 from Picard & Epona, Paris, August, '14.
Here is one of the strangest finds during a very productive weekend in Paris. In fact, Picard was my first stop, and this book was published by Picard 110 years ago! I had not known that F�n�lon had translated La Fontaine into Latin. That was the first surprise. Then I had no idea that someone had written a dissertation -- for that is what I presume that this work is -- on this abstruse topic. Notice the affidavits of the Rector and Dean of the University of Paris on 159. The work seems to cover only the first seven books of La Fontaine's twelve. It is engaging to see old French friends here show up in Latin! " "Vulpes et Uvae." "Musca et Formica." "Questor et Sutor." The book has an introduction and all the scholarly appendages, including four interpaginated photographs of manuscripts (e.g., 136-37) and four pages of errata (!) at the end. Most of the pages remain uncut.
1904 Fables for Children, Stories for Children, Natural Science Stories, Popular Education, Decembrists, Moral Tales. By Count Lev N. Tolstoy, Translated from the Original Russian and edited by Leo Wiener. Hardbound. Illustrated Cabinet Edition. Printed in Boston. Boston: Dana Estes & Company, Publishers. �12.50 from The Children's Bookshop, Hay-on-Wye, July, '98.
This book is exactly equivalent in texts and pagination to the second half of the "Illustrated Sterling Edition" of the same year by the same publisher. That is, it does not include the last portion of Anna Karenin that is present there. Thus, as there, we find here "Aesop's Fables" on 3, "Adaptations and Imitations of Hindoo Fables" on 19, and "Stories for Children" on 39. Among the forty-five texts in "Aesop's Fables" there is only one surprise. A polecat substitutes for a snake in licking his own blood from a file (3). Among the thirty-two fables of the Hindoo section, the snake's head and tail separate, and the tail immediately falls into a hole and is lost (19). Many of these are new to me--and good! Enjoy these stories for starters: the thread so fine that it cannot be seen (19); the servant who when shopping has to take a bite out of each pear to know if they are all good (22); the hen who does not know how to raise her chicks and so asks them to go back into their shells (34); and the goat who sees the cow being rewarded for standing still during milking and so stands still the next day when he is supposed to move (36). Among the "Stories for Children" one finds "The Peasant and the Cucumbers" (40) but no others that might qualify as fables. The three illustrations listed just after the T of C are concerned with other literature than the fables.
1904 Strenuous Animals: Veracious Tales. Edwin J. Webster. Illustrated by E.W. Kemble and Bob Addams. Originally sold at Miller & Paine in Lincoln. NY: Frederick A. Stokes Company. $30 in Lincoln (?), Dec., '93.
Eight folksy tales with a bit of slang reminiscent of George Ade. The tales generally go to show that animals--or at least the local ones--know what they are doing. Usually some local has a scheme using an animal in some unlikely way to make more money. So the imported grizzly trained to bring back any but cooked meat ends by blowing himself up running into a rock while he is full of nitroglycerine; the nitroglycerine was left for him by one of the local black bears whom he had earlier terrorized. Buster the bee gets drunk but returns repentant to take over his work as hive foreman. Bitters makes a great hunting dog (as well as a fighting dog) when his owner equips him with two inflatable balloons that make him much more fleet of foot--until a wily old wolf leads him over a fire. It would be hard to call these fables; they are delightful tall tales. The animals do go at things like hunting and fleeing strenuously; a phrase using the word "strenuous" occurs in each story. Lively illustrations!
1904 The Girl Proposition. A Bunch of He and She Fables. By George Ade. With illustrations, in imitation of the old-style wood-cuts, by John T. McCutcheon, Frank Holme, Carl Werntz, and Clyde J. Newman. (c)1902 by Robert Howard Russell. NY: Harper & Brothers. See 1903/04.
1904 Three Hundred Aesop's Fables. Literally translated from the Greek by the Rev. Geo. Fyler Townsend, M.A. With four plates printed in colours, and 114 illustrations by Harrison Weir. London: George Routledge and Sons. See 1885?/1904.
1904/05 At the Big House: Where Aunt Nancy and Aunt 'Phrony Held Forth on the Animal Folks. By Anne Virginia Culbertson. Illustrated by E. Warde Blaisdell. New Edition. Hardbound. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. $15 from Starry Night Antiques, Ellicott City, MD, Dec., '99.
This bigger new edition one year after the original publication (see my notes on the 1904 edition) is distinctive. It is 7" x 9" rather than 5" x 7�". It has only 233 pages, where the earlier edition had 348. But it uses the plates from the earlier edition. The book has reduced from some fifty stories to thirty-three. It makes up for this loss by supplying delightful marginal cartoons lacking in the original. I wager that there is a story here. Might the artist have been late for the first edition, or might the first edition have gone so well that the artist was recommissioned to produce cartoons in the same style? In any case, the full-page non-paginated illustrations listed on xi now are monotone rather than two or three colored, and though they follow the same patterns, they have been enlarged and some seem to have been redrawn for this edition. Contrast that facing 52 here with that facing 96 in the earlier edition, and compare that facing 58 here with that facing 102 there. There are fourteen such full-page monochrome illustrations in this book.
1904/08 Stories of Little Animals. By Lenore Elizabeth Mulets. Illustrated by Sophie Schneider. Princess Series. Phyllis' Field Friends. Boston: L.C. Page and Company. $2.50 at Time Traveler, June, '93.
Six Aesopic fables and one that reminds me of something from the Panchatantra: the fox gets the chickens off the limb by getting them dizzy (108). One story, LM (207), is told in unusual fashion. The mouse thinks about building a nest in the cave that happens to be the lion's nose. When he feels the blast of warm air coming out, he rethinks, but still nibbles around the nostrils. When the lion wakes up, the mouse runs in fright right into his mouth. The lion decides on his own that, since a mouse is not much of a meal, he may as well let him live. Farmers then catch the lion for eating their sheep. Neither victim has a chance to say thank you. Other fables: FS (130), "The Cat on the Peg" (212), TMCM (214), FM (217), and BC (220). No fable illustrations.
1904? A Child's Version of Aesop's Fables. J.H. Stickney. Illustrations after Gustave Dor�, Harrison Weir, and F. Myrick (?), NA. Hardbound. Boston: Home and School Library: Ginn and Co. $5 from Clare Leeper, July, '96.
This copy of Stickney's book is a duplicate of the 1904 Ginn edition, with three exceptions that I can find. First, Ginn is located now in Boston, New York, Chicago, and London. Secondly, this copy is not dated. Thirdly, the printing acknowledgement mentions The Atheneum Press and not J.S. Cushing. I will repeat some of my comments on that 1904 edition. It in its turn seems to be an exact reprinting of the 1891 version, of which I have a copy. As I mention there, various people worked on the text, and the illustrations seem to be from Dor�, Weir, and a certain F. Myrick (?). The body of the work contains 125 fables. A supplement brings fourteen verse fables from La Fontaine and eleven prose "Russian Fables of Krilof." Several fables in the supplement repeat in their own way the stories that were presented in the body of the work. Thus FG occurs on 15 and again on 147. Almost every page lists several words at the top with helps for pronouncing them. This copy is in poor condition. It once belonged to Ben Parnell in Baton Rouge, LA.
1904? Aesop's Fables in Words of One Syllable. By Mary Godolphin. Illustrator not acknowledged; the illustrations are after Weir and Griset. NY: Saalfield Publishing Company. $27.50 from Abracadabra, Denver, March, '99. Extra copy for $10 from Richard Kopp in Fort Dodge, Sept., '95.
This book is very similar to the edition of the same title from the same publisher that I have entered under 1905?, but it has a different cover (maroon on the good copy, with a black-and-white picture of LM, green on the extra copy, with the picture missing) and it inserts pages 92-5. Thus the (unnumbered) final page 92 in the "1905?" edition becomes the (numbered) page 96 in this edition. There is some pencilling in both copies. The plates seem more intact in this edition than in that. The illustrations in this book are a panorama of imitation. The most striking for me are the imitations of Griset's FS (59), "The Blind Man and the Lame Man" (81), FK (85), and UP (88). There is again no T of C. I will keep both copies in the collection.
1904? Aesop's Fables in Words of One Syllable. By Mary Godolphin. After Harrison Weir and Ernest Griset (NA). Hardbound. NY: Little Folks Classics: Saalfield. $9.99 from LeRoy Darwin, Grass Lake, MI, through eBay, May, '13.
Here is a book internally identical with another in the collection, but with a different cover. That copy has a maroon cloth cover with a black-and-white picture of LM pasted on. This has a colored board with a picture of two children reading books on a sofa. These two copies are almost identical with two others in the collection but are four pages longer, adding 92-95 here after 91 and before 96 here, which is identical therefore with 92 there. Is it sheer coincidence that those two volumes by Saalfield have the same motif on their cloth covers as this copy has on its boards but differently rendered? Again there one finds two children with books on a sofa. This copy features "Little Folks Classics" and "One Syllable" on its front and back covers. The back cover also repeats the colored picture of children reading on a sofa. This book is in poor condition. The spine is virtually gone and the covers and first and last pages loose. As I mentioned of its partner volume, the illustrations in this book are a panorama of imitation. The most striking for me are the imitations of Griset's FS (59), "The Blind Man and the Lame Man" (81), FK (85), and UP (88). There is no T of C.
1904? Fables de La Fontaine. Cent Fables Choisies. Illustrations de Henry Morin. Introduction de L. Tarsot. Henri Laurens, �diteur. Printed in France. Paris: Librairie Renouard. $60 at Bookhouse, Arlington, VA, at Silver Spring, Sept., '91.
One of the most beautiful books in the collection, and in very good condition. Apparently unknown to standard bibliographers like Quinnam, Hobbs, and Bassy, it is in my favorite private collection. It is well described in Bodemann in an edition of 1904. Might this undated copy belong to that edition? My other two copies are dated 1925 (paper) and 1932 (hardbound with a drak green cloth cover). The cover here has a gray background. The twelve full-page colored illustrations are particularly good, e.g., of GA (1), two pigeons (117), the little fish and the fisherman (137), and the oyster and the litigants (189). The best among the black-and-white line illustrations are of Death and the woodcutter (15), the hunter fleeing from the lion (30), the dog and food (36), the bear and the gardener (81), DW (91), the frog and the rat (150), and TB (151). Have I seen elsewhere the donkey cartoon before and the pigeon cartoon after the ending T of C? The closest artist generally may be Boutet de Monvel.
1904? Fables de La Fontaine: Cent Fables Choisies. Henri Laurens, �diteur. Illustrations de Henry Morin. Introduction de L. Tarsot. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Renouard. $19.99 from Jennifer Flanagan, Berkeley, CA, through eBay, Jan., '13.
This copy is almost identical with one other in the collection, for which I have used the same date, publisher, editor, and author. It has several subtle differences. It borrows from the paperback edition of 1925, which I have, a colorful internal front cover identical in design with the external cover. Facing the title-page it has not advertisements but books in the same series. I suspect that this is a later printing, undated like the first printing but unlike the paperback of 1925 and the hardbound edition of 1932, which give dates on their title pages. My suspicion that this is a later printing is confirmed, I believe, by a further difference. The other copy has on its last page "�vreux, Imprimerie Ch. H�rissy. -- 452." This copy has instead "�vreux, Imprimerie Ch. H�rissy et Fils." His son has now joined the printer business. That page is followed by a stiffer page corresponding to the internal cover, with the same design we find on the back cover of the 1925 paperback. As I said of the other copy, this is one of the most beautiful books in the collection. Apparently unknown to standard bibliographers like Quinnam, Hobbs, and Bassy, it is in my favorite private collection. It is well described in Bodemann in an edition of 1904. Might this undated copy belong to that edition? My other two copies are dated 1925 (paper) and 1932 (hardbound with a dark green cloth cover). The cover here has a gray background. The twelve full-page colored illustrations are particularly good, e.g., of GA (1), two pigeons (117), the little fish and the fisherman (137), and the oyster and the litigants (189). The best among the black-and-white line illustrations are of Death and the woodcutter (15), the hunter fleeing from the lion (30), the dog and food (36), the bear and the gardener (81), DW (91), the frog and the rat (150), and TB (151). Have I seen elsewhere the donkey cartoon before and the pigeon cartoon after the ending T of C? The closest artist generally may be Boutet de Monvel.
1905 Aesop's Fables. An Adaptation of the Translation from the Greek by the Rev. George F. Townsend. With an Introduction by Elisabeth Luther Cary. Illustrated by J.M. Cond�. First edition. NY: Moffat, Yard, and Co. $27.50 by mail from Cynthia K. Fowler in Louisville, June, '88. Extra copy for $40 from the Old Algonquin Bookstore, Denver, March, '94.
Sixteen wonderful colored illustrations in perfect condition, as well as about twenty less good etchings. The Fowler edition is inscribed in 1908; it is hard to believe that a 1905 book is in such good shape. LM (40), FWT (70), "The Squealing Pig" (105), DLS (156), "The Wolf Asking the Lamb for a Drink" (168), "The Fox and the Monkey in the Cemetery" (201), and FG (244) have the best pictures. AI at back. The Denver copy is missing a corner on 89, but the illustrations are still in excellent condition. See 1905/1913 for a reprint with changes.
1905 Fables de La Fontaine class�es par Ordre de Difficult� avec Notice en T�te de chaque Fable et notes. Par A. Gazier. 24th edition. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Armand Colin. $25 from Christian Tottino, Buenos Aires, through eBay, March, '15.
I have this book in its later editions of 1916 and 1920. Here, in the best condition of all, is the earliest of the three from 1905. As I mentioned there, it classifies and organizes La Fontaine's fables in three levels: suitable for little children, moderately difficult, and difficult. The book then drops those few fables--and those parts of fables--not suitable for children and presents these three levels with simple notes and pictures less of fables than of the objects one finds in each fable. Thus a second part starts on 81 and a third part on 159. The teacher can guide students from the less difficult through the more difficult. From the back, there is first of all a T of C, then an AI of fables presented here, then the classic division into twelve books with the corresponding page numbers here, and finally the fables. This copy is nicely bound in leather with marbled page edges.
1905 Fables et Po�sies. Choisies et illustr�es par M[arthe] E. Warnery. Tirage testreint, #476. Hardbound. Lausanne: A. Den�r�az-Spengler. �100 from Robin Greer, London, Oct., '07.
Oblong octavo. The illustrations here are designs, several to a page, done in the same color as the text. That color changes in the course of the book from green (1-30) to red (31-62) and blue (63-89). As the title indicates, much of what is offered here is poetry rather than fable. The first offering, for example, is a conversation between a woman and a merchant. He is trying to sell her mousetraps and rat-traps. She is uninterested, because her household has good cats. She asks him in turn if he might have a cage that would make a "two-legged mouse" more wise. "No, but I'll have one for you the next time." The story seems to come from F. de Gramont. The next offering, a fable between eglantine and a bumble-bee by E. Rambert, has the flower -- here depicted with a face growing from its center -- tell the bee "People give to those who ask and refuse those who command" (4). Starting on 12, the book presents more traditional La Fontaine fables: FS, WL, TH, TMCM, 2P. La Fontaine fables continue to mix in in the rest of the book. Florian gets in with "The Mole and the Hares" (46) and "The Monkeys and the Nut" (52). T of C at the back. Leather reinforcement for the binding and the corners.
1905 La Fontaine's Fables: A Selection. Pictured for Children by Carton Moore Park and Ren� Bull. Translated from the Original into English Verse by Edward Shirley. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons. �40.5 at Ripping Yarns, London, May, '97.
This wide book presents a classic La Fontaine from the early part of the century. Park's colored illustrations are large and lovely; the best are of FC and GA. The best of Bull's black-and-white illustrations are feet running from the disguised ass (56) and the frog's tombstone (62). The translator's best line is the frog's statement "I'd give my life to be as huge and corpulent as that." I will keep three copies (Ripping Yarns, Tom Luce, and Barns) in the collection. None is in excellent condition. Robin Greer now in December, '96, is selling a first edition ("6 color plates, 16 color text illustrations and 60 other illustrations") for �175. This copy has a lime background for its covers, while the others have gray cloth (Luce) and a pictorial cover (Barns).
1905 La Fontaine's Fables: A Selection. Translated from the Original into English Verse by Edward Shirley. Pictured for Children by Carton Moore Park and Ren� Bull. Hardbound. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons. $16 from Tom Luce through Ebay, Jan., '03.
Here is the second of three copies of this book that I am keeping in the collection. This copy has a gray cloth background for its covers, while the others have lime cloth (Ripping Yarns) and a pictorial cover (Barns). This wide book presents a classic La Fontaine from the early part of the century. Park's colored illustrations are large and lovely; the best are of FC and GA. The best of Bull's black-and-white illustrations are feet running from the disguised ass (56) and the frog's tombstone (62). The translator's best line is the frog's statement "I'd give my life to be as huge and corpulent as that." Robin Greer now in December, '96, is selling a first edition ("6 color plates, 16 color text illustrations and 60 other illustrations") for �175.
1905 La Fontaine's Fables: A Selection. Translated from the Original into English Verse by Edward Shirley. Pictured for Children by Carton Moore Park and Ren� Bull. Hardbound. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons. �5 from Joffabout, Staffordshire, UK, July, '13.
Here is the third of three copies of this book that I am keeping in the collection. This copy has a pictorial cover, while the others have lime cloth (Ripping Yarns) and a gray cloth (Luce). Though all three show a date of 1905, I belive this might be the oldest. The spine is crudely taped, and the book is thoroughly worn. But it is a treasure! This wide book presents a classic La Fontaine from the early part of the century. Park's colored illustrations are large and lovely; the best are of FC and GA. The best of Bull's black-and-white illustrations are feet running from the disguised ass (56) and the frog's tombstone (62). The translator's best line is the frog's statement "I'd give my life to be as huge and corpulent as that." Robin Greer now in December, '96, is selling a first edition ("6 color plates, 16 color text illustrations and 60 other illustrations") for �175.
1905 More Fables from Aesop. Arranged by Harriet G. Reiter. Instructor Literature Series 28. Dansville, NY: F.A. Owen Publishing Company. $2 for a yellow covered copy, with orange and black printing, from Ed and Dorothy Chesko, Old Delavan Book Co., Nov., '95.
This paper-covered pamphlet contains eight fables for first graders. The Instructor Literature Series contains 306 volumes at this time. The original price was $.07 or less. The fables are again told very simply. See 1906 for the first book in this series, Eleven Fables from Aesop. How does the "more" booklet get published before the first in the series? Several illustrations, like those for TH (5) and WC (18), seem to be Weir engravings set into a sketchy background. This book has trouble with quotation marks, forgetting them on 13 and adding a set on 26. There is an unusual use of "when" on 29. See the listing with identical date, publisher, and title for the later printing with limp cloth covers marked "Instructor Literature Series 28C." See 1921 for the other first-grade reader in this series. They both have a nice yellow cover with orange and black printing.
1905 More Fables from Aesop. Arranged by Harriet G. Reiter. Instructor Literature Series--No. 28C. Dansville, NY: F.A. Owen. $2.50 from Marsha Halstead, Middleport, NY, through Ebay, April, '99. Extra copies, one with blue cover for $6.25 from Wonderland Books, El Cerrito, CA, August, '97, the other with an orange-tan cover from an unknown source before August, '00.
This is a limp cloth edition and apparently a reissue of the paper-covered edition listed as No. 28 of the Instructor Literature Series by the same publisher in the same year. See my notes there. This booklet does not correct the problems I noted there. This booklet complements a first volume, Eleven Fables from Aesop (27C), listed under 1906. How does this "more" booklet get published before the first in the series? In this edition the Instructor Literature Series contains 350 volumes. The extra copies of this booklet, which I will keep in the collection, have different colored covers. The good copy has a beige cover that matches the color of the first volume. The other covers are blue and an orange-tan.
1905 The Folk-Lore Readers: Book One. Eulalie Osgood Grover. Illustrated by Margaret Ely Webb. Hardbound. Chicago: The Folk-Lore Readers: Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. $15.00 from Greg Williams, Feb., '98.
Twelve fables, each with at least some illustration. All illustrations include some red but no other color. "The Mouse, the Cat and the Rooster" is attributed to Dodsley (12). "The Rats, the Fox and the Egg" (83) is from La Fontaine. FWT (54) has the only full-page illustration among the fables. Many of the fables are first identified as from Aesop and then, after a line across the page, the editor gives a moral in proverbial form. Thus for GGE we read "Let well enough alone" (67). Fair condition.
1905/10 The Blodgett Readers by Grades: Book Two. By Frances E. Blodgett and Andrew B. Blodgett. No illustrator acknowledged. Boston: Ginn and Co. $1, Summer, '89.
A standard second-grade reader in good shape. Two fables: "The Lark and the Farmer" (19) and LM (62). Advertisements at the back. Inscribed by Miss Florence Lindsey from the town of Creighton, Nebraska.
1905/13 Aesop's Fables. With an Introduction by Elisabeth Luther Cary. Illustrated by J.M. Cond�. (The translation is adapted from Townsend's without acknowledgement.) NY: The Platt and Peck Co. $25.00 from Turtle Island, Berkeley, Jan., '91.
A curious reprinting of the Moffat original of 1905. See that entry for comment and this for contrasts. Rackham's TH is on the cover here, without acknowledgement. Townsend is no longer mentioned. The list of illustrations is identical but changed in format. The fables are identical, including pagination. The AI at the back is dropped. The paper and illustrations are sometimes foxed and spotted. Inscribed by two previous owners. The colored illustrations are still wonderful!
1905/13/30? Aesop's Fables. With an Introduction by Elisabeth Luther Cary. Illustrated by J.M. Cond�. (The translation is adapted from Townsend's without acknowledgement.) NY: The Platt and Munk Co. $33 from Steven Temple, Aug., '95.
The curious history of this book goes on. See my comments on the Moffat original of 1905 and on the Platt and Peck edition of 1905/13. Now this version seems to copy that except for the change, on spine and title page, from Peck to Munk. The text pages and illustrations are far less foxed here, perhaps in part because this book is more recent. Seeing two revised editions makes me respect even more the quality of the illustrations in the Moffat original.
1905? Aesop's Fables. An Adaptation of the Translation from the Greek by the Rev. George F. Townsend with an Introduction by Elisabeth Luther Cary. With Sixteen Illustrations in Colour and Many in Black and White by J.M. Cond�. Hardbound. Printed in USA. First English edition? London: Grant Richards. �25 from Rose's Books, Hay-on-Wye, June, '98.
�1905 in the USA by Moffat, Yard, and Co. This is a curious book that seems to replicate the Moffat and Yard first edition for England, but notice that it is printed in the USA and carries a US copyright. Here are the only differences I can find: This edition mentions the number of illustrations on its title-page. And its cover and spine are red, not green. The cover adds some animal images above "Aesop." The spine repositions some print. The colored illustrations are wonderfully printed, but there are some smudges on the picture pages (e.g., FWT on 70). See my comments on the Moffat first edition. AI at back.
1905? Aesop's Fables in Words of One Syllable. By Mary Godolphin. Illustrator not acknowledged; the illustrations are after Weir and Griset. NY: Saalfield Publishing Company. Good copy for $11.50 from Carl Sandler Berkowitz, Jan., '92. Second copy in poorer condition, gift of Julie Stringer from Bookenders in Weston, MO, July, '90.
This book represents the third publisher to use Godolphin's texts; see 1885 and 1895. This book uses many good illustrations done after Weir and four (59, 81, 85, and 88) after Griset. There is no frontispiece or title-page art. The design on the cardboard cover--of a water baby?--is curious, to say the least. There is some crayoning and a weak binding in the second copy. No T of C.
1905? Fables and Fancies. Richard Gillham Thomsett. Illustrated by K.M. Davidson and A.E. Holloway. Hardbound. London: Henry J. Drane. �10 from Collecting House, Lutterworth, Leicestershire, UK, through choosebooks.com, Sept., '06.
This little (5" x 7.5") volume of 83 pages and 32 pages of advertisements contains twelve fables and ten fancies. The first three fables are sheer word-plays, climaxing in "'scent' from Heaven," "Dye it yourself..Diet yourself," and--from a cobbler--"Soled again!" The humor spreads out in the next fable when two boys exclaim "here comes a beard with a man!" "The Horse and the Ass" tries harder to be a fable, I believe, but it may fall short when the ass gets sick from eating hay that is too rich for his stomach. More engaging is "The Parrot and the Urn" (19). Punsters will love the close of the next fable, an argument about power between a king and a stilton cheese. The last phrase here is "all mitey." Each story has a black-and-white illustration. My favorite among these is of the joyous frogs at Doctor Fox's office throwing hats in the air since theirs was a "case of Patients rewarded" (28). After a while here, the puns kill me.
1905? Fables de La Fontaine. Hardbound. �mile Gu�rin, �diteur. $49.95 from The Portsmouth Bookshop, Dover, NH, through eBay, Jan., '09.
This is a beautiful oversized (9�" x 12�") book containing seven full-page colored Oudry illustrations. The illustrations here are OF, "The Crow Wanting to Imitate the Eagle," MSA, "The Monkey and the Cat," "The Fox and the Bust," "The Acorn and the Pumpkin," and TMCM. The cover's WL illustration makes for a total of eight. It is fascinating to compare the coloring of Oudry's work here with that in Diane de Selliers' quite different 1992 colored edition of Oudry's La Fontaine. The texts are here well coordinated so that each stands across the page from its illustration. Staple and paper spine. Sixteen pages. I am guessing that Gu�rin took over sole ownership of what had been before about 1901 a partnership with Th�odore Lef�vre. There is nothing here except texts and titled illustrations. The only bibliographical information is on the front cover.
1905? Fables for Little Folks. Father Tuck's "Little Pets" Series. Untearable Linen. Designed at the studios in England. New York/London/Paris: Raphael Tuck & Sons, Co., Ltd. $55 at The Antiques Colony, San Jose, May, '97.
A surprising find in an antiques store I stopped at by chance after an airport run; I was looking for other things like cards and buttons. Near the end of my tour this booklet was sitting in a glass case. Fourteen fables, generally about two to a page. Each has one illustration, either brown-and-white (the same brown as the print) or colored. DM happens to have both. FC's colored picture is the front cover. Besides the cover, there are four pages of colored illustrations. The only new story element I find here is that the hare finds the tortoise dozing at the finish line! I love the old colored pictures here, especially the FC on the cover and BC.
1905? Fables of Aesop. Joseph Jacobs (NA). Illustrations by Richard Heighway (NA). Hardbound. Philadelphia: The Rodgers Co.. From Clare Leeper, who paid $9 for it in 1990, July, '96.
This small book is closest to one I have listed under "1894/1910?" As I mention a propos of that book, it is similar to four mentioned together under "1894/1901?," but these two have a number of distinctive features. The other four begin fables on 26 and end on 202 with "And this is the end of Aesop's Fables. Hurrah!" They then add notes through 228. These editions begin fables on 29 and end on 198 without either "Hurrah!" or notes. These editions also add lovely initials and place the "Face in the Mirror" design on the last page of the T of C.
1905? F�nfzig Fabeln f�r Kinder, Nebst einem ernsthaften Anhange. Von W. Hey. Mit Holzschnitten gezeichnet von Otto Speckter. Hardbound. Konstanz: Buch- und Kunstverlag Carl Hirsch. DM 25 from Lehmweg Flea Market, Hamburg, July, '98.
This Swiss edition of Hey's 1833 original would fit somewhere in Bodemann 277. The illustrations present something of a question. They are unlike any edition I yet know. The introduction contains this comment: "The Verlagsbuchhandlung spared no cost to have the pictures newly cut and to give the child's book a lovely appearance." Does this statement suggest that the "conception" of the illustrations belongs to Speckter, while their execution fell to an anonymous engraver? In any case, the crow of the first story looks left, but the scene around him is roughly that of the "right-facing" editions like Perthes' Schulausgabe, which I have listed under "1845?". The snowman (5) is presented in entirely new fashion, with eleven children and a dog busy around and on him. Pages are numbered and printed on both sides. The script is Gothic. The appendix runs from 53 through 77. A T of C follows, which presents only the fables. This book has a canvas spine, and a black-and-white picture on the cover of two seated children reading a book.
1905? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger. Hardbound. Munich: Braun & Schneider. DEM 45 from Antiquariat Pabel, Hamburg, June, '98.
Ten years ago, I found one volume (Volume IV) of this work by Olshausen-Sch�nberger and I admired it. As I said in reporting on it then, "it is one step from being a fable book, but it is too delightful to leave out of the collection. Animals here are an effective means for putting social types in their place. The wit and skill make one think of Grandville." Among the most notable and fable-like illustrations here are "Der Unerbittliche" (apparently a customs officer, 5), "Der neue Hut" (7), "Scheiden tut weh!" (10), "Der M�cenas im Atelier" (12), "Der Galan" (15), "Besser so einer -- als gar keiner!" (17), "Das Opfer der Wohlt�tigkeit" (25), "Der Besuch der Erbtante" (32), and "Schimpf' so viel Du magst -- ich bin von Natur Dickh�uter!" (35). Obviously, I like this work!
1905? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger, II. Teil. (Cover: Neue Folge). Zweite Auflage. Hardbound. Printed in Munich. Munich: Braun & Schneider. DEM 31 from Fundgrube f�r B�cherfreunde, Hamburg, June, '98.
See my comments on the first, third, and fourth volumes of this lovely little collection, all under the same date of "1905?" This volume starts off with a lively contrast between the official and non-official dining-out parties. The latter folks are having a much better time! "Der wissenschaftlich-popul�re Vortrag" (17) comes too close to home; I feel as though I may have sometimes been that boring speaker! My top prize in this volume goes to "Anschluss!" (25). Actually it has a much fuller title, too long to copy here. It is about a telephone operator's ability to connect. Other outstanding illustrations include "Mein Seliger!" (7); "Entsetzlich! Das einzig Stillose in uns'rer Wohnung ist mein Mann" (9); "Der Freier sitzt drin!" (24); "Das Rigorosum" (26); and "Die Schlange und das Kaninchen" (31).
1905? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger, Dritter Band. Hardbound. Printed in Munich. Munich: Braun & Schneider. DEM 45 from Altstadt Antiquariat, Freiburg, July, '01.
See my comments on the first, second, and fourth volumes of this lovely little collection, all under the same date of "1905?" Among the best treats here are the cover-picture, a colored detail from "Der Erbprinz" (3); "Der Weise und das Weltkind" (4); "Die ratlosen R�te" (8); "Das nennst Du Kegelklub?!" (16); "Warum wurde aus Lenchen keine Helena? -- Ach -- dies waren die Grazien, die an ihrer Wiege standen" (17); "Wie die Mirzl aus der Stadt ihre Familie besucht" (21); "Die Venus von Kilo" (22); and "Mein Mann w�rde so ein Kost�m nie erlauben!" (28). Again one of the best presentations here is of a contrasting pair on 9 and 10. Aunts sew all sorts of stuff for their "poor" nephew Baron Mucki, sent to St. Petersburg; we see then the elegant Mucki's reaction to it all.
1905? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger, Viertes Band. Erste Auflage. Originally sold by Caspar, Krueger, Dory in Milwaukee. M�nchen: Manuldruck und Verlag Braun & Schneider. $20 at Rosslyn Book Fair, Spring, '92.
This sideways book of social caricatures is one step from being a fable book, but it is too delightful to leave out of the collection. Animals here are an effective means for putting social types in their place. The wit and skill make one think of Grandville. The illustrations closest to fable are: "Physiognomisches" (8-9), WL (16), a seance of animals (17), a seasick country rat (18), a wolf and goose (a story about hypnotism, 26), "First the kiss and then the claws" (34), and the mother and daughters (36). If one does not laugh over this book, something is wrong.
1905? Indian Fairy Tales. Selected and edited by Joseph Jacobs. Illustrated by John D. Batten. NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons. $10 at Bookhouse, Arlington, April, '92.
Most of the twenty-nine selections here are indeed fairy tales, heavy on magic, demons, fairies, and angels. One poor Brahman after another runs into long, episodic adventures full of prophecies and beautiful princesses. The best examples might be "Lambikin" (23) and his protective drum, "Punchkin" (27), and "The Soothsayer's Son" (86). In the midst of these fairy tales, there are Jatakas and "Kalila and Dimna" materials like "The Cruel Crane Outwitted" (57) and TT (123). There are also Aesopic materials, like "The Crane and the Lion" (not wolf, 1), "The Gold-giving Serpent" (136), and DLS (182). "The Broken Pot" (49) works the same as the Aesopic MM.
1905? Indian Fairy Tales. Selected and edited by Joseph Jacobs. Illustrated by John D. Batten. Hardbound. NY: A.L. Burt. From Clare Leeper, Sept., '96, who paid $14.50 for it.
This is Burt's reprint of what seems to have been a Putnam original. I have the Putnam edition listed also under "1905?" The text and illustrations seem exactly the same throughout, but the typesetting of the text results in the book's finishing on 278 rather than 272. As I write there, most of the twenty-nine selections are indeed fairy tales, heavy on magic, demons, fairies, and angels. One poor Brahman after another runs into long, episodic adventures full of prophecies and beautiful princesses. The best examples might be "Lambikin" (22) and his protective drum, "Punchkin" (27), and "The Soothsayer's Son" (88). In the midst of these fairy tales, there are Jatakas and "Kalila and Dimna" materials like "The Cruel Crane Outwitted" (59) and TT (125). There are also Aesopic materials, like "The Crane and the Lion" (not wolf, 1), "The Gold-giving Serpent" (140), and DLS (184). "The Broken Pot" (49) works the same as the Aesopic MM.
1905? Les Fables d'�sope. Traduction par P. Commelin. Paperbound. Paris: Classiques Garnier: Librairie Garnier Fr�res. 140 Francs from chapitre.com, Paris, Sept., '00.
Here is a translation of 426 fables, some with clearly marked variants. This text is based on Halm's 1901 edition of the fables. There are 333 pages and an AI.
1905? Queer Animals and Birds. Containing Amusing Stories in Rhymes and Jingles. With 300 illustrations by Palmer Cox. No editor or publisher acknowledged. $30 from Second Story Books, Aug., '91.
Wonderful illustrations � la Griset decorate an eclectic collection. Two fables: DM with an excellent, lively illustration (and confusing moral) and "The Lark and Her Young," a strong full-page illustration without text! No pagination or T of C. I like the illustrator's style and wit. Notice the crazy closing plate: "This is my Santa Claus."
1905? Selected Fables from La Fontaine. No translator acknowledged. Illustrations by Carton Moore Park, unacknowledged, and a title-page engraving by Ren� Bull, unacknowledged. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons. $65 from Kelmscott, June, '95.
The eight colored illustrations tipped-in on heavier colored paper--not necessarily adjacent to their texts--are the chief attraction of this book. See La Fontaine's Fables: A Selection from Nelson in 1905 for larger versions of these illustrations. It was a big detective-like coup for me to identify this source! As in that book, the fox weeps over the stork's return-joke (16). Several of the illustrations here are decidedly narrower than the book's page. Forty-eight fables done into prose. The book is slightly bowed.
1905? The Book of Fables Containing Aesop's Fables. Based upon Croxall, La Fontaine, and L'Estrange. Hardbound. NY: Stratford Edition: F.M. Lupton. Gift of Pat and Ray Hanson, July, '09.
I have at least four other Lupton editions. All use the same text for the fables. All begin the text of a group of "later fables" on 159. All four lack a page 157-8. Among those four copies, this book is most similar to that which I have listed under "1900?" They share the same promise of "Illustrated" on the title-page with no illustrations given. (The other three neither promise illustrations nor deliver them.) Though this Stratford edition is printed on cheap paper, it goes one step further than that "1900?" edition by including a T of C and an "Editor's Preface," but perhaps those elements are simply missing in that copy, which begins fables right after the title-page on a page numbered 33. Besides the name "Stratford Edition," one thing is unique about this blue-covered edition. It includes a page 157-8. On 157 there is simply "Later Fables," and on 158 there is nothing. That "Later Fables" has a partially broken second "L." This fact could help some later comparisons.
1905? The Fables of Aesop. Selected, told anew and their history traced by Joseph Jacobs. Done into Pictures by Richard Heighway. DC: Pathfinder Publishing Co. See 1894/1905?.
1905?/06? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger, II. Teil. (Cover: Neue Folge). Dritte Auflage. Hardbound. Printed in Munich. Munich: Braun & Schneider. DEM 35 from Antiquariat Pabel, Hamburg, June, '98.
See my comments on the second printing of this second volume in the series. This copy differs from that one otherwise only in the cover. There the cover was textured like cloth and darker. Here it is a lighter color and without texture. This copy may be in slightly better condition.
1905?/15? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger. Siebente Auflage. Hardbound. Munich: Braun & Schneider. DEM 25 from Fundgrube f�r B�cherfreunde, Hamburg, June, '98.
See my comments on the apparent first printing listed under "1905?" I see three differences in this book. The cover's boards are lighter both in texture and in color. The inside pages are thinner. Above all, each page is printed now on both sides. The result is that this is a much thinner book. Its spine is disintegrating. The art is still very enjoyable.
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1906 - 1907
1906 Aesop's Fables, Part II (28). Arranged by Harriet G. Reiter. Pamphlet. Instructor Classic Series/Instructor Literature Series--No. 28. Dansville, NY: F.A. Owen. $3 from Trish Hammonds, Christopher, IL, through Ebay, Feb., '01.
This booklet in poor condition seems a predecessor of the booklet I have listed under "1905" and titled More Fables from Aesop. There are some mysteries here for some book historian to investigate. How can an older book have a later copyright? I will note first the similarities and then the differences I find when I compare the two booklets. From 5 through 32, I find no difference, except of course that this booklet is in poor condition. As for differences, this booklet has a resewn spine. Its red title is simply Aesop's Fables, not More Fables from Aesop. The cover does not mention Reiter, but it does mention the publisher. It has a black circular illustration of a woman and two children reading a book by the fireside; the other book has en elaborate symmetrical square design in black and orange on heavy yellow paper. Inside, this volume has at the top of its title-page "Instructor Classic Series" and "Aesop's Fables, Part II." The other volume has "Instructor Literature Series" and "More Fables from Aesop." The back of the title page has the conflicting copyright dates (1906 here, 1905 there) and the publisher's name. That copy adds "Aesop's Fables, Part II" even though that is the title of this copy! On the reverse of a full-page image of a bird and two grasshoppers, this volume lists nine stories, while that one lists eight. The ninth story announced here, "The Wolf and the Goat," does not appear in this volume. It is at least conceivable that it has been torn off. This inside-front-cover speaks of "Five-Cent Classics and Supplementary Reading" while there one reads "7c--Supplementary Readers and Classics for All Graces--7c." I am presuming that prices went up, not down. This volume lists fewer items, e.g., five under "Fables and Myths" for the first year, while that volume lists two more. Two volumes of Aesop are included in this group in each case, correctly titled for their respective editions. Thus this volume's advertisement speaks of Aesop's Fables--Part II and that speaks of More Fables from Aesop. There the list of available material spills over onto the back of the back cover. See my comments there on the fables themselves.
1906 Alte Fabeln zur Lust und Lehr. F�r Kinder Ausgew�hlt von H(einrich) Wolgast. Mit lustigen Bildern von Jos(eph) Mauder. Hardbound. Munich: Buchverlag der Jugendbl�tter. �120 from Antiquariat W�lfle, Munich, August, '07.
This is a lovely little pearl. Unfortunately, its seller knew how valuable this pearl is! Wolfle writes of it "Erste Ausgabe dieser liebenswerten und �fter aufgelegten kleinen Fabelsammlung." It is indeed "liebenswert"! I have seldom seen such lovely color work. Bodemann #386.1. As Bodemann mentions, there are here 79 verse and prose fables from a wide variety of authors, from Aesop through Luther to Goethe and Willamov. The 65 initials and 317 smaller illustrations, many of them "Bildreihen zu den Versfabeln." There is a clear arrangement at work every pair of pages. A half-page colored illustration is at the upper left. Beneath it is a fable with a colored initial. It may spill over onto the right hand page, where it will often have a colored tailpiece. Further fables, with initials and tailpieces follow down the right-hand page and finish within that page. Favorites of mine include the large illustrations for "Der Einsiedler und der B�r" (26), WC (28), and "Der Wolf auf dem Todbette" (44). Among the smaller images excellent examples are DS (47) and "Der Greis und der Tod" (59). The use of small images to mark rows of verse is strongest in the case of "Die Geschichte von dem Hute" (40-42). Among the stories themselves, new to me -- and well illustrated in all three images -- is "Der Affe und die Uhr" (50-51). A good last image is that marking "Ende" on 67: a cat has a mouse by the tail. There is a T of C on 1 with some of the smallest print I have seen. On the cover is a fox playing a violin while two mice dance. This book is a personal favorite!
1906 Animal Fables from the Dark Continent. A.O Stafford. Illustrated by Sarah Noble-Ives. Hardbound. NY: American Book Company. $9.99 from Endless Treasures, Boca Raton, FL, through eBay, Sept., '10.
Exactly eleven years ago I found -- from Pamela Geister, Lincoln City, OR, through Ebay -- a copy of this little reader published a hundred years ago. I noted with sadness that it was missing 113-14. Now I have found a copy with separated covers but with all the pages. 113-14 are there in all their glory! Patience has paid off! Let me include some of my comments on that copy. Of the thirty-four Black fables offered here, Stafford writes in his preface that twenty come directly from African sources and fourteen from American. Readers will notice a number that relate to Br'er Rabbit stories. The turtle, for example, pleads to be killed by being thrown into the river in "The Turtle, the Wolf, and the Hyena" (99). Many stories are eteological, especially in demonstrating why particular animals are enemies of each other. New to me is "The Dog and the Clever Rabbit" (17) with one of the best illustrations. The dog has the rabbit holed up in a hollow tree and asks the goose to watch while he goes to get moss and fire to smoke him out. The rabbit blinds the goose with sawdust and gets away. Another fine illustration shows the rabbit comfortably reading The Jungle News newspaper (36). Many stories are explicitly linked with the foregoing story with a line or two at their beginning. There is a T of C at the front. About eight of the illustrations are unsigned. The others are signed either "NI" or "Noble-Ives." I am indebted to Jay Dillon for pointing out that this illustrator is Sarah Noble-Ives (1864-1944).
1906 Animal Fables from the Dark Continent. A.O Stafford. Illustrated by Sarah Noble-Ives. Hardbound. NY: American Book Company. $6.50 from Pamela Geister, Lincoln City, OR, through Ebay, Sept., '99.
Of the thirty-four Black fables offered here, Stafford writes in his preface that twenty come directly from African sources and fourteen from American. Readers will notice a number that relate to Br'er Rabbit stories. The turtle, for example, pleads to be killed by being thrown into the river in "The Turtle, the Wolf, and the Hyena" (99). Many stories are eteological, especially in demonstrating why particular animals are enemies of each other. New to me is "The Dog and the Clever Rabbit" (17) with one of the best illustrations. The dog has the rabbit holed up in a hollow tree and asks the goose to watch while he goes to get moss and fire to smoke him out. The rabbit blinds the goose with sawdust and gets away. Another fine illustration shows the rabbit comfortably reading The Jungle News newspaper (36). Many stories are explicitly linked with the foregoing story with a line or two at their beginning. There is a T of C at the front. About eight of the illustrations are unsigned. The others are signed either "NI" or "Noble-Ives." I am indebted to Jay Dillon for pointing out that this illustrator is Sarah Noble-Ives (1864-1944). This reader is in fair to poor condition. Pages 113-114 are missing.
1906 Brooks's Readers: Third Year. Stratton D. Brooks. Hardbound. NY: American Book Company. $12.99 from themerrybuyer through eBay, Sept., '10.
I have many books by the American Book Company but nothing from this series of readers. This third reader offers three fables from Aesop on 68-70: DS, BC, and DM. The three well-told fables wisely refrain from presenting a moral. BC has a simple black-and-white illustration featuring a bell and apparently signed "FSC."
1906 Brooks's Readers: Third Year. Stratton D. Brooks. Hardbound. NY: Brooks's Readers: American Book Company. $5 from Omaha flea market, July, '12.
This book is identical with another in the collection except for two things. The one that has led me to include it separately is this: the spine's name for the book is printed upside down in this edition! The second difference is on the verso of the title-page. Where that book reads "E- P 26," this copy has "E - P 18" with the lower half of the dash and "P" not inked. As I wrote there, I have many books by the American Book Company but nothing from this series of readers. This third reader offers three fables from Aesop on 68-70: DS, BC, and DM. The three well-told fables wisely refrain from presenting a moral. BC has a simple black-and-white illustration featuring a bell and apparently signed "FSC."
1906 Brooks's Readers: Fifth Year. Stratton D. Brooks. Hardbound. NY: Brooks's Readers: American Book Company. $3 from Junkstock, Omaha, June, '12.
This is my second book in this series; I have "Brooks's Readers: Third Year," published in the same year. Here one finds on 78-80 "The Fox in the Well," a verse version of "The Fox and the Wolf" by J.T. Trowbridge. Joseph Jacobs' version of "The Bat, the Birds, and the Beast" is on 199 with a simple illustration. I think it somewhat unusual to find fables in school readers after the third grade. This book seems fragile after its first 106 years!
1906 Classics Old and New: A Series of School Readers: A Second Reader. Edwin A. Alderman. Hardbound. NY: University Publishing Company. $7.50 from Heartwood, Charlottesville, VA, April, '98.
Only SW appears (12) and is labeled as "adapted" from Aesop. The version is strong on active dialogue and has a good challenge voiced by Mr. Wind: "Let us try to take it off." The final comment here is unusual: "How pleasant the sun feels after that fierce wind." There is no illustration for this story. The book is in excellent condition.
1906 Eleven Fables from Aesop. Arranged by Harriet G. Reiter. Instructor Literature Series. Dansville, NY: F.A. Owen Publishing Company. $2 from Ed and Dorothy Chesko, Old Delavan Book Co., Nov., '95.
This paper-covered pamphlet contains eleven fables for first graders. The Instructor Literature Series contained 306 volumes at this time. The original price was $.10 or less. The fables are told very simply. In LM the mice were playing hide-and-seek on the lion's back. The illustrations are mostly very primitive. One (27) is formed out of a capital. The last--for " The Fox and the Crab " --features a photograph of the sea. This copy has a familiar cover illustration of LM; the one inside for LM (5) is part traditional and part primitive palm trees! The best of the illustrations may be the view of the departing mouse's back (26). See the listing under the same year and title but bound in limp cloth with the series number 27C. And see 1905 and 1921 for two of the other first-grade readers in this series. Both of this cover is different from all of those; though the two Wonderland Books copies are matched in design, they differ in color.
1906 Eleven Fables from Aesop. Arranged by Harriet G. Reiter. Pamphlet. Instructor Literature Series--No. 27C. Dansville, NY: F.A. Owen. $2.50 from Marsha Halstead, Middleport, NY, through Ebay, April, '99. Extra copy for $6.25 from Wonderland Books, El Cerrito, CA, August, '97.
This limp cloth edition, which identifies itself as 27C in the Instructor Literature Series, seems to follow upon the pamphlet version with the paper cover, which gives its number as 27 in the series. The back cover advertises 350 volumes in the series. See my comments on the paper-covered edition, listed under the same year, title, and publisher.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Librairie Illustr�e. Paris: Jules Tallandier. $125 at Bookhouse, Arlington, Oct., '91.
A magnificent book. 310 magnificent illustrations by Rabier, eighty-five in color. His freedom to arrange things often makes for an excellent series of views pertaining to a fable. Favorite illustrations of mine include the title page, GA (1), OF (16), FS (20), "The Bitch and Her Companion" (32), "The Drunk and His Wife" (57), and "The Acorn and the Pumpkin" (212). T of C at the back.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Illustr�e: Jules Tallandier. $22.27 from David Scott, Mystic, CT, through eBay, April, '14.
Here is a second copy of this magnificent book! I keep it in the collection because both copies have seen extensive wear. This copy is better externally and the original copy from Bookhouse, Arlington, VA, in 1991 is better internally. As I wrote there, this is a magnificent book. 310 magnificent illustrations by Rabier, eighty-five in color. His freedom to arrange things often makes for an excellent series of views pertaining to a fable. Favorite illustrations of mine include the title page, GA (1), OF (16), FS (20), " The Bitch and Her Companion " (32), " The Drunk and His Wife " (57), and " The Acorn and the Pumpkin " (212). T of C at the back.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine (Premiere et Deuxi�me Partie). Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Illustr�e: Jules Tallandier. �100 from Appolon Moors, Sulniac, France, through eBay, July, '04.
This looks at first acquaintance like the complete Rabier LaFontaine. A closer look reveals that it is a combination of the first and second of three parts. Ironically, those are the two independent parts that I already have! One clue consists in the two T of C's at the back, both showing "Contenues dans ce volume," but one covering 1-80 and the other 81-160. Like the second part of the three-volume set, this first volume (of two?) finishes with VII 14. This combination copy has the same surprising little section in English on the lower left of the pre-title page: "Published December 1, -1906. Privilege of Copyright in the United States, reserved under the act approved March 3 1905 by Tallandier." Favorites among the good illustrations here include GA (1), OF (16), FS (20), "The Bitch and Her Companion" (32), "The Drunk and His Wife" (57), and BF (81). Rabier is really fun! This book has seen serious wear, but still is in fair to good condition. I can find no reference to this publication in Bodemann. Bodemann's illustration for Rabier's 1906 volume is the back cover of this book: a child faces a group of animals.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine: Premi�re Partie. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Canvas spine. Librairie Illustr�e. Paris: Jules Tallandier. $34 from Carole Ruttman, Platteville, WI, through Ebay, Feb., '00.
This first volume (of three, I presume) presents the first seventy fables of La Fontaine, through IV 7, "Le Singe et le Dauphin"--which has some black-and-white illustration work typical of Rabier's lively and fun-loving cartoon style. There is a surprising little section in English printed at the lower left of the pre-title page: "Published December 1, -1906. Privilege of Copyright in the United States, reserved under the act approved March 3 1905 by Tallandier." Was a certain number of this edition printed by Tallandier in Paris for the USA? The red ink seems to have been applied to the bottom page edges sloppily. Otherwise it is again a delight to encounter Rabier's great work! I can find no reference to this three-part publication in either Bodemann or Bassy. T of C at the back and a list of fables on the cover.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine: Premi�re Partie. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Illustr�e. Paris: Jules Tallandier. $9.99 from pqt through eBay, Nov., '99.
This volume, in poor condition, duplicates another already in the collection. It may be the earlier of the two. Several things are different. The color of the cover-boards is cream rather than white. The formatting of the pre-title-page and the title-page is slightly different. The printer is different: Ch. Bernard, 27, Rue des Cloys, Paris. The volume has loose pages, some tape, and a crumbling binding. But it is a treasure! As I wrote of the other printing, this first volume (of three, I presume) presents the first seventy fables of La Fontaine, through IV 7, "Le Singe et le Dauphin"--which has some black-and-white illustration work typical of Rabier's lively and fun-loving cartoon style. There is a surprising little section in English printed at the lower left of the pre-title page: "Published December 1, -1906. Privilege of Copyright in the United States, reserved under the act approved March 3 1905 by Tallandier." Was a certain number of this edition printed by Tallandier in Paris for the USA? The red ink seems to have been applied to the bottom page edges sloppily. Otherwise it is again a delight to encounter Rabier's great work! I can find no reference to this three-part publication in either Bodemann or Bassy. T of C at the back and a list of fables on the cover.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine: Premi�re Partie. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. First edition? Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Illustr�e: Jules Tallandier. $75 from Jackie Coop, Matteson, IL, through eBay, June, '11.
I had presumed when ordering this copy that it was another copy of a book which I already had. That presumption was wrong, as it has often been wrong before. This book has a different front cover, different quality paper, and a different printer. The front cover of that other book offers the illustrations for FS with a list of the fables in this volume at the place where (on 20) the text of the fable will stand among the illustrations for FS. This front cover, by contrast, offers a large single picture of ox, bird, cat, and frogs, all of whom are apparently happy. This illustration seems to draw from animals in many different fables. Was the illustration perhaps created just for this cover? The paper quality here is less than it was there. This paper is thinner and less cleanly white, and it shows darkening around its edges. The verso of the title-page there, facing GA, proclaims "Imprim� par l'Institut Cartographique de Paris." This volume, in the same place, has "Imp. des Beaux-Arts, 79, Rue Dareau, Paris." I seem to have no resources -- not Bodemann or Bassy -- to help me know which of these two is the more original or how they otherwise interrelate. As I wrote there, this first volume (of three, I presume) presents the first seventy fables of La Fontaine, through IV 7, "Le Singe et le Dauphin." It has some black-and-white illustration work typical of Rabier's lively and fun-loving cartoon style. There is a surprising little section in English printed at the lower left of the pre-title page: "Published December 1, -1906. Privilege of Copyright in the United States, reserved under the act approved March 3 1905 by Tallandier." It is again a delight to encounter Rabier's great work! T of C at the back.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine: Deuxi�me Partie. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Canvas spine. Librairie Illustr�e. Paris: Jules Tallandier. $34 from Carole Ruttman, Platteville, WI, through Ebay, Feb., '00.
This second volume (of three, I presume) presents a second group of fables stretching from IV 8 through VII 14. The same surprising little section in English appears at the lower left of the pre-title page: "Published December 1, -1906. Privilege of Copyright in the United States, reserved under the act approved March 3 1905 by Tallandier." Pagination continues from the first part, beginning here with 81, which happens to feature one of the best illustrations of the book, BF. Rabier is really fun! Of course, finding two of three volumes makes me search now for the third! The bottom corners of this lovely volume have been badly bumped. I can find no reference to this three-part publication in either Bodemann or Bassy. T of C at the back and a list of fables on the cover.
1906 Fables de La Fontaine: Deuxi�me Partie. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. First edition? Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Illustr�e: Jules Tallandier. $75 from Jackie Coop, Matteson, IL, through eBay, June, '11.
I had presumed when ordering this copy that it was another copy of a book which I already had. That presumption was wrong, as it has often been wrong before. This book has a different front cover, different different back cover, different quality paper, and a different printer. The front cover of that other book offers the illustrations for BF with a list of the fables in this volume at the place where (on 81) the text of the fable will stand among the illustrations for BF. This front cover, by contrast, offers a large single picture including butterfly, rabbit, crow, several birds, dog, duck, and tortoise and a French flag. This illustration seems to draw from animals in many different fables. Was the illustration perhaps created just for this cover? The back cover there, in color, showed the cat pinning both the hare and weasel. Here the back cover shows the dejected fowl-killer in GGE. The paper quality here is less than it was there. This paper is thinner and less cleanly white, and it shows darkening around its edges. The verso of the title-page there, facing BF, proclaims "Imprimerie Union, 46, Boul. St. Jacques, Paris." This volume, in the same place, has "Imp. Cr�mieu, 4 bis, Rue des Suisses, Paris." I seem to have no resources -- not Bodemann or Bassy -- to help me know which of these two is the more original or how they otherwise interrelate. As I wrote there, this second volume (of three, I presume) presents a second group of fables stretching from IV 8 through VII 14. The same surprising little section in English appears at the lower left of the pre-title page: "Published December 1, -1906. Privilege of Copyright in the United States, reserved under the act approved March 3 1905 by Tallandier." Pagination continues from the first part, beginning here with 81, which happens to feature one of the best illustrations of the book, BF. Rabier is really fun! Of course, finding two of three volumes makes me search now for the third! T of C at the back.
1906 I.A. Krylov: Basni. N.V. Denisov and P. Pitrinenko. Hardbound. Moscow: A.S. Panaf. $9.99 from Marina Koutyrev, St. Petersburg, through eBay, June, '03.
I have to thank the eBay seller for providing me helpful information on this lovely little book in fragile condition. It measures just under 4" x 6." Its 315 pages include 85 engravings. While many of the engravings are quite small, some take a full page. These very good full-page illustrations seem devoted to some of the best known of Krylov's fables: OF (12); "Quartet" (74); "Master John's Soup" (106); "The Crane, the Lobster, and the Pike" (137); and "The Monkey and the Spectacles" (156). Some initials look quite clever (13), but I cannot assess well without being able to match the illustration to the fable. There is an AI at the back. The cover is so worn that it is hard to make out the animals pictured in black-and-white on it.
1906 Language Lessons for Common Schools, Part I. No author acknowledged. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. $5 from Omaha Literacy Book Sale, Crossroads, Feb., '95.
A number of the lessons in this simple pamphlet are formed by asking the child questions about fables; the answer is given in parentheses right after each question. Fables: #10, 15, 31, 45(?), 61, 65, 69, 73, 79, 85, 91, 97(?). Inscribed in Arlington, NE, in 1917 and 1921.
1906 One Hundred Fables by La Fontaine. Edited with introduction, notes, and vocabulary by O.B. Super. Inscribed in 1919. Boston: Ginn and Company. $.50, Spring, '92.
A helpful little book inscribed in Cambridge. I think the book's first gift lies in its identification of one hundred of LaFontaine's 238 fables for special attention. The copious English notes at the rear help someone struggling with the French; they also regularly identify LaFontaine's source. The vocabulary looks complete. There are some underlinings in the introduction.
1906 Russische Volksm�rchen. Gesammelt von Alexander N. Afanaszjew. Deutsch von Anna Meyer. Paperbound. Vienna: C.W. Stern. $4 from an unknown source, June, '05.
Here is a book in wretched condition. Its condition is not surprising if one considers that it is a paperback book produced in the Austrio-Hungarian Empire in 1906! Though a hand has written "2 vols" on the pre-title page, I see no indication of that in the book. Many of the book's pages are still uncut. Many are loose. Of the forty-three Volksm�rchen offered here, many of the early exemplars show the presence of fable or even, in several cases, the identity of M�rchen and fable. The first story, "Die F�chsin und der Wolf" (1), uses the favorite Renard theme of the fox who plays dead and steals fish by throwing them off the cart on the way home, but the story seems to extend well beyond that beginning point. "Der kranke L�we" (17) is the standard Aesopic fable. "Alte Dienste vergisst man" (19) is a variation of the story of a man helping a beast and then being threatened by him. Here the beast is a wolf and the man has helped him by hiding him in his sack. The clever fox will get the wolf back into the sack "to see how it happened" but really to free the man. "F�chsin und Krebs" (28) is the old fable about the crab grabbing onto the fox's tale and so being able to win the race. Further offerings get around to "Baba Jaga" and Wassilissa. I am surprised not to find FS here.
1906 The Fables of Aesop: Selected, told anew and their history traced. Joseph Jacobs. Illustrated by Richard Heighway. Hardbound. NY: F.M. Lupton Publishing Company. See 1894/1906.
1906 The Lion and the Mouse. By Charles Klein. A Story of American Life Novelized from the Play by Arthur Hornblow. Illustrated by Stuart Travis, and scenes from the play. NY: Grosset and Dunlap. $2 at Half Price, Milwaukee, June, '93. Extra copy for $3.50 from A-Z Books, North Platte, Jan., '94.
I made it through two chapters of this slice of Americana, but have still found nothing indicating the relevance of the Aesopic (?) title. The book reads like a romanticized version of trying to make it on and against Wall Street. Ho hum. Maybe the play was racier in 1906 than its pictures make it seem now.
1906 The Russian Grandmother's Wonder Tales. By Louise Seymour Houghton. Illustrated by W.T. Benda. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. $2.95 at A Novel Idea, Lincoln, May, '95.
This stained and very well-worn book once owned by the Lincoln Public Library has a very pleasing frame: a young boy hears stories from grandmothers while he travels and visits and makes his way through the year. The stories are wonder stories, filled with dragons and transformations and young men going into the world to seek their fortunes. A few stories include fable motifs. "The Wolf as a Roman" (4) has the familiar motifs of reading a hoof and singing before dying. "The Sick Lion" (14) is the standard fable about bad smells; it adds a round in which the wolf says that it is neither close nor not close; he is torn to pieces for his equivocating answer. Finally the fox uses his traditional "I've caught a cold" answer. "The Fox and the Hedgehog" (73) is like the Aesopic "The Fox and the Goat." "Master Reinecke and Gockeling, the Cock" (77) has Chanticleer's challenge to the victorious fox--only here it is to pray before eating--and the fable motif "Come back when I am fatter." "So Born, So Die" (245) is the story of the mouse-daughter who ends up marrying her own kind after each in a potential series of spouses proclaims that another is stronger than he. I like this old book!
1906 The Silver-Burdett Readers: Second Book. By Ella M. Powers and Thomas M. Balliet. No illustrator acknowledged. NY: Silver, Burdett, and Co. See 1903/06.
1906/06? Aesop's Fables Told to the Children. By Lena Dalkeith. Pictures by S(ophia) R(osamund) Praeger. Told to the Children Series, edited by Louey Chisholm. Printed in Edinburgh. London: T.C. and E.C. Jack/NY: E.P. Dutton and Co. $12.50 from Yoffees, Jan., '92.
A small format book only forty-seven pages long (one fable to a page, with no external morals), but the art is fine: sixteen pages of colored illustrations, all (except the frontispiece) containing two illustrations; the advertisement at the back promises only eight colored pages in the books of the series! Is this Praeger's original 1906 publication, referred to in Ash/Higton? The illustrations might be called "primitive." They are strong and simple, and I like them. The best illustrations include a great frontispiece (and cover) of an old man reading a paper attacked by the friendly ass; the wolf hanged in a sheepskin (facing 16); sleeping girls � la Wilhelm Busch (facing 20); FS (26); MSA (facing 44); and the fat hen with a surprised old woman (facing 44). A wonderful little find! Now in '97 I have had a chance to analyze its texts. They seem to depend heavily on Croxall and less on James. There is less directly quoted speech than is usual in the fables. One of the best texts is "The Wolf as Piper." In TH, the tortoise seems to undergo a sex change during the race! "The Fox and the Eagle" may be the poorest text, not thought through very well.
1906/12 The World's Wit and Humor: Greek, Roman, Oriental. Volume XV of a fifteen volume set. By an "International Board of Editors." (c)1906 but published 1912. Apparently no illustrations within this volume. NY: Review of Reviews Company. $1.50, Schroeder, '85.
Only six unimpressive Aesopic fables, but a lovely book nonetheless.
1906/17 Merry Animal Tales. A Book of Old Fables in New Dresses. By Madge A. Bigham. Illustrated by Clara E. Atwood. Hardbound. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. $4 from King William Antiques, Williamsburg, VA, July, '00.
At first, I thought this book in poor condition was an extra of the 1919 printing. See my comments both there and under the 1929 edition. Again here, part of the title-page is smudged out. This printing has the same typo on 9 as does the 1917 printing: coud for could. Pages 1-4 are separated.
1906/19 Merry Animal Tales. A Book of Old Fables in New Dresses. By Madge A. Bigham. Illustrated by Clara Atwood? Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. $5 at Estuary, Lincoln, NE, Dec., '94.
This surprising find presents several curiosities. There is a design pasted over part of the title page. I can make out that the design covers "Illustrated by Clara ?. Atwood." It also seems to cover something like "Property of Maureen Grace." The illustrations, five full-page and seventeen in the text, are not the same as those in the same publisher's 1929 edition, illustrated by Clara Atwood Fitts. I find the latter much better than these. The last two full-page designs feature a boxed "A." By contrast with that later edition, this book has "Suggestions to Teachers" and "Seat Work" at its end. The latter gives a moral and an appropriate writing and art activity for each fable. This edition has a typo on 9: coud for could. It has some pencilling on 17 and some torn page bottoms. T of C at the beginning, with lists of both kinds of illustrations. See the 1929 edition for comments on the versions.
1906/20 Fables de la Fontaine. Avec Notes, Exercices et Le�ons de Versification par Thomas Keen. Fourth edition. Hardbound. London: Dent's Modern Language Series: J.M. Dent & Sons. � 2.90 from Digby Dance through eBay, March, '04.
An English introduction praises Keen's book for enabling the learner to appreciate the fables' literary charm while she or he learns the language, particularly French word formation and vocabulary. Forty-one fables are integrated with exercises, lessons on French versification, essay topics, and reviews. The copious notes on La Fontaine's vocabulary are all done in French. This is a handy and, I think, well-conceived schoolbook.
1906/92 Fables de La Fontaine. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Paris: Jules Tallandier. 96 Francs at Gibert Joseph, Paris, May, '97.
Here is a very nice selection of Rabier's work, done by the same publisher that published his work originally. True to the 1906 edition, the illustrations mix pages of black-and-white with pages of color. T of C at the end. 63 fables, about half in color. There is always something new to notice in Rabier's excellent work. This time I notice, for example, that the hare from whom the frightened hare is running at the top of 23 has a white spot in the shadow where the eye should be; this is just the kind of trick a frightened imagination would play on a poor hare! I found this book several hours before I found a complete edition of Rabier's LaFontaine, all in color, done by Tallendier in 1995.
1906/95 Fables de La Fontaine. Benjamin Rabier. Hardbound. Paris: Jules Tallandier. �7 at Gibert Joseph, Paris, June, '09.
Here is a later printing of a book I found printed in 1992 on a trip to Paris in 1997. In Paris again in 2009 and unsure whether I had this edition, I picked up another copy. This copy, which is printed in Italy rather than France, turns out to be different. The T of C at the end has been reset for a good reason. Two of the 1992 stories were printed without their second pages! Now "Le Combat des Rats et des Belettes" (60 here) and "L'Alouette et ses Petits avec le Ma�tre d'un Champ" (64 here) both have their second pages, lacking before. The book before the T of C thus now runs to 78 pages rather than 76. My, what we find if we look! In this copy, the color of the monochrome pages changes at times from green in the earlier copy to black, as on 14, 66, 74, and 78. As I write there, this is a very nice selection of Rabier's work, done by the same publisher that published his work originally. True to the 1906 edition, the illustrations mix monochrome and multi-colored pages. 63 fables, about half in color.
1906/95 Fables de La Fontaine. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Hardbound. Paris: Tallandier: �ditions Tallandier. $9 from Moe's, Berkeley, Sept., '05.
Here is a good selection of Rabier's work, done by the same publisher that published his work originally. Here all of the illustrations are in color. There is a T of C at the end. 64 fables. It pays to compare and contrast this book with a similar one done in 1992 by Tallandier. That edition alternates black-and-white and colored pairs of pages, as I believe Rabier's original edition did. My new theory is that the poorer colored fables in this edition, which colors everything, are those that were not colored originally. Examples at the end of this book include "Le Jardinier et Son Seigneur," "Le Lion Amoureux," and "La Belette Entr�e dans un Grenier." The reds are pink and the browns beige. Rabier's original colors wear much better than that! Now how does this book compare with the four volumes from 1995 that reproduce Rabier's whole work?
1906/95 Fables de La Fontaine. Tome 1. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Paris: Jules Tallandier. 120 Francs at Librairie Compagnie, Paris, May, '97.
At last a comprehensive reproduction of Rabier's La Fontaine! Rabier had followed LaFontaine's order more or less. This book follows Rabier's original strictly except for one section where three fables from Book I ("The Thieves and the Ass," "Simondes Preserved by the Gods," and OF) are skipped , and in their place the editors insert three fables from Book X ("Mother Lion and Mother Bear," "The Shepherd and the King," and "The Fish and the Shepherd Playing the Flute). Here all the illustrations are colored, whereas only about one-quarter were colored in my 1906 edition. The coloring improves them! This is a well printed book. It should be, of course, since it is Tallandier's own book! T of C at the front. This volume handles Books I, II, III, and the first few fables of Book IV. Rabier's original page-header indicated the book of LaFontaine's work, e.g., "Livre Premier." Now it indicates present volume number, e.g., "Tome 1." Where does the cover-picture of GA come from? It is not from either the cover or the illustrations in the 1906 edition.
1906/95 Fables de La Fontaine. Tome 2. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Paris: Jules Tallandier. 120 Francs at Librairie Compagnie, Paris, May, '97.
See my comments on Volume 1. This volume takes TH and "The Carter Stuck in the Mud" from their place in Book VI and inserts them at its beginning, apparently in order to let the cover illustrate the first story inside the book. There is only one other change from Rabier's original order: "The Charlatan" and "Epilogue" are taken from their original place at the end of Book VI and inserted at the end of this volume, which by then has actually included eight fables of Book VII. I think I can see a slight difference of taste in the coloring of the illustrations that my original did not have colored. Would Rabier's coloring of "Le Singe et le Dauphin" (10) have been quite as wild as this? T of C at the front. This volume handles Books V and VI and parts of IV and VII. Where does the cover-picture of TH come from? It is not from either the cover or the illustrations in the 1906 edition.
1906/95 Fables de La Fontaine. Tome 3. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Paris: Jules Tallandier. 120 Francs at Librairie Compagnie, Paris, May, '97.
See my comments on Volume 1. This volume switches the order of "Le Coche et la Mouche" and MM so as to present the latter, its cover picture, first. For its last fable, it imports "Le Loup et le Renard" from Book XI. I am unsatisfied with the color given to several fables, including "Un Animal dans la lune" (18-19), "Le Savetier et le Financier" (22-23), and "Jupiter et les Tonnerres" (46-7). For a good contrast, one might compare the recent coloring of "Le Singe et le Chat" (78) and the old coloring of "Le Loup et le Renard" (79). T of C at the front. This volume handles Book VIII and parts of VII and IX. Where does the cover-picture of MM come from? It is not from either the cover or the illustrations in the 1906 edition.
1906/95 Fables de La Fontaine. Tome 4. Illustr�es par Benjamin Rabier. Paris: Jules Tallandier. 120 Francs at Librairie Compagnie, Paris, May, '97.
See my comments on Volume 1. This volume begins with OF, for which the cover provides an illustration. Whence comes this illustration, since it is not from either the cover or the illustrations in the 1906 edition? Along with OF come two other fables from Book I skipped in Volume 1of this series ("The Thieves and the Ass" and "Simondes Preserved by the Gods"). From Book IX of LaFontaine we have "Le Berger et son Troupeau" and the "Two Rats and an Egg" story in the address to Madame de la Sabli�re usually appended to Book IX. Otherwise this volume's material comes entirely from Books X-XII and the appendices. Missing from the original edition's order are two small sets of materials that have already appeared respectively in Volume 1 ("La Lionne et L'Ourse" [245], "Le Berger et le Roi" [246-7], and "Les Poissons et le Berger qui joue de la Flute" [248]) and Volume 3 ("Le Loup et le Renard" [285-6]) of this series. The last story, "Le Juge Arbitre, L'Hospitalier et le Solitaire" (86-7), is a good example of the na�ve modern coloring of the stories not originally colored by Rabier himself. T of C at the front.
1906? Im Spiegel der Tierwelt: Studien von K�the Olshausen-Sch�nberger, II. Teil. (Cover: Neue Folge). Dritte Auflage. Hardbound. Printed in Munich. Munich: Braun & Schneider. See 1905?/06?.
1906? The Fables of Aesop. Hardbound. St. Louis: Concordia Pastime Library, Vol. IV: Concordia Publishing House. $2.99 from C. Roscow, Red Bud, IL, through eBay, April, '04.
This is a fragile little book starting to separate from its spine. There are ninety-five numbered fables, each with an application. The preface starts off by recalling that, when Luther was at the castle of Coburg in 1530 writing some very serious things, he turned to rendering a number of Aesop's fables into German. Luther wrote "I do not know of many books, beside the Bible, that might be deemed superior to this, as regards temporal things in the world." The last line of the preface, signed by "A.L.G.," mentions that the fables have been carefully revised. I have checked only the first two fables, but the clear source is Croxall. Perhaps the biggest revision is that Croxall's long applications have been reduced to a short paragraph. I am surprised at the concept of a "Pastime Library." Is the seminary providing safe and wholesome reading for pastors? There is a 30-page life of Aesop at the beginning.
1906? Wisdom in Fable: Something about Animals. By Palmer Cox. Pamphlet. NY: Pond's Extract. $34.33 from Cammie Boardman, Blue Springs, MO, through Ebay, March, '00.
This is a twenty-page pamphlet, including the covers, 6�" x 5". It includes nine colored illustrations, all full-page. The best clue to its date comes from putting together two statements. The opening page says "Your grandmother used Pond's Extract in 1846." Two pages later we learn that Pond's has been recommended for sixty years. A favorite illustration of mine is on 4: we see all the animals suffering from various maladies and bruises. Does that bear have a doughnut-cushion to help him with hemorrhoids? The text facing each page includes upper and lower panels of traditional advertising, between which is a verse piece offering something about animals and Pond's. The closest to a fable comes on 5, where mother bear uses Pond's on her bee-stung young baby bears. The item to avoid, we are told time after time, is witch hazel. Pond's Extract can of course be used both internally and externally, by babies and old folks. The last image is of an extravaganza of animals reading (or writing?) testimonial letters about Pond's. There is a price list for Pond's products on the last page. I enjoy finding ephemera like this!
1907 Alte liebe Fabeln und Geschichten. F�r die Jugend ausgew�hlt von Agnes Hoffmann. Mit Bildern von Arpad Schmidhammer. Hardbound. Stuttgart: Verlag von Levy u. M�ller. �32 from Antiquariat im Lenninger Tal, Oberlenningen, Germany, Sept., '12.
1907 is the date given by Google Books. There seems to be no date given in the book itself. Schmidhammer is well enough known to have a page in Germany's Wikipedia. He was a children's illustrator and was also happy to be known as an anticlerical caricaturist. As the opening T of C shows, there is a broad selection of fabulists here. The T of C is helpful because each work's writer is indicated only there. Besides Aesop and Phaedrus, they are all German-speaking. I am surprised to find no La Fontaine here. There are plenty of Hey fables early in the book. OF has the frog asking children if he does not outdo the ox for size (20-21). I am happy to find Lessing's "Der Geist des Salomo" among the more predictable stories here. Solomon meets an old man working very hard and asks him what he is doing. "I learned from your advice to go to the ant and work hard." Solomon answers "You learned only half. Go now again to the ant and learn in the winter of your years to rest and enjoy what you have gathered" (35). The colored illustrations are well done, from the small -- like GA on 43 -- to the quite large -- like "Der gr�ne Esel" on 55. MSA is well illustrated on 97. The cover illustration seems typical of the early twentieth century. A child in pajamas and hat speaks with an owl. There is something billiken-like about the two. The stories here seem to grow in length and maturity as the book goes through its 200 heavy pages.
1907 Der Rohrspatz: Ein neues Fabelbuch. Theodor Etzel. Mit Zeichnungen von C.O. Petersen. Hardbound. Munich: Albert Langen. DM 35 from the Hamburg flea market, May, '94.
There are thirty-eight fables here in either prose or verse on some 116 pages. Etzel here sees himself as the Rohrspatz, the reed bunting, whose cry is repetitive, sharp, high, and raw. The first fable goes to lengths to offer an image of this bird as first hopeful and then critical. For an extra twist, Etzel has a fable-writing poet hear the reed bunting and write in his notebook "The fresh reed bunting is making noise." "Die M�cke" (15) has a mosquito fly onto a stag, who suddenly raises his head and starts running. The mosquito pursues him, unaware that (as it stands in the fable) a lion is also pursuing the stag. When the lion catches up, the mosquito says to him "You can thank me for this catch," but the lion pays no attention to the mosquito. The mosquito mutters "The great know no gratitude" and vows never again to hunt a stag for a lion. A fox wakes up to find before his hole a sad badger weeping (16). "A vine keeper shot my wife as she traveled through his vineyard." The fox answers that guilt finds revenge and that men hate thievery. "But she stole nothing." The fox agrees but adds that he himself stole some wonderful grapes there last evening. In "Aestheten" (63), a dungbeetle makes himself comfortable in some ox excrement. A fine butterfly happens by and cries with horror "To the Devil with anyone who sits down in Scheissdreck!" Embarrassed, the dungbeetle answers "You should be ashamed, young woman, to utter such hateful words!" C.P. Peterson, known as an "animal artist" from his Simplicissimus, adds the part- and full-page black-and-white illustrations. My prize among the illustrations goes to the illustration on 49 of the hyena whose stomach has burst; here one can see a hoof of the giraffe bursting out of the hyena's belly. The themes are those of the turn into the 20th century: society, politics, morality, and fashion. There is on the back cover a nice caricature of the artist (writer or illustrator?) on a hobby horse looking down on various animals. Surprisingly not in Bodemann.
1907 Fabeln und Parabeln der Weltliteratur. Gesammelt uind mit literar-historischen Einf�hrungen herausgegeben von Theodor Etzel. Erstes bis viertes Tausend. Dust-jacket. Hardbound. Leipzig: Max Hesses Verlag. �38.40 from Antiquariat Weinek, Salzburg, August., '14.
I previously knew Etzel's work through a 1990 edition by Bechterm�nz Verlag, which -- as is now clear to me -- took Etzel's classic text collection and added illustrations, making a small-format book into a large one. Now here is a lovely first edition of that original work. As I wrote then, this book is a library in itself. I have kept separate notes on the sampling of fables I enjoyed in going through the book and on its good illustrations. Parable does not get the representation one might expect from the title; a few items are included that are labelled as parables. The translations wisely follow the original's choice of prose or verse. The heart of this book is, appropriately, German fable, with over 300 pages and some fifty-three fabulists. Orientals receive forty pages, and western ancients thirty pages before the Germans, and five other literatures and two continents get eighty pages after them. Fables labelled "Aesop" here do not always have the texts which one would find in, say, Perry's Aesopica. I am not sure of Etzel's source for them.
1907 Fables in Feathers. Told by S. Ten Eyck Bourke. Illustrated by J.M. Cond�. First edition. Inscribed 1908. NY: T.Y. Crowell and Co. $35 from Drusilla's Books, Baltimore, at Silver Spring, Sept., '91.
Nine short stories on the time when the world was very young. Typically, something that the frightening king/magician Solomon does gets one bird particularly involved. What the latter does then explains some trait or feature of his today. The malicious serpent is usually involved behind the scenes. The prose is rather florid. The stories are engaging, though overdeveloped. Nine nice illustrations.
1907 Flip Flap Fables. A Bunch of Twenty Seven Tales concerning Animals of various kinds from which may be deducted Many Morals. By Frank E. Kellogg. With Illustrations by Louis Grant. First edition. NY: G.W. Dillingham Co. $16 from Greg Williams, July, '93.
A curious opening "Listen" statement claims that these fables were conceived "before the lights had been switched upon George Ade and other modern fable makers." In fact, the stories here are somewhere between Ade and Thurber: full of slang, popular, cynical, funny. I like them. Like Ade, Kellogg likes capital letters for many words. Like Thurber's losing turtle, the turtle here believed the TH story and needed two years and eleven months to lose! Many of these fables build off of Aesop. Among the best: "The Wolf and the Peacock" (9, a replay of FC with the bird much smarter now), "The Old Lion and the Tiger" (14), TH (29), "The Man and the Jackass" (37), GA (54), "The Great Detective Who Unearthed Things" (65), "The Mosquito and the Bedbug (70), "The Wise Old Judge and the Seventeen Brindle Steers" (80), and "How the Animals Chose Their King" (88). Included in the book is a strange bookmark featuring a newspaper article of a presumed relative of the book's former owner and his boasting about his restaurant. The clever descendant/relative made this article into a fable bookmark and it still sits facing 20. There is one design around the title of each fable.
1907 Folk Stories and Fables, Volume 1. Series: The Children's Hour. Selected and arranged by Eva March Tappan. No place: Houghton, Mifflin. $1 from Delavan Booksellers, Aug., '87. Extra copy without covers for $4 from Pageant, NY, May, '91.
There are two illustrations among the seventeen Aesop's fables done here: Velasquez' portrait of Aesop and Billinghurst's TH. No author acknowledged for the fables. The most noteworthy feature of the book is the foldout facsimile of the original manuscript of Longfellow's "The Children's Hour." Outwardly beat up.
1907 Les Fables de La Fontaine. Illustr�es de 81 gravures du XVIIIe si�cle tir�es du "La Fontaine en Estampes", de 31 fac-simile des dessins d'un manuscrit du XIVe si�cle et du portrait de La Fontaine d'apr�s Ch. Lebrun. Hardbound. Paris: �dit�es specialement pour les Magasins du bon March�. 24000 Lire from Marco Pagani, Novara, Italy, through Ebay, May, '01.
This book reduplicates an edition I already have listed under 1897. It was already then a derivative but lovely book. Its eighty-one gravures from the eighteenth century "La Fontaine en Estampes" seem to be mostly details from Oudry. That is certainly the case on 9 (DW) and 59 (SS). They suffer only from their relatively small size of 2.5" x 3.5". To them is added the series of smaller drawings from a fourteenth-century manuscript, either identical with or reproduced from those in Fables In�dites des XIIe, XIIIe et XIVe Si�cles et Fables de la Fontaine of 1825 by A.C.M. Robert. The covers are part marble and part leather. AI at the back.
1907 Stories to Tell to Children. Fifty-One Stories with Some Suggestions for Telling. By Sara Cone Bryant. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company/Cambridge: The Riverside Press. $9 at Walnut Antique Mall, Walnut, Iowa, April, '93. Extra copy for $15 from Greg Williams, March, '94.
A fine collection of well-told stories gathered by an experienced storyteller. Bryant starts with good tips on storytelling for children, including "Take your story seriously," "Take your time," and "Never admit a blunder." On xxv-xxvii she adds a list of good stories for the first four grades; the lists for the first two grades include many fables. "The Little Jackals and the Lion" (15) is the well-story usually given to rabbit and lion in the Panchatantra tradition. FK (69) includes an unusual second king, an eel. Bryant mentions in a note to TMCM (19) that she offers her fables as examples of the vividness and amplitude that should be added to the compact texts in this genre. Both copies of the book are in very good condition. I am glad I came across it.
1907 The Heart of Oak Books: Second Book. Fables and Nursery Tales. Revised Edition. Edited by Charles Eliot Norton. Illustrator apparently Frank T. Merrill. Boston: D.C. Heath and Co. See 1895/1902/07.
1907 The Little Governor in Fableland. John Howard Jewett. With five illustrations in color by Ethel N. Farnsworth and many illustrations in black and white. Hardbound. New York: Christmas Stocking Series: Frederick A. Stokes Company. $53.24 from Resource Books, East Granby, CT, March, '12.
This sturdy book in excellent condition is extra tall (over 7�") and extra thin (less than 4"). In its three chapters, we find a story strong in its sense of social contrasts. The two children of the governor up the cliffs have an encounter with two poorer children from among the clam-diggers along the shore. Earnest, one of the latter, saves Fortunato, the son of the governor. In the meantime, the well-to-do children go to school with the Kindly Hermit and hear songs of the Blithebird. These two, we learn, have been "planning together new ways to teach old truths" (10). In a second chapter, the Kindly Hermit tells a story to the two governor's children that turns out to be a fable pointing them the way to what to do. A young man urges his giant father to overcome the dragon that hinders some good gypsies from enjoying the good life. Fortunato becomes governor for a day and enacts the fable's program. He has a school built for the children of the clam-diggers and has their houses spruced up. My biggest surprise in all of this is the strong sense of social class; Fortunato and Gentilita need to become conscious of those poor clam-diggers and gypsies and be generous to them. The story, despite its ideology, centers really rather in Fortunato and Gentilita learning to be fellow human beings just like those clam-digger children -- and, God forbid, even like gypsies!
1907? Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit. By Joel Chandler Harris. (c)1906 by Joel Chandler Harris. (c)1907 by Frederick A. Stokes Company. NY: Frederick A. Stokes Company. $40 at Powell's in Hyde Park, '94.
Eleven stories, five of them in verse in this sideways book. Only one side of each page is used. The first and last stories are four pages long; all others are six. This edition keeps the dialect language. I recognize only one of these stories ("How Brer Rabbit Got a House") after reading the original Uncle Remus, His Songs and Sayings (1880). Especially with the 1906 copyright, could it be that these stories are from one of Harris' later Uncle Remus books? Excellent colored illustrations. Some pages have two illustrations and some only one. There are some crayon markings on the title-page and on the second page of "How Mr. Lion Lost His Wool." Some pages are chipped or torn. The first story-page is upside-down. Both covers have come loose from the binding. Finding this beautiful book convinced me for some reason to put a few editions of Brer Rabbit stories into this collection. That may not be my most logical decision ever, but I am glad to have found the book! I wonder who did the illustrations.
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1908 - 1909
1908 Aesop's Fables. Decorations and illustrations by Lucy Fitch Perkins. The Dandelion Classics for Children. First edition. NY: Frederick A. Stokes Company. $50 from Barbara and Bill Yoffee, Nov., '91. Two copies, also of a September, 1908 printing, but with a different cover (milkmaid): for $34 from The Book House, St. Louis, March, '95; and for $30 from Greg Williams, Jan., '92; I will keep both of these in the collection. Another extra copy of the edition with FC on the cover, including some loose early pages, for $45 from (more) Moe's, Aug., '94.
A beautiful traditional Aesop that I had never had in my hand before. Excellent condition. Maybe 250 fables printed very nicely two or three to the page with no runovers. The brief versions may sometimes evidence a lack of care, and the morals are quite general. There are twelve simple but appealing full-page colored illustrations; the best of them are "The Old Woman and the Doctor" (24), "The Old Woman's Maids" (66), and MM (84). Almost all the full-page illustrations are of human events. The cover is beautifully color-engraved, and there is nice black-and-white art work around the title pages. The best of these is FS on xi. AI at front. Of the two milkmaid-cover copies, that from the Book House is lacking the frontispiece, title-page (with publication information on the back), list of illustrations, introduction, and the illustration facing 84. It has one loose illustration (facing 66) and some crayoning on 9. Otherwise it is in good condition. That from Greg Williams is missing the frontispiece and four other illustrations and is more generally in poor condition.
1908 Aesop's Fables for Little People. Told by Mrs. Arthur (Olive) Brookfield. Pictured by Henry J. Ford. Second Edition. Hardbound. The Children's Library. London: T. Fisher Unwin. �12 from Rose's Books, Hay-on-Wye, June, '98.
Change the title and format of one book, and you make a brand-new other book like this one. The same publisher, author, and illustrator collaborated on Aesop's Fables for Little Readers, for which I guessed at a date of 1880. I may need to revise that guess now. Here "Readers" is changed to "People." That book is 6�" x 8�". Here we move to a smaller book, 4�" x 6�". The illustrations are unfortunately scaled down and changed from sepia to black-and-white. Some illustrations that were nicely configured onto the page of print have now been removed to a separate page, like TB (107). My favorite illustration is still the second illustration for "The Hermit and the Bear," which shows a hermit with a terribly bent nose, which the bear broke according to this version (58). See my comments on the original edition (also listed under "1880?").
1908 Basni Esopa (Russian). I.N. Pozdnyakov. Drawings by T. Nikitin. Hardbound. Moscow: I. Sytin Co. $39.90 from Juri Rudich, Tallinn, Estonia, through Ebay, Jan., '04.
The seller reports correctly that this volume contains fifty-two fables and eight drawings on its 88 pages. As it is unusual to find Aesop in France because of La Fontaine, so it is unusual, I think, to find Aesop in Russia because of Krylov. The illustrations here are rather expectable. Maybe the most arresting is the silhouette illustration facing the title-page: does it depict Aesop taking the bread-basket that will soon be half-empty? There is an engaging illustration for "Pravda" on 47. The typeface throughout seems to be (small and large) capitals. Looking through this book makes me want to learn Russian!
1908 Children's Classics in Dramatic Form. Book Three. Augusta Stevenson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. $1 in DC (Vassar book sale?), Spring, '92.
The book follows the same approach as found in the 1909 Book Two of the same series. Here three fables appear along with scenes from Anderson, Grimm, and the Arabian Nights: "The Travellers and the Hatchet" (1, with illustrations); FC (3: this version offers both a mother and a daughter crow); MSA (9, with illustrations; this version features three "goodies" and elaborates the action well).
1908 Chinese Fables and Folk Stories. By Mary Hayes Davis and Chow-Leung. With an introduction by Yin-Chwang Wang Tsen-Zan. Hardbound. Printed in USA. NY: American Book Company. $20 from Worn Bookworm, Big Pine, CA, through the mail, June, '98.
The thirty-seven stories here include many more fables than I thought. Put it better: many of these stories are much more fables than I had thought they would be. The book makes a proud boast that it is the first to bring Chinese fables into English. As Yin--Chwang Wang Tsen-Zan says in the introduction, "This is the first book of Chinese stories ever printed in English that will bring the Western people to the knowledge of some of our fables, which have never been heretofore known to the world" (7). Though they are somewhat longer than most Western fables and though they often have a legendary quality, using frequent proper names, still they do mostly what fables do. Several particularly good fables include "The Evergreen Tree and the Wilderness Marigold" (27), "The Snail and the Bees" (31), "The Proud Chicken" (37, very much like our "The Two Cocks"), "The Man Who Loved Money Better than Life" (66), "The Proud Fox and the Crab" (141), "The Lion and the Mosquitoes" (176), and "The Thief and the Elephant" (181), which features confession by fear. The version of SM here (136) results in death. La Fontaine's fable of the acorn and pumpkin shows up here as that of the fig and watermelon (203). Maybe the most touching story in the book is that of Confucius' contemplation of two trees, which helps him to find purpose in a wintry world of rejection (128). Most of the illustrations are signed by a chop with a star over the letter "B." The tone of these stories is heavily didactic.
1908 Fables. J.-P. Florian. Hardbound. Paris: Librairie Moderne: Maurice Bauche, �diteur. �75 from Russian Woman at St.-Ouen, Paris, July, '09.
Not in Bodemann. Page VIII speaks of some disagreements about the order and quantity of fables that Florian wanted published. Is Bauche claiming here to reproduce the original collection and order of fables? In any case, there are here two books of fables, the first containing twenty-one and the second nineteen fables. The book was originally given out as a school prize in 1916. The special attraction of this edition lies in the cartoons surrounding the texts. These line drawings suggest good things. Some stay close to the text. Most seem to be signed by "R. Candide." Favorites include "L'Aveugle et le Paralytique" (16); "Le Singe Qui Montre la Lanterne Magique" (24); and "L'Enfant et le Mirroir" (26). The red leatherette cover mentions both "Paul Duval" and "Elbeuf," but I have no idea what they have to do with the book.
1908 Fragments of Thought and Life: Being Seven Essays, and Seven Fables in Illustration of the Essays. Written down by Mabel Collins (Mrs. Keningale Cook). Paperbound. London: The Theosophical Publishing Society. $13.20 from Blue Mountain Books & Manuscripts, Ltd, Catskill, NY, through abe, Nov., '02.
There are seven theosophical fables illustrating seven essays. I made my way through the first three fables. The first is four pages long. A man seeking the "Supreme Father" is advised to lie down in a field of flowers and to wait. Though he will be a cripple all his life, this soul has "taken up the Cross" and "will attain." The second fable is over twenty pages long; it illustrates the "Necessity of Bitterness." I gather that the point is that you have to work through the bitterness of what life gives you to find a saving attitude. Bitterness leads to hardness for Margaret Litton, who has taken the heart from her father and her former lover. Satan (?) instructs that she be bathed deeply in bitterness. She needs to become aware of her own guilt. Under the care and guidance of a guardian angel, a blind woman interacts with Margaret. The bitterness departs while forgiveness, service, and compassion enter in. "Of That Which Endures" leads into the third fable, which is again longer than its essay. This is a sweet-sour story of a nine year old noble son of a suicide. His father killed himself over his wife's supposed unfaithfulness. The man whom she loved comes back and meets the boy and asks whether he may come to the castle. The son wisely says "no." The mother embodies the power to endure. Like her son, she triumphs. This work takes fable into a place where, I think, it does not live easily.
1908 Jewish Fairy Tales and Fables. By Aunt Naomi [Gertrude Landa?]. Illustrated by E. Strellett and J. Marks. Hardbound. London: R. Mazin & Co., Ltd. $12.50 from G.R. Goodman, Bookseller, Stillwater, MN, through eBay, Dec., '02.
The Library of Congress has a listing for this book that gives the name of Gertrude Landa for "Aunt Naomi." It suggests the date of 1915; however, their copy was published in NY by Block Publishing Company. This book has been a pleasant surprise to me. The stories are good. There are fourteen stories of varying length and character. There is the story of the slave who became a king for a year but then would have to relinquish his throne. One of several stories close to fable has Fox luring Bruin into a well for the supposed cheese and Bruin drowning there (31). The cover illustration is for the story of the peddlar who barters people's miseries for happiness. In the closest to a traditional fable, the fox enters the vineyard through a gap between the railings. After eating, he must wait for days before getting back out (61). An old man plants a fig tree because he is one hundred years young. Solomon enlists the help of a small bee to answer the difficult question posed by the Queen of Sheba. In a great Jewish story, Honeim the Jewish cobbler outwits the rich Arab who wants to buy shoes from him (85). In another shoe story, a visitor from Athina maligns Jerusalem. Hafiz Ben lures him into making a fool of himself before the people of Jerusalem. Sly fox tries to convince the fish that they can live better out of water, but they are too smart for him. A hunchbacked old rabbi teaches a princess that great things can be inside very modest containers. The tongue convinces the other members that he best represents their interests.
1908 Old Fables--Aesop. Adapted by Harriet G. Reiter. Pamphlet. Dayton: School Classic Series: The Paine Publishing Company. $9.99 from Diana Sweeney, Flushing, OH, through Ebay, Oct., '00.
I had presumed that this pamphlet of 32 pages containing some thirteen fables was a printing of some sort from the two volumes Reiter did for the Instructor Literature Series. These were "Eleven Fables from Aesop" (1906) and "More Fables from Aesop" (1905). Apparently these are simply other stories. They are done for the first grade and are listed as #1 among the seventy-eight books in the School Classic Series. There is a misprint ("It" for "I") in the first line of 7. In "The Lion, the Bear and the Fox," the lion and bear set out together to hunt their dinner. The argument in SW (25) is presented according to the poorer version. The black-and-white part-page illustrations are simple. Though intact, this little booklet is very fragile.
1908 Stories of Little Animals. By Lenore Elizabeth Mulets. Illustrated by Sophie Schneider. Princess Series. Phyllis' Field Friends. Boston: L.C. Page and Company. See 1904/08.
1908 The Elementary Spelling Book. Being an Improvement on the American Spelling Book. By Noah Webster. NY: American Book Company. See 1880/1908.
1908 The Tortoise and the Geese and Other Fables of Bidpai. Retold by Maude Barrows Dutton. Illustrated by E. Boyd Smith. Hardbound. Printed in USA. Boston/NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. $15 from Lillie Johnson, Oak Ridge, TN, through Ebay, July, '99. Extra copy for $4 from Bookworm and Bugjuice, Cleveland, OH, through Interloc, August, '98.
Thirty-four fables, mostly told in two or three pages apiece, together with twelve black-and-white illustrations. The stories here are thus offered individually, rather than in the "story within a story" framework usual for Bidpai. The monkey gets his tail caught in the board that is being split (6). Two traditional stories are particularly well told: "The Gardener and the Bear" (22) and "The Ass, the Lion, and the Fox" (101). Also well told is "The Blind Man and the Snake" (39). The blind horse-rider has grabbed a snake instead of his whip, and now he will not believe his riding friend who tells him that it is a snake and that he had better get rid of it. Other good stories include "The Lean Cat and the Fat Cat" (73), in which the former learns from the latter that the king's table is sumptuous. The lean cat's poor mistress warns him that he will do better to keep eating her broth. Unfortunately, this very day the king gets frustrated with too many cats around and delivers an edict that all cats in the palace will be hanged. The fat cat is smart enough to stay away, but the lean cat is apprehended immediately and killed. Also good is "The King, the Hermit, and the Two Princes" (78). The king hides much of his treasure from his dissolute sons and asks a trusted hermit friend to see that they experience want before they receive the treasure. After the king's death, the older son drives the younger out. The latter goes to the hermitage to seek his father's old friend. He learns the simple life and finds the treasure. His brother gets into a war, loses it for lack of money, and is killed. The generals deliberate over a good new king who will be peaceful and prudent. They decide on the younger son at the hermitage. Two of the best illustrations show the lion jumping into the well to confront his "adversary" (frontispiece) and the camel ready to be devoured by the lion and his three wicked counselors (116). I have this book in two different formats and will keep both in the collection. The good copy has thinner, better paper and is covered with yellow cloth on the front of which is a large illustration of TT. The second copy has a plain green cloth cover.
1908 Well-Known Fables Set to Music, For Voice or Piano (Inside title: Well-Known Fables Set to Music, Vocal or Instrumental). Words by Jessica Moore, Music by Geo. L. Spaulding. Weir, Dor�, Heighway, Griset. Large pamphlet with tied string binding. Printed in USA. Philadelphia: Theo. Presser Co. $2 from Dawn Toxie, San Diego, through Ebay, June, '00. Extra copy for $58.78 from Evelyn Maloney, Cornwall, NY, through Ebay, March, '00.
Here is a treasure! I have often wondered if such a book exists, and now I have found it twice within three months! My good copy has a cover picturing FG, while the copy from Evelyn Maloney has lost its cover. There is irony in the cost of this publication: the good copy cost me $2, while the extra had cost over $58! The original cost $.75! The first four large-format (12�" x 9�") pages present, in two columns, the texts of sixteen fables according to Jacobs' version, complete with his moral. All but one have a small black-and-white illustration. The illustrations are taken from Weir, Heighway, Griset, and someone working after Dor�. Then follows an AI on 3, followed by the musical rendition of each fable, with the same moral put in quotation marks above the music at the top of the page. Moore's texts are rhymed. The fables put to music here are BS, CP, DS, "The Fox and the Cat," FG, OF, FK, GGE, BF, LM, MSA, MM, "The Miser and His Gold," "The Swallow and the Other Birds," SW, and WSC. Because the good copy shows some crayoning and pencilling, I will keep both copies in the collection.
1908 Well-Known Fables Set to Music Vocal or Instrumental. Words by Jessica Moore. Music by Geo. L. Spaulding. Paperbound. Philadelphia: Theo. Presser Co. $5.99 from Michael Domeier, Littlestown, PA through eBay, April, '09.
I already have two copies of an earlier edition of this work, but I feel justified in adding a new entry since the price has changed. The earlier two copies both had, apparently, "50 cents" printed on the title-page. The better copy has a sticker "75 cents" pasted over that. Now here is a still better copy, and its printed price is 75 cents. I will excerpt some comments from there and then add a new comment. Here is a treasure! This is a large-format 32-page stapled pamphlet. The first four large-format (12�" x 9�") pages present, in two columns, the texts of sixteen fables according to Jacobs' version, complete with his moral. All but one have a small black-and-white illustration. The illustrations are taken from Weir, Heighway, Griset, and someone working after Dor�. Then follows an AI on 3, followed by the musical rendition of each fable, with the same moral put in quotation marks above the music at the top of the page. Each fable then gets a one-page or two-page spread with piano music and verse lyrics. Moore's texts are rhymed. The fables put to music here are BS, CP, DS, "The Fox and the Cat," FG, OF, FK, GGE, BF, LM, MSA, MM, "The Miser and His Gold," "The Swallow and the Other Birds," SW, and WSC. The lyrics for the first fable, "The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing," run this way:
Now the wolf was hungry and wanted a meal,
But he found the sheep this time harder to steal,
And the shepherd dogs did not help his ordeal,
So he felt he was doomed to defeat.
Then he came upon an old sheep hide,
That some farmer's wife had cast aside,
With this on his back and the field very wide
He soon had a young lamb to eat.
1908 Wie die Tiere auf Reisen gingen. Nach alten Fabeln erz�hlt von Alexander Redlich. Illustriert von H. Krumhaar und M. Grengg. Hardbound. Vienna and Leipzig: Akademischer Verlag. $10 from Heartwood Used and Rare Books, Charlottesville, VA, April, '99.
There are 61 pages of fables here, without a T of C. They are organized into four chapters: "Wie die Tiere das Haus verliessen" (5), "Die Wanderfahrt der Maus Goldreich" (14), "Hennings, des Hahns, Erlebnisse und der Krieg der V�gel" (34), and "Die Erlebnisse des Ochsen Lebhaft und die Heimkehr" (53). There are frequent illustrations, both part-page and full, in black-and-white, two-color, and three-color formats. It all starts when the dog, who has wandered the nearby forest, starts to tell enthralling tales to the farmyard animals. Soon the dog and the rooster, hungry and afraid, set off into the woods to find a better life. There are no fables in the first section. In fact, the first recognizable fable comes up when Goldreich the mouse is ready to crawl into a mole's hole. The mole warns him that there is a hedgehog inside--and tells the tale of the hedgehog moving in and making life so hard for him that he has moved out of his own hole. Next Goldreich meets a frog, and we are into another fable as he asks the frog how he can get across the water. In this version, the frog carries the mouse on his back and the mouse escapes from the hawk's nest. Soon we touch on stories from the Panchatantra, including "The Jackal and the Deer," in which the former betrays the latter but ends up getting killed in his stead, and a story of Goldreich being asked to free a group of pigeons caught in a net. In fact, stories from the Panchatantra tradition seem to predominate. This book is a lovely creative effort. I think it somewhat unusual that this German children's book from the early 1900's gives a date of publication.
1908 Work That Is Play. Mary Gardner. Illustrated by Helen Hodge. Chicago: A. Flanagan. $10 by mail from mad dog and the pilgrim, March, '94. Extra copy for $15 at The Bookstall, San Francisco, Dec., '90.
A favorite of mine. The book begins with an impassioned plea for play for little folks. It presents a narrative and then the same story in dramatic form. (Note that one similar volume I have was done one year later.) New to me: "The Lion and His Echo" and "The Farmer's Three Enemies." Differently told: the fox sees other beasts go into the "sick" lion's den. The river fairy is a hand: my, how secular can we get! The ant lets the grasshopper in and gives him food. The sun tells the wind that each has strengths. (The bet of the sun and wind follows the poorer tradition.) The mice are interrupted by a servant and then by a boy and a dog together. The lion is tied up while asleep; there is no trap or net. The end-paper illustrations are lovely: scenes of the MM before and after her loss face each other at the front, while the piping wolf and dancing kid are together at the rear. My two copies have different colored endpapers. The spine is weak in the extra copy. The good copy is quite well preserved.
1908/14 Prose That Every Child Should Know. A Selection of the Best Prose of All Times for Young People. Edited by Mary E. Burt. Decorated with Photographs by Eve Watson Sch�tze. Garden City: Doubleday, Page and Company. $10.80 at Walnut Antique Mall, Iowa, March, '93.
This strange book with wounded spine has many texts every child should know; I count about 218. It has several unusual features. The biggest of them is its early use of photography: on the cover, end papers, and frontispiece. Another is the astounding introduction given to the one Aesopic fable presented, GGE (14). The introduction praises the goose for giving a whole, not a half. It then moves to the question of whether a girl should "let on" when a boy pushes her off the sidewalk! "That's the reason, Honey, why women don't vote." What?! The tale is then told in standard fashion. TMCM (26) is ascribed to Horace and is his version with the addition of a mouse hole. What crazy things one finds!
1908/15? Old Fables--Aesop. Adapted by Harriet G. Reiter. Pamphlet. Dayton: School Classic Series: The Paine Publishing Company. $7.95 from The Side Door, West Yarmouth, MA, through eBay, Oct., '03.
This pamphlet seems to be a later printing of one I have listed already, with the same bibliographical information, under "1908." The cover here is simpler. Without any color, it shows a running child. Now all of the seventy-eight books in the School Classic Series are listed on the inside of the front cover, while the inside of the back cover is given to another series, "Dialogues." Above all, the price of a pamphlet has gone up from 5 cents to 7 cents! I will include my comments from the earlier appearance. I had presumed that this pamphlet of 32 pages containing some thirteen fables was a printing of some sort from the two volumes Reiter did for the Instructor Literature Series. These were Eleven Fables from Aesop (1906) and More Fables from Aesop (1905). Apparently these are simply other stories. They are done for the first grade and are listed as #1 among the seventy-eight books in the School Classic Series. There is still a misprint ("It" for "I") in the first line of 7. In "The Lion, the Bear and the Fox," the lion and bear set out together to hunt their dinner. The argument in SW (25) is presented according to the poorer version. The black-and-white part-page illustrations are simple. This copy is in better condition than the earlier copy.
1908/17 Jewish Fairy Tales and Fables. Aunt Naomi [Gertrude Landa?]. Illustrated by E. Strellett and J. Marks. Hardbound. London: R. Mazin & Co., Ltd. $51 from Meldrum House Antiques, Kamo, Whangarei, New Zealand, June, '00.
This is a curious book. First of all, I spent way too much money for it. Secondly, it is the sixth printing of a book I already have, probably in a first printing. Thirdly, it is curious that its cover has changed slightly. Now there is a tan background, and the title is highlighted by being red. The only other change I can note in the book is the recognition of the printer on 169 has dropped "Selwood Printing Works" and added "Robert Scott." I will add some of my comments from the earlier printing. The Library of Congress has a listing for this book that gives the name of Gertrude Landa for "Aunt Naomi." It suggests the date of 1915; however, their copy was published in NY by Block Publishing Company. This book has been a pleasant surprise to me. The stories are good. There are fourteen stories of varying length and character. There is the story of the slave who became a king for a year but then would have to relinquish his throne. One of several stories close to fable has Fox luring Bruin into a well for the supposed cheese and Bruin drowning there (31). The cover illustration is for the story of the peddlar who barters people's miseries for happiness. In the closest to a traditional fable, the fox enters the vineyard through a gap between the railings. After eating, he must wait for days before getting back out (61). An old man plants a fig tree because he is one hundred years young. Solomon enlists the help of a small bee to answer the difficult question posed by the Queen of Sheba. In a great Jewish story, Honeim the Jewish cobbler outwits the rich Arab who wants to buy shoes from him (85). In another shoe story, a visitor from Athina maligns Jerusalem. Hafiz Ben lures him into making a fool of himself before the people of Jerusalem. Sly fox tries to convince the fish that they can live better out of water, but they are too smart for him. A hunchbacked old rabbi teaches a princess that great things can be inside very modest containers. The tongue convinces the other members that he best represents their interests.
1908/26/38 Tales of Laughter. Edited by Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora Archibald Smith. Decorated by Elizabeth MacKinstry. NY: Garden City Publishing Co. $12.95 at Downtown Books, Milwaukee, Nov., '92.
Notice the slight shift of title from this book to the 1908/39 edition from the Parents' Institute. See my comments there. Aesopic material includes "The Fox and the Cat" (77), TMCM (206), and BC (232). TMCM includes a chance meeting and mutual Christmas invitations in order to settle a bet on who is better off. The country mouse gets drunk on ale, is caught by the cat, and tells a tale. A banging door gives an opportunity to flee. In the selection and order of stories this edition differs from the 1908/39 edition. This volume is in good condition.
1908/39 Tales of Laughter Every Child Should Know. Edited by Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora Archibald Smith. Second Series. NY: Doubleday, Doran, and Co. for the Parents' Institute. $5 at Bonifant Books, Oct., '91.
An example of a big collection of well-told children's stories with a few fables mixed in. Boundary lines are hard to draw here. Certain Aesopic material includes "The Fox and the Cat" (81), TMCM (274), and BC (336). Also present are "One's Own Children Prettiest" (323) but told of a hunter and woodcock and "The Race Between the Hare and the Hedgehog" (340). TMCM includes a chance meeting and mutual Christmas invitations. The country mouse gets drunk on ale, is caught by the cat, and tells a tale. A banging door gives an opportunity to flee. A new and excellent tale: "The Fox, the Horse, and the Lion" (153).
1908? Fables from Aesop. Illustrated by Percy Billinghurst. Hardbound. London: Henry Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton. �12 from Abbey Antiquarian, June, '98.
I have loved this book from the beginning because of its dramatic, simple cover-illustration of a wolf with glasses reading a book. Inside are twelve strong chromolithographs, one for each story in the unpaginated book. There is a four-page pattern for each story: title-page with a black-and-white illustration, a page of text, the full-page chromolithograph, and a final page of text. The illustrations here are not as stylized as I find Billinghurst in his better known works. The color work here is very pleasing. Do not miss the dramatic red-and-black mouse on the title-page! The fox in FG "was a wise fox, and knew that it is better not to long for things which we cannot have." Green cloth spined pictorial boards. Some foxing. See my identical edition from Stokes in NY under the same year.
1908? Fables from Aesop. Illustrated by Percy Billinghurst. Hardbound. Printed in England. NY: Frederick A Stokes Company. $60 from Magers & Quinn, Minneapolis, Dec., '98.
I have loved this book from the beginning because of its dramatic, simple cover-illustration of a wolf with glasses reading a book. Inside are twelve strong chromolithographs, one for each story in the unpaginated book. There is a four-page pattern for each story: title-page with a black-and-white illustration, a page of text, the full-page chromolithograph, and a final page of text. The illustrations here are not as stylized as I find Billinghurst in his better known works. The color work here is very pleasing. Do not miss the dramatic red-and-black mouse on the title-page! The fox in FG "was a wise fox, and knew that it is better not to long for things which we cannot have." Green cloth spined pictorial boards. See my identical edition from Henry Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton in London under the same year.
1909 Aesop's Fables in Irish--Parts I. to V. Very Rev. Peter Canon O'Leary, P.P. The Leigean Eirean Series, edited by Norma Borthwick. Dublin: The Irish Book Company. $30 from June Clinton, March, '93.
Fifty fables and a vocabulary that stretches almost longer than the fables! Sorry. Since I cannot read this text, I do not have much more to say!
1909 Child Classics: The Third Reader. By Georgia Alexander. With pictures by Alice Barber Stephens, Sarah K. Smith, and Fanny Y. Cory. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company. $10 at Horizon Books, Seattle, July, '93.
Six fables. "The Crab and His Mother" (14) is uneventful, with a simple black-and-white engraving. MM (64) has a nice impressionistic black-and-white illustration. MSA (90) is done as a play without illustration. It has "thee" in the nominative several times. The donkey falls from the bridge as they try to turn him over. GA (95) is done in a standard verse presentation without illustration, as is Emerson's "Fable" (132). Tolstoy's "The Two Horses" (229) is brief and pointed: work and you will eat.
1909 Children's Classics in Dramatic Form. Book Two. Augusta Stevenson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. $3 at Renaissance, July, '88. Extra copy in poorer condition for $17.50 from The Book House, Williamsburg, VA, August, '00.
A novel (if direct and naive) approach to children's stories, including ten fables, with standard illustrations.
1909 Fablichonneries. Georges Gillet. Illustr�es par Jos� Roy. Hardbound. Paris: Les Conteurs Joyeux: Collection Ollendorff. $30 from Christian Tottino through Bidstart, Oct., '14.
This is a set of 124 independent titled panels, each presenting a black-and-white cartoon image and a poem with a "moralit�." These are the stuff of newspaper or magazine cartoons that border on the risque and flirtatious. Not all, from a reading of the first few, are about sex. A wife wants at last to vacation in Switzerland, and the husband has to inform her "Point d'argent, point de Suisse" (6). I think there are frequent plays on words. Might that be at work in this moralit�: "Il ne faut pas courir deux l�vres � la fois"? That is a famous aphorism found in Balzac. In this case, a man is apparently flirting with two women at once (8). The following cartoon is about a couple that make love only once a month. The woman complains. The man says it is more hygienic. Does she run off to her dear cousin? "O� y a de l'hygi�ne, y a pas de plaisir." I do not understand the unusual word "fablichonneries," but I suspect that there is a play on fable combined with some other verbal element. Half leather. Marbled boards. Bound here with "La Petite N�fle" by Edmond Deschaumes.
1909 Folk-Lore and Fable: Aesop, Grimm, Anderson. The Harvard Classics, edited by Charles W. Eliot, Volume 17. NY: Collier and Son. $3.50 at Shorey, Seattle, Aug., '85. Second, more expensive, copy with gold embossing on cover and different title page for $.50 from Book Cellar, March, '88. And a third copy with a black cover and spine that originally featured gold embossing, for $1 in DC, April, '92.
An unspectacular selection of Joseph Jacobs' Aesopic fables claims the first 35 pages or so of this collection. It is, as far as I can see, valuable only as testimony to Aesop's popularity. No illustrations. T of C at the beginning of the Aesop section.
1909 Folk Stories and Fables, Vol 1. Eva March Tappan. Hardbound. London: Series: The Children's Hour: Cassell and Company. $5 from an unknown source, May, '14.
This book is allied with one already in the collection, published by Houghton Mifflin in 1907. This particular edition is, as an early insert proclaims, specially prepared for subscribers by Cassell and Company. The copyright information on the back of the title-page includes this extra line after the Houghton Mifflin copyright of 1907: "Special English Edition 1909." The only change I seem to find from the Houghton Mifflin 1907 copy is the lack here of Billinghurst's TH. There is still Velasquez' portrait of Aesop in black-and-white facing 376. I also notice "The Country Where the Mice Eat Iron" on 335. Fables are on 375-383. No author is acknowledged for the fables. The most noteworthy feature of the book is the foldout facsimile of the original manuscript of Longfellow's "The Children's Hour."
1909 Gotthold Ephraim Lessings Abhandlungen �ber die Fabel nebst einem Anhang: Fabeltexte. L. L�tteken. Zweite vermehrte Auflage. Hardbound. Paderborn: Sch�ninghs Ausgaben deutscher und ausl�ndischer Klassiker mit ausf�hrlichen Erl�uterungen: Druck und Verlag von Ferdinand Sch�ningh. �10 from Antiquariat Richart Kulbach, Heidelberg, August, '12.
Here is a serious German book. I appreciate that this book brings together Lessing's writings on fable. Even more, I appreciate the gathering on some thirty pages (97-129) of the fables he mentions in his various discourses on fables. They come from Aesop, Phaedrus, La Fontaine, Lichtwer, Gellert, and himself. In fact, they make a fine representative little selection of fables. A curiosity of this book is the conflation of two series. The cover and first page both give the series in which this book exists as "Sch�ninghs Ausgaben deutscher und ausl�ndischer Klassiker mit ausf�hrlichen Erl�uterungen." The verso of that page lists "Sch�ninghs Ausgaben deutscher Klassiker mit ausf�hrlichen Erl�uterungen" and lists this book as one of them. The title-page then has a page facing it. On the left page we get the latter, with this book listed as Volume 31. Perhaps Sch�ningh was not very careful to distinguish one series from another; Lessing could be in both "classic German" and "classic German and foreign." Somehow that approach does not seem very German to me!
1909 Sparks of Truth, or Living Truth in Full Flames. By Rev. W.S. Harris. Illustrated by Paul Krafft, J.R. Connor, Harry E. Knouse, et al. Hardbound. Luther Minter. $20 from Steven Temple Books, Toronto, Jan., '94. Extra copy with a bowed cover and in poor condition for $2.75 from Jill Ivankovits, Coplay, PA, through Ebay, March, '99.
This book, sold by subscription only, began to ring bells after I read a few stories. It turns out that the book takes over almost entirely--and utterly without mention--the earlier Modern Fables and Parables or Moral Truth in a Nutshell from 1903. The preface seems verbatim the same. The number of stories has contracted from 111 to 96. One curiosity that I note as dropping is "The Bug and the Capitalist," which presented social criticism of capitalism. The vast majority of the offerings there, as well as their accompanying illustrations, are back. We have lost the very serious photograph of Harris at the beginning of the book. The beginning still has a T of C, as well as a list of illustrations. The stories continue to disappoint me. They are forced and anti-intellectual. See my comments on the earlier book.
1909 The Boston Collection of Kindergarten Stories. Written and Collected by Boston Kindergarten Teachers. Seventh Edition. Hardbound. New York and Boston: J.L. Hammett Company. $7.87 from Bookfever.com., Ione, CA, through abe, Nov., '12.
This collection of over sixty stories for kindergardeners includes some seven fables, including LM (31); TH (57); SW told in the poorer version (74). After 172, there is an unannounced section including four stories: "Aesop's Fables to Be Adapted by Kindergartners." This section includes FG, AD, DS, and "The Lark and Her Young Ones." Notice the typo "litle" on 32: what a bad example for beginning readers or their teachers!
1909 The Fables of Aesop. Illustrated by Edward J. Detmold. No editor named. First edition? NY: Hodder and Stoughton. Illustrations separately printed and pasted in. $36 from Edward Bowersock, Audubon, NJ, at Silver Spring, Oct., '91. Extra copy in July, '96 from Clare Leeper.
I am delighted to find at last an early Detmold; the good copy is inscribed in 1912. The colored illustrations are lovely. Apparently the frontispiece (TMCM) is missing in both copies. The illustrations are separately printed and pasted in. The combination of cardboard and paste has some of the illustrations waffling. The cover and spine of Aesop teaching are beautifully imprinted. I notice that Detmold follows Babrius' version of "The Monkey and Her Children."
1909 The Ontario Readers: Second Book. Hardbound. Toronto: T. Eaton Co. $13.05 from Haslam's New and Used Books, St. Petersburg, FL, July, '03.
I had earlier catalogued a 1971 facsimile of the 1923 printing of this book. Now I find the (original) edition--and perhaps even printing--of 1909. This reader includes "The Arab and His Camel" (1); "The Bat, the Birds, and the Beasts" (8); DLS (43, illustrated); BC (44); "The Price of a Song" (53, La Fontaine's "The Cobbler and the Financier," acknowledged as by La Fontaine); "The Blind Men and the Elephant" (56, illustrated) by John Godfrey Saxe; "The Hare with Many Friends" (58), presented as from Aesop rather than Gay; FS (61); TT (62, illustrated); "The Rabbit's Trick" (68, including a duel actually waged by whale and elephant); GA (77, in a verse rendition by an unknown author); AL (94, illustrated, described as "A Roman Tale"); and "The Tiger, the Brahman, and the Jackal" (128, illustrated), well told by Flora Anne Steel. The illustrations are black-and-white and are signed by C.W. Jefferys. There is a T of C at the book's front. Note "God Save the King" facing 1; there also several scriptural passages and stories here. The book is in very good condition. I found it one shelf away from the place where I was directed to find fable books.
1909 The Progressive Road to Reading: Book One. By Georgine Burchill, William L. Ettinger, and Edgar Dubs Shimer. NY: Silver, Burdett and Company. $5.30 at Dinkytown Antiquarian, July, '94.
For fables, one finds here only TMCM on 109, with five lovely (unattributed) black-and-white etchings. See "A First Reader" in 1909/10 for a slight refashioning of this book.
1909 The Progressive Road to Reading: Book Two. By Georgine Burchill, William L. Ettinger, and Edgar Dubs Shimer. NY: Silver, Burdett and Company. $5.30 at Dinkytown Antiquarian, July, '94.
There are three fables here, starting with "The Camel and the Jackal" (5). "The Little Jackals and the Lion" (42) is "The Hare and the Lion" from Kalila and Dimna, but it uses a pool. "The Cock and the Fox" (70) is the Chanticleer story, but here the fox gets the cock down onto the field outside the walls. Once caught, the cock shouts to those pursuing that he is taking the fox to the woods. He thus gets the fox to open his mouth in laughter, and so the cock goes free. Standard black-and-white etchings.
1909 The Two Travelers: A Book of Fables. Carlota Montenegro. Hardbound. Boston: The Poet Lore Company. $10 from Nautilus Books, Turlock, CA, Oct., '98.
This is a book of forty-three stories for reflection roughly a la Kahlil Gibran. I read the first four. The book aptly belonged to the San Francisco Lodge of the Theosophical Society.
1909 Von L�wen und Lausbuben: Fabeln und Firlefanz. Theodor Etzel. Hardbound. Munich and Leipzig: Georg M�ller. DM 30 from Leipzig, July, '95.
This volume has some 144 pages and is divided into two sections according to its title. Its black cover pictures a smiling lion and four rascals. There are some curiosities to note about this book. Before its last two pages of standard advertising, it has five pages of published comment on Etzel's three other fable works. How nice that I now have all three in the collection! Those pages are preceded by a remark on the two groups of LaFontaine imitations in the book: three fables (56-61) and three "Schw�nke" (droll stories, 68-81). Of the two major sections, "Firlefanz" presents tomfoolery: eighteen short pieces, mostly in verse. The "fable" section includes at its end the three imitations of La Fontaine and three "Makamen," old Arabian improvisations. The La Fontaine fables, rendered here in verse, are MM, 2P, and "Die weltfl�chtige Ratte." A cursory reading suggests that they are very faithful to La Fontaine's text and theme. The fables are like those we know from Etzel's other works, a comment on individual and social human weaknesses. Some are prose and some in verse. Many are wonderfully short and pointed, like "H�ndin und Henne" (15). "This bitch of a dog shamelessly lures a dozen strange dogs behind her!" So says the hen. "This shameless hen shares with a dozen other hens the favor of one single rooster!" So says the female dog. Or again in "Die Uhr," the clock is in the midst of complaining about lazy men, who lie down and sleep while she works tirelessly through the night, but her complaint stops suddenly because the man forgot to wind her (21). "I build my own house," boasted the snail. "I use people for that purpose," answered the mouse. Good fun! Surprisingly not in Bodemann.
1909 Zweites Lesebuch: Deutsch-englische Leseb�cher f�r katholische Schulen. No author or artists acknowledged. NY: Benziger Brothers. $.12 at Georgetown University library, Oct., '91.
Another little treasure. This collection of mostly pious stories and prayers includes "Der Fuchs und die Trauben" (37) with an illustration and vocabulary. There are also "The Merchant and the Sailor" and "The Little Goat and the Wolf" (74-5). Even Catholics need fables!
1909/10 A First Reader. By Burchill, Ettinger, and Shimer. California State Series. (c)1910 by the People of the State of California. (c)1909 by Silver, Burdett and Co. Sacramento: Superintendent State Printing. $5 in Lincoln City, Aug., '87. Extra copy for $2 from Vintage Bookshop, North Platte, Jan., '94.
This book represents a very slight modification of The Progressive Road to Reading: Book One from 1909 from the same authors and publisher. The back of the title page notes the dependence on that edition. This book adds diacritical marks to the texts and, in the introduction, one paragraph about the marks. It uses the same plates but has smaller margins.
1909/13 Standard Catholic Readers by Grades: Third Year. Mary E. Doyle. Two Aesopic illustrations by Rinehart? NY: American Book Company. $.25 at Antiquarium, Omaha, Jan., '89.
A Catholic reader! Two fables are especially well told ("The Lark and Her Young" and FWT). There are three others, one (SW) with an evocative drawing.
1909/22 Child Classics: The Second Reader. By Georgia Alexander. With pictures by Alice Barber Stephens, Sarah Stillwell Weber, and Sarah K. Smith. Hardbound. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. $5.75 from Daedalus Books, Charlottesville, April, '98.
This reader, in the same series with another that I have listed under "1909," offers seven fables. Three take only a few lines and are presented almost as page-fillers: GGE (14), DS (43), and FG (58). Two are presented as dialogues: "The Lame Man and the Blind Man" (20) and "The Farmer and the Stork" (72). "Why the Bear Is Stumpy-Tailed" (32) is offered as "A Norse Folk Tale." FS (34) includes two illustrations. The others are done without illustration. The spine is deteriorating on this old schoolbook.
1909/22 Second Reader. By Walter Hervey and Melvin Hix. No illustrator acknowledged. The Horace Mann Readers. NY: Longmans, Green, and Co. $1.50 in Omaha or Boston, Jan., '89.
This book changes the greedy dog with meat or a bone into a crane with a fish. Other fables here are "The Crows and the Doves" and "The Farmer and the Nuts." It is in poor condition.
1909/37 Folk-Lore and Fable: Aesop, Grimm, Anderson. The Harvard Classics, edited by Charles W. Eliot. NY: P.F. Collier and Son. Gift of Linda Schlafer, March, '94.
This volume, in very good condition, has elements of both my 1909 and my 1909/37/69 editions. With the latter it shares pagination and frontispiece but not the fancy binding. With the former it shares the notation that it is Volume 17. This edition has a lovely blue cover. It puts the text reference for the frontispiece on a thin slip-sheet.
1909/37/69 Folk-Lore and Fable: Aesop, Grimm, Anderson. The Harvard Classics, edited by Charles W. Eliot. Registered edition. NY: P.F. Collier and Son. $3.50, Summer, '89.
The texts included seem to be identical in this 1937 edition (sixty-second printing in 1969), but there are many subtle changes: a new frontispiece, no indication that this is Volume 17, and new typeface. This edition has a fancy leatherette cover.
1909/39 Journeys Through Bookland. Volume One. A new and original plan for reading applied to the world's best literature for children. By Charles H. Sylvester. New Edition. Various illustrators. Chicago: Bellows-Reeve Company. $4 at Holmes in Oakland, June, '89.
Thirty-two fables are sprinkled around a lovely book in very good condition. The colored illustrations are fine. Sometimes the morals get developed with concrete applications for children. "The Cat and the Chestnuts" (and monkey) appears in an elaborated version (142-3).
1909/81 The Fables of Aesop. Illustrated by Edward J. Detmold. No editor named. Bound in genuine leather. Hardbound. Printed in the U.S.A. London: Hodder & Stoughton. $14 at MacIntyre & Moore in Cambridge, Jan., '89.
First published in 1909 by Hodder and Stoughton. This edition �1981 by Hodder and Stoughton. Illustrations separately printed and pasted in with protective sheets. A much nicer edition than the Crown edition (1985). The pictures come alive. Other than the pictures and covers (inside and out), the editions are identical. I have three varying copies of this book. Copy A has marbled endpapers and standard page edges. I found it for $14 at MacIntyre & Moore in Cambridge, Jan., '89. Copy B is identical with the first except for red satin end-papers rather than marbled paper. I found it for $14 in August, '89. Copy C also has red satin cover backing but has a softer red leather cover and gilt-edged pages. Found for $18 at Powell's, Chicago, Sept. ,'92.
1909/85 The Fables of Aesop. Illustrated by Edward J. Detmold. Classic Collector's Series. No translator mentioned. Dust jacket. Manufactured in Spain. Original 1909 by Hodder and Stoughton, England. NY: Weathervane Books/Crown Publishers. $8.98 at Schwarz, Dec., '85.
Some 300 fables in standard form and twenty-three beautiful colored illustrations. Their shortcoming is that they have little to do with the story. The best of the illustrations may be of the monkeys and their mother facing 41. The stories and illustrations are located far from each other. T of C and list of illustrations at the front; no index. This book could go into a "beautiful books" section of my collection.
1909/94 The Fables of Aesop. Illustrated by Edward J. Detmold. No translator mentioned. First Gramercy printing. Dust jacket. Printed in the U.S.A. Original 1909 by Hodder and Stoughton, England. Avenel, NJ: Gramercy Books. $12.99 at Oxford TOO, Atlanta, Dec., '94.
By contrast with my other versions of Detmold's work, this edition has some 174 pages, since the twenty-three illustrations are numbered pages. A quick check suggests that the print plates are still the same, however. I am surprised to see Detmold reprinted so soon again; see 1909/81 and 1909/85.
1909? La Fontaine: Fables. Pr�face de Jules Claretie. Collection Gallia. Inscribed in 1913. Paris: Georges Cr�s et Cie./Londres: J.M. Dent and Sons. $3 at Lord Randall, Marshfield, MA, April, '89.
This is a straightforward, no-nonsense LaFontaine: complete, but with no notes or comments. The preface notes that LaFontaine is the author for those who have lived their life. Its size would make it handy for travelling.
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i don't know
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The term 'cytoplasm' originated in?
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Cytoplasm | Define Cytoplasm at Dictionary.com
cytoplasm
[sahy-tuh-plaz-uh m] /ˈsaɪ təˌplæz əm/
Spell
noun, Cell Biology.
1.
the cell substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus, containing the cytosol, organelles, cytoskeleton, and various particles.
Origin of cytoplasm
Examples from the Web for cytoplasm
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Historical Examples
The limitation of development in a particular case lies in the cytoplasm rather than in the nuclei of the cells.
Darwin and Modern Science A.C. Seward and Others
Around these the cytoplasm becomes segmented, giving rise to the well-known corps en rosace.
Darwin and Modern Science A.C. Seward and Others
cytoplasm: the protoplasm of a cell exclusive of nucleus; the cell body.
British Dictionary definitions for cytoplasm
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noun
1.
the protoplasm of a cell contained within the cell membrane but excluding the nucleus: contains organelles, vesicles, and other inclusions
Derived Forms
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Word Origin and History for cytoplasm
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cytoplasm cy·to·plasm (sī'tə-plāz'əm)
n.
The protoplasm outside a cell nucleus.
cy'to·plas'mic (-plāz'mĭk) adj.
The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary
Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.
cytoplasm
(sī'tə-plāz'əm)
The jellylike material that makes up much of a cell inside the cell membrane, and, in eukaryotic cells, surrounds the nucleus. The organelles of eukaryotic cells, such as mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, and (in green plants) chloroplasts, are contained in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm and the nucleus make up the cell's protoplasm. See more at cell .
The American Heritage® Science Dictionary
Copyright © 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.
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Biology
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In motion-detection and automated lighting sensors what does PIR mean?
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What does cytoplasm mean? definition, meaning and audio pronunciation (Free English Language Dictionary)
Hypernyms ("cytoplasm" is a kind of...):
living substance ; protoplasm (the substance of a living cell (including cytoplasm and nucleus))
Meronyms (parts of "cytoplasm"):
cytoskeleton (a microscopic network of actin filaments and microtubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells that gives the cell shape and coherence)
microsome (a tiny granule in the cytoplasm that is where protein synthesis takes place under the direction of mRNA)
dictyosome ; Golgi apparatus ; Golgi body ; Golgi complex (a netlike structure in the cytoplasm of animal cells (especially in those cells that produce secretions))
Hyponyms (each of the following is a kind of "cytoplasm"):
syncytium (a mass of cytoplasm containing several nuclei and enclosed in a membrane but no internal cell boundaries (as in muscle fibers))
sarcoplasm (the cytoplasm of a striated muscle fiber)
central body ; centrosome (small region of cytoplasm adjacent to the nucleus; contains the centrioles and serves to organize the microtubules)
ground substance ; hyaloplasm (the clear nongranular portion of the cytoplasm of a cell)
endoplasm (the inner portion of the cytoplasm of a cell)
ectoplasm (the outer granule-free layer of cytoplasm)
cytosol (the aqueous part of the cytoplasm within which various particles and organelles are suspended)
cytoplast (the intact cytoplasmic content of a cell)
plasmodium (multinucleate sheet of cytoplasm characteristic of some stages of such organisms as slime molds)
Holonyms ("cytoplasm" is a part of...):
cell ((biology) the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms; they may exist as independent units of life (as in monads) or may form colonies or tissues as in higher plants and animals)
Learn English with... Proverbs of the week
"Doctors make the worst patients." (English proverb)
"Do not be alone even in heaven." (Albanian proverb)
"A mountain won't get to a mountain, but a human will get to a human." (Armenian proverb)
"Postponement is cancellation." (Dutch proverb)
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What metaphor aptly refers to the marketing of US multinational US corporation Bausch and Lomb?
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Value in the eye of the beholder: the valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes. - Free Online Library
Value in the eye of the beholder: the valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 81 II. INTANGIBLES ARE DIFFERENT AND IMPORTANT 85 A. Why Transfer Pricing for Intangibles 86 B. The Uniqueness of Intangibles 87 1. Why Are Intangibles Difficult to Valuate? 87 2. Primary Value Drivers and Value Detractors 89 C. Intangibles and MNEs 92 III. TRANSFER PRICES AND THE VALUATION OF INTANGIBLES 95 A. The Arm's Length Standard 96 1. Background 96 2. Universality 99 3. Commensurate with Income 100 4. Tax Policy Implications of the Arm's Length 102 Standard B. The Market Approach 104 1. The Market Approach to Valuation in General 104 2. The Market Approach as Applied to Valuation 107 of Intangibles for Transfer Pricing Purposes C. The Cost Approach to Valuation 109 1. The Cost Approach in General 109 2. Application of the Cost Approach to Valuation 110 of Intangibles 3. The Cost Approach to Valuation in Practice 111 4. Assessment of the Cost Approach 113 D. The Income Approach to Valuation 114 1. The Income Approach in General 114 2. The Operation of the Income Approach 116 a. The Technique of Income-Based Valuation 118 3. Assessment of the Income Approach to Valuation 119 of Intangibles E. Other Approaches and Conclusions 120 IV. THE PRACTICE OF TRANSFER PRICING 122 A. The Rules 122 1. General Rules and the Arm's Length Principle 123 2. The Analysis 124 a. Scope 124 b. Ownership 125 c. Valuation and Attribution of Profits 127 3. The Intangibles Methods 128 a. The Comparable Uncontrolled Transaction 128 ("CUT") Method b. Comparable Profits Method 130 c. Profit Split Method 132 d. The Fourth Method 133 e. Conclusion 134 B. In the Courts 134 1. CIBA--GEIGY Corporation 134 2. Eli Lilly 136 3. G.D. Searle 140 4. Bausch & Lomb 142 5. Sundstrand 145 6. Westreco 147 7. Perkin-Elmer 149 8. DHL 151 C. Endnotes on the Practice of Transfer Pricing for 154 Intangibles V. CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF TRANSFER PRICING 156 A. The Reality of Current Law 156 B. The Challenges Faced by the Arm's Length 157 Principle C. The Future of Transfer Pricing Is in a 159 Formula-Based Regime
I. INTRODUCTION
Can one put a price on the priceless? (1) The practical answer must be yes since taxpayers are required according to our transfer pricing rules to price (or assign value to) intangibles they transfer to related parties. (2) The thriving valuation industry that focuses on intangibles clearly indicates a belief that this is the case. (3) In fact, many countries, including essentially all of the major economies, adopted transfer pricing legislation similar to that of the United States. (4) Compliance with these rules relies heavily on accurate valuation of the transferred intangibles. This article evaluates to what extent this practice of valuation is accurate, and whether it can support this widespread confidence. In light of this evaluation, the article assesses the desirability of our current transfer pricing regime.
Transfer prices are prices required to be reported in related-party transactions for tax purposes. (5) Transacting taxpayers are required to establish their transfer prices whenever they transact with related parties, even if they have no other (e.g., business) reasons for such (internal) pricing. As a rule, transfer prices should be based on the arm's length principle, (6) in which the transacting related parties are taxed similarly to the manner in which they would have been taxed if they were unrelated parties engaged in similar transactions charging arm's length (market) prices. (7) The current international transfer pricing regime is based on, and essentially follows, this principle. (8)
Our transfer pricing rules include specific rules for transfers of intangibles that are separate and distinct from the rules that apply to transfers of other types of assets. (9) This article focuses on these rules, discussing the theory and practice of valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes in order to address the actual incentives created by the current regime." (10) In particular, the article wishes to expose the true nature of the valuation process, and determine what the process can and cannot help us with. In the case of intangibles, the reality is that the level of valuation inaccuracy is significant, yet the rules do not account for such inaccuracy. Valuation and measurement tools that aim at reducing uncertainties (11) are utilized as if they are designed to produce a "fact"--a precise dollar amount presented as a "price" (12)--and treated as such for tax purposes as if they were market prices. (13)
In order to soberly evaluate the current regime, one must first understand the general environment in which transfer pricing rules operate. The basis for these rules is in the observation that society requires taxation (revenue) so it can thrive beyond subsistence, yet taxation is economically inefficient and wasteful. (14) The administration of taxes adds to the waste, (15) and the transfer pricing rules serve as a good example of this, since these rules mandate Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) to produce extensive contemporaneous documentation to support their transfer prices. (16) This mandate requires MNEs to bear significant costs for the employment of specialists in the legal, economic and valuation fields. (17) The basic idea behind the system is to pass the burden to taxpayers when the administration cannot make sense of or handle the burden of enforcing the rules. In practice it develops into a stamina test that a taxpayer can pass if she produces enough paperwork that looks relevant. The waste that our transfer pricing rules represent is considered necessary, since without such rules, MNEs could essentially escape taxation, and countries could find themselves in fierce and impossible competition for revenue. (18)
An arm's length based transfer pricing regime, such as ours, permits relatively peaceful division of revenues between countries. (19) Peaceful, however, does not mean efficient or fair division of revenue. On one hand, MNEs are encumbered with compliance costs that other taxpayers do not bear; on the other hand they benefit from the flexibility that these rules allow. Flexibility means lower effective tax rates overall for such MNEs. Consequently, our tax regime creates an incentive to invest abroad and particularly to invest extensively in intangibles to capture as much of the benefits embedded in the transfer pricing rules.
International tax competition may negate the benefits of domestic transfer pricing rules or enhance their biases. In reality, the effect of this competition is somewhat restrained by the international transfer pricing regime, which is an important part of our international tax regime that dictate some basic rules for this competition game. (20) Nonetheless, since the international tax regime is not based on close cooperation between countries, (21) such restraint is not significant. Despite the inherent multilateral flavor of transfer pricing law, the main function of which is division of revenue between countries, there is little international policy and administration coordination of transfer pricing.
This article demonstrates that part of the blame is on the arm's length standard. This article proposes that a formula based transfer-pricing regime is superior to the current regime on several grounds. For example, it is more effective in general, particularly in the context of intangibles, and it is more accommodating of international coordination and cooperation. It better reflects the very basic principles on which our general international tax regime is based on, thus it is more compatible with the rest of our tax system.
The article proceeds as follows: Part II sets the stage for the analysis explaining the unique features of intangibles that makes intangibles difficult to value. Next, the intimate relationship of intangibles and MNEs is elaborated on in light of the unique characteristics of intangibles in order to explain the importance of valuation of intangibles in the context of transfer pricing.
Part III applies traditional and novel theoretical approaches to the art of valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes. It demonstrates the divorce between our actual scope-limited transfer pricing rules and the richness and sophistication of modern valuation theory. This section exposes the inadequacy of the arm's length principle in the current market place.
This theoretical analysis is followed by a review and assessment of the practice of transfer pricing in Part IV. The current U.S. rules and their use in practice are reviewed first. Then, the article reviews the main cases where the courts attempted to apply these rules. This review demonstrates the difficulty of applying the transfer pricing rules and the frustration of the courts with this difficulty, which has resulted in the court's use of alternative solutions to resolve the disputes in front of them.
The article concludes, in Part V, with a reassessment of the current arm's length based transfer pricing system and a demonstration of how a formulary system based on international coordination is superior to the current system from the perspective of valuation of intangibles. Extension of this conclusion to a systemwide assessment requires further study, yet since the valuation of intangibles is probably the biggest challenge to contemporary transfer pricing at the present, the outcome of this article should represent a significant step towards reform. (22)
II. INTANGIBLES ARE DIFFERENT AND IMPORTANT
Taxpayers are uncomfortable with the requirement that they establish transfer prices for their intangibles. In many cases, the valuation of these intangibles does not seem natural to businesspersons, and they do not engage in such valuations for purposes other than the pathology of the law (i.e., taxes, bankruptcy, or other regulatory purposes). (23) Their lawyers are even more nervous, and develop an attitude toward this practice that is cynical at best. The reason for this negative attitude is the inherent complexity of the issues and analyses involved and the general uneasiness that lawyers have with uncertainty, especially when uncertainty dominates the "facts" (the value of intangibles in our case).
An understanding of intangibles is an essential first step in explaining the reasons for this complexity and uncertainty. First, this section clarifies the necessity of special transfer pricing rules for intangibles, and the centrality of valuation to such rules. The uniqueness of intangibles is explored next. The article emphasizes the features that make intangibles difficult to valuate (and different from tangible property for these purposes). Highlighting the distinctive features of the different types of intangibles demonstrates the difficulty of using a unitary approach to value all intangibles. These differences are explored, and later analyzed, in order to determine whether different valuation approaches may be warranted for different intangibles.
Finally, this section elaborates on the intimate relationship between intangibles and MNEs, to demonstrate both the importance and significance of intangibles to international trade, which in turn, requires their valuation for transfer pricing purposes. This analysis also adds to the specific features that distinguish transactions in intangibles in the context of transfer pricing (being exchanged by MNEs) from transactions in other assets.
A. Why Transfer Pricing for Intangibles
Transfer pricing rules are a necessary component of any international income tax law since these rules stop MNEs from easily avoiding or significantly reducing taxation by shifting profits to low or no tax jurisdictions. Since intangibles are important to the operation and existence of MNEs, and since MNEs are major players in a majority of the cross-border intangible transactions, transfer pricing rules naturally apply largely to transactions that involve transfers of intangibles in one way or the other.
To put it more concretely, a transfer pricing analysis is required in any licensing agreement between related entities; in almost any international restructuring of groups of companies; in many intra-group agreements that involve knowledge, research and development, management, organizational or production and manufacturing processes; and even in distribution agreements of tangible products where the value of the product depends on embedded intangibles (e.g., proprietary software).
The following subsection further elaborates on the nonunitary nature of intangibles and the difficulty of applying a unitary approach to all such assets. Despite this difficulty, current law attempts to do just that by applying a single standard to all related party transactions in intangibles. (24) Moreover, our rules reflect an essentially universal consensus and convergence of transfer pricing norms. (25) This convergence has positive consequences that will be explored later in this article; however, the price of such convergence is the lack of finely tuned norms that could respond to the unique features of the specific intangible assets transacted. Criticism of this rudimentary approach is a major theme of this article. Not only is it a problematic singular approach applied to all transactions, but the approach that has been adopted is particularly incompatible with transactions involving intangibles. This approach is problematic because the universal transfer pricing norm applies the arm's length standard to all transactions. (26) This approach to transfer pricing depends on markets and market prices to serve as benchmarks for the establishment of "transfer prices." This "make believe" approach inherently requires the use of proxies and adjustments that depend on valuation techniques, which are required in every step that one threads.
Next, we explore the unique features of intangibles in more detail. Understanding them will allow us to assess the strength of potential valuation practices, and to evaluate the current transfer pricing rules applying to transactions in intangibles.
B. The Uniqueness of Intangibles
1. Why Are Intangibles Difficult to Valuate?
Intangibles are all the nonphysical, nonmonetary assets of a firm. (27) This general definition, however, is not very informative for our purposes. We need to explore various specific and unique characteristics of intangibles to better understand the economics of the transactions that involve them. We shall see also that intangibles come in many forms and certain unique characteristics may be important for transactions in some intangibles but not for others.
Legal protection is one key element in this analysis. The legal framework for the protection of inventions as "intellectual property" is a relatively recent phenomenon, (28) whereas intangibles have been with us forever. The debates over the appropriateness of intellectual property protection and the terminology itself are beyond the scope of this article, yet it is easy to see how the special legal entitlements that intellectual property laws create affect the value of the exchanged media subject to the transfer pricing rules. The international dimension complicates the picture even more because there are inevitably at least two jurisdictions involved in any transfer pricing case, and these jurisdictions may have different approaches to intellectual property laws. It is even possible that the countries involved protect the intellectual property rights of different parties or provide different types of protection. The level of legal protection and its duration clearly affect the value of intellectual property and inherently affect the value of other assets whose value depends on the value of intellectual property. We shall see later in this article that our transfer pricing rules basically ignore this, as well as other possibly relevant distinctions.
An important feature of many intangibles is that they have public goods characteristics, since they are easily diffused. (29) In many cases the same intangibles are also easy (and cheap) to transfer.(30) In other cases, however, they may be impossible or very costly to transfer (or at least lose significant value upon transfer). (31) In these cases, one may reach very different valuations based on what one's approach is: for the owner firm, the latter intangibles may be worth a lot and expected to generate significant income, but for others it may have little value. It is naturally very difficult to reflect this nuance in valuation.
Often, intangibles contribute to the firm, and hence gain value, by interacting with other assets or products of the firm (or being embedded in such assets or products). In this case, it is important to understand the ability to separate the intangibles from these other assets for the purpose of valuation. There are several approaches that may lead to different valuations. An attempt to delineate the value of the intangibles from the embedded tangible property may be easy and reasonable in some, but not all, cases. The sale by a PC manufacturer of a desktop PC with OEM software embedded, say, a word processor, may be delineated quite simply if the software is also sold separately on the market. On the other hand, for example, a complex medical device that includes a piece of highly customized software that may be close to useless with any other machinery presents a much more difficult case of valuation. It might be difficult and quite arbitrary to try and put a separate price tag on the hardware, software, optic device and the various expertise sets involved.
A related feature of intangibles is that they often interact with tangible and financial assets to create value. (32) Therefore, even if the intangible is not embedded into a tangible product, the intangible may still create value that could not be captured by separately valuing the participating assets, assuming such separation were possible.
The feasibility of separating the various assets valuated and writing a contract that describes accurately the intangible (if one wishes to sell or purchase it) are important as well. Cohesiveness of the workforce of management, for instance, may be very valuable to a firm, yet it is difficult to see how the firm can sell it. In addition to the inability to write this into the contract, it may not be practically separated from the owner firm or "transferable" (even if the entire workforce remained in place, say, after an acquisition by a rival firm). Some intangibles are transferable, but only at a high cost or unpredictable chance of success. Such intangibles are, again, tricky to valuate.
2. Primary Value Drivers and Value Detractors
Baruch Lev, a leading scholar in the field of the economics of and accounting for intangibles, defines intangibles as "nonphysical sources of value (claims to future benefits) generated by innovation (discovery), unique organizational designs, or human resource practices." (33) The definition highlights three quite distinct groups of intangibles categorized by the source of their value. Lev further asserts that the two major drivers of benefits from intangibles are nonrivalry and network effects, while partial excludability, inherent risk, and nontradability are their primary value detractors. (34) Next, I elaborate on how these factors affect the value of intangibles.
Nonrivalry or scalability is the first attribute that one thinks about when noting the uniqueness of intangibles, since many benefits from intangibles have low or no opportunity costs. (35) This is related to the ease-of-transfer point mentioned above. For example, if corporation X developed a software that improves its manufacturing process, it would be possible to license it to corporation Y without reducing the value of that software to X's own manufacturing process. If this were a tangible asset rather than an idea--say, a special piece of equipment--lending it to Y would necessarily mean that at the same time X could not use it. In cost terms, intangibles often have certain (large) sunk costs and low marginal costs--it does not cost a lot to duplicate the piece of software or to upload it to a customer's server. Returns to scale may be increasing rather than decreasing as is typical of tangible property. (36) This is the main reason for the enormous profit potential from intangibles. (37)
A related feature is the flexibility of exploitation that characterizes many intangibles that further increases the profit potential of intangibles. A classic example is a piece of software: a flight simulator, for example, could be transformed to a variety of computer games; an inventory system may be reversed engineered and transformed to a human resources system; and a broadcasting solution may be transformed to online teaching platform. This is a very prevalent practice in the world of software, albeit an extremely simplified one. Assuming that these transformations are less costly than writing new pieces of software, and, of course, rely on an already existing "idea" for which somebody is willing to pay, they represent another dimension of scalability that simply does not exist in the tangible world. An old dining table may be used to craft, say, an "entertainment center," but once transformed it is not a dining table and the full cost of its production are wasted from the dining perspective; this is not the case with reverse engineered software.
The network effect value driver is also related to scale. (38) Potential benefits from networks increase with the size of the network. Naturally, these benefits will be larger if participants value the size of the network. Most industries of markets where network effects are significant rely considerably on intangibles. These are usually technology and information based markets, where intangibles are central.
The challenges of intangible-based enterprises are not negligible. One value detractor is partial excludability (i.e., the inability of owners of intangibles to defend spillovers, and enjoy the full benefits of ownership themselves). (39) This feature could be viewed as the "price" or the downside of scalability: intangibles may be easy and cheap to duplicate and expand, yet they are similarly easy and cheap to copy. Even legally protected intangibles are costly to protect, never really 100% safe, and their protection eventually expires. Partial excludability creates significant pressure, and costs, on management to protect the intangible and maximize its benefits, and adds to the risk of investment in any development project. (40)
Increased risk is characteristic of intangibles in other ways. The innovation process is acknowledged as inherently more risky than any other thing done by a firm: one may, for instance, invest a lot of resources to develop a drug and fail, or be beaten to a patent by a competitor. Moreover, even once one has succeeded in developing and patenting a drug, there is a risk that a competitor will develop a more successful drug that will secure most of the value in the specific market. (41) The main driver of the risk is the dependence on the "idea"--what Lev calls the discovery (42)--which has much more value than any other part in the process (testing, commercialization, etc.). This risk is a value detractor, but, of course, once secured, success is enhanced (and competition potentially depressed), so it can be translated into increased returns. (43)
Finally, unique intangibles do not have markets and hence they are considered nontradable. The lack of markets means lack of the best contribution that markets provide: good information about the traded assets. Also, markets reduce risks by allowing liquidity and leverage (risk sharing) opportunities, both of which are very restricted in the case of intangibles, and therefore increase the risks inherent to these properties. (44) Now, of course, not all intangibles suffer from these risks similarly, and, of course, many intangibles are traded in reality, yet all three of the above value detractors uniquely affect intangibles, their values and, most importantly for our purposes, the case and reliability of their valuation.
A tangential, but very real difficulty is the crisis in the field of accounting with respect to financial reporting of intangibles. (45) Many intangibles are not recorded on the firm's balance sheet and therefore are not reflected in the book value of the firm, which further distorts whatever the market response may be to them. (46) It also encourages inefficient behavior by management and investors in a firm that operate based on incomplete and asymmetric information. (47)
Next, I explore the importance of these unique and varying assets in the relevant context for transfer pricing purposes: cross-border, intra-group transactions.
C. Intangibles and MNEs
MNEs are unique as well. Their prominence in international trade is unquestionable. (48) Their success is particularly interesting since they have to overcome some obvious basic hurdles such as the costs of expanding operations across borders and the increased agency, monitoring, administrative, and compliance costs of merely operating in a multiple-country setting. (49)
The theory of MNEs and their existence, despite these hurdles, is that in highly uncertain conditions and when a certain investment is very specific to a firm, opportunism is highly likely and therefore internalization can be more efficient than market transactions. (50) Internalization serves MNEs well when they go abroad, particularly in their choice of the location of the investment and the mode of operation. (51) The MNE as a hierarchy can save on transaction costs and government interventions (including taxes), and has the ability to overcome or operate despite the inherent difficulty of development of intangible markets. (52) MNEs survive and thrive because they are hierarchical, which allows them to overcome market imperfections such as the ones mentioned above by efficient internalization.
Intangibles are crucial in the course of maintaining and increasing this advantage, which explains the centrality of intangibles for successful MNEs. (53) We already mentioned that networks effects are large in intangibles-heavy industries, and these are the same industries where MNEs thrive. (54) One may argue that intangibles even determine the boundaries of MNEs. (55) Anyway, intangibles are central among the necessary conditions for the successful operation of MNEs. (56) The research about MNEs, and the explanations of their existence have significantly advanced in recent years. A consensus has not developed, yet the internalization of costs emerges as a major, if not exclusive, explanation of the MNE phenomenon. (57) Extension of this debate is beyond the scope of this article, yet this academic research supports the importance of intangibles, both in terms of substance and dollar value for MNEs and the inherent risk and often unavailability of markets for intangibles. (58).
Intangibles are not just important; (59) they generate significant income for MNEs. Intangibles also generate significant benefits for governments, and such governments struggle with MNEs and between themselves over the taxing rights of the income generated by these intangibles. (60) Transfer pricing is a key enforcement tool in the hand of governments in our world of tax competition between countries; however, the arm's length standard faces difficulty at the outset because of its fictitious basis. This basis is the attempt to pretend that we can extrapolate market prices when markets may not exist without changes in economic circumstances, and when the mere existence and business success of the taxpayers (MNEs) depends on these circumstances of superiority of hierarchies over markets.
Note that the reality is not as homogenous as the above explanation may imply. Not all intangibles are developed by MNEs and there are markets for certain intangibles, including cross-border arm's length transactions in intangibles. Nonetheless, these transactions often occur because of circumstances under which the MNEs involved expect higher profits from selling or licensing the intangible than keeping the intangible inside the firm. This is the classic situation that a MNE faces when it considers expansion into a new market (i.e., country) while a market transaction alternative exists in the form of, say, an interested local licensee.
The choice between licensing or new foreign investment may be complicated and is affected by many considerations: the size of the new market (if too small the risk may not be worth the benefit), the difficulty and costs of licensing (a bad legal environment and lack of trust or bad communication with the potential licensee can be fatal), and timing (licensing may bring the product to market quickly, while establishment of a new operation may take time that an MNE may not have with certain products), among others. (61) Arm's length, cross-border licensing of intangibles of this kind, however, does not make the valuation of intangibles easier because these market transactions necessarily differ from the related party transactions even when dealing with the exact same intangible. The differences arguably make these two types of transactions noncomparable as evidenced by the very decision of the MNE, who controls its own decision to license or not, to go one way or the other. Current practice uses adjustments to try and bridge this gap, (62) but this is an awkward solution since it relies itself on comparables that necessarily do not face the same differences and because it diverts the control from the invisible hand of the market to the experience reliability and other qualities of professional valuators. Whatever one thinks about it, this is not just application of the arm's length standard or a market approach.
Finally, taxes affect the decisions of MNEs, but I wish to neutralize that fact for now, since taxation effects include the effect of the application of the transfer pricing rules that we are trying to evaluate here.
The next section elaborates on the valuation process itself in light of the challenges discussed in this section to expose the margins of error and accuracy range that we really deal with and which current law basically ignores. This analysis will allow us at a minimum to acknowledge the efficacy of our current law. (63) Later in the article, it will help us assess it against alternatives.
III. TRANSFER PRICES AND THE VALUATION OF INTANGIBLES
Globalization and market sophistication brought about significant advancement in the art of business valuation. This is particularly true to the valuation of intangibles, which is a challenging exercise due to the unique characteristics of intangibles that we have explored in the former section. This section explores the application of general valuation theory and practices to intangibles, maintaining a focus on the context of transfer pricing. This focus is particularly important because one crucial lesson about valuation is that it is a strongly context-dependent practice. (64) Hence, this section first explains the "valuation" doctrine embedded in our current transfer pricing laws, namely the application of the arm's length standard. Subsequently, the section examines the effectiveness of this doctrine through the lens of the traditional valuation practice and investigates the usefulness of such traditional (and some less traditional) valuation methods for the establishment of transfer prices of intangibles.
I use the term "practice," rather than "science" for instance, since a second important lesson about valuation is that it produces estimations of value, (65) not value in the colloquial sense. This point is critical for the purposes of this article because it emphasizes the limitation of valuations that we, in the tax practice, oftentimes treat as facts, ignoring or not fully noting their true nature.
A. The Arm's Length Standard
1. Background
The arm's length standard is the heart, spirit and the foundation of the current international transfer pricing regime. The basic idea of the arm's length standard is that transactions between related parties should be priced as if such transactions were done between unrelated parties and therefore subject to market pricing. The standard arose in the United States in legislation attempting to deal with domestic related party transaction in the early income tax days. (66) The standard was enacted into law explicitly in a 1935 regulation, (67) and remained practically unchanged until 1968, when the first modern set of regulations was promulgated. (68) Cross-border related party transactions were few and did not concern the government until the post-World War II era, which was characterized by expansion of MNEs and cross-border related party transactions.
The government responded with the 1968 regulations, which included specific rules for intangibles and services but only little guidance about the practical application of the rules to these income items. The arm's length standard requires the taxpayer to find comparable market transactions between unrelated parties and imitate their pricing in the related party transactions for tax purposes. The transferor is viewed as if she charged the transferee a transfer price similar to that charged in the comparable transaction, adjusted to the level of difference between the related party and the comparable unrelated party transactions. This is and has always been the essence of the transfer pricing practice. Finding comparables was key under the 1968 regulations, yet the regulations lacked guidance regarding situations where comparables were absent or unsatisfactory. Not surprisingly, MNEs continued to thrive and exploit the weak enforcement of these rules. (69)
Congress responded this time with the only substantive amendment to section 482 to date, adding to the arm's length standard a "commensurate with income" requirement applicable to payments for the use of intangibles. (70) This meant that taxpayers could not focus on a one-time battle over an established transfer price and were required to make periodic adjustments, even to an (initially) appropriate transfer price where future income proved insufficient or excessive. Congress further instructed Treasury to study the issue and provide application guidance for the new commensurate with income requirement. The "white paper" of 1988 resulted from this study, (71) yet the study drew significant critique and it took two rounds of proposed regulations until new regulations were eventually finalized in 1994. (72)
The 1994 regulations attempted to address the shortcomings of prior regulations. They acknowledged that exact comparables do not always exist and filled the gap by the establishment of the concept of arm's length range. (73) Practically, taxpayers had to establish this range from all reasonable (rather than exact) comparables, and then choose a transfer price effectively from the 25%--75% inter-quartile range. Failing to do that opened the door for the Service to intervene and pick the mean result. In addition, the 1994 regulations installed the "best method rule," (74) which established that there was no predetermined hierarchy between the available methods yet required the taxpayer to defend the transfer pricing method used based on level of comparability and the data available. (75) The commensurate with income requirement was relaxed somewhat as the Service created safe harbors from its application when certain methods and guidance were used. The requirement had little "bite" and therefore little relevance.
The arm's length standard dictates, first and foremost, a market approach to transfer pricing. Taxpayers are required for tax purposes to put a fictional price on their nonmarket transactions. This "transfer price" must be established based on other market transactions. An adjustment to such comparable market prices may be made to account for the nonidentity of the analyzed market and nonmarket transactions, yet a price produced by a market must be the basis for the analysis. Similarly, the application of the arm's length standard does not have to result in a firm, single number. The law now acknowledges that the proxy nature of transfer prices calls for a range of numbers that may be reasonable. A variety of mechanisms attempt to produce a single dollar figure out of this range because taxes inevitably must be calculated on a single amount of taxable income produced from that figure. (76)
The only clear and firm aspect in this analysis is the reliance on markets and market prices. It reflects a very strong assumption about the efficiency of markets and the "accuracy" of prices produced by them. Another salient aspect of the analysis is the belief in the ability of taxpayers, via professionals in the field, to establish workable transfer prices, i.e., to find and choose among comparable transactions in most cases, to adequately adjust prices when perfect comparable are not available (always ...), and reasonably choose a single figure from a range of reasonable transfer prices (the arm's length range).
One's initial response to this statement should be of puzzlement, since these are all excessively strong assumptions. Indeed, the limitations of markets are well known, as is the predictable uselessness of a search for perfect comparables, yet the system continues to be based on these principles. In fact, the arm's length standard is constantly gaining force, and is at the present established as the universal standards of transfer pricing. I elaborate on this development next, yet, before I proceed I should say that, of course, the grim picture of transfer pricing I portray in the above paragraphs is not complete. We will see that in practice the rules themselves increasingly divert away from the arm's length standard, albeit not explicitly. (77) Nonetheless, the government insists on the continuing prevalence of the standard and maintains it as a leitmotif and primary interpretative guiding principle in the context of transfer pricing. (78)
2. Universality
Transfer pricing rules have recently become extremely prevalent and important to global economic players as more and more countries adopt such rules. (79) At the same time, there is a strong trend among the countries that adopt transfer pricing laws to base their rules on the arm's length principle. (80) The universality of the standard is important for several reasons that go beyond its effect on the international tax regime. On one hand, it makes the transfer pricing rules' reliance on the standard stronger, and maybe more difficult to divert from or even "tweak." On the other hand, because an international transfer pricing regime is being erected, it may be possible to make changes and develop a more desirable mechanism in a more effective manner at the multinational level, since the foundation for such discourse is already in place.
Transfer pricing rules are strange (even in comparison to international tax rules in general) in that their substance is completely unilateral. This is strange because their purpose is to effectively divide income between two (or more) tax jurisdictions by setting the transfer price on a transaction, the income generated by which may be subject to tax in these jurisdictions. Still, except for the general expectation to base the rules and determinations on the arm's length principle, countries do not coordinate the substantive implementation of the rules. Increasingly, countries do coordinate the enforcement of whatever rules they employ, and even the documentation, yet the "prices" determined by the countries involved could be very different. If a tax treaty applies, it is likely to somewhat alleviate this problem by requiring one bilateral treaty member to respect its treaty partner's tax authority's "adjustments," (81) yet there is no requirement or arrangement for them to agree on the transfer prices themselves. (82) The only arrangement that currently does this is a multilateral advanced pricing agreement (APA), which is extremely rare, (83) time consuming and costly. Most importantly, an APA is initiated and led by taxpayers rather than the involved tax authorities. Advocating a change in approach towards a more cooperative effort at the substantive rules level is a major theme of this article. The scope of this need goes beyond that of this article, (84) yet I will demonstrate that it is particularly important in the context of valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes, and therefore relevant here.
Furthermore, I am not conducting a comparative study or analysis. I limit my comments and proposals to the U.S. context, yet, since some of the issues are multilateral in scope I elaborate on them to the extent they are relevant to U.S. tax policy. Next, I elaborate on an aspect of the U.S. transfer pricing law that is not universal, and actually departs from the arm's length principle.
3. Commensurate with Income
This single amendment to section 482, enacted in 1986, requires taxpayers in the context of transferring intangibles, to consider the (actual) realized profit from the exploitation of the transferred intangible. (85) Accordingly, the "original" transfer price--determined before the profit potential was realized, and frequently without sufficient or adequate comparables--must be adjusted to reflect changes in that income. Practically, taxpayers are required to make "periodic adjustments" (normally on an annual basis) so that the transfer price (royalty) would be commensurate with income. (86)
This is, of course, a major deviation from the arm's length standard, and an unusual deviation from the normal application of the realization principle at the basis of our income tax system. It requires determination of transfer prices based on (actual) income rather than market pricing, and it allows hindsight, (87) which formerly was ruled impermissible in transfer pricing. (88) The rest of this section elaborates on the different valuation approaches, including the differences between the income approach and the market approach, but in the interim, one should note that the commensurate with income legislation sends an important message. First, it acknowledges that pure arm's length analysis based on comparables in the tradition of the market approach is not always sine qua non. Second, it emphasizes the importance of transferring intangibles in this context, and the complexity of determining transfer prices for their transfer that require the only special statutory rule we have (the "commensurate with income" addition). It admits, at least in the context of intangibles that good comparables are not always available. Finally, it implies that a unitary approach may not be feasible for a workable transfer pricing regime, so that we may need a variety of rules to deal with the complexity of the transactions involved.
Deviating from the unitary rule or approach itself has serious implications, primarily complexity consequences that are inherent in any legal regime that applies different rules to different situations that are not always easily distinguishable. The key questions are when should the commensurate with income standard apply and when the arm's length standard is sufficient to reach an appropriate transfer price. Leaving the choice to the taxpayers is not a good solution, since they would obviously take advantage of the opportunity to further abuse these rules. The government would not concede, though, that the arm's length principle is no more the single prevailing principle for transfer pricing analysis. The government's solution was to aggressively interpret the commensurate with income standard as if it is subject to the arm's length principle. (89) The regulations therefore require periodic adjustments only in certain cases when the traditional transfer pricing determination based on comparables is not available. (90) So, taxpayers that could establish "exact" comparables were not bothered by it. Similarly, inexact comparables may be used without periodic adjustments if certain requirements are met, the primary of which is that actual profits deviation is no more than 20% from the estimate, based on which the original transfer price was calculated. (91) Additional safe harbors exist as well. (92) This doomed, not surprisingly, the commensurate with income standard to its current irrelevance.
The installation of an income approach to a system that is based on a market approach for most purposes was effectively averted through this aggressive interpretation. Yet, this was not the end of it, since comparables were not available to provide solutions to all cases, no matter how little comparability was required. Consequently, further deviation from the arm's length standard took place in the transfer pricing establishment methods permitted by the regulations. Now taxpayers are sometimes required to use non arm's length based methodologies to establish their arm's length transfer prices. (93) I will come back to this awkward reality in the conclusion of this article, but first I want to expand a little on the basic tax policy implications of the powerful arm's length standard.
4. Tax Policy Implications of the Arm's Length Standard
The evolution and strength of the arm's length standard was primarily due to its practical appeal and the historic context of its adoption. This is not the place for a full analysis of the issue; however, it is important to realize why this standard was adopted and what the advantages of using it are before one begins taking it apart and criticizing some of the detailed rules that evolved from its universal adoption. As previously mentioned, the standard developed in a domestic setting and in a low tech, bricks-and-mortar economy. The potential for abuse in that setting was significantly lower than it is today and there was no risk of tax base erosion (i.e., not only no tax, but no taxable income for which to account). Add to that the belief in the efficiency of markets and the complementary emphasis on commercial competition as a guarantor of perfect markets, and one can understand the appeal of the simple market based methodology. There was no need for complex, subjective calculations and estimations. The "invisible hand" was sufficient. Since the stakes were much lower, it also made sense to have less costly methodology.
The change in emphasis from domestic to international tax enforcement, and the opening of global markets, combined with the evolution of MNEs and of intangibles as major economic drivers, did not prompt reevaluation of the basis of the system. In fact, our whole tax system develops relatively conservatively. There is a strong preference for change by interpretation, through "massaging" of rules and concepts, and an almost religious belief that old concepts must be good for new realities if we just stretched them in the right way. (94) Thus, the arm's length principle persisted to become the primary foundation of the system that now needs to deal with a completely different world than the one for which it was adopted.
This reality resulted in an inefficient system. The main message of this article may in fact be that this system has high compliance and enforcement costs. Additionally, this system is very inaccurate and generates an artificial disadvantage to taxpayers who engage in regular cross-border, intra-group transactions. This system particularly disadvantages those who rely heavily on intangibles in their trade. Note that this waste does not mean that the system is inevitably flawed. Such a determination could be made only once it is compared with alternative systems.
Finally, although not a primary concern of this article, the bias in favor of large, international MNEs also has fairness implications. In the United States it seems likely that such implications will not include distribution from the better off to the less well off. (95) The system also naturally affects inter-nation equity, which is also beyond the scope of this article. (96)
In conclusion, it is difficult to justify the centrality of the arm's length standard in the theory and practice of transfer pricing based on the traditional tax policy analysis measurements of efficiency, equity (or fairness) and administrability. (97) History and perceived simplicity probably play a major role in the dominance of the arm's length standard, and its universality fortified its position and made it even more resilient. Against this background I next explore the traditional valuation approaches to evaluate the soundness, advantages and disadvantages of the current transfer pricing "valuation" methodology based on the arm's length standard.
B. The Market Approach
1. The Market Approach to Valuation in General
The arm's length standard is basically an articulation of the traditional market approach to valuation. (98) Valuation is a process for estimating (99) or measuring (100) the "value" of the subject of the valuation: asset, liability, transaction, business, etc. Value is an elusive concept, since there are various and different contexts of value. Market value is the most common reference but not the only one. (101) Still, a natural perception is that everything has a single value (or price in our context) and in most cases the different "values" are very similar--if not identical--to each other. Nonetheless, this is not always the case. Some valuation methodologies attempt to establish minimal value, while others target maximal values. Understandably, these would produce very different tax consequences if used.
The market approach to valuation usually targets the fair market value of the subject of the valuation. (102) It simply uses market transactions to produce or substantiate values or prices in comparable nonmarket transactions. (103) This is basically what the practice of transfer pricing is currently about: taxpayers are required to establish transfer prices for their related party transactions based on comparable, unrelated party transactions. According to this approach, prices are not "calculated" but observed, relying on the wisdom of the invisible hand in the market.
There are two important assumptions that drive the market approach. One is that the comparables used are substitutable; therefore the prices of comparable assets or transactions should be similar. The idea is that a reasonable buyer would not purchase an asset if she could substitute it for another asset that costs significantly less. The principle of substitutability is completely ignored by our transfer pricing rules. (104)
The second important assumption behind the market approach is that all maximize the value of intangibles, so, for instance, a patented product is optimized to generate the most value in all cases. (105) If that is true, we can use all market transactions as comparables, not worrying, for example, about comparing maximal and nonmaximal values. This is a reasonable assumption on its face, but if we remember that some intangibles serve as the "glue" of their businesses, (106) while others are used as goods and other commercially available assets, it is not so clear that all comparable transactions maximize the same values. There may be other considerations within businesses that operate similarly to market imperfections, which are ignored by this approach.
The key step in the process of valuation based on the market approach is to establish proper comparable transactions. (107) Present sophisticated markets do not usually produce perfect comparables, so the focus of market-based valuation is on finding the best available sufficiently comparable transactions. First, the appropriate market for comparable transactions is identified and defined. Then it is verified that this market has enough arm's length transactions, among which comparable transactions could be identified. Finally, the data about these transactions is collected.
The value of the comparable transaction is then adjusted to reflect the differences between the comparable transaction and the tested transaction. (108) The exact details of the comparable transactions are explored to determine the level of comparability and possible areas where adjustments should be made. The second determination that the valuation expert must make (after identifying the comparable transactions) is whether the comparable transactions are good enough (i.e., sufficiently comparable). Next, the valuation expert establishes the level of comparability and determines the proper adjustments, if any, to the comparable value in the process of establishing the estimated value. Understanding that comparable transactions are not identical transactions, valuation experts prefer several comparables that allow them to produce a "range" of reasonable values. This way, their product seems more scientific, it is necessarily less exposed to refute, and provides flexibility to their clients. It is, of course, also truer to the process, which is an art of estimation rather than a scientific plot or arithmetically calculated value. (109)
The market approach to valuation is appropriate when an active and extensive market for transactions identical (or very similar) to the tested transaction exists. Its primary advantage is its reliance on markets that seem objective. It is perceived as relatively more reliable than subjective calculations that rely heavily on human estimations. The market approach is also more direct, since it begins with the comparable value or price, which looks like the desired final product rather than extrapolation of other types of values, such as income or costs. This approach is also somewhat flexible since it could be adjusted over time, if and when additional data become available.
The weakness of the market approach is its very dependence on markets, since there are not always markets sufficiently established to work with (as is often the case with intangibles). It also depends on the availability of reliable data, which may be rare even if an established market exists. Comparability determination requires a lot of information about the asset sold, and firms are very sensitive to the confidentiality of the exact details of their most valuable assets (often intangibles). Since small differences may produce significant value differences, this approach is very sensitive to the availability and quality of the data.
Like other approaches, unbundling (e.g., delineating the value of a piece of software from the value of the hardware it runs on) creates serious application difficulties. This is particularly true when significant adjustments are required, because then one faces multiple levels of potential mistakes and inaccuracies that may go in similar or different directions, without real control of the valuation expert.
Note also that this method is least appropriate in the most difficult cases--those cases that are more likely to be challenged and contentious--because the most unique, complex, and sophisticated assets (often intangibles) naturally have fewer and less accurate comparables. Furthermore, even if comparable transactions exist, firms are particularly protective of the relevant information about their intangibles. This information is required to establish comparability and estimate proper adjustments, so frequently data is not available or is insufficient. The relative uniqueness of intangibles and the typical lack of good relevant data present the primary challenges to the efficacy of the market approach to valuation of intangibles. (110)
2. The Market Approach as Applied to Valuation of Intangibles for Transfer Pricing Purposes
One practical limitation on the use of the market approach to valuation of intangibles is that seldom are intangibles separately transferred in market transactions. (111) They are more often transferred as part of a whole business acquisition. (112) Moreover, in the few cases when they are separately transferred, the compensation is usually kept confidential and therefore unavailable publicly. (113) This, of course, means that simple application of the market approach is not possible due to the very limited availability of good comparable transactions and lack of quality data regarding the price of such comparable transactions. (114)
Another, more specific limitation of this approach is its appropriateness in valuing cross-border related party transfers of intangibles within MNEs. (115) I chose to mention it in this section rather than the former section because it is directly relevant to the specific transactions that are the subject of this section. The issue is that MNEs specifically choose to internalize the costs of and take advantage of their hierarchical structure rather than engage in market transactions, so comparing the transactions of MNEs to transactions by players who choose the market as an efficient transactional medium may be attempting to compare the incomparable. (116) More soberly, the problem is that the comparable does not and cannot easily factor in this difference between the transactions. We supposedly analyze the tested transactions as if they were less efficient transactions, since in reality rational players chose specifically not to take that road of market transaction. The key policy question is whether this means that we simply cannot use a market approach here or that it is just more difficult to account for the incomparability in these cases, so further adjustments are required. If the latter is the conclusion (the position obviously taken by current law), one must ask whether we can effectively and satisfactorily make such adjustments, and how.
Under current law, which is explored in more detail in the next section, the level of comparability is not taken into account directly. This is so despite it being the most sensitive aspect of the market approach. It is surprising since the difference between an aggressive, yet an acceptable comparable and an unacceptable comparable may be very small and, most importantly, smaller than the difference between the comparable and the tested transfer price. The level of comparability may, however, be taken into account through adjustments to the comparable price, yet these adjustments typically rely on comparability themselves. Note also that the professionals who perform the market-based valuation sell their experience and expertise, particularly with respect to these adjustments. Being conservative cannot therefore win them customer satisfaction, and it is also not necessarily required to establish credibility. There are sufficient degrees of uncertainties within the "reasonable" price ranges, so the clear incentive created by the system is to push the envelope and reach the price that is most aggressive, yet still within the very wide margin of reasonability. (117)
Our transfer pricing rules adopt only the core application of the market approach to valuation (the use of direct comparables). They observe solely market transactions for the various comparables sought after by the permissible methods. (118) It is worth mentioning that professional valuators use the market approach also in other manners to extrapolate value. They may analyze important market or other unusual events for that purpose. An unexpected patent expiration is one example; securitization of a specific intangible is another. (119) More obviously, in a more analytical process, the value of intangibles may, sometimes, be extrapolated from the value of the whole business that utilizes the intangible, usually by discounting from such value the values of all other properties. (120) This is naturally a difficult and very technical process that requires expertise and significant judgment calls during the process. Sometimes, other approaches to valuation are used in combination with a pure market approach in this context if, for instance, the expert determines that these other valuation approaches are preferable in getting to a certain value required in the process. The transfer pricing regulations ignore these important applications of the market approach in the practice of valuation. One may use them as part of her use of the "fourth" unspecified method, (121) yet, being unspecified, it is not regulated, and no guidance is available. The level of uncertainty regarding its validity may be higher than in comparison to the use of prescribed methods, even if they are less accurate and sophisticated, which naturally factors in the risk assessment of the taxpayer, discouraging its use.
C. The Cost Approach to Valuation
1. The Cost Approach in General
The cost approach to valuation uses the inputs (expenditure) into the valued intangibles to construct their value assessment. (122) It is unique in that it is based principally on known monetary values (of these inputs) that are directly related to the tested asset. Data availability is a major strength of this approach, since we usually know the costs of the valuated asset's development, testing, production, etc.
The fundamental assumption behind this approach is that the costs project (and is commensurate with) value. (123) If the (projected) value exceeded the costs by much, others would enter the market to compete for such extraordinary profits. If value did not exceed costs, rational investors would not engage in such investment.
2. Application of the Cost Approach to Valuation of Intangibles
The development of intangibles is, however, a risky business for a variety of reasons, among which information asymmetry is probably the most important. The relationship between costs and the relevant (arm's length) value of intangibles is particularly questionable. (124) A more practical difficulty with this approach is in the choice of costs to be attributed to any particular intangible. (125)
These difficulties with the cost approach are distinctively problematic in the case of intangibles. (126) Take the classic case of a pharmaceutical MNE. It is typically involved in a large number of drug development projects, only few of which result in a patented drug and even fewer in marketable products. Such enterprises normally have significant costs that are not directly research and development costs--administration, management, legal, advertisement, etc. An obvious difficulty is what portion of all such costs should one attribute to the (few successful) products that require valuation. These include mainly sunk costs that are difficult to attribute to any single product. Opportunity costs are also particularly problematic since they need to be calculated, based not on certain available dollar numbers, but rather on uncertain assessments. Similarly to the difficulties faced by the market approach, the cost approach to valuation of intangibles must rely on estimates, rather than real market prices, for its bases for the valuation--the costs of production (comparable assets/transactions in the market approach's case), which further reduces its accuracy and effectiveness. (127)
This is not the sole difficulty, however. First, even though many development projects fail to deliver marketable products they may still produce knowledge or ideas that may assist in the development of other or future products, or even trigger a breakthrough in the development of another product. The measurement, and more problematically the attribution of this contribution is very difficult, if even possible-remember that the valuator is normally not part of the development team, nor does the valuator have any relevant development expertise. Second, it is well known that human capital contributions are difficult to measure and attribute. Think about any technical difficulty that is solved in a trial and error, and brain storming process. The heart of any solution often comes as an "idea" -a eureka experience that is clearly a result of many factors involved, including the education and experience of the person who came up with the idea, his or her education, etc., yet how can one distill all relevant factors and attribute the costs involved to the specific solution? If we think about such a scenario, it is easy to imagine why some research and development projects are relatively quick and cheap, while some are very lengthy or costly. At the same time, it is not necessarily the case that costly projects would be successful or result in more valuable outcomes than the cheaper projects. This is the first difficulty mentioned above, which led many to be skeptical about the utility of the cost approach in the context of the valuation of intangibles. I come back to the difficulties later in this section, yet, next I discuss the various practices of valuation based on the cost approach.
3. The Cost Approach to Valuation in Practice
The basic questions asked in cost based valuation are how much will it cost to replicate or replace the tested asset. (128) Note that replacement may mean replacement with an asset that is not identical to the valuated asset, but rather an asset that will be "of equivalent utility," which may mean a less costly asset than the one being tested. (129)
One version of the cost approach therefore takes the historic costs attributed to the intangible asset and depreciates them over the asset's estimated useful life, to produce current value, in current dollars. (130) Different depreciation methods may be used, as well as different accounting of the costs--they may or may not be adjusted for inflation, for instance. The fundamental outcome of this approach is a minimal value, yet always meaningful in relation to cost. (131) It is therefore understandable that in some cases very valuable assets are given relatively low valuation by this approach, and in other cases worthless assets (such as assets driven out of the market by superior competing products) are still considered valuable since they were costly to develop. Such divorce between the valuation and the economic reality results from the failure of the cost approach to take into account any factors that are external or later in time to the development process.
A variation on this method attempts to correct this failure by asking what one would need to spend now (rather than what one has spent in the past) in order to replace, manufacture or reproduce the valuated asset. The advantage of this variation is that it avoids two major uncertainties that valuation based on the cost approach faces: the asset's useful life and the most accurate method of depreciation or trending (stated in current dollars). (132) This is also a more flexible method. One often asks what the costs would be to produce something other than an exact replica of the valuated intangible that is nevertheless similar enough to replace the intangible (e.g., functionally, monetarily). Note that even under the best conditions the variation is different from the basic method, and results in different values, since it reflects market and technological changes, and, if relevant, actual inflation.
The replacement costs variation may improve the accuracy of valuation based on the cost approach, yet it still always represents a minimum value approach, assuming rationality, whereas the other methods' outcomes may be minimal, maximal or anything in between. This is because we assume that an asset owner would not be willing to sell it for less than the costs of producing it. (133) Then again, why would one pay more than these costs if she could alternatively just go and produce it herself spending the same costs? Of course, some sellers do sell assets for less than cost, and many buyers pay more than cost because to them it may cost more to duplicate the asset or because the risk of failure in producing the asset is too high (a factor which is critical in the case of intangibles that are so unique in nature). (134)
4. Assessment of the Cost Approach
Naturally, the cost approach is best used closest in time to the launch of the product and in simple cases. Once data on income potential is available, its reliability fades since it does not reflect this potential. This is why the historical costs version is often considered inappropriate in our context. The replacement costs version does not fare better because of the uniqueness of intangibles, and the fact that many intangibles are very asset or business specific. This means that they may have little value in circumstances other than the one in which they are used. Any functional replacement may represent significant deviation from the real value of the intangible to the taxpayer who owns it (and is required to establish a transfer price for its transfer).
Finally, coming back to the question whether this approach is appropriate at all, there are competing positions. Farok Contractor views research and development costs as sunk costs that have nothing to do with the final value of intangibles. (135) So, the potential strength of this method--available data--may end up being its weakness, since it is poorly equipped to generate a good value estimate. Conversely, at least in some cases and with some types of intangibles, it is possible and maybe only possible, to rely on costs as a predictor of value. Think of branding, especially in the context of advertising, or of cohesion of workforce, or management tools, or methods related to experience. In these cases it is likely that costs will be a better predictor of value than in intangibles that require a "eureka" experience; yet, even in the latter cases costs may be relevant to value in some industries. All (legally protected) intellectual properties' values rely heavily on fulfillment of regulatory requirements. Think of human trials or detailed mechanical patenting, etc. Such costs are crucial for the value of the intangible assets, and they may even overwhelm the costs of their "discovery." This, of course, does not mean that they are better predictors of the real value of these intangibles.
Not surprisingly, the value of the cost approach to valuation of intangibles depends, among other factors, on the types of intangibles valuated. New technological or scientific ideas seem obviously inappropriate for this approach, at least in most industries, and the use of the replacement costs' version does make it better, no matter what adjustments are made. (136) At the same time, minor improvements of such ideas once in the market seem less unreasonable for this approach, since the fundamental idea had already been established and tried. Branding is another example where maybe the cost approach can be useful. (137) This is not clearly the case, however, if one thinks of trademarks. The creation costs may have direct relation to the value, yet future costs pose a challenge. It is very difficult to distinguish between maintenance and enhancement costs; the former should not affect the value while the latter should. (138) In conclusion, the cost approach is not considered appropriate as a primary valuation method for intangibles; it rather serves a secondary role to support value indication in addition to other methods. (139)
In contrast to the input based cost approach the next discussed approach is based on outputs only-the income generated by the tested intangible assets.
D. The Income Approach to Valuation
1. The Income Approach in General
Value reflects the worth of all future benefits expected from an asset. It could therefore be calculated at any time by discounting these benefits to present value. This is basically what the income approach to valuation does. It uses the expected stream of income from intangibles to determine their (present) value. It discounts this stream taking into account the timing of the expected income and the risk associated with the realization of these expectations. (140) Successful valuation based on the income approach requires reliable projection of the income stream, its duration and the risk associated with its generation. The better the data is regarding these three factors, the more reliable the valuation will be.
Some intangibles pose significant challenges for this approach, since it is not simply a direct income stream that this approach wishes to measure, but rather all the economic benefits of the measured asset. (141) Some intangibles do not result in a distinct, separate income stream, but rather enhance an existing or another income stream, or generally increases the firm's value or its capacity to generate income. Moreover, some intangibles--(legally protected) intellectual property in particular--are capable of generating extraordinary profits for a period of time, which is not common in our competitive markets. (142) Hence, the valuation of these intangibles is more difficult and unique than other assets.
A key difficulty of using the income approach in the valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes is that transfer pricing valuation usually takes place in an early stage of the intangible asset's exploitation. Since successful intangibles can get very valuable very fast, which should make their (later) transfer very costly in term of taxation, taxpayers typically plan ahead and establish their structure for tax planning purposes ahead of such time. The result is that the valuation of such assets for transfer pricing purposes must rely on relatively uncertain projections with little or no actual data on the income generated by such assets. Note that this is not the typical situation that valuators face, since typical valuations are in a context of market transactions in "existing assets," assets that are ready for exploitation. (143) This reality makes their expertise less reliable in our context.
The benefits' projections are the raw material, with which valuation experts craft their product (value), yet income stream projections are sensitive to competing interests within the firm, especially in technology-rich enterprises. This is because of the various effects of too low or too high of a projection on the corporation's short and long-term performance. For example, a corporation raising money normally wishes to inflate these projections to entice investors. Current shareholders also benefit from that because the higher the projection, the higher the value of their stake in the corporation. On the other hand, tax considerations (other than transfer pricing) may pull in the other direction to the effect of shareholders wanting low projections to reflect low valuation of their current stakes in the corporation. (144) Against this background, transfer pricing valuation is supposed to get at the "right" price. This sounds good, maybe, in terms of corporate governance and other regulatory purposes, yet, for the purposes of this article, the important point is that external pressure exists to push the boundaries of the appropriate transfer pricing range as far as possible from a comfortable consensus zone. I will get back to this point, yet, next, I discuss the basic operative aspects of using this approach.
2. The Operation of the Income Approach
The first step in any valuation engagement, particularly in income based valuation of intangibles, is to clearly identify the subject of the valuation. This is particularly challenging in the context of transfer pricing. On one hand, the taxpayer controls this process and leads the valuation to focus on intangibles transferred within a MNE as identified and intended (and planned for) by the MNE taxpayer. On the other hand, in sophisticated transactions, the taxpayer or the planning advisors may err in the process of identification and isolation of transferred intangibles, which opens the door for the government to argue for valuation of separate intangibles transferred. If sustained, this argument requires reworking of the whole valuation process since intangibles often operate synergistically with other assets that may or may not be transferred at the same time. In addition, the valuation techniques used may need to be reconsidered because the new set of intangibles and the relevant data available may require changing them. Even if the tested intangibles are easily identified, it may be very difficult to isolate income attributed to one intangible from others when such intangibles act in concert together and synergistically, but the transfer pricing rules require us to valuate only one or a part of them separately.
Indeed, the next step is to estimate the future stream of income or benefits. The most straightforward way of doing it is asking what would be the royalty payment received if the taxpayer were to license the intangible. In order to estimate such royalty stream, a market-based analysis is required. Similar licensing arrangements are analyzed to compare to the fictional transaction in the valuated intangible. This process is, naturally, subject to all the shortcoming of market-based methods, primarily if good data and similar enough comparables are not easily available.
The valuation expert also often needs to delineate the income attributed (separately) to the valuated intangible from other contributors to the generation of such income, and "clean" all noise. This is particularly necessary and difficult when the intangible is either bundled with other intangibles or tangible properties or operates (to generate income) in interaction with such other properties. Unfortunately (for these purposes), intangibles are often bundled in one way or the other. (145) In cases where it is difficult to separate the income from the relevant intangible, the valuator may estimate it by estimating the income from the bundled property minus the income that the taxpayers would have generated from the product if it did not have the intangible. This last variation takes into account additional potential value (in comparison to the straightforward royalty estimate), because it takes into account current and, more importantly, future value that could be generated from the interaction of the intangible with other tangible and intangible properties of the taxpayer. (146)
The other elements of an income approach to valuation--timing and risk--affect the discount rate and duration used in the calculation of the present value of the estimated future benefits used. (147) The difficulty with the timing element is similar in all valuations, and has no particular attributes due to the use in the transfer pricing context. It requires determination of the economic life of the tested asset. (148) This determination is, again, particularly difficult and subjective when intangibles are considered. (149) One reason is the uniqueness of intangibles, which makes analogies to economic life of similar assets problematic. (150) Another reason is the constant change in this area and, moreover, the constant increase in the pace of change (especially in technology, which makes economic life particularly difficult to predict). (151) Subjective judgment calls and sophisticated modeling help, (152) yet they increase the level of uncertainty and "inaccuracy," again without any account for transfer pricing purposes. The final component, the risk, is accounted for in the discount rate used, (153) which, similar to economic life, requires subjective judgment calls, expertise, and a variety of optional models. There is nothing unique in this context either when valuation is performed for transfer pricing purposes.
Beyond the practical difficulties there is the conceptual challenge of identifying "income." Income is not a clear concept--note this is a different notion than income as an income tax term of art--receipts, profits, operating cash flow, etc. may be more realistic and feasible to estimate. Then the question is whether it is pre or after tax income that one wishes to estimate. (154)
a. The Technique of Income-Based Valuation
There are several techniques that a valuation expert may use to measure the economic benefit of an intangible to a taxpayer. Some are direct in the sense that they measure the benefits generated by the tested intangibles, while others are considered indirect since they attempt to quantify such benefits by reducing them from more general, yet known, (155) amounts. (156) Direct techniques include premium pricing--such as the difference between prices of identical products when one is branded and the other is not--and cost savings. (157) Indirect techniques may be used when intangibles do not directly contribute to profitability (or cost savings), or at least when such contribution is more difficult to identify, delineate, and quantify. Synergistic benefits of intangibles such as the ones we nicknamed the "glue" of the corporation, typically require such indirect techniques for their valuation." (158) Indirect techniques include the relief-from-royalty method described above, which asks what the taxpayer would need to pay for its use of the intangible had it not owned it already. This method is frequently used in practice since, despite being indirect, it is viewed as an immediate surrogate to a distinct income stream from the tested intangible that is usually not available. The shortcoming of this method is that it relies on either market comparables or rules of thumb and industry standards to establish the appropriate (phantom) royalty rate, which exposes it to all the difficulties that the market approach faces or the obvious inaccuracy of rules of thumb. (159) On the one hand the market component grants this variation increased credibility, (160) while on the other hand it exposes it to abuse (161) since comparables are always approximate and we do not, and probably cannot, accurately adjust them for the level of comparability.
Another indirect method requires comprehensive analysis of the profit margins of a taxpayer (e.g., a corporation), starting with the total earnings of the enterprise as a whole and making adjustments to take into account alternative and complementary investments of the capital of the corporation. This, of course, is a more sophisticated method, yet it relies heavily on the expertise and experience of the valuation expert, who, at the end of the day is a commercial service provider to the taxpayer. Other indirect techniques are essentially variations on the two methods mentioned above. (162)
3. Assessment of the Income Approach to Valuation of Intangibles
The income approach usually includes multiple layers of estimates--income or its proxy, useful life, discount (interest) rate--and hence layers of uncertainty are compounded. It is therefore inherently subjective and very sensitive to the accuracy of the estimates (i.e., potentially very inaccurate and somewhat capricious). It is very sensitive to market and industry conditions. Another major difficulty with the use of this approach goes to the nature of some intangibles that operate as the "glue" of the business rather than as a separately marketable product. (163) Income from such intangibles is difficult to delineate from the income generated by the business as a whole or from one of its products if the product embeds various intangible and tangible properties. (164)
Despite the difficulties this approach is still viewed in the marketplace as the most appropriate for our purposes. This is because in comparison to other approaches it is more imminent with value. Income is also ultimately the basis for taxation in our income tax system. The reliance on future numbers, even if only estimates, allows better reality perception than reliance on costs, which may have nothing to do with future value of their product (the intangible), or on imperfect "make belief" markets.
The income approach is widely used in the practice of transfer pricing because the required data is relatively available and relatively accurate. It also allows valuators to perform sensitivity analyses (i.e., changing the assumptions and observing the change in results). That analysis provides clients with information about the importance of the various value-driving factors in each case. (165)
E. Other Approaches and Conclusions
There are quite a few additional methodologies in the market that do not conform to the traditional approaches, yet they are all basically variations on one or several of these approaches. (166) Some of these methods are practically important since they are frequently used in practice.
Our transfer pricing rules use, by permitting and providing some guidance for, only a fraction of possible valuation methods used in the ordinary course of the practice of valuation. Even the market-based approach on which our arm's length centered permissible transfer pricing methods are crafted is not comprehensively explored. This reality channels all other valuation techniques to the "unspecified" method category, which lacks guidance and therefore is not controlled similarly to the specified methods. Consequently, the regulations leave the important valuation aspects of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes completely exposed to abuse by taxpayers and their advisors. The other side of this reality is that taxpayers face costly choices due to the lack of guidance or clarity about the risks of choosing one valuation avenue rather than another. (167)
The lack of guidance is even more problematic if one takes into account another feature of intangibles emphasized by this article--the fact that they are not a homogenous group of assets, at least from their valuation perspective. We already mentioned some obvious differences that lead to different preferences in terms of techniques used for their valuation. The simplest example is the contrast between commercially available intellectual property (e.g., popular shrink wrap type software) and intangibles that are completely business-specific (e.g., workforce in place). The former is not that different from tangible commercially available assets and the market approach potentially makes sense for their valuation. The latter require much more work from the valuation expert, and the simple application of the market approach contributes little in that process. Furthermore, valuation experts have some generic preferences of methodologies for different standard types of intangibles according to their different unique economic features. (168) Our transfer pricing rules completely ignore this, and provide no guidance whatsoever on the distinction between types of intangibles, leaving it completely to taxpayers and their advisors. Interestingly, a table of valuation methods preferences for different types of intangibles in a leading textbook notes that the market approach is never the preferred primary approach for intangibles (as defined for transfer pricing purposes). (169) This, of course, exposes the inadequacy of our arm's length based regime.
The confusion is exacerbated by the lack of comprehension of the product of valuation. (170) Taxpayers are required to produce a single dollar amount, yet that dollar amount may be a product of very different techniques with very different levels of uncertainties that are all treated essentially the same. (171) Correcting this failing by requiring further adjustments or statements may not improve the consequences much, while adding significant costs. Yet, the current regime does not even try to correct this failure, resulting in complete lack of control over the taxation of MNEs. The next section explores how taxpayers, the Service, and the courts operate within this tentative legal environment.
IV. THE PRACTICE OF TRANSFER PRICING
Now that we understand better the complexity and difficulty of the task of estimating the value of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes, we look into how this is done in practice. As mentioned, transfer pricing rules became an integral and important part of the international tax regime in the last decade. Not all of these regimes include extensive, separate rules for intangibles, yet most of them recognize the special difficulty that transactions involving intangibles pose. (172) This section begins with the unique rules developed in the United States, and continues with the challenges and opportunities that these rules present to practitioners in the field. It concludes with the unique and independent manner in which the courts deal with transfer pricing cases involving valuation of intangibles.
A. The Rules (173)
The government has for a long time acknowledged the unique aspects of transactions involving intangibles. This has resulted in significant changes to the relevant regulations. (174) The most important changes were made by the 1994 regulations (over the 1968 regulations). Recently, the government further updated some of the rules in final and proposed regulations. (175) Before we address these recent developments, a quick reminder of the background is owed.
1. General Rules and the Arm's Length Principle
The first modern set of regulations was promulgated in 1968. The expansion of MNEs and cross-border related party transactions after world war II era led to the government's revision of the regulations in 1968, which included, for the first time, specific rules for intangibles (and services). Lack of guidance and effective enforcement led to the only substantive amendment to section 482 itself, when Congress added the "commensurate with income" requirement for payments for the use of intangibles. (176) Congress further instructed the Treasury to study the issue, which resulted in the "white paper" of 1988. (177) Two rounds of proposed regulations followed, which were eventually finalized in 1994. (178)
The key changes introduced by these regulations were the acknowledgement of lack of exact comparables, and consequently the establishment of the concept of arm's length "range." (179) In addition, the 1994 regulations installed the "best method rule." (180) This meant that no predetermined hierarchy between the available methods existed, yet it required the taxpayer to defend the method chosen based on levels of comparability and data available. The commensurate with income requirement was relaxed somewhat as the Service created safe harbors from its application when certain methods and guidance were used. The commensurate with income requirement has had little relevance since. Next, the current rules are reviewed, including the changes introduced in the recent proposed regulations.
2. The Analysis
a. Scope
The transfer pricing regulations apply differently to different types of assets, so definitions are important to distinguish between these assets types. With respect to intangibles the regulations chose a very broad definition, specifying a long list of property types in five categories and a sixth "expansion" category for "other similar items." (181) This last category includes assets that derive value from their intellectual content or other intangible properties and not from their physical attributes. (182) Assets are included in the definition, and therefore treated as intangibles, only to the extent they have substantial value independent of services of any individual. (183) Therefore, a primary distinction is drawn between intangibles on one hand and tangible property and services on the other hand.
Practically, the difficulty of these distinctions is exacerbated by the nature of intangible assets that are oftentimes bundled with other properties into a final product. The difficulty of unbundling and delineating the value of the tested intangible from the other contributors to value adds to the general complexity of this preliminary scope question. (184) Another distinction that is mentioned at times is between manufacturing and marketing intangibles, (185) yet, this distinction has no practical implications, since both are subject to the same rules of transfer pricing. (186)
Despite the broad definition, some important types of assets that are typically viewed as intangibles are not included. Most importantly, the definition does not mention goodwill and going concern. This does not mean that they escape the application of section 482, yet the commensurate-with-income requirement and the specific intangible pricing methods may not apply to them as they apply to other intangibles. Interestingly, temporary regulations included language that limited the definition to "commercially transferable interests," language that was dropped in the final regulations as superfluous due to the government's position that only commercially transferable interests are subject to section 482. Other assets that are not tangible, such as financial assets, are similarly not included in the definition since the focus of the definition is on intellectual property elements rather than the intangible character of assets.
Even though this part of the law seems unsettled, the definitional stage of analysis has not presented a large number of disputes in reality. (187) We shall return to the consequences of the fuzziness of this definition later in the analysis.
b. Ownership
Once the scope hurdle is passed, the next step in the analysis is to determine the owner of the intangible in question. This is crucial because under our transfer pricing rules ownership determines who should be allocated profits from the exploitation (or transfer) of the property. (188) It is particularly complex, however, in the context of intangibles to determine ownership (in comparison to tangible property). This is because one of the key characteristics of intangibles is nonrivalry. (189) In simple terms, multiple beneficiaries may enjoy economic benefits from rights embedded in the intangible assets under analysis. The scope of these benefits is significantly less limited than in the case of tangible properties and much cheaper and simpler to extend and divide. For example, only one person (in most cases) can enjoy the benefits of sitting on a single chair at any given time, yet essentially infinite number of people may benefit from a cooking recipe at the same time.
The regulations currently solve this problem by considering only the legal owner (190) as the (sole) owner of legally protected intellectual property, which means that the rights of all other beneficiaries are viewed as specific rights against the owner rather than rights in the intangible. (191) This rule is retained in the proposed and (2006) temporary regulations. However, the rule is relaxed somewhat by the option to reassign ownership for the purposes of this analysis if legal ownership "is inconsistent with the economic substance of the relevant transaction." (192)
If an owner cannot be identified by law (or contract), the owner is determined based on all facts and circumstances, as who "controls" the intangible. (193) This changes the decision rule for ownership under existing (1994) final regulations. Under the 1994 regulations nonlegally protected intangibles could have had multiple owners (to the extent of the parties' relative exploitation rights). In the absence of such rights, the developer of the intangible--the person who bore the costs and risks of development--was considered the owner. (194) Only one person may be considered the developer and all other contributors to the intangibles' values are treated as "assistors," that should be compensated. Assistors are compensated as regular contributors or service providers, practically meaning that they cannot share the "upside" or any extraordinary value generated by the tested intangibles. This controversial developer-assistors paradigm was essentially abandoned, shifting the full emphasis of the ownership analysis to determination of legal ownership or economic control. This means that the parties largely control such ownership determination so long as they establish their position in their agreement. (195) The choice is consistently in favor of workable rules rather than theoretically sound rules.
Directly connected to the issue of ownership are the cost sharing rules. (196) These rules accommodate arrangements between related parties to share the risks (costs) and benefits (exploitation rights) of developing a certain property (particularly if it is an intangible). This article does not separately analyze these rules, although this is a worthy future project. (197)
c. Valuation and Attribution of Profits
Once ownership or the division of rights to income is determined, transfer prices are required to be established using one of four methods (discussed below) recognized by the regulations for the valuation of intangibles. The taxpayer must use the "best method," based on all the facts and circumstances. (198) The valuation of the intangible and related payments must be commensurate with the income earned by the Transferee from its commercial exploitation. (199) These payments are subject to adjustment to ensure that the commensurate with income standard is maintained. No such adjustment is made if the valuation is based on a transfer of the same intangible to an uncontrolled taxpayer under substantially the same circumstances, and if the valuation is based on one of the permissible methods (comparable uncontrolled transaction, profit split, or comparable profit method) provided certain safeguards are met. Included amongst these safeguards is the requirement that actual aggregate profits vary by no greater than 20% of the anticipated profits from the use of the transferred intangible.
As already mentioned, the Service has not strictly enforced the commensurate with income requirement. This presents conceptual and practical difficulties that have yet to materialize into a clash between taxpayers and the government. The potential for such a clash still exists. In effect, this standard requires the use of hindsight that conflicts with the concept of price (determined ex ante) and the arm's length principle (that is based on market pricing, and market risks without the benefits of hindsight). Commensurate with income must mean that the Service shall revisit the appropriateness of a transfer price from time to time in light of actual income streams, yet no guidance or clear rules exist about how that shall be done. Literally, this requirement allows the government to become a partner in a transaction at will, enjoying unexpected success, but not failure. This is a major departure from the usual position of the government in our tax system. Indeed, the 1988 white paper explicitly acknowledged the difficulty of reconciling the commensurate with income requirement with the arm's length standard. (200)
The white paper attempted to deal heads on with some of the most important difficulties of transfer pricing enforcement, yet it faced strong criticism, and resulted in (two rounds of) regulations that left many of the difficulties unresolved. The government attempted to maintain flexibility in its enforcement of section 482. Flexibility, however, has another side, resulting in a de facto decline of the commensurate with income requirement's importance and effectiveness.
3. The Intangibles Methods
The 1994 regulations established the current set of acceptable, distinct transfer pricing methods for intangibles that a taxpayer must use. (201) All of these methods are subject to the general transfer pricing application principles: the requirement to use the "best method" (202) in each case; the guidelines for comparability analysis; (203) and the provision about establishment of an arm's length range. (204) In addition, these methods must produce an arm's length price that is "commensurate" with the income attributable to the intangible. (205)
a. The Comparable Uncontrolled Transaction ("CUT") Method (206)
This is the classical arm's length method. The transfer price is established based on a price charged in a "comparable uncontrolled transaction." This is a parallel method to the tangibles' comparable uncontrolled price ("CUP") method, (207) adjusted for the fact that with intangibles it is rare to have comparable transactions with similar enough properties. Its emphasis is therefore on the nature of the transaction: term, rights transferred, etc. (208) The similarity of transferred property is also important, yet, the regulations project understanding that it may be a less of a factor than in the case of tangible property. In order for intangibles to be comparable, they must have similar profit potentials and they must relate to the same types of products or processes within the same markets. (209) Again, the functionality rather than simple, actual sameness is important.
Two types of adjustments to the price are required. First, the regular adjustments to reflect level of reliability (or really comparability), which normally take place in the construction of the arm's length range. (210) Second, to adhere to the commensurate with income requirement that is specific for intangibles, periodic adjustments are required to adjust to the change in circumstances and potentially to data reliability (and availability) changes. (211)
In general these adjustments are left to the expertise of the evaluator since the standard for these adjustments is to take into account all facts and circumstances. Adjustments, however, are allowed only if CUT is indeed the best method, so, for instance, the circumstances of the compared transactions are similar enough ("substantially the same" in the language of the regulations), and only if the differences that exist are minor and have a definite and reasonably ascertainable effect on the price. (212)
CUT is the most direct method to apply the arm's length standard and despite the reluctance of the regulation to establish hierarchy between the transfer pricing methods, the regulations indicate the CUT's method superiority when it is possible to use it. (213) It is, of course, also the most direct application of the market approach to valuation in this practice. Similar to other market based methods, it is highly sensitive to the availability, reliability, and completeness of relevant data.
This is quite apparent from the examples that the regulations use to demonstrate the application of this method. (214) Not surprisingly, in practice the importance of this method has been marginalized. (215)
b. Comparable Profits Method (216)
The goal of the Comparable Profits Method ("CPM") is to evaluate the transfer price charged based on "objective measures of profitability" derived from market transactions in similar circumstances and similar business activities. Specifically, the transferred intangible's value is determined by comparing the profit (operating income) that the tested party (the controlled transferor or transferee of the intangible) generates from such intangible with the profit levels (operating income) of the comparable uncontrolled parties.
This is a statistical method in the sense that it does not use single comparable transactions to establish an arm's length prices, but rather uses similar types of transactions to generate profit levels. The tested party is usually the least complex of the related parties and the one that posses assets that make it directly comparable. (217) Similarity is determined based on a set of "profit level indicators." (218) These indicators are various ratios of profits, costs, or resources that may provide information about businesses. An important factor in the choice of profit level indicator used is the availability and reliability of data to support the calculation of the ratios. (219) The regulations indicate that the ratio used should be the one that best indicates the profit level that the tested party should earn, yet there is very little guidance provided to explain how one should go about making this choice of ratio. The implication is that practicality trumps relevance and of course accuracy in this context. The regulations mention specifically the rate of return on capital employed, i.e., the ratio of operating profit to operating assets. Naturally, one must be able to value operating assets for this purpose. (220) This is the exact thing we are trying to derive in the case of valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes, which makes this ratio useless in most relevant cases. The regulations go on to mention financial ratios (221) as appropriate in cases when there is close functional similarity between the tested transaction and the sources of the statistical comparable information. (222) The regulations add that the composition of operating expenses is important if these ratios are used. Both of the above sensitive points (functional similarity, and composition of operating expenses) are likely to be problematic in the case of intangibles, because intangibles are inherently unique in many cases, and, more importantly, it is likely that the data about these factors will be particularly unavailable and unreliable for intangible heavy enterprises. The one example in the regulations that refers to intangibles does not deal with any of these difficulties that are unique to intangibles. (223)
Anyway, profit ratios are used to establish the profit relationship between the tested and uncontrolled party. Relevant considerations in determining whether an uncontrolled party is comparable include cost structures, internal processes, management, market risks, assets, and resources. Adjustments must be made to the profit indicators to account for any significant differences between the tested and comparable uncontrolled party. (224).
Targeting comparability of profit levels and types of transactions rather than actual prices in actual specific transactions makes this method more feasible then CUT, yet the CPM method is further removed from a model application of the arm's length standard. The CPM method essentially ignores the unique characteristics of intangibles that make them more difficult to value under this and other methods.
c. Profit Split Method (225)
This method tests whether the allocation of the combined operating profit (or loss) between the related parties is at arm's length. The taxpayer must first identify the most narrowly defined business activity that includes the tested transactions (with respect to which reliable data is available). Then the taxpayer must allocate the combined operating profit (or loss) from such business activity between the related parties. This allocation must then be compared to allocations of profits between unrelated parties in similar circumstances, to test for appropriateness.
The regulations permit two versions of this method. (226) Comparable profit split simply observes the percentages of profit allocated between unrelated parties and applies these percentages to the transactions between related parties, when and if appropriate. (227) Adjustments may be made for any differences between the tested parties and the parties in the comparable market transactions, and this method can be used even if differences are material so long as the adjustments can be made. (228) In practice, this method is very similar to CPM. (229) The second version, the residual profit split method, allocates the profit first to "routine contributions" of the parties to the relevant business activity, which assumes that attributing simple (normal) profit to such contributions is a relatively simple process. Next, the residual profit (not allocated to routine contributions) should be divided between the parties according to the value of their contributions to the relevant business activity. (230) The regulations use the case of contributing intangibles as an explicit and primary example of nonroutine contributions that may explain the existence of residual profits. Note that the value of such intangibles contributed is also required to be determined, and the regulations provide several proposals on how to make such valuations: external market benchmarks that reflect the intangible's fair market value; capitalization of development costs; etc. (231) This, of course, ignores completely the very difficulty of making such valuations. This Service acknowledged this difficulty, which led to the recent issuance of temporary regulations that attempt to clarify the use of this method. (232) The temporary regulations disconnected the allocation of the residual profit from the contribution of intangibles; yet, the regulations still do not provide much guidance on how to value the contributed intangibles, if they represent the nonroutine contributions. Similarly to CPM, the profit split method does not seriously deal with the particular difficulties that intangibles present. It mentions methods that may be good for the valuation of intangibles if they are contributed as part of the productive activity tested and if they are nonroutine, yet even then there is no guidance about how exactly to use the mentioned valuation methods or when to use each methods, etc.
d. The Fourth Method (233)
Taxpayers are not limited to the methods specifically prescribed by the regulations. They may use unspecified methods so long as they comply with the general arm's length requirements (best method, comparability, etc.). (234) A general requirement for this method is to specify what were the taxpayer's alternatives to its choice of related party transactions, for example prices offered by unrelated parties. (235) A specific example in the regulations describes a U.S. company that licensed a foreign subsidiary a proprietary process to manufacture a certain product for the European market. The European market price for the product is $550 per ton and the stated royalty is $100 per ton. (236) In evaluating the royalty under section 482, one possible method, subject to the best method rule, is to determine the profit that the U.S. company would have realized if it had manufactured and sold the product into the European market directly. Because the U.S. company's foregone profit was $250 per ton, the regulation concludes that the $100 royalty was not arm's length. (237) Note that this is just manipulation of the cost plus method that was excluded from the permissible methods for intangibles.
e. Conclusion
In conclusion, the current regulations specify a unique set of methods for the determination of transfer prices for intangibles; yet, the regulations fail to account for the unique features of intangibles that justify their unique treatment. Only CUT, an essentially irrelevant method, represents understanding that direct comparables are generally not available for intangibles. There are very few examples in the regulations and none of them are helpful in understanding what is different about intangibles and how the permissible methods adjust the traditional (tangible property transfers) analysis to more sophisticated transactions that involve intangibles. Next, I analyze the manner by which the courts have applied these rules. The struggle of the courts in the few transfer pricing cases where they were asked to do determine the value of intangibles blatantly demonstrates the inadequacy of current rules.
B. In the Courts
The practice of transfer pricing for intangibles, particularly the valuation of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes, are not issues visited by the courts frequently. Only in the mid-1980s, we begin to see relevant cases appear and decided by the courts. It also seems that this increase in cases began to subside towards the end of the millennium. This section reviews and analyzes the courts' positions as they emerge from a few relevant major cases. (238)
1. CIBA-GEIGY Corporation (239)
This landmark Tax Court case signaled a new approach in the tax court to these types of cases. Geigy-Basle, a Swiss corporation, established a U.S. subsidiary ("the taxpayer") and licensed to it the right to manufacture and sell two chemical herbicides in the United States, the royalty paid being 10% of sales.
The government challenged the royalty based on two alternative theories, the first being that the taxpayer and Geigy-Basle engaged in a joint venture that involved the research and development of the two licensed chemicals. Based on the joint venture theory, the parent and the taxpayer were joint owners of the patents on the two licensed chemicals; therefore, each party had the right to manufacture and sell the chemicals, and no royalty payment to the Swiss parent was appropriate. (240)
In the alternative, the government asserted that the 10% royalty was excessive and not arm's length. Both the government and the taxpayer submitted to the court transactions that they considered comparable to support their respective positions on this point. The court rejected the taxpayer's proposed comparable transaction based on the fact that in the comparable transaction the licensee purchased an herbicide at a mark up from a related person, as opposed to manufacturing the chemical itself. The court found that the lower levels of capital investment and risk borne by the licensee in that transaction made it an inappropriate comparable. The court rejected the government's comparable transaction as well on the basis of a lack of evidence in the record that the circumstances at the time the licenses were granted were sufficiently similar.
The court then turned to independently asses an arm's length royalty. It utilized a relevant factors test prescribed by the regulations. (241) The first factor considered was a competing offer for the license of the herbicides that was in excess of the royalty rate paid by the taxpayer. The next factor considered was the potential profitability of the herbicides. The court considered independent research reports that the herbicides were superior to all herbicides currently available in the market. The next factor considered was the prevailing rates in the industry, these being between 3% and 6%. (242) The court found that given the superiority of the licensed herbicides they did not constitute average products. The court went on to consider a 25%/75% rule-of-thumb profit split between licensors and licensees, and found that the taxpayer was retaining approximately 80% of the profits from its sales of the herbicides. Based on the above factors, without attributing decisive power to any of them, and without meaningful discussion of precedents, the court concluded that the existing 10% royalty rate was at arm's length.
Note that the court accepts the taxpayer's transfer price while rejecting the very basis for it (the taxpayer's comparable transaction). The court carries no deference to the Service, and does not accept its position despite the failure of the taxpayer to meet the burden of proof. The court entrepreneurially engages in independent valuation that convinces the court to eventually accept the "number" (remember, the "price" used by the taxpayer was rejected when the comparable transaction the taxpayer relied upon was rejected) used by the taxpayer.
The court's valuation has several interesting features (that we shall evaluate later in this article):
(1) It is not systematic, but rather uses an anecdotal multifactor test, and further, even when making a determination, the court refrains from providing guidance about priorities or order in the application of this multifactor test;
(2) The court does not engage in an arm's length based assessment, and ignores the comparability-based "valuation methods" prescribed in the transfer pricing regulations;
(3) The court does not meaningfully discuss any precedence or other legal sources;
(4) The court does not engage in a "scientific," numerically-heavy valuation or any other calculation;
(5) The court seems to heavily rely on standards--industry standards and rule-of-thumbs.
We shall see that this is not an isolated case, and that consecutive cases partly follow this attitude.
2. Eli Lilly (243)
Eli Lilly, a U.S. pharmaceutical company, set up a subsidiary, Lilly P.R., in Puerto Rico. Patents for pain medications, and know how related to their manufacturing, were transferred to Lilly P.R. in a nonrecognition transaction. Lilly P.R. then manufactured the medications, sold them to Eli Lilly, who in turn marketed and sold them throughout the United States There were significant tax advantages to operating in Puerto Rico at the time, including an exemption from local taxation for Lilly P.R. and exclusion of its income from that of its parent, Eli Lilly. The government attributed all of the income related to the intangibles to Eli Lilly, and limited Lilly P.R.'s income to that of a contract manufacturer (ignoring the transfers above).
The court rejected the government's attribution, as unreasonable (244) and turned to address the transfer price of the medication. The court determined that the Service may make appropriate allocations under section 482 because there was a distortion of income between Lilly P.R. and Eli Lilly. It found that the failure to include a royalty, lump sum payment, or cost sharing agreement as part of the intangible transfer to Lilly P.R. is a relevant consideration, and that the transfer price did not allow Eli Lilly to earn sufficient profits to fund a proportionate share of its ongoing research and development costs. The court went on to say that had Eli Lilly been dealing with a third party, the failure to receive arm's length consideration (such that it would be able to fund its ongoing research costs) on the transfer of the intangibles to the third party, would have resulted in lower prices on the transfer back (to Eli Lilly). However, the court held that the Service's reallocations were unreasonable and therefore the court made its own determination of the proper allocation of income from Lilly P.R. to the taxpayer.
Because the court found that the transfer price (paid by Eli Lilly to Lilly P.R.) should be lower to reflect the absence of a royalty payment (paid to Eli Lilly), the court continued to independently valuate the intangibles here. It separated the analysis to two periods. First, regarding 1971 and 1972, Eli Lilly suggested the resale price method, stating that the discounts Lilly PR. granted on its sales to Eli Lilly permitted Eli Lilly to earn an appropriate mark up upon resale. Eli Lilly's experts based their arm's length price determinations on the relative value of the profit generating assets and activities of the two companies. They argued that the trademark rights retained by Eli Lilly were of minimal value in comparison to the patents held by Lilly P.R.; therefore, the bulk of the contribution to profits from intangibles was attributable to the patents owned by Lilly P.R. Thus, Eli Lilly's profits were based on its marketing activities related to the relatively low-value intangible marketing assets (trademark rights). These marketing profits were estimated using Eli Lilly's marketing profits on the sale and marketing of nine other pharmaceutical products. The court rejected this methodology, stating that the resale price method could only be used when the determination of the gross markup percentage was based on that of a reseller that purchased and resold the product in uncontrolled transactions; whereas Eli Lilly used the previously mentioned ratios based on controlled transactions. The government argued for the application of the cost plus method. The court rejected this approach because the government did not attribute any income to Lilly P.R. for its intangibles.
The court decided to adopt the profit split method, and the first step was to identify the appropriate return (based on costs) for both the manufacturing and marketing activities and then to decide on an appropriate allocation of income to the intangibles held by each of Eli Lilly and Lilly P.R. The court found that an appropriate return for manufacturing and marketing activities to be a 100% mark up on costs. The court then made a number of adjustments to Lilly P.R.'s cost of goods sold and to the operating expenses relevant to the respective activities of both companies. The rest of the profits were split based on the value of the manufacturing and marketing intangibles, with the court considering the superiority of Eli Lilly's marketing to that of other pharmaceutical companies and the fact that the patent was more valuable than the product's associated trademark. Ultimately, the court allocated 45% of the profits to Eli Lilly's marketing intangibles and 55% of the profits to Lilly P.R.'s manufacturing intangibles.
Regarding 1973 (the second period analyzed by the court), the parties agreed that the comparable uncontrolled price method be utilized due to the expiration of the patents, and the resulting entry of a number of new competitors into the market. Eli Lilly proposed a comparable transaction and made a number of adjustments that increased the price of that comparable transaction. The government proposed a different comparable transaction, which the court rejected noting that insufficient information was adduced about the circumstances of the transaction and that the companies involved in the comparable transactions manufactured significantly less volume of the product than Lilly P.R. The court based its decision on the comparable transaction submitted by Eli Lilly and accepted a number of its proposed adjustments to the original sales price charged in that transaction, which resulted in increases to the price that Lilly P.R. could charge Eli Lilly, except at a lower rate. These adjustments included: an amount to reflect the comparable manufacturers' receipt of free raw materials and free equipment from the licensee, whereas Lilly P.R. was required to purchase its raw materials; an appropriate mark up on the sale of "sample products" that had been transferred at cost; an increase to reflect that Lilly P.R.'s product was of a higher product quality; and an increase to reflect the generous credit terms on sales that were available to Eli Lilly.
Despite the somewhat confused analysis and the different circumstance of the government's insistence on ignoring the nonrecognition transaction, we can see similar pattern following the court's decision in Ciba-Geigy: the court's assumption of an active valuation role, tendency toward non arm's length based analysis (profit split here), no account for the burden of proof, and nondeference to the government. On appeals, the court upheld the decision of the tax court to refuse the government's argument that it could under section 482 disregard the intangible transfer. (245) However, the court of appeals reversed the tax court's conclusion that the transfer price for the intangibles was not at arm's length.
The court of appeals stated that the tax court's conclusions conflict with holdings that stock of a corporation is by definition arm's length consideration. In addition, it concluded that the lower court took a too restrictive interpretation of the regulations. (246) The court went on to find that the income earned by Eli Lilly on the marketing and sale of the medications was sufficient for it to fund its ongoing research costs. The court also noted that Eli Lilly had a wide range of options through which research costs could be funded including liquidating investments or borrowing. Otherwise, the court of appeals generally agreed with the price analysis of the tax court. The only change the court of appeals made was to deny the lower court's allocation of Eli Lilly's general research and development expenses to Lilly P.R.
The prescribed transfer pricing methods are used solely as part of the rhetoric, while the substantive guidance in the regulations is completely ignored. The courts desire to make justice, even rough justice, in the specific case, based on some feasible methodology. The courts do not consider the implications of the decisions on the development of the law, and show little interest in providing guidance for future cases.
3. G.D. Searle (247)
This was a companion case to Eli Lilly, with similar facts, issues, and basis for the court's decision. (248) The intangibles here were patents, technical data, copyright rights, and trademarks related to pharmaceutical products. Here the P.R. subsidiary manufactured the products and sold them to independent pharmaceutical wholesalers. The taxpayer (the U.S. parent) aided in securing these sales via a marketing services agreement whereby the subsidiary paid the taxpayer 25% of sales to promote and market the products. The taxpayer's income decreased by 50% as a result of the agreement. Similarly to Eli Lilly; the court respected the nonrecognition (pursuant to section 351) transfer of the intangibles from the taxpayer to its P.R. subsidiary, again, rejecting the government's disregard of it. The court found, however, that although the taxpayer received stock equal in value to the transferred intangibles, it did not receive arm's length consideration on the transfer. The court found that any form of consideration would be permissible provided it is a form of consideration that would be used by parties dealing at arm's length. (249) The court reviewed the taxpayer's considerable ongoing costs of research and development and noted the fact that the intangibles conveyed in the section 351 transaction represented more than 80% of the taxpayers' profits and sales. Consequently, the court found that the taxpayer would have required some form of cash payment in connection with a sale of such intangibles to an independent party in addition to stock (noncash producing) compensation. Thus, the court concludes that the taxpayer's income is not clearly reflected and that it is appropriate to impute an ongoing royalty charge in its favor.
The court then proceeded to compute the imputed royalty charge. The taxpayer argued that it had acquired some of the intangibles transferred through independent licensing agreements and that these prior agreements were comparable transactions that support its transfer price. The court rejected these transactions for two reasons. First, the circumstances surrounding the granting of the licenses differed. The comparable transaction involved a license of intangibles from a French company that did not have FDA approval to market the product within the United States. The taxpayer had to obtain FDA approval for the intangibles and the court noted that this involved significant risk to the taxpayer given only a small portion of submissions to the FDA were ultimately approved. However, when taxpayer transferred the intangible to P.R. subsidiary, the taxpayer already had the FDA approval to sell the patented drug and had developed manufacturing know-how. The second reason is that no established market for the intangible existed in the United States at the time of the French license. In contrast, the taxpayer, not its P.R. subsidiary, holds the FDA approval for all transferred intangibles and had the marketing infrastructure to sell the product in an already established market. The court noted that without the approval the value of the intangibles would be substantially diminished.
The court then stated that whether the payable is deemed to be an additional amount for marketing services provided by the taxpayer, or as a payment to the taxpayer for the use of its intangibles (the "marketing" intangibles), or as a royalty payment in connection with the transfer of intangibles, the result is the same. Then the court without any analysis, but indicating that its decision was based on the record, found that a royalty rate of 25% of the subsidiary's net sales was appropriate.
Note again, the tendency to avoid detailed analysis or calculations, and to rely on what is perceived by the court as fair arbitrary approximation. Also, note the divorce of this decision from the information provided by the parties and their arguments. Finally, note that the courts do not spend much time on the fiction of comparability--since exact identity cannot be found they simply ignore the basic application of the arm's length principle. They do not stop to deal with what comparables are "similar enough" for these purposes; they simply go on to use other methodologies.
4. Bausch & Lomb (250)
The taxpayer, a U.S. corporation, created a subsidiary, B&L Ireland, and licensed to it a nonexclusive license to use patented and unpatented manufacturing technology and trademarks for the manufacture and sale of contact lenses worldwide for a royalty of 5% of sales. The technology enabled the manufacture of contact lenses at costs significantly below that of competitors ($1.50 versus $4.50). The vast majority of sales by B&L Ireland were made to the taxpayer (at a price of $7.50 per lens), who then marketed and sold the product in the United States. The Service assessed and asserted that B&L Ireland was essentially a contract manufacturer whose sales were assured and who was subject to minimal risks. Thus, B&L Ireland should be allocated only its costs and a reasonable mark-up. The tax court rejected this determination, concluding that B&L Ireland was subject to market risks and as such, it could not be characterized as a contract manufacturer. (251) Based upon this determination, the court decided, against the government's position, that it was appropriate to analyze the sale's price for contact lenses independently from the royalty fee paid for the license of the intangibles. (252)
The court first tackled the arm's length price for the contact lenses (paid by the taxpayer). It used the comparable uncontrolled price method and found that $7.50 was not higher than the standard price charged for contact lenses in the industry (and therefore it does not reflect by itself a shift of profits away from the U.S. parent). The court noted that the fact that B&L Ireland was a low cost producer did not matter, since the market price would be equal to that of the least efficient producer of the product. The government argued that the taxpayer would never go into the market and pay $7.50 for a good that the taxpayer could manufacture itself for $1.50; therefore, even if $7.50 was the market price for other buyers it could not be the arm's length price for sale to the taxpayer. The court rejected this argument, finding that the fact that the taxpayer could have produced the lenses itself at the lower cost amount was also of no consequence, and that the power to determine who in a controlled group would earn income did not justify the application of section 482.
With respect to the arm's length price for the license of the intangibles (by the taxpayer), the taxpayer argued that 5% was an appropriate royalty fee, but proposed that it be based on the average realized price earned by the taxpayer on its resale of contact lenses produced by B&L Ireland. This was a concession made by the taxpayer at trial. The taxpayer argued that 5% was the standard royalty fee in the industry for the license of contact lens technology, and referred the court to two contact lens license agreements for the use of manufacturing technology. In addition, it conducted a rate of return analysis that found a return of 106% for B&L Ireland and 66% for taxpayer, and asserted that this was consistent with the relative risks borne by each party. The court found that the intangible property in taxpayer's license agreement was superior to the licensed intangible in the proposed comparable agreement because the comparable agreement licensed new technology, which had not been shown to be commercially feasible. In contrast, the taxpayer's license agreement covered technology that had been proved to be successful for ten years. In addition, one of the taxpayer's proposed comparable agreements licensed new technology, which at the time of the agreement, was not approved by the FDA to produce contact lenses. This stood in contrast to the taxpayer's technology that was proven and had FDA approval. Also, there was a difference in experience between B&L Ireland and the licensees in the comparable transactions. They were experienced manufacturers whereas B&L Ireland was a new company that would not risk purchasing new and unproven technologies that the more experienced companies may contemplate acquiring. Based on these and other supporting considerations the court rejected the taxpayer's comparables. The government's argument was based on an appropriate mark up of B&L Ireland costs ($1.50) and a permitted return of 50% to 100% to manufacture the lenses, with the remainder of the $7.50 sale price allocated to a royalty fee.
The court then engaged in an independent valuation study. (253) The court began by reviewing the projected earnings that the taxpayer had prepared in connection with creation of B&L Ireland, which were ten-year cash-flow projections from the proposed investment. The court adjusted the cash-flow projections including a reduction of earnings in years five through ten to account for the court's anticipation of the introduction of new extended wear contact lenses and the resulting slow down in demand for daily contact lenses. In addition, the court factored in a reduction in price in the later years to account for new low cost competitors entering into the market. Based on the profits from these projections the court undertook to divide the profits between the taxpayer and B&L Ireland. The court noted that based on its revised profit projections that the royalty rate suggested by the government would lead to B&L Ireland operating at a loss, while the rate proposed by the taxpayer would result in an internal rate of return in excess of 35%, which the court felt was inappropriate. The court then referred to the 25/75 rule of thumb profit split between licensors and licensees; however, it was determined that this was too generous given the fact that B&L Ireland had nothing unique to contribute while the taxpayer was contributing its marketing and sales network as well as the production technology. (254) The court concluded that a 50/50 split was appropriate, which translated into a royalty fee of 20%.
By now, the reader should be familiar with the pattern: independent study by the court, based on "fair" approximations and rules of thumb, rejecting the parties' information (with no deference to the government) and ignoring the arm's length standard. (255)
5. Sundstrand (256)
The taxpayer expanded the operations of its wholly owned Singapore subsidiary (SunPac) by licensing to it certain industrial property rights. The license permitted the manufacture of CSD spare parts, (257) and the use of trademarks associated with the CSD, along with the taxpayer's agreement to provide technical assistance. The set royalty was 2% of the net selling price of each part manufactured. The vast majority of parts manufactured were sold to the taxpayer at a discount of 15% off SunPac's catalog prices. The Service assessed the tax on the taxpayer based on SunPac's being a subcontractor, (258) and computed SunPac's income on a cost-plus basis, limiting it to a mark up of 38%. Relying on Bausch & Lomb, the court found that SunPac was not a subcontractor and that the Service's assessment was accordingly arbitrary and capricious.
The court found that SunPac sales and prices were not guaranteed by the taxpayer and consequently that SunPac bore market risk with respect to its operations. In addition, the court found that the selling price for the spare parts and the royalty rate for the intangibles had to be addressed independently. The court found that a discount of 20% of catalog prices is appropriate, and based its decision on agreements that the taxpayer had with third parties. With respect to the royalty rate, the taxpayer argued that a number of transactions, wherein it licensed CSD manufacturing technology to independent third parties, were comparable to the SunPac license agreement. The government argued that significant distinctions existed between the agreements. (259) The court focused on two differences between the SunPac license and the comparables, the first being differences in rights regarding manufacturing intangibles and the second regarding differences in marketing intangibles.
In the comparable transactions, the sunset provisions permitted the continued use of unpatented manufacturing technology and data that had been provided to the licensee during the term of the license, for a royalty of 2% to be paid over 15 years. In contrast, the SunPac royalty payments were scheduled to end in 8 years and thereafter SunPac was granted access to any future improvements to CSD manufacturing technology that may be made by the taxpayer. Regarding the marketing intangibles, the court emphasized the fact that the license permitted SunPac to sell CSD spare parts into markets wherein the taxpayer had previously sold CSDs. Thus SunPac was in essence given a captive market within which to sell its spare parts, as once one of taxpayer's CSDs were included within an aircraft it was prohibitively expensive to replace that unit with a different model. In contrast, the comparable transactions were limited to selling CSD spare parts only to the licensee's own customer, which the licensee would have had to develop through its own marketing activities.
The court also reviewed another comparable, identified as the Concorde license agreement. The court found two key distinctions between this license and the SunPac license. First, the court distinguished that the Concorde CSD involved new and untried technology and that this led to the licensee taking on significantly more risk in the Concorde license. The distinction was that CSD, as a non European company was effectively prohibited from competing directly for sales of CSDs in this market.
The taxpayer then argued that there was a 6.5% royalty rate standard applicable to the license of CSD technology within the industry as a whole. The court found that the SunPac license was unique in that it included invaluable marketing intangibles not found in other agreements. The court then stated that the 6.5% could be utilized as a base rate upon which adjustments could be made, particularly adjustments to reflect SunPac's limited risk and the valuable marketing intangible it obtained via the license (these marketing intangibles related to the captive market SunPac had for spare part sales). The court then referred back to third party license agreements wherein the taxpayer licensed CSD technology to third parties and found that portions of some of these agreements related to sales of CSD spare parts that were permitted to be made outside of the licensee's allocated territory. Such parts sales were permitted when the aircraft, to which the licensee had made the initial CSD sale, had been relocated to a different jurisdiction. In this case, a 10% royalty fee was imposed on such sale. The court adopted this rate as an appropriate transfer price.
Finally, the court found that all of the taxpayer's other comparable licenses contained a separate charge for providing technological support services. But taxpayer provided that SunPac's charge for technical assistance was to be paid out of the 2% royalty fee. The court held that the SunPac provision allowing for the payment of such fees out of the royalty payment was not at arm's length because the taxpayer would not offer this payment provision to an unrelated party. Based on this, (260) the court found that the provision of such services was not integral to the taxpayer's business and allocated income to the taxpayer based on its costs of providing these services.
The case is an important example of the discomfort of the court with the arm's length standard and the use of comparable transactions to establish transfer prices. It is an interesting case since it involves comparable transactions in the same/similar product. Note that the single factor the court adopts here from the parties' positions is the industry standard of 6.5% presented by the taxpayer to be used as a baseline for the court's independent recalculation of the proper transfer price.
6. Westreco (261)
The issue at hand was the proper fee for research and development ("R&D") services. Westreco performed R&D services (food related research) for Nestle, its parent company (headquartered in Switzerland) for which it was paid a fee. The fee was based on Westreco's costs and a markup of between 3.5% and 7% of those costs. The government countered with a "salary multiplier" method to determine an appropriate fee to be paid to Westreco. It used a multiplier of three on all of the taxpayer's salary costs including indirect costs such as vacation, medical etc.
There were certain procedural issues involved, (262) but for our purposes, the important ruling is that the court found that the Service made a fundamental error in basing the salary multiplier on all of the taxpayer's employee costs rather than limiting it to direct salary payments. (263) The court held that the salary multiplier method applied by the Service was not an accurate method to use in determining the correct revenue for a unique firm like the taxpayers. Taxpayer then introduced evidence to show that taxpayer's pricing practices were similar to four comparable corporations.
The taxpayer's expert submitted these four comparables and utilized three criteria upon which they were compared with the taxpayer. The first was business relations with clients, where the principle issue was the extent to which the companies retain an interest in the product of their research or are merely conducting research for a client whom retains all rights to the research performed. The second was financial comparability, where a comparison of fixed investment costs was made and the third factor was the degree of business risk undertaken by the companies. Overall, the key factor was the low business risk undertaken by Westreco, as all of its expenses were covered under their cost-plus formula of payment, and the fact that Westreco did not have to regularly solicit clients to ensure continuity of work. A number of profit ratios of the corporations were then compared, and the taxpayer argued that a lower profit level was appropriate for the taxpayer due to its limited risk. The government attempted to come with a list of different (comparable) companies (15 companies) whose identity was derived from their sharing the same SIC code as the taxpayer. The court rejected the Service's comparables, noting the diverse fields within which these firms operated, including: nuclear power plant construction and operation, map making and breeding of research primates and canines, and concluded that they were not comparable. Thus, the court accepted the taxpayer's methodology and found that the fee was at arm's length.
This is an interesting case that technically focuses on services, yet these are R&D services based on which values of resulting intangibles are established. The case clarifies the reluctance of the courts to dive into the comparability world. Once the court is provided with reasons not to accept direct asset comparability, it immediately switches its focus to more remote methodologies and reliance on accepted commercial norms. Consequently, the court's analysis gets further away from simple arm's length standard application that is supposedly the ideal of our current regime. The court also, consistently, ignores the burden of proof rules.
7. Perkin--Elmer (264)
The taxpayer was a U.S. corporation that established a Puerto Rico subsidiary (PECC) and licensed to it the right to manufacture and sell spectrophotometers and accessories, gas chromatography accessories and HC lamps (generally scientific measurement instruments) and the provision of all design and manufacturing information related to these products. The royalty was 3% of sales. PECC purchased parts (described as parts kits) from the taxpayer. The kits were intended to be assembled into a designated finished product. PECC manufactured the products and sold them back to the taxpayer, who then resold them in various markets. (265)
The court addressed the issue of the arm's length price of finished products independently of the royalty issue. Court used the resale price method with reference to comparable sales to determine the arm's length price on the sales of each finished product. Once again, the court rejects to use taxpayer's or the Service's proposed comparable sales on the basis that they are not comparable and then the court independently values an arms length resale margin. With respect to the parts PECC purchased from taxpayer, the taxpayer argued for the comparable uncontrolled price method, an argument the court ultimately adopted, as there were a number of other manufacturers selling identical parts. (266) The government argued that the parts kits sold to PECC embodied various manufacturing intangibles of the taxpayer, and that the sale price of these kits should be adjusted accordingly. In theory the court agreed that the kits did embody manufacturing intangibles, but felt that these could be more simply dealt with under the royalty fee determination. The government's experts used the cost plus method and utilized a means of computation that the court described as novel and complex, the court summarized one of the two variations of these computations as follows. First the gross margin earned by the taxpayer on the sale of such products was computed (this was based on a period before the manufacturing license agreement with PECC was entered into and as such involved the Taxpayer in both the manufacturing and distribution process), this amounted to a 52% gross margin, then the manufacturing margin was isolated by subtracting a 37% distribution margin which was obtained from the analysis of a comparable third party transaction involving the distribution of a comparable product. Then the 19% manufacturing margin (based on sales) was converted to 40% margin over costs. Lastly this 40% margin was applied to taxpayer's costs of manufacturing the parts kits. The expert backed into the appropriate percentage markup on parts rather than deriving the markup percentage directly from a comparable transaction. The court had a problem with this because this type of indirect approach is very sensitive and leaves little room for error.
The parties and court agreed that the comparable uncontrolled transaction method should be used with respect to the royalty, although each party proposed several adjustments to the arm's length price of the comparable transaction. The adjustments made by the court to the comparable transaction were as follows: (1) The definition of "customers" in the comparable Hitachi licensing agreement was in issue with the government's arguing that the Hitachi royalty computation was based on prices for sales to consumers (end users), while the PECC royalty computation was based on sales to intermediaries. The court found that insufficient information was available to determine whether Hitachi planned to sell to end users exclusively and declined to make an adjustment. (2) The court considered a downward adjustment due to the limited use PECC made of the technical manufacturing documentation as compared to Hitachi's use of this information, due to the use by PECC of the parts kits. The court noted that the contractual right to such documentation was a part of the license agreement and did not make an adjustment. (3) The government argued that an upward adjustment to the Hitachi license was required to compensate for the limited geographical area in which Hitachi could sell it's manufactured products (Japan and several other countries), and the worldwide license rights conveyed in the PECC agreement. The court made no adjustment, noting that although Hitachi's rights were limited, there was no evidence that this led to a lower royalty fee, or that the taxpayer's inability to penetrate the Japanese market was responsible for a lower royalty fee. (4) The taxpayer argued that a downward adjustment was appropriate as the Hitachi license included the right to manufacture a broader range of Taxpayer's products than PECC's license agreement. Although Hitachi did not actually make use of this broader provision, the taxpayer argued that Hitachi's option to do so had value and warranted a downward adjustment to the Hitachi royalty fee. The court found that the value of such an option was too speculative in nature and did not make an adjustment.
Note again how the court accepts comparables offered by the parties without the adjustments that the parties themselves made. For example, the parties acknowledge that the comparables are not exact, yet the court uses them as if they were exact comparables. The court again is not capable of sophisticated analysis of inexact comparability. The court essentially engages in an independent transfer pricing study, regardless of burden of proof issues and the mode of analysis required by the regulations.
8. DHL (267)
The trademark "DHL" was conveyed from DHL to DHLI (DHL International) in connection with the purchase by a group of investors of a 57 % interest in DHLI. In addition, the court reviewed DHLI's use of the trademark (without paying compensation to DHL) for a number of years prior to that. In this case, both the taxpayer and the government used a relief from royalty income approach (i.e., cash method) to value the trademark, and came up with very different results. Taxpayer estimates were 50 million, while the Service's estimates were in the neighborhood of 300 million. The difference stemmed from their disagreement over the existence and income attributable to other intangibles owned by DHLI. The Service says that the trademark (the DHL name) was the primary intangible asset and therefore the majority of the value of all intangibles. Where the taxpayer says that DHL's other intangibles (DHL network, ability to efficiently deliver/reliable performance, cost advantages such as the DHL infrastructure) was the most valuable intangible asset and worth substantially more than the DHL trademark.
In addition, both parties made reference to the purchase price paid by the foreign investors (500 Million) for the 57% interest, and reduced this by amounts allocated to the tangible assets of DHLI, coming up with a value of approximately 250 to 300 million for the companies off balance sheet assets. Each used this amount to support their relief from royalty calculations. The taxpayer argued that the sale of the trademark was at arm's length due to the presence of the investors in the negotiations and the fact that the transfer was an integral part of the investors buy in. The court found that the Investors were indifferent as to the allocation of the purchase amount between shares and the trademark and that the value put on the trademark (20 Million) was tax motivated. Thus, the court found that this was not an uncontrolled transaction.
The court took a rough and ready approach to the valuation--which it seems to have done in the majority of these cases--and started with its calculation of the value of all DHLI intangible assets (essentially the grossed up value of the investors purchase price less the book value of DHLI assets). The court then indicated its belief that DHLI had a number of other intangible assets (e.g., know-how and systems in place) that enabled it to effect distributions internationally in an efficient and cost effective manner, and that DHLI's growing profits were equally attributable to the trademark and these other intangible assets. This gave the trademark a value of 150 million dollars, which the court discounted to 100 million based on the fact that an independent third party would not pay full value for an asset whose ownership was subject to legal challenge. (268)
The court continued to value a royalty fee for prior uncompensated use of the trademark by DHLI. In this context, the taxpayer made three arguments. First, that no royalty was due from DHLI for the use of the DHL trademark because DHLI was a developer of the trademark. Alternatively, DHL argued that if the court found that DHL is the owner/developer of the trademark, then no cash royalty would be due because the mutual agency agreement granted both DHL and DHLI reciprocal rights. (269) Finally, the taxpayer argued that DHLI's agreements with independent contractors in foreign locations permitted their use of the trademark but provided for no fee with respect to the trademark use. The court rejected all three of taxpayer's arguments. First, the court determined that DHLI was the developer of the trademark (see below). Second, the court held that taxpayer did not meet its burden of showing that the reciprocal benefits were within the range of arm's length. Lastly, the court held that the royalty-free use of the trademark by independent parties was not shown to be a sufficiently similar transaction to set an arm's length charge.
The government adduced evidence of royalty payments for the trademark's use in a variety of circumstances, payments ranging from 0.7 to 15%, and argued for a royalty of 1%. For reasons the court did not review, the government's experts felt that a royalty at the lower end of the range was appropriate. The court accepted the .75 rate and noted that this equaled the rate which DHL had agreed to pay DHLI for use of the trademark after the transfer of the trademark to DHLI.
With respect to the application of the developer/assistant rules, the court concluded that due to the absence of a cost sharing agreement with respect to the intangible and due to the existence of a valid licensing agreement between DHL and DHLI, that DHLI could not be a developer of the intangible. The taxpayer argued that in the alternative DHLI was an assister under the regulations, and that any allocation of income to it should be offset by amounts spent by DHLI in assisting in the intangibles development. The court denied any offset under the rationale that DHLI did not establish that its expenditures connected with the trademark (principally a significant amount of advertising expenditures) were in excess of expenditures that an independent licensee would expend in similar circumstances.
In appeals, the taxpayer argued that the court failed to sufficiently spell out its reasoning with respect to the valuation of the intangible. The appeal court reviewed the tax court's valuation and noted that it had given a step by step account of its reasoning and that although the method of valuation had its deficiencies (i.e. the use of book value may not reflect the true value of a tangible asset), the taxpayer failed to demonstrate clear error. The appeals court did reverse the tax court on its interpretation of the developer/assistant regulations and found that they made an error of law in equating developer status with a legal ownership interest in the intangible. (270) Based on the costs incurred and risks borne by DHLI in connection with the trademark, the appeals court found that DHLI was a developer of the international trademark rights under the Regulations, and it reversed the tax courts allocation of 50 million of income to DHL that arose from the transfer of the legal rights related to the international trademark to DHLI. In all other respects, the tax court opinion was upheld.
On remand, (271) the tax court found that DHL had overpaid taxes in the amount of 28.7 million, this amount included interest and penalties.
C. Endnotes on the Practice of Transfer Pricing for Intangibles
It should be apparent to the reader by now that compliance with the transfer pricing rules for intangibles is extremely burdensome, more so even than other transfer pricing tasks. Twenty years ago, a government's policy ("white") paper acknowledged that half of the transfer pricing cases at the time involved intangibles. (272) Now, despite the later revisions of the regulations, and the addition of the commensurate with income requirement to section 482--the single statutory amendment that reflect the importance of this issue--the portion of transfer pricing disputes involving intangibles only increased since, and threatens to continue to do so. (273) Transfer pricing in general became the single most important issue faced by MNEs, according to a recent study. (274)
Yet, despite the importance of the issue, this article demonstrates the very superficial attention taken by the regulations to intangibles and the reasons for the difficulties of applying these rules to transfer of intangibles. The review of the court cases above is a striking exhibition of the uselessness of the rules and prescribed methods themselves. Case after case, the court simply resort to independent, freestyle application of what they understand to be the arm's length principle, regardless of traditional court procedures, and, more importantly, regardless of the regulations. The courts do feel bound by the arm's length principle, so even when they are frustrated with the impossibility of its application in the mode required by the regulations, they resort to their own interpretation of the standard (not the regulations). Awkwardly, this approach can lead courts to reject at times alternative valuation methodologies that the regulations permit in the context of the fourth method, even if such methodologies are conventional in the practice of valuation. (275) This approach of the courts further limited the chance of the system "getting it right," confining the analysis to the arm's length standard rhetoric, notwithstanding its effectiveness, reliability or desirability. The fault should not be laid at the steps of the courts, since they, similarly to taxpayers in general, were provided with unworkable rules. (276) Next, the conclusion of the article makes the argument that part of the fault is in the choice of the arm's length standard, and another part is in its rigid and rhetoric application.
V. CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF TRANSFER PRICING
This article analyzes our current transfer pricing regime as it applies to transfers of intangible assets. This concluding section evaluates the desirability of this regime in light of the analysis. It begins with an extraction of the achievement of the current regime, and a sober realization of its actual effects on our society. The conclusions are then generalized to an assessment of the arm's length principle. The transfer pricing analysis of transfers of intangibles is probably the most significant challenge that or current arm's length based regime faces, and therefore it is particularly important to evaluate its effectiveness in this context. Finally, the current regime is contrasted against a formula based transfer pricing regime in order to highlight the benefits of such alternative regime in comparison to our arm's length based regime with respect to the challenges that intangibles pose to transfer pricing in general. We begin, however, with what we learned about our current law in this article.
A. The Reality of Current Law
We learned in this article that despite the evolution in transfer pricing rules, and the inclusion of special rules that apply specifically to transfers of intangibles, such rules do not account for the unique features of intangibles that make them a difficult challenge to any transfer pricing regime.
The regulations provide four permissible methods, among which one--CUT--the most direct application of the arm's length method is practically irrelevant, and another is a basket residual--unspecified--method. This leaves the taxpayer with two methods--CPM and profit split--in terms of specific guidance. Nonetheless, even these methods provide little specific guidance. They include almost no particular reference to intangibles, and no reference at all to the unique features of intangibles that make them difficult to price. Even in terms of appearance, both of these methods were not rewritten into the regulation that deals with transfers of intangibles (277) and continue to apply to all cross-border transfers almost similarly. (278) CPM and profit split present also substantive difficulties. They are both essentially statistical methods that represent approximations rather then direct valuation or pricing. They rely on normal, average market results and not on particular transactions or assets. This, of course, represents a deviation from the arm's length principle and its alleged objectivity promise. It also ignores the particular uniqueness of intangibles and transactions in intangibles that are typically less conforming to market, industry, or sectoral norms. CPM and profits split, by design, are not built for accuracy and capture of values generated by above-normal profits. Both of these methods are based on the market approach to valuation, (279) yet, they both produce market ratios, approximations, standards and norms--not market prices.
Related parties need additional mechanisms to come up with their transfer prices, since eventually they are required to report a single dollar amount (number) on their tax returns. No matter what nominal method they use, specified or unspecified, taxpayers (and the courts, as we have seen) are bound to make several judgment calls in the process of coming up with the desirable number, some of which are based on valuations of the intangibles involved in the reported transactions. The claim of this article is that at each decision level the law permits almost frictionless flexibility to taxpayers. This flexibility is the combined and results in significant deviations from the desired accurate result that our transfer pricing rules purport to target. Such inaccuracy accumulates and creates a significant advantage to taxpayers subject to transfer pricing analysis (MNEs), particularly if they rely heavily on intangibles, in comparison to other taxpayers. (280)
B. The Challenges Faced by the Arm's Length Principle
The most fundamental consequence of the current regime is that MNEs are particularly advantaged in comparison to other enterprises, and their advantage is more significant the more heavily they rely on intangibles to generate profits. (281) Such taxpayers, but also (essentially) all other business taxpayers, are advantaged vis-a-vis the Service in this game. This is particularly true due to the rigidity of the regulations and their conservative evolution. The Service must follow the general path prescribed by the regulations, yet such path is not only limiting, but also limited, which leads to multiple eventualities when taxpayers are required to use unprescribed valuation methodologies, including new, more sophisticated models that thrive in today's market consequently.
The use of modern, more sophisticated valuation methodologies could be desirable, yet the use of such methodologies is arbitrary from the perspective of the system. In some cases taxpayers may use it, such as when the prescribed methods do not produce a satisfactory result, or when such methods call for secondary valuations that do not follow prescribed methods (such as valuations of contributions of certain intangibles to the process of development of the tested intangible). In other cases, however, the taxpayer may not (not because the prescribed methods produce better results, but because they produce satisfactory enough results for them). The Service, of course, is even in a more inferior position. Among the difficulties of using modern methodologies are: (1) that they constantly develop; (2) they often rely on a mix of valuation approaches, so the rhetoric of adherence to the arm's length standard may prove to be more difficult to keep if they were allowed; (3) they are numerous, so it would be more difficult to administer and enforce from the government's perspective-especially the best method rule would be impracticable-and also since it is very difficult to include in the rigid regulatory system that we have at the present; (4) many of the new methodologies are proprietary and rely on proprietary databases that if allowed may raise questions of fairness, equality etc. The main issue, however, is that the prescribed methods are so weak that taxpayers are in practice using some of the proprietary tools quite frequently, yet with no regulatory ordered supervision.
Novel valuation methodologies and proprietary databases are not the primary challenge that the arm's length standard faces. It is the false adherence to this standard that does it, and ties the hands of the Service in fighting this difficult battle. The transfer pricing methods preferred by the Service, CPM and profit split, are both basically statistical methods based on approximations and almost "thumb rules." The manner in which the courts dealt with the relevant tax cases demonstrates this most clearly. The system sends signals of helplessness, attempting to fulfill its tasks to the best of their ability without the support of coherent, practical set of rules. The fact that no clear hierarchy between the methods is imposed, is the first indicator to this lack of confidence in the arm's length standard. This uncertainty was covered up by the "best method" requirement, yet no realistic guidance was given, which left the choice, and therefore, also the advantage, to the taxpayers. The system is designed so that taxpayers who take transfer pricing seriously have the advantage of setting the rules of the game and the facts presented in the way they want them to be presented. Now, surely MNEs will respond that this is not correct and that they would be very happy to get rid of the rules and the expenses involved, yet, this is not an option. The question is only which of the alternatives regimes is superior. Moreover, in the attempt to hold on to the arm's length "ideal," the arm's length range concept was introduced into the rules. Again, this is a reasonable rule if one accepts arm's length as the only possible principle guiding the regime, since all agree that an accurate comparable price is impossible to establish. But, it also proves the same thing: that this system cannot deliver the promise of arm's length, and does not take advantage of the potential advantages of the market approach to valuation. The averaging solution of the arm's length range rule creates an embedded inaccuracy and an advantage to taxpayers in this context. The comparability requirement and guidance have a similar effect, because the current regime does not account for levels of comparability or "accuracy." Comparability analysis can result either in acceptance of the suggested comparable or not, notwithstanding the degree of deviation and the degree of in accuracy of alternative methods. This is further explored in the next section.
In conclusion, the theoretical advantage of the arm's length standard, based on a classical market approach to valuation, is lost in practice. It remains merely rhetoric, replaced by workable piecemeal mechanisms, and whose main quality is that the government views them as noncontradictory of the arm's length rhetoric. Next, I add to this critique that the arm's length is not only unworkable, but also conceptually inferior to a formula based transfer pricing regime.
C. The Future of Transfer Pricing Is in a Formula-Based Regime
The inadequacy and inappropriateness of the arm's length standard have been extensively explored in the last few decades. (282) The contribution of this article to the literature is to support this criticism of the arm's length standard from the specific angle of the treatment of intangibles, and to promote an alternative, formula based transfer pricing regime. It argues not only that a formula based transfer pricing regime is practically more desirable, but also that it is theoretically superior to our current arm's length based regime.
First, however, the superiority of a formula based transfer pricing regime over the current regime should be demonstrated. The key difficulty that this arm's length based regime faces is the frequent reliance on comparability and valuation, which often results in high level of compounded inaccuracy. This inaccuracy is inevitable under an arm's length based regime, because by definition such a regime does not account for the fundamental difference between related and unrelated transactions and creates a (necessarily false) fiction that such transactions are interchangeable. The inescapable, heavy reliance on valuations that are, again, by definition estimations and approximations, contributes to the inaccuracy. Finally, our current system does not seriously account for the degree of incomparability between the tested transactions and the "comparables," (283) which adds to the inaccuracy further. One may argue that this is just a defect of the current system and could be amended. This is true, yet, a correction, if done coherently with the current system, would require an additional level of valuation and maybe comparables to asses the degree of incomparability. Such a correction may make the system more coherent, yet, it won't necessarily correct its inaccuracy since it relies on the same estimations, etc. I think that this picture is clear by now.
One may ask what is the problem with this inaccuracy. It is obvious that these are not market transactions, so standard and acceptable valuations methodologies, which are the best approximations, are made--this is the best that we can do with such transactions. My disagreement with this contention is threefold. First, our transfer pricing regime does not permit the use of all available valuation methodologies, and, in reality, it is only when the rules are not specific about the valuation itself that taxpayers are able to use methodologies that may be more creative and sophisticated. Yet, even that would not revive the current regime because valuation and measurement are not designed to come up with a specific number. (284) It is rather normally designed to reduce uncertainty in order to improve business decisions that depend inter alia on the value of the tested assets or businesses. Conversely, in the context of transfer pricing, no market decisions are at stake but rather a one-dimensional regulation that attempts to come out with a single, accurate dollar amount, like all other dollar amounts that find their ways to our tax returns. However, this is impossible, an arm's length proponent will respond. It is not impossible, just misguided. There is no need to come up with transfer prices that look like market prices, and alternative regimes, such as formulary apportionment should be explored. This however, is my third point; the second is to explain what is bad about the inaccuracy of our transfer pricing regime.
The primary problem with the significant inaccuracy of the current regime is that it creates a huge advantage to MNEs in comparison to all other taxpayers. This advantage is not even equal for all MNEs but, as demonstrated in this article, grows in power the more heavily reliant on intangibles the MNEs are. These MNEs do pay a price in the form of compliance costs, yet these compliance costs are minimal in comparison to the advantage they get, so the playing field is not level, and at the same time such costs are simply wasteful as they do not represent any substantive goal--they just require investment of funds from taxpayers. In fact the current rules gave rise to the (wasteful) industry of transfer pricing compliance/valuation specialists. Note that the various levels of inaccuracy do not cancel each other on the average. This is because such inaccuracies are not just a result of margins of error, they are inherent in the process, and taxpayers control the product of the process. They are allowed, and have all the reason in the world, to be as close as possible to the boundaries of the range of acceptable results in each stage of the analysis. They will always chose the extreme that is the most beneficial to them, and each time they make such a choice, the level of inaccuracy works in their favor and compounds with prior and future levels of inaccuracies exploited in the process of establishing the transfer price. The system does not and will not compensate for these deviations because it does not recognize it. The bias in favor of MNEs may seem desirable to some, yet naturally achieving it in these means is extremely wasteful, imprecise and does not depend on any identified social benefit that the taxpayer delivers. Moreover, the benefit that the United States grants to its MNEs does not necessarily correspond to the regulation and tax systems of other countries. Double taxation or no taxation are still possible and are not dealt with by this regime.
This is a problem, since at the end of the day transfer pricing is simply part of our tax accounting regime, or the rules that measure the income at stake in the process of analysis and assessment of income tax due. It is an international tax rule in that its function is merely to divide income between two (or more) countries that may have a claim to that income. The income division function of our international tax rules rely on certain fundamental principles that are essentially universally accepted. One is the single tax principle, i.e., that income should be taxed once, but preferably not more than once, by some country (or a combination of countries). Another is the principle that the primary right to tax active or business income is vested to the source country--the country where the activity takes place, while the primary right to take passive activity is with the residence country (the residence of the investor). The single tax principle is important here because it is apparent that it would be very difficult to achieve in the world of the arm's length principle. Countries could cooperate and accept universal norms in theory, so that we could ignore the current (noncooperative) state of the international tax regime, and even the fact that multilateral approach to transfer pricing is basically nonexistent--transfer pricing establishment is largely a domestic unilateral process in practice. We cannot ignore, however, the nature of the application of the arm's length standard. Especially in the context of intangibles, it is expected that different countries will take different positions about comparability, reliability, adjustments, etc. Indeed, the details of the transfer pricing process and particularly valuations of intangibles vary significantly between countries. Even the permissible methods are not universal these days. We ignore, for simplicity, the effects of tax competition between countries in this context.
Global imbalance in this context is not inevitable. A formula based regime is based on the actual function of transfer pricing and not on a fiction of analogy to transactions that are completely irrelevant to this function. A formula-based regime simply divides income between the countries involved based on certain agreed principles and without the pretension of economic justification to the division principles. This division is naturally arbitrary at large because the division of income between two jurisdictions is arbitrary-it was earned once, by one firm, independent of the political division, whatever it is. This is exactly what our international tax regime does--the division of income between countries is based on certain rough principles and particular compromises that are the fruits of negotiation, not economic principles. An important factor in such negotiations is the universal acceptance of some rough norms that countries accept because they believe these norms and more importantly a degree of convergence are beneficial to them in the end even if in the specific negotiations they may have achieved a better result without such universal norms.
It is very realistic to believe that countries will agree on a formula, based on which a new transfer pricing regime will be based, yet it is not realistic that countries will negotiate and agree on very detailed and fact specific protocols of valuations for intangibles. This article obviously argues that it is also unnecessary.
It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss the design of this formula based regime, yet one point is a natural consequence of the analysis above: the formula should focus on an accepted norm for division of income between countries that imitates the general norms we have. It should not be based on mechanisms that we think are appropriate just because we have experience with them if they do not fit the already existing international consensus. For example, there is no reason to imitate the formulae used by the U.S. states for their income tax systems that are usually based on assets, sales, and employees. (285) The new emphasis, advocated by this article, is on the requirement that the formula-based transfer pricing reform conform to the basic premises of our general international tax regime, since it provides a distinct advantage to a formula-based transfer pricing regime over the current arm's length based rules. (286) Otherwise, these two regimes cannot be viewed so much as alternatives but as points on a continuum of solutions to the transfer pricing challenge. (287)
Yariv Brauner *
* Associate Professor of Law, University of Florida, Levin College of Law. I thank Lawrence Lokken, Paul McDaniel, Lauren O'Dower for their helpful comments and assistance. All mistakes and inaccuracies are mine.
(1) A price on the priceless, THE ECONOMIST, June 12, 1999, at 61.
(2) See I.R.C. [section]482; Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-4 (2006).
(3) The leaders are the big four accounting firms, yet a large number of independent service providers emerged over the last years. See, e.g., http://www.transferpricingconsortium.com/TPChome.html; http://www.valuationresearch.com/content/Services/Transfer_Pricing.htm; http://www.precisionecon.com/?gclid=CJjJu_DR_JECFQpTHgodPyEr3Q; http://appraisaleconomics.com/transfer.html. These are simply the first five Google search results. Another good indicator is the constant search for transfer pricing experts by executive head hunter services.
(4) See, e.g., MARC M. LEVEY & STEVEN C. WRAPPE, TRANSFER PRICING: RULES, COMPLIANCE AND CONTROVERSY [paragraph] 180 (2d ed. 2008).
(5) See I.R.C. [section]482.
(6) Even when the actual rules deviate from this principle, the government has insisted on keeping the rhetoric of adherence to the arm's length principle. We shall come back to this particularly in Part IV. A infra. Note that similar valuation exercises may be required for customs purposes. This article does not discuss the interaction between these two regimes for simplification.
(7) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-1(b) (2006).
(8) See, e.g., Reuven S. Avi-Yonah, The Rise and Fall of Arm's Length: A Study in the Evolution of U.S. International Taxation. (Univ. of Mich. Law & Econ., Olin Working Paper No. 07-017, 2007), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1017524; see also ERNST & YOUNG, 2007-2008 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEY: GLOBAL TRANSFER PRINCING TRENDS, PRACTICES AND ANALYSES, available at http://www.ey.com/Global/assets.nsf/International/EY_Tax_TPSurvey_2007/$file/Tax_TPSurvey_2007.pdf [hereinafter "ERNST & YOUNG, 2007-2008 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEY"].
(9) See I.R.C. [section]482; Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-4 (2006).
(10) This is a global regime, and part of the international tax regime, yet, for most purposes this article focuses on the aspects of the U.S. transfer pricing regime.
(11) DOUGLAS W. HUBBARD, HOW TO MEASURE ANYTHING: FINDING THE VALUE OF "INTANGIBLES" IN BUSINESS 10-27 (2007).
(12) This is not actually so. See, e.g., Ted Hagelin, A New Method to Value Intellectual Property, 30 AIPLA Q.J. 353 (2002).
(13) At the end of the day, every taxpayer reports her income as one or more distinct dollar amounts to which she applies an appropriate tax rate, and the product of this straightforward multiplication is a single dollar amount owed to or due from the government.
(14) See, e.g., RICHARD A. MUSGRAVE & PEGGY B. MUSGRAVE, PUBLIC FINANCE IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 303 (3rd ed., 1980).
(15) The source of this waste is enforcement and compliance costs. See, e.g., id. at 302-303.
(16) See, e.g., I.R.C. [section] 6662(e); Treas. Reg. [section] 1.6662-6(d)(2)(iii) (2006); ERNST & YOUNG, 2005-2006 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEYS: TAX AUTHORITY INTERVIEWS: PERSPECTIVES, INTERPRETATIONS and REGULATORY CHANGES, available at http://www.ey.com/global/assets.nsf/International/Tax_Global_Transfer_Pricing_Survey_Part_3/$file/EY_GlobalTPSurvey 3_Sep2006.pdf [hereinafter "ERNST & YOUNG, 2005-2006 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEYS"].
(17) See, e.g., ERNST & YOUNG, 2007-2008 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEY, supra note 8.
(18) Note that related party transactions, or intra-firm trade, to which transfer pricing rules apply, is very significant, it increases and promises to be even more important, particularly for the United States in the future. See, e.g., Tanweer Akram, Haider Ali Khan & James Holladay, U.S. Intra-Firm International Trade (2007), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1030388.
(19) There is consensus because those countries that examined alternative frameworks were forced back into the arm's length based consensus. The classic example is that of Mexico. See Reuven S. Avi-Yonah, Commentary, 53 Tax L. Rev. 167, 170 (1999).
(20) Id. at 169 (arguing that the network of bilateral tax treaties "constitutes an international tax regime, which has definable principles that underlie it and are common to the treaties").
(21) See, e.g., Yariv Brauner. An International Tax Regime in Crystallization, 56 Tax L. Rev. 259 (2003).
(22) Despite the intimate relationship between the cost sharing rules, see Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-7 (2006), and transfer pricing for intangibles, I chose not to include cost sharing in this article, since I observe several additional issues that one must tackle in the context of cost sharing that are irrelevant to this article. Their assessment must wait for future study.
(23) Measurement is another story, yet it is very different from pricing. See Hubbard, supra note 11.
(24) The singular approach is qualified, mainly through elaborate regulations. Nevertheless, despite the diversity of approaches permitted by the regulations there is no recognition of the differences between intangibles and the consequent potential necessity of different approaches to their valuation.
(25) See supra note 19.
(26) See supra note 8.
(27) GORDON V. SMITH & RUSSELL. L. PARR, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY: VALUATION, EXPLOITATION, AND INFRINGEMENT DAMAGES 13 (2005).
(28) Intellectual property is a type of intangible that does receive legal protection. The term "intellectual property" had not been used prior to the mid 19th century.
(29) BARUCH LEV, INTANGIBLES: MANAGEMENT, MEASUREMENT AND REPORTING 22 (2001).
(30) Take, for example, the secret ingredients of Coca-Cola. Once publicly known, the successful taste of the beverage could be easily and inexpensively replicated, hurting the value of the formula to Coca-Cola.
(31) Think about a management process or "chemistry" of a workforce.
(32) LEV, supra note 29, at 12.
(33) Id. at 24--49.
(34) Id.
(35) Id. at 29.
(36) Id. at 30--34 (referring inter alia to Gene M. Grossman and Elhanan Helpman, Innovation in the Theory of Growth, 8 J. ECON, PERSP. 23, 31(1994) (arguing that purposive, profit-seeking investments in knowledge play a critical role in the long-run growth process, while reviewing models of endogenous technological progress and the lessons they can teach us)).
(37) Id. at 33--34.
(41) See, e.g., id. at 48--50.
(42) Id. at 51--54.
(43) See, e.g., id. at 54.
(44) See, e.g., id. at 55--56.
(45) See, e.g., JOHN R.M. HAND AND BARUCH LEV, INTANGIBLE ASSETS: VALUES, MEASURES AND RISKS 447--524 (2003); Leandro Canibano, Manuel Garcia-Ayuso & Paloma Sanchez, Accounting for Intangibles: A Literature Review, 19 J. ACC. LIT. 102 (2000); Douglas J. Skinner, Accounting for Intangibles-A Critical Review of Policy Recommendations (December 2007), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1080572.
(46) LEV. supra note 29, at 55--56.
(47) I do not discuss the effect on taxation, yet, since taxation always starts from the financial information, the problematic standards exacerbate the distortion that exists anyway in this context.
(48) See, e.g., U.N. CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEV., WORLD INVESTMENT REPORT 1999: FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND THE CHALLENGE OF DEVELOPMENT, U.N. Sales No. E.99.II.D.3 (1999).
(49) See RICHARD E. CAVES, MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISE AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 1--23 (2d ed. 1996).
(50) This internalization explanation arose in the transaction cost economics movement, not necessarily focused on MNEs. See, e.g., OLIVER E. WILLIAMSON, MARKET AND HIERARCHIES: ANALYSIS AND ANTITRUST IMPLICATIONS (1975); Oliver E. Williamson, The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach, 87 AM. J. SOC. 548 (1987); Oliver E. Williamson, The Modern Corporation: Origins, Evolution, Attributes, 19 J. ECON, LIT. 1537 (1981). The analysis was then extended to the international context, See, e.g., D.J. Teece, Transactions Cost Economics and the Multinational Enterprise, 7 J. ECON. BEHAV. & ORG. 21 (1986).
(51) John H. Dunning, Trade Location of Economic Activity and the Multinational Enterprise: A Search for an Eclectic Approach, in THE INTERNATIONAL ALLOCATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY: PROCEEDINGS OF A NOBEL SYMPOSIUM HELD AT STOCKHOLM (B. Ohlin et al. eds., 1977), reprinted in JOHN H. DUNNING, EXPLAINING INTERNATIONAL PRODUCTION 13 (1988). For a relevant discussion of Dunning's work on MNEs, see MONICA BOOS, INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER PRICING: THE VALUATION OF INTANGIBLE ASSETS [paragraph] 1.3 (2003).
(52) See, e.g., LEV, supra note 29, at 55--56.
(53) See, e.g., CAVES, supra note 49, at 162--188.
(54) See id.
(55) See Boos, supra note 51, at 30--31 nn. 134--37.
(56) This is particularly important to horizontally integrated MNEs. See CAVES, supra note 49, at 4--5, 162.
(57) See, e.g., id. at 1--23.
(58) See, e.g., RICHARD E. CAVES, MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISE AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS (3rd ed. 2007); JOHN H. DUNNING, MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY (2d rev. ed. 2008).
(59) See generally MICHELLE MARKHAM, THE TRANSFER PRICING OF INTANGIBLES 1--4 (2005).
(60) Jane G. Gravelle & J. Taylor, Tax Neutrality and the Tax Treatment of Purchased Intangibles, 45 NAT'L TAX J. 77, 81 (1992).
(61) For a good review and analysis, see CAVES, supra note 49, at 168--72.
(62) See infra Part IV. A.
(63) Another aspect that adds to the complexity of an already quite complex analysis is the fact that intangibles come in various and different forms. Some of them have certain of the characteristic explored in this section and some have others; some are easier to valuate in certain circumstances and some are very difficult. The degree of accuracy (for lack of a better word) significantly varies from one case to another, and accordingly the abuse and distortion potentials vary. A detailed inventory of the various types of intangibles and their unique sets of features and value drivers is beyond the scope of this article. Yet, throughout the analysis I demonstrate the importance of this realization in order to further establish the claim that current law deals with the valuation of intangibles poorly, and therefore does not attain its goals.
(64) See WESTON ANSON & DONNA SUCHY, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY VALUATION: A PRIMER FOR IDENTIFYING AND DETERMINING VALUE 30--31, 138--42 (ABA, 2005); SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 256.
(65) See, e.g., SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 140.
(66) War Revenue Act of 1917, ch. 63, 40 Stat. 300 (1917). For an historical review, see Reuven S. Avi-Yonah, The Rise and Fall of Arm's Length: A Study in the Evolution of U.S. International Taxation, 15 VA. TAX REV. 89 (1995).
(67) Art. 45-1 of Reg. 86 (1935) (Revenue Act of 1934).
(68) T.D. 6952, 1968-1 C.B. 218.
(69) The tax incentives permitted for investment in Puerto Rico became particularly popular among tax planners for these purposes. See, e.g., cases cited infra Part IV.B.
(70) Tax Reform Act of 1986.
(71) I.R.S. Notice 88-123, 1988-2 C.B. 458.
(72) T.D. 8552,1994-2 C.B. 93.
(73) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-1(e) (2006).
(74) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-1(c) (2006).
(75) The article elaborates on the methods in infra Part IV.A.3.
(76) There is an inherent conflict between the valuation mechanisms used in the practice of transfer pricing and the taxation context within which they operate. The invention of the arm's length range concept intended to accommodate valuation since this is what valuation does in business: produce a range of numbers that the business parties can use in their negotiations of prices. Our transfer pricing rules make this leap (skipping the negotiation part) and pretend that a price can statistically (or otherwise) be produced from the range. See, e.g., Hagelin, supra note 12.
(77) See discussion supra note 12; infra note 80.
(78) For a recent example, albeit in the cost sharing context, see Molly Moses, Musher, McDonald Seek Technical Fixes, Defend Proposed Rules' Arm's-Length Nature, 14 TRANSFER PRICING REPORT 825 (Feb. 15, 2006).
(79) See, e.g., ERNST & YOUNG, 2007-2008 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEY, supra note 8; see also LEVEY AND WRAPPE, supra note 4, at [paragraph] 180.
(80) OECD, TRANSFER PRICING GUIDELINES FOR MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES AND TAX ADMINISTRATORS, 1-6 (1995), reinforced by ERNST & YOUNG, 2005-2006 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEYS, supra note 16, at 5 (noting that some countries converge on the principles of transfer pricing, yet they take different approaches to its enforcement); see also Avi-Yonah, supra note 19, at 170 (telling the story of Mexico, which adopted non arm's length based transfer pricing rules and was pressured to adhere to the universal norm by the international community, particularly OECD); Jaime Gonzalez-Bendiksen, Mexico Amends Transfer Pricing Rules, 97 TNI 27-24 (Feb. 10,1997).
(81) OECD, Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital, Apr, 29, 2000, as updated on 15 July 2005 [hereinafter " OECD Model"], article 9.
(82) There is a mutual agreement procedure that may reach that result, but it is long, costly, and requires a persistent and powerful taxpayer to convince her government to initiate the procedure. See id. at articles 25, 9[paragraph] 2.
(83) For example, in 2006--a productive year for the APA project--the United States concluded only one multilateral APA. See I.R.S. Announcement 2007-31, 2007-12 I.R.B. 1.
(84) See Brauner, supra note 21.
(85) For a review and a proposal to use the modality of a multilateral APA as the primary device of an international transfer pricing regime, see Eduardo A. Baistrocchi, The Transfer Pricing Problem: A Proposal for Simplification (The Berkeley Electronic Press, Working Paper No. 1228, 2006), available at http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5850&context=expresso.
(86) See Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-4(f)(2) (2006).
(87) See, e.g., Kathleen Matthews, Mogle Says IRS Can Retroactively Apply Much Of Transfer Pricing Regs., 93 TNI 89-1 (May 7, 1993).
(88) R.T. French, 60 T.C. 836 (1973).
(89) A controversial contention that was heavily criticized. See, e.g., Andy Yood, API Attacks White Paper for Misguided Policy, Recordkeeping Requirements, and New Penalties, 89 TNI 11-58 (Feb. 15, 1989).
(90) Treas. Reg. [section]1. 482-4(f)(2)(ii) (2006).
(91) Id.
(92) Id.
(93) See infra Part IV.A.
(94) For the most notable criticism of this phenomenon, see Michael J. Graetz, The David R. Tillinghast Lecture: Taxing International Income: Inadequate Principles, Outdated Concept, and Unsatisfactory Policy, 54 TAX L. REV. 261 (2001); reprinted in 26 BROOK. J. INT'L L. 1357 (2001).
(95) The study of this effect and its extent will have to wait for another day; however, it will be difficult to argue that increasing large MNEs' profits will result in redistribution from the rich to the poor.
(96) This standard is not an established indicator of good tax policy. It is not even clear what it means and whether it is important.
(97) See, Brian E. Lebowitz, Transfer Pricing and the End of International Taxation, 1999 WTD 186-17 (Sep, 27, 1999) (criticizing the arm's length standard and predicting that it is unsustainable and will eventually become extinct).
(98) See generally, SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at ch. 9.
(99) Id. at 169 (using the phrase "an indication of value").
(100) HUBBARD, supra note 11.
(101) ANSON & SUCHY, supra note 64, at 31-32, 141-42.
(102) One should distinguish between FMV as used here, as an economic term, and the accounting concept of "fair value." See e.g., Mark L. Zyla, Auditing Fair Value Measures: What Auditors Need to Know When Working with Valutation Specialists, THE PRACTICING CPA (Oct. 2003), available at http://www.aicpa.org/pubs/tpcpa/oct2003/auditing.htm.
(103) See e.g., SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 169.
(104) The current rules ask only whether the comparable transactions involve similar assets and include similar terms; they do not ask whether they are substitutable.
(105) See, e.g., SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 184.
(106) See infra text accompanying note 158.
(107) I use transactions as an example for a subject of the valuation process. This is simply an accommodation to our topic, but market valuation similarly applies to single assets, businesses, liabilities, etc.
(108) SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 169.
(109) See, e.g., HUBBARD supra note 11.
(110) See, e.g., LEV supra note 29, at 55-56.
(111) See SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 169.
(112) Id.
(113) Id. at 170 (providing some examples of the rare transactions where such prices are publicly available).
(114) Cummins equated this difficulty to a Catch-22: "Investors must have information about intangibles to value them; but investors do not have the information they need because intangibles, by their very nature, are extraordinarily difficult to value." Jason G. Cummins, A New Approach to the Valuation of Intangible Capital 1 (FEDS, Working Paper No. 2004-17, 2004) available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=559461; see also id. at 28 (discussing the difficulty of measuring intangibles).
(115) The general limitations of the market approach to valuation of intangibles mentioned in the former section still apply when that approach is used for transfer pricing purposes.
(116) Avi-Yonah, supra note 8, at 25-29; see also H. David Rosenbloom, Angels on a Pin: Arm's Length in the World, TNI 2005-7755 (May 9, 2005). Rosenbloom adds an interesting point: in the search for an arm's length price we ignore the fact that market transactions usually are not entirely "rational." This irrationality and market imperfections naturally are impossible for arm's length to capture.
(117) See, e.g., Boos, supra note 51, at 88. There is little economic literature trying to model this incentive, yet the available literature supports the conclusion of this article. See, e.g., Kimberly A. Clausing, The Impact of Transfer Pricing on Intrafirm Trade, in INTERNATIONAL TAXATION AND MULTINATIONAL ACTIVITY 173 (James R. Hines, Jr. ed., 2001); James R. Hines, The Transfer Pricing Problem: Where the Profits Are (Nat'l Bureau of Econ. Research, Working Paper No. 3538, 1990), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=226838; Chongwoo Choe & Charles E. Hyde, Multinational Transfer Pricing, Tax Arbitrage, and the Arm's Length Principle (September 22, 2004) (unpublished working paper), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=600881.
(118) See infra Part IV.A.
(119) See Smith & Parr, supra note 27, at 171--173.
(120) Id. at 175--183.
(121) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(d) (2006).
(122) See generally SMITH & PARR, supra note 27.
(123) Id. at 156.
(124) A key factor in this disparity is the lack of markets for some intangibles. See, e.g., Hagelin, supra note 12.
(125) See, e.g., ANSON & SUCHY, supra note 64, at 33.
(126) SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 156.
(127) Id.
(130) This method is sometimes called "trended historical costs." See id. at 160.
(131) See, e.g., ANSON & SUCHY, supra note 64, at 33.
(132) The value of the remainder may be a third uncertainty avoided, but I ignore it in this discussion.
(133) This is the economics substitution principle.
(134) This and other market imperfections are externalities (external to the production of the intangible itself) that cause the price to be different from cost.
(135) Farok J. Contractor, Intangible Assets and Principles for Their Valuation, in VALUATION OF INTANGIBLE ASSETS IN GLOBAL OPERATIONS 3-24 (Farok J. Contractor ed., 2001).
(136) See, e.g., SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 168.
(137) For good examples of the use of the cost approach to valuate trademarks, see id. at 166-167.
(138) For a good discussion see BOOS, supra note 51, at 78 n. 253.
(139) SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 168.
(140) Id. at 185.
(142) Id. at 186.
(143) Id. at 156--57.
(144) For example, employees who received restricted stock in exchange for services are not required to pay tax upon receipt of this stock, but rather once the restriction is removed, and then they pay at ordinary income rates. I.R.C. [section] 83(a); Treas. Reg. [section] 1.83-1 (2003). Nonetheless, section 83(b) grants these taxpayers with the option to elect to pay current tax at ordinary income rates on the current value of their stock (even though a realization event did not occur), and in exchange any future value increases will be taxed, when realized, at the preferred capital gains rates. It is not difficult to see that these taxpayers wish to depress the income projections if possible, and by that, the value of their stock upon receipt. Note that other tax rules may create incentives in the other direction. For example, the PFIC rules provide exemption from their disadvantageous effect on the start-up year for corporations if the corporation expects not to be a PFIC in the following two years and indeed is not a PFIC in those years. Optimistic income projections help in this regard, creating an incentive for shareholders at the least to project positive income in the second and third years if they wish to escape being a PFIC. I chose not to elaborate on the complex PFIC rules for the sake of brevity.
(145) See supra Part II.
(146) This variation is generally more directly related to the taxpayer's business, including potential synergies, growth, etc. in the taxpayer firm rather than what somebody else may be willing to pay.
(147) See SMITH & PARR, supra note 27.
(148) See id. at 212.
(149) Id. at 219.
(152) See, e.g., id.
(153) Id.
(154) Since we perform valuation in the context of this article in order to discover a "price," other taxes are simply separate costs incurred; yet good tax planning views the whole tax scheme, including transfer pricing aspects together, and attempts to incorporate them all to effective tax rate minimization.
(155) One may need to resort to these techniques when direct techniques are not effective, primarily due to lack of good data.
(156) SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 186.
(157) See, e.g., id. at 186--92.
(158) Id. at 192. Regarding the "glue" metaphor, see infra note 159 and accompanying text.
(159) See id. at 194.
(160) ANSON & SUCHY, supra note 64, at 35.
(161) Id.
(162) SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 192--205.
(163) These intangibles are neither rare nor unimportant. See, e.g., Cummins, supra note 114, at 3--6, 26--28.
(164) ANSON & SUCHY, supra note 64, at 34.
(165) Id. at 34--35.
(166) Id.; see also Robert Ackerman & Elizabeth Chorvat, Modern Financial Theory and Transfer Pricing, 10 GEO. MASON L. REV 637 (2002) (promoting the use of financial models, particularly the Capital Asset Pricing Model); Elizabeth Chorvat, Forcing Multinationals to Play Fair: Proposals for Rigorous Transfer Pricing Theory, 54 ALA. L. REV. 1251 (2003); Cummins, supra note 114 (discussing method relying on analysts' forecasts to estimate corporate value, not in the context of transfer pricing); Hagelin, supra note 12.
(167) One must understand that the various approaches and techniques do not normally result in similar--or even close--results. See, e.g., SMITH & PARR, supra note 27, at 253.
(168) See, e.g., id. at 259; see also ANSON & SUCHY, supra note 64, at 186.
(169) The unique intangible "goodwill" does have the market approach as a primary method, yet, it is unique, and, note, it is included in the definition of intangibles for transfer pricing purposes. SMITH & PARR, supra note 28, at 259 <ex.> 13.3.
(170) Id. at 254.
(171) Id. at 253.
(172) Int'l Fiscal Assoc., Transfer Pricing and Intangibles, Cahiers de Droit Fiscal International vol. 92a., 2007.
(173) This article focuses on the transfer pricing rules, yet there are other provisions that attempt to regulate the cross-border transfer of intangibles, and they are discussed in this article when relevant: section 367(d) (regarding a transfer by a U.S. person of intangible property to a foreign corporation in a nonrecognition exchange) and section 936(h) (rules that apply to intangible property in the hands of section 936 (U.S. possessions) corporations. Old section 1491 (1954) (repealed in 1997) was the equivalent of section 367 regarding transfers to partnerships, trusts and estates.
(174) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4 (2006); Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5 (2003); Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6 (2006); Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-7 (2004).
(175) See Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-7 (2004); Temp. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4T (2006).
(176) Tax Reform Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-514, [section] 1231 (1986). See text accompanying supra note 65.
(177) I.R.S. Notice 88-123,1988-2 C.B. 458.
(178) See text accompanying supra note 67.
(179) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-l(e) (2006).
(180) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-l(c) (2006).
(181) The five categories are: (1) Patents, inventions, formulae, processes, designs, patterns, or know-how; (2) Copyrights and literary, musical, or artistic compositions; (3) Trademarks, trade names, or brand names; (4) Franchises, licenses, or contracts; and (5) methods, programs, systems, procedures, campaigns, surveys, studies, forecasts, estimates, customer lists, or technical data.
(182) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(b) (2006).
(183) Id.
(184) In addition to the practical difficulty the rules provide that in some cases if intangibles are embedded in a tangible asset that is transferred, a separate price determination (valuation) of the intangible is not required, yet the intangible should be taken into account for comparability purposes. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(e) (2006) (referring to Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-3(f) (1995)).
(185) See, e.g., LEVEY & WRAPPE, supra note 4, [paragraph] 420.04.
(186) There may be implications in the context of cost sharing arrangements that are beyond the scope of this article. See id. at [paragraph] 410.
(187) The courts were asked in a few cases to interpret the vague definition, holding, for instance, that a hospital management system was an intangible, Hospital Corp. of America v. Commissioner, 81 T.C. 520, 600 (1983), yet an organizational structure of a group was not. Merck & Co. v. United States, 24 CI. Ct. 73, 88 (1991).
(188) Temp. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4T(f)(3)(i)(A) (2006).
(189) See supra Part II.B.
(190) This is the case under the (intellectual property) law of the relevant jurisdiction
(191) This is effective for tax years subsequent to December 31, 2006. Note that this is a significant change in comparison to prior law that treated legally and nonlegally-protected intangibles differently and allowed for multiple ownership in intangibles. For a good description of prior law, see MARC M. LEVEY & STEVEN C. WRAPPE, TRANSFER PRICING: RULES, COMPLIANCE AND CONTROVERSY [paragraph] 420 at 53-54 (CCH 2001).
(192) Temp. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4T(f)(3)(i)(A) (2006).
(193) Id. When a license includes provision of services to be performed by the Subsidiary to the benefit of the parent (intangible owner), a separate allocation in respect of such services is required, and should be analyzed under the so-called service regulations. Temp. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-9T (2006).
(194) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(f)(3)(ii)(B) (2006). The other person/s with interests in the properly would then be considered "assisters," who deserve arm's length compensation for their contribution, yet are not entitled to any additional (residual) profit. If such a person (developer) could not be identified than she will be determined based on all facts and circumstances.
(195) And the agreement has economic substance. The Service acknowledged that in the preamble to the 2006 temporary regulations. T.D. 9278, 2006-34 I.R.B. 256.
(196) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-7 (2004).
(197) The rules, and consequently these cost-sharing arrangements were extremely tax advantaged and therefore became very popular in tax planning, although note that recent regulations attempt to stop some of their abuse.
(198) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-1(c) (2006).
(199) I.R.C. [section] 482.
(200) I.R.S. Notice 88-123, 1988-2 CB 458.
(201) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-4(a) (2006).
(202) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-l(c) (2006).
(203) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-1 (d) (2006).
(204) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-1 (e) (2006).
(205) I.R.S. [section] 482; Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-4(a), (f)(2) (2006).
(206) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-4(c) (2006).
(207) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-3(b)(1995).
(208) Treas, Reg. [section] 1.482-4(c)(2)(iii)(B)(1) 2006).
(209) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(c) (2)(iii)(B)(1) (2006). Note that the former requirement essentially requires the use of the profit based valuation (net present value of profits or future "benefits" from the property) in the analysis.
(210) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(e) (2006).
(211) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(f)(2) (2006).
(212) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(c)(2)(ii) (2006)
(213) Id.
(214) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(c)(4) (2006). The first example describes the licensing of a patent to producers in essentially identical and neighboring countries, when in one it is licensed to an unrelated distributor and in the other to a subsidiary. This is, of course, a very unrealistic example since it is so narrow. The first example is also useless because one would imagine that a patent holder is likely to make similar business decisions in the processing of penetrating two identical and neighboring markets such as those described in the example. Hence, even if the circumstances described in the example were realistic, it would typically not make much sense to operate in one country through a subsidiary while licensing to an unrelated party-producer in the other. Example 2 emphasizes how limited the first example is by warning that if in one of these identical countries the incidence of the relevant disease is much higher than in the other then CUT could not be used even in this case. The third example simply explains the application of the interquartile mechanism for the establishment of an arm's length range, and the fourth example states that licensing of similar drugs may not be comparable if their profit potential is different--because one faces competition in its market that the other, being superior to others, does not face. It is easy to see that the examples do not serve to promote the use of CUT--rather the opposite. Furthermore, they provide no insights about the actual process of assessing comparability reliability and adjustments.
(215) LEVEY & WRAPPE, supra note 191, at [paragraph]440.01.
(216) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5 (2003).
(217) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5(b)(2) (2003).
(218) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5(b)(4) (2003).
(219) Id.
(220) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5(b)(4)(i) (2003).
(221) Such as operating profit to sales and gross profit to operating expenses.
(222) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5(b)(4)(ii) (2003).
(223) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5(e) ex. 4 (2003).
(224) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5(c)(2)(iv) (2003).
(225) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6 (2006).
(226) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6(c) (2006).
(227) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6(c)(2) (2006).
(228) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6(c)(2)(ii)(B)(2) (2006).
(229) LEVEY & WRAPPE, supra note 175, at [paragraph] 350.02.
(230) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6(c)(3)(i)(B) (2006).
(231) Id.
(232) Temp. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6T(c)(3)(i)(B) (2006).
(233) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(d) (2006).
(234) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-1(c) (2006); see also Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(d)(1) (2006).
(235) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(d)(1) (2006).
(236) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4(d)(2) (2006).
(237) Id.
(238) For a concise, yet more comprehensive listing of transfer pricing cases involving intangibles, see LEVEY & WRAPPE, supra note 4, at 154--56.
(239) CIBA--GEIGY Corporation v. Commissioner, 85 T.C. 172 (1985).
(240) There was no documented joint venture agreement to support the government's first theory. The court did provide for an allocation to the taxpayer to compensate it for some limited services performed for its parent based on Temp. Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-9T (2006).
(241) Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-2(d)(2) (2006).
(242) A fourth factor considered by the court was the initial investment required of the taxpayer under Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-2(d)(2)(iii)(h) (2006), noting that the taxpayer made a considerable investment, but this investment led to considerable profits.
(243) Eli Lilly v. Commissioner, 84 T.C. 996 (1985), aff'd in part, rev'd in part and rem'd, 856 F.2d. 855 (7th Cir. 1988).
(244) Under the arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable standard, and first issue discussed was whether section 482 allowed the government to disregard the section 351 intangible transfer. It was answered in the negative. Section 482 can apply in circumstances of a section 351 transfer if required to clearly reflect the income of the parties to the transfer. The court then reviews two circumstances where section 482 may apply, the first being a section 351 transfer followed by an immediate disposition of the transferred property. National Securities v. Commissioner, 137 F. 2d 600 (3d Cir. 1943), and the second being a section 351 transfer that effectively separated the property's income from it's associated expenses (e.g., the sale of a sugar crop to a subsidiary prior to harvesting). Central Cuba Sugar v. Commissioner, 198 F. 2d 214 (2d Cir. 1952). Neither of these were applicable here. As a consequence the court goes on to state that the Commissioner has no authority under regulation 1.482-2(d)(2)(i) to disregard the intangible transfer. The court then concluded that the government's allocation failed to include in Lilly P.R. income any amount related to the transferred intangibles and therefore it was arbitrary/capricious.
(245) See Rev. Proc. 63-10, 1963-1 C.B. 490 (addressing the issue directly and stating that such a transfer of intangibles to Puerto Rican subsidiaries would be respected under section 482). The court found the Service bound by the representation made in this Revenue Procedure.
(246) Treas. Reg. 1.482-2(d)(2)(i) (2006).
(247) G.D. Searle & Co. v. Commissioner, 88 T.C. 252 (1987).
(248) Both taxpayers formed Puerto Rican manufacturing subsidiaries, and transferred to them intangibles in section 351 nonrecognition ("tax-free") transactions. Eli Lilly's subsidiary manufactured drugs later sold back to Eli Lilly who sold the drugs to wholesalers, whereas G.D. Searle's subsidiary manufactured drugs and sold them directly to independent (unaffiliated) wholesalers. In Eli Lilly, the price that the subsidiary charged Eli Lilly was challenged as well as the royalty/price that should be attributed to the parent. Only the latter price was challenged in G.D. Searle.
(249) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-2(a)(2)(i) (2006).
(250) Bausch & Lomb Inc. v. Commissioner, 92 T.C. 525 (1989).
(251) The court determined that the taxpayer was under no legal obligation to purchase B&L Ireland products and that B&L Ireland had a mere expectation that its parent would purchase its products in the event worldwide demand was not as anticipated.
(252) Once the court decided that B&L Ireland was not a contract manufacturer, these two payments do not tie to each other so that only a net payment is effectively required to be determined. Both the volume and the price of sales to the parent were subject to variations, which required separate determinations of the appropriate royalty payments made to the parent and the sales price paid by the parent.
(253) Id. (citing Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-2(d)(2)(iii) (2006) as authority that it may consider prospective profits to be realized by the licensee in determining the arm's length price).
(254) The court comments that the 25/75 split is appropriate in a normal license situation when each party posses something unique (i.e., technology/patents/etc) and in order to make a product both parties need to come together and share their respective technologies.
(255) In another case that I chose not to elaborate on due to space considerations, the tax court followed a similar thought process. It rejected the transfer prices suggested by both the taxpayer and the government, engaged in an independent all facts and circumstances analysis based on the large number of comparable transactions presented to the court, and made the unsurprising judgment call and rules for a royalty rate that is the exact average between the lowest and the highest royalty rates charged in the comparable transactions presented to the court. Podd v. Commissioner, 75 T.C.M. (CCH) 2575 (1998) (dealing in part with an appropriate royalty rate to be paid for the exclusive right to manufacture, market, and sell a "hideliner" (intermodal container liner system) subject to a patent held by the developer who licensed it to a company he owned). This case is a particularly good example for the helplessness of the court when faced with a large number of inexact comparables and contradictory expert testimonies.
(256) Sundstrand Corp. v. Commissioner, 96 T.C. 226 (1991); see also Seagate Technology, Inc. v. Commissioner, 102 T.C. 149 (1994). I chose not to elaborate on this case due to space considerations.
(257) CSD is a constant speed drive used to drive an airplane's engine generator at a constant speed.
(258) This is an argument similar to the contract manufacturing argument in the prior cases described before. See supra note 256.
(259) These differences included: (1) that the SunPac license was limited to licenses for CSD unit for commercial aircrafts, where the comparable transaction included licenses for CSD units for military aircrafts and guided missiles; (2) that the SunPac license limited SunPac's right to manufacture spare parts only, the comparable transactions included licenses for a much broader range of products including engineering design, manufacture, assembly testing, inspection, and servicing of CSD units; (3) that the SunPac agreement provided that the costs of technical assistance were to be recovered as part of the royalty and the comparable transaction required the licensee to bear the cost of technical assistance; (4) that the comparable transactions additionally required the licensee to pay a substantial lump-sum payment; (5) that the SunPac license was worldwide and the comparables were limited in geographical scope; and (6) the SunPac royalty was to cease after eight years while the comparables provided for continuing sunset royalty payments.
(260) See also Treas. Reg. [section]1.482-2(b)(3) (2006).
(261) Westreco v. Commissioner, 64 T.C.M. (CCH) 849 (1992).
(262) Looking behind the statutory notice of deficiency. Petitioner was able to obtain the testimony of the CIR employee responsible for the assessment. The court found that the Petitioner's high burden (the arbitrary and capricious standard) entitled it to examine the Respondent and the method it used to exercise it's discretion, and that this did not constitute looking behind the statutory notice of deficiency.
(263) Additionally, the salary multiplier method is a compensation method used in large engineering and construction firms for services that are general in nature (i.e., not limited to a specific project), and not in small R&D firms. The salary base used was wrong also because the expert did not allocate salaries out of the salary base for services performed to a different company that were not at issue in this case at all, and the expert based the taxpayer's income adjustments on billing methods of two corporations which are not comparable to the taxpayer.
(264) Perkin-Elmer v. Commissioner, 66 T.C.M. (CCH) 634 (1993).
(265) The Service characterized PECC as a consignment contract manufacturer and assessed its taxes on a cost plus basis. At trial the government abandoned this position and relied on alternative legal arguments. The court found that this abandonment of both the factual and legal basis of the notice of assessment caused the determination to be arbitrary and capricious.
(266) The Court does use the comparable uncontrolled price method but rejects taxpayer's calculations as ignoring certain circumstances that create differences between controlled and uncontrolled transactions. Therefore the court independently values the arm's length price and determines that based on the entire record that the amount PECC paid to taxpayer for parts were arm's length.
(267) DHL Corp. v. Commissioner, 76 T.C.M. (CCH) 1122 (1998), rev'd in part, aff'd in part and rem'd, 285 F.3d 1210 (9th Cir. 2002).
(268) The ownership of DHL in the international Trademark rights was not clear. It was adduced at trial that the license agreement between DHL and DHLI may not have given DHL a sufficient degree of control over the operations of DHLI, and that this could raise the possibility that DHL had abandoned the international portion of its trademark. In addition, DHLI made numerous trademark filings in foreign countries under its own name and this under foreign law could lead to the conclusion that DHLI was the owner of the DHL trademark in those countries.
(269) In other words, arm's length consideration includes more than just cash royalty payments for use of the intangible property and that the transfer or use of other reciprocal rights can also represent fair market value.
(270) The Court erred in imposing the requirement that assister status is dependent upon a showing that expenditures related to the intangible were in excess of those that a comparable licensee would expend. This is because the tax court applied the 1994 regulations, which provided for such a standard but the applicable regulations that the tax court should have applied were the 1968 regulations which did not impose such a burden. The court of appeals does go on to say in dicta that even if the 1994 regulations were in effect, the tax court would still be incorrect.
(271) Tax Court on Remand, 11 Transfer Pricing Report 387, 09/04/2002.
(272) See I.R.S. Notice 88-123, 1988-2 C.B. 458, 466 n. 52.
(273) Together with cross-border provision of services that often go hand-in-hand with the transfer of intangibles, this is clearly the most important and disputable aspect of transfer pricing today. See, e.g., ERNST & YOUNG, 2007-2008 GLOBAL TRANSFER PRICING SURVEY, supra note 8, at 14.
(274) Id. at 2.
(275) For a classic example of this unfortunate development, see Nestle Holdings v. Commissioner, 152 F.3d 83, 88 (2d Cir. 1998), in which the Second Circuit refused to accept a valuation of a trademark based on the relief-from-royalty--a primary income based method--, arguing that it does not adequately reflect the value of the transferred intangible. See also supra Part III. It is easy to read between the lines that the court meant to say that this method is not based on the arm's length principle and therefore it felt uncomfortable with using it. Also interesting is the simple conclusion of the court that the various valuation methodologies result in different valuations, and therefore some of them may not be used--meaning to say that valuation that does not reach the number that an arm's length based analysis would reach is unacceptable. This opinion is even more amazing once we remember that it reversed a holding by the professional tax court that accepted the use of the relief-from-royalty method.
(276) See, e.g., Michael C. Durst & Robert E. Culbertson, Clearing Away the Sand: Retrospective Methods and Prospective Documentation in Transfer Pricing Today, 57 TAX L. REV. 37, 40 (2003).
(277) Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-4 (2006).
(278) See Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-5 (2003) (covering CPM); Treas. Reg. [section] 1.482-6 (2006) (covering profit split).
(279) These methods are often mixed with other approaches.
(280) The advantage is above and beyond the costs of transfer pricing compliance. See also sources cited supra note 121.
(281) See also David R. Hardy, Assignment of Corporate Opportunities-the Migration of American Intangibles, 730 PLI/Tax 645 (2006).
(282) See, e.g., Louis M. Kauder, Intercompany Pricing and Section 482: A Proposal to Shift from Uncontrolled Comparables to Formulary Apportionment Now, 58 TAX NOTES 485 (Jan. 25, 1993); Stanley I. Langbein, The Unitary Method and the Myth of Arm'sArm's Length, 30 TAX NOTES 625 (Feb. 17, 1986); Paul R. McDaniel, Formulary Taxation in the North American Free Trade Zone: A Policy Perspective, 49 TAX L. Rev 691 (1994); John Turro, The Battle Over Arm'sArm's Length and Formulary Apportionment, 65 TAX NOTES 1595 (Dec. 26, 1994); see Ackerman & Chorvat, supra note 166 (promoting expansion of profit split and its formulary apportionment elements, together with modern financial models); Avi-Yonah, supra note 8; Hardy, supra note 281; Walter Hellerstein, International Income Allocation in the Twenty-first Century: The Case for Formulary Apportionment, 12 INT'L TRANSFER PRICING J. 103 (2005).
(283) It only tests a comparable for such degree of comparability. The result of this testing is essentially all or nothing. Either the comparability is sufficient, and then it is accepted as is, with no or little adjustment, or the comparability is insufficient and then the comparable cannot be used. No adjustments are allowed if the latter conclusion is made, notwithstanding whether other comparables are available or not.
(284) See supra note 74.
(285) Any reliance on assets, for instance, will invite the issue of valuations again in order to estimate the value of the intangible assets. Nonetheless, I think that is not a serious concern because in this case it is a single valuation that is not compounded with other estimations; it is itself the product rather than a tool to get to something else and it will be easier to coordinate acceptable means of valuation between the countries involved. Of course, if it proves to be problematic, it could be avoided by dropping assets (or even just certain intangibles) from the formula, which is impossible under our current regime.
(286) A formula-based reform also better captures the multilateral dimension of transfer pricing, which is currently ignored by our essentially unilateral arm's length based regime. Professor Reuven Avi-Yonah advocated a similar approach, although in a somewhat different context and reaching different conclusions. See Reuven S. Avi-Yonah, The Structure of International Taxation: A Proposal for Simplification, 74 TEX. L. REV. 1301 (1996).
(287) See Avi-Yonah, supra note 8; see also Charles McLure, Jr., U.S. Federal Use of Formula Apportionment to Tax Income From Intangibles, 97 TNI 47-26 (Mar. 11, 1997)
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The diacritical mark resembling a wavy hyphen (here shown above the letter ñ) is called a?
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tilde : definition of tilde and synonyms of tilde (English)
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH TILDE
U+00D1
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N WITH TILDE
U+00D5
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE
U+00E3
LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH TILDE
U+00F1
LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH TILDE
U+00F5
LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE
U+0128
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH TILDE
U+0129
LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH TILDE
U+0168
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE
U+0169
LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE
U+019F
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+022C
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND MACRON
U+022D
LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND MACRON
U+026B
LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D6C
LATIN SMALL LETTER B WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D6D
LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D6E
LATIN SMALL LETTER F WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D6F
LATIN SMALL LETTER M WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D70
LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D71
LATIN SMALL LETTER P WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D72
LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D73
LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH FISHHOOK AND MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D74
LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D75
LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1D76
LATIN SMALL LETTER Z WITH MIDDLE TILDE
U+1E1A
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH TILDE BELOW
U+1E1B
LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH TILDE BELOW
U+1E2C
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH TILDE BELOW
U+1E2D
LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH TILDE BELOW
U+1E4C
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND ACUTE
U+1E4D
LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND ACUTE
U+1E4E
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND DIAERESIS
U+1E4F
LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND DIAERESIS
U+1E74
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE BELOW
U+1E75
LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE BELOW
U+1E78
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE AND ACUTE
U+1E79
LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE AND ACUTE
U+1E7C
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V WITH TILDE
U+1E7D
LATIN SMALL LETTER V WITH TILDE
U+1EAA
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1EAB
LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1EB4
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH BREVE AND TILDE
U+1EB5
LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH BREVE AND TILDE
U+1EBC
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH TILDE
U+1EBD
LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH TILDE
U+1EC4
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1EC5
LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1ED6
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1ED7
LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE
U+1EE0
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH HORN AND TILDE
U+1EE1
LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH HORN AND TILDE
U+1EEE
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH HORN AND TILDE
U+1EEF
LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH HORN AND TILDE
U+1EF8
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y WITH TILDE
U+1EF9
LATIN SMALL LETTER Y WITH TILDE
U+2C62
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Tilde
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What note is produced at the twelfth fret of the top (highest pitched) string on a conventionally tuned guitar?
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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I il^atbart (Eolltqt Hihrarg Bought with Money received from Library Fines I 1 1 u PROOF-READING AND PUNCTUATION 1 «^'-*i«--^*' ^«-- ^m * - . ■ . '■/. : : H ■• - x^A "* '■ - 1 ■■ '. ■ ' ! ' I'l-l. '. ■ ■ ..U< / % • . « .-; i \ ^■ \ M . --".i I ii. •■. p. ^ o >! PROOF-READING AN'D PUNCTUATION ::::::: By ADELE MILLICENT |MITH DREXEL INSTITUTE SECRETARY TO THE PRESIDENT AND INSTRUCTOR IN PROOF-READING, AND AUTHOR OF " PRINTING AND WRITING MATERIALS" :::::::::::::::;:: PHILADELPHIA PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 1902 6 i^o/J.S" "BGdoo ''^ ?tvu. ^^ rvU^ Copyright, 1901, by ADfeLB MlLOCENT SmITH AU rights reserved AVIL PRINTING COMPANY MARKET AND FORTIETH STREETS PHILADELPHIA PREFACE rpHE need of a manual of ready reference, embody- ing the information necessary in ordinary proof- reading, has led to the preparation of the present volume. The book is designed for use in schools in which proof-reading and a general knowledge of the processes involved in the preparations for printing are made a part of ihe curriculum, and as an aid to the non-professional proof-reader. To facilitate reference, the proof-marks have been classified. In the chapters on Type-founding and Sizes and Styles of Type, accuracy has been secured through the kind assistance of Mr. W. Ross Wilson, Manager American Type-Founders Company. Valuable in- formation in regard to the history and processes of Typesetting has been furnished by Mr. Philip T. Dodge, President of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company, New York, and Mr. Talbert Lanston, of the Lanston Monotype Machine Company, Washing- ton, D. C. (ill) iv PREFACE For the descriptions of the processes of paper- making and the folding of the sheets for binding^ acknowledgments are due to Mr. A. B. Daniels, of the L. L. Brown Paper Company, Adams, Massachusetts; Mr. H. A. Moses, of the Mittineague Paper Company, Mittineague, Massachusetts; Mr. A. E. Whiting, of the Whiting Paper Company; Mr. J. Shoemaker, of the J. B. Lippincott Company; Mr. Charles R. Graham, of the Historical Publishing Company; Messrs. Irwin N. Megargee & Company; and the Moore & White Company, of Philadelphia. The information given under Reproductive Pro- cesses has been obtained through the kindness of the Avil Printing Company, the Phototype Engraving Company, the editors of the New York World and the New York Journal, and the editors of the Even- ing Bulletin and the Sunday Press of Philadelphia, who kindly afforded the author the opportunity for a complete inspection of the work of their respective mechanical departments. In the preparation of the Section on Punctuation,, much help has been derived from Mr. Theodore L. DeVinne's recent book on Correct Composition^ PREFACE V and the well-known works on the subject by Marshall T. Bigelow and John Wilson. To Frau Hedwig Neuhaus of the Bourse Trans- lation Bureau, Mademoiselle Clara Parigot, Professor Calixto Guit^ras, Professor T. E. Comba, and Miss Helen G. Harjes, the author desires to express her high appreciation of the service rendered by the careful reading of the proof of the chapters under foreign languages. Grateful acknowledgments are made also to Presi- dent James Mac Alister, Miss May Haggenbotham, Lieut. William L. Bailie, Professor Parke Schoch, Professor H. L. Mason, Miss AUce B. Kroeger, and Miss AUce M. Brennan, of the Drexel Institute, who have so kindly aided in the preparation of the work by their suggestions and encouragement. • A. M. S. Philadelphia, February, 1902. CONTENTS PROOF-READING AND TYPE-WORK Chapter Pagb I. Proof-Marks 1 List of Proof-Marks 1 Corrected Proof-Sheets 6 II. Preparing Copy 10 III. Reading Proof 13 IV. Type-Founding 20 V. Sizes and Styles of Types 26 The Point System 26 Types Used in Text Matter 28 Gradation of Types — Specimens of Regular Sizes of Text-Types 29 Styles of Types 33 VI. Typesetting 34 By Hand 34 By Machine 35 Measurement of Type Matter 39 Leading 40 VII. JOB-WoRK 42 VIII. Paper 46 Paper-making by Machinery 48 (vii) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Facing page Gutenberg Taking an Impression Fr&ntiapiece ' Punch — Drive — Matrix — Mould — Type 20 • Bruce Hand Type-Casting Machine 22 Type-Casting as Practised by Hand 24 ' Composing Stick — Galley 34 Lanston Typesetting Machine 36 Mergenthaler Typesetting Machine (Linotype) 38 ^ Stack of 52-inch Supercalenders — Front View 52 e ^ Half-Tone Reproduction — Statue of Guten- berg AT Strasburg 86 Reproduction from Line Plate — Old Wooden Printing-Press of 1508 88 (xi) Proof-Reading and Punctuation PROOF-READING AND TYPE-WORK CHAPTER I PROOF-MARKS The following is a complete list of the proof- marks in common use. An example of the use of each is given in the two pages of Corrected Proof- Sheets, and directions concerning marks that might be improperly employed will be found under Read- ing Proof. 1. Kinds of Letters == Three horizontal lines under a word or a letter — print in capitals (caps). == Two horizontal lines under a word or a letter — print in small capitals (s. caps, sm. c). One horizontal line under a word or a letter — change roman to italic, or italic to roman. I. c. — Loxuer case — change capitals or small capitals to small letters. w, f. — Wrong font — change letter or letters to proper size or style. (1) / /" PROOF-MARKS 2. Change of Matter cJW? D^^e— Take out. Stel — ^Let stand. Used when matter in the proof has been ex- punged and the reader afterwards decides to let it remain. A line of dots is placed under the word or words stricken out. 3. Cha^^oe or Insert Letter or Punctuation Mark ^^ lAaature—'pTint as a diphthong, ligature, or as a single character ; thus, c(2^/2> means print a?, /. W Insert superior character, such as the apostrophe, y»f quotation marks, etc. 4. Position Lower word, letter, or character. Elevate word, letter, or character. The direction of the angles indicates the ^sition in which the word, letter, or character is to be placed. Bring word or words farther to the right. Bring word or words farther to the left. r Bring word or words to the beginning of the *" line ; also, make a new paragraph. [j Indent. Reverse letter. 1 Straighten lateral margin. PROOF-MARKS 5. Spacing O Less space between letters. ^^ More space between words. i/^ Less space between words. yCi-^ucO More space between lines. S 'WuC' Less sptce between lines. 6. Transposition 3 2 1 Words— beautiful and brigJiL The words to be transposed may be enclosed and a line drawn from them to the place where they are to be inserted; if the order of the words is to be changed, they may be numbered as above indicated, and tr, written in the margin. Letters — fr§ind, moi^. The transposition of letters maybe indicated in either of the two ways given above; tr. must be written in the margin. Lines, When several lines are to be transferred, they should all be enclosed and a line drawn from them to the point where they are to be inserted, tr, should be written in the margin. 7. Imperfect Type or Crooked Lines X or + Broken type. sL orj. Depress space or lead. ' — " Straighten type in words. . /»•/// ny* \\\ Straighten crooked lines. PROOF-MARKS 8. Paragraphs Lm New paragraph. The first mark is placed ■ in the text, the second in the margin. r T\0 H Continue in pame paragraph. The line unites the two portions of the text ; no If is placed in the margin. 9. New Matter. Oii/, 8. c. — Words are omitted, see copy. See copy — New matter to be inserted. 10. Qu., Qy., ?— Query Used in printing-offices to call attention to a sup- posed error in the statement of a fact, obsolete spelling, etc. H % ■-/ 9 ix, ztu. ^ORRKCTED ,J'R(KIF-ShEET, No. 1 I Aft«r passing Povelia the boat will feel tbfe tide with her; and ten minutes more brings one to the landingplace of Malamocco.!' Quiet and sleepy and clean ; thepeople with a type distintly their own ; very gentiyand frdndly to strangers but at hearty seeming to say, " We are not Venetians, but Mi/la- i/dilni". The^ is a piazza and two long broad streets. In the piazza a fla^tafT, with Saint Marlts ^ioii in gilt on the top, as a weatheOock, looking raigliF^o^to Venice, with his paw firmly placed on his evangeV At the foot of the flagstaff is a uaipl old well, with the Pisan^ supet^pription and i-jiA- per fese, azure and argeJt, a lion rampant CO untcjc hanged, engraved upon it, Alnioyt all horfse- doors have dolphins for kafeckers You canwalk(^wn^ the main stre^, wlOre the maize is dryi ng^a ygllow carpet spread on one side ; where the women sit sV i ig and not chattering ; where the dogs ySsk against h e wall andsnap at tJle flies ; out by the ardh ovSr the Pon^e del J/orgo, past the gardens made of Venejl'- tian mud,|till vou r^h the shore, and look down \/^ the long wsier avenue of the Adriatic. Brown ; Life on the I ^a goopR. I • c/ X J After Correction by Compositor After passing Poveglia the boat will feel the tide with her; and ten minutes more brings one to the landing-place of Malamocco. Quiet and sleepy and clean ; the people with a type distinctly thleir own ; very gentle and friendly to strangers, but at heart seeming to say, " We are not Venetians, but Mala- mocchini''. There is a piazza and two long broad streets. In the piazza a flagstaff, with Saint Mark's lion in gilt on the top, as a weathercock, looking now straight to Venice, with his paAV firmly placed on his evangel. At the foot of the flagstaff is a quaint old well, with the Pisani superscription and coat, per fesscy azure and argent, a lion rampant coun- terchanged, engraved upon it. Almost all the house- doors have dolphins for knockers. You can walk down the main street, where the maize is drying, a yellow carjiet spread on one side ; where the women sit spinning and not chattering, like the Venetians, but quiet ; where the dogs bask against the wall and snap at the flies ; out by the arch over the Ponte del Borgo, past the gardens made of Venetian mud, till you reach the shore, and look down the long water-avenue of the Adriatic. Brown : Life on the Lagoons, (7) L Corrected Proof-Sheet, No. 2 D JJothing could be more delightfjfl than tiie spri/g daya which wepassed in Barcelona. We oould ap- j^ate the language of yaahington Irving written in 184-^ ^11 here is picture and romanc&iN'othing has given me greater delight than occasional evening drives with some of my diplomatic colleges to th3>se counttseats or torres. as they are callc^ situated on ,^ slopes of the hills, ^f^ three miles from the ^ity, surrouaded by gr^es of oranges, citrons, ^tgs and pom^ranates, with gay garden/ terraced with flowers and fountains. ■ . ."-^ flBarcelona^ become a ii^ ot" tratic ant! manjlfac- ture^ since Irvings day and can hardly meritnowwie description of Cervantes, " flor de las bellas ciu- * of the world, biQ it is still grand, beautiful and captWatinff [in Barcelona beaidesVhe Englfeb ChurcDvwhcO^haplain attends Britigh^hips in the harbour, \h^ are missions of the Swif with chapel and schools, a Wesljfyan mission, and several j^alls woll a in the suburbs of Gracia, where the Plymouth j/rethren hold and support Stoddard: SftanishCTlies., \ i>^ ^/: c^ I J After Correction by Compositor Nothing could be more delightful than the spring days which we passed in Barcelona. We could ap- preciate the language of Washington Irving written in 1844: "All here is picture and romance. Nothing has given me greater delight than occasional even- ing drives with some of my diplomatic colleagues to those country-seats or torres, as they are called, situated on the slopes of the hills, two or three miles from the city, surrounded by groves of oranges, citrons, figs, and pomegranates, with terraced gar- dens gay with flowers and fountains. . . J^ Bar- celona has become a city of traffic and manufac- ture since Irving's day and can hardly merit now the description of Cervantes, " flor de las bellas ciu- dades del mundo", the flower of the beautiful cities of the world, but it is still grand, beautiful, and captivating. In Barcelona besides the English Church, whose chaplain attends British ships in the harbour, there are missions of the Swiss Church with chapel and schools, a Wesleyan mission, and several halls in the suburbs of Gracia, where the Plymouth Brethren hold and support meetings. Stoddard : Spanish Cities. (9) CHAPTER II PREPARING COPY ' ! I "DEFORE either a book or job matter is set in ^ types there should be an understanding between the author or the person ordering and the printer as to the dimensions of the work, the size and style of type to be employed and whether it is to be leaded or solid, as to folios, headlines, initials, side-notes or cut-in notes, the color of the ink, and any other matters pertaining to the special work in hand. Copy is the first draft of matter sent to the printer. Too much care cannot be given to the preparation of copy. The idea that compositors can decipher any kind of a scrawl given them to set, leads many writers to make the first draft of a work very care- lessly; this always causes delay and frequently un- satisfactory results. ^(As thQ composition progresses, especially if there is much matter to be printed, new ideas naturally suggest themselves to the author, and due allowance should always be made for a few changes ; but, as a general rule, before copy is sent to the printer, it should be, as nearly as possible, com- plete and perfect.^ The compositor is boimd to " fol- low copy" in wora and sentiment, unless there should be instances of punctuation or spelling obviously wrong, which he will, of course, correct. (10) PREPARING COPY 11 In the preparation of matter to be printed, care- ful attention should be given to the following points : 1. Copy should embody all the idea^, which the writer wishes his work to contain. 2. The sheets of paper used should he all of one size, and not too large— aiihev commercial note or letter size is convenient for the compositor to handle. One side of the paper only should be used, and the pages should be carefully numbered, so that, if neces- sary, they can be separated and given to several workmen. The sheets should contain about the same number of lines ; this enables the printer quickly to estimate the amount of matter and the cost of printing. 3. Copy should he either typewritten or written in a legible hand. Good typewriting saves both the time and the patience of the compositor. No abbrevia- tions should be employed except for words usually so written, and, so far as possible, interUneations should be avoided. The practice of finishing a word with an illegible scrawl should be shunned; it is expecting too much of a compositor to suppose that he has either the time or the intuition to decipher what an author has not fully expressed. 4. The spelling of proper names and of technical and scientific terms and the use of capitals and punctuation marks should he in accordance with the hest u^age of the day. All references and quotations should be verified by consulting the proper authorities. 5. The copy should he carefully punctuated. In manuscript, special care should be taken to indicate 12 PREPARING COPY the ends of sentences, as the compositor can thus readily gather the meaning of an author, and the work will, in consequence, be greatly facilitated. Careful punctuation of the copy is a much more important matter than at first appears. It gives the writer but little trouble to substitute on the proof- sheet one mark for another; but to make the same correction, the workman is obliged to lift out the wrong character and insert the proper mark. In doing this, he may drop out a letter or letters, and there is always danger of his making other errors. 6. Uniformity should he observed in capitalization, in orthography, and in ^punctuation, A word that may or may not be capitalized should not be written sometimes with and sometimes without a capital. Words which have two authorized spellings should appear in only one form in the same work. There is some latitude in punctuation, especially in the use of the comma, but one mode should be adopted and strictly followed throughout the work. 7. The paragraphing should he indicated in the copy and not left to the compositor. 8. Directions written on the copy should he enclosed within circles or curved lines, in order to separate them from the corrections, and that they may be readily seen. Page and leaf should not be used synony- mously ; leaf means paper, never printed matter. CHAPTER III READING PROOF T^HE first proof taken from composed types is •^ "pulled" on a hand-press. This is the "office proof," and is corrected by the proof-reader of the ^®*^* ^^^^ printing-house. Any corrections indicated on this proof must be made by the compositor at his own expense. A clean proof, known as " author's proof," is then drawn and is sent with the manuscript to the ^J^^^'' author. The first proof received by the author is taken from the types in the galley. Afterwards, if he makes many changes, he usually sees a " re- vised proof " and a " paged proof." In book-work, after the author has returned the paged proof and before the type is sent to the foundry to be cast, another proof, called a foundry proof, or "planer," is drawn and carefully read in the printing- JSS^ office. After the pages are cast, still another proof is taken, known as "plate proof," which the author, if he so desires, may see for final inspection. * ^"^ The reading of proof by a corrector of the press, and especially by an author, implies much more than the mere correction of typographical errors. Careful attention must be given to the spelling, the punctuation, the grammatical construction, the style, and the sentiment; quotations, references, scien- tific terms, and foreign phrases must be verified. (13) 14 BEADING PROOF Apart from the necessary qualifications to do this work well, the chief requisite of a good proof-reader is a keen and quick eye for the detection of errors, without which even extensive knowledge will be of little service. 1. The copy should be read aloud to the cor- proof/* rector by some person who can pronounce distinctly First proof, or and with ease every word contained in it. (The cor- £roof in gal- *^ T. rector holds the proof and the reader the copy.) Con- siderable practice is necessary to enable even a nat- urally good reader to follow copy literally. Unless he gives close attention to the wording, he may sub- stitute a similarly sounding word for the one in the copy, as this for these; articles and conjunctions may be slurred over or omitted altogether; and the plural munber of nouns read for the singular, or vice versd. 2. The copyholder should sit at the left of the cor- rector, so that the latter may easily inspect the copy. All uncommon and difficult proper names should be spelled. At the beginning of each paragraph, after the first, the person who reads should say " Paragraph." If the punctuation has been carefully made in the copy, the marks may be given by the copyholder; otherwise, the corrector will save time by revising the punctuation after the reading. 3. It is best to make corrections in ink. If red Corrections. ink is used, or any ink which is of a contrasting color with the printed proof, the time of the compositor will be saved, as he can thereby see at a glance the BEADING PROOF 15 changes desired. Lead-pencil marks are liable to become blurred and indistinct. 4. Corrections should be made on the blank mar- gin, opposite the lines in which the errors are respec- tively found, and in exactly the same order in which the latter occur. Corrections are generally separated from each other by oblique lines. Long lines connect- ing the error with the correction in the margin should be used only when absolutely necessary, for in- stance, when new matter is to be inserted. The frequent use of such lines tends to confuse the com- positor, and necessitates his spending too much time in deciphering the alterations to be made — time which must be paid for by the author. 5. When several errors occur in one line, the changes should be made in the margin nearest the respective errors which they are intended to correct; but these alterations must always be made in exactly the same order in which the mistakes occur. When there are several errors in one word, it is better to rewrite the whole word correctly than to indicate each change separately. 6. Superior characters, such as the apostrophe^ quotation marks, accents, etc., should always be enclosed, as shown in the list of Proof-marks, to prevent their being placed on a range with the let- ters of the Une. 7. If much new matter is to be added, it should be written on another piece of paper and attached to the proof-sheet. If only a few lines are to be inserted, they may be written on the margin of the proof-sheet Errors which escape no- tice. 16 BEADING PROOF Some of the errors which are most likely to escape notice are: 1. The omission of a letter or syllable, or the sub- stitution of one letter for another, which does not greatly change the outline of the word; as, constiUion for constitution, edifid for edified, country for country, 2. The insertion of a word which is not in the copy and which does not materially alter the sense. This is especially true of articles and conjunctions. 3. The repetition of a syllable or word which ends one line, at the beginning of the next. 4. The substitution of one word for another, which differs from it but slightly in spelling and which sometimes makes sense; as, wall for hall. After the copy has been read aloud, it is well for errors. the corrector to go through the proof several times, intent each time on finding errors of one particular kind. He should read it through once for the sen- timent, then run through it again, noting the spell- ing and punctuation, and again searching for typographical errors. Inaccuracies are often thus detected which escape attention during the first reading, and with practice this manner of revision becomes easy and takes but little time. When a query (?, qu., qy.) has been made on the proof-sheet by the professional proof-reader (the proof-reader of the printing-house), if the author desires the suggested change, he should make the correction and draw a line through the query. If he wishes the matter to stand as set up, a line through BEADING PROOF the query is sufficient. Queries should never be left standing. Marks should never be rubbed out with an eraser. The mark meaning "reverse," should be used only when a letter is actually upside down. When one letter is substituted for another, as a u for an «, or a p for a 6, the correction should be made by placing the proper letter in the margin. After the corrections indicated in the First or Galley Proof have been made by the compositor, unless the , work is short and but few changes have been made, ' the author should see a Second Proof, or Revise. This not only assures the writer that the desired alterations have all been made, but enables him to prevent others from appearing in the finished work. "Unless he has had long experience as a reader of proof, he will always find some mistakes which escaped his notice during the reading of the first proof; expe- rienced readers, however, sometimes fail to detect errors. When many corrections are made in the Revise, a Second Revise, or a Third Proof, should be asked for before the work goes to press. If the matter in hand is important and difficult, the author should not hesitate to ask for additional proofs until he is satis- fied that his work is as nearly as possible perfect. When matter is to be paged, the author should see a Paged Proof. He should be careful to s ,e that the pages are of equal length; that the register is good, that is, that the pages back against each other 18 BEADING PROOF properly, the edges exactly coinciding; and he should note any other discrepancies that may occur. Proof should be corrected as soon as received and returned at once to the printer. When a form is kept standing a long time, the adhesion of the type is weakened, and there is danger of letters falling out. While the proof is in the author's hands, the printer's type is idle, which may prove to him a serious inconvenience. A writer can hardly expect a printer to hurry work, if he keeps the proof-sheets beyond a reasonable time. As corrections must be paid for according to the author's time required to make them, it is the part of wisdom to make as few changes as possible. Authors are frequently surprised at the high charge made for their corrections. This arises partly from the fact that they are ignorant of the amount of time and labor required to make the changes desired. The intro- duction or elimination of a word or two often neces- sitates the "overrunning," or readjustment of several lines, and sometimes of all the lines to the end of the paragraph. The author, besides, takes no note of the number of corrections as they are made from time to time ; but they are all recorded in the print- ing-office, and frequently reach in the aggregate an almost incredible amount. The more carefully the manuscript is prepared, the less, of course, will be the charge for corrections. Expense can be saved by indicating, so far as corrections. BEADING PROOF 19 possible, all the corrections on one proof, as every additional handling of the type consumes more time, and, consequently increases the cost. In book-work, however, this is not possible, as there are nearly always some details to be changed, up to the final moment when the work is ready to go to press. The most expensive kind of correction that can be made is to reset matter in type of another size or style. Notes and extracts, which are put in smaller type than the text, should, therefore, always be indicated in the copy. Corrections should be made in the galley rather than in the paged proof, as in the latter it is often necessary to "overrun," or carry matter from page to page. Changes can be made even after the type is cast, but it is an expensive process. Corrections cost least in the galley and most in the plate. CHAPTER IV TYPE-FOUNDING FROM the time of the invention of typography isegiimmgsot until the middle of the sixteenth century, print- gpe-found- ^^ made their own type. Many printing-offices had only four or five sizes, and but small quantities of these. After 1550 the casting of types became a distinct business. Claude Garamond, of Paris, a pupil of Geoffroy Tory, the great French engraver and printer, is known as the " father of letter-founders." In England, the first founder of note was Joseph Moxon, who began letter-cutting in 1659; but neither Moxon 's types nor those of his immediate successors could compare with the type cast in France and Holland. William Caslon, who estab- lished a foundry about 1720, had greater success. His work possessed such technical excellence that England soon ceased to purchase type from Holland. This house was controlled by the Caslon family to the fifth generation, and is still successful and flour- ishing. In America, type-casting was attempted as early as 1768. The first regular foundry was established by Christopher Sauer, at Germantown, Pennsylvania, about 1772. Several unsuccessful efforts to establish foundries in the United States were made by various (20) TYPE-FOUNDING 21 persons, among whom was Benjamin Franklin: In 1796 Binney and Ronaldson, of Edinburgh, bejgan the business in Philadelphia. This was the first foundry which lasted for many years. The house was subse- quently known as the Johnson Foundry, afterwards as the Mac Kellar, Smiths, and Jordan branch of the American Type-Founders Company. Successful foundries were established, also, in New York, early in the nineteenth century, by Elihu White and D. and G. Bruce. Until near the middle of the nineteenth century, all type was cast by hand. About 1828 William M. hf/by?SS?* Johnson, of Long Island, made the experiment of ^^^^^^' casting type by machinery, but his types were too light and porous to be of practical use. In 1838 David Bruce, jr., of New York, took out a patent for a type- casting machine which was more successful. This machine was afterwards improved and was generally adopted by the foundries of the United States; it was gradually introduced, with modifications, into Euro- pean foundries. Type-metal is an alloy of melted lead, tin, and antimony, sometimes hardened by an addition of ^^"^^ copper or nickel. The large types used for posting- bills are made from close-grained wood, such as box, maple, or pear; for this purpose, types of wood are lighter and cheaper than those made from metal. The tools made before the letter is cast are, first, the Counter-punch and the Punch, or more frequently ^^* *®°^ at the present day, an engraved Master-type; from the punch or the master-type is made the Matrix or 22 TYPE-FOUNDING The cotmter- ptinch. The punch; Ibo matrix. the mould for the letter or face of the type. The tool termed the Mould is that which holds the matrix during the process of casting. The punch-cutter first draws a geometrical frame- work, on which is determined the position of each line and the height of each character. The beauty of a printed page consists in the apparent precision of the types. The characters must seem uniform in every particular, but some allowance must be made for optical delusions; occasional deviations must also be made, to render each letter pleasing to the eye in any combination with other letters. The interior of the letter is not cut out, but the hol- low of the letter, or that part of it which does not show black in the printed impression, is formed on steel in high relief. This is the Counter-punch. The Punch is made by impressing the counter- punch into the end of a short bar of soft steel. The interior of the letter is thus quickly made at one stroke, and with much neater edges than could be given by cutting. The outer edges are cut away, and the model letter stands in high relief. The punch is hardened and is forced into a flat, narrow bar of cold-rolled copper. The result is a re- verse or sunken imprint of the letter on the punch, which is known as a strike, a drive, or an unjustified matrix. This is ca^-efully finished and becomes the Matrix. The matrix is really the mould for the face of the letter, but it is not the tool known by that name. Matrices are made also by the electrotype process. In this method the punch of steel and the operation The mould. TYPE-FOUNDING 23 of striking are not required. The characters are first cut on type-metal; after some preparation, the model tyi» process letters are suspended in the bath of a galvanic battery Sia^cS* containing a solution of sulphate of copper. By the action of the electric current on the zinc and copper plates, atoms of copper are liberated, which adhere to the suspended letters. When the deposit has become sufficiently thick, the letters are taken out of the bath and their shells of copper are removed. The shells are then backed up and are fashioned into movable matrices. The Mould consists of two pieces which are counter- parts. The interior sides of these two parts, when brought together, are in exact parallel, at a dis- tance which cannot vary. In the upper end of the mould is a seat for the matrix ; the lower end is left open for the inflow of the fluid type-metal ; between the two ends is the hollow into which the metal flows. The mould is immovable in the direction of the body ^ size of the type, which determines the height of the letter, but can be adjusted to suit the varying widths of different letters. However types may vary in width of face, for any given size of type they must be exactly aUke in body. Uniformity of body is secured by having only one mould for all the let- ters of that body; it is only necessary to change the matrix for each character. Each character requires a separate matrix. After the mould has been attached to the type- 1 By body is meant the size of a letter considered down a page, at right angles with the printed lines ; as, pica body, long-primer body, etc. 24 TYPE- FOUNDING casting machine, and the matrix placed in the mould, the process of founding is as follows: The process The machine contains a melting-pot to hold the *^yBWi- metal, which is kept fluid by a gas-jet or a small ^usei furnace. In the centre of the pot is a pump with a plunger. At each revolution of the crank, the plunger forces through an aperture enough of the molten metal to fill the mould and the matrix. The halves of the mould separate; by nicely adjusted leverage the matrix is drawn back from the face ojf the type, and the type is thrown out. The mould then closes automatically, and the plunger injects a fresh supply of metal, which is dislodged as before in the form of a type. The mould is kept cool either by a blast of cold air or by cold water. The type comes out with a wedge-shaped strip of metal, called a jet, adhering to its lower end, which is broken off either by automatic breakers or by hand. The body of the type has also a shght shoulder left by the matrix, which is removed by a workman known as the " rubber." The types are then set up in a long row, and are fastened face downwards in a grooved channel. Here the rough- ness at the jet-fracture is plowed out by a '' dresser," with a hand-plane; this leaves the types with a shal- low groove between the feet, which enables the body to stand on its feet, thus securing uniformity of height. After other processes of smoothing, the types are examined under a magnifying-glass and every imperfect type is rejected. The perfect types are then packed in paper ready for use. The cast- TYPE-FOUNDINO 25 ing-machine is operated either by turning a small hand-crank or by steam. In hand-easting, the workman held in his left hand Hand-cast- the mould, which was shielded to protect him from *^* being burned by the molten metal. With a spoon he poured the metal into the mouth-piece of the mould. At the same moment, with a violent jerk, he threw up his left hand, to drive the metal with force against the matrix. This required great dexterity, for if the mould were not thrown up quickly and at the right instant, the metal would not enter the matrix. By this process only about four thousand types could be cast in a day. During the last thirty years, many improvements have been made in automatic type-casting machines. At different times attempts have been made to in- vent machines which should perform all the pro- cesses and deliver types without recourse to manual labor. The most successful of these machines was the one for which Henry Barth was granted a patent in 1888. This machine, automatically, breaks off the jet, plows a groove between the feet, and smooths the feather-edges at the angles. By hand, the average amount cast was 400 in an hour; by the Bruce machine, of ordinary sizes of book-type, the average is 100 in a minute; of small sizes of type, 140 or more can be cast in a minute. CHAPTER V SIZES AND STYLES OF TYPES The Point System NO matter how greatly types may differ in width of face, for any given size of type they must be exactly aUke in body. The face and the body of a type are cast together at one operation, and while the width of the body varies, according to the width of different letters, such as an Z or an m, the depth of the body, or that part which takes the length of the letter, must always be the same for a given size of type. If there should be the slightest variation in the depth of the body, the form of composed types would not lift. Until recent years there has existed not only a great difference between sizes of type of the same name cast by different foimdries, but also a variation between sizes made at different times in the same foundry. To overcome these discrepancies the Point System was adopted, the object of which is to estab- lish a uniform standard for different sizes of type and a uniform gradation of the various sizes. It gradu- ates the sizes by means of a unit of measurement called a "point," which is one-twelfth of the depth of the standard adopted. The standard in the United States is Pica, and the point is therefore about one seventy-second of an inch. (26) SIZES AND STTLEB OF TYPES 27 The first practical attempt to secure uniformity of body by ascale of points was made by the noted French type-founder, Pierre Simon Fournier, about the year 1737. After the death of Fournier, some improve- ments were made in his plan by Francois Ambroiae Didot, the celebrated type-founder of Paris. His classification, however, did not overcome every objection, and for some time, the two systems were used side by side. After some further changes, Didot's system became general in France, and it has been adopted, with modifications, in other parts of Europe. Modern French types are higher than American types, and the two sizes cannot be used together. In America the first effort to correlate the various bodies was made by George Bruce of New York, in 1822, but his system was not adopted by other American type-founders. After the Chicago fire, Marder, Luse, and Company, whose establishment was entirely burned out, thought the time opportune to readjust all the bodies of type on the new plan. They took for their standard the pica of the MacKellar, Smiths, and Jordan Company, as the one which would be most acceptable to printers and founders, and in 1878 put on sale types made by this system. The Point System was adopted by the American Type- Founders Association in 1886. Although it docs not, at present, entirely prevent irregularities, this method of measurement seems likely to prevail throughout the civilized world. 28 SIZES AND STYLES OF TYPES Types used for Text Matter AMERICAN POINTS OLD NAMES 4 Brilliant 4J Diamond 5 Pearl 5J Agate 6 Nonpareil 7 Minion 8 Brevier 9 Bourgeois 10 Long Primer 11 Small Pica 12 Pica 14 English 16 Columbian 18 Great Primer Among larger sizes are 20-point, or paragon, 4S-point, or canon J etc. Other sizes are known by the multi- ples of pica or of sizes above pica, as double pica, double english, double greai primer, etc. In printing-houses the old names have fallen largely into disuse, and the sizes are spoken of only by their point names. The sizes most used in books and pamphlets are 12-point (pica), 11-point (small pica), 10-point (long primer), and 8-point (brevier). The various widths of types receive different names, according to the nimiber of ems to their lower-case alphabets. Type as it usually appears in printed matter has what is called the standard width. As letters progressively decrease in width, they are SIZES AND STYLES OF TYPES called lean or condeiosed, and extra-condensed ; as they increase in width, they are known as either fat, broad- faced, expanded, or extended. Standard Width Condensed Eitra Condensed Extended Gradation op Types The sizes of types regularly used in bcMjk-work range from 4i-point (diamond) to 18-point (great primer), inclusive. Sizes larger than 18-point are seldom employed as tcxtrtypes. The ' following specimen contains twelve sizes of types, in order of gradation, from 18-point to 4^- point, inclusive. John Gutenberg, a printcFj of John Gutenberg, a printer of Mainz, is John Gutenberg, a printer of Mainz, is re- John Gutenberg, a printer of Mainz, is regarded • John Gutenberg, a printer of Mainz, is regarded as John Gutenberg, a printer of Mainz, is regarded as the John Gutenberg, a printer of Mainz, is regarded 3 " John Gutenberg, a [- — ' ' ""' — ■" '■"' "*■ ""■ John Ontenberg, a piii JohD Gutenberg, a prlnti IB-point (Great Primer) is used for the text of large quartos and folios and in books for chil- SIZES AND STYLES OF dren. The name great primer is probably derived from the early use of the type on a large leaf. From its frequent use in bibles, it received the name of Bible-text'. Its French name is gros remain. 14-poiiit (English)' is not often used as a text-t)-pe, except in bibles, pi-ayer- books, and primers. It received the name of English because it was em- ployed by early English printers for their law books, acts of Parliament, and ex- clusively English works. The Gennans call it Mitiel, as it occupies the middle position among the seven sizes of type most used in printing-offices. The French and the Dutch give it the name of Saint Augustine; from this fact it has been >]B-paInt (Oolnmblaii) lanol a regulnr body ol book-type and haabeea eeldom employed. It wm first used lu u text-type In IS21!, by iJeorgB Bniccof New York, to supply afllze between great prinieT and engliali. SIZES AND STYLES OF TYPES 31 inferred that the writings of that father were the first works printed in letters of this size. 12-point (Pica) is the largest size of type commonly used in book-work. It is the standard unit of measurement for bodies of type and widths of furniture, and to divi- sions of pica all thicknesses of leads are graduated. Pica is employed in works in which it is not necessary to economize space. The French and the Germans give this size the name of Cicero, as the epistles of that writer are said to have been first printed in type of this body. 11-point (Small Pica) is also used in works in which space need not be regarded and in which a handsome appearance is desired. It is employed in octavo volumes, legal reports, and law books. lO-point (Long Primer) is one of the most useful sizes of type. It is a favorite letter for the text of books, many works of fiction being printed in it. It is employed also for the editorials of some newspa- pers and in poetry. Most of the leading monthly magazines are printed in ten-point. Long Primer took its name from its early use in ecclesiastical books. 9-point (Bourgeois) is employed in editorial matter of newspapers, in double-column octavo volumes, and for notes. The name bourgeois suggests a French origin, although type of this body is now known as Gaillarde in France. It may have been first employed in small, cheap books printed for the bourgeome. 82 SIZE8 AND STYLES OF TYPES 8-i)oint (Brevier) takes its name, presumably, from its em- ployment in the breviaries, or Roman Catholic church-books. It is used for the body of daily newspapers, as the text-type of some magazines, for notes and extracts, and in cheap edi- tions of literature. It is often employed as the text-type of large works in which sx)ace must be economized. The Germans give this type the names of Petite and Junker (mai- den letter;, because of its comeliness. 7-point (Minion ) is employed chiefly for newspapers. It is used also for notes and indexes in book-work, and in large dictionaries and encyclopedias. The name minion may have been given to it to indicate not only that it was the smallest letter in use at the time of its* introduction, but that it was regarded as a darling of a type. 6-point (Nonpareil) is used on newspapers, for tabular work, and for notes and indexes in small volumes. It is the smallest type that should appear in book-work, as types more diminutive cannot be read for any length of time without iiyury to the eyes. It must have been regarded as a marvel of skill and as the smallest letter that could be cut, as it has retained the some name in all countries. 6>i^-point (Agate) is employed for advertisements and market reports in news- papers, and for printing in whicli compression is necessary. It is used for pocket- bibles and prayer-boolcs. In England it is known as Ruby. 5-point (Pearl) is used for pocket-bibles, pra.rer-books, pocket-dictionaries, and side and cut* in notes and references. It is the smallest type of any practical use. 4^point (Diamond) \» tha amkllMt type repiUrljr out bj founders and is seldom used. Bibles and prayer - boolu are occasionally printed in letters of this body. 4-point (Brilliant) , is scarcely more than a curiosity, although miniature volumes have been printed in it. When seen through a magnifying glass, it is as distinct and beautiful as types of larger body. It is a product of the nineteenth century. 3-point (Excelsior), a size still smaller than bril- liant, is used in America for music, piece-fractions, and borders. A letter has been produced still smaller than ex- celsior. Henri Didot, of the family of celebrated French type-founders, in 1827, when sixty-six years 8IZES AND STYLES OF TYPES 83 old, cut a font of type on the body of 2J points by the Didot system, each letter being clear and distinct; to this size he gave the name of microscop' ique. Twenty-five lines of this letter would about cover, the space of one American inch. Styles of Types Although many styles of types have been issued by the various foimdries, the different series are mainly combinations or variations of the following: Roman Italic CLAKEITDOrr 1 O^Itr iEngltsf) GOTHIC DORIC RUNIC ^vmX Antique Tltl«-type Elzevir old style BOLD FACE TH N FACE CHAPTER VI TYPESETTING As the hand-compositor works he has before him bySSnd.'^ -^ two inclined cases, one above the other, called, respectively. Upper Case and Lower Case. These contain the types — the upper case, capitals and small capitals, and the lower case, small letters. The compositor selects the proper types and forms with them a line in an instrument held in his left hand, known as the composing-stick. This ^^stick" is really a three-sided tray or box; for ordinary book and newspaper work, it is from six to eight inches long. The width of the matter composed, or the length of the line, is regulated by a sliding piece of metal and a screw. The line is '^justified," or made the proper length, by the insertion and rearrange- ment of spaces, or pieces of metal of standard widths, which separate one word from another. After the stick has been filled, the matter set up is placed on a shallow frame or pan, called a galley. When no greater spacing is desired between the lines than the types themselves afford, the matter is said to be '^solid." When wider spacing is desired, thin strips of metal, called leads, are inserted between the lines; the work is then known as '^leaded." The composed types are made into pages, and are locked up in forms on the imposing stone. (34) TTFESETTlNa Until 1821 no attempt was made to set type by machinery, and even then tiie effort was only theo- bymacS^ retical. About 1822 Dr. William Church, a native '^"^ of the United States, while endeavoring to bring out other inventions in England, announced that he had discovered a method of casting and composing type automatically at an unusual speed ; his method, how- ever, did not inchido distribution. He was granted a patent in England, but it seems that nothing more than a wooden model of his machine was ever made. In America the first patents were granted in 1840 aiid 1841 to Frederick Rosenberg and to Young and Delcambre. The first typesetting machine which continued to be used for practical work for a number of years was the one invented by Wilham H. Mitchel, a brother of the Irish patriot. He took out his first patent in 1853, but his machine was finally superseded by others, for want of a good distributer. The Alden machine was built in 1857, but was not continued in commercial use. The Burr-Kaeten- bein machine, requiring hand-justification, came out in the 70's; the Thorne, also requiring juatifi(;ation by hand, was invented about 1880. These were the only machines successfully used in the United States until 1886, when the Linotype was introduced. The Mergenthaler, or Linotype, is the typesetting machine generally employed in this country; among other machines arc the Simplex, the Burr-Kastenbcin or Empire, and the Lanston, Among the machines brought out in Great Britain were the Frazer, the Hattcrsley, and the Mackie, d 36 TYPESETTING Probably the first attempt to produce a machine to set ordinary types and justify them automatically was made by Felt, who was granted a patent in 1867. The machine failed to operate successfully. The first successful machine to set, justify, and distribute type automatically was the Paige, com- pleted about 1890. This machine is not in the market because of its great expense. The typesetting machine in its simplest form merely fomof type- sets the type supplied by the founders; spacing out, chinef ™*' justifying, making-up, and distributing must all be done by hand or on other machines. In the simple form of machine about eighty-four characters are em- ployed. The types of each character are placed in a narrow channel of brass, about two feet long, side by side, and in a vertical position, before the com- positor. The machine is operated in the same man- ner as a typewriter: when the compositor strikes a certain letter on the keyboard, the corresponding character falls in position. This machine can only set types in a continuous line; another operator is required to justify the types, or to make them up in lines of uniform length. The Mc Millan machine has a mated justifying apparatus, but the distributer is a distinct machine. All the simpler forms of typesetting machines have been generally superseded by those in which composition, casting, and distribution are combined in one machine. The Lanston machine, which went into commer- machine!°° cial use about 1899, both casts and sets individual TYPESETTmO ST type. It permits the free and equal use of all the upper aatl tower case characters; these it casts and composes in justified lines by a single automatic opera- tion, which is controlled by a perforated paper ribbon, the product of the manual operation of the key- board. The composed matter has the same appear- ance as hand-work; the types, however, are always new, and the lines are more evenly justified. Cor- rections are made at a case of sorts, by the with- drawal of the wrong character and the insertion of the right one. The Lanston machine is preferred by some authors for book-work, because it permits the correction of errors without discarding the whole line. This typesetting machine is in use in a large number of printing-offices, and it is claimed that it furnishes a letterpress equal to that of the best foundry type. The Morgenthaler, or Linotype, casts the letters properly justified, mth spaces between words, in u solid bars of the length of line desired. The com- l positor dislodges brass matrices instead of types, and also space-bands. The latter are wedge-shaped, and are released, one by one, at the end of each word. The wedges are about three inches long; the thin part only at first is inserted, but just before the bar is cast, an apparatus is released which drives the whole series of letters and space-bands to just the right pressure required to produce the even justifica- tion of the line. The matrices are then carried in front of the mould. The mould passes before the pot containing the molten 38 TYPESETTING metal, which is ejected through a row of holes into the mould. The metal chills and solidifies imme- diately, and the casting is accomplished without delaying the work of the operator. The cast line, or linotype^ passes between knives to be finished to exact size, and is then placed on the galley. The matrices are at once returned to their channels in the magazine, and the space-bands slide back into their box ready for immediate use. During composition on the Linotype, corrections can be made by changing or transposing any matrix in a line. • If a correction is desired after the bar is cast, the whole line must be reset. The discarded bar is thrown into the melting-pot; the linotypes are also remelted after they have served their pur- pose. In operating the machine, as soon as one line is finished, the compositor starts another line; all that he is required to do is to manipulate the keys and start the lines. The present Linotype is the result of experiments begun in 1876. In a crude form it was developed about 1883, and was put into commercial use in 1886. It is employed in about thirteen hundred offices in America, including both large and small newspapers and many book-houses, such as Harper and Brothers and D. Appleton and Company. The Mcrgenthaler machine is used also by most of the leading news- papers of Great Britain, quite extensively in Germany and France, and indeed, to some extent, in almost every part of the world. In the Boston Public Library, where the Linotype is employed to produce TTPESETTma 39 card catalogues, etc., twenty-three languages are printed. Typesetting machines are employed chiefly for newspaper printing and for work which must be done quickly; many publishers also use them. In quality, the product of the machine is not equal to handwork, although in some instances only an expe- rienced eye could detect the difference. The machine reduces the coat of composition — one of the simpler forms setting types three or four times as fast as can be done by hand, and the output of the Mergenthaler being six or eight times greater than that of the hand- composit-or. It is only by employing the Linotype, which has so greatly cheapened typesetting, that our newspapers can afford to furnish ia the public the vast amount of reading matter which is received daily. Measurement of Type Matter The amount of matter composed is estimated by ems, or the square of the body of the font of type used, to which the letter m comes nearest in size of all the lower case letters. The compositor is paid for the number of ems contained in any piece of work he sets. The smaller the type, the greater, of course, will be the number of ems in a page. There will be about the same number of ems in the com- plete copy, whether it is set in large or small type; 80 that the cost of composition will be about the same in either case, although in small type the number of pages will be less. 40 TYPESETTING The space that can be covered by one thousand em quadrats must be paid for as one thousand ems, whether the matter is leaded or soUd. The actual number of pieces of metal in the space is not con- sidered. When type is mixed, each size is estimated by itself. Leading When we consider that printing of a rudimentary Sofid. i^ind had existed for so many centuries, and that during the whole of the early part of the fifteenth century examples with words or even whole lines of inscriptions were being produced, we can only wonder that the discovery of printing from movable types should have been made so late. It has been said that inventions will always be made when the need for them has arisen, and this is the real reason, perhaps, why the discovery of printing was delayed. — E. Gordon Duff : Early Printed Books, Leaded. The method adopted by the earliest printers to obtain impressions from their blocks was to lay the sheet to be printed on the already inked block, and to rub it carefully. Wood-engravers of the present day take proofs in the same manner. The plan was continued for block-printing many years after the invention of movable types. Mr. Ottley, however, describes several of the earliest wood-blocks, which he had no doubt;were printed by means of a press. — William Blades : The Biography and Typography of William Caxton. The decree of Star Chamber in 1637, which lim- Doubte leaded. ited the number of English printers, did not check TYPESETTING 41 the growth of printing more effectually than the stamp duty of four pence levied in 1815 on every English newspaper. Printers everywhere had to encounter disabihties made by society as well as by law. Even in America, Franklin's brother was practically boycotted in Boston, Bradford had to leave Philadelphia for New York, and Zenger of New York had to stand trial for criminal libel in making proper comment. At an earlier date Governor Berkeley of Virginia thanked God that there were no printers in that colony, and hoped that there would be none. .Printers [at the beginning of the nine- teenth century] had to be content with condi- tions as they were. They had little inducement to improve their workmanship or to extend their field of activity. — Theodore L. De Vinne, in New York Evening Post, "Printing in the Nineteenth Century/' When still wider spacing is employed, the work is called " triple-leaded." Ordering. CHAPTER VII JOB-WORK A LL the miscellaneous work of a printing-office, -^ beyond book and newspaper work, is included in the general tcmij Job-work. It comprises: Placards, posters, hand-bills, pamphlets, circulars, invitations, programs, cards and tickets of all kinds, bills of fare, blank forms, bills, checks, receipts, certificates, labels, letter-heads, note-heads, printed envelopes, account-book headings, order-books, monthly statements, and other miscellaneous matter of like nature. In ordering job-printing, as in all other business transactions, there should be a definite understanding of just what is wanted. The dimensions of the work should be specified, also the size and style of type desired, and the words or lines to be given greatest prominence. Extracts and foot-notes are always put in smaller type than the body of the work ; for this reason, they should be carefully distinguished from the text. Resetting matter means delay in the work and additional expense to the person order- ing. The kind of paper desired should be stated. Samples of paper, from which a selection can be made, will always be cheerfully furnished by the printer. For even such small work as a card or the printing on an envelope, it insures satisfactory results to see (42) JOB-WORK a proof. In rush work this is not always practicable, and the judgment and taste of the printer must be depended upon; but a glance at a proof would pre- vent many flagrant errors in spelling, etc., often seen in announcements, and would save the person who pays for the work vexation and disappointment. Regard should be had to the style of type and the paper suitable for the subject. It will be clear to ] every one that a light fancy type is unsuitable for a serious subject; neither should the same kind of paper or card be used for a business announcement as for a muBical program or an invitation to a reception or a dance. Harmony should be observed also between the type and the paper. A thin-face type does not always show well on rough paper, nor does black let- ter look best on a smooth surface. Narrow margins around printed matter, whether it be a card, a circular, or the page of a book, detract from the elegance of its appearance. When the text is leaded, that is when there is spacing between the lines, it is more easily read than when printed solid. Leading, however, is not always possible when matter must be compressed into a small space. A long narrow page should be avoided. The pro- portion of 5 to 7J, for some work, is pleasing in appearance. For a page of an oblong shape, Bigelow gives as a rule that the diagonal from the folio in the upper corner to the opposite lower corner ehouSd be just twice the width of the text; in a quarto, or square page, the proportion of the diago- nal to the width should be 10i:6i. These rules 44 JOB- WORK have been established in conformity to a law of proportion which completely satisfies the eye. In title-pages, headings, cards, etc., a due propor- hSfdinSr^* tion should be observed in the prominence of the cards, etc. lines, SO as to show, as nearly as possible, the relation of one line to another. It has heretofore been the custom to contrast the lines in length, weight, size, face, etc., the most important line being put the largest, and sometimes the blackest, type, the gradation being followed down to the least impor- tant line. At present, such matter is frequently set entirely in one style of type of different sizes, the most important line, of course, taking the largest letters. Some of the new roman and shaded types thus used for cards and announcements produce an especially pleasing effect, as they give the work something of the elegance of engraving. The type of the main line should be in proportion to the size of the page or card, for if it is too large it offends the eye. If a line rather unimportant is set in letters too large or in type too distinctive, it jars upon one's sense of artistic harmony. The principal line should never be placed at the very top of a card or page, and printers do not begin a main line with words of little value, such as "a,'' "the," etc. A very long line can sometimes be broken, and one half placed below, a little to the right ; but in such divisions, regard must be had to the general effect of the lines in combination with others. Several short lines in succession at the top of a circular or card produce a pyramidal effect and should be JOB-WORK 45 avoided. Too much matter on a title-page spoils its appearance. When the compositor is allowed to transpose the wording, the appearance of the work can frequently be greatly improved. In job-work, words may be made emphatic in several ways: they may be set in lines by themselves; large or distinctive types may be used; they may be underlined; the white spaces may be varied, etc., etc. Care should be taken not to give emphasis to too many words or lines, as the most important ideas thereby lose their significance. Emphasis. CHAPTER VIII PAPER Manufacture of paper^ first i>aper- macmnes. Paper 8taple& A T first, paper, both ancient and modern, was made -^ entirely by hand. In 1799 a paper-machine was invented by Louis Robert, a clerk employed by the Messrs. Didot of the celebrated Essonnes paper-mills near Paris, and this caused a great development of the industry. The manufacture was introduced into England, through the agency of the Messrs. Fourdrinier, and the first paper- machine in that country was erected in 1804 at Frogmoor Mill, near Boxmoor, Herts. Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, of London, bought the English pat- ents, and so perfected the machine that it has since been given the name of Fourdrinier. In America the first steam paper-mill was started at Pittsburg, in 1816. The first cylinder machine for the manufac- ture of paper was designed by Thomas Gilpin, and was employed by him in 1817, in his mills on the Brandywine. Since about 1820 paper made by ma- chinery has supplanted hand-made paper, except fine grades used for special purposes. The staples, or the materials, from which writing and printing papers are made are wood-pulp, rags and esparto.^ The staple of wrapping-paper is old 1 Esparto is the name of two or three species of grass found in Southern Europe and Northern Africa. (46) ropes and jute. The finest writing and printing pa- pers, whether made by hand or machinery, are manu- factured from linen and cotton rags. A great part of paper-making material is a by-product obtained from the refuse of other manufactures, such as waste paper, rags, old rope, old bagging, etc. At the present day paper is put to so many uses that rags cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities, and the greater amount of even white paper is now made from wood-fibre. Paper can be made of almost any vegetable fibre, but those fibres are strongest which are most completely interlaced. The woods gener- ally used are the poplar, pine, spruce, and hemlock. The idea of making paper from wood-pulp arose in the eariy part of the nineteenth century. Various and wood- patents were granted, but it was not until about 1855 that wood began to take the place of rags for book and newspaper work. A distinction must be made between wood-pulp and wood-fibre: the pulp is pro- duced by mechanical means, or by grinding; the fibre by chemical treatment, or by a process which sep- arates from the wood all resinous and gummy substances, and leaves what is called ceUtdose, or fibre divested of all incrusting matter. Wood-pulp generally receives an admixture of wood-fibre to give it strei^th. The manufacture of paper really begins with the first step required to prepare the stock. In making JJ^J^^ wood-pulp, the bark and knots are first separated from the wood. The wood is then cut into conveni- ent lengths and is put into a machine, termed a wood- 48 PAPER pulp grinder, which tears off the fibres. To produce wood, or chemical, fibre, the wood is cut into chips, dusted, and is then boiled in an alkaline or acid solu- tion, in a vessel known as a digester. The chemicals separate the gummy or resinous substances from the fibre, which, when washed and bleached, is almost pure cellulose. It is soft and of considerable strength. Esparto, or Spanish grass, is cleaned and sorted by hand, and is afterward boiled in an alkaline solution. Jute, hemp, and waste matter are all treated in about the same way, being boiled in alkaline solutions. Cotton and linen rags are passed first through thresh- ers, then through cutters, and are afterward boiled in a solution of caustic soda. After the preparation of the staple, the making of it into pulp and the manufacture of the pulp into paper are about the same whether rags or other varieties of stock are employed. The process of the preparation of the pulp, whether for machine or for hand-made paper, is substantially the same, but in making paper by machinery each operation is per- formed on a much larger scale. In making paper by machinery, the rags are first put in^ by ma- iuto a thresher or dusting-machine. After they have passed through this, women sort them by hand, and remove all extraneous substances, such as buttons, hooks and eyes, bone, india-rubber, leather, and pieces of metal, at the same time loosening all hems and knots. The rags are then cut into small pieces, either by hand or machinery; for the common qualities of paper, machine-cutting is used. When PAPER 49 the rags are cut by hand, the sorter stands at a long table, to which scj'^the-blades are attached; the back of the blade is towards the sorter, who draws the cloth against the edge. The rags are again dusted and sent to openings in the floor of the room, underneath which are brought the mouths of large boilers called rotaries. The boilers contain a solution of soda ash, caustic soda, or lime in water. The mouths of the rotaries are closed, steam is introduced, and the rags are boiled under pressure for several hours; by this treatment all fatty, glutinous, or coloring substances are separated from the pure fibre. After- wards, the rags are drained and taken to the washing- and-beating engines. They are sometimes washed in one engine and beaten in another, sometimes both operations are performed in the same machine. This engine is an oblong shallow tub or vat. The rags are placed in it, with a sufficient quantity of water, and are brought by power under the action of two sets of knives, by which they are subdivided. The water in the washing cylinder is constantly changing, afford- ing a continual supply of fresh water and the carrying off of the dirty fluid. The rags are thus treated from three to five hours, at the end of which time they are sufficiently cleaned. They are now known as hxdf stuff, ^aif-stuff. The next step is bleaching. A solution of chlor- ide of lime and some sulphuric acid are added to Bi«achin«. the half-stuff, which is emptied into a chest or drainer. Here the bleaching is finished. The pulp is then washed to free it from the chemical products adhering to it, and for this purpose it is again put into 50 PAPER The wire- cloth. The deckles. The dandy- rolL The water- marks. the engine or tub, the roller with knives being raised to avoid cutting the fibre. The stock is now beaten to the desired fineness and is sent to the stuff-chest. This completes the preparation of the pulp for actual paper-making. From the stuff-chest the pulp is pumped into a regulating-box, or supply-box. The stuff is sent to the Fourdrinier machine through a pipe containing a rapidly flowing stream of water. After passing through the preliminary parts of the machine, the pulp is deposited upon a wire-cloth, which is a huge belt, having both a forward and a lateral mo- tion. The pulp is laid upon this belt evenly, and is still in a liquid condition; the water oozes out through the bottom into a depression below. The constant vibration of the wire-cloth, by means of a shake at- tachment, throws some of the fibres across the ma- chine, while the motion or travel of the belt causes the lay of the fibre in the other direction. Endless rubber-bands, called deckles, extend on each side on top of the wire ; these prevent the pulp from spreading beyond the edges of the wire, and also determine the width of the paper. The deckles continue about two- thirds of the distance of the run of the belt, by which time the paper is formed, but is still in a pulpy con- dition. A cylindrical frame covered with wire-cloth, known as the dandy-roll, passes over the pulpy paper and presses the fibres more closely together. Upon the dandy-roll are frequently placed letters, mono- grams, or other signs, which may be seen in the finished paper when held up to the light. To pro- duce these marks in the paper, some of the wires are made to project a little more than usual, or other wires are fastened over them, the paper thereby being made thinner in such places. These letters or signs are produced also by depressing the wires where a mark is desired, thus causing the paper in those places to be thicker. The web then passes over the suction-boxes, and just as it leaves the wire-cloth it passes under the couch-rolls, after which moisture is expelled by two sets of rollers. The remaining moisture is driven out by heat. Thus far, no heat has been em- ployed. The paper is now sent to the driers, a series of iron cylinders of large diameter, heated by steam. Ac- companied by a felt or belt of duck, it passes over and under these cylinders, becoming drier and more compact as it approaches the end of the machine. The web then passes into a tub of animal sizing. If the paper is to be "loft-dried," it is cut into sheets and taken to the loft, where it is hung on poles. The cheaper varieties remain there two days, the finer grades a week. "Machine-dried" paper passes from the size-tub into a mechanical drier, without being cut into sheets. The Fourdrinier machine, above described, has been improved in aU its details, but in theory its i construction is about the same as when invented by Robert. This machine was first employed in the United States about 1827, at Springfield, Massachu- setts, 52 PAPER The Cylinder machine. The calen- ders. The supercal- tnders. Sizing. Loading. On the C}^linder machine no lateral motion is given to the wire-cloth; the paper therefore felts in but one direction. Paper made on the Cylinder machine is stronger in the direction of its length than that made by the Fourdrinier machine, but is weaker in its breadth. The cylinder machine is used in the United States for the manufacture of hanging-papers, wrapping-papers, and straw and binders' boards. To receive a finish, all papers pass through a " stack " of calenders, which consists of a series of polished iron rollers, mounted one above the other. Paper which goes but once through the calenders is given the name of "machine-finish." Loft-dried paper is calendered in single sheets ; machine-dried, in the roll. To supercalender paper, it is passed between a series of rollers called supcrcalenders ; some of these are made of chilled iron, others of sheets of paper or of compressed disks of cotton. Sizing is given to paper for the purpose of re- moving its porous and absorbent character, so that when written upon the ink will not spread. Vege- table sizing is put into the engines; animal sizing is given on the machine, by passing the web through a trough containing a solution of gelatine. To fill up the pores or interstices, paper is loaded with some other substance. This not only gives the paper a finer surface but also makes it heavier. Kaolin or china clay is the loading material for ordinary paper; for the finer grades, sulphate of lime or pearl hardening is used. The clay is made into a PAPER 53 thin cream and is put into the pulp while the latter is in the beating-engine. When paper first comes from the machine, little ridges or hollows are found on its surface, resembling ing."' those on the rind of an orange. To make the paper smoother, it is surface-coated, and the most delicate half-tones can then be printed upon it. In surfaced papers the mixture is apphed by brushes, and the paper is calendered by steel rollers to the degree of finish desired. The oftener the paper passes through the rollers, the higher will be the finish. Some papers are brushed to a finish instead of being put through the rollers. It is not possible to make from the raw materials absolutely white paper, as the web always inclines either to blue or yellow. Paper is therefore shaded slightly towards a buff or bluish tint. This is gener- ally accomplished by putting a coloring substance, which dissolves very slowly, into the pulp in the engine. As has been stated above, the preparation of the pulp, whether for hand- or machine-made paper, is b^bybanJ. substantially the same. The old stamps or beaters have been superseded by the Hollander or beating en- gine, whieh is still in use. In making paper by hand, the pulp is carried to 'the working-vat, a vessel either of wood or stone, about five feet square and four feet deep, with a flaring top. In the vat the pulp is mixed with water and is heated by means of a steam-pipe. The mould for making the paper is a wooden frame, with bars about an inch and a half apart, flush with 54 PAPER Wove paper. Laid paper. The water- mark. one edge of the frame. Parallel wires, about fifteen or twenty to the inch, are laid upon these bars, length- wise of the frame. A movable frame, called a deckle, fits upon the mould, the two forming a shallow tray, with a ^vire bottom like a sieve. Paper made in such a mould is known as "wove" paper. When small wires placed close together, with coarser wires running across them at equidistant intervals, form the bottom of the mould, in place of the wire-cloth used as the bottom for wove paper, the paper made in such a mould takes the impression of all these wires. It is then given the name of " laid " paper. The mould or wire-frame on which the pulp is formed is raised where the water-mark, .or trade- mark, is desired. The sheet in that part is thereby made thirmer than in other places, and the design remains impressed in each sheet. The workman dips the mould into the vat contain- ing the fluid pulp, and takes up a sufficient quantity to form a sheet of paper. Great dexterity is needed to make a perfect sheet, and to follow this mth other perfect sheets all of even weight; this depends on the skill of eye and hand acquired by experience. The vatman gives the mould an oscillating motion, to cause the intermixture of the fibres necessary to secure uniformity of texture. Gradually the water drains through, the pulp soUdifies and assumes a peculiar shiny appearance, which indicates the com- pletion of the first step of the process. The deckle is then taken off, and the mould is sent to a workman PAPER 56 known as the " coucher," who deposits the sheet upon a piece of felt. Another piece of felt is placed upon the paper, and this process is continued until the pile contains six or eight quires. The pile is then sub- jected to great pressure. A workman known as a "layer" separates the pieces of felt and the paper. The sheets are again pressed to remove, so far as possible, the felt-marks and the moisture, and are then hung in a loft to dry. When dry, the paper is sized. Sizing is made of some material containing a great deal of gelatine, such as sheeps' feet, or pieces of skin cut off by curriers before the hides are tanned. These materials are boiled to a jelly and strained, and a small quantity of alum is added. The sheets are spread out in a tub containing the sizing diluted with water. Care is taken that the sheets shall be equally moistened. After sizing, the paper is again pressed and slowly dried. Women take out the knots and imperfections with small knives, and separate the perfect from the imperfect sheets. After being again pressed, the paper is counted into reams. These reams when pressed and tied up are ready to be sent to the warehouse. There is but one mill in the United States which produces hand-made paper, that of the L. L. Brown Paper Company at Adams, Massachusetts. In the vat-mills of Europe, after the preparation of the pulp by machinery, paper is made by hand in about the same way as in this country. In some towns, however, the same process has been employed for several centuries. In a num- ber of the ancient mills at Amalfi, Italy, the rags are still beaten bv hammers. 66 PAPER Deckle-edged papers. Deckle-edge is the name given to papers which are rough on the outer edges. In making paper by hand, the pulp is shaken in a sieve, and the sides, consequently, are uneven. When paper first issues from the machine, it is rough on the outer edges, next to the deckles, and is afterwards trimmed. Deckle- edged machine paper, however, can be made in narrow strips of any desired width. This is done by putting in a number of deckle-straps on the wire-cloth, so as to give the true deckle. The edge thus formed is more feathery than that of regular hand-made paper; it occurs on two sides instead of four. Classes of paper. Printing- papers. Paper may be divided into four general classes: Printing-paper (book and newspaper), Writing-paper, Wrapping- or Packing-paper, and special or miscel- laneous papers. Machine-finish. — A paper with an unglazed sur- face, having passed but once through the calenders. Wove. — A paper which receives no other impres- sion than that made by the weave of the wire-cloth and the dandy-roll. Laid. — When made by hand, a paper which takes the impression of both the small and the coarse wires which form the bottom of the mould. In machine- made paper, the equidistant parallel hues are pro- duced by a series of wires which pass around the exterior of the dandy-roll. Calendered. — A paper which receives a surface by being passed through a series of polished iron rollers, known as calenders. This operation makes the paper even and also gives it a gloss. PAFER 57 Super calendered. — A paper which receives a still higher finish than calendered paper, by being sub- jected to the action of supercalenders, which are a series of rollers, some made of chilled iron, others of sheets of paper or of compressed disks of cotton. Coated, — A paper which has received a coating of white material, such as china clay, or gypsum, sul- phate of barytes, etc. Coated and supercalendered papers are iised for first- class magazines and illustrated books, as they take the impression of a plate better than many other papers. Enameled papers are coated with a colored sub- stance which adds both to their weight and thickness. They are used for covers. Deckle-edge. ^Deckle-edged papers are roi^h on the outer edge. They are made both by hand and by machinery. Plate paper. — -Paper which has passed between highly polished metal plates or heavy rollers which give a powerful pressure. Plate paper is a high grade of book stock, and has the same finish on both sides. It takes well the impression of printers' ink, and re- ceives the most delicate lines of half-tones. Copperplate paper is unsized paper, imfinished on . one side and calendered on the other. India. — A thiii soft paper, of a pale yellow tint, used for taking the first and choicest impressions of en- gravings. The impressions are known as India proofs. As India paper is too thin to bear handling, it is mounted on vellum. The sheets are kept in a dry place and can be preserved for years. 68 PAPER Writiiig- Writing-paper has a smooth surface, as it is made papers. ^j^jj g^ sizing OF glue. Without the sizing, the ink would penetrate the paper and render each line of the writing too thick. Writing-paper sometimes has the same name, but not always the same size, as printing-papers. Among wTiting-papers are : Bond. — A fine stock of paper, usually uncalendered and very strong. Linen. — A paper made from the same stock as a bond paper, but laid, and usually of a rougher finish. Ledger. — The finest qualities of \vriting-paper large in size. ledger-paper is very strong and has good erasing qualities. The fine varieties of writing-papers are, of course, made from linen rags. Some of the special papers are used just as they come from the mill; others are prepared for special purposes by manufacturers known as converters. These products may bo divided broadly into special papers and converted papers. Among special papers may be mentioned blotting, copying, India, Japan, manifold, parchment, rice, sand, safety, silver, sponge, and tracing paper; among converted papers are car- bolic acid, carbon, emery, glass, gold or gilt, oiled, » photographic, satin, silver, and test paper. Coated paper, safety paper, and tracing paper are some- times subjected to treatment by converters. India, Japan, parchment, and safety papers are used also for printing purposes. PAPER 59 Sizes of Paper At the present day paper is made of almost any size, to suit the needs or the taste of the publisher or author. Although each of the various sizes has received a special name, but few of these names are in common use; in giving an order for paper, it is customary to designate the size in inches. The standard sizes of paper made in America are the following : BOOK PAPERS 22 X 28 inches. 24x38 " 25 X 38 " 26x40 " 28 X 42 inches. 32x44 " 36x48 ft WRITING PAPERS Inches. Cap 14x17 Double Cap 17 x 28 Crown ; ... 15 X 19 Double Crown 19 x 30 Demy 16x21 Double Demy 21 x 32 Double Demy 16 x 42 Folio 17x22 Double Folio 22 x34 Medium 18x23 Double Medium 23 x 36 Inches. Double Medium .... 18 x 46 Royal .19x24 Double Royal 24 x 38 Double Royal 19 x 48 Super Royal 20x 28 Imperial 23x31 Elephant , 23x28 Columbier 23x34 Atlas 26x33 Double Elephant 27 x40 Antiquarian 31 x 53 Folio is more used than any other size of writing- paper. Paper, as a rule, nowadays, runs 500 sheets to the ream. 60 PAPER FOLDING THE SHEETS FOR BINDING For book and magazine work/ paper is usually sent from the manufacturer to the printing-house in flat sheets, and on the flat-bed press, which is generally employed for this class of work, it is printed in flat sheets. The flat sheets are sent to the bindery, and, as a rule, are folded by machinery. Some magazines are folded on the press on which they are printed. A flat sheet folded once gives two leaves or four pages, which is called folio. Halving the long side of a flat sheet gives hroad folio ; halving the short side gives long folio. Halving the length of the two sides of broad folio gives four leaves or eight pages, or quarto. Quarto folded once gives eight leaves or sixteen pages, or octavo. By continuing the folding, we ob- tain 16mo, 32mo, 64mo, etc. Mo or ° means the number of leaves to the sheet, or the number of pages on one side of the sheet. The terms octavo y quarto ^ folio, etc., do not indi- cate the size of the leaf, but merely denote the num- ber of leaves into which a sheet has been folded. When sheets of paper were made in but few sizes, octavo, quarto, or folio, as applied to books, de- noted a volume of a certain size; now that sheets may be made of almost any size, these terms no longer indicate fixed dimensions. A book may be folio, it may be large folio, or it may be small folio. The size of the leaf is indicated by the name or the 1 For newspapers, which are printed on rotary presses, i)aper Is used in the web or roll. The rotary or web press is used also, to some extent, iu the production of books and magazines, for which, of course, the paper must be furnished in the roll. size of the sheet from which the leaf is taken; as, cap, crown, demy, folio, medium, royal, etc. The following diagrams show the usual forms for folding, but for special purposes other methods are sometimes employed. /iHOn BBOAD OTAttTO. Table Flat sheet 1 leaf or 2 pagea 1 told folio 2 leaves or 4 pagea 2folds quarto 4 leaves or 8 pages 3 folds octavo 8 leaves or 16 pages 4 folds 16mo 16 leaves or 32 pages 5 folds 32mo 32 leaves or 64 pa^ea 6folds 64mo 64 leaves or 128 pages. The number of leaves in each case, in the above table, is obtained by folding right across the previous fold. More than four folds are seldom given to a sheet, as the constant doubling of the paper causes the leaves to be of unequal size. PAPER 63 It has been the practice to print 12° with twenty- four pages to the sheet, and then cut off eight pages and fold them in as an inset. Presses are now made large enough, however, to print thirty-two, sixty- four, or even a greater nimiber of pages at a time. 24° is simply 12° doubled. By printing part of the sheet as an inset, a printer can often use, without waste, a certain size of paper on work for which the regular methods of imposing pages would not enable the paper to be employed to advantage. Thirds, sixes, and eighteens are no longer used in book-work. With the least possible handling of the sheets, the greater will be the economy, and presses are now so built that a large number of pages can be printed at once. The sheets are afterwards cut into sections, each containing the number of pages desired. The following size notation has been adopted by the American Library Association : FOT.D SYMBOL SIZE LETTER OUTSIDE HEIGHT Never use for size Never use for fold In centimetres 48° Fe Up to 10 32° Tt 10 to 12.5 24° T 12.5 to 15 16° S 15 to 17.5 12° D 17.5 to 20 8° 20 to 25 4° Q 25 to 30 f° F 30 to 35 F* 35 to 40 P 40 to 50 pj 50 to 60 64 PAPER SIGNATURES A signature is a figure or letter placed at the bot- tom of the first page of each sheet of a volume, to indicate the place the sheet should have in the completed book. The name signature is given also to the sheet bearing this figure or letter; thus, we say that a work is printed in twenty-four signa- tures, which means twenty-four sections.^ The figure or letter should be placed on the first page of each sheet or section of the book, under the text, to the left of the page. In America numerical signatures are generally employed. Signatures serve several purposes : 1. They designate the pages of which a sheet is composed. If we refer to a certain sheet and call it signature 3, we know exactly which pages of the book it contains. 2. They serve as an aid to the binder in gathering the sheets together, so that they fall in proper order; they assist also in collating, that is, in verify- ing the gathering. If the letters follow in due alphabetical order, the sheets must be in their right m positions. Signatures were used by the scribes long before the invention of printing. At first, these marks were placed on the extreme edge of the printed 1 A section of a book is the number of leaves which are sewed together at once. A small sheet may make a section, but large sheets on which are printed thirty- two, sixty-four, or a greater number of pages, are cut Into two, four, or eight sections, according to the way the book is made up. A sheet is always at least one section, but a section Is not always a sheet PAPER 66 sheet, so that they might be cut off by the knife of the binder. In some old books they may still be seen half cut off. It was thought that this method improved the appearance of the page. MAKE-UP OF A BOOK The order observed in the make-up of a book is generally as follows : Half-title and blank page. Full title and blank page or copyright notice. Dedication and blank page. Preface or Introduction.^ Table of Contents. List of Illustrations. Text. Appendix. Glossary. Bibliography.^ Index. Errata are usually noted on the last leaf of a book or on an insert. 1 The Introduction is sometimes included in the text. *The Bibliography or List of Authorities Consulted is often put after the Table of Contents or the List of niustrations. CHAPTER IX TECHNICAL TERMS A NTIQUE. — Type in which the lines are heavy -^ and of uniform thickness, the serifs, or short lines at the top and the bottom of the letter, being correspondingly heavy : antique type. Black Letter. — A distorted form of the roman let- ter, angles taking the place of curves. In working on parchment that kinked or on paper that was rough, copyists probably found it difficult to follow all the curves of the roman character, and therefore formed the letter by repeated strokes, which caused an angular joining of the lines. The English name of black letter was not given to the character until after the introduction of roman printing-types. Old English and German Text are called by printers Black Letter. This character is known l:)y bibliographers as gothic, because it has always been preferred by people of Gothic descent. Body. — The size of a typo considered down a page, at right angles with the printed lines; as, pica body; long-primer body, etc. — The rectangular piece of metal on which the face of a type rests. Bold Face. — A type with heavy lines, resembling roman. The heavy lines are made thicker, while the light lines are left untouched. (66) TECHNICAL TERMS 67 Brochure. — A small pamphlet, or a brief treatise in pamphlet form, on a matter of transitory interest.— An imbound book, the sheets of which are stitched together and covered with a wrapper. Capitals. — The largest letters of a font. They vary in size, according to the font of type used. Case. — A frame with a set of boxes, contain- ing assorted type. The compositor, as he works, has before him two inclined cases, one above the other, called, respectively. Upper Case and Lower Case. Chase. — The rectangular frame which incloses a form of type. Colophon. — An inscription or imprint placed at the end of a book, generally giving the title, the writer's or the printer's name, and the date and the place of publication. This method of denoting the printer and the place of printing, which was comraon in the early period of the art, passed out of use entirely in the eighteenth century. It has been revived, to some extent, in artistic printing. Composing. — Setting type. Composing Stick. — A three-sided tray in which types are set by the compositor, or "composed." Condensed. — A type having the horizontal lines shorter than in ordinary type. Extra-condensed. — A type still narrower than condensed. Copy. — Manuscript or typewritten matter to be printed, or matter already in printed form to be re- printed. Cut-in Letter. — A letter of a size larger than 68 TECHNICAL TEBM8 the type of the page, which is adjusted at the ban- ning of the first paragraph of a chapter. Cut-in Note. — A note justified into the side of a paragraph. The letters of a . cut-in note are always much smaller than the type of the page. An extra price must be paid for this work, as it is very troublesome and requires much time. Displayed. — Having various kinds and sizes of type well-selected, arranged, and spaced. In dis- play matter, the important topics are put in separate lines. Distribute. — To return types to their respective boxes in the cases, after printing. This term is applied also to spreading ink evenly over the sur- face of a roller on the press. Dummy. — A few pages of a book, or a portion of a newspaper or a magazine, put together before the entire work is issued, as a specimen of the size and appearance of the real publication. Canvassers are supplied with diunmies of the works they sell. Duodecimo. — A term denoting that the sheet has been folded in twelve leaves or twenty-four pages. — A book printed, originally, with twelve leaves to the sheet, but now usually having sixteen leaves to the sheet. Abbreviated 12mo or 12°. It has been the practice to print 12° with 24 pages to the sheet, and then cut off eight pages and fold them in as an inset. Some presses are now made large enough, however, to print thirty-two, sixty-four, or even a larger number of pages at a time. 24° is simply 12° doubled. In book- work, duodecimo, octavo, quarto, TEGHNICAL TERMS etc., no longer indicate fixed dimensions, as sheets of paper vary greatly in size, EM.^The square of the body of a, type. The amount of matter composed is estimated by ems. Even Pages or Folios. — Pages bearing the even numbers, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. They are the left-hand pages of a printed work, ExpANDED^Extended. — Type having the horizon- tal lines longer than the standard width. These two terms are used synonymously by type-founders. Folio. — Consisting of two leaves or four pages, the sheet having been folded but once. — A book in which the sheet has been folded in two leaves or four pages. — In Law, a certain number of words, which is the unit for estimating the length of a document; in the United States, the unit is 100 words, in Eng- lish parliamentary proceedings, 90 words. — The run^ nlng numbers of the pages of a book.^ — Folio, to number pages consecutively. Font. — A complete assortment of a certain size and style of type. A full font of book or news- paper type includes: roman capitals, small capitals, and lower case letters; italic capitals and italic lower case; roman and italic ligatures; figures, points and marks (punctuation marks, marks of reference, braces, dashes, leaders, and commercial signs), fractions, spaces, quadrats, accents. In books printed in Eng- land, the word is usually spelled fount. Forwarding. — The various processes employed in the binding of a book. The decoration of the cover is called the "finishing." 70 TECHNICAL TERMS Form. — Type arranged in pages ready for print- ing, in the order in which they are locked up. Frisket. — A thin framework of iron hinged to the upper part of the tympan of a platen-press, to keep in place the sheet to be printed. Fudge. — To work without proper materials. Late news, consisting of only a few lines, is set up as fudge matter and run into the space left for it. Furniture. — Strips of wood or of metal used to fill the spaces around or between pages of type or plates, so as to give the proper margin. Galley. — A thin frame of brass, wood and brass, type metal, or zinc, with flanges on three sides to support the type which is placed in the frame after copy has been set up. Galley Proof. — First proof or slip-proof of work, usually printed on long sheets of paper, from the type as it stands in the galley. German Text. — A style of black letter. The present distorted forms of the Latin letters arose in the middle ages and are the work of the monks. At the time of the invention of printing they were in general use in Europe, but have been finally abandoned by nearly all nations except the Germans. As with the so-called black letter in England, they are the result of an effort to repro- duce in printing the forms of the letters as they ap- peared in the manuscripts of the monks. There is a growing preference among authors and publishers for the simpler roman characters, which furnish much less work for the type-founder and are far TECHNICAL TEEMS 71 less injurious to the eyesight. — Valentine: New High German, Gothic. — The type now known by printers as gothic is a certain style of romanwithout flourishes or serifs (lines at the top and the bottom of a letter), and having all the strokes of the same thickness. It seems to be an imitation of the old Roman mural letters. GOTHIC. The characters first used by the early printers, and known by writers and bibliographers as gothic/ was a form of letter which had been employed by the copyists of Europe for several centuries before the invention of movable types. From the many styles of letters used in manuscripts, the printers selected two: the pointed character, now called by French bibliographers the Icttre de forme J and the round character, to which has been given the name of lettre de somme. The '' Bible of Forty-two Lines" and the "Psalter" of 1457 were printed in the pointed gothic; the ''Letters of Indulgence " of 1453 and 1454 and the " Cath- olicon " of 1460, in the round gothic. The pointed character was the standard or formal letter; the round gothic was the style preferred for ordinary books. Imposing. — Arranging pages of type on the im- posing stone, so that they will be in regular order when the printed sheet is folded. Imposing Stone. — A stone on which the pages of type are imposed in their proper order and locked up ready for printing. 72 TECHNICAL TERMS Imprint. — The name and address of the printer or of the publisher of a book or job-work. The im- print is placed at the foot of the title-page of a book or pamphlet, and on the back of job-work. Indention. — The setting back of a line from the margin. In a Hanging Indention the first line be- gins at the margin and the other lines are set back. A common indention is one m. The indentation, however, depends upon the width of the matter, and whether it is leaded or solid. Inset. — One sheet placed inside of another and both folded. In newspaper work, inserted or " in- set" means that the sheets are delivered folded one inside the other, as the sheets are arranged in a quire of writing-paper, but not necessarily pasted, although this is generally done. When, instead of all the sheets being placed one inside the other, the sections are laid one on top of the other, full- page size, and are then folded together to half-page size, the method is called '' collecting." In book- work an inset is an offcut or supplementary leaf not included in the regular form. Italic Letter. — A letter inclining to the right, introduced by Aldus Manutius. It is said to be an imitation of the handwriting of Petrarch. [See Italic Letter, page 156.] JoB-WoRK. — All the miscellaneous matter of a printing-office beyond book and newspaper work. [See Job- Work, page 42.] Justify. — To space out lines according to a given length, so that they shall be neither too long nor too short. TECHNICAL TERMS Kerxed Letter. — A letter in which a part of the face projects over the body, as in the italic /, which is kerned at both ends. Leads. — Thin strips of metal used for separating linea of type. Matter comfmseti without leads is termed solid. A page widely leaded has a hand- somer appearance and is more legible than one in which the lines are close together. Leaders. ^Dots or hyphens which lead the eye from the end of a line to figures or references in indexes, contents, tables, accounts, etc. — Editorial articles in daily newspapers. Letterpress. — A term given to type-work to dis- tinguish it from lithographic work and steel and copperplate printing. Let-iv Note. — The same as cut-in note. Ligature. — Two or more letters cast together on the same shank. This is done when one letter has a part of its face hailing over one or both sides of its shank, and, consequently, if used alone would be bat- tered when locked up against the shank of another letter. The ligatures areff, fi, fl, fli,ffl,lb.,and, in old style, ct. The diphthongs a; and ce are also ligatures. Light Face. — Type in which the heavy lines are but little thicker than the fine strokes. LocKi\'G UP. — Tightening up a form of work after it is paged, so that it may be lifted from the im- posing stone without the type or the furniture drop- ping out. Logotype. — Two or more letters cast on one shank. The same as Ligature. 74 TECHNICAL TERMS Lower Case. — The lower tray or case next the compositor. It contains the small letters and other characters. By lower-case letters is meant small letters; by upper-case letters, capitals. Making Ready. — This term includes all the pro- cesses of " underlaying " and " overlaying " which the pressman must employ, to bring the forms of type and cuts practically parallel with the impression- cylinder, so as to produce a perfectly satisfactory impression on the sheet of paper. Making Up. — Preparing type in regular order for printing. This includes: adjusting the interior spacing, putting in the proper head-bands and foot- lines, imposing the pages on the stone, placing around them the chase and the furniture, and, finally, locking up the pages. Modern Face. — ^A style of roman type which has been cast since the beginning of the nineteenth century, and which is more regular and even and has less angular serifs than preceding styles. Nick. — A cut made in the front of a type to indi- cate to the compositor how it should be placed in the stick. Nicks also distinguish one font from another. Octavo. — Having eight leaves or sixteen pages to a sheet. Abbreviated 8vo. or 8°. Odd Pages or Folios. — Pages bearing the odd numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, etc. They are the right-hand pages. Old English. — A name given by book-lovers to a certain style of black letter, which resembles the characters first used after the invention of printing. TECHNICAL TEEMS 75 Old Style, — A style of roman type in general use in the eighteenth century; called also "old face." It fell into disuse in England and America at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but was revived about 1843. Modernized Old Style, or Medie- val, is a type more regular in form than the original old style. Overlay. — A sheet or piece of paper, placed be- tween the sheet to be printed and the impression surface, to bring out the proper effects. 0\t;erux. — To carry matter backwards or for- wards from one line to another, or from one page to another. This is necessary when something is to be omitted or new matter is to be inserted. Overrun- ning is a very slow operation, as a whole paragraph, or even several pages, must sometimes be read- j usted before the necessary space can be gained or lost. Pagination. — ^The numerical sequence of the pages. Pi. — Type broken down or indiscriminately mixed. Platen. — The flat part or "plate" of a press, which is brought down upon the form of type to make the impression. Points.— The comma, semicolon, colon, period, mark of interrogation, mark of exclamation, hyphen, apostrophe, parenthesis, and bracket. "Point" is employed also to indicate a certain size of type. Proof. — An impression of composed matter, taken to ascertain its correctness. Office Proof is the firat proof taken from types. It is read by the proof- 76 TECHNICAL TERMS reader of the printing-office, and is corrected by the compositor at his own expense. Author^s Proof is the clean proof drawn after the corrections indicated in the office proof have been made; this clean proof is sent with the manuscript to the author. Galley Proof is proof taken from the type in the galley, and in any extended work it is usually printed on long sheets of paper called galleys. This is generally the first "author's proof." Revised or Second Proof is one drawn after the corrections indicated in the first " author's proof " have been made by the compositor. Paged Proof is a proof of paged matter ar- ranged on the imposing stone, according to the paging desh-ed. Foundry Proof is one taken after the cor- rections indicated in the last " author's proof " have been made, and before the forms are sent to the foundry to be cast. Plate Proof is a proof drawn after the plates have been cast, and which, if the author so desires, he may see for inspec- tion, and verification of the final changes made. Foul Proof is one which contains more er- rors than would be made by a skilful and care- ful compositor. Proof Paper. — A cheap paper on which the first unpressions of printed work are made. The TECHNICAL TEEMS 77 author must not suppose that it is a sample of the paper on which the work will appear when completed. The special kind and quality of paper desired for the publication in ita final form should be definitely stated by the person giving the order. Quadrat or Quah. — A short blank piece of metal, lower than the type, used for spacing at the begin- ning of a paragraph or between sentences, and to fill up blank places. The em quadrat, or the square of the body of the type, is the basis of computar tion for aJl spaces and quadrats, and for the measurement of composition; it is also the unit for measuring the fatness or leanness of type. An en quad is half the size of an em quad. There are aJso two-em and three-em quads. " Quad " is the only term used in printing offices; its plural is quads. QuAHTO. — Having four leaves or eight pages to a sheet. Recto. — The right side of a leaf, which has the odd folio. Register. — The adjustment of pages, so that they shall be printed back to back, the edges coinciding. — The printing in their proper places of colors distributed on plates attached to the cyUnder of a press. Roman, — An upright type used in printing in Eng- land and America and in all the countries whoso lan- guages are derived from the Latin. In manuscript the roman letter was employed until about the close of the twelfth century. Roman type was first cast in 1465 by two German printers, Swein- heym and Pannartz, at Subiaco, Italy. It was after- 78 TECHNICAL TERMS wards perfected and used by Nicolas Jenson, at Venice, in 1471. Although in printed works, the gothic character preceded the roman,the latter had been employed in manuscripts many centuries before the introduction of the gothic letter. Gothic letter, in fact, was formed on the roman. Script. — Inclined letters which resemble the mod- ern or the Italian handwriting. Separatrix. — A diagonal stroke used in proof- reading, to separate the corrections in the margin, when several errors occur in one line. Separatum. — A separate copy or reprint of a paper forming one in a series, as in the printed report of the proceedings of a scientific body. Papers of speciaUsts are generally issued as separata, for the benefit of persons who are interested only in the sub- jects therein treated, and who do not care for the full report of the proceedings. Serifs. — The short cross-lines at the top and bot- tom of a letter: M. Shank. — The rectangular metal body upon which the face of a type rests. Signature. — A figure or letter placed at the foot of each sheet of a volume, to indicate to the binder the order in which the sheets are to follow each other in the completed book. Each sheet has its own figure or letter.— The sheet bearing such a figure or letter, considered as a fractional part of the whole work; thus, we say that a volume is printed in sixteen signatures. [See Signatures, page 64. TEcamCAL TBBM8 79 Skeleton. — Type in which the lines are very thin and have little weight. Skeleton type may be of almost any style, and may be either condensed or extended. Slug. — A thick piece of type-metal used for spac- ing out, also as a foot-line. Small Capitals. — Letters having the same form as capitals, but smaller in size. They are used for headings of chapters, r^inning headHnes, for headings in divisions of a subject, and to give greater empha- sis to a word or words than italic letters would convey. Solid. — Type set up without leads. Sorts. — The letters belonging to one box of a case, as distinguished from a complete font. Spaces.— Short blank pieces of metal used to sep- arate one word from another, and for small blanks in lines, in order to make them of uniform length. Spaces are lower than the type and should make no impression on the paper. Stock. — A special kind and quality of paper. SuPEHioR Ch.\ractkiis. — Small letters, figures, or characters cast upon the upper part of the shank of a type, and, consequently, when printed, slightly above the range of letters in the line; in ordinary printing, they serve as reference marks. In correcting proof, a superior character, when placed in the margin, should be enclosed (a right or an acute angle is generally tised) to prevent its being placed on a range with the letters of the line. Take. — The amount of copy which is given out at one time to be composed. Tympan. — A framed appliance hinged to the 80 TECHNICAL TERMS Upper end of the bed of a platen-press. It receives the sheet to be printed, and softens and equalizes the pressure by means of blankets between its two parts. Upper Case. — The upper of the two cases before the compositor. It contains capitals, small capitals, and other marks. Versicle. — One of a series of short verses said or sung alternately by the minister or officiant and the choir or people. The name is sometimes given spe- cifically to one of the lines said just after the creed. In prayer-books the liturgical sign of the versicle is iF, Verso. — The left side of a leaf, or the page which has the even folio. White Page. — A blank page. REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES CHAPTER I STEREOTYPING AND ELECTROTYPING OTEREOTYPES are plates of type-metal and are ^ made by easting; electrotypes are produced by galvanic action. Stereotyping and electrotyping have proved a source of great economy to both the author and the publisher. Before the discovery of these processes, a work to be printed as occasion required had to be kept standing in type or else reset for each edition. By electrotyping the forms, only a small number of the first edition need be printed, as additional copies can be taken off at any time. The plates occupy much less space than type matter kept in form, and can easily be stored away for future use. The printer's type is released for other work, which in itself is a decided advantage. These two processes also save wear of the original type or cut. Electro- types have superaeded stereotypes for book and magazine work, as they give a clearer impression and are more durable. Three methods of stereotyping are known: the sten plaster, the clay, and the papier-mach^. Only the last is now much employed. The process of casting type-metal in moulds of jj,, plaster-of-paris was discovered by William Ged, a (81) 82 STEREOTYPING AND ELECTROTYPING goldsmith of Edinburgh, who began his experiments about 1725. His method proved successful, but he could not get the printers to use his plates. Numerous experiments followed, but all other methods were finally superseded by that of the Earl of Stanhope, which was introduced about 1804. The plaster process served for types on book-work for about fifty years, but it was imsuitable for engravings, and was found too slow for daily newspapers. The first work stereotyped in America was the Westminster Catechism, the plates for which were produced in New York, by John Watts, in 1813. Watts, however, sold out and went to Austria in 1816. The introduction of the art into America was really due to David Bruce, one of the two brothers who afterwards estabUshed the type-foundry known by that name. In 1813 Bruce returned from Eng- land, where he had been endeavoring to study the methods of Lord Stanhope; he began his experiments, and in 1814 succeeded in casting plates for the New Testament. The papier-mach^ process was discovered by macE^ pro- Genoux of France, in 1829, and was introduced into C6SS Great Britain in 1832. In the papier-mach6 process, a paper matrix is first made of the page of type by machinery. The material for the matrix is formed by pasting together layers of thick unsized paper and tissue paper, each layer being carefully rolled smooth with a heavy iron roller. The matrix is dried by steam-heat; to expel any remaining moisture, it is exposed for half a The papier- minute either in an oven or to the fiame of a gas-jet. AStei the edges are trimmed, the matrix is placed in the casting-box and filled with melted metal. On being removed from the easting-box, the superfluous metal is cut off from the plate, which is then trimmed by hand and shaved on the reverse side, to bring it to the exact thickness required. These operations are performed by machinery. The papier-maeh6 process is far more expeditious than any other method. A matrix and four stereo- type plat«s can be made in seven minutes; it is possible to cast a plate a minute aft«r the matrix is made. Curved plates can be made as easily as flat, and as many as forty plates can be cast from the same matrix. This process has been adopted by all large daily newspapers. Electrotypes are plates produced by means of elec- tricity; they are made from type, woodcuts, and engraved plat«s. The process of causing one metal to be deposited on another by galvanic action is nnt new, but the electrotyping of type, woodcuts, and plates ia of comparatively recent date. An engrav- ing "made by this method appeared in the London Journal for April, 1840. In America Joseph A. Adams, a wood-engraver of New York, produced plates which were used in Mapes's Magazine as early as 1841. Before 1855 the art of electrotyping was in general use in New York. To make an electrotype plate, copper, placed in a 84 STEREOTYPING AND ELECTBOTYPINQ spread itself over the surface of a mould and there be deposited in a sheet. A wax mould is first made of the engraved plate or type. To produce this, beeswax is poured on a leaden slab and is left to cool, after which graphite is brushed evenly over the surface. The form of type' or the plate is forced into the wax by means of a steam-press. This gives a mould of the type or plate in the wax. The surplus wax is removed mth a sharp knife. As the mould comes out uneven, it has to be built up; this is done by filling the large blank spaces and the surfaces between the lines with hot wax, so that the deposits of copper may be shallow. The mould is then given a coat of graphite in the black-leading machine. The graphite makes the mould a conductor of electricity. After the deposit of this metallic surface, the super- fluous graphite is washed out with water. Iron filings are sifted on the mould and a weak solution of sulphate of copper is stirred in. This coating of cop- per is given to facilitate the plating. To make the electrical connection, a piece of copper or lead is imbedded in the edge of the sheet of wax. The mould is then suspended for one or two hours in a bath of sulphate of copper solution. By the action of the electric current, the coating is increased until it is about .005 of an inch thick. The shell of copper is removed from the wax and is washed in boiling water. It is brushed on the back with a solution of chloride of zinc, and sheets of 8TEEE0TYFIN0 AND ELECTBOTYPINQ 85 tinfoil are laid over it and melted. Enough molten lead is poured on it to give the plate the necessary thickness — about one-eighth of an inch. An air- blast causes the plate to cool and solidify imme- diately. Any defects or indentations on the face of the plate are hammered up from the back, and it is afterward passed through machines which finish it and give it a bevel on the side. After the plate ia mounted, it is ready for the press. A plate to be used on a web perfecting-press is given a curvature to fit it to the cylinder. When red ink is used, electrotypes are usually given a coating of nickel, to protect the copper from the action of the mercury. An electrotype plate will stand from five hundred thousand to six hundred thousand impressions. A stereotype plate lasts for only about one hundred thousand impressions. Both stereotype and electro- type plates are now sometimes made as large as two pages of a newspaper. By hurrying each step of the process, it is possible to make an electrotype plate in an hour; but for a high grade of work more care is taken, and it then requires several hours to produce a plate with fine finish. The price of electrotyping is from one to three cents a square inch. Line work costs about seven cents, and half-tones from twelve to fifteen cents a Bquare inch. 1 CHAPTER II HALF-TONE AND LINE ENGRAVING T^HE numerous illustrations which give life and -■■ add to the value of our books, magazines, and newspapers,^ without greatly increasing their cost, have been brought into existence by the develop- ment of the relatively new art of photo-engraving, which by 1880 was beginning to supplant the re- producing of wood-cuts. Reproductions of photo- graphs, wash-drawings, paintings, or of any picture or object in which there is a gradation of color, are made by the half-tone process. Drawings or pic- tures consisting of simple Unes, that is without tones of color, such as pen sketches or fac-similes of old writings, are reproduced by line-plates. An illustration printed from a hne-plate resembles a pen and ink drawing; that is, it consists simply of Unes. A half-tone has no lines at all: it is com- posed of dots, and has middle tones, full tones, and high lights. ^The illustration of English journals dates back to 1832, when the Penny Magazine^ a periodical somewhat of the nature of a popularized cyclopedia, was first published; but illustrated journalism did not fairly b^in until The Illustrated London News was founded in 1842. Olea8on*s Pictorial was started in Boston about 1850. Frank Leslie's followed in 1854, and Harper's Weekly in 1857. The first illus- trated daily paper in America was TTie Daily Oraphic of New York, established in 1873. (86) HALF-TONE AND LINE ENGRAVING 87 To produce a half-tone, a negative is made of the picture by the wet coUodion process, with the use of a screen, and a copperplate is made of this negative. Line-plates are prepared by the same process without the use of a screen, and are made of zinc. In news- paper work, both half-tone and Une plates are pro- duced by zinc etching, as copper requires too much time. If a plain negative of a photograph were printed and etched on metal and then mounted the proper height and placed on a printing-press, the impression taken from it would be entirely black and white, the shades being black and the high lights white. There would be no reUef to the black portions, and the white parts would be etched entirely away. A printing-plate must have these parts broken up in some way, so that the light and the dark parts may be given their proper values. In the half-tone pro- cess, this is accomplished by the use of a transparent screen, generally of glass, which consists of two plates and on which have been made fine lines, the lines of one plate intersecting those of the other at right angles. This screen is placed in the plate-holder, in front of the negative, and the rays of light passing through it break up the parts in such a way as to show the gradation of color. When the lines are dose together the engraving will be finer than when a coarse screen is used, but it will be more difficult to print. One hundred and thirty or forty lines to the inch is the average number. To produce a line-plate, a negative is first made 88 HALF-TONE AND LINE ENGRAVING « from the photograph or sketch, and is developed Line-plates, in the dark-room. A plate of zinc is sensitized with a solution consisting of bichromate of am- monium (or potassium), distilled water, and albu- men. This solution is poured several times over the plate. The sensitizing is done in the dark-room, and the zinc plate is then placed in the printing-frame. The plate is laid flat upon the negative and the cross- bars are screwed down very tight, to insure perfect contact. Exposure to strong Hght, either sunlight or electric light, from two to eight minutes, then follows; the light passes through the transparent parts and prints on the metal. Nothing shows on the plate when it is taken out of the printing-frame. It is rolled with printer's or lithographic transfer-ink, and is laid face upwards in a tray containing enough water barely to cover its surface. The plate is after- wards rubbed very gently with a piece of clean absorbent cotton, which removes the superfluous ink. The print appears in the form of black lines against • a bright background. The ink clings to the parts acted on by the light; it rubs away the parts not acted on and leaves the plain metal. After the plate has been washed and heated, it is powdered with dragon's blood, which protects the lines of the en- graving when the plate is etched in the acid bath. In the etching all the parts not so protected are eaten away, the lines being left in relief. The etching solution is composed of nitric acid and water. In ordinary commercial work, three or four baths, some- tilnes more, are necessary before the plate acquires ^ [After Wood-Cut by Badiua 1 HALF-TONE AND LINE EN6BA VINQ 89 the proper depth; for newspaper work the plate ia given from two to four bites, as time permits. The next step is the routing, or drilling. On the routing-machine, in the parts where the acid did not bite deep enough, the plate is still further cut away, and large parts which are not to show at all are removed. The plate is then mounted, or nailed to a block, and is ready for the composing-room. In printing from the plate on the press, the projecting parts show black and the indentations white. The body-work, or background, of an illustration is sometimes produced by rubbing the plat«, before Tueei it is etched, through films which are made of a pre- paration of gelatine and which are inked. By placing films on parts of the plate to be strengthened, and gently rubbing on the back of the film, various lines or dots are produced. The films are so made as to give different shades of color to a plate — small dots and fine lines for delicate tones, heavy fines and large dots for deeper tones. The stipple-work which forms the background of colored illustrations in news- B produced in this way. In printing a half-tone on copper, the plate is prfntiD sensitized in a silver bath instead of a solution of |^°^° bichromate of ammonium. The etching mordant is perchloride of iron instead of nitric acid. In reproducing a sketch or illustration, better ef- fects can be obtained by using a sketch or cut which is large in size and reducing it to the dimensions de- sired. In reducing the dimensions, the intensity of the blackness of the lines is increased ; in enlarging an illustration, the lines would appear fainter, 90 HALF-TONE AND LINE ENGRAVING Makinff plates for newspaper work. As stated above, for newspaper illustration, both half-tone and line work are printed on zinc. Both plates are produced in about the same way as for books and magazines, except that in news- paper work each step of the process is performed with greater rapidity. Daily journals have many Uttle devices for faciUtating the work: they spend less time in making the negative and use an electric fan for drying. For book or magazine work, several hours are required to make a plate carefully ; a news- paper produces a plate in an hour. If a fire or some unusual occurrence takes place a little before mid- night, a sketch artist is sent out, a cut is made, and the illustration appears in the two o'clock edition of the paper. The plates for colored pictures, with which many ored^pictures' ^^ ^^^ newspaper supplements are illustrated, are prepared by about the same process as an ordinary line-plate; the main difference consists in making a separate plate for each color, as on the press the paper passes from one cylinder to another to receive the various colors. In order to obtain a perfectly satisfactory im- pression on the sheet to be printed, so that all the letters shall be clearly and distinctly printed, one part of the sheet being no blacker or fainter in color than any other part, the pressman is obliged to re- sort to a series of experiments or processes which are known by the general term of "making ready." The first impression is never perfect, as the faces of types and plates are never exactly on the same •'Making- ready. " HALF-TONE AND LINE ENGBA VING 91 level, and, unless the press is new, the surface of the impression-cylinder is probably worn by con- stant use. The types and the plates must be made practically parallel with the impression-cylinder, so that the force of the pressure on the sheet shall be in every part, as nearly as possible, the same. This evening up process is accomplished by using ''underlays" and '* overlays " of paper. The pre- and°*w^ paration of the overlays for fine illustrated work ^^* is a complicated and difficult operation, and requires much care and experience on the part of the press- man. Pieces of thin paper, but little thicker than tissue paper, are pasted on the impression-cylinder, in places where the pressure is too light. Hundreds of these pieces of paper are often used before the irregularities can be overcome and a satisfactory impression produced. It sometimes requires two or three days' labor on the part of the pressman, to bring out the blacks, the half-tints, and the high lights as they should appear in the picture. For newspaper work, a line-plate is locked up with the form of type, which is set by the Unotype and p£tls?n ^°™ which is the size of one full page of the paper, and is woTkf*'*^ stereotyped with the type. To get a clear impression of the cut, in making the matrix, an overlay, or piece of stiff prepared paper, is placed directly over the plate, so as to keep it down as tight as possible. Matrices are made from half-tones, but in order to get better effects, some newspapers print directly from the plate itself, as is done in fine work. A depression or space is left in the matrix and the half- 92 HALFTONE AND LINE ENQRA VINO tone is inserted into it ; when the molten lead is poured over the matrix, the cut is soldered into the stereo- type plate. To save wear, haK-tones are nickel- plated for color work, as nickel is not easily affected by colored inks. A plate to be used on a web-press is made with a curve which fits it to the cylinder. In printing a half-tone, a paper or overlay is placed between the sheet and the impression-cyUnder, so as to bring out the Ughts and shades that should appear in the picture. PUNCTUATION CHAPTER I TN punctuating, one aim should be kept in view -*- — to use such marks and only sueh as are needed to make clear the writer's meaning. It should be borne in mind that a mark of punctuation is not always needed where a pause would be required in reading or speaking. The office of punctuation is to indicate the grammatical construction and the sense. While it is necessary to have some general rules governing the subject, no intelligent person will confine himself strictly to them. One who under- stands the exact meaning of a passage, even if he has but a general knowledge of the use of the marks, will punctuate far better than he who blindly follows a "rule." Points which, according to certain rules, would be employed in some cases, in others are better omitted, as commas in long complex sentences con- taining many clauses. On the other hand, it is often necessary to insert a comma or other mark not re- quired by rule, to prevent ambiguity. The principal punctuation marksare: the period {.), colon (:), semicolon (;), comma (,), interrogation point (?), exclamation point (!), dash (— ), marks of parenthesis (), brackets [], quotation marks (""), apostrophe ('), and hyphen (-). 94 THE PERIOD THE PERIOD 1. Egds of Sentences. The period should be used at the end of every sen- tence which is complete in itself and which is declara- tive, imperative, or but slightly exclamatory. I ^-ill work in my own sphere, nor wish it other than it is. This alone is health and happiness. This alone is life. — Longfellow: Hyperion. Love thy neighbor as thyself. A wide freedom, truly. 2. Abbreviated Words. A period is generally placed after an abbreviation; as, M. D., Esq., viz. for videlicet (namely), e. g. for exempli gratia (for example), etc. A period should not be used after a word in which the omission of letters is indicated by an apostrophe; as, dec'd for deceased. When a sentence ends with an abbreviated word^ only one point is needed. So far as possible, the use of two ix)ints together should be avoided. The period may be omitted after a colon or an interrogation point following an abbreviation. The lecture will be given on Tliursday, at 4 p. ni. Has he the degree of Ph.D ? Names which are merely a shortening of a proper name should not be followed by a period; as, Ben, Will, Bess. A period should not be placed after such abbrevia- tions of dates as 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc., unless they occur at the end of a sentence. THE PERIOD 95 3. Roman Numeral* and Arabic Numerals. Roman numerals do not require to be followed by the period: Book II; chap. IV; Edward VII, Louis IX of France. A period should be placed after roman and arable numerals when they are used to number a table of contents, a list of subjects, paragraphs, or parts of the same paragraph. Numbers, generally, should be WTitten out. Arabic numerals are employed for dates, street addresses, citation of pages, in technical matter, and when fig- ures cannot be indicated by a round number. When many numbers appear in a work, to enable the eye to catch them readily, they should be expressed by arable numerals. Figures are generally used in com- mercial printing, but words are preferred for book- work and formal writing. 4. SIdeheadB, and Names of Works or of Authors fol- lowing an Extract. When a sidehead is ])laced at the beginning of a paragraph, it is followed by a period and a dash. These marks are usually placed after an extract, when the name of the author or work from which the extract is taken follows in the same paragraph. In these cases the dash is an ornamental mark used by the printer. Mathematics. — Arithmetic, geometry, algebra. Tlie foundfltioa of true joy is in the conEcience. — Seneca, 5. Item* of tt Catalogue or Syllabus. A period should be placed after each item of a cata- logue or syllabus when the items are not closely related. 96 THE PERIOD Harding, Edwards. Costume of the Russian Empire. 1811.' Lecture I. — ^The Development of Language, Oral and Writ- ten. Ancient Systems of Writing. Derivation of the English Alphabet. In lists of names given in columns, final periods are not used. In a table of contents, the different topics of a paragraph are usually separated by dashes. 6. Title-pages, Headings, Cards, etc. On title-pages, cards, and in headings of circulars, etc., the best usage is to omit the punctuation marks at the ends of the lines, except periods denoting abbreviations. The lines are sufficiently set off by the blank spaces which follow. Commas and other marks needed within the lines are employed. NEW ORLEANS THE PLACE AND THE PEOPLE by GRACE KING Author of "Jean Baptiste le Mojoie, Sieur de Bienville," "Balcony Stories," etc. With illustrations by Frances E. Jones New York Macmillan and Co. and London 1895 All rights reserved ^ When such items occur in foot-notes, citations, etc., very little punct- uation is employed : Cf . Harleian MS. Brit. Mus. 3469. CHAPTER II THE COLON I. A Quotation, Speech, or an Enumeration of Par- ticular* Formaiiy Introduced. A quotation, a speech, a course of reasoning, or an enumeration of particulars when formally intro- duced should be preceded by a colon. All our conduct toward men should be influenced by this important precept: "All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." Lord Ciiatham, in his speech on the Right of Taxation, saya; The gentleman [Mr. Grenville] teUs us America is obstinate; America is almost in open rebellion," I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people bo dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instmmenta to make slaves of the When the quotation or enumeration begins a new paragraph, some writers place a dash after the colon. As the dash in this case is of no service in indicating the grammatical construction, the colon is the only mark needed. If the quotation or enumeration is not directly introduced by the preceding sentence, a period should be used. We wiU now consider eaeh point separately. (1) The nature of the measure. (2) The benefit it will confer upon the community, should it become a law. (3) Whose interests it may injure. (97) 98 THE COLON If the quotation is short and closely connected with what procedc^s, a comma before it is sufficient. There is much in the proberb, Without pains no gains. When an example or illustration is introduced by such a word or phrase as cw, that is, viz., namely, to wit, etc., a semicolon is placed before and a comma after the connective word. To Greece we are indebted for the three principal orders of architecture; namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corin- thian. When the statement following is long or formal, a comma is used before the introductory word and a colon after it. The colon is frequently used in dignified address. It is thus employed after the salutation of a letter. Mr. President: The Honorable Gentleman from Elinob has just stated, etc. Dear Sir : Your letter of the 3d instant has just reached me. 2. Statements in Apposition, and a Generic Term Followed by Specifications. A colon should be placed between two clauses not connected by a conjunction, when the second is in some way in apposition with the first, or is added as an explanation or illustration. The colon is used also after a general term followed by several statements in apposition with it ; the state- ments are separated from one another by semicolons. •>. 'i THE COLON 99 The darkness of death is like the evening twilight : it makes all objects appear more lovely to the dying. — Richter. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 3. Members of a Sentence Which are Subdivided by Semicolons. The colon is sometimes used to separate two mem- bers of a compound sentence which are subdivided by semicolons. Such cases, however, are of rare occurrence. One's age should be tranquil, as one's childhood should be playful; hard work at either extremity of human existence seems to be out of place : the morning and the evening should be alike cool and peaceful; at midday the sun may bum, and men may labor under it. — Dr. T. Arnold. CHAPTER III THE SEMICOLON 1. Members of a Compound Sentence. The semicolon is iised to separate short members of a compound sentence, when the conjunction is omitted or when the connection is not close. There are no songs comparable to the songs of Zion; no orations equal to those of the Prophets; and no politics like those which the Scriptures teach. — Milton. The semicolon is used to separate members of a compound sentence which are subdivided by commas, even when the members are joined by connectives. Books are the food of youth, the delight of old age; the ornament of prosperity, the refuge and comfort of adversity; a delight at home, and no hindrance abroad; companions by night, in traveling, in the country. — Cicero. A Scotch mist becomes a shower; and a shower, a flood; and a flood, a storm; and a storm, a tempest, thunder, and lightning; and thunder and lightning, heavenquake and earthquake. 2. Short Sentences Related in Meaning. The semicolon should be placed between short complete sentences related in meaning or construc- tion, but with no grammatical dependence upon each other. In such cases it is often possible to use a (100) THE SmriCOLON 101 period, but the discrimination of relations would not be so clearly indicated I see the pyramids building; I hear the shoutings of the ftrmy of Alexander; I feel the ground ehake beneath the march of Cambyscs. — Albxanseii Smith. If the sentences are short and very closely con- nected, commas may be used. Tlie drums bcal, the banners unfur), the army marches. 3. EKplanatory ClauBcs. A semicolon should be placed after a complete sentence followed by a clause denoting contrast, inference, or explanation, when the clause is intro- duced by a conjunction. It is in vain to gather Spirit of God delighteth to Erasmus. ion Dependence upon The semicolon is used to separate clauses which - have a common dependence upon another clause, either at the beginning or the end of the sentence. If the clause upon which the series depends pre- :, it should be separated from the first clause of the series by a comma; if it comes at the end of the sentence, a dash is placed after the last clause of the The great tendency and purpose of poetry is, to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten, dusty, weary walks of 102 THE SEMICOLON ordinary life; to lift it into a purer element; and to breathe into it more profound and generoiis emotion. The great golden elms that marked the line of the village street, and under whose shadows no beggars sat; the air of comfort and plenty, of neatness, thrift, and equality visible everywhere; and from far-oflf fanns the sound of flails, beat- ing the triumphal march of Ceres through the land — these were the sights and sounds that greeted him as he looked. — Longfellow: Kavanagh, It has been the custom to place a comma before the dash, when the clause upon which the series depends comes at the end of the sentence, but two punctuation marks are not needed. 5. Words Used to Introduce Examples. Asy viz,, e. g., i, 6., etc., or the full words for which these abbreviations stand, when used to introduce examples or illustrations, are generally preceded by the semicolon and followed by the comma, unless the connection is very close. Greece has given us three great historians; namely, Hero- dotus, Xenophon; and Thucydides. When such examples are introduced parentheti- cally, commas should be used. The word * reck, ' that is, care, denotes a stretching of the mind. Many of our great men, for instance, Franklin, Lincoln, and Grant, have been poor in youth. CHAPTER IV THE COMMA I. Words in a Series. When more than two words of the same part of speech or more than two phrases, in the same gram- matical construction, form a series, a comma should be placed after each word or phrase except the last. He looked upon the world as a glad, bright, glorious worid. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon. — Dickens. When the last two words or phrases are connected by a conjunction, a comma should be placed before the conjunction. The use of the conjunction does not make the connection between the last two words or phrases any closer than the connection between the other words or phrases of the series. The conjunction, therefore, does not take the place of a comma. Alfred the Great was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. If the conjunction is omitted between the last two words or phrases, a comma should be placed after each word or phrase in the series, unless the last word or phrase is followed by a single word or is very closely connected with the remainder of the sentence. The colleges, the clergy, the lawyers, were against me. Teach, urge, threaten, lecture him. (103) 104 THE COMMA Two words or phrases standing in the same rela- tion and connected by a conjunction do not require a comma. Reason and virtue answer one great aim. When the conjunction is decidedly disjunctive, or when words or phrases are contrasted antitheti- cally or are made emphatic, the comma is used before the conjimction. He could write, and cipher too. The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged. He, and he only, is worthy of our supreme affections. In a series of words of the same part of speech, or in a series of short phrases, connected by con- junctions, no comma is necessar>'. Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty and wis- dom from all nature and art and history. All that charms the eye or the ear or the imagination or the heart is the gift of God. If one of the series of words connected by con- junctions is qualified by a word or phrase which does not qualify the others, a comma should be placed before the conjunction which precedes the word thus qualified. The men wore breeches and long boots, and frock-coats with large metal buttons; the women, straw hats, and gay calico gowns with short waists and scant folds. 2. Conjoined Words. If the conjunction is omitted between two words of the same part of speech and in the same gram- THE COMMA 105 matical construction, they should be separated by a comma. Rash, fruitless war is only splendid murder. We are fearfully, wonderfully made. Commas are required only between words which are coordinate in value. When adjectives which precede the object qualify other words as well as the object, commas should not be used. He is a bright, trustworthy young man. She wore a faded old shawl. He had beautiful large blue eyes. In the last example, hlue qualifies eyes, large qualifies the phrase hlue eyes, and beautiful qualifies the phrase large hlue eyes. The comma is used to separate words repeated for the sake of emphasis. Verily, verily, I say unto you. Alone, alone, all, all alone. Alone on a wide, wide sea. 3. Words in Pairs. Words or phrases used in pairs, connected by con- junctions or other particles, require a comma after each pair. The wise and the foolish, the weak and the strong, the young and the old, have one common Father. The sunny morning and the gloomy midnight, the bleak winter and the balmy spring, alike speak to us of the Crea- tor's power. 106 THE COMMA 4. Words or Phrases in Contrast. The comma should be used to separate words or phrases in the same clause contrasted with each other. Speak for, not against, the principles of love and peace. Truth is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain. Rhetoric is the science, and oratory the art, of speaking well. 5. Correlative Clauses. Two correlative clauses are separated by a comma. When the clauses are joined by as or than, the comma is omitted. The more diligent you are, the sooner you will accom- plish your task. The deeper the well, the cooler the water. No one is so much alone in the universe as a denier of God. 6. Words or Phrases in Apposition. Words or phrases in apposition should be sepa- rated from each other and from the rest of the sen- tence by commas. Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest. If one of the words used is merely a general title, the comma should not be employed. The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. The great orator Cicero was famed for many excellences. The river Thames. When a pronoun is used with a noun for the sake of emphasis or in direct address, the comma should be omitted. I myself. Ye men of Athens. THE COMMA 107 When two or more words can be regarded as one name or as a single phrase, a comma should not be used between them. Philip of Macedon. Lord Chief Justice. Our Lord Jesus Christ. The Lord God Almighty. Louis IX of France. David Bruce of New York. A title or a degree should be separated by a comma from the noun which it follows. John James, Secretary. Frederick W. Farrar, D.D., F.R.S. 7. Transposed Phrases or Clauses. A phrase or clause at the beginning of a sentence which could be placed either at the end or in some other part of the sentence without changing the mean- ing, should be followed, by a comma. To be frank with you, the matter does not please* me. Like flakes of snow that fall unperceived upon the earth, the seemingly unimportant events of life succeed one another. — Bentham. The firmest friendships have been formed in mutual ad- versity, as iron is most strongly united by the fiercest flame. When the introductory phrase or clause is very short, the comma is not used, unless needed to pre- vent confusion. In the year 800 Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of Rome. In America printing began in the city of Mexico. To the good, death presents no terrors. 108 THE COMMA 8. Parenthetical Words, Phrases, and Clauses. A word, phrase, or clause introduced loosely in a sentence and which could be omitted without de- stroying the meaning, is generally preceded and fol- lowed by the comma. He promised, however, to set about a reform at once. Dismiss, as soon as may be, all angry and Avrathful thoughts. It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world. Human experience, like the stemlights of a ship at sea, illumines only the path which we have passed over. — Cole- ridge. TheUf noWj toOj also, however^ thereforej conse- quently , accordingly, etc., are often used paren- thetically. Many writers omit the commas before and after such parenthetical words as then, too, also, indeed, etc.: this also is desirable; that was indeed a wise measure. When any one of these words is used to modify a single word, it should not be separated from the word which it modifies. Then I trusted him; now I do not. The people are too credulous. When a clause is introduced between two important parts of a sentence and is essential to its full meaning, or when a clause is thrown out of its normal place, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The little that is known, and the circumstance that little is known, must be considered as honorable to him. Let us, for argument's sake, assume this. THE COMMA 109 g. Participial and Adjective Phrases. Participial and adjective phrases are set off by commas. The boy, iaugliing merrily, ran down the street. The choral anthem, solemn and impressive, was heard through the open door. lo. Relative Clauses. Relative clauses are introduced by relative pro- nouns and are either restrictive or non-restrictive. Non-reetrietive clauses are preceded by the comma, and if they occur in the middle of a sentence, they are foliowed by this mark. Restrictive clauses do not take commas. The antecedent of a restrictive clause is generally modified by «, the, or that. Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevo- The Hii eye, that sees all things, sees not itself, stories, which made everybody laugh. the world of mind is emphatically made to order. The lever which the printing-press. A man who has never been at sea cannot be thoroughly proficient in navigation. A comma should be placed before the pronoun of a restrictive clause, when the relative refers to each noun in a series. 110 THE COMMA 11. Subject and Predicate. If the subject of a sentence is so long that the reader might find difficulty in separating it from the predicate, or if the nominative ends with a word which might be read with the predicate and thus confound the sense, a comma may be placed after the subject. That a peculiar state of the mere particles of the brain should be followed by a change of the state of the sentient mind, is truly wonderful. To walk beneath the porch, is still infinitely less than to kneel before the cross. If the subject ends with a verb and the predicate also begins with one, a comma should be placed be- tween them. Whatever is, is right. 12. Long Infinitive Phrases. A long infinitive phrase, whether used as subject or occurring at the end of a sentence, is set off by a comma. To piill down the false and build up the true, let this be our endeavor. And Freedom shall awhile repair, To dwell, a weeping hermit, there. 13. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases. When adverbs or adverbial phrases modify clauses or sentences, they should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a conmia. Next, we know that parties must ever exist in a free coun- try. — Edmund Burke. Let us, in the first place, observe the inanimate world. THE COMMA 111 In short sentences the comma is omitted. Be ready when I come. 14. Such Clauses as It is Said, We are Told, etc., when used to introduce several statements, each pre- ceded by the word ihaty should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. If there is but one proposition, the comma should not be used. Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operar tions, that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve, that knowledge will always be progressive, and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries of- which w© have not the slightest idea. We are told that matter is indestructible. 15. Nouns of Address and Vocative Expressions. Nouns of address and vocative expressions should be separated from the rest of the sentence by conunas. Mr. President, I rise to expl^n. You talk, sir, of your allies. I wish to know who your allies are. Let us now, my friends, calmly discuss the matter. i6. Omission of a Noun, a Verb, or a Phrase. ' A comma should be used to indicate the omission of a noun, a verb, or a phrase when this mark is necessary to make the meaning clear; in short clauses it may be dispensed with, unless needed to prevent ambiguity. Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an exact man. The young are slaves to novelty; the old to custom. 112 THE COMMA When two short clauses have bearing on a final expression, the comma is omitted after the second clause, and the semicolon before it is changed to a conmia. Herder had more of the Oriental fancy, Schleiermacher more of the European acuteness in his composition. 17. Numbers. In numbers consisting of four or more figures (except dates), a comma is placed before every three figures beginning at the right. The population of Chicago in 1900 was 1,698,575. Numbers expressed in words are usually written without a comma. In expressing round numbers, words are to be preferred to figiu-es. The population of the United States is about seventy-six millions. In writing dates a comma should be placed between the month and the year: October 1st, 1899; March, 1900. 18. In the Address and the Conclusion of a Letter or other document, commas should separate the different items. Hon. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education. I remain. Yours very respectfully, Howard R. Brown. THE COMMA 113 In the address on an envelope, no punctuation is needed at the ends of the lines, as they are sufficiently set off by their position. Commas are needed only where they help to the understanding of the sense. The use or the omission of a comma in a sentence sometimes entirely changes its meaning. However, this may be. However this may be. He who loves the bristle of bayonets, only sees in their glitter what beforehand he felt in his heart. He who loves the bristle of bayonets only, sees in their glitter what beforehand he felt in his heart. In cases of doubt, it is best to follow the old rule, and use too few rather than too many commas. CHAPTER V THE INTERROGATION POINT— THE EXCLAMATION POINT THE INTERROGATION POINT I. Direct Questions. The interrogation point should be used after every direct question, when an answer is expected or in- volved. Will you go to the lecture this evening? Cans't thou by searching find out God? It is sometimes difficult to decide whether the in- terrogation point or the mark of exclamation should be used after a sentence which is interrogative in form. As a general rule, when an answer is expected or implied, the interrogation point should be used; when no answer is either expected or involved, the sentence should be followed by the exclamation point. What is the happiness that this world can give? Can it defend us from disasters? How could you desert me I O Rose I who dares to name thee ! When a rhetorical use is made of a question, it \st followed by an interrogation point. Am I not an apostle? Am I not free? (114) THE INTERROGATION POINT 116 a. Questions not Interrogative in Form. A sentence put in a declarative form but intended as a question, should be followed by an interrogation point. You will go to the lecture this evening? 3. Sentences Which Denote only that a Question has been asked. The interrogation point should not be used after a sentence which merely denotes that a question has been asked. He asked me if I would go to the lecture this evening. He asked me what I would do in that ctee. He was asked the question, Are you guilty or not guilty, and refused to answer. 4. Sentences not Entirely Interrogative. When a sentence is long and not entirely inter- rogative, the interrogation point is placed immediately after the interrogative portion. Shall we blame him? — seeing that he did not know what would be expected of him, and that he would not have under- stood had he known. 5. A Series of Questions. The interrogation point is used after each separate query of a compound interrogative sentence. Does he dream of wealth? or fame? or empire? or happiness? ^ The members of a compound interrogative sentence are sometimes separated by other points. Ah! whither now are fled those dreams of greatness; those busy, bustling days; those gay-spent, festive nights; those ^ 116 THE EXCLAMA TION POINT veering thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared thy life? 6. Doubt as to the Truth or Accuracy of a Statement. The interrogation point placed within parentheses is used to question the truth or accuracy of a state- ment. Aldus Manutius went to Venice in 1489 (?) THE EXCLAMATION POINT I. Interjections, Exclamations, etc. • The exclamation point is used generally after interjections, words used as interjections, exclama- tions, and phrases or sentences expressing emotion, passion, wish, or wonder. It is not used after sen- tences which are only slightly exclamatory or which merely express a command, nor is it needed after every oh or alas. Ha! that is grand. No more! Oh, how majestically mournful are those .words ! — Longfellow. God save the King ! O blessed vision of the morning, stay ! A wide freedom, trulv. Friends, Romans, count r>'men, lend mo your ears. a. Interjections Repeated. When interjections are repeated to express a certain sound, they are separated from one another THE EXCLA3IATI0N POINT 117 by commas and the exclamation point is used only after the last. Ha, ha, ha! That's the best joke I have heard this many a day. If an interjection begins a clause or a sentence which requires the exclamation point at the end, it is better to omit the point after the interjection. Alas both for the deed and for the cause ! 3. The Exclamation Point Repeated. To express strong feeling, the exclamation point is sometimes repeated. It is employed in this way in burlesque and satire, but only to a limited ex- tent. Fire I Fire!! Fire!!! Dying! Dying!! Dying!!! and Oh is used with a noun in direct address and to express a wish or imprecation. It is used also to introduce an exclamatory phrase or sentence, and as an introduction to a sentence in which it has no particular meaning. O thou that roUest above, round as the shield of my fathers! — OSSIAN. O wad some power the giftie gie us, To see oursels as ithers see us ! — Burns. O God! that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains! — Shakespeare: Othello^ When did you return? O, only yesterday. 118 THE EXCLAMATION POINT should never be immediately followed by the exclamation point. In names compounded with o', the o should always be a small letter: Tam o'Shanter, five o'clock. Oh is used to express surprise, pain, or grief. It is followed immediately by the exclamation point, unless used to introduce an exclamatory phrase or sentence, in which case a comma should be used after the interjection and the exclamation point placed jj at the end. Oh is not used with nouns of address. ■ Oh I I have lost my purse. Oh I you are wounded, my lord. But she is in her grave, and oh ! Tlie difference to me ! — Wordsworth. Oh, what a tangled web we weave When first we practice to deceive ! — Scott. CHAPTER VI THE DASH I. Change in the Construction or in the Sentiment. The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in the construction or in the sentiment. The spectroscope shows the atmosphere of Saturn to be — no matter, I have forgotten what; but it was not pure nitro- gen, at any rate. — Holmes: Over the Teacups. Here lies the great — False marble I where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here. The dash is used sometimes to denote hesitation or faltering on the part of the speaker. I take — eh ! oh I as much exercise — eh I — as I can, Madame Gout. You know my sedentary habits. The dash is used when a sentence takes an unex- pected or epigrammatic turn at the end. Some men are full of affection — affection for themselves. This world is full of fools, and not to see one pass. You must shut yourself up alone and — break your looking-glass. — La Monnaye. a. Parenthetical Expressions. The dash is used -before and after a parenthetical expression that is too much detached from the sen- tence to take commas, and yet is too closely related to it to be enclosed within parentheses. (119) 120 THE DASH That done, she turned to the old man with a lovely smile upon her face — such, they said, as they had never seen and never could forget — and clung with both her arms about his neck. They did not know that she was dead, at first. — Dickens. A comma is used sometimes before the first dash when a comma would be required if the parenthet- ical expression were omitted. Many writers omit the comma. And the ear, — that gathers into its hidden chambers all music and gladness — would you give it for a kingdom? The motive of the play — revenge as a religious duty — Ixjlongs only to a social state in which the traditions of bar- barism are still operative. If the parenthetical expression itself requires a point, it should be placed before the last dash. Religion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest of themes for the exercise of the intellect. When one parenthetical expression occurs within another, the first parenthetical expression may be separated from the rest of the sentence by marks of parenthesis, and the second set off by dashes. 3. A Series of Clauses Dependent upon a Conclud* ing Clause. A series of phrases or clauses having a common dependence upon a concluding clause is separated from the latter by a dash. To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold what there is of true in the old — let this be our endeavor. THE DASH 121 In this case some writers use a comma before the dash, but the tendency is to dispense with all unnece&- sary punctuation. 4. Detached Expressions. The dash is used when a sentence breaks off ab- ruptly or is apparently completed. "I forgot my — " "Your portmanteau?" hastily inter- rupted Thomas. " The same. ' ' He has lost wealth, home, friends — everything but honor. A whole leisure Saturday afternoon was before him — pure gold without alloy. 5. Repeated Words or Expressions. The dash is used before words or expressions which are repeated by way of explanation or for the sake of emphasis. You speak like a boy — ^like a boy, who thinks the old gnarled oak can be twisted as easily as the yoimg sapling. Let no sad tears be shed, when I die, over me, But bury me deep in the sea — in the sea. 6. Ellipses. The dash is used to indicate the ellipsis of such words as namely ^ that is, etc. There are two kinds of evils — those which cannot be cured and those which can. The people of the village thought they recognized in Peter a most illustrious personage — the king of Prussia in dis- guise. 122 THE DASH He has happily united the two most familiar emblems of life — the short journey and the inn. In such cases, especially in short sentences, many writers use a comma instead of the dash. 7. Sideheads and Extracts. The period and the dash are used after a sidehead, that is, a heading at the beginning of a paragraph. These marks are placed also after an extract, when the name of the author or work from which the extract is taken follows in the same paragraph. In these cases the dash is an ornamental mark used by the printer. The Age of Elizabeth. — Lectures on the History of English Literature, from the Re\'ival of Learning to Milton, exclusive of the Drama. There is no genius in life like the genius of energy and industry. — D. G. Mitchell. 8. Change of Subject in the Same Paragraph. A dash may be used to denote a change of subject in a paragraph, when, from want of space, a separate paragraph cannot be made. It is so employed in dictionaries and encyclopedias. Questions and answers when given in the same paragraph are sepa- rated by the dash. Where was Napoleon bom? — In the island of Corsica. What sobriquet was bestowed upon him in France? — "The Little Corporal." THE DASH 123 9. Omission of Letters and Figures. A long dash is used to indicate the omission of let- ters from a word, when it is not desirable to give the word in full. If you have written anything which you think* well of, show it to Mr. , the well-known critic. A reception was held last evening at the residence of Mrs. L , on B Street. A short dash is used to indicate the omission of figures: 1890-91. When used between two numbers, the dash shows that the numbers given and all the intervening ones are in a series: Pages 339-400 ; Matthew iv: 5-10; St. John v: 1-9. In writing dates, only the figures denoting the centuT}'- should be dropped : 1896-97. The full figures should be used in giving pages or numbers. The dash is a mark which should be used sparingly. It should not be made to take the place of other punctuation marks nor to separate complete sen- tences. Its frequent use tends to disfigure a page either of manuscript or of printed matter. CHAPTER VII MARKS OF PARENTHESIS— BRACKETS MARKS OF PARENTHESIS 1. Words Which Break the Unity of a Sentence. Marks of parenthesis are used to enclose words which break the unity of a sentence and which have no necessary connection with the sentence in which they occur. The profound learning and philosophical researches of Sir William Jones (he was the master of twenty-eight lan- guages) were the wonder and admiration of his contem- poraries. A. B. {Artium Baccalaureus) is an abbreviation meaning Bachelor of Arts. Si monumentum requiris, circumspice (If you seek his monument, look around) is the epitaph of Sir Christopher Wren in St. Paul's Cathedral, London. 2. Punctuation Wfthin a Parenthesis. Marks of parenthesis do not take the place of other marks of punctuation. Words enclosed within the parenthesis should be punctuated as independent sentences. A period is sometimes required before the last curve. Say not in thine heart, Who. shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above ;) or, Who shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from the dead.) But what saith it? (124) MARKS OF PABENTHESm 125 3. Punctuation Before and After ■ Parenthesi*. If no mark would be required with the parenthe- sis omitted, no point should be placed either before the first or after the last curve. .1 my flesh) dwelletli 11 For I know that in me (that ii good thing. — St. Paul. If a mark is required after the portion of the sen- tence preceding the parenthesis, it should be placed after the second curve. I cite this, not thftt it is the only instance (tor there are many others), but because the violation in this particular ia too notorious and palpable to be denied. Just at that moment the candle went out, and the brother- in-law, looking through a chink In the door, saw the two dark men stealing upstairs; one armed with a dagger that long (about five feet}; the other carrj'iiig a chopper, a sack, and a spade. When the parenthesis is a question or an exclama- tion, the comma is placed before the first curve. Wliile a Christian deaires the approbation of hia fellow- men, (and why should he not deairu it?) he deaires to receive their good-will by honorable means. Let me be understood, however, distinctly "s f">t mean- ing to say that I dread war in a just cause, (and in no other way may it be the lot of this country ever to engage I) from a distrust of the strength of the country to commence it, or of her resources to maintain it. — Gbobge Cannino; Aid to Portugal, So far as possible) parentheses should be avoided. In many cases the thought can be conveyed by a different construction of the sentence. The dash, 126 BRACKETS however, should not be used as a cover for ignorance of the proper marks to be employed, nor to set off all kinds of parenthetical expressions. The parentheses and the dash have their separate offices. An interpolation that has no necessary connection with the sentence in which it occurs and which could be constructed as an independent sen- tence, should be enclosed within parentheses. The dash serves to indicate a sudden change in the con- struction or sentiment, or an expansion of the thought already expressed. BRACKETS 1. Extraneous Matter. Brackets are used to enclose all extraneous mat- ter, such as interpolations, corrections, criticisms, or explanations, made by an editor, or by a writer in a quotation from another person. Few books have been perused by me with greater pleasure than his [Watts's] "Improvement of the Mind." — Dr. S. Johnson. K. C. H., Knight Commander of [the Order of] Hanover. Let us beseech you, then, to make them [religion and eter- nity] familiar \vith your minds and mingle them with the ordinary stream of your thoughts; retiring often from the world, and conversing with God and your own souls. — Robert Hall. 2. Reports of Speeches. In reports of speeches, names of persons referred to by the writer of the report, and exclamations of approbation and disapprobation, are enclosed within brackets. BRACKETS 127 In doing so, I agree with my honorable friend [Mr. Can- ning] that it would, in any case, be impossible to separate the present discussion from the former crimes and atrocities of the French Revolution. We have met for the freest discussion of these resolutions, and the events which gave rise to them. [Cries of "Ques- tion," "Hear him," "Go on," "No gagging," etc.] 3. Interpolation In a Parenthesis. An interpolation made by the writer in matter already enclosed within marks of parentheses should be placed within brackets. They have given way to the absolute power of one man, concentrating in himself all the authority of the state, and differing from other monarchs only in this, that (as my hon- orable friend [Mr. Canning] truly stated it) he wields a sword instead of a sceptre. — William Pitt: Refusal to Negotiate, 4. Printed Dramas. In printed dramas, brackets are used to enclose stage directions, and, in single form, to indicate the entrance and departure of certain characters. Shylock. [Aside.] How like a fawning publican he looks ! Lennox. May't please your highness, sit. [The ghost of Banquo enters, and sits in Macbeth *s place. [\'^arious Women and Bathsheba come slowly on in the gallery above. [Exit Gadias. Murmurs outside. Words enclosed within marks of parentheses are a part of the original matter, that is, they are explana- 128 BRACKETS tions given by the writer or speaker. What is en- closed within brackets is extraneous matter, or the words of the reporter or editor or of some other person than the speaker or writer. Or, even if the construction contended for is admitted, let us see what would have been its application, let us look at the list of their aggressions which was read by my right honorable friend [Mr. Dundas] near me. With whom have they been at war since the period of this declaration? With all the nations of Europe save two (Sweden and Denmark), and if not with these two, it is only because, with every provo- cation that could justify defensive war, those countries have hitherto acquiesced in repeated violations of their rights rather than recur to war for their vindication. — William Pitt : Refusal to Negotiate. CHAPTER VIII QUOTATION MARICS— THE APOSTROPHE QUOTATION MARKS I. Quoted Worda or Pasaagea. Marks of quotation are used to enclose i from an author or what is said by another person, if given in his own words. Goethe saya, " Man makea mistakes as long as lie Uvea." When Fenelon's library was on lire, "God be praised," Baid he, "that it is not the dwelling ot a poor man." When the substance only of a passage is given or when the words of another are not given in the first person, quotation marks should not be used. Socrates said that he believed in the immortality of the Switt asserts that no man ever wished himself younger. When an extract is taken from a work and credit is given to the writer in the text or in a foot-not«, quotation marks are superfluous. 3. Quotationa Conaiatlng of More than One Para- graph. \Vhen cited matter consists of more than one para- graph, quotation marks are used before each para- graph, but they are not placed at the end of any paragraph except the last. The following paragraphs are taken from an essay by 1 Godwin; ()») 130 QUOTATION MARKS "No subject is of more importance in the morality of pri- vate life than that of domestic or family life. " Every man has his ill-humors, his fits of peevishness and exacerbation. Is it better that he should spend these upon his fellow-beings, or suffer them to subside of themselves?" If the matter quoted does not begin a new paragraph, no paragraph should be made before the close of the quotation. D'Alembcrt congratulated a young man very coldly, who had brought him the solution of a problem. "I have done this to have a seat in the Academy," said the young man. "Sir," answered D'Aleinbert, "with such motives you will never earn one. Science must be loved for its own sake, and not for the advantage to be derived. No other princi- ple will enable a man to make true progress." 3. A Break in a Quotation.' A break in a quotation is generally indicated by points or periods. No quotation marks are used ex- cept at the beginning and the end of the whole mat- ter quoted. If the words following the points begin another paragraph, they should be preceded by quo- tation marks. (t Ah, nothing is too late Till the tired heart shall cease to palpitate. Cato learned Greek at eighty. Chaucer, at Woodstock with the nightingales, At sixty wrote the Canterbury Tales. Goethe, at Weimar, toiling to the last. Completed Faust when eighty years were past. " QUOTATION MARKS 131 If a dash is used to denote that a quotation is not complete, quotation marks should be placed after the dash. " O Caesar, we who are about to die Salute you I was the gladiator^s cry In the arena " 4. Use of Quotation Marks in Latin Languages. In many foreign books, especially in French, Span- ish, and Italian novels, no quotation marks are used in dialogues or conversations, a dash serving to in- dicate the beginning of a conversation, also when one person ceases speaking and another begins. Some publishers use quotation marks, but only at the be- ginning and the end of the whole dialogue or conver- sation. Quotation marks are always employed, however, to enclose extracts and short quotations from the words of others. In the authorized version of the Bible, an initial capital takes the place of an opening quotation mark, yet there is no difficulty in distinguishing the spoken words from the descriptive portion of the text. The marks now generally used in English to enclose the words of different speakers in dialogues and conversations, therefore, are not really needed. An initial capital at the beginning of the words of each speaker, or a dash and capital if what is said by the various persons forms separate paragraphs, would sufficiently set apart the conversation from the rest of the text. Quotation marks, however, should always be used to enclose the exact words of an author or of a speaker. 132 QUOTATION MARKS 5. A Quotation Within a Quotation. Single marks should be used to enclose a quotation included within another quotation. A minister of some experience remarks, "I have heard more than one sufferer say, *I am thankful, God is good to me'; and when I heard that I said 'It is good to be afflicted.'" In books printed in England, single instead of double marks are placed before and after quoted mat- ter; a quotation included within another is enclosed with double marks. 6. Words Spoken of by Name. Words spoken of by name are generally enclosed in single quotation marks : the verb 'to do ' ; the adjective 'beautiful'. Some writers use italic type to specify such words. In long lists no distinguish- ing mark is considered necessary. The meaning would be quite as clear in any case, if the words were put simply in roman with no enclosing marks. 7. Titles of Books, Period icals. Pictures, etc. Quotation marks are used to enclose titles of books, periodicals, plays, pictures, etc. One of the best known of the works of Dickens is "David Copperfield." If the title is well known or is used frequently, or if many titles occur in the same work, they should be printed in roman type without quotation marks. The Iliad, The iEneid; the Messiah, the Creation; the Dance of Death. QUOTATION MABES Titles of books in foreign languages are put by some authors in italics; when thus printed no quotation marks should be used. When reference is made to characters found in books or plays, the names are sometimes put in itaUcs. This is necessary only when the name of the character is the same as the title of the work. Names of vessels, which were once either enclosed in quotation marks or put in italic type, are now printed in roman. Neither italic letter nor quotation marks are really needed to specify the titles of books and periodicals. In most cases, the titles are sufficiently distinguished by the initial capitals. 8. Poaltlon of Polntm of Punctuation Used With Cloa- InK Quotation Marka. The period and the comma, at the close of a quoted pa.ssage, are usually placed by compositors before or rather under the quotation mark, whether they belong only to the quotation or to the sentence as a whole. This is probably done because both these points arc so small that they seem isolated when placed out^ side the closing quotation mark. When a quotation occurs at the end of a sentence but is only a portion of that sentence, the mark needed to punctuate the entire sentence properly belongs after the closing quotation mark. When the quotation forms one L 134 THE APOSTROPHE complete sentence, the quotation marks, of course, follow the point. THE APOSTROPHE The apostrophe is used to denote: 1. The possessive case; as, my brother's house; James's father; children's games. In order to avoid a prolonged hissing sound, when more than two sounds of s would come together the possessive may l^c formed by the use of the apostro- phe only: Moses' hat, Francis' son, for conscience' sake. If the sound of the s forming the possessive is not given in pronunciation, the letter is not needed in writing the word. The possessive case of it (its) is written without the apostrophe ; the possessive of one, with the apos- trophe: one's feelings; hut itself, oneself. In such titles as Farmers National Bank, Adams Express Company, Teachers College, Ladies Dressing- room, some publishers regard the first word of the title as an adjective and write it without the apos- trophe ; others retain the sign of the possessive case. 2. The intentional elision of a letter or letters; as, I'm for I am; 'tis for it is. 3. The omission of the century in dates, when the century is understood; as, The Fourth of July, '76. 4. The plural of figures and letters: there are three 5's in the number; your n's and w's are made too much alike. In forming the plural of figures, the apostrophe might be altogether omitted. In THE APOSTROPHE 135 making the plural of letters, it is sometimes needed to prevent confusion: i^s without the apostrophe would be is, and u^s would become vs. The apos- trophe is never needed when the plural of a figure or letter is written in full: there are three f/ves in the number; this line is nineteen ems long. CHAPTER IX THE HYPHEN The hyphen is used both to join and to sepa- rate. It is employed between the parts of some compound words; also to divide words into sylla- bles, either at the end of a line or for the purpose of showing the proper pronunciation. Fellow-being, twenty-five, long-suffering, in-dus-tri-ous. Neither hyphen nor dieresis is needed in such words as: Coordinate, cooperate, zoology, reestablished, preeminent. In re-creation, re-formation (forming anew), and similar words, the hyphen is used to distinguish the word from another spelled in the same way, but having a different meaning. Such words as the following are usually written with the hyphen: Neo-platonism, pre-raphaelite, non-essential, inter-rela- tionship, thermo-electric, a-hunting. COMPOUND WORDS A compound word is made up of two or more simple words, each of which is used separately in English; as, eyeball, meeting-house. A derivative contains simple words, and parts of words which are (136) I COMPOUND WORDS 137 not used separately in English; as, neo-Greek, pseudo- branch. 1. Separate simple words in common use which are accented as single words, should be united without the hyphen; anybody, everything, anywhere, somewhere, eyebrow, railroad, forevermore. any one and every one are written as aeparat* words. 2. When only one of two simple words forming a compound is strongly accented, the compound is generally written as one word: bookseller, blackberry, classroom, copperplate, glassware, grandfather, stepdaughter, needlework, northeast, BouthweBt, schoolfellow, towboat, townfolk, township. town gate, town hall, town house, and town talk are writ- ten as separate words. 3. Attributive adjectives are generally compotmd- ed: a high-minded man, a well-ventilated house, the above-named condilions, the so-called reforms. Such long phrases as the following should not be compounded : attorney at law, pen and ink (drawing), by and by, ever to be remembered, long looked for, much to be regretted, never to be forgotten, uncalled for, well to do. 4. A compound should not be made when separate words will convey the meaning quite as well: coffee trade, common school, common sease, multiplica- tion table, aiater city, Sunday school, good morning. 5. A compound should not be made simply because a noun is used as an adjective: 138 COMPOUND WORDS brother minister, county town, grand jury, master printer, mountain top, palm leaf, peasant woman, supper table. 6. When either of two nouns in apposition is applicable separately to the person or thing men- tioned, the hyphen is not used; when the nouns are not in apposition, and only one is applicable to the person or thing, they are sometimes united by the hyphen. Lord Chief Justice, Lord Mayor, Major General; hut field- marshall, bone-setter. Many words of the latter class have been consoli- dated: bookkeeper, bookseller, newsboy, newspaper. 7. Numerals compounded of tens and digits are written with a hyphen: twenty-one, seventy-six. Numerals are compounded with various adjectives and nouns : one-sided, three-legged, four-footed, five- story; one-horse chaise, twenty-dollar note. 8. Such fractions as the following, when written out, are made separate words: one half, three quarters, seven eighths, five thousandths. Compounds of half quarter, and eighth ^ generally take the hyphen: half- dollar, half-past, half-yearly, quarter-deck, quarter- barrel ; hut halfpenny, headquarters, quartermaster, 9. Compounds ending with hoards hoot, hooky drop, house, light J room, side, stone, time, and yard are writ- ten as single words, if the first part of the compound consists of only one syllable: blackboard, bulletin-board; sailboat, canal-boat, schoolhouse, dwelling-house; greenroom, dining-room, churchyard; marble-yard. COMPOUND WORDS 139 Compound nouns ending with man or woman should be written as one word, unless the word so formed would be too long: chairman, countryman, horsewoman, needlewoman, oysterman, marketwoman, workingman, Englishman, Frenchwoman; hut an American woman. 10. A compound beginning with school is not gen- erally hyphened, unless formed with a participle: schoolboy, schoolfellow, schoolhouse, schoolmaster, schoolmate, schoolroom; school board, school children, school committee, school days, school district, school teacher; school-bred, school-teaching. 11. A compound consisting of a present participle and a noun or an adjective is generally written with a hyphen: dining-hall, good-looking, printing-office, writing-desk, writing-paper. 12. With few exceptions, words beginning with self take the hyphen: self-esteem, self-love, self- sacrifice; hut selfhood, selfsame, selfish. When self is added as a termination to a pronoun, the compound 'is written as one word: himself, itself, myself, oneself, themselves. 13. When two words, generally expressed as one, are employed in an unusual sense, they should be written as two separate words. A blackbird is a species of oriole; but a crow is a black bird. The coalescence of words often depends upon the length of time they have been in use. While the idea is novel, words are generally kept apart; as, long 140 SYLLABICATION boat, steam boat, electric fan. When an object or idea has become common, words are usually written as one: longboat, steamboat, railroad. The use of the hyphen is to some degree a matter of taste. If the meaning of the compound would not be clear if it were written as one word, if the compound is made with an uncommon word, or if there is an awk- ward joining of letters, the hyphen should be used. SYLLABICATION The proper division of words at the end of lines is not considered a matter of primary importance, as is shown by the inconsistencies in our dictionaries and the discrepancies between them. The proof-reader and the compositor, however, must be governed by some general principles, as the transfer of letters or syllables from one line to another sometimes necessi- tates the respacing of two or three lines. The usual practice in English is to divide words so as to show, as neariy as possible, their correct pro- nunciation, some regard being given also to derivation, composition, and meaning. 1. Every vowel or diphthong which is sounded should make a separate syllable : a-nem-o-ne, con-tem-plate, la-i-ty, re-al, re-ceive, re-en-ter. 2. A short vowel followed by a single consonant or a digraph^ keeps the consonant or the digraph with 1 Digraph, a combination of two letters to represent one sound, as cA in church, ea in head. A Trigraph is a combination of tiiree letters to represent one sound, as tch in pitch, eau in beau. SYLLABICATION 141 it, unless in so doing the sound of the consonant would be misrepresented: hab-it, diaph-a-notis, Goth-ic; but le-gend. 3. After long voweb and unaccented short ones, the consonant or consonant combination goes with the following syllable: mo-tive, de-presa. 4. Two consonants which do not form a digraph, coming between two vowels or a diphthong and a vowel, must be divided: ab-bey, ac-celerate, ac-cent, con-ver-Hion, for-mer, foi^ tune, gar-den, mil-lion, pas-ture, per-cep-tible, atatis-tiea, vel-lura. 5. When three or more consonants occur between two vowels, the first of which is short, all the con- aonanta which can be sounded together except the first should be written with the latter syllable: blas-plienie, dis-tress, elec-trify, in-atruc-treas, pam-phlet, ven-triloquist. 6. The division of a compound word on any syllable is allowable, but it is better to make the sepa- ration only between the simple words: heart-broken, self-sacrificing, fellow-preature, tuning-fork. 7. Proper names consisting of only one word should not be divided. 8. In purely English words, the division is made between the primitive and the suffix, even when the vowel of the primitive is long, except when the e or the i of the suffix is preceded by soft c or g. A syllable of only two letters, however, should not be L 142 SYLLABICATION carried over. When the consonant ending of a primi- tive is doubled, the second consonant goes with the suffix: bak-ing, lin-ing, mak-ing, self-ish, wis-dom, fast-est, wis- est; hut roman-cer, embra-cing, char-ging; liot-ter, mn-ning. There are but few purely English suffixes. Some of those most commonly used are: ed, er, en, ing, ish, dom, ship, ful, hood, less, ness, ry, ty, y, ways, wise, and cr and est, the signs of the comparative and the superlative degrees of adjectives. 9. In words with Latin or Greek terminations, the division is generally made according to sound: practi-cal, condo-lence, stu-dent, percep-tive, systema- tize, proc-tor, opera-tor. 10. C or g should always be joined to the following e, i, or y which governs its soft sound : ne-cessary, capa-city, le-gend, sur-ging. 11. The letter x should never begin a syllable, as no English word begins with it; ; should never end a syllable, as it never ends an English word : parox- ysm, pre-judice. 12. Such terminations as cial, tial, sion, tion, etc., which are pronounced as one syllable, should never be divided. The letter q should never be separated from the u which always follows it in an English word: artifi-cial, par-tial, provi-sion, posi-tion; li-quid, re-quisi- tion, ubi-quity. SYLLABICATION 143 13. In cases where the exact pronunciation is doubtful, or where it cannot be indicated, the divi- sion should be made upon the vowel: dou-ble, me-moir, pro-duct, pro-gress, wo-man; busi-ness, colo-nel. 14. A line should not end with the first svUable of a word when it is but a single letter; as, a-broad, a-long. A line should not begin with a syllable of but one let- ter (as u in vacuum), unless this immediately fol- lows a primitive (as in profit-a-ble), nor should it begin with the last syllable when this consists of only two letters; as, exception-al, happi-er, brave-ly. Three or more lines in succession should not end with the hyphen. The division of words at the end of a line, whether in print or manuscript, should be made as seldom as possible. The principles of taste and beauty should be considered as well as the proper mode of syllabication. CHAPTER X REFERENCE MARKS— MISCELLANEOUS MARKS REFERENCE MARKS References are signs, figures, or letters, which refer to matter in the margin or at the foot of the page. The following marks were formerly employed as references, in the order given: Asterisk, or Star * Section § Obelisk, or Dagger t Parallel || Double Dagger J Paragraph If Superior figures and letters have taken the place of these marks. When notes are given in the margin,, the figure ^ or the letter * should be the first reference mark on every page containing notes. If the notes are at the end of the work, figures and not letters should be used. When letters are used as superiors, ; should be omitted because of its similarity to i. Accent Marks are placed over words to indicate their pronunciation; they are acute (')> grave ("), and circumflex (^). Accents are also primary, secondary, and double. Only one such mark (' ) is commonly used to denote the stress or accent in English, except in works on elocution, in which the three are employed. (144) MISCELLANEOUS MARKS 146 The Brace { is used to connect a number of . words on lines one below another, with one com- mon term. Prelude in B minor, ") Air in D, > Johann Sebastian Bach. Bourr^ in B minor, ) The brace should point toward the one general term. The Breve shows that the vowel over. which it is placed is short: rash, net, hot, bill. The Caret is used to indicate the omission of a let- ter or letters, a word or words. It is employed only in manuscript. e is Wll begun half done. The Cedilla is a mark resembling a comma, placed under the letter c to show that it has the sound of sharp 8 before a and o in words adopted from the French : f agade, gargon. Two Commas are used to show that something is understood which was given in the line and word immediately above. Figures and names of persons spelled in the same way should always be repeated. Bought: Dec. 9, 8 yd. broadcloth. " 15,8 " flannel. William Smith, Chicago. William Brown, " Marks of Ellipsis consist of a long dash or a suc- cession of points or stars. They show the omission 146 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS of letters in a word, of words in a sentence, or of sen- tences in a paragraph. Points are preferable to stars. Trulv, Ladv Teazle is as censorious as Miss S W . — Sheridan. You would pity . . . the poor soul that shivers Out here at your door in this merciless blast. — Horace. In his conception of characters, Sheridan was a wit rather than a humorist. . . . His humor, fine and dry as it was, was the humor of the wit. — Brander Matthews. The Index calls special attention to a passage. N. B. (nota bene), meaning "mark well," is often used for the same purpose. The door of the lecture-room will be closed promptly at eight o'clock. N. B. No goods exchanged during the holiday season. Leaders are points or periods employed in tables of contents and in lists of a similar nature, to direct the eye to the matter at the end of the line. PAGE Introduction 3 Author's Preface 9 Dramatis Personse 13 The Macron is a short horizontal line placed over a vowel to show that it has the long sound: late, mete, pine, r5ve, utilize. Three Stars {^*^) call attention to some special passage. The Tilde is a mark forming part of the letter n in Spanish. It indicates the sound of n followed by y in English: canon, nino, senorita. CHAPTER XI CAPITAL LETTERS I. Independent Sentences and Lines of Poetry. The first word of every independent sentence and of every line of poetry should begin with a capital. Our chief want in life is somebody who shall make us do what we can. This is the service of a friend. With him we are easily great. There is a sublime attraction in him to what- ever virtue is in us. — ^Emerson: Considerations by the Way, Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 'Tis only noble to be good; Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. Tennyson : Lady Clara Vere de Vere, A capital should begin the first word of a sentence given as an example; the first word following an introductory word or clause; and the first word of a series of numbered phrases or clauses, even when the clauses are not separated by periods. A proverb contains a truth, generally in terse form; as. Wilful waste makes woeful want. Resolved, That the House adjourn, sine die. The writer asserts: (1) That Nature is unlimited in her operations; (2) That she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; and (3) That all future generations will continue to make discoveries. (147) 148 CAPITAL LETTERS a. Direct Quotations and Direct Questions. Direct quotations, except single words, and direct questions should begin with capitals. Theodore Parker said that democracy meant, not "I'm as good as you are," but "You're as good as I am." Maury asks, *' What is this you call eloquence?" 3. Proper Nouns and Words Derived from Proper Nouns. Every proper noun should begin with a capital. Verbs and adjectives derived from proper nouns should be capitalized, unless usage has sanctioned a small letter. Europe, America; Philip, Zenobia, James, Elizabeth; the Pyrenees, the Strait of Gibraltar, the North Sea. Roman, American, Elizabethan, Augustan. romanized, anglicized, americanized, frenchified, italicize. China, chinaware; Cordova, cordovan leather; Damascus, damask; Philip, j)hilippics; Vandal, vandalism; Don Quixote, quixotic. Such verbs as christianize and judaize are now writ- ten with a small letter. 4. The Pronoun I and the Interjection 0. The pronoun / and the interjection should always be capitals. Oh should not be capitalized unless it begins a sentence, a direct quotation, or a line of poetry. (See o and oh, page 117.) 5. Names of Days, IMonths, Seasons, and Festivals. Names of the days of the week, of the months of the year, and of festivals should begin with capi- CAPITAL LETTERS 149 tals. The names of the seasons, unless personified, begin with small letters. Sunday, January, Easter, Thanksgiving. He will be absent during the summer. Sunday always begins with a capital; while sab- bath, or sabbath-day, is generally written with a small letter. The words day, holiday , etc., even when used with a proper name, generally begin with small letters: Christmas day, the Easter holidays. 6. Geographical Names. General names, such as county and state, when pre- ceding a specific name, in ordinary writing begin with a small letter : the county of Cumberland, the state of Ohio. In formal writing, both the general name and the specific name begin with capitals. Each name is capitalized also in an appellation bestowed upon a state or city: the Keystone State, the Lone Star State, the Crescent City. When state means a political community or the powers exercised by government, it begins with a small letter: the states of Europe, the union of church and state. General names, when not forming part of a proper name, should always begin with a small letter: the law of the state; the exports of this city. Government is capitalized when it forms part of a proper name: the French Government; hut the gov- ernment of the country. 150 CAPITAL LETTERS According to the latest usage, and in conformity with the rule for the use of general and specific names, when river y valley , city, square, street, or place is used with a proper name, the general name is begun with a small letter: the Connecticut river, the river Charles, the Mississippi valley, the city of New York, Union square, York street. Graver's- lane, Delancey place. Many writers, however, still use a capital. When forming part of a proper name, mountain, lake, province, and district usually begin with capitals. The Rocky Mountains, the Great Lakes, the Province of Quebec, District of Columbia. In display matter, both the general and the specific name should be capitalized. The words north, east, south, and west, when used to indicate certain sections of a country should be capitalized; when they refer in a general way to a region, or simply denote direction, they are written with a small letter. The new Northwest. In Southern Europe. The east of Asia. The dweller on the Pacific Coast regards everything east of the Rocky Mountains as "the East." They have had snow in the north. The sun sets in the west. The West is rapidly developing. 7. Names of Important Historic Days, Events, or Docu- ments; of Religious Sects, Political Parties, etc. Words denoting historic days or events, important documents, and names of bodies of men, religious sects, and political parties, are capitalized. CAPITAL LETTERS 161 The Fourth of July; the Ascension; the Constitution, Magna Charta, the Pandects of Justinian; the Pilgrim Fathers; Jew, Protestant, Presbyterian; Republican, Demo- crat, Conservative, Liberal, the Right, the Left. Certain epochs and eras that are not derived from proper names, are written with small letters. The dark age, the middle age; the Augustan age, the Elizabethan age, the Christian era; hut the Deluge, the Captivity, the Advent. a.m. and p.m. are not capitalized in ordinary text matter. 8. Titles of Respect, Affection, Dignity, or Office. Titles of respect, honor, or affection, and titles of dignity or office, if applied to a particular person or if used in connection with a proper noun or in for- mal address, should begin with capitals. Father Ambrosius; Uncle William; the Iron Chancellor. The President of the United States; the Queen of Spain; Governor Morton. Her Royal Highness; to His Excellency, the Governor. When a title used alone is intended as the synonym of a particular person, it is generally capitalized: the President, the Czar, the Sultan, the Pope. When not used as the appellation of a specified person, a title begins with a small letter: he was arrested by a con- stable. When such titles as king, duke, general, etc., are used frequently and are not followed by the name of a person, they are not capitalized. 162 CAPITAL LETTERS In a title consisting of separate words used with a name, both words in the title should begin with capitals: Major General Greene; Chief Justice Pat- terson. In a compound title only one capital is needed: Vice-president Hobart ; Ex-president Cleveland . Ex- president used without a proper name, except at the beginning of a sentence, takes small letters: only one ex-president of the United States is now living. In salutations of letters, only words referring to the person should be capitalized: Dear Friend, My dear Friend, My darling Child. Von J dcj etc., are capitalized only when not pre- ceded by a title or a Christian name : De Quincey, Thomas de Quincey; Van der Linde, Doctor van der Linde.* Words denoting family relations begin with capi- tals, when used without a possessive pronoun: I received a message from Father; or, I received a message from my father. Jr. and sr. need not be capitalized in ordinary text-matter. In display work they require capitals. 9. Nam«s of the Deity and of Christ. All names of the Deity and expressions which are titles of the Deity should begin with capitals. Pro- nouns referring to God or Christ should be capitalized only when used in direct address without a noun, ' Some writers follow the Continental method and begin these pre- fixes always with a small letter. This, however, is contrary to the established custom of writing English. CAPITAL LETTERS 153 or when other pronouns are employed and a capital is needed to prevent confusion. Jehovah, Creator, Providence, Almighty, the Most* High, the Supreme Being. The Messiah, the Anointed, the Redeemer, Prophet, Master. These are thy glorious works, Parent of good. Almighty! thine this universal frame. Heaven and Providence, meaning the Supreme Being, are capitalized. In all other cases, they should begin with small letters. May Heaven Forbid! Above Live the great gods in heaven and see What things shall be. — Swinburne. The world was all before them, where to choose Their place of rest, and Providence their guide. Milton: Paradise Lost. A remarkable providence appeared in the case. Heatherij pagan, hell, purgatory , and paradise begin with small letters. Poetical names, such as Hades, Elysian Fields, take capitals. lo. Names Referring to the Bible. Names which indicate the Bible or a book or a por- tion of the Bible should be capitalized. The Scriptures, the Old Testament, the Gospels, the Epis- tles, the Revelation of St. John the Divine; King Jameses Bible, the Mazarin Bible. Bible meaning simply a book and not the book, should begin with a small letter. This bible is a great typographical curiosity. Many bibles were distributed in that section of the city. 154 CAPITAL LETTERS 11. Names of Committees, Clubs, Associations, and of Organizations. Names of committees, clubs, associations, and of organizations, generally, should be capitalized. When the article the forms part of an official title or the title of a book, it should begin with a capital, even when it occurs in the middle of a sentence. When the name of a magazine or newspaper is given in the text, the article takes a small letter. The Committee of One Hundred, Young Men's Christian Association, The Union League, The Right of Way. The matter was noticed in the Telegraph. 12. Advertisements, Cards, etc. In advertisements, cards, programs, etc., the most important words are generally capitalized, but for this purpose capitals should not be too freely used, or the intended emphasis will not be conveyed. 13. Worlcs on Botany and Zoology. In works on botany and zoology, names of classes, families, and genera are begun with capitals. The names of species arc begun with small letters, unless derived from proper nouns. Specific names occurring in a roman sentence are printed in italics. 14. Titles of Books, Newspapers, Pictures, etc. In titles all important words, that is, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, are gen- erally capitalized. This practice is by no means uniform; some writers capitalize only nouns and CAPITAL LETTERS 155 verbs, others even prepositions when they are long. In some publications only the first word of the title is begun with a capital; this is the foreign method and the method adopted for catalogues by the American Library Association. The tendency at the present day is to limit so far as possible the number of capitals employed. CHAPTER XII THE ITALIC LETTER ITALIC type is a letter which inclines to the right. It was introduced by Aldus Manutius, a celebrated printer of Venice, who desired a compact type for the purpose of issuing small editions of the classics. The letter was cut by Francisco da Bologna, an able engraver. It is supposed to be copied from the handwriting of Petrarch. An edition of Vergil was put in this letter by Aldus in 1501; an edition of Petrarch, which Aldus issued the same year, is said to be the first Itahan work printed in italic type. Originally, this letter was known as Venetian or Al- dine; butlat^r it was called italic, except in Germany and Holland, where it received the name of cursiv. Italic letter was at first intended and was employed for the whole text of classical works, but after a time its use was restricted to portions of a book not prop- erly belonging to the work, such as prefaces, introduc- tions, notes, and indexes, the text being printed in roman; at a later period quotations occurring in the text were put in italic type. All proper names and nearly all words of more than usual significance were at one time printed in this character. At the present day, its chief use is to denote emphasis. For this purpose it should be used sparingly and might (156) THE ITALIC LETTER 157 altogether be dispensed with; when introduced too frequently it tends to perplex rather than to assist the reader. No italic is used in the Bible, except to show that words not found in the original have been supplied by the translator to make the sense more perfect, yet it is not difficult to tell just where the emphasis should be placed. At the present day, italic is generally employed, as follows: 1. Unfamiliar words from foreign languages when printed with our alphabet are italicized the first time they appear; roman type is employed for the repeti- tion of these words. Foreign words which have become familiar through constant use and which are found in the standard English dictionaries should be put in roman type ; as, cicerone, dilettante, role, vice versa. When citations are made from other languages, it is better to use quotation marks and print in roman. Words spoken of by name should be put in roman, with single quotation marks. 2. The titles of books, pictures, etc.; are some- times put in italic, but roman type with quotation marks is more common. Titles of books in foreign languages may be put in italics if not quoted. Neither quotation marks nor italics should be used for titles of well-known works: The Iliad, Faust, The Divine Comedy, Paradise Lost. 3. It is a common practice to print in italic the names of newspapers and magazines, when used 158 THE ITALIC LETTER in the body of a book or pamplilet. The titles of periodicals and serials occurring in the text or in a foot-note need no other distinguishing mark than the initial capitals of roman type. When the name of an author or of a book is put as a credit at the end of a paragraph, roman is used for author and italic for book or periodical. 4. The scientific names of plants and animals, when first used, are put in italic. The name of the species should always be italic, however often it may occur. When other scientific names in botany or zoology are repeated, they are printed in roman. 5. Italic is used for running headlines, headings of tables, sub-headings, and sideheads. 6. In algebraic and other mathematical works, let- ters used as signs should be printed in italic, whether capital or small. 7. In lists, as in programs, when the enumeration is made by letters instead of figures, the letters should be italics. In manuscript, italic is indicated by one stroke under the word. The common Latin abbreviations, i. e., e. g., etc., viz., are usually printed in roman letter. ALPHABETS, ACCENTS, DIACRITICAL MARKS, AND DIVISIONS In the Principal Modern Languages — English, French, German, Spanish, and Italian CHAPTER I DIACRITICAL MARKS A DIACRITICAL MARK is a point, line, or other sign, added or put near a letter or character, to distinguish it in some way. Diacritical marks are not often used in English, except in schemes of pro- nimciation in dictionaries; but they form part of the alphabet systems of many languages. These marks are employed for the following purposes: 1. To give a letter a certain phonetic value. The marks attached to the vowels a, e, o, in diction- aries are diacritics: fate, fat; mete, met; holy, holly. 2. To denote some particular accent, tone, stress, or emphasis in the transliteration into roman letter of languages having a different alphabet. Such marks are generally used when words from the Rus- sian or the oriental languages are put in our alphabet, but marks so employed convey no fixed meaning to an English reader. The dieresis is employed in some proper names taken from the German: Gothe, Miiller. (159) 160 ENGLISH In some words adopted from foreign languages, and which are found in the standard English dic- tionaries, a distinguishing mark is retained: fagade, gargon, from the French; canon, from the Spanish. 3. To distinguish a letter or sign from another of similar form. In German script the letter u is written with a curved line over it, to distinguish it from the letter n which has the same form. 4. In some languap;(^s a diacritical accent mark is used to distinguish a word from another spelled in the same way but having a different meaning : French — oil, where, when; ou, or. Spanish — 61, he; el, the. Itahan — di, day; di, of, from, or to. ENGLISH The hyphen and the apostrophe (formeriy the dierosis) are the only orthographical marks which are regulariy used in English. The dieresis was formeriy used to show that of two vowels which might be given but one sound, each was to be pronounced separately. Words containing such vowels are now written without a distinguishing mark: zoology, cooperate, coordinate, preeminent, reenter. [For Compound Words and Syllabication see Hyphen, page 136]. I J CHAPTER II FRENCH THE French alphabet has the same letters, with the same roman forms, as the English alphabet; k and w are not strictly French letters, but are used in words derived from foreign languages. The following orthographical marks are used: The acute accent (') iU, The grave accent C) ^^c. The circumflex accent C) tele. The cedilla (,) fagon. The dieresis (..) hair. The apostrophe (') fax. The hyphen (-) y a-t-U. The Acute Accent The acute accent is used only over e and denotes the sound of a in the English word day : 4cu, rSpondre, pricSdi. If two e's come together, the first only is made acute: arrrde, relevie. The Grave Accent The grave accent is used over e, a, and u; e with the grave accent has the sound of e in ell: trbs, pi^ce. Certain syllables ending with two e^s separated by one or more consonants frequently take the grave accent over the first e: la misbre, resth-ent. This, however, (161) 162 FRENCH is not a general rule, as the accent may be .acute or circumflex. The grave accent occurs over a in such words as voilh^ hold, dijii, gd,, degh, and over a, e, and u in certain words to distinguish them from others of similar spelling: d, to, at, in, or with — a, has; lit, there — la, the; dh, from, as soon as — des, of the, the; oily where, when — ow, or. The Circumflex Accent The circumflex accent is used over the five vowels a, e, i, 0, u. The vowel is then long in quantity : dprCy bete, tnaitre, conirole, sur. The circumflex accent shows that a letter (usually s) formerly used in the spelling of a word is now omitted: cdte (coste), coast; fete (Jeste), festival. The Cedilla The cedilla is placed under c when used before a, o, or u, and gives the letter the sound of sharp s: ga, Frangois, regu. The Dieresis The dieresis, or tr6ma, is placed over the latter of two vowels coming together when they are to be pro- nounced separately : hair, h6roique. The Apostrophe The apostrophe shows the elision of one vowel before another or before silent h: Van for le an; c'est for ce est; s'U for 8i U; Vhomme for le homme. FRENCH 168 The Hyphen The hyphen is used: 1. To connect the parts of a compound word : demi- heure, half-hour. 2. Between a pronoun and a verb when the pro- noun comes last: avez-vousf have you? donnez-moi, give me; dorniaienl-ils ? were they sleeping? 3. Before and after t inserted for euphony between a verb ending with a vowel and a pronoun: va-t-il; pensa-t'il, 4. Between a word and ci or Id, joined to it: ce temps-ciy ce iempS'ld, ceux-ci, ci-inclus. Capitals Proper nouns are the only words written with capi- tals, except at the beginning of a sentence or quota- tion. Adjectives denoting nationality take a small letter: anx^icairij frarigais, gothique, latin , parisien. The pronoun je (I), except at the beginning of a sentence or quotation, is written with a small letter. The common titles of respect \\hich correspond to Mrs. and Miss in English arc sometimes expressed by a capital and superior letters without the period: M""' or Mine, M^^ or Mile. First, second, third, etc., are indicated by Y^y 2"^, S'"^, or I, II, III. (premier y deuxihney troisicme). These abbreviations are printed also in small capitals. Quotation Marks The guUlemety or quotation mark, for extracts from authors or other quoted matter, is used as in IW FRENCH English. In some books no quotation marks are used in dialogues or conversations, a dash serving to indicate the beginning of a conversation, also when one person ceases speaking and another begins. Some publishers use quotation marks, but only at the beginning and the end of the whole dialogue or conversation. Syllabication 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the vowel following: ca-Rche, d6-part, 2. As many consonants as can be pronounced together go with the vowel following: li-braire, re- gretj four-chette, a-pos-trophe, 3. A division cannot be made upon a single letter, even if joined to an article or other word: Vidu-caimn, 4. A mute syllable must not be carried over. 5. Compounds are divided upon the originals: demi-Iune, f eld-mar ichal. 6. A small word which is part of a compound must not be carried over: prenez-le, celui-d, ceux-lh, 7. Divisions are not allowable between two vowels, except after a word or prefix which may be used separately: anti-arUaniste, extra-ordinaire, 8. A letter used as a euphonic must always be carried over to the next line. 9. Three divisions in three successive lines are not allowable. In writing titles an English noun should not be used with a French preposition. Either Comte d'Artois or Count of Artois, but not Count d'Artois; Due d' En- ghien or Duke of Enghien, but not Duke d'Enghien. CHAPTER III GERMAN THE German alphabet has the same twenty-six letters as the English. German Alphabet 2ta, 336, 6c, 2)b, @e, gf, ®g, ^i), gi, 3j, ^t, £1, mm, Sin, Do, «pp, Dq, 9lr, ©f8, %t, Uu, SBt), 2Bh), Xe, D9, 3j. « Modified vowels, a, 6, ii. Combination of Letters : Double vowels, aa, ee, oo. Diphthongs, ai, au, au, ei, eu. Compound Consonants, ch, ck, ng, pf, ph, qu, sch, sp, st, sz, th, tz. The short § is used only at the end of a word or syllable; the long s (f) at the beginning and in the middle of a word, ss (ff) is employed only in the middle of a word, between two short vowels: «uffe, SBaffer. The modified vowels, both small and capital, are now written only with the sign (") placed over the vowel. In some proper names of persons, the double vowel form is still used : Goethe. Such names are written also with the modified vowel: Go the. The German has no accent marks. (165) 166 GERMAN German Forms a, 0, and u are represented in the roman alphabet by a, 6, and ii. The diphthongs 8e and oe should never be used for a and 6. e and i never have the umlaut. The plural of many nouns is made by simply modi- fying the vowel: Garten, Garten; Vater, Vater. In German script the small u is always written with a curved line over it: S Y (ipsilon) is not strictly a German letter and is rarely used. The German printed characters for the capital letters I and J (3) are the same. Care is needed not to confound the following let- ters when printed in German type : 6 (b) and ^ (h) ; f (f) and f (s) ; r (r) and i (x) ; b (v), t)(p), and (i?) (y). 33 (B) and SS (V) ; 6 (C) and @ (E) ; 2) (D),D (0), and D (Q); © (G) and © (S); 9, (K), $K (N), and $R (R) ; 5K (M) and SB (W). Capitals The following words are begun with capitals : 1 . All substantives and words used as substantives : der Tisch, das Singen. 2. The personal pronouns: Sie (you), Ihnen (to you), Ihr (your), Du (thou), Dir (to thee), Dein (thine), Euch (you), in letters; Du and Dein in addressing God. Ich (I), except at the beginning of a sentence or a quotation, takes a small letter. GERMAN 167 3. Words in apposition with proper names: Fried- rich der Grosse. 4. Adjectives formed from the names of persons and places: die Kaatische Philosophic; die Berliner Kinder. Adjectives formed from the names of coim- tries and peoples begin with small letters: die ameri- kanischen Nationen; die romische Kirche. An effort is being made by many authors and pub- lishers to limit the use of initial capitals. The Apostrophe The apostrophe is used in certain words to indi- cate the omission of one vowel before another: ich lieb' dich; das leid' ich nicht; heiPge. Certain words are frequently joined in colloquial speech: ist's? (is it?), gcht's? (does it go?) When a preposition is consolidated with an article, the apostrophe is not used : beim, zum. If a proper name in the genitive ends with a letter which easily takes an s after it, the apostrophe is omitted : Schillers Gedichte. If an s would not easily coalesce with the last letter, the apostrophe only is used : Demosthenes' Reden. Quotations * In printed matter, two sharp-pointed commas are placed before the bottom of the letter beginning the quotation; the same marks upsidedown are used at the close: „BlickevorwartsI bereite dich zu handeln." Apostrophes are not used to enclose quotations. 168 GERMAN Syllabication 1. Compound words are divided according to their components: Staats-Zeitung. 2. A consonant between two vowels goes with the latter vowel: Freu-de; lei-den. 3. Any combination of consonants, except ch, ph, sch, th, and dt when it forms only one sound, may be separated: Ach-sel, bes-ser, Freun-de, hin-ter, Knos-pe, krat-zen; 6w^Sta-dte. 4. If more than two consonants come together in the middle of a word, the last goes with the following syllable : Gesich-tes. si after a preceding consonant, and sch after a preceding r or m are carried to the following syllable : cr-ste, Bur-schen. In dropping the article in author entries and titles used in catalogues or other alphabetical lists, care should be taken to preserve in the singular the nomi- native form of adjectives, as in German the case is shown partly by the termination of the word, and these terminations are sometimes modified by the article: der deutsche Verein, deutscher Verein, ein deutscher Verein. CHAPTER IV « SPANISH The Spanish alphabet contains twenty-nine let- ters, ch, U, and rr are compound letters, but in their written and printed forms are considered simple con- sonants, w is employed only in words taken from foreign languages; the use of k is restricted also to such words. The following roman forms are employed: a, b, c,ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, 11, m, n, ii, o,p, q, r, rr, s, t, u, v, x, y, z. Accents The acute is the only accent mark employed in Spanish. Rules governing the written accent: 1. Words ending in a vowel, or in n or s, which in speaking are accented on the last syllable, take the accent mark on that syllable : caf6, esid, vendrd, ren- gloUj desjmes, 2. Words ending in a vowel, or in n or s, which arc accented on the syllable next to the last take no accent mark: toma, margen, crisis. 3. Words ending in any consonant except n or s, and which arc accented on the last syllable, take no accent mark: cUvd, esperary pcraL 4. Words ending in a consonant other than n or s, and which are accented on the syllable next to the last, take the accent mark : dngel, azUcar, climax, Idpiz. (169) 170 SPANISH 5. Words accented on a syllable before the penulti- mate take the accent mark: miisico, atmdsfera, posed" bamos. The accent mark is employed also in Spanish: 1. To distinguish a word from another of similar spelling, but having a different meaning. bajdj I descend. bajo, low, below. cdmo, I eat. como, as. rf^,give (sub. pres. of dar). de, of, from. il, he el, the. estd, he, she, or it, is. esta, this. iste, this one. este, this. s4f I know; be thou. se, oneself. sdriy sound. son, are. 2. Over the preposition d, the conjimctions 4, d, H, and the adverb aun when it follows the verb to which it belongs. lAun no ha partido? No ha partido aiin. 3. Over pronouns and adverbs used interrogatively or exclamatorily, or when repeated as correlatives. c6mo, how? comOf as. cdyo, whose? cuyo, whose. ddndej where? donde, where. qui^Uj who? whom? quien, who, whom. Cudndo dc una manera, cudndo de otra; cudles hablaban, cudles cantaban. 4. Over the weak vowel of a diphthong or triph- thong, or over the first if both vowels of a diphthong are weak, to show that the vowels make two syllables : contin'danj creido, deciais, diaSj fluido, increfble, paraisOj periodo, poesia. SPANISH 171 a, o, e are the strong vowels; i and u the weak vowels. If the written accent is required over a diphthong or triphthong, it is placed over the strong vowel, or, if both vowels of a diphthong are weak, over the last vowel. The diphthong or triphthong is not thereby dissolved; the accent mark indicates where the stress of voice should fall: parabUn, huSrfano, seguiy estitdidis. 5. Over the aorist form of a verb which is accented on the final syllable : fuiy leiy ri^, segui. The tense of a verb requiring the written accent retains it when one or more pronouns are added to it: didmeloSy ridse. When the addition of the pronouns places the ac- cent nearer the beginning than the penultimate, the accent must be indicated : envidndomeloSj ddndosehs, u after a g coming before e and't is silent, and the g then has the same sound as in the English word go: dguila, guerra. When the i* is to be sounded, the dieresis must be placed over it: agiiero, argiiir. The mark in n is called tilde and must never be omitted from the letter. An inverted interrogation or exclamation point is placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause which i3 interrogative or exclamatory, in addition to the mark at the end. The inverted point may be omitted at the beginning of a sentence when the first word indicates the interrogation or exclamation, as the accent placed over the word shows the nature of the sentence or clause: Cdmo estd iistedf How are you? 172 SPANISH In Spanish no adjective is written with a capital, except in titles or at the beginning of a sentence: americano, madrUeno, When adjectives derived from proper nouns are used as substantives they begin with capitals: los Americanos, los Madrilenoa, The pronoun yo (I), except at the beginning of a sentence or quotation, is written with* a small letter. Quotation Marks Double quotation marks (comillas) are used in Spanish, but mainly for the purpose of enclosing extracts or short quotations from the words of others. They are usually repeated at the beginning of each line of the quoted matter. For dialogues, quotation marks are not used, but a dash is placed at the begin- ning of each paragraph. A break or interruption in conversational matter is indicated by pantos sus-- pensivos ( . . . ). Syllabication In dividing a word into syllables, the syllable should end, if possible, in a vowel. 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes wdth the following vowel : ca-fio, c6-mi-co, fa-ci-li-dad, flu-xion. A prepositional prefix should form a sepa- rate syllable : a-for-tu-na-do, rfes-a-for-tu-na-do. 2. ch, II, and rr are considered simple consonants, and must not be separated : ca-chu-cha, be-llo-ta, pe- rro. n is joined to the vowel which follows it: le-na. 3. When a syllable consists of but one vowel it should not be written alone, either at the end or the SPANISH 173 beginning of a line: oca-sidn, not o^asidn; arra-bal, not CHrrabal. The division of words of four letters is not allowable except in very narrow pages or columns. Not more than three divisions should be made in consecutive lines. CHAPTER. V ITALIAN THE Italian alphabet contains twenty-two letters. It is the same as the English, with the omission of fc, Wf Xy and y. The Writi'en Accent There are three wTitten accents in Italian — the grave, the acute, and the circumflex. The grave is the only accent regularly used. Italian writers and publishers do not entirely agree as to the use of any of the accent marks. The grave accent occurs regularly only over the last syllable of words. It is always placed on the last letter, as follows : 1. On the last syllable of a word ending with a vowel, when the stress in pronunciation falls on this syllable: citta, portb. 2. On the last vowel of monosyllables which end with a diphthong: gid., piu. 3. On certain monosyllables to distinguish them from others of similar spelling but of different sig- nification: b, is — e, and; dl, day — di, of, from, or to. 4. On the last vowel of a shortened form of the preterite, to distinguish it from the present infinitive of the same verb: amar — amarono; amar — amare. (174) ITALIAN 175 5. The grave accent is placed over i in the ter- minations ia and io to show that these letters form two distinct syllables: cavallena^ addlo. The acute accent is sometimes used over such ter- minations, but the grave is preferable. The circumflex is sometimes employed over certain shortened forms of words to distinguish them from other words of similar spelling, but with a different meaning: c&rre (cogliere) to take, to gather; corre, he [or she] runs. The Apostrophe The apostrophe is used to show the elision of the final vowel of an article coming before a word begin- ning with a vowel : Vamore, Visolaj un'altro. The apostrophe is used also to denote an abbrevia- tion or contraction: de'piediy colVuomo, dov^h^ nienV altro^ ancliHo, Lorenzo de^ Medici. j is only another way of writing i. In some modern Italian books it is not used. Syllabication In Italian, words are so divided that, if possible, every syllable shall begin with a consonant: fra-teU lOy ta-vo-la, fir-ma, sem-pre. All consonants which can be pronounced together go with the vowel following them. INDEX Abbreviated words, how punctu- ated, 94 Accent, the acute : in French, 161 in Spanish, 169 the circumflex, in French, 162 the grave : in French, 161 in Italian, 174 Accent marks, 144 Adams, Joseph A., 83 Adverbs and adverbial phrases, 110 Aldus Manutius, 156 American Library Association, method of capitalization adopted by, 155 American Type-Founders Associa- tion, 27 American Type-FoundersGompany, 21 Antique Type, definition of, 66 specimen of, 33 Apostrophe, the uses of the : in English, 134 in French, 162 in German, 167 in Italian, 175 Appleton and Company, D., 38 Apposition, words or phrases in, 106 statements in, 98 Barth, Henry, 25 Bible, use of capitals for names re- ferring to, 153 Bible text, 30 Binney and Ilonaldson, 21 Black letter, definition of, 66 specimen of, 33 Body of type, 23, 26, 66 Bold-face type, definition of, 66 specimen of, 33 Brace, the, 145 Brackets, the uses of, 126 Breve, the, 145 Brochure, definition of, 67 Brown Paper Company, L. L., 55 Bruce, David, 82 Bruce, David, jr., 21 Bruce, D. and G., 21 Bruce, George, 27, 30 note Capital letters, the uses of: in English, 147 in French, 163 in German, 166 Capitals, definition of, 67 Cards, capitals employed for, 154 how punctuated, 96 Caret, the, 145 Case, definition of, 67 lower, 34, 74 upper, 34, 80 Caslon, William, 20 (177) 178 INDEX Casting type : by hand, 25 by machinery, 24 number cu^st in a minute, 25 Cedilla, the, 145 in French, 1C2 Chase, definition of, 67 Church, Dr. William, 35 Church text, sp>ecimen of, 33 Cicero, name of typo, 30 note, 31 Clarendon type, specimen of, 33 Clauses, how punctuated : correlative, 106 explanatory, 101 having dependence upon an- other clause, 101, 120 parenthetical, 108 relative, 109 transposed, 107 Colon, the uses of the, 97 Colophon, definition of, 67 Comma, the uses of the, 103 Commas, Two, 145 Composing, definition of, 67 Composing stick, 34, 67 Compound words, 136 Condensed type, definition of, 67 specimen of, 29 Contrast, words or phrases in, 106 Copy, definition of, 67 directions for preparing, 10 Corrections : cost of author's, 18 how to make, on proof-sheet, 14 Counter-punch, 21, 22 Cut-in letter, definition of, 67 Cut-in note, definition of, 68 Cylinder machine, 46, 52 Daily Graphic, The, 86 note Dash, the uses of the, 119 . Deity and Christ, capitals for names referring to the, 152 Diacritical marks, 159 Didot, Fran9ois Ambroise, 27 Didot, Henri, 32 Didot, the Messrs., 46 Dieresis, the: in English, 136, 160 in French, 162 Displayed, definition of, 68 Distribute, definition of, 68 Doric type, specimen of, 33 Doubling of points, 94 Dummy, definition of, 68 Duodecimo, definition of, 68 Eighteen-point (great primer) type, 29 Eight-point (brevier) type, 28, 32 Electrotyping, 81, 83 Eleven-point (small pica) type, 28, 31 Ellipsis, marks of, 145 Elzevir old-style type, specimen of, 33 Em, definition of, 69 English, orthographical marks used in, 160 Envelope, address on, 1 13 Errors, detecting, 16 which escape notice, 16 Esparto, 46 note, 48 Essonnes paper-mills, 46 INDEX 179 Even pages, definition of, 69 Exclamation point, the uses of the, 116 Expanded type, 69 Extended type, 29, 69 Extra-condensed type, 29, 67 Five and one-half point (agate) type, 32 Five-point (pearl) type, 32 Folding sheets of paper for binding, 60 Folio, definition of, 60, 69 Font of type, what it comprises, 69 Form of type, 70 Forwarding, definition of, 69 Four and one- half point (diamond) type, 32 Fourdrinier machine, 46, 51 Fourdrinier, the Messrs., 46 Fournier, Pierre Simon, 27 Four-point (brilliant) type, 32 Fourteen-point (English) type, 30 Francisco da Bologna, 156 Frank Leslie* s, 86 note Franklin, Benjamin, 21 French: alphabet, 161 orthographical marks used in, 161 Frisket, definition of, 70 Fudge, definition of, 70 Furniture, definition of, 70 G'lillarde type, 31 Galley, 34, 70 Galley proof, 70 Garamond, Claude, 20 Ged, William, 81 Genoux of France, 82 Geographical names, capitals used for, 149 German alphabet, 165 German text, 66, 70 specimen of, 33 , Gilpin, Thomas, 46 Gleason's Pictorial, 86 note Gothic letter, 33, 66, 71, 78 Gothic type, specimen of, 33 Gros romain type, 30 Half-tones, 86, 87, 89 Harper and Brothers, 38 Harper* s Weekly, 86 note Headings, how punctuated, 96 Hyphen, the uses of the : in English, 136, 160 in French, 163 I and 0,148 Index, the, 146 Illustrated London News, The, 86 note Imposing, definition of, 71 Imposing stone, definition of, 71 Imprint, definition of, 72 Indention, definition of ,72 Infinitive phrases, 110 Inset, 63, 72 Interrogation point, the uses of the, 114 Italian alphabet, 174 180 INDEX Italic letter, definition of, 72 how employed, 156 Italic type, specimen of, 33 Jenson, Nicolas, 78 Job-work, 42, 72 Johnson Foundry, 21 Johnson, William M., 21 Jungfer type, 32 Justifying, 34, 72 Kerned letter, 73 Leaders, definition of, 73 (points), 146 Leading, 34, 40 Leads, definition of, 73 Let-in note, 73 Letter, address and conclusion of, 112 Letterpress, 73 Lettre de forme, 71 Lettre de somme, 71 Ligature, 73 Light-face type, definition of, 73 Line-plates : films, 89 for colored pictures, 90 for newspapers, 90 how prepared, 86, 88 making ready, 91 printing on the press, 91 routing, 89 Lists, how punctuated, 95 Locking up, 73 Logot5^e, definition of, 73 London Journal, 83 MacKellar, Smiths, and Jordan, 21, 27 Macron, the, 146 Make-up of a book, 65 Making ready, 74 Making up, 74 Mapes^s Magazine, 83 Marder, Luse, and Company, 27 Master-type, 21 Matrices made by the electrotype process, 23 Matrix, 21, 22 Measurement of type matter, 39 Microscofique type, 33 * Missal type, specimen of, 33 Mitchel, William H., 35 Mittel type, 30 Modern-face type, 74 Mould, 22, 23 Moxon, Joseph, 20 Nick, definition of, 74 Nine-point (bourgeois) type, 31 Numbers, how expressed, 95 how pointed, 112 Numerals, roman and arabic, 95 O and Oh, 117 Octavo, definition of, 60, 74 Odd pages, 74 Old English type, definition of, 66, 74 specimen of, 33 Old-style type, 75 modernized, 75 INDEX 181 Omission of letters and figures, 123, 134 of a noun, a verb, or a phrase, 111 Overlay, definition of, 75 Overlays, how prepared, 91 Overrun, definition of, 75 Overrunning, 18, 75 Pagination, 75 Paper: bleaching, 49 book, 56, 59 calenders, 52 classes of, 56 dandy-roll, 50 deckle-edged, 56, 57 deckles, 50 driers, 51 first machines for manufacture of, 46 half-stuff, 49 laid, 54, 56 loading, 52 loft-dried, 51 machine-dried, 51 preparation of stock, 47 printing, 56 shading, 53 sizes of, 59 sizing, 52 staples, 46 supercalenders, 52 surface-coating, 53 water-marks, 50, 64 wire-cloth, 50 wove, 54, 56 Paper- writing, 56, 58, 69 Paper-making: by hand, 53 by machinery, 48 Parenthesis, marks of, 124 Parenthetical expressions, 119 words, phrases, and clauses, 108 Participial and adjective phrases, 109 Penny Magazine^ 86 note Period, the uses of the, 94 PetU type, 32 Petrarch, 156 Pi, definition of, 75 Pica type, specimen of, 31 as unit of measurement of point system, 26, 28 Platen, 75 Points, definition of, 75 Point system, 26 Proof: author's, 13, 76 definition of, 75 foul, 76 foundry, 13, 76 galley, 14, 76 office, 13, 75 paged, 13, 17, 76 plate, 13, 76 reading, 13 revised, 17, 76 second revise, 17 Proof-marks, List of, 1 Proof paper, definition of, 76 Punch, 21, 22 Punctuation marks, 93 182 INDEX Quadrat or quad, 77 Quarto, 60, 77 Quotation marks, the uses of B in English, 129 in French, 163 in German, 167 in Latin languages, 131 in Spanish, 172 position of points employed with closing, 133 Quotations or extracts, 95, 97, 122, 129, 148 Recto, definition of, 77 Reference marks, 144 Register, definition of, 77 Robert, Louis, 46 Roman type, definition of, 77 specimens of, 33, 77 Rosenberg, Frederick, 35 Ruby type, 32 Runic type, specimen of, 33 Saint Augustine type, 30 Sauer, Christopher, 20 Script, definition of, 78 specimen of, 33 Sections, 64 Semicolon, the uses of the, 100 Separatrix, 78 Separatum, 78 Series, words in a, 103 Serifs, definition of, 78 Seven-point (minion) typo, 32 Shank, definition of, 78 Sideheads, 95, 122 Signatures, 64, 78 Six-point (nonpareil) type, 32 Sixteen-point (Columbian), 30 note Size notation of American Library- Association, 63 Skeleton type, definition of, 79 Slug, definition of, 79 Small capitals, definition of, 79 Solid, 79 Sorts, definition of, 79 Spaces, definition of, 79 Spanish alphabet, 169 Stanhope, Lord, 82 Stars, Three, 146 Stereotyping, methods of, 81, 82 Stock, definition of, 79 Subject and predicate, 110 Superior characters, 79 Sweinheym and Pannartz, 77 Syllabication : in English, 140 in French, 164 in German, 167 in Italian, 175 in Spanish, 172 Take, definition of, 79 Ten-point (long primer) t3rpe, 28, 31 Thin-face type, specimen of, 33 Throe-point (excelsior) type, 32 Tilde, the, 146, 171 Title-pages, how punctuated, 96 Titles of books and periodicals, 133, 154 of books, pictures, etc., 132,154 of characters, 133 of respect, affection, dignity, or office, 151 INDEX 183 Title-type, specimen of, 33 Tory, Geoflfroy, 20 Tudor type, specimen of, 33 Twelve-point (pica) type, 28^ 31 Tympan, 79 Type-founding: beginnings of, 20 by hand, 25 by machinery, history of, 21 by machinery, process of, 24 Type-metal, of what made, 21 Tjrpes: gradation of, 29 specimens of regular sizes used in book-work, 29 styles of, 33 . used in text matter, 28 widths of, 28 Typesetting, by hand, 34 by machine, 35 Typesetting machines, 35 Underlays, 91 Vergil, 156 Versicle, definition of, 80 Verso, definition of, 80 Vocative expressions. 111 Watts, John, 82 Westminster Catechism, 82 White, Elihu, 21 White page, definition of, 80 Wood-fibre, 47 Wood-pulp, 47 Young and Delcambre, 35 : ! t I ■\ ■ f 1 1 M y This book should be returned to the Library on or before the last date Btamped below. A flue of Ave cents a day is incurred by retaining it beyond the specified time. Please return promptly. 1 i
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i don't know
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What intangible communication aid did Dr Ludwig Zamenhof create c.1880, 'to foster harmony between people of different nations'?
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Peace Research Update (One World, Many Peaces)
One World, Many Peaces
Peace Research Update
Below is the complete Peace Research Updates of 2009, the 2010 is available in subscribable form here .
Week of December 16-December 24, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Judaism, Part 5 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Robinson, G., and M. Klein; Watzman. "A Possible Peace between Israel and Palestine: An Insider's Account of the Geneva Initiative." International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (November 1, 2009): 671-672.
Abarjel, R., and S. Lavie. "A Year into the Lebanon War: NGO-ing Mizrahi-Arab Paradoxes, and a One State Vision for Palestine/Israel *." Left Curve no. 33 (January 1, 2009): 29-36,144.
The "peace camp" progenitors orchestrated the Nakba ["catastrophe" in Arabic, by which Palestinians refer to their expulsion in 1948 -ed.] With the collapse of the Israeli government in Summer 2008, the polls predicted that in the forthcoming February 10, 2009 elections, the Right Wing block, led by Bibi Netanyahu, would receive a 65-70 mandate in a 120 seats Knesset. In a cyclical pattern, the Israeli establishment expands its military control over non-Jewish civilians beyond the everyday curfews, roadblocks, land appropriations, house demolitions and targeted killings.
Abrams, E., and M. Singh. "SPOILERS: The End of the Peace Process." World Affairs 172, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 69-76.
Many Palestinians, while still placing faith in an agreement that would deliver their long-awaited statehood, see the alternatives-whether engaging in armed conflict or pushing for a single multiethnic state-as increasingly attractive. Since the end of the Oslo process in 2000, the growing drift between these two positions has produced on the Israeli side a cynicism marked by paroxysms of despair, and on the Palestinian and Arab sides by a hardening of positions. [...] Arab states should find ways to reach out to Israel beyond the confines of the Peace Initiative-whether by increasing commercial cooperation or by agreeing to visits and visible diplomatic exchanges, thus persuading Israelis that peace is possible and will yield concrete dividends.
Alatout, S.. "Walls as Technologies of Government: The Double Construction of Geographies of Peace and Conflict in Israeli Politics, 2002-Present." Association of American Geographers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 956.
Since 2002, consecutive Israeli governing coalitions have been building a separation wall in the West Bank for the declared purposes of security and separation from the Palestinian population. Building on earlier phases of control, which relied on military orders, cantonment, roadblocks, and checkpoints, the wall functions as a regime of government that colonizes Palestinian life by regulating every nexus of body and space and population and territory. Rather than establishing peace, the wall's regime of government uses separation as a double construction of peace and conflict that isolates peace on the Israeli side and conflict on the Palestinian side.
Anonymous, . "Letters to the Editor." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 5-6.
Josh Wessler, New York, NY Just as illegal drug and weapons trafficking funds political turmoil and terrorism in South America, Afghanistan and Africa, Jewish organized crime funds illegal Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank, and is also used to corrupt Israeli and American politicians alike. An Abrahamic Approach Notwithstanding the fact that Ms. Rachelle Marshall is a member of Jewish Voice for Peace, which happens to be identified with the Israel Lobby [see Henry Hershkovitz's letter to the editor in the November 2009 issue], one has to admire her objectivity in reporting the plight of the Palestinians in Israel and under Israeli occupation.
Avnery, U.. "The Drama and the Farce: Obama's Mini Mideast Summit." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
Obama had demanded a freeze of all settlement activity, including East Jerusalem, as a condition for convening a tripartite summit meeting, in the wake of which accelerated peace negotiations were to start, leading to peace between two states-Israel and Palestine. The arsenal is inexhaustible-from a threat by the U.S. not to shield the Israeli government with its veto in the Security Council, to delaying the next shipment of arms. The impression is rapidly gaining ground that he is indeed an inspiring speaker with an uplifting message, but a weak politician, unable to turn his vision into reality.
Blumen, O., and S. Halevi. "Staging Peace Through a Gendered Demonstration: Women in Black in Haifa, Israel." Association of American Geographers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 977.
Israeli Women in Black was founded twenty years ago to demonstrate for peace and against the occupation of the Palestinian territories. Their political activism involves three spatial processes: outing their protest by taking to the streets, locating their protest through strategic siting, and performing their politics, thus redefining the places they occupy. The Haifa chapter has relocated its demonstrations several times in response to political opposition. Observations and interviews support our analysis of the geographical implications of their unique method of demonstration, their locational choices, and the tension between their femininity and activism played out against the city dynamic.
Etzioni, A.. "Israel: Samson's Children." Society 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 477.
Etzioni narrates that some people believe that Israel can be saved by what is called the two state solution, which would lead Palestinians and Jews to live side by side in security and peace--and pacify the Arab world and Iran to boot. However, he tells that no one believes that this road can be traveled quickly. Moreover, he stresses that no decent human being would oppose finding a diplomatic way out of the mounting crisis. Yet as the clouds gather and darken, for those who care, the question of the steps that must be taken if diplomacy fails can no longer be avoided.
Gaess, R.. "INTERVIEW: ISRAELI NEW HISTORIAN AVI SHLAIM." Middle East Policy 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 96-105.
[...] the mood in Israel is one of uncertainty and concern because all Israelis, whatever their political affiliation, know that America is the only friend they have in the world, and that they can no longer count on automatic American support. [...] it has had a peace treaty with Egypt and that peace has held. What they left is a series of Palestinian enclaves with Israel in charge, with roads for the settlers and an apartheid system that negates the possibility of a viable Palestinian state.
Gayer, C., S. Landman, E. Halperin, and D. Bar-Tal. "Overcoming Psychological Barriers to Peaceful Conflict Resolution: The Role of Arguments about Losses." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 6 (December 1, 2009): 951.
One of the most important psychological barriers to conflict resolution is the rigid structure of the sociopsychological repertoire that evolves in societies immersed in intractable conflict. This article examines ways to overcome the rigidity of this repertoire in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Specifically, in line with the prospect theory, the authors assumed that elicitation of beliefs about losses stemming from the continuing conflict may bring about a process of "unfreezing." To test this assumption, an exploratory study with a national sample of the Israeli-Jewish population and two subsequent experimental studies were conducted. The results demonstrated that exposure to information about losses inherent in continuing the conflict induces higher willingness to acquire new information about possible solutions to the conflict, higher willingness to reevaluate current positions about it, and more support for compromises than the exposure to neutral information or to information about possible gains derived from the peace agreement.
Hagerty, D.. "IRAN-Guardians of the Revolution: Iran and the World in the Age of the Ayatollahs." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 675-676.
With interested observers struggling to understand, and shape policy toward, the Islamic Republic of Iran in the aftermath of last summer's badly flawed presidential election and consequent protest movement, they are lucky to have at hand Ray Takeyh's excellent history of Iran's foreign and security policies in the three decades since the revolution. In a lively account that will be profitably read by scholars, students, policymakers, and the general reader, Takeyh traverses all of the important terrain: the 1979-1981 hostage crisis; the 1980- 1988 Iran-Iraq war; Tehran's role in the rise of Hizbullah in Lebanon during the early 1980s; the Iran-Contra scandal of the mid- 1980s; Iran's alliance with Syria; Tehran's support for terrorism against Israel and opposition to the Arab-Israeli peace process; the Iranian cultivation of Europe, China, and Russia as counterpoints to the United States; Iran's responses to the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent US wars in Afghanistan and Iraq; and the Iranian nuclear program.
Hanley, D.. "ATFP Fourth Annual Gala." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 46.
Liberty, Security, Prosperity, attended by more than 650 people, including members of Congress, current and former senior administration officials, ministers and ambassadors, prominent policy analysts, journalists and noted Palestinian and Arab Americans. In his introduction of General Jones, ATFP President Ziad J. Asali praised the national security adviser's "profound grasp of the integral relationship between politics, security and economic development, and his fairness in being able to see the perspectives, and understand the requirements, of both Israel and the Palestinians."
Hanley, D.. "Prof. Richard Falk Explains Why International Law Matters." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 53-54.
Dr. Said was often criticized for not endorsing a two-state solution, Falk noted, because, like a growing number of Palestinians and Americans, he believed that it is impossible to achieve any kind of peace with justice on the basis of two separated ethnic communities. [...] Falk stated that Israel/Palestine is "a de facto one state already."
Kaufman, A.. ""Let Sleeping Dogs Lie:" On Ghajar and Other Anomalies in the Syria-Lebanon-Israel Tri-Border Region." The Middle East Journal 63, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 539-560.
This article argues that the partition of the village of Ghajar between Israel and Lebanon by the Israeli Line of Withdrawal, as determined by the United Nations in 2000, was based on historical and cartographical errors. It demonstrates that the entire village was controlled by Syria until the June 1967 war when Israel occupied it along with the Golan Heights. The article shows that the entire pre-1967 tri-border region of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel suffered from border irregularities that remained dormant until 2000. Finally, the article argues that Ghajar should remain united, pending a Syrian-Israeli peace deal that theoretically would return the Golan Heights to Syria and include Ghajar in its entirety.
Marshall, R.. "Has Obama Made a Devil's Bargain With Israel?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 7-9.
According to a recent U.N. report, 70 percent of Gazans subsist on less than a dollar a day and 60 percent have no daily access to water (see p. 18). Because of the Israeli blockade it takes 85 days to get shelter kits into Gaza, where 20,000 people remain homeless.
McArthur, S.. "House, Senate Letters Want Arab States to Make "Dramatic Gestures Toward Israel"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
The letter cites "concrete measures" taken by Israel "to reaffirm its commitment to advancing the peace process" (but nowhere mentions illegal Israeli settlements in the occupied territories), and it encourages "Arab leaders to take similar tangible steps to demonstrate their commitment to the peace process." First was the 25-member Republican delegation, headed by Republican House Whip (and the only Republican Jewish member of Congress) Eric Cantor (R-VA).
Rubner, M.. "Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace/King Hussein of Jordan: A Political Life." Review. Middle East Policy 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 158-164.
[...] both authors attribute Hussein's ability to survive in his small, poor and militarily weak kingdom to his strong sense of personal empathy and pragmatism in dealing with internal and external foes. According to Shlaim, more than any other Arab leader, Hussein had a better understanding of the reasons for Israel's security fears.
Schaeffer-Duffy, C.. "Waging Peace: AAPER and Baltzer Team Up." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
Waging Peace: AAPER and Baltzer Team Up Since the spring of 2006, Anna Baltzer, the author of A Witness in Palestine, A Jewish American Woman in the Occupied Territories, has given more than 700 presentations on the plight of Palestinians in Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories.
Shechtman, Z., N. Wade, and A. Khoury. "Effectiveness of a Forgiveness Program for Arab Israeli Adolescents in Israel: An Empirical Trial." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 415.
This study evaluated the effect of a forgiveness counseling intervention with 146 Arab adolescents in Israel. Students from seven classrooms and schools participated in an experimental intervention study in which half of each class was randomly assigned to a forgiveness-promoting program while the other half remained in class for a social discussion with their homeroom teacher. Results indicated that students in the forgiveness intervention condition reported more increased empathy and greater reductions in endorsement of aggression, revenge, avoidance, and hostility than students in the control condition. Of the group process variables, depth of the session appears to be the best predictor of outcomes. The discussion highlights the theoretical, clinical, and didactical implications.
Weiss, L.. "ISRAEL'S FUTURE AND IRAN'S NUCLEAR PROGRAM." Middle East Policy 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 79-88.
U.S. and Israeli Policy Choices While the success of the project is important to Jewish nationalists, it should not be considered a vital national-security interest of the United States. [...] characterizing Iran's nuclear program as an "existential threat" to Israel is an attempt to obtain support for sanctions and/or military action against Iran by conflating the physical destruction of Israel by a surprise nuclear attack, which Washington should actively work to prevent, with the demographic threats to the Zionist project, which the United States is under no obligation to alleviate.
Wilcox, P.. "MODERN HISTORY AND POLITICS-A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East - From the Cold War to the War on Terror." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 683-686.
Washington has been slow to understand the core Palestinian conflict and to protect US interests through wiser management of its alliance with Israel. Because of years of US indulgence of Israeli occupation and settlement policies, the conflict has deepened.
Williams, I.. "Israel's Obsession With Goldstone Report Reflects Fears of War Crimes Prosecutions." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 14-15.
Israel's Western allies have been reduced to inanities, lamenting the mission's failure to hear the case the Israelis refused to make. "Because Israel did not cooperate with the Mission, which we regret, the report lacks an authoritative Israeli perspective on the events in question, so crucial to determining the legality of actions," declared the British envoy in Geneva, who should have been fully aware that it was precisely with that eventual excuse in mind that Israel refused to cooperate.
Yablon, Y.. "Promoting peace education via voluntary encounters." Cambridge Journal of Education 39, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 505.
As current study of contact between groups is somehow limited and self-referential, the present study joins other studies that suggest a deeper examination of intergroup contact in wider social processes which recognize the complex nature of intergroup relationships. A qualitative multiple-methods approach, supported by quantitative measures, was used to study a voluntary dialogue group of religious and secular students in Israel, to reveal its underlying force-driving processes and study its contribution to the enhancement of positive relationships between the groups. The findings reveal the strengths and weaknesses of such voluntary encounters and point to four fundamental factors for the formation and enhancement of this new venue for intergroup contact intervention programs: motivation, cooperation, meeting coordinator and group facilitator, and enjoying the meetings. Possible implications for school pedagogy and for the enhancement of positive intergroup relations are discussed.
al-Faisal, T.. "Land First, Then Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
[...] while Israel's neighbors want peace, they cannot be expected to tolerate what amounts to theft, and certainly should not be pressured into rewarding Israel for the return of land that does not belong to it. [...] Israel heeds President Obama's call for the removal of all settlements, the world must be under no illusion that Saudi Arabia will offer what the Israelis most desire-regional recognition.
Week of December 9-December 15, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Islam, Part 4 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Aksoy, S.. "MUSLIM - CHRISTIAN DIALOGUE IN PEYAMI SAFA'S: THE ARMCHAIR OF MADEMOISELLE NORALIYA." Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 20, no. 1/2 (January 1, 2008): 87-104.
Peyami Safa, a twentieth-century novelist, journalist, and intellectual, and one of the major personalities of conservatism in Turkey, encouraged Muslim and Christian believers to search for common ground and shared values that would yield a happy, virtuous way of life. His novel, The Armchair of Mademoislle Noraliya, features a character, Noraliya, who epitomizes the common ground between Islam and Christianity as a guide to peace of mind for individuals lost in the maze of modernity. Safa's literary construct is rooted in the both religious inclination and admiration for the modern mind. Drawing on the main elements of the novel, this essay focuses on those features that reflect Safa's idea of a personal mysticism reached through religion, as well as interreligious dialogue. Safa's approach exemplifies Turkey's unique position in the Muslim world, inviting comparison and appreciation of the nuances among the historical manifestations of Islam.
Alvi-Aziz, H.. "Iran Awakening: One Woman's Journey to Reclaim Her Life and Country/The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future." Review. Naval War College Review 62, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 154-155.
Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Eb adi' s autobiography Iran Awakening and Vali Nasr' s The Shia Revival provide unique insights and analyses of the powerhungry clerics ruling Iran and of the Sunni-versus-Shia paradigm. Each chapter contains shocking developments, but nothing grabs the reader more than the prologue, in which she describes her surreal discovery that she is next on the revolutionary clerics' hit list. The book's subtitle states his theory that it is the many conflicts within Islam that will shape the future.
Anonymous, . "Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Clingingsmith, D., A. Khwaja, and M. Kremer. "Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and Tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 1133.
We estimate the impact on pilgrims of performing the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Our method compares successful and unsuccessful applicants in a lottery used by Pakistan to allocate Hajj visas. Pilgrim accounts stress that the Hajj leads to a feeling of unity with fellow Muslims, but outsiders have sometimes feared that this could be accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. We find that participation in the Hajj increases observance of global Islamic practices, such as prayer and fasting, while decreasing participation in localized practices and beliefs, such as the use of amulets and dowry. It increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects and leads to more favorable attitudes toward women, including greater acceptance of female education and employment. Increased unity within the Islamic world is not accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. Instead, Hajjis show increased belief in peace, and in equality and harmony among adherents of different religions. The evidence suggests that these changes are likely due to exposure to and interaction with Hajjis from around the world, rather than to a changed social role of pilgrims upon return.
Cook, M.. "Arguing the Just War in Islam." Review. Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 117-119.
In 1993, he published Islam and War: A Case Study in Comparative Ethics, one of the first and clearest expositions ever to compare Islamic thought about just war with the dominant European, Christian, and international law models familiar to American scholars and lawyers. Kelsay reviews the arguments of a number of Islamic reformers who are attempting to reinterpret Islam in such a manner as to make it more compatible with pluralist democracy and equal human rights for all regardless of religious affiliation, etc.
El-Aswad, E.. "Islamic Attitudes to Israel." Review. Domes 18, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 107-110.
[...] the early roots of the battle between Palestinian and Israeli have been religion , including Islam (p. 72, italics are added) There seems to be an obvious contradiction and confusion in the author's assertions and claims about the roots of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.\n Chapter Seven: Iran, Israel and the Middle East Conflict discusses the shift in the Iran-Israel relationship from one of cooperation in the 1980s, when Israel was involved in arms deals with Iran because of the Iran-Iraq War (p.115), to one of hostility in the 1990s-especially since the 1991 Gulf War - which altered the Iranian society's attitude towards Israel. The main conclusion of Chapter Nine: "The Republic of Indonesia and Israel" can be summed up as follows: Because of its refusal to establish relations with Israel, Indonesia, among other Muslim states of Asia, has been portrayed as anti-Israel despite the fact that there is no evidence that any of the Indonesian leaders - namely Suharto, Habibie and Wahid - feared reactions from Arab states, (p. 156) The book does not convey new findings.
Ellian, A.. "Monotheism as a Political Problem: Political Islam and the Attack on Religious Equality and Freedom." Telos no. 145 (December 1, 2008): 87.
Ellian examines the relation between religion and politics, which is a legal-philosophical theme that has once again come to the foreground, due primarily to the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the ensuing international debate on the nature of Islam. Yet every discussion of Islam encounters the resistance of political correctness, which exercises an enormous pressure on academic freedom, often resulting in self-censorship. Philosophy does not have as its primary goal the establishment of world peace. Instead, it begins by asking questions and by analyzing reality, even if those questions and analyses turn out to be very painful to religious or political powers.
Erlanger, S.. ""THE ANTI-GERMANS" - THE PRO-ISRAEL GERMAN LEFT." Jewish Political Studies Review 21, no. 1/2 (April 1, 2009): 95-106,211.
It is no secret that the German Left's outlook today is, and has been for some time, predominantly anti-Israel and anti-American. Far less wellknown is the existence of a small but influential pro-Israel movement within the German Left, a movement which challenges the existing antiIsrael consensus. The "Anti-German" Movement, as it is known, grew out of a communist student organization. In 1989 it finally emerged as a movement in its own right in opposition to German reunification. Fearing the emergence of a new fascism from the social and political dynamics of reunification, the Anti-Germans fight any manifestation of German nationalism, aligning themselves with the victims of Nazi Germany and their descendants. Likewise, seeing elements of German nationalism in the German Peace Movement, the Anti-Germans have become its strong opponents. During the 1990s the movement perceived modern-day German existence as dominated by dynamics between the state, economy, and society similar to those that led to National Socialism and the Holocaust. Today the Anti-Germans discern fascism and militant anti-Semitism as most apparent in Islamism and therefore strongly denounce militant political Islam. At the same time, they offer unconditional support for Israel, the Jews, and the U.S., in opposition to the dominant political discourse amongst the German public in general and the left in particular. Unable to form a mass movement or an organization large enough to take an active role in political life, the Anti-German Movement has become an influential publicist movement centered on several magazines and journals. As writers, social scientists, and journalists, Anti-Germans have been able to exert a growing impact on the Left and on public opinion.
Gee, J.. "Obama's Speech: "It's Really About the Arabs"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 37.
[...] I was left with a couple of impressions of the reasons for this attitude. [...] in choosing to make his first presidential sally into the Muslim world a visit to the Middle East, Obama made the right choice if his primary concern was to take on the issue of the Palestine conflict.
Gillespie, M.. "Third Annual Des Moines Peace Fair Features Diversity." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 9 (December 1, 2008): 71.
Noting that television and media often traffic in stereotypes, he said the MSA works to provide accurate information about Islam to dispel unrealistic fears.
Gregersen, N.. "On Taboos: The Danish Cartoon Crisis 2005-20081." Dialog 48, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 79-96.
The international crisis following the publication of 12 Muhammad cartoons in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten (September 30, 2005) raises the general question of how to exercise the freedom of expression in relation to religious taboos. After briefly reviewing the Cartoon Crisis from September 2005 to the bombings on the Danish Ambassay in Pakistan in June 2008, the article addresses Lutheran resources for coping with secularisation and desecularisation, in particular as regards the taboos that persist as a part of religious and humanistic values. The thesis is that the Lutheran doctrine of the two kingdoms has given rise to two models of interpretation that have both been historically active. The doctrine of the two regiments has been interpreted both as a 'liberalist' argument for a principled separation of religion and politics, and as a 'social-conservative' (later Social Democratic) argument for the view that the state should take care of its citizens' welfare through education, the legal system and social services. In today's global and multi-religious world, this leads us to ask the question to what extent a welfare society, for the sake of peace and social order, should, or should not, protect religious sensitivities. Should religious communities always be kept out of public life, or can they be recognised as non-governmental organizations in civil society, hence as potential partners for the state?
Gunaratna, R., and M. Ali. "De-Radicalization Initiatives in Egypt: A Preliminary Insight." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 4 (April 1, 2009): 277.
This article provides a preliminary insight to the ideological revision of the two principle Islamist militant groups in Egypt, the Al-Gamaa Al-lslamiyya and Al-Jihad Al-Islami. Several leaders of these groups have taken steps to renounce violence and promote peace co-existence with the government and society. They have also repented and apologized for the past terror attacks in Egypt that led to the killing of many innocent civilians, government officials and tourists. In addition, they have gone to great lengths to counter and argue against Al Qaeda's violent ideology and to restrict its influence on the Muslim population. The ideological revision of these two groups reflects a significant shift in the efforts of the Egyptian authorities and community to address the problem of ideological extremism and terrorism in the country.
Hanley, D.. "Kerry Holds Hearing on Engaging Muslims Around World." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 70-71.
[...] Albright concluded, religion matters: "Both the Bible and Qur'an include enough rhetorical ammunition to start a war and enough moral uplift to engender permanent peace."
[...] he suggested treating Muslim visitors with more respect at our U.S. points of entry, and correcting the embarrassing delays for obtaining visitors' visas.
Hilsdon, A.. "Invisible Bodies: Gender, Conflict and Peace in Mindanao." Asian Studies Review 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 349-V.
Community forms of struggle such as clan feuds [ridos] are common within Muslim groups in Central and Western Mindanao, but these do not figure in classic scholarly definitions of "war" in the region and elsewhere (see Majul, 1999; McKenna, 1998), which emphasise larger political struggles against the state. [...] women seldom figure in explanations of either political or community conflict, as they have predominantly been considered integrally involved only in family life.4 Islam in the Philippines is diverse in its social and cultural expression, a pattern similarly noted for the Middle East by Akbar S. Ahmed (1992, p. 200) and Bryan S. Turner (1994, p. 13).
Jones, G.. "Islam and Violent Separatism: New Democracies in Southeast Asia." Review. Journal of Third World Studies 26, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 175-178.
Islamic radical behavior is not the cause of this social malady but rather one of its inheritors, a fact mat escaped the writers of this edited book. ' [...] endemic violence is brought under local control, liberal democracy has an uncertain future. The thesis governing the edited book is sound, Islamic radical groups have impacted Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia national efforts in fostering liberal democracy.
Marion, M., J. Rousseau, and K. Gollin. "Connecting Our Villages: The Afghan Sister Schools Project at the Carolina Friends School." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 548-570.
The Carolina Friends School has sustained a peace education effort grounded in a sister-school relationship with a school in rural Afghanistan since 2002. Activities at this Quaker school involve students from preschool through high school in pen pal friendships, ten-day diary exchanges, peace-quilt exchanges, fund-raisers, and a variety of in-class programs about Islam and Afghan culture. Funds have been used in Afghanistan to furnish classrooms, equip playgrounds, and support teacher training. The project aims to educate students about cultural differences underlying conflict in the world and to seek a more peaceful world through building relationships among the sister-school students.
Peabody, N.. "Disciplining the Body, Disciplining the Body-Politic: Physical Culture and Social Violence among North Indian Wrestlers." Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 372-400.
In the early evening of 14 September 1989, ferocious Hindu-Muslim rioting broke out in the city of Kota in the north Indian state of Rajasthan. The rioting started during the Hindu festival of Anant Chaturdashi, while celebrants were taking out religious processions through the city. Although most of the violence occurred during that first night, it would be another three days before the Indian army could restore an uneasy peace to the city and nearly three weeks more would pass before the military curfew that eventually confined city's inhabitants to their houses for all but a few hours a day was fully lifted. The mayhem claimed the lives of twenty-six individuals and left a further ninety-nine injured in hospital. Countless more 'walking wounded' were treated on an outpatient basis in local dispensaries or by friends or neighbors. In addition, vandalism, arson, and looting caused property losses exceeding ten million rupees. Although Muslims constituted only 9 percent of the city's population of roughly half-a-million, they suffered the vast majority of the casualties and bore a disproportionate amount of property loss. By convention we commonly refer to such rioting as 'Hindu-Muslim violence,' but the parity implied in this formula is deeply misleading. The vast majority of victims were Muslims.
Power, C.. "FAITH IN THE MARKET." Foreign Policy no. 170 (January 1, 2009): 70-75,4.
Amid the worst economic crisis in nearly a century, Yusuf Talal DeLorenzo sells peace of mind. A Muslim convert who is the product of both a Massachusetts prep school and a Karachi madrasa, DeLorenzo issues pronouncements on the spiritual soundness of modern finance for the world's Muslims. He served as a well-paid counsel to the international hedge-fund managers, bankers, and asset managers who are determined to invest in line with the Koran's principles. Sharia scholars such as DeLorenzo see Islamic finance as the path to a distinctly spiritual end. But not everyone is convinced. Take the claim of Islamic finance as a safe haven from the global economic crisis. Islamic finance, just like conventional finance, is vulnerable to sloppy vetting of customers' creditworthiness. Potential pitfalls for Islamic finance, then, are the same as those for conventional finance: greed and lax regulation. A larger issue is whether Islam and the modern economy can be reconciled at all.
Powers, J.. "RESTORING HARMONY TO GUJARAT: PEACE BUILDING AFTER THE 2002 RIOTS." Journal of Third World Studies 25, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 103-115.
Both parties centered on the ideology of V.D. Savarkar, whose book, Hindutva Who is a Hindu? ( 1923) called for recognizing Hinduism as both a race and a religion, essentially developing an "indigenous race" theory modeled on German nationalism and Aryan mythography.3 In order to celebrate the vitality and strength of a twice colonized nation, the Sangh emphasized physical fitness, martial arts and paramilitary training. The Sangh Parivar organizations consider their enemies to be a Indian followers of foreign religions (Islam and Christianity), b Communists and their sympathizers, c westernized members of the Indian intelligentsia committed to secularism, and d foreign powers.6 This sort of thinking has polarized Indian society, particularly in the north, pitting upper-caste and middle-class Hindus against Muslims, untouchables, converts to Islam and Christianity, and any who subscribe to "the false dogma of secularism."
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Simbar, R.. "The Changing Role of Islam in International Relations." Journal of International and Area Studies 15, no. 2 (December 1, 2008): 55-68.
This paper examines different aspects of the global Islamic movement and its impacts and implications. We study the theoretical background and different perspectives in Islamic ideology. We discuss the basis of inter-state relations between a Muslim polity and other Muslim or non-Muslim polities that can be found in traditional and neo-traditional literatures relevant to the topic. This paper argues that peace is the original basis in Islam and rejects the idea of perpetual war between Islamic and non-Islamic polity as espoused by Jihadist groups that have raised concerns among security agencies and non-Muslim political and community leaders. Political Islam is undergoing a transformation from being an opposition and marginalised political project to becoming a counter-hegemonic movement fighting at the front line between the West and the rest of the world. The strength of Islamism is shaped not only by its Islamic discourse and rhetoric, but also by its social components and political programs. This paper argues that the West must in one way or another understand, recognize and accommodate Islamism's political motivations and visions. Religious re-awakening, often in the form of fundamental revivalism, is a major phenomenon in the international relations today, especially in the Islamic regions.
Sodiq, Y.. "Can Muslims and Christians Live Together Peacefully in Nigeria?" The Muslim World 99, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 646-688.
The Nigerian constitution provides and guarantees for each citizen the freedom of religion, religious practice, and religious education.7 These rights are generally observed throughout Nigeria. [...] places of worship are freely established,8 and no restrictions are placed on the number of clergy trained in Nigeria9 or on the number of people who may perform pilgrimage.
Swazo, N.. ""MY BROTHER IS MY KING": EVALUATING THE MORAL DUTY OF GLOBAL JIHAD." International Journal on World Peace 25, no. 4 (December 1, 2008): 7-47.
This paper considers the problem of defining and describing terrorism associated with contemporary "political" or "radical" Islam and the statements of Osama bin Laden that ostensibly justify global jihad. The author's moral assessment considers the task of comparative jurisprudence that includes reasoning in Islamic jurisprudence. Given bin Laden's appeal to Islamic sources, attention needs to be paid to the authority of the Hanbali school of law and the jurist Ibn Taymiyya as these relate to the justification of global jihad. The article concludes that these sources provide political Islamists "just cause" to wage a defensive global jihad on behalf of global Islamic solidarity of the ummah, defensive insofar as these actions are taken against Western "imperialism" and American hegemony. This points to the need for American politicians to rethink the policy of waging what is called the global war on terrorism.
Tank, P.. "Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East?" Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 601.
Tank reviews Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East? by Gareth Jenkins.
Tank, P.. "The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World." Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 2 (March 1, 2009): 286.
Tank reviews The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World by Graham E. Fuller.
Week of December 3-December 9, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Hinduism, Part 3 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Powers, J.. "RESTORING HARMONY TO GUJARAT: PEACE BUILDING AFTER THE 2002 RIOTS." Journal of Third World Studies 25, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 103-115.
Both parties centered on the ideology of V.D. Savarkar, whose book, Hindutva Who is a Hindu? ( 1923) called for recognizing Hinduism as both a race and a religion, essentially developing an "indigenous race" theory modeled on German nationalism and Aryan mythography.3 In order to celebrate the vitality and strength of a twice colonized nation, the Sangh emphasized physical fitness, martial arts and paramilitary training. The Sangh Parivar organizations consider their enemies to be a Indian followers of foreign religions (Islam and Christianity), b Communists and their sympathizers, c westernized members of the Indian intelligentsia committed to secularism, and d foreign powers.6 This sort of thinking has polarized Indian society, particularly in the north, pitting upper-caste and middle-class Hindus against Muslims, untouchables, converts to Islam and Christianity, and any who subscribe to "the false dogma of secularism."
Tsai, T.. "Public health and peace building in Nepal." The Lancet 374, no. 9689 (August 15, 2009): 515-6.
[...] with the resignation of the Maoist cabinet, after only 9 months in power, and the ensuing impasse in forming a coalition government led by the new Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal, it remains to be seen if promoting public health will still be a priority. Since the cessation of the civil war in 2006, Nepal has seen a large influx of development aid, with around US$700 million committed for fiscal year 2008-09-a substantial proportion of its $3 billion budget according to the Ministry of Finance.
Jain, R.. "An Ethical Diet for Peace and Plenty." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 38-39.
IN INDIA, THE LAND OF AHIMSA, OR NONVIOLENCE, PEOPLE HAVE traditionally been vegetarian. Hailing from a family of staunch vegetarians, I consider myself fortunate to be living in harmony with the principles of nature. As a Jain follower, I strongly advocate a vegetarian diet, which I find superior not only from a moral stance, but also from the health and culinary points of view. Guests at our home, coming from both vegetarian and nonvegetarian backgrounds, are always overwhelmed with what they describe as the unbelievable taste and richness of our vegetarian cuisine.
Sadly, in recent times many Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, especially of the younger generation, are no longer so strict about our precepts and have taken to nonvegetarian food, mostly following the misconception that meat-eating is healthy. Truth be told, a vegetarian diet is actually much healthier than one based on animal protein. It is argued that there is a lot of protein in meat and eggs, but we do not need so much concentrated protein in our diet. There is plenty of protein in nuts, seeds, pulses and dairy products, which are also far easier to digest. Vegetarianism supports mental and physical health as well as spiritual cultivation. Fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts and milk products provide a balanced diet which does not make our system toxic. This is primarily because when an animal is killed, it becomes dead matter. In the case of many vegetables, if we eat part of the vegetable and re-plant another part, it can grow again; it is still a living organism.
My friend Martin Gluckman, who runs the Vedic Society and teaches organic and ayurvedic cooking in South Africa, hails Indian vegetarianism thusly: "India has the world's greatest cuisine and most variety of dishes, boasting to its amazing cultural and spiritual heritage. It has a time-tested vegetarian cuisine offering a delight for all senses and the heart. India can be proud to have the world's largest per-capita number of vegetarians (I have read reports of more than 40%). No other country can make such a statement of humanity and nonviolence. The vegetarian culture and lifestyle is India's greatest achievement and gift to the world. Only in years to come will the true value of this gift be known."
Nancy deWolf Smith. "Entertainment & Culture -- Review / Television: What the Magi Saw." Review. Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2008, Eastern Edition,
Less is knowable about the identity of the three wise men, or magi, referred to in the Gospel of Matthew -- and, it turns out, in unrelated scholarly records from about A.D. 50. The narrator and star, former Texas fundamentalist Edward T. Martin, explains that while teaching English abroad and serving in the Peace Corps in Afghanistan in 1974, he stumbled onto the theory that Jesus, when he was 12 or 13, joined a caravan on the Silk Road and wound up in India and Nepal, where he imbibed the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism before going home much later to be crucified.
P.K. Abdul Ghafour. "Geneva meeting seeks greater understanding among religions." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 1 October2009.
The latest international conference on interfaith dialogue -- the fourth in a series initiated by Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah -- began here on Wednesday with a call for greater understanding among the followers of different religions and culture in order to promote human welfare and world peace. Bandar Al-Eiban, president of the Human Rights Commission in Saudi Arabia; William Baker, president of Christians and Muslims for Peace in the US; Rev. Xue Cheng, vice chairman of Buddhist Association of China; Faisal bin Muammar, Saudi deputy minister of education; Sri Ravi Shankar, a renowned scholar on Hinduism; and Mohammad Ali Al-Taskhiri, general-secretary of the World Forum for Proximity of Islamic Schools of Thought in Iran.
Renuka Narayanan. "Hindustan Times, New Delhi, Renuka Narayanan column: Invite them in, for God's sake." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 11 October2008 ***[insert pages]***
[...] mullahs teaching Muslims to live at theological peace with Hindus, the custodians of saints' shrines could rethink letting women in close to the grave. The theme of this Makkan surah is that the basis of faith is God's power and goodness and the fruit of both is man's healing.
Soumyajit Pattnaik. "Tribals hold key to peace." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 19 December 2008.
When the riots first started in Kandhamal district on Christmas Day last year, the statewide shutdown call given by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad to protest against the attack on Swami Laxmanananda Saraswati's vehicle on December 24 (he was killed in August this year) coincided with a Kandhamal shutdown call given by the tribals' association for an entirely different reason.
Zia Haq. "VHP anti-terror message: part peace, part threat." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 2 March 2009.
At a 50-year-old ashram in this hub of India's Islamic clergy, just across the road from the Muslim seminary, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad on Sunday organised a yagya for Ram Rajya to defeat terror, with many seers saying Hinduism faced a "serious threat" from jihad and the fatwa proved of "little use".
"Peace Village' set for Sunday." Houston Chronicle, February 5, 2009,
Attendees will have the opportunity to learn about different spiritual practices - including Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and Bahai - and touch sacred objects from the various traditions, learn about them, pray for peace and enjoy an ethnic food table.
Agarwal, S.. "Learning to Be the Change." India Currents, October 1, 2008, 50.
The goal of Gandhi Camp is to teach youth to use Gandhi's principles of truthful- ness, tolerance, and self-help in our everyday lives. The camp was founded by a popular and dedicated Indian youth leader, S. N. Sub- ba Rao, who is also the chief of Gandhi Peace Foundation. Campers and counselors affec- tionately call Subba Raoji, Bhaiji, meaning "Elder Brother." Bhaiji believes that building inner strength is the best way to build charac- ter. He inspires all the young campers to learn Gandhian values like ahimsa (non-violence), love, peace, and harmony, and teaches us that the world's fortune lies in the youth.
Anonymous, . "AVS Plans Satsang to Promote Peace." India - West, May 30, 2008,
The Palm Bay, Floriada-based Akhanda Vishnu Sahasranama Organization is planning to channel Vishnu Sahasranama Stotra into a Satsang across the U.S....
Anonymous, . "Eco-friendly Gandhi celebration in Nevada." India Abroad, August 15, 2008,
The recitations at the sunset to honor the legacy of [Gandhi] will include Christian prayers in English, Muslim prayers in Arabic, Hindu shlokas in Sanskrit, Buddhist prayers in Pali, Jewish prayers in Hebrew, a Baha'i prayer in Persian, and a Native American chant in the Sioux tradition. Attendees will sing one of Gandhi's favorite bhajans, Raghupati Raghav Rajaram, said [Rajan Zed].
Zed and Reverend Savoy plan to make Gandhi Month an annual feature in Nevada. The two are also pushing for a Gandhi monument at the state capitol in Carson City and Gandhi statues in Las Vegas and Reno. A Nevada-wide essay competition will be held in October on topics including nonviolence, peace and conflict resolution.
Anonymous, . "Nirankari Mission Holds 'Peace Not Pieces' Event." India - West, September 25, 2009,
Guests attending the event included Tracy Mayor Brent Ives, as well as members of the interfaith and Ahmadiyya communities. Singh personally greeted and blessed attendees after the event, which also included a community dinner served by volunteers.
Anonymous, . "Nobel Prize Winners Voice Hindu Wisdom." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2008, 7.
THE 2007 NOBEL PEACE prize was jointly awarded to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Al Gore. The IPCC was credited for its definitive research on the issues and dangerous impact of climate change. Former US Vice President, Al Gore, was honored for single-handedly bringing the crisis to the forefront of world attention.
"Principles" was followed by "Indian Sculpture" (1932), "A Survey of Painting in the Deccan" (1937), "Indian Terracottas" (1939), "The Hindu Temple" (1946) and "Arts and Crafts of Travancore" (1948).
From 1932-50, Kramrisch coedited the Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art. In 1950, she moved to the United States, where she was professor of Soutii Asian art at die University of Pennsylvania and curator of Indian art at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, where she organized the exhibitions - "The Art of Nepal and Tibet" (1960), "Unknown India: Ritual Art in Tribe and Village" (1968) and "Himalayan Art 700-1900" (1978). She produced a show, "Manifestations of Siva," for the Philadelphia Museum in 1981. Her last exhibition was "Painted Delight," a show of Mughal paintings, also at the Philadelphia museum, in 1986.
Dutt, E.. "'I seek your blessings so I can practice my Hindu faith strongly'." News India - Times, April 25, 2008,
"As a Hindu, I am gratified to meet and shake hands with a Christian - so that I can continue to practice my religion stronger than ever. I would say to the Pope, "I am proud to be a Hindu and I seek your blessings also so that I can practice my faith more strongly, and also to work toward world peace."
"Four religions emanating from India, are represented at the meeting with the Pope in the U.S. It is remarkable. All Eastern faiths, more or less with common beliefs, are being represented on the same dais - it speaks of the strength of these religions in serving world peace.
Dutt, E.. "South Asians have high profile at meeting with Pope." News India - Times, April 25, 2008,
[Ravi Gupta], 25, a doctorate in Religion from University of Oxford, presented the sacred syllable [Om]' on a brass incense burner. He is the author of 'The Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami: When Knowledge Meets Devotion. He participated in a recent USCCB-Hindu consultation and is committed to pursuing interreligious dialogue in both his professional and personal capacities.
"I'd like to encourage him to open up a full dialogue with Hinduism and bring Hindus to the table," Gupta told The Washington Times before the Pope's visit, "That is important considering India's growing presence in the world. Religious issues in India are taking on a lot more significance than they used to."
"Naturally I feel the greatest honor in being able to meet one of the most revered people on this earth," [Aditya Vora] is quoted saying on the Catholic Bishops website blog. "More importantly the causes uniting us in this ceremony have filled me with great joy and hope. When leaders from the Islamic, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Buddhist and [Jain] faiths come together, I feel this symbolizes a universal priority of peace through religious tolerance."
Joseph, G.. "'America is on the cutting edge of the new Hindu-Jewish relationship'." India Abroad, July 10, 2009,
Swami Avdeshananda Giri, trustee of the Hindu [Dharma Acharya Sabha] who led the Hindu Sabha delegation, said, 'Hindus believe that the whole world is one family so we are committed to nonviolence, brotherhood and peace. To bring forth communal harmony and peace throughout the world, we need to engage m interfaith dialogue to foster mutual understanding and respect.'
I see great prospects for furthering strategic relations between India-Israel and India, Israel and the US,' [Bawa Jain] said. The World Council of Religions is committed to expand this dialogue by engaging the other major world traditions similarly in religious diplomacy.'
"Any dialogue that is based on or towards the end goal of mutual understanding and respect is imperative in an age where the vast majority of conflicts around the globe are driven by religious intolerance," she said. "This year, religious and spiritual leaders and the World Council believed it was time to bring the fruits of the two previous summits to the US in the form of high level meetings and a report release on Capitol Hill."
Malik, R.. "Swami Avdheshananda Giri, HINDU of the YEAR." Hinduism Today, January 1, 2009, 18-24.
As the Acharya, Swamiji assumed the mantle of guru for the akhara's numerous devotees. He said to our reporter, "May God forgive me and I say this without any kind of arrogance, but I interact with thousands of people every day." It requires stamina, dedication and a strong spiritual foundation to remain centered, and Swami found the answer in discipline. No matter where he is in the world, at 9AM his doors will open to devotees. With three to four flights every month and an average of twenty days away from the main ashram, Swami finds it helpful to plan ahead in detail. Everything is scheduled, even the time allocated for each meal. It is a demanding social routine, far removed from his beginnings as a Himalayan yogi. "What keeps me alive is my meditation," Swami says with candor. "I cannot live without meditation. It gives me energy, bliss, peace and vitality. When you close your eyes and sit in a proper posture, energy will grow and flow at a very rapid speed. Just close your eyes and observe it. There is nothing more powerful than dhyana. Dhyana gives birth to you, it introduces you to your own Self."
"We have constructed 350 to 400 dams," exults Swami Avdheshananda. And, he adds, 1,300 new Sivalingas have been installed, one for each village. "We wanted to develop their faith in God The villagers themselves worked to build them. In the past five years or so, the whole life of those people has been transformed." While he is pleased with the results, Swamiji wants to go farther. "Now we want to provide better education and medical help" The Shivganga yields humanitarian results and is also good for Hinduism. "Before we went there," Swami continues, "large-scale conversion was taking place. That has stopped altogether. Before, no religious events were happening; now we even have Hindu priests officiating at festivals. It is with a lot of enthusiasm that I am sharing with you our extensive plans for that area."
Previous awardees were Swami Paramananda Bharat i ('90), Swami Chidananda Saraswati ("91), Swami Chinmayananda ('92), Mata Amritanandamayi Ma ('93), Swami Satchidananda ('94), Pramukhswami Maharaj (95), Satya Sai Baba (96), Sri Chinmoy ('97), Swami Bua (98), Swami Chidananda Saraswati of Divine Life Society ("99), Ma Yoga Shakti ('00), T. S Sambamurthy Sivachariar ('01), Dada Vaswani ('02), Sri Tiruchi Mahaswamigal ('03). Dr. K. Pichai Sivacharya ('04), Swami Tejomayananda ('05). Ramesh Bhai Oza ('06) and Sri Balagandharanathas wami ('07).
Malik, R.. "The New Age Cycles Back to India." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 59-63.
Priyanka Malhotra, director of Full Circle Books, tells us, "The term New Age was coined in the US, and there people connect it to the hippie culture, or to magic. But it's actually about peace, love and understanding. Over the years, people misused and misunderstood the term in the West." Priyanka's Delhi-based publishing house and bookstore chain specializes in what she calls the "body, mind, spirit" segment of the publishing trade. "If I have to define the concept of New Age in the Indian mind, it is anything that goes beyond the physical body, and anything alternative to the mainstream."
Abhishek Jain of Motilal Banarsidass, one of India's largest and most respected publishers, started a New Age line eight years ago. Abhishek, who now specializes in that niche, explains, "These are books to heal yourself, to study yourself. Chakras, yoga, meditation, Reiki, auras, self-healing and alternative therapies are some of the popular subjects. Tai Chi, Chinese medicine, vastu and parapsychology are also part of our New Age section. Our collection also includes titles on Hindu Gods and Goddesses, Sai Baba, Buddhism, Ramana Maharishi and Hindu philosophy." Describing a market that is just the opposite in the West, he says, "We even carry a few titles on Islamic mysticism, but no books on Christianity. Christians don't buy these books, only Hindus and Buddhists do." He notes that there is plenty of room for growth in this segment: "I can see increasing market possibilities in India and in the Southeast Asian markets. Sometimes we buy the rights to a title for all of South Asia."
Where does all this leave us? In "The Hostile New Age Takeover of Yoga," back in America (an article in the online journal Slate, March 2007), Ron Rosenbaum laments the "commodification" and "dumbing down" of yoga and the Eastern philosophy that gives meaning to the practice. One of his readers agreed wholeheartedly, writing that she stopped subscribing to Yoga Journal "when there were more recommendations for $130 pants and $4,000 retreats than there were actual discussions of philosophy and form." They could not have made the same complaints about the New Age in India- and that's a good thing.
Pasquini, E.. "Hinduism, Islam Discussed at San Francisco Ladies Consular Corps Luncheon." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 5 (July 1, 2008): 48-49.
Activist Lobbies for Anti-War Resolution Forty years after Mill Valley resident Alan Barnett successfully helped lobby his town council to adopt a resolution urging then-President Lyndon B. Johnson to "immediately formulate a policy of peace in Vietnam and an orderly withdrawal," the 80-year-old activist is trying to do the same regarding the Iraq war. While the council adopted an anti-war resolution in 1968, 17 years later it changed its official policy to "not take a position for or against issues which are state or national in scope?" Barnett and fellow members of the Marin Peace and Justice Center are trying to change the city's position.
Peabody, N.. "Disciplining the Body, Disciplining the Body-Politic: Physical Culture and Social Violence among North Indian Wrestlers." Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 372-400.
In the early evening of 14 September 1989, ferocious Hindu-Muslim rioting broke out in the city of Kota in the north Indian state of Rajasthan. The rioting started during the Hindu festival of Anant Chaturdashi, while celebrants were taking out religious processions through the city. Although most of the violence occurred during that first night, it would be another three days before the Indian army could restore an uneasy peace to the city and nearly three weeks more would pass before the military curfew that eventually confined city's inhabitants to their houses for all but a few hours a day was fully lifted. The mayhem claimed the lives of twenty-six individuals and left a further ninety-nine injured in hospital. Countless more 'walking wounded' were treated on an outpatient basis in local dispensaries or by friends or neighbors. In addition, vandalism, arson, and looting caused property losses exceeding ten million rupees. Although Muslims constituted only 9 percent of the city's population of roughly half-a-million, they suffered the vast majority of the casualties and bore a disproportionate amount of property loss. By convention we commonly refer to such rioting as 'Hindu-Muslim violence,' but the parity implied in this formula is deeply misleading. The vast majority of victims were Muslims.
Prothero, S.. "Obama opens dialogue with Muslims in Egypt." Miami Times, June 24, 2009,
[Barack Obama] began Thursday's speech with the customary Muslim greeting: "Assalaamu alaykum,"or "peace be upon you." He invoked what he referred to as "the holy Quran" five times. And though he confessed his Christian faith, he reminded us that he is descended from Muslims in Kenya, and that he grew up in Indonesia hearing the Islamic call to prayer.
Just as he drew on Catholicism to argue for tolerance and mutual respect in the abortion debate, Obama drew on Islam to remind Muslims and Americans alike of the Islamic tradition's commitments to peace and religious pluralism. While Martin Luther King Jr. dreamed of Alabama becoming a place where Black children and white children would join hands as sisters and brothers, Obama dreamed of Jerusalem becoming "a place for all of the children of Abraham to mingle peacefully together as ... when Moses, Jesus and Mohammed (peace be upon them ) joined in prayer."
This speech by our Empathy President has been billed as a call for a "new beginning" in the relationship between America and the Muslim world, but at its heart it was yet another Obamaesque call for religious pluralism and mutual respect. At his inauguration, Obama referred to the United States as "a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus, and non-believers." In South Bend, he traced the Golden Rule not just to Jesus but to "Christianity and Judaism ... Islam and Hinduism ... Buddhism and humanism." In Cairo, he confessed that it was this same rule that called him to Egypt to speak.
Rao, S.. "Hindu Prayer Opens State Legislatures For The First Time." Asianweek, March 28, 2008,
CUPERTINO, Calif. - Rajan Zed first sprinkled holy water from the Ganges River in India (Ganga jal) on the podium, a tradition in Hindu worship ceremony, before chanting "Om," which in Hinduism is used to introduce and conclude religious work. This marked the first recitation of the Hindu prayer to open a state Senate session in the history of the Arizona state Senate and House of Representatives in Phoenix on March 24.
In his sermon, Reno, Nev.-native Zed usually reads from ancient Hindu scriptures of Rig-Veda, Upanisads and Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord), and ends with a universal call for peace in the Hindu tradition before concluding with "Om shanti, shanti, shanti, "which he then translated as "Peace, peace, peace be unto all."
Sperling, V.. "What Modern Parents Can Do." Hinduism Today, January 1, 2009, 54-55.
Focus on cultivating tolerance and patience in yourself. Treat the child as you would expect him to treat you when you grow old, powerless, dependent and needy. Talk to your child about the expression of positive rasas when the time is right. In the meantime, just show him by the example of your own behavior how the expression of positive rasas brings joy to the family. Set a family time-free from technology-to create an ideal environment for cultivating your child and teaching him about the display of positive rasas.
As children grow up and display rasas, parents need to continue to grow up as well-not just in the physical manifestations of age, the wrinkles and gray hair, but in wisdom. This is what a study of the display of rasas in childhood is all about: a caU for parents to monitor the growth of their wisdom. When parents learn to take charge of their own growth in terms of tolerance and empathy and resolve to let children be chUdren first, allowing them an age-appropriate display of rasas, they have an opportunity to become truly close to their children and know them in their totality. As children mature, good parents take the initiative for gently channeling their rasas at the appropriate time and place. When parents take this positive approach to child-rearing, the options of violent discipline and drug-based treatments become obsolete. While we continue to ponder who is raising whom, learning to flow with the rasas will bring about lasting peace and joy in many households.
Taylor, M.. "Irish Embrace Hinduism's Healing Heart." Hinduism Today, July 1, 2009, 32-35.
"Ani-mates" stallholder Paula Wynburne, of European parentage, said she was no ger conscious of looking different. In the past, she said, "Ireland was very insular, and it was quite racist." Paula welcomed the presence of Hinduism and other religions, "because it is not good for Northern Ireland to have just Catholics and Protestants." Fran and Tony had a Spanish food stall, La Terreta. "Indian people are good guys. I like them," said Fran. What does he think about Hinduism? "I am not a religious man. No politics, no religion."
Over the years, the Indian community has grown more diverse, and ICC is no longer the only game in town. [Ramesh Chada] explained, "Until ten years ago, 95% of Indians here were from the Punjab." Then South Indian students and professionals started to arrive, followed by Indians from a variety of regions and backgrounds. ArtsEkta, a multicultural group which celebrates diversity, began when young modernizers, Nisha Tandon, Mukesh Sharma and others, split from ICC around five years ago. The group emphasizes the arts rather than traditional religious activities. "So," I asked Nisha, "are you religious or not?" She replied that she does not feel the need to worship in temples or to fast, but she prays daily. Her favorite prayers? The Gayatri Mantra and and Satyameva Jayate, Indian's national motto, which means "Truth alone Triumphs."
Brian Lambkin, founding director of the Centre for Migration Studies in Omagh, praised the Festival of India as "a substantial expression of the rest of the world in the center of Belfast" which "broadens people's perspective and alters how the local community sees newcomers." The Indian community's role has been as "a means of integration and peace outside the political process," declared Duncan Morrow, director of Northern Ireland's Community Relations Council. "A non-white, non-Christian minority with a generosity of spirit created different conversations around difference, which fed back into conversations around sectarianism." Referring to the Indian community's outreach work, he added, "They engaged people on a totally different basis. They provided relief from a deadlocked sectarian strife." And the result? "Celebrating diversity became possible."
Vaswani, D.. "QUOTES & QUIPS." Hinduism Today, October 1, 2008, 14-15.
Man needs a guru. But a man must have faith in the guru's words. He succeeds in spiritual life by looking on his guru as God Himself. Therefore the Vaishnavas speak of guru, Krishna and Vishnu equally. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1836-1886)
If today is a typical day on planet Earth, we will lose 116 square miles of rainforest-an acre per second. Forty to a hundred species will disappear. Today, human population will increase by 250,000 and we will add 15 million tons of carbon to the atmosphere. By tonight, Earth will be a little hotter, its waters more acidic, and the fabric of life more threadbare. David OPP, American environmentalist, in a book published in 1991. If he said it today, the numbers would be 312 square miles, 130 species, 220,000 people and 60 million tons of carbon
It is impossible for me to reconcile with the idea of conversion as it happens today. It is an error and perhaps the greatest impediment to the world's progress toward peace. Why should a Christian want to convert a Hindu? Why should he not be satisfied if the Hindu is a good or godly man? Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) As the bee takes the essence of a flower and flies away without destroying its beauty and perfume, so let the sage wander in this life. Dhammapada, 50
Veylanswami, S.. "Introduction to Hinduism." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 10-16.
An unexpected Hindu resurgence has burst forth across the globe in the last twenty years, driven in part by the Hindu diaspora and in part by India's newfound pride and influence. Hinduism entered the 21st century with fervent force as recent generations discovered its treasures and its relevance to their times. Hinduism is going digital, working on its faults and bolstering its strengths. Leaders are stepping forth, parents are striving for ways to convey to their children the best of their faith to help them do better in school and live a fruitful life. Temples are coming up across the Earth by the thousands. Communities are celebrating Hindu festivals, parading their Deities in the streets of Paris, Berlin, Toronto and Sydney in grand style without worrying that people might think them odd or "pagan." Yoga is being universally practiced, in all faith communities. Eloquent spokesmen are now representing Hinduism's billion followers at international peace conferences, interfaith gatherings and discussions about Hindu rights. Hindu students in high schools and universities are going back to their traditions, turning to the Gods in the temples, not because their parents say they should, but to satisfy their own inner need, to improve their daily life, to fulfill their souls' call. When it comes time to explain our religion in any of these settings, we offer the following:
It is crucial, if we are to get along in an increasingly pluralistic world, that Earth's peoples learn about and appreciate the religions, cultures, viewpoints and concerns of their planetary neighbors. The [Sanatana Dharma], with its sublime tolerance and belief in the all-pervasiveness of Divinity, has much to contribute in this regard. Nowhere on Earth have religions lived and thrived in such close and harmonious proximity as in India. For thousands of years India has been a home to followers of virtually every major world religion, the exemplar of tolerance toward all paths. It has offered a refuge to Jews, Zoroastrians, Sufis, Buddhists, Christians and nonbelievers. Today over one hundred million Indians are Muslim, for the most part magnanimously accepted by their majority Hindu neighbors. Such religious amity has occurred out of an abiding respect for all genuine religious pursuits. The oft-quoted axiom that conveys this attitude is "Ekam sat anekah panthah," "Truth is one, paths are many." What can be learned from the Hindu land that has given birth to Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism and has been a generous protector of all other religions? India's original faith offers a rare look at a peaceful, rational and practical path for making sense of our world, for gaining personal spiritual insight, and as a potential blueprint for grounding our society in a more spiritually rewarding worldview.
Perhaps one of Hinduism's most refreshing characteristics is that it encourages free and open thought. Scriptures and gurus encourage followers to inquire and investigate into the nature of Truth, to explore worshipful, inner and meditative regimens to directly experience the Divine. This openness is at the root of Hinduism's famed tolerance of other cultures, religions and points of view, capsulated in the adage, "Ekam sat viprah bahuda vadanti" meaning "Truth is one, the wise describe it in different ways." The Hindu is free to choose his path, his way of approaching the Divine, and he can change it in the course of his lifetime. There is no heresy or apostasy in Hinduism. This, coupled with Hinduism's natural inclusiveness, gives little room for fanaticism, fundamentalism or closed-mindedness anywhere within the framework of Hinduism. It has been aptly called a threshold, not an enclosure.
Yogaswami, S.. "QUOTES & QUIPS." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 20-21.
Sectarianism, bigotry and its horrible descendant, fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful Earth. They have filled the Earth with violence, drenched it often with human blood, destroyed civilizations and sent whole nations to despair. Had it not been for these horrible demons, human society would be far more advanced than it is now. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), disciple of Sri Ramakrisha
From one seed arises a huge tree; from it comes numerous seeds, each one of which in its turn grows into a tree. No two fruits are alike. Yet it is one life that throbs in every particle of the tree. So, it is the same Atman everywhere. All creation is That. There is beauty in the birds and in the animals. They too eat and drink like us, mate and multiply; but there is this difference: we can realize our true nature, the Atman. Having been born as human beings, we must not waste this opportunity. Sri Anandamayi Ma, (1896-1982), Bengali mystic
The saints, sages and satgurus are Hinduism's holy men and women. Saints, devoid of ego, reflect the peace, humility and purity of a devout life. Sages, though perfectly liberated, may outwardly appear detached and ordinary. Satgurus, also fully enlightened, guide others on the path. Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (1927-2001), founder of HINDUISM TODAY
Zore, P.. "Fear and voting in Kandhamal." India Abroad, April 24, 2009.
"We will not vote unless the people who have gone outside the state come back for voting," he asserts. "Nor can we go back to our homes as local Hindu leaders threaten us with murder if we ever went back," he says, making it clear he resents the police inaction.
"They have openly stated in front of all the district officials that peace can never return to Kandhamal unless Christians reconvert to Hinduism," he says. "What's the point [in voting] if others who have left the state can't vote and the state government can't provide adequate protection to Christians living in the district?"
"Yes, swamiji's death is an election issue," says Ashok Sahu, the Bharatiya Janata Party candidate for the Kandhamal Lok Sabha constituency. "That's the reason why I chose Kandhamal to contest."
Week of November 27-December 3, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Islam, Part 2 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Zeki Saritoprak. "An Islamic Approach to Peace and Nonviolence: A Turkish Experience." The Muslim World 95, no. 3 (July 1, 2005): 413-427.
Saritoprak discusses the Islamic approach to peace and nonviolence through an examination of the Turkish experience. Among others, he explores the Qur'an and the hadith perspective on peace and nonviolence. He further deals with Turkish Islamic figures who promoted peace and nonviolence through their teachings and activities, such as Suleyman Hilmi Tunahan, Mehmet Zahit Kotku, and expecially Bediuzzaman Said Nursi and Fethullah Gulen.
As'ad AbuKhalil. "Islam, Judaism, and the Political Role of Religions in the Middle East." Review. Journal of Palestine Studies 34, no. 4 (July 1, 2005): 116-117.
Islam, Judaism, and the Political Role of Religions in the Middle East edited by John Bunzl is reviewed.
Carl Coon. "Islamophobia." The Humanist 66, no. 3 (May 1, 2006): 4-5.
Islamophobia is raising its ugly head in the US as in Europe. It's beginning to metastasize into a virulent form of xenophobia, an eruption of the atavistic human tendency to pick sides and then if necessary fight to the death for the side one chooses, and to not reason why. Coon asserts that to solve the problem, one should stand back and let cooler heads prevail. If anyone is to set an example of international good manners for the rest of the world, it should be, first and foremost, the Humanists.
David M Witty. "War, Terror, and Peace in the Qur'an and Islam: Insights for Military and Government Leaders." Review. The Journal of Military History 70, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 283-284.
Witty reviews War, Terror, and Peace in the Qur'an and Islam: Insights for Military and Government Leaders by T. P. Schwartz-Barcott.
Delinda C Hanley. "Jerusalem Women Speak." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 24, no. 4 (May 1, 2005): 65-66.
Congresswoman Eddie Bernice Johnson hosted a Mar 29 Capitol Hill briefing at the Rayburn House Office Building, the first stop of a Spring tour by Jerusalem Women Speak, sponsored by Partners for Peace. According to Jerri Bird, who founded Partners for Peace in 1998, each of the three tours will feature "extraordinary ordinary women."
Doug Marlette. "The Muslim Cartoon Controversy Exposed an Absence of Courage." Nieman Reports 60, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 84-86.
Marlette notes that the Muslim cartoon controversy exposed an absence of courage. He further marks that the continuing timidity of the American media looked increasingly like cowardice, appeasement, or better-you-than-me cynicism. By denying their audiences the opportunity to look at the images, American media outlets, with few exceptions, kept the public in the dark about the roots of one o the year's major news stories.
Elaina Loveland. "Toward Equality for All." International Educator 15, no. 4 (July 1, 2006): 20-23.
In 2003 Shirin Ebadi became the first Iranian and Muslim woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for her efforts toward achieving democracy and human rights for women and children, in particular. However, nondemocratic Islamic governments who do not wish to observe human life speak about the incompatibility of Islam and human rights. The most important issue is to support the United Nations and also the Commission on Human Rights and encourage the government to ratify the International Criminal Court Treaty.
James L Rowell. "Has Nonviolent Religion Been Trumped?" Theology Today 63, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 223-226.
Nonviolence in some form is essential to dispel the whirlwind of destruction that affects Iraq, but violence has become a quicker, easier, and much more relied upon tactic. Christians need to turn to the tactics of peace which Martin Luther King and Mohandas Gandhi pursued.
Laura el-Sabaawi. "War, Terror, & Peace in the Qur'an and in Islam: Insights for Military & Government Leaders." Review. The Middle East Journal 59, no. 2 (April 1, 2005): 340.
El-Sabaawi reviews War, Terror, & Peace in the Qur'an and in Islam: Insights for Military & Government Leaders by T. P. Schwartz-Barcott.
Mahmood Monshipouri. "The Road to Globalization Runs through Women's Struggle: Iran and the Impact of the Nobel Peace Prize." World Affairs 167, no. 1 (July 1, 2004): 3-14.
The Nobel Peace Prize committee frequently has tried to use the prize to mobilize international pressure to promote universal human rights. Monshipouri argues that the prize could foster and strengthen Islamic feminism in all its forms in Iran, and discusses the ways in which it could profoundly influence the country's growing gender problems. The answer to the question of whether Iranian leaders will be more open to modernity and globalizing pressures has become inseparable from the extent to which women's rights are upheld.
Marvin F Zayed. "Reflections on the Concepts of Hudna and Tahd'ia." Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture 13, no. 4 (January 1, 2007): 101-103.
A clear exposition of this issue, the way Muslims deal with it, and the conditions under which they should accept peace with non-Muslims can be found in Mohammad Izzat Darwazah's book, Jihad for the Sake of Allah in the Qur'an and the Hadith. The writings of Muslim theologians, ranging from those predating Imam Ibn Taymiyya5 to the most articulate ideologue of the Muslim Brotherhood in the 20th century, the late Sayyed Qutb; and from the historical fuqaha' (theological scholars) to the contemporary al-Azhar and Qum scholars; show unanimous agreement that a peace treaty between Muslims and non-Muslims is a temporary period of time between wars.
Matthew S Hull. "Zenana: Everyday Peace in a Karachi Apartment Building." Review. Anthropological Quarterly 80, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 253-257.
The book's setting is a multi-story, lower-middle class apartment building, pseudonymously called "The Shipyard," sheltering nearly fifty families with members of most the major ethnic groups of Pakistan (Pattans, Baluchis, Punjabis, Sindhis) pursuing a variety of livelihoods (government doctors and engineers, teachers, shopkeepers). Ring argues both Western liberal ideology (figuring the home as a "private, feminine realm, cut off from the world of the political" [2]) and post-colonial studies (concentrating on Indian reformist views of the domestic as sites of cultural authenticity untouched by colonial power) have missed the broader political significance of what takes place within the zenana.
Mustafa Abu Sway. "The Concept of Hudna (Truce) in Islamic Sources." Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture 13, no. 3 (July 1, 2006): 20-27.
Ultimately, to sustain international peace and order, international laws and treaties require a combination of just conditions on the ground, good intentions, and a democratic (e.g., no veto rights) international body that has the mandate to stop the violators without discrimination. Successful indeed are the believers...who faithfully observe their trusts and their covenants(Qur'an 23:1-8).
Najwa Saad. "Queen Noor on "The Power of People With Faith to Accomplish Change"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 24, no. 4 (May 1, 2005): 67-68.
As the second speaker in the Mosaic Foundation's lecture series "Legends In Their Own Right," Queen Noor addressed a capacity crowd of more than 600 at the World Bank on Apr 4. Queen Noor spoke of having been viewed as "a traitor" by some, but of finding enormous value in her ability to bridge the United States and the Islamic world. Especially now, she is determined to do her part to facilitate a better life in the Arab world-and that includes the peace process between Israel and Palestine, to which she alluded several times.
Rachelle Marshall. "How the "War on Terrorism" Fuels More Violence." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 24, no. 7 (September 1, 2005): 7-9.
The week of Aug 15 was a time when two noteworthy events were to take place: the dismantling of Jewish settlements in Gaza, and the completion of a draft constitution in Iraq. But hopes that peace would eventually follow faded as Israel and the US remained unwilling to withdraw their troops--making resistance to the occupying armies continue, and provoking powerful countermeasures that in turn led to more violence. Marshall elaborates.
Rafia Zakaria. "Encyclopedia of Women in Islamic Cultures Vols. I and II." Review. NWSA Journal 18, no. 3 (October 1, 2006): 202-205.
Ingrid Mattson's chapter on Islamic family law as it evolved in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries shows how this core moral prescription retained its centrality in Islamic law and was translated into the exclusion of women from the public sphere with the concomitant result that "the more scholarship became institutionalized and closely associated with the state, the less opportunity women may have had to participate in legal discourse" Vol. seek to absolve religion and point accusingly to the deficient practice of Islam as the root of gender inequality in the Muslim world-if only true Islam were practiced, such inequality would not exist; secular feminists who are suspicious of all political rhetoric tinged with religious discourse and advocate an extra-religious path toward reform eschewing all religious frameworks; and religious feminists, who can be situated somewhere between the other two, wish to acknowledge the role of Islam in the lives of Muslim women and mediate the tension between secularists and Islamists by finding routes for reform within the Islamic paradigm Vol.
Robert Azzi. "Deconstructing 'the Other'-And Ourselves." Nieman Reports 61, no. 2 (July 1, 2007): 26-28.
[...] it shows what impact the pope's gestures have had here apparently on Turkish public opinion. -Margaret Warner, PBS When the Lehrer NewsHour 's correspondent Margaret Warner reported from Istanbul in November 2006 during the pope's visit, she casually dismissed centuries of understanding about Abrahamic monotheism by suggesting that the pope was praying to a different God than was the grand mufti.
Zachary Karabell. "Can't We All Just Get Along?" Commonweal 134, no. 10 (May 18, 2007): 8-9.
Every week for the past five years, there have been news stories of U.S. soldiers being killed in Iraq or Afghanistan; stories of Israeli Jews either attacking or being attacked by Palestinians; reports of sectarian Sunni Muslims in Baghdad murdering Shiites, and vice-versa; and Muslim militias ravaging the Darfur region of Sudan. Over the past few years, many religious groups have made Herculean efforts to bridge divisions through educational initiatives as well as gatherings of religious leaders. seeds for Peace and Search for Common Ground, for example, have brought Arabs and Israelis together to air grievances and develop bonds.
Awad, B.. "AFSC Search for Global Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 26, no. 8 (November 1, 2007): 60-61.
Also speaking were W. Clinton Pettus, regional director of AFSC's Mid-Atlantic Region, Mubarak Awad of Nonviolence International, Sara Ibrahim of AFSC's Project Voice, Anise Jenkins of Stand-Up! for Democracy in DC Coalition, Aura Kanegis of AFSC, Walda Katz-Fishman of Howard University, Fidele Lumeya of Church World Service, Mindy Reiser of Global Peace Services USA, and Byron Sandford of William Penn House.
Cristina Jayme Montiel, and Maria Elizabeth J Macapagal. "Effects of Social Position on Societal Attributions of an Asymmetric Conflict." Journal of Peace Research 43, no. 2 (March 1, 2006): 219-227.
Traditionally, the study of peace and conflict has employed macro explanations such as social structure and state conditions. This article extends the discourse on peace and conflict by considering psychological conditions during a heated social conflict. The focus is on societal attribution, a cognitive process involving shared beliefs about the causes of societal events. The present study examines the effects of social positions on causal attributions in an asymmetric conflict that is taking place in the Philippines on the war-torn island of Mindanao. It was expected that causal attributions of the Mindanao war would differ between Christians and Muslims. Four hundred and thirty Muslims and Christians at Mindanao State University-Marawi stated their degree of agreement on belief statements about perceived intergroup inequality and ranked the three most important causes of the conflict in Mindanao. Results indicated that power inequality between groups is perceived only by the disadvantaged Muslim group, while members in the dominant social position were not sensitized to systemic issues. Findings also indicated intergroup disagreements about the causes of the war. The marginalized Muslims believed that structural problems, namely, displaced and landless Bangsa Moro (Muslim Nation) and loss of rights to self-determination were important origins of the conflict. On the other hand, the dominant Christian group attributed the Mindanao conflict to person-related causes like corruption of the mind and moral fiber, as well as sociocultural discrimination. Implications for attribution theory and the practice of peacemaking in asymmetric conflicts are discussed.
Emmanuel Karagiannis, and Clark McCauley. "Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami: Evaluating the Threat Posed by a Radical Islamic Group That Remains Nonviolent." Terrorism & Political Violence 18, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 315-334.
Hizb ut-Tahrir is a transnational movement that currently finds support among young Muslims in Central Asia and Western Europe. It presents a complex challenge to both Western and Muslim governments because it calls for the unification of all Muslim countries into a single Caliphate but has consistently rejected violence as a tool of political change. In this paper we focus on Hizb ut-Tahrir in Uzbekistan, a country that is a key U.S. ally in the war on terrorism. Drawing on extensive fieldwork in Central Asia, we find that social movement theories (resource mobilization theory, political opportunities theory, framing theory) cannot explain why Hizb ut-Tahrir has remained opposed to violence under the same circumstances in which the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, the other important radical Islamic group in the region, has embraced violence. We suggest that ideology is crucial for understanding why Hizb ut-Tahrir remains peaceful, and consider several scenarios in which the group might reconsider its ideology and turn to terrorism.
Farhang, M.. "MARK LEVINE, Why They Don't Hate Us: Lifting the Veil on the Axis of Evil (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2005). Pp. 455. $27.50 cloth." International Journal of Middle East Studies 38, no. 4 (November 1, 2006): 584-585.
It is vastly different from the official story and the mainstream media coverage of the conflict, for he places the war in the context of the Bush administration's decision to use Iraq as a laboratory for its neoliberal design to remake the political economy of the Middle East region LeVine maintains that young Muslims are best positioned to join the global struggle for peace and justice, but the cultural imperialism of the economically progressive Western activists makes it difficult for them to identify with the movement.
Ferrone, R.. "Uncommon Opportunity." Commonweal 135, no. 1 (January 18, 2008): 8-9.
Egyptian Catholic Islamic expert, Samir Khalil Samir, SJ, writing in AsiaNews, observed that in Islam (from a Sunni perspective) every point of faith rests on three sources: the Qur'an, the traditions (hadith), and community consensus (ijma`), but consensus can be difficult to establish. Leaders of mainline Protestant churches, theologians, scholars, and heads of theological schools, and a wide variety of Catholics also signed the Yale statement, which attracted attention in the Muslim world by apologizing for the Crusades and for excesses against Muslims in the "war on terror."
Gee, J.. "Obama's Speech: "It's Really About the Arabs"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 37.
[...] I was left with a couple of impressions of the reasons for this attitude. [...] in choosing to make his first presidential sally into the Muslim world a visit to the Middle East, Obama made the right choice if his primary concern was to take on the issue of the Palestine conflict.
Gillespie, M.. "Third Annual Des Moines Peace Fair Features Diversity." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 9 (December 1, 2008): 71.
Noting that television and media often traffic in stereotypes, he said the MSA works to provide accurate information about Islam to dispel unrealistic fears.
Haque, M.. "Islamic Peace Paradigms." Review. Journal of Third World Studies 24, no. 2 (October 1, 2007): 247-249.
Fourth, in addition to negotiation, pure mediation, power mediation and arbitration, Islam brings the concepts of conciliation, consultation, interactive problem-solving strategy and conflict transformation by recognizing the rights of different tribes, nations and religious groups to bring social order as these processes fit to the larger scheme of peace.
Johnson, J.. "THINKING COMPARATIVELY ABOUT RELIGION AND WAR." Review. Journal of Religious Ethics 36, no. 1 (March 1, 2008): 157-179.
In contrast to the period when the Journal of Religious Ethics began publishing, the study of religion in relation to war and connected issues has prospered in recent years. This article examines three collections of essays providing comparative perspectives on these topics, two recently authored studies of Buddhism and Islam in relation to war, and a compendious collection of texts on Western moral tradition concerning war, peace, and related issues from classical Greece and Rome to the present.
Margaret A Mills, and Sally L Kitch. ""Afghan Women Leaders Speak": An Academic Activist Conference, Mershon Center for International Security Studies, Ohio State University, November 17-19, 2005." NWSA Journal 18, no. 3 (October 1, 2006): 191-201.
Afghan women activists emphasize that the first and continuing need in Afghanistan is physical security, which will enable developments in education, health care, and women's fuller social and political participation. Recent legal and electoral reform from above does not yet substantially affect grassroots gender inequality, severe poverty, and lack of infrastructural development. Real reform will require long-term, culturally sensitive collaboration among Afghan women activists, other progressive Afghans, and would-be external supporters. The conference participants see such progress as possible for Afghanistan only in a progressive Islamic ideological environment, which does not yet exist.
Sharapova, S.. "Islam, Oil, and Geopolitics, Central Asia after September 11." Review. Central Asian Survey 26, no. 2 (June 1, 2007): 301.
Sharapova reviews Islam, Oil, and Geopolitics, Central Asia after September 11 edited by E.V.W. Davis and R. Azizian.
Sodiq, Y.. "Can Muslims and Christians Live Together Peacefully in Nigeria?" The Muslim World 99, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 646-688.
The Nigerian constitution provides and guarantees for each citizen the freedom of religion, religious practice, and religious education.7 These rights are generally observed throughout Nigeria. [...] places of worship are freely established,8 and no restrictions are placed on the number of clergy trained in Nigeria9 or on the number of people who may perform pilgrimage.
Week of November 20-November 27, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Religion, Begins five weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
"Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Browne, R. "The Benjamin Lee Whorf Legacy." Review. The Journal of American Culture 32, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 182-183.
An introduction to the collection takes a cultural studies approach to Whorf, and the dissertation will be of interest to scholars of the postWorld War I decade because it places the discussions of religion, science, and language within a historical context. After the "war to end all wars," Alexander Korzybski devised his famous "structural differential" and launched the General Semantics movement while Ludwig Zamenhof and others devised and popularized the artificial language of Esperanto-both efforts by Polish intellectuals to promote international understanding and peace.) The "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis" is discussed every day on the Internet, often with a "shock of recognition," to use Edmund Wilson's expression (borrowed from Melville.
CAPERN, A. "New Perspectives on the English Reformation." Journal of Religious History 33, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 235-253.
The historiography of the English Reformation has been driven by several key themes for three or four decades: the chronology of religious change and the success or failure of Protestantism to establish itself, the position of Puritanism vis-à-vis Church conformity, the role of Arminianism (anti-Calvinism) in doctrinal and ecclesiological debates and its impact on ecclesiastical politics and, more latterly, the continuities of ideas and beliefs between medieval Catholicism and Reformation Protestantism. This survey article on six new books in the field of Reformation studies argues that while the current historiography is generating very exciting work on the religious mentalite of early-modern English people and the transmission of ideas across the Catholic-Protestant divide, as well as generating a thriving debate on Calvinist consensus (or not) and the rise of Arminianism (or not), there are further rich seams to mine that incorporate gender into the analysis and that add the Atlantic World perspective to that of the European context for Reformation.
Clingingsmith, D., A. Khwaja, and M. Kremer. "Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and Tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 1133.
We estimate the impact on pilgrims of performing the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Our method compares successful and unsuccessful applicants in a lottery used by Pakistan to allocate Hajj visas. Pilgrim accounts stress that the Hajj leads to a feeling of unity with fellow Muslims, but outsiders have sometimes feared that this could be accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. We find that participation in the Hajj increases observance of global Islamic practices, such as prayer and fasting, while decreasing participation in localized practices and beliefs, such as the use of amulets and dowry. It increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects and leads to more favorable attitudes toward women, including greater acceptance of female education and employment. Increased unity within the Islamic world is not accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. Instead, Hajjis show increased belief in peace, and in equality and harmony among adherents of different religions. The evidence suggests that these changes are likely due to exposure to and interaction with Hajjis from around the world, rather than to a changed social role of pilgrims upon return. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Dolbee, S. "When Belief Overrides the Ethics of Journalism." Review. Nieman Reports 63, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 82.
Lobdell reviews Losing My Religion: How I Lost My Faith Reporting on Religion in America--and Found Unexpected Peace by William Lobdell.
Elshout, J. "Hamas a Necessary Partner for Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 7 (September 1, 2009): 14-15.
Contrary to public opinion, however, Hamas has proffered positive pragmatic proposals that could have contributed to peace. [..] a durable peace requires Palestinian unity, and the refusal of the West to communicate with Hamas constitutes an obstacle to Israeli-Palestinian peace.
Evans, J., and J. Tonge. "Social Class and Party Choice in Northern Ireland's Ethnic Blocs." West European Politics 32, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 1012.
The peace process in Northern Ireland has not diminished the acute ethnic electoral faultline between the majority Protestant British population, supportive of parties favouring Northern Ireland's continuing place in the United Kingdom and the minority Catholic Nationalist population, which backs parties harbouring long-term ambitions for a united Ireland. Within each bloc, however, there has been a dramatic realignment in favour of parties once seen as extreme and militant. The Democratic Unionist Party has emerged as the main representative of the Protestant British population, whilst Sinn Fein, having for many years supported the Provisional IRA's 'armed struggle' against British rule, has become the dominant party amongst Catholic Nationalists. As both parties have entered the political mainstream and advanced electorally, to what extent have they moved from their electoral near-confinement among the working class to enjoy broader cross-class support - and how? [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Gifford, P., and F. Wijsen. "Seeds of Conflict in a Haven of Peace: From Religious Studies to Interreligious Studies in Africa." Review. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London 72, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 412-413.
Present-day Africa provides a breeding ground for interreligious conflict, yet African intellectuals seem not to address this. Noting the lack of any adequate theory of interreligious relations from an African perspective, Wijsen sets out to provide one. He addresses three questions: "First, why are African theologians and scholars of religion so remarkably silent about interreligious relations? Secondly, is there an African model for interreligious relations, and if so, what does it look like?
Hanley, D. "Prospects for Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-54.
According to Halim Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land.
Hilsdon, A. "Invisible Bodies: Gender, Conflict and Peace in Mindanao." Asian Studies Review 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 349-V.
Community forms of struggle such as clan feuds [ridos] are common within Muslim groups in Central and Western Mindanao, but these do not figure in classic scholarly definitions of "war" in the region and elsewhere (see Majul, 1999; McKenna, 1998), which emphasise larger political struggles against the state. [..] women seldom figure in explanations of either political or community conflict, as they have predominantly been considered integrally involved only in family life.4 Islam in the Philippines is diverse in its social and cultural expression, a pattern similarly noted for the Middle East by Akbar S. Ahmed (1992, p. 200) and Bryan S. Turner (1994, p. 13).
Jackson, P. "'Negotiating with Ghosts': Religion, Conflict and Peace in Northern Uganda." Round Table 98, no. 402 (June 1, 2009): 319.
This article outlines the current situation with regard to the Lord's Resistance Army and the possibilities for peace in Northern Uganda. It seeks to add to the discourse on rethinking Africa's international relations in the context of a specific conflict and with regard to a specific tool of the international community: the International Criminal Court (ICC) and its involvement in issuing warrants for insurgency leaders in October 2005. The article discusses the role of traditional justice systems and the ICC in ending the war, concluding that justice in Northern Uganda requires an end to the false dichotomy of 'traditional' and ICC approaches and that the two must complement each other in order to address the different groups within the LRA and the Acholi population. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Janowski, Z. "AGAINST THRONE AND ALTAR: MACHIAVELLI AND POLITICAL THEORY UNDER THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC." Review. First Things no. 196 (October 1, 2009): 63.
Nedham, with his idea of raison d'etat, made material interest- not justice, honor, or religion- a regulative principle in politics, and thus he was not only a student of Machiavelli but a real embodiment of MachiavelH's teaching. Nedham's contemporary, the poet John Milton, supported Oliver Cromwell. [..] for Milton- who was, after all, a representative of classical republicanism with virtue as its foundation- the failure of the republic was due to the fact that Britain was "not over fertile of men able to govern justlie & prudently in peace."
Karabin, G. "DOES MARX MAKE A RELIGIOUS TURN?" Philosophy Today 53, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 317-332.
[..] Marx's thought emerges from and remains within a JudeoChristian heritage.3 Given this horizon, his rejection of religious life should be understood as pertaining to these formations. According to his schema, only once the illusion is eliminated, only once the masses are no longer separated from their anguish by the buffer of a Utopian bUss, or the conviction that suffering is intelligible, will the necessity of action be fully apparent.
Kelly, J. "Vatican II: A Sociological Analysis of Religious Change." Review. Sociology of Religion 70, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 335-337.
[..] her lively narrative invites her reader to wonder what sort of contingent events are necessary so that a worldwide Catholicism might once again experience the inspiration of the Holy Spirit as it seeks to renew this century's increasingly less Western and more universal Catholicism so that it might bettet contribute to the world's search for peace and justice and solidarity?
Kim, C. "KOREAN SPIRITUALITY." Review. Pacific Affairs 82, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 343-345.
Korea may be, in fact, the only country in the world with an even number of Christians and Buddhists. [..] not only are the various religions coexisting in relative peace; they all seem to be growing and vibrant.
Lake, P. "HER PLACE IN THESE DESIGNS." Review. First Things no. 194 (June 1, 2009): 59.
A religious skeptic, aware of the contingencies of chance and fate, Espaillat employs the language of religion- grace, redemption, peace, love, blessed- so as to suggest a fundamentally religious vision, where certainty, which eludes us when we seek / in reason's name, will come for love; where, though God may seem absent any father of the drowned, I the burned, the starved, the gassed, be named and found I until pity and shame have made Him be. -
Merkle, J. "GLOBALIZATION, SPIRITUALITY, AND JUSTICE: NAVIGATING THE PATH TO PEACE." Review. Theological Studies 70, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 727-728.
G. identifies resources firmly within the lived ecclesiastical tradition that can ground the quest for justice, allowing neither a divorce of piety from the realities of the 21st century nor an isolation of concern for justice simply to the self -initiated who are socially inclined. A Christian theological reflection that is attentive to poverty and in dialogue with world religions and other academic disciplines is capable of helping us respond to the challenges of building an alternative world today.
O'Hanlon, G. "CHRISTIAN POLITICAL ETHICS." Review. Theological Studies 70, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 496-498.
The contributors are distinguished Christian scholars from diverse theological and ethical perspectives - Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anabaptist, though not Orthodox - and they deal with issues around state and civil society, boundaries and justice, pluralism, international society, and war and peace. The final section, on war and peace, provides an interesting contrast between two paired pieces (by John Finnis and Joseph Boyle) from the just war, "realist" school of Catholic natural law that substantially agree with each other, and two pieces (by Theodore Koontz and Michael Cartwright) from a pacifist stance.
Purcell, H. "Paris Peace Discord." History Today 59, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 38-40.
According to Hunter Miller, this was a clear reference to Cecil and the British Empire Delegation; it was they who prevented the adoption. [..] there was no chance to vote.
Ross, E. "Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853-1913/Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: the Murid Order." Review. African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 493-495.
Sheikh Amadu Bamba Mback?e resolutely rejected the lesser jihad, which had dominated politico-religious discourse in Senegambia since the eighteenth century, in favour of the greater one, and he helped establish proper Muslim comportment as the new, reformed, civil norm. [..] in his rejection of the lesser jihad, the Sufi sheikh committed himself and his nascent movement to peace.
Sabl, A. "The Last Artificial Virtue: Hume on Toleration and Its Lessons." Political Theory 37, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 511.
David flume's position on religion is, broadly speaking, "politic": instrumental and consequentialist. Religions should be tolerated or not according to their effects on political peace and order. Such theories of toleration are often rejected as immoral or unstable. The reading provided here responds by reading flume's position as one of radically indirect consequentialism. While religious policy should serve consequentialist ends, making direct reference to those ends merely gives free reign to religious-political bigotry and faction. Toleration, like Hume's other "artificial virtues" (justice, fidelity to promises, allegiance to government), is a universally useful response to our universal partiality--as Established uniformity, however tempting, is not. This implies that toleration can progress through political learning, becoming broader and more constitutionally established overtime. A sophisticated Humean approach thus shares the stability and nonnative attractiveness of respect- or rights- based arguments while responding more acutely and flexibly to problems the former often slights: antinomian religious extremism; underdefined political agency; and internationalized, politicized religious movements. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Sandberg, B. "Governing Passions: Peace and Reform in the French Kingdom, 1576-1585." Review. Journal of Social History 43, no. 1 (October 1, 2009): 234-236.
The texts of speeches that French notables presented during Estates General meetings, peace conferences, official ceremonies, and other assemblies circulated in manuscript and printed copies, provoking political debates and promoting reform agendas. Mark Greengrass weaves together an immense body of speeches, reform proposals, lectures, procès verbaux, and pamphlets conserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France and various municipal and departmental archives, producing an impressive history of French political culture during Henri Ill's reign.
Sleeper, J. "AMERICAN BRETHREN: Hebrews and Puritans." World Affairs 172, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 46-60.
[..] Niebuhr noted, the children of darkness misuse that wisdom to manipulate and discourage do-gooders who think that all people can be led by example to peace and light. [..] Niebuhr added, The children of light must be armed with the wisdom of the children of darkness but remain free from their malice.
Sodiq, Y. "Can Muslims and Christians Live Together Peacefully in Nigeria?" The Muslim World 99, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 646-688.
The Nigerian constitution provides and guarantees for each citizen the freedom of religion, religious practice, and religious education.7 These rights are generally observed throughout Nigeria. [..] places of worship are freely established,8 and no restrictions are placed on the number of clergy trained in Nigeria9 or on the number of people who may perform pilgrimage.
Wilson, P. "WHO WON THE THIRTY YEARS WAR?" History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 12-19.
Dame Veronica Wedgwood concluded her celebrated account of the Thirty Years War, first published in 1938, by claiming it 'solved no problem' and was 'the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict.' The voting procedure in the imperial diet and other institutions was changed to protect Protestants from the in-built Catholic majority where the agenda touched matters of religion.
Yaremko, J. "Cuba: Religion, Social Capital, and Development." Review. The Americas 66, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 294-295.
Anonymous. "Cross Examination." Commonweal 136, no. 17 (October 9, 2009): 7-12.
Evidently, the Vatican is concerned that the LCWR has not been forthcoming about the mag is ter i urn's teachings regarding the ordination of women, the relation of the Catholic Church to non-Christian religions, and the "intrinsically disordered" nature of homosexual acts. The Vatican's visitation - conducted under the auspices of the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life (CICLSAL) - does not assess the "quality of life" of cloistered orders of Carmelites, Benedictines, Dominicans, or other communities devoted to the monastic contemplative life. Rather, the visitation exclusively targets active women religious whose centers and houses of formation are in the United States - women educated here and trained for religious life here, women who work with major health-care and educational institutions in this country, and who collaborate with one another financially on ministerial projects such as peace and justice ministries.
Anonymous. "LETTERS." First Things no. 193 (May 1, 2009): 2-12.
[..] Christian nations have developed capitalism, which today is eliminating world poverty faster than all the charitable giving and government grants in our world can ever hope to do. Could it be, perhaps, that an active faith of some kind is required in order to be rational? [..] to decide accurately whether God exists may require a more whole-person response, rather than just a mind or language game "in the head."
Week of November 5-November 12, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Religion, Begins four-week segments on Peace and World Religions):
Basedau, M., and J. Lay. "Resource Curse or Rentier Peace? The Ambiguous Effects of Oil Wealth and Oil Dependence on Violent Conflict." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 757.
The 'resource curse' hypothesis claims that abundance in natural resources, particularly oil, encourages especially civil war. Natural resources provide both motive and opportunity for conflict and create indirect institutional and economic causes of instability. Contrarily, the theory of the rentier state - largely neglected in the study of peace and war in this respect - suggests that regimes use revenue from abundant resources to buy off peace through patronage, large-scale distributive policies and effective repression. Consequently, such rentier states would tend to be more stable politically and less prone to conflict. These two theories thus imply ambivalent effects of resource abundance on conflict proneness. This article presents part of a solution to this apparent puzzle for the case of oil-producing countries. The key argument is that both resource wealth per capita and resource dependence need to be taken into account, since only the availability of very high per capita revenues from oil allows governments to achieve internal stability. The empirical analysis supports this hypothesis. The findings of multivariate cross-country regressions indicate a U-shaped relationship between oil dependence and civil war onset, while high resource wealth per capita tends to be associated with less violence. The results of a macro-qualitative comparison for a reduced sample of highly dependent oil exporters are even more clearcut. Using the same reduced sample, we find that oil-wealthy countries apparently manage to maintain political stability by a combination of large-scale distribution, high spending on the security apparatus and protection by outsiders. Compared to oil-poor countries and in contradiction to the rentier state theory, the institutions of oil-wealthy countries do not seem to be particularly characterized by patronage and clientelism.
Beamish, T., and A. Luebbers. "Alliance Building across Social Movements: Bridging Difference in a Peace and Justice Coalition." Social Problems 56, no. 4 (November 1, 2009): 647-676.
Alliance building across social movement groups is an important aspect of social movement dynamics, contributing to their viability and capacity to promote social change. Yet, with few exceptions, cross-movement coalitions have received little sustained theoretical or empirical attention. This article contributes to an understanding of cross-movement coalition building through the examination of a successful case of alliance: a coalition of environmental justice and peace and anti-weapons proliferation groups to stop a federally funded U.S. biodefense laboratory from being built and operated in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Cross-movement collaboration was challenged by tensions arising from differences in positionality. Positional differences reflect status distinctions such as race, class, gender, and place and the differential experiences and expectations that result. Nonetheless, this coalition was able to resolve positional tensions and, as a result, remained a viable protest vehicle. We found this was accomplished through a cross-movement bridging process that involved (1) cause affirmation, (2) strategic deployment, (3) exclusion, and (4) co-development of cross-movement commitments. We extend existent accounts of cross-movement coalition by providing both a culturally founded and fine-grained account of coalition work in the maintenance of alliance relations. The article and its conclusions also address the broader implications of understanding successful trans-positional cross-movement alliances.
Berhane-Selassie, T.. "The Gendered Economy of the Return Migration of Internally Displaced Women in Sierra Leone :[1]." The European Journal of Development Research 21, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 737.
Focusing on the return home of victims of sexual violence in Sierra Leone, this article shows how the decade-long conflict resulted in transforming women's lives for the worse. Abuses led not only to discontinuities in their marital lives, but, subsequently, also to accusations of pollution. On returning home, therefore, the women were marginalized from their marriage-based rights of access to land. Their efforts to reverse this meant making a fresh start with men, including their husbands. This article, in outlining their culture-bound economic, personal and social challenges, underlines how the women perceive and seek to deal with the entangling webs of their subordination. Juxtaposing their strategies with women's universal human rights, it advocates their inclusion in the records, analysis and policy considerations of transformative development and peace processes.
Berhane-selassie, T.. "The Gendered Economy of the Return Migration of Internally Displaced Women in Sierra Leone." The European Journal of Development Research 21, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 737-751.
Focusing on the return home of victims of sexual violence in Sierra Leone, this article shows how the decade-long conflict resulted in transforming women's lives for the worse. Abuses led not only to discontinuities in their marital lives, but, subsequently, also to accusations of pollution. On returning home, therefore, the women were marginalized from their marriage-based rights of access to land. Their efforts to reverse this meant making a fresh start with men, including their husbands. This article, in outlining their culture-bound economic, personal and social challenges, underlines how the women perceive and seek to deal with the entangling webs of their subordination. Juxtaposing their strategies with women's universal human rights, it advocates their inclusion in the records, analysis and policy considerations of transformative development and peace processes.
Cet article se penche sur le retour dans leurs communautés d'origine de femmes victimes de violences sexuelles pendant le conflit qui a affecté le Sierra Leone pendant plus d'une décennie et sur les effets des violences subies sur leurs vies. Les abus dont elles ont été victimes ont non seulement mené à des ruptures dans leurs vies conjugales, mais aussi à des accusations de pollution sociale. Ces femmes ont donc été marginalisées, et privées de leurs droits liés au mariage, tel que l'accès à la terre. Leurs efforts pour inverser cette tendance ont nécessité l'établissement de nouvelles relations avec les hommes, y compris avec leurs maris. Cet article décrit les défis économiques, personnels, et sociaux - liés au contexte culturel local - auxquels ces femmes ont dû faire face, soulignant en particulier la manière dont elles perçoivent et cherchent à gérer des relations complexes de dépendance. En juxtaposant ces stratégies avec les droits humain universels des femmes, cet article préconise leur prise en compte dans l'analyse et la détermination des politiques de développement transformatiste, ainsi que des processus de résolution de conflits.
Brulé, D., and L. Williams. "Democracy and Diversion: Government Arrangements, the Economy, and Dispute Initiation." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 777.
Do legislative constraints constrain or compel democratic executives' conflict behavior during periods of economic decline? Although institutional constraints are thought to reduce democratic executives' propensity to engage in interstate conflict, other research suggests that such constraints may provide incentives to engage in diversionary uses of force. Incorporating work from the comparative study of economic voting and cross-national research on the diversionary use of force, this article contends that government arrangements - coalition, minority, weak party cohesion - influence democratic conflict behavior by (1) shaping the extent to which the executive is held accountable for the economy and (2) determining the executive's capacity to address the economy with legislation. Specifically, the argument presented here suggests that governing parties in coalition governments share the blame for a poor economy, reducing the likelihood that the executive initiates disputes in response to the economy. Compared to single-party majority governments with high party discipline, executives presiding over minority governments, or whose parties are plagued by a lack of cohesion, are more likely to initiate disputes when faced with poor economic conditions, because these executives are likely to face resistance to remedial economic policy. Probit analyses of the interactive effects of government arrangements and economic performance on dispute initiation among industrialized democracies, 1950-97, support the argument. The article concludes with implications for research in comparative politics and international relations, including, for example, executive-legislative relations and strategic conflict avoidance.
Bruton, B.. "In the Quicksands of Somalia." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 79-94.
The US government needs to change its Somalia policy -- and fast. For the better part of two decades, instability and violence have confounded US and international efforts to bring peace to Somalia. The international community's repeated attempts to create a government have failed, even backfired. The US' efforts since 9/11 to prevent Somalia from becoming a safe haven for al Qaeda have alienated large parts of the Somali population, polarized the country's diverse Islamist reform movement into moderate and extremist camps, and propelled indigenous Salafi jihadist groups to power. For now, the US should commit itself to a strategy that promotes development without regard to governance. At the same time, it will have to continue its counterterrorism efforts, although preferably in the form of monitoring and deradicalization strategies pursued in cooperation with the local population rather than air strikes. And it must learn to understand the value of relationships that local rivals build in pursuit of common economic goals.
Caprioli, M., V. Hudson, B. Ballif-Spanvill, C. Emmett, and S. Stearmer. "The WomanStats Project Database: Advancing an Empirical Research Agenda." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 839.
This article describes the WomanStats Project Database - a multidisciplinary creation of a central repository for cross-national data and information on women available for use by academics, policy-makers, journalists, and all others. WomanStats is freely accessible online, thus facilitating worldwide scholarship on issues with gendered aspects. WomanStats contains over 260 variables for 174 countries and their attendant subnational divisions (where such information is available) and currently contains over 68,000 individual data points. WomanStats provides nuanced data on the situation and status of women internationally and in so doing facilitates the current trend to disaggregate analyses. This article introduces the dataset, which is now publicly available, describes its creation, discusses its utility, and uses measures of association and mapping to draw attention to theoretically interesting patterns concerning the various dimensions of women's inequality that are worthy of further exploration. Two of nine variables clusters are introduced - women's physical security and son preference/sex ratio. The authors confirm the multidimensionality of women's status and show that the impact of democracy and state wealth vary based on the type of violence against women. Overall, the authors find a high level of violence against women worldwide.
Etzioni, A.. "Israel: Samson's Children." Society 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 477.
Etzioni narrates that some people believe that Israel can be saved by what is called the two state solution, which would lead Palestinians and Jews to live side by side in security and peace--and pacify the Arab world and Iran to boot. However, he tells that no one believes that this road can be traveled quickly. Moreover, he stresses that no decent human being would oppose finding a diplomatic way out of the mounting crisis. Yet as the clouds gather and darken, for those who care, the question of the steps that must be taken if diplomacy fails can no longer be avoided.
Freedman, L.. "Recent Books on International Relations: Military, Scientific, and Technological: A Fiery Peace in a Cold War: Bernard Schriever and the Ultimate Weapon." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 157.
GAJDA, A.. "DEBATING WAR AND PEACE IN LATE ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND." The Historical Journal 52, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 851-878.
ABSTRACT
Peace with Spain was debated by Elizabeth I's government from 1598, when France and Spain made peace by signing the Treaty of Vervins. Robert Devereux, second earl of Essex was zealously hostile to accommodation with Spain, while other privy councillors argued in favour of peace. Arguments for and against peace were, however, also articulated in wider contexts, in particular in a series of manuscript treatises, and also in printed tracts from the Netherlands, which appeared in English translation in the late 1590s. This article explores ways that ideas of war and peace were disseminated in manuscript and printed media outside the privy council and court. It is argued that disagreement about the direction of the war reveals differing contemporary responses to the legitimacy of the Dutch abjuration of Spanish sovereignty and the polity of the United Provinces, which have implications for our understanding of political mentalities in late Elizabethan England.
Gaibulloev, K., and T. Sandler. "Hostage Taking: Determinants of Terrorist Logistical and Negotiation Success." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 739.
This article investigates the determinants of logistical and negotiation success from the terrorists' viewpoint in hostage-taking missions. Logistical success indicates that the terrorists apparently completed the mission as planned, while negotiation success means that the terrorists received some of their initial demands. In the empirical analysis, the article utilizes a new dataset on hostage incidents from 1978 through 2005 for the logit regressions. Empirical results broadly support the authors' theoretical predictions. Logistical success depends positively on terrorist resources and target vulnerability, while negotiation success increases with the relative disagreement values and relative bargaining strengths of the terrorists. More specifically, terrorist success at the execution stage depends positively on kidnappings and large hostage grabs and varies negatively with attack force diversity and terrorist casualties. Negotiation success depends on bargaining variables (i.e. the number of hostages, casualties, incident duration, and other proxies). The article shows that the factors that determine terrorist negotiation success differ between kidnappings and non-kidnappings (i.e. skyjackings, the takeover of buildings, and the hijacking of non-aerial means of transport), owing to location and other considerations (e.g. types of demands). In particular, making multiple demands bolsters negotiated success in non-kidnappings, while demanding money fosters negotiated success in kidnappings. Lengthier incidents have a positive influence on the likelihood of terrorists gaining concessions in kidnappings and non-kidnappings.
Geary, F., and H. Alonso. "Robert E. Sherwood: The Playwright in Peace and War." Theatre Survey 50, no. 2 (November 1, 2009): 361-363.
Gillespie, M.. "Waging Peace: Des Moines Activists Send Anti-War Message to President Obama." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
Efforts on behalf of health care insurance reform have occupied substantial amounts of time and energy among U.S. peace and social justice organizations and activists in recent months. [...] with a Democratic president in the White House, some who were more vocal and active in their opposition to U.S. military actions in Iraq and Afghanistan during the Bush/Cheney administration have muted their criticism of Obama's decision to widen the war in Afghanistan.
Grodsky, B.. "Re-Ordering Justice: Towards A New Methodological Approach to Studying Transitional Justice." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 819.
Scholars and policymakers have turned increasing attention to questions of transitional justice, those legal responses to a former regime's repressive acts following a change in political systems. Although there is a rich, interdisciplinary literature that addresses the value of various transitional justice measures, theoretical arguments for how and under what conditions we should expect to see these measures implemented tend to gravitate to intuitively appealing relative power considerations. But attempts at parsimony have tended to leave the dependent variable either overly restrictive or poorly defined, yielding theories that are difficult to test. In this article, the author proposes a 'transitional justice spectrum' based on a hierarchical series of possible accountability mechanisms and designed to allow researchers to conduct more rigorous, cross-national tests of justice arguments. The objective here is not to posit a broad theory of transitional justice, but to open the debate into a methodological weakness in the transitional justice literature. The article includes seven accountability mechanisms: cessation and codification of human rights violations; condemnation of the old system; rehabilitation and compensation for victims; creation of a truth commission; purging human rights abusers from public function; criminal prosecution of 'executors' (those lower on the chain-of-command); criminal prosecution of commanders (those higher on the chain-of-command).
Hall, J., and R. Lawson. "Economic Freedom and Peace." Atlantic Economic Journal 37, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 445-446.
Her, K.. "Putting Compassion into Action." Taiwan Review 59, no. 11 (November 1, 2009): 1.
Her discusses the important role played by non-governmental organizations in assisting Taiwan in its recovery from Typhoon Morakot. Two of which are the Chang Yung-fa Charity Foundation and Taiwan Root Medical Peace Corps, composed of physicians, nurses, pharmacists, medical technologists and logistics volunteers.
Jacobsson, A.. "War and peace--cyclical phenomena?" Public Choice 141, no. 3-4 (December 1, 2009): 467-480.
This paper demonstrates how the analysis can differ dramatically between two common static modeling approaches to conflict. The first approach uses a one-period setup and associates positive arms investments with conflict. The second approach has two periods, where arming decisions are taken in the first period, and the decision on whether to go to war is taken separately in the second. Building on the latter approach, I introduce a repeated game protocol with myopic players. Under these circumstances countries may end up in cycles of war and peace. This result offers a novel explanation for a common pattern in history.
Koch, M.. "Governments, Partisanship, and Foreign Policy: The Case of Dispute Duration." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 799.
Do variations in partisanship and political outcomes among democratic states affect the duration of militarized interstate disputes? To answer this question, the author develops a model of partisan competition derived from the government failure literature. The author argues factors associated with government failure determine the ability of governments to contend with the domestic political costs of militarized disputes, specifically the duration of those disputes. The author tests his expectations using hazard analysis on a dataset of 20 democratic governments and militarized disputes between 1945 and 1992. The results suggest the outcome of party competition in the form of a government's sensitivity to the potential political costs of conflict is an important part of the conflict process. The author concludes that differences in domestic political outcomes influence the duration of militarized interstate disputes. Governments that are politically more secure in their tenure engage in longer disputes. Alternatively, governments that are more vulnerable have significantly shorter disputes. In addition, because government partisanship contributes to vulnerability, it also affects dispute duration, with governments of the left engaging in shorter disputes, while governments of the right fight longer disputes.
Lieber, K., and D. Press. "The Nukes We Need." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 39-51.
Nuclear weapons helped keep the peace in Europe throughout the Cold War, preventing the bitter dispute from engulfing the continent in another catastrophic conflict. But after nearly 65 years without a major war or a nuclear attack, many prominent statesmen, scholars, and analysts have begun to take deterrence for granted. They are now calling for a major drawdown of the US nuclear arsenal and a new commitment to pursue a world without these weapons. Debating the future of the US nuclear arsenal is critical now because the Obama administration has pledged to pursue steep cuts in the force and has launched a major review of US nuclear policy. The nuclear forces the US builds today must be able to act as a reliable deterrent, even in much darker times. Many of those who recommend a much smaller US nuclear arsenal fail to consider the great difficulties of maintaining deterrence during conventional wars.
Marshall, R.. "Effects of Past U.S. Policy Remain to Haunt Obama." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
According to Afghan scholar Tamim Ansary, the insurgency is "fueled more by rural resentment, tribal nationalism and Afghan xenophobia than by any global ideology." [...] Palestinians and others with U.S. or European citizenship who open a West Bank business cannot buy or sell goods in Jerusalem, and similarly those in Jerusalem cannot do business in the West Bank.
McArthur, S.. "House, Senate Letters Want Arab States to Make "Dramatic Gestures Toward Israel"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
The letter cites "concrete measures" taken by Israel "to reaffirm its commitment to advancing the peace process" (but nowhere mentions illegal Israeli settlements in the occupied territories), and it encourages "Arab leaders to take similar tangible steps to demonstrate their commitment to the peace process." First was the 25-member Republican delegation, headed by Republican House Whip (and the only Republican Jewish member of Congress) Eric Cantor (R-VA).
Nathan, A.. "Recent Books on International Relations: Asia and Pacific: Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace With China." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 170.
Patel, S.. "Buffalo Soldiers Reburied." Archaeology 62, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 12.
The 64 soldiers and civilian men, women, and children left behind in the cemetery at Fort Craig, a Civil War-era outpost near Socorro NM, finally have peace. The cemetery came to the attention of federal authorities in 2005, as part of an investigation into criminal looting of the site--including the theft of the remains of Buffalo Soldiers who served and died at the fort. Following a criminal investigation that identified one of the Southwest's most destructive looters, federal authorities decided to exhume and rebury any additional remains to keep them safe from illegal digging.
Robinson, G., and M. Klein; Watzman. "A Possible Peace between Israel and Palestine: An Insider's Account of the Geneva Initiative." International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (November 1, 2009): 671-672.
Suedfeld, P., and R. Jhangiani. "Cognitive Management in an Enduring International Rivalry: The Case of India and Pakistan." Political Psychology 30, no. 6 (December 1, 2009): 937-951.
Using integrative complexity scoring, the current study addresses how communications by leaders of India and Pakistan have revealed their information processing and decision-making strategies. The hostility between India and Pakistan started with the official creation of the two states and has lasted through more than a half-century. It has been marked by four full-scale wars and almost constant ethnopolitical, terrorist, and guerrilla violence. It is one of the most enduring and bloody binational rivalries of recent decades. Shared aspects of history and culture make the comparisons relatively free of confounding factors. In common with previous findings, complexity scores have shown reliable associations with impending war and with continued peace (or low-intensity conflict).
Wall, A.. "The great purge of 1625: 'the late Murraine amongst the Gentlemen of the peace'." Historical Research 82, no. 218 (November 1, 2009): 677-693.
It is known that late in 1625 some county J.P.s were dismissed, but close investigation reveals there was in fact a major purge. On 22 December 1625, chancery issued new commissions of the peace to remove justices. But how can we discover who, how many, and why? For at least 20 counties we can reconstruct the composition of the commissions of the peace, and show that between thirty and forty per cent of J.P.s were abruptly dismissed. It was not only the lazy or the insignificant that lost their places, but nobles, knights and those who had carried the burden of sessions work--especially if they had opposed King Charles and the duke of Buckingham.
al-Faisal, T.. "Land First, Then Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
[...] while Israel's neighbors want peace, they cannot be expected to tolerate what amounts to theft, and certainly should not be pressured into rewarding Israel for the return of land that does not belong to it. [...] Israel heeds President Obama's call for the removal of all settlements, the world must be under no illusion that Saudi Arabia will offer what the Israelis most desire-regional recognition.
Anonymous, . "THE FUTURIST BOOKSHELF." Review. The Futurist 43, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 61-63.
Fourteen new and noteworthy books are reviewed. These include: Building Peace: Practical Reflections from the Field, edited by Craig Zelizer and Robert A. Rubinstein; Futures Research Methodology: Version 3.0, edited by Jerome C. Glenn and Theodore J. Gordon; How We Decide, by Jonah Lehrer; Long-Range Futures Research: An Application of Complexity Science, by Robert H. Samet; The Overflowing Brain: Information Overload and the Limits of Working Memory, by Torkel Klingberg; The Parents We Mean to Be: How Well-Intentioned Adults Undermine Children's Moral and Emotional Development, by Richard Weissbourd; The Passionate Mind Revisited: Expanding Personal and Social Awareness, by Joel Kramer and Diana Alstad; The Penn Center Guide to Bioethics, edited by Vardit Ravitsky; The Price of Perfection: Individualism and Society in the Era of Biomedical Enhancement, by Maxwell J. Mehlman; 2009 State of the Future, by Jerome C. Glenn, Theodore J. Gordon, and Elizabeth Florescu; Taming the Dragons of Change in Business: 10 Tips for Anticipating, Embracing, and Using Change to Achieve Success, by Richard G. Stieglitz.
Avnery, U.. "The Drama and the Farce: Obama's Mini Mideast Summit." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
Obama had demanded a freeze of all settlement activity, including East Jerusalem, as a condition for convening a tripartite summit meeting, in the wake of which accelerated peace negotiations were to start, leading to peace between two states-Israel and Palestine. The arsenal is inexhaustible-from a threat by the U.S. not to shield the Israeli government with its veto in the Security Council, to delaying the next shipment of arms. The impression is rapidly gaining ground that he is indeed an inspiring speaker with an uplifting message, but a weak politician, unable to turn his vision into reality.
Week of October 28-November 5, 2009 (Focus on the Cold War and Peace):
Ban Ki-moon. "Disarm nuclear weapons for peace." The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, August 7, 2009,
[...] I urged the Security Council to consider other ways to strengthen security in the disarmament process, and to assure non-nuclear-weapon states against nuclear weapons threats. [...] I am urging progress in eliminating other weapons of mass destruction and limiting missiles, space weapons and conventional arms --- all of which are needed for a nuclear weapon-free world.
CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. "IRAN WANTS TO ANNIHILATE ISRAEL; THE U.S. MUST FOCUS ON DETERRENCE." Pittsburgh Post - Gazette, April 12, 2008,
On Tuesday, Iran announced it was installing 6,000 more centrifuges -- they produce enriched uranium, the key ingredient of a nuclear weapon -- in addition to the 3,000 already operating. During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union created vast and invulnerable submarine fleets to ensure a retaliatory strike and, thus, deterrence.
Kevin Bonham. "N.D.'s contribution to the Cold War." Grand Forks Herald, July 12, 2009,
In the Cold War period, the nuclear missiles served as fortification--modern-day forts--against the constant threat of war from the Soviet Union. Because of the missile fields, North Dakota commonly was called the world's third largest nuclear power. McNamara served as Secretary of Defense from 1961 to 1968, under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson. Besides being considered the chief architect of the Vietnam War, he was a key player in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when Soviet nuclear missiles were discovered in Cuba and the world teetered on the threshold of nuclear war for 13 days.
Mark Babineck. "At the heart of new nuclear weapons: Pantex looks to build plutonium cores in addition to disassembly." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 28 October2007 ***[insert pages]***
Pantex also is one of five sites under consideration for a new "consolidated plutonium center" to process and build the lethal hearts of nuclear warheads -- the plutonium cores that cause the mushroom-cloud detonations when properly triggered.
Arancibia-Clavel, F.. "CHILE and ARGENTINA: From Measures of Trust to Military Integration." Military Review, September 1, 2007, 104-108.
Chile and Argentina must design a new institutional process to * Advance a common security and defense policy. * Bring together political, politico-strategic, and strategic managers to obtain efficient results when common goals present themselves. * Define and monitor the creation of combined units. * Establish military personnel systems that facilitate interoperability. * Standardize armament, materiel, equipment, and logistic procedures. * Continue with other developed measures.
Ayam, J.. "THE DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA-U.S. RELATIONS." Journal of Third World Studies 25, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 117-132.
[...] U.S. President Eisenhower's message, for instance, assured Nigeria's leaders of U.S. support but cautioned on possible threats coming from without-an ostensible reference to the former Soviet Union.2 But Nigeria's Prime Minister, Tafawa Balewa, did not wish his country's newly won sovereignty and independence to be dragged into the Cold War rivalry between the East and West. [...] the two nations would, in future, continue to explore close political, diplomatic and economic ties due to the significance of the economic interests that bind the two nations: the importance of Nigerian oil to the U.S. economy in addition to the large market for American goods while Nigeria would continue to search for technology and investment avenues from the American market.
Bratcher, D.. "A Fiery Peace in a Cold War." Review. Washingtonian, October 1, 2009, 13.
A Fiery Peace in a Cold War by Neil Sheehan is reviewed.
Brown, J.. "War, Peace and Army Transformation." Army, July 1, 2009, 86-87.
The war we were in trumped the more distant future. [...] Objective Force technologies likely to be useful in Iraq and Afghanistan were brought forward and fielded as rapidly as possible. Global positioning systems, satellite communications, digital equipment of many types and various off-the-shelf equipment procured through the Rapid Fielding Initiative became similarly ubiquitous.
Dabelko, G.. "AN UNCOMMON PEACE: Environment, Development, and the Global Security Agenda." Environment 50, no. 3 (May 1, 2008): 32,34-41,43-45.
In 1988, nuclear war was undoubtedly the gravest" threat facing the environment, according to Our Common Future, commonly known as the Brundtland report.1 The possible environmental consequences of thermonuclear war-radioactive contamination, nuclear winter, and genetic mutations-were widely feared during the Cold War, especially by citizens of the United States and Soviet Union, which the report called "prisoners of their own arms race. [...] in the 20 years since the report's publication, the specter of nuclear destruction has not yet been "removed from the face of the Earth,"3 as the report called for, but has merely changed scale: the threat of the mushroom cloud has been replaced by the threat of the the dirty bomb-a crude device that a terrorist cell could fashion out of pilfered nuclear material.
Davis, D.. "The Cold War after Stalin's Death: A Missed Opportunity for Peace?" Review. The Journal of American History 94, no. 3 (December 1, 2007): 987-988.
The essays in this work provide fresh evidence and evaluations contending that both Moscow and Washington missed a slim chance to end the Cold War after Joseph Stalin's death and then wasted enormous resources for three and a half decades. In them, he evaluated Malenkov's new line by proposing that the Soviet Union prove its intentions with deeds, not just words: for example, ending the Korean War; concluding an Austrian State Treaty; and releasing German prisoners of war.
Dekar, P.. "Cold War Letters." Review. Cross Currents 59, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 92-94.
Crucially, Merton reminds us that when atomic bombs fell on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the problem of seeking and keeping world peace ceased to be a social concern among many; it became the dominant problem not simply for Merton (who penned some of these letters amidst the Cuban missile crisis) and his generation, but also for ours. Along with the suppressed book and anthologies of Merton's social essays,3 it is a great benefit to have the letters in a single volume, with an appendix providing biographical information about the original recipients of the Cold War Letters.
Fein, L.. "Peace Now? If Not Now, Then When?" Jewish Exponent, September 27, 2007.
Yitzhak Rabin knew well the world of occasional opportunity. When the Cold War ended, he began to speak of a "window of opportunity" that had suddenly opened for Israel and its neighbors. No longer would Israelis and their Arab neighbors be used as pawns or as surrogates in the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. There was urgency to his understanding because he believed that before long, elements of the Arab world would develop the competence to threaten Israel as it had never been threatened. Iran, then still a slumbering giant, was of explicit and particular concern to him.
Filteau, J.. "U.S. bishops strangely absent from current nuclear debate." National Catholic Reporter, April 3, 2009, 7.
[...] a quarter-century later, the U.S. Catholic bishops, with a few notable exceptions (see accompanying story), are strangely absent from a new public debate over nuclear disarmament - even as leading U.S. policy figures and military analysts from the Cold War have begun to frame the question in ways that the 1983 class of bishops would have welcomed. While the bishops' International Policy Committee has intervened with Congress and the executive branch on some specific issues in recent years -such as successfully opposing research for the development of a new generation of nuclear weapons and appropriations for relatively small Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator weapons -the bishops as a body have not addressed the nuclear deterrence issue substantively since their 1993 follow-up statement, "The Harvest of Peace Is Sown in Justice."
Fox, T.. "A world without nukes." National Catholic Reporter, August 7, 2009, 1A,2A,3A.
For Obama, the goal of a world without nuclear weapons is not just one among many It is, he says, "the core challenge of the 21st century" Can the United States, which is the only nation that has ever used an atomic weapon on another nation, lead a campaign to halt the spread of these weapons of mass destruction when it shares with Russia by far the largest arsenals of nuclear weapons on the planet? The current START treaty is set to expire Dec. 5. * Seeking a new global treaty that verifiably ends the production of fissile materials (weapons-grade uranium and plutonium) intended for use in state nuclear weapons.
Gates, R.. "Beyond Guns and Steel: Reviving the Nonmilitary Instruments of American Power." Military Review, January 1, 2008, 2-9.
In important respects, the great struggles of the 20th century-World War I and World War II and the Cold War-covered over conflicts that had boiled and seethed and provoked wars and instability for centuries before 1914: ethnic strife, religious wars, independence movements, and, especially in the last quarter of the 19th century, terrorism. Unfortunately, the dangers and challenges of old have been joined by new forces of instability and conflict, among them * A new and more malignant form of global terrorism rooted in extremist and violent jihadism; * New manifestations of ethnic, tribal, and sectarian conflict all over the world; * The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; * Failed and failing states; * States enriched with oil profits and discontented with the current international order; and * Centrifugal forces in other countries that threaten national unity, stability, and internal peace-but also with implications for regional and global security.\n" In an address at Harvard in 1943, Winston Churchill said, "The price of greatness is responsibility ...
Gingrich, N.. "WHAT COULD HAVE BEEN." USA Today, November 1, 2008, 55-60.
The Islamists have: a potential access to weapons of mass destruction that could devastate Western life; religious appeal that provides deeper resonance and greater staying power than the artificial ideologies of fascism or communism; impressively conceptualized, funded, and organized institutional machinery that builds credibility, goodwill, and electoral success; an ideology capable of appealing to Muslims of every size and shape, from Lumpenproletariat to privileged, from illiterates to Ph.D.s, from the well-adjusted to psychopaths, from Yemenis to Canadians; and a huge number of committed cadres. Too dependent on foreign oil Given the centrality of oil money to Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, and Russia in 2001, and the degree to which the U.S. had been financing its own enemies, in November 2001, Pres. Bush called for a massive, market-oriented incentive program to develop alternatives to foreign oil-including nuclear power, biofuels, conservation through radical innovations in engines to vehicle weight ratios, new exploration for oil and natural gas, a crash program for clean coal, and an initiative to move to a hydrogen economy as rapidly as possible.
Harper, J.. "Technology, Politics, and the New Space Race: The Legality and Desirability of Bush's National Space Policy under the Public and Customary International Laws of Space." Chicago Journal of International Law 8, no. 2 (January 1, 2008): 681-699.
[...] customary international law of space also suggests that the NSP06 is legal. section II grounds the NSP06 in the historical context of space competition from the Cold War to the War on Terror, as well as in general national security policy since the September llth attacks.
Johnston, T.. "Peace or Pacifism? The Soviet 'Struggle For Peace in All the World', 1948-54." The Slavonic and East European Review 86, no. 2 (April 1, 2008): 259.
This article examines the Soviet 'Struggle for Peace in All the World' between 1948 and 1954. The 'Struggle for Peace' was a vital arena in the early Cold War within which a new image of the Soviet relationship with the outside world was forged. 'Peace' emerged in this context as a shorthand for the USSR's muscular and moral patronage of the oppressed peoples of the world. Soviet citizens responded to the 'Struggle for Peace' with great enthusiasm. This enthusiasm has been cited as evidence that the Soviet population were naively duped into accepting a harsh post-war settlement in return for peace. In reality, Soviet citizens were not so passive in their engagement with the late-Stalinist state. Drawing on Kotkin's description of the 'little tactics of the habitat' this article suggests that some participants in the Peace Campaigns creatively reappropriated them as a platform for the articulation of their personal grief from the past war and their pacifist sentiments. It also offers some provisional suggestions about how the 'tactics' employed by Soviet citizens in relation to the government changed after 1945. The Soviet government could mobilize its population to 'Struggle for Peace', but it could not guarantee that they shared its understanding of what 'peace' meant.
Joya, A.. "I IS FOR INFIDEL..., J IS FOR JIHAD, K IS FOR KALASHNIKOV: FROM HOLY WAR TO HOLY TERROR IN AFGHANISTAN." Review. Canadian Foreign Policy 14, no. 3 (October 1, 2008): 133-135.
Gannon believes that without understanding the complex history of the Cold War, the nature of the social forces that shape the Middle East region, and the interests that contend the state in Afghanistan, it is impossible to understand the rise of the neo-Taliban and especially the suicide bombers and the challenges in the way of building peace and stability in Afghanistan. Besides providing a valuable historical analysis of the rise of the neo-Taliban and why Afghanistan is still a mess, Gannon is clearly one of the very few brave and admirable female Canadians who has undertaken some of the most dangerous investigative journalism, interviewing notorious Afghan warlords and leaders in search of truth.
Kengor, P.. "The "March of Freedom" From Reagan to Bush." Policy Review no. 146 (December 1, 2007): 77-86.
By the end of that year, Solidarity candidates had swept 99 of 100 seats in a free and fair election in communist Poland, the Berlin Wall had crashed in a soon-to-be-reunified Germany, Vaclav Havel had left prison for the presidency of Czechoslovakia, and the continent's worst living dictator, Romania's Nicolai Ceausescu, had been lined up against a wall by the masses and shot on Christmas Day - a day he had sought to ban.
Langille, D.. "THE LONG MARCH OF THE CANADIAN PEACE MOVEMENT." Canadian Dimension, May 1, 2008, 27-32,4.
The early peace movement depended upon leadership from the Canadian churches, from women's groups like the Voice of Women and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, as well as from communists and socialists active in unions and the Canadian Peace Congress.
MORO, R.. "The Catholic Church, Italian Catholics and Peace Movements: The Cold War Years, 1947-1962." Contemporary European History 17, no. 3 (August 1, 2008): 365-390.
This article focuses on the early years of the cold war in Italy in the form of an analysis of the Catholic press from 1947 to the eve of the Second Vatican Council in 1962. In so doing it attempts to answer key questions for Italian Catholicism relating to peace building that arose from total war in the age of mass democracy.
L'église catholique, le catholicisme italien et le mouvement pour la paix: la guerre froide, 1947-1962
En focalisant sur le début de la guerre froide en Italie, cet article (basé sur l'analyse de la presse catholique en Italie depuis 1947 jusqu'au Deuxième concile cuménique du Vatican) cherche à répondre aux questions centrales suivantes: comment réagissaient l'Eglise catholique et les catholiques italiens face à guerre totale et democratie de masse? Avaient-ils une vision de la paix et de l'ordre international qui pouvait se maintenir face aux idéologies dominantes du vingtième siècle?
Die katholische Kirche, italienischer Katholizismus und Friedensbewegungen: der Kalte Krieg, 1947-1962
Indem sich dieser Aufsatz auf die eng umrissene Phase des frühen Kalten Krieges konzentriert, möchte er einen Beitrag zu der Frage leisten, wie sich das katholische Milieu in Italien an die Verhältnisse der Massengesellschaft im Kontext der Debatten über Frieden und kommunistische Friedensbewegung anpaßte. Er basiert auf der Analyse der katholischen Presse in Italien zwischen 1947 bis zum Vorabend des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils.
Perkovich, G.. "Keeping up with the nuclear neighbours." Review. Nature 458, no. 7238 (April 2, 2009): 574-575.
Notwithstanding a series of treaties meant to manage their nuclear competition and help shape a global nuclear order - from the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963 through to the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II 30 years later - Washington DC and Moscow ordered the construction of thousands more nuclear weapons and kept them ready for use, even when no crisis was at hand. Framing such dialogue with an explicit objective of creating conditions for incremental, verifiable steps towards nuclear disarmament would add an important Asian dimension to the global effort to live up to the promise made in the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, the future of which has come into question.
Sikes, T.. "The Meaning of Military Victory." Review. RUSI Journal, October 1, 2007, 86-87.
The Meaning of Military Victory identifies six elements of strategic victory: information control, military deterrence, political self-determination, economic reconstruction, social justice, and diplomatic respect.
Stanley, W.. "STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY IN LATIN AMERICA." Review. Journal of Third World Studies 24, no. 2 (October 1, 2007): 241-245.
Ladutke then turns to a review of several issues, including accountability for wartime human rights violations, reforms to the police, the apparent resurgence of death squad killings in the first year of peace, prosecution of the alleged perpetrators in a notorious police murder, and the emergence of apparent "social cleansing" death squads involving the police. Several facts support this view: most of the Salvadoran peace accords were implemented (in contrast to the comparative sham in neighboring Guatemala); there has been no resumption of combat (in contrast to less-successful UN peacekeeping ventures worldwide); and El Salvador's democratic system encompasses a broader spectrum of political opinion than many advanced industrial democracies.
Thatcher, J.. "Korean Leaders Call for Peace Treaty." Moscow News (in English), October 5, 2007,
Leaders of the two Koreas agreed on Thursday to try to bring peace to the Cold War's last frontier, just a day after the North signed up to an international deal to disable its nuclear facilities. But some analysts said the pledges at only the second summit between North and South Korea were limited, with the hermit North clearly reluctant to break much new ground. North and South Korea shared the view they must end the current armistice and build a permanent peace regime, President Roh Moo-hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il said in a joint statement at the end of their three-day meeting in Pyongyang. They will push for talks next month with China and the United States to formally end the 1950-53 Korean War, for which a peace treaty has yet to be signed.
Trenin, D.. "NATO and Russia: Partnership or Peril?" Current History 108, no. 720 (October 1, 2009): 299-303.
By permanently involving the United States and Canada with Western Europe, it created a security community spanning the North Atlantic: the modern world's first zone of stable peace. Since the end of the Western-Soviet confrontation, NATO has not withered away - it has evolved, alongside the European Union, into a premier pillar of European security. Even if one of these highly unlikely conditions were met, Russia's hypothetical accession would needlessly exacerbate Russia's own, and the West's, relations with China, much to the detriment of global stability and security. [...] since no shortcut is possible, the West and Russia need to embark on a long, tortuous, and potentially rocky path toward creating a security community in Europe that would include both NATO members and nonmembers.
Wallace, M., C. Borch, and G. Gauchat. "MILITARY KEYNESIANISM IN THE POST-VIETNAM WAR ERA: A VIEW FROM THE AMERICAN STATES." Journal of Political and Military Sociology 36, no. 2 (December 1, 2008): 215-0_6.
A prominent explanation for U.S. military spending in the three decades following World War II suggests that state managers used military spending as a countercyclical fiscal policy to stabilize the economy. This military Keynesian argument contends that military spending fluctuates in response to a confluence of interests among capitalist firms in the monopoly sector, organized labor, and politicians who seek to ensure their incumbency in office. With the end of the Cold War and the rise of a "new military" era, with its focus on technologically advanced weapons and a small standing army, military Keynesian arguments have fallen out of favor. On the other hand, the enormity of the military budget and the fact that the livelihoods of millions of citizens are still tied to the military sector renews questions about the role of military spending in shaping economic policy. In this article, we revisit the thesis of military Keynesianism during the post-Vietnam era (1977-2004) using state-level data for 49 U.S. states. Our analysis provides new evidence that military Keynesianism is still relevant in this largely peacetime economy. Several implications of these findings are also discussed.
Wilson, J.. "How Grand was Reagans Strategy, 1976-1984?" Diplomacy & Statecraft 18, no. 4 (December 1, 2007): 773.
This article disputes the assertions of the new Reagan literature. Drawing upon radio broadcasts, speeches, correspondences, and documents from his presidential library, as well as recently published diaries from his White House years, it argues that Ronald Reagan had no grand strategy in the years 1976-1984. Indeed, throughout this period, he possessed two less-than-grand strategies I label "peace through strength" and "a crusade for freedom." Each of these contained its own respective set of goals and employed its own corresponding set of tactics. Yet there was no grand strategy for ending the Cold War.
Yilmaz, M.. "INTRA-STATE CONFLICTS IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA." International Journal on World Peace 24, no. 4 (December 1, 2007): 11-33.
This article provides an analytical discussion of the dynamics of intra-state conflicts that seem to have replaced the ideological clashes of the Cold War as the principal sources of current conflicts. By looking through major ethnopolitical conflicts around the globe and trying to find out some main points in common, the study reaches the conclusion that such conflicts are correlated with, but not limited to, the desire to express cultural identity, discrimination, anti-democratic political system, economic underdevelopment and unjust distribution of national wealth, unresolved past traumas, as well as external support. The study also reveals that ethnopolitical conflicts cannot be resolved through force only. In the resolution process, multi-level efforts are needed by domestic and international actors to be responsive to the underlying causes of intra-state conflicts.
Week of October 16-October 22, 2009 (Focus on Peace Education):
Erten Gokce. "PEACE EDUCATION: VIEWPOINTS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ABOUT PEACE." International Journal of Humanities and Peace 22, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 30-36.
Peace, family, school, media, environment Rapid process of change, which is the result of social dynamism and environmental factors, leads communities to pay considerable attention to the provision of more qualified man power and education of better quality. Contemporary approaches to peace education incorporate a wide range of responses to a variety of forms of violence, including coping and sharing skills among peers, the need for recognition of the ëotheri and the development of care. In this sense, necessity of encouraging people to preserve peace to abolish violence is significant, so the principle of UNICEF for maintenance of peace can be considered to be straightforward: Disputes may be inevitable, but violence is not.\n By means of continuous, effective studies and cooperation, understanding of peace culture from the beginning of the education given at primary school will spread increasingly to all societies.
Gavriel Salomon. "Does Peace Education Really Make a Difference?" Peace & Conflict 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 37-48.
An inconsistency is pointed out between formidable and thus discouraging hurdles facing peace education in the context of intractable conflicts and actual, encouraging research findings of such programs. It is suggested that the hurdles pertain to the most deep-seated and thus unchangeable convictions constituting the backbone of a group's collective narrative. On the other hand, the change-objects affected by peace education programs pertain to more peripheral attitudes and beliefs, which are more easily changeable, more weakly associated with behaviors, and thus less consequential. This hypothetical possibility is briefly examined from both a theoretical and practical perspective, leading to three clusters of research questions: (a) Is the proposed distinction between central and peripheral attitudes and beliefs applicable to peace education programs?, (b) How stable are changes of peripheral attitudes in the absence of changes of the more central ones?, and (c) To what extent can only long-term, socialization-like programs affect core beliefs and attitudes?
Jeremy Cohen. "Peace." Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 61, no. 1 (April 1, 2006): 3-6.
Cohen mentions that democracy and educational successes are inseparably coupled. He notes that democracy and education are stressed today by a confluence of powerful forces. Some are deeply rooted in political self-interest and the amassment of personal wealth, some in cultural, nationalistic or religious proselytizing that defy the constitutional foundations of the American democratic experiment and that devalue the appreciation for, and the practice of, the tenets of education, political accountability, and individual rights.
John S Hill. "The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism, and Patriotism, 1914-1940." . Canadian Journal of History 42, no. 1 (April 1, 2007): 124-127.
Flanked by a substantial introduction and a brief summary conclusion, Siegel's chapters consider the highly nationalistic primary education provided during the First World War, trace the schools' contribution to shaping a collective memory after the war, delineate the reactive forging of a new ideological consensus - rooted in socialist internationalism and feminist pacifism - during the twenties, turn a critical eye on the pacifist scholastic narratives of the Great War, untangle the strands of patriotic education between the wars, and limn the teachers' confrontation with fascism and international conflict from 1933 to 1940. In pursuit of her quarry, Siegel has read through more than a hundred textbooks of the time for an understanding of their message to students, examined the professional journals and newsletters in which teachers discussed their calling, and, for three departments (Somme, Seine, Dordogne), searched the archival holdings of teachers' lessons and students' essays for insight into the actual classroom experience.
Kathleen Weiler. "The Education of Jane Addams/Diva Julia: The Public Romance and Private Agony of Julia Ward Howe/Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters." . NWSA Journal 18, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 230-234.
Weiler reviews The Education of Jane Addams by Victoria Bissell Brown, Diva Julia: The Public Romance and Private Agony of Julia Ward Howe by Valarie Ziegler, and Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters by Barbara Sicherman.
Roger Soder. "Books for Summer Reading." . Phi Delta Kappan 88, no. 10 (June 1, 2007): 787-791.
In this volume is ample proof that nonviolent civil disobedience, led by King and his associates, dramatically transformed American democracy by winning the right to vote lor Alrican American citizens. Branch recounts each step toward that hard-earned prize, traversing rivers of facts after beginning with a statement about the importance ol voting: Nonviolence is an orphan among democratic ideas . . . the most basic element of free government - the vote has no other meaning. . . . the whole architecture of representative government springs from the handiwork of nonviolence.
Veronica Gaylie. "RAISING AWARENESS OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND WAR THROUGH FILM AND POETRY." Radical Teacher no. 79 (October 1, 2007): 39-40.
The Voices in Wartime Education project is a non-profit organization dedicated to exploring conflict through education and the arts. The 74-minute documentary Voices in Wartime juxtaposes images of war with the words of soldiers, poets, and others who experience armed conflict first hand. I ordered the DVD and decided to show the film to my student teachers at UBC Okanagan, a campus located in the predominantly suburban city of Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada.
Wairagala Wakabi. "Peace has come to southern Sudan, but challenges remain." The Lancet 368, no. 9538 (September 2, 2006): 829-30.
WHO says neglected tropical diseases like leprosy, elephantiasis, river blindness, sleeping sickness, guinea worms, and Buruli ulcers are resurfacing in southern Sudan, while cholera epidemics continue to claim hundreds of lives. A massive UN-backed campaign to stop deadly outbreaks of measles in southern Sudan saw over 1 million children immunised between last November and June in a region where less than 20% of children younger than 5 years were vaccinated during the two decades of civil war.
Yaacov Boaz Yablon. "Contact Intervention Programs for Peace Education and the Reality of Dynamic Conflicts." Teachers College Record 109, no. 4 (April 1, 2007): 991-1012.
Background: Great efforts are made to develop and implement contact activities for groups in conflict, yet studies of effects of planned contact interventions yielded mixed results. Previous attempts to explain why contact interventions do not fulfill their promise focused on the contact itself. However, the main focus of the present study was the underlying prevention strategy and the implementation of contact interventions. This was done in the context of planned face-to-face encounters between Jewish and Arab high school students in Israel. Purpose of Study: The aim of this study was to examine whether there is a unique embodiment of a social conflict in different subgroups of one prototypical social group. It has been suggested that one of the reasons for the failure of contact intervention programs is that they are usually based on a primary prevention strategy, which does not consider intragroup differences or developments over time. Population: The research sample consisted of 255 Israeli Jewish and Israeli Arab students who intended to participate in a peace education encounter program. Participants in the study were 17-year-old 11th-grade students from 12 classes--6 in Jewish high schools and 6 in Arab high schools. Research Design: Quantitative analysis was used to measure differences within and between groups at the onset of a contact intervention program. Data were collected at three waves (three different points in time). Each wave was held for a few days, usually within a week, before the onset of the planned encounters. In each wave, two schools, one Jewish and one Arab, were sampled. The waves were 2 months apart, so that all questionnaires were collected within a 6-month period. Findings: Results revealed significant differences within the subgroups in the perceptional and affective domains but not in variables indicating behavioral aspects of social relationships. Additional findings regarding differences between groups (majority and minority) suggested that the majority group was less negative toward the minority group than the minority group was toward the majority. Conclusions: Results suggest that although mutual relationships between groups are negatively based, they are neither stable nor monolithic. Within a social group, different subgroups hold and present different attitudes, perceptions, and feelings toward their counterparts. Therefore, peace education programs, and especially face-to-face contact intervention, should be based on secondary intervention strategies and not, as is often the case, on primary prevention strategies.
"DOD Combatant Command for Africa Created." Foreign Policy Bulletin 17, no. 3 (July 1, 2007): 132-134.
The Somali people and the international community have an historic opportunity to begin to move beyond two-decades of warlordism, extreme violence, and human suffering. As part of America's effort to help parties resolve the ongoing political and humanitarian crises in Somalia, it has dispatched Assistant Secretary for African Affairs Jendayi Frazer to the Horn of Africa region to meet with regional partners and Somali representatives to urge inclusive political dialogue, reconciliation to build a legitimate, functioning government that will serve all Somalis, and to move forward with the urgent deployment of a regional stabilization force (IGA-SOM). They will continue to work in the context of the Somalia Contact Group to mobilize the support of the international community in support of the Somali people.
"Is Israeli-Palestinian Peace Possible?" Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture 13, no. 4 (January 1, 2007): 112.
The featured guest speaker was Prof. Johan Galtung of Transcend, a Peace Development Network; founder of the Peace Research Institute, Oslo; and recipient of the 1987 Right Livelihood Award.
Anonymous, . "JOINT STATEMENT - UNITED STATES-PAKISTAN STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP." Pakistan Journal of American Studies 24, no. 1/2 (April 1, 2006): 143-148.
Peace and Security * Build a robust defense relationship that advances sharedsecurity goals, promotes regional stability, and contributes to international security. * Continue robust U.S. security assistance to meet Pakistan's legitimate defense needs and bolster its capabilities in the war on terror. * Deepen bilateral collaboration in the fields of defense training, joint exercises, defense procurement, technology transfers, and international peacekeeping. * Decide to increase the frequency of defense policy discussions to strengthen collaboration in the identified sectors. * Work together to ensure the maintenance of peace, security, and stability in the South Asia region and beyond. * Cooperate closely in international institutions, including bodies of the United Nations, on matters of mutual concern. Social Sector Development * Continue U.S. support in the health sector through collaborative projects and programs. * Reinforce Pakistan's efforts to reform and expand access to its public education through continuing U.S. cooperation. * Encourage educational programs and greater interaction and linkages between the research and academic institutions of the two countries. * Promote exchange of students and scholars, fellowship programs, and strengthened research collaboration, including through institutional support for higher education and training. * Establish a wide-ranging High Level Dialogue on Education to enhance and strengthen cooperation in the education sector.
Anonymous, . "Voices for Peace: Educators Respond to the Virginia Tech Shootings." Harvard Educational Review 77, no. 3 (October 1, 2007): 344-345.
Jing Lin draws our attention to the vicious cycle of hatred and aggression often perpetrated by adults and urges educators to break this cycle by moving away from a focus on consumerism and competition and toward a focus on love and wisdom, encouraging students to learn to see each other as connected by their common humanity. It will take time for our nation to fully respond to and understand the Virginia Tech incident and similar acts of violence, but we offer these essays to spark and continue conversations about how to create a culture of peace in educational settings.
Ashton, C.. "Using theory of change to enhance peace education evaluation." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 25, no. 1 (October 1, 2007): 39-53.
This article brings together concepts and practices from the fields of peace education, conflict resolution, and evaluation. It examines the implementation and evaluations of selected peace education programs conducted by UNICEF to determine if theories of change can be identified and to consider how theories of change may inform the design and evaluation of future peace education programs.
BAIESI, N., M. GIGLI, E. MONICELLI, and R. PELLIZZOLI. "Places of Memory as a Tool for Education: The Peace in Four Voices Summer Camps at Monte Sole." The Public Historian 30, no. 1 (February 1, 2008): 27-37.
This essay explores how a place of memory can be used as a crucial tool in peace education activities with students from elementary to high school. It draws on the work of the Peace School of Monte Sole and specifically focuses on the Peace in Four Voices summer camp, which brings together youth from conflict regions to foster a culture of peace. The camp is a major activity in the Peace School project, since it is from this ten-year-long experience that the idea of a Peace School was conceived of and developed.
Beal, F., and L. Ross. "Excerpts from the Voices of Feminism Oral History Project: Interview with Frances Beal." Meridians 8, no. 2 (July 1, 2008): 126-165.
In this oral history, Frances M. Beal describes her unique childhood as the daughter of parents of refugee Jewish, African American, and Native American descent. The interview focuses on her activism in the United States and in France, including founding the Women's Committee of SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee). Beal's story captures the challenges of anti-racist, anti-fascist, and anti-imperialist organizing with a gender perspective.
Conway, J., G. Roughead, and T. Allen. "A COOPERATIVE STRATEGY FOR 21ST CENTURY SEAPOWER." Naval War College Review 61, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 6-19.
Guided by the objectives articulated in the National Security Strategy, National Defense Strategy, National Military Strategy and the National Strategy for Maritime Security, the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard will act across the full range of military operations to secure the United States from direct attack; secure strategic access and retain global freedom of action; strengthen existing and emerging alliances and partnerships and establish favorable security conditions. Such operations require a broadly shared responsibility among: the on-scene commander responsible for ensuring actions are in accordance with the commander's intent; the higher commander responsible for providing intent and guidance to subordinates; the parent service of dispersed forces responsible for ensuring that units are trained, equipped, and culturally prepared for the missions they will undertake; and, finally, the regional commanders responsible for determining appropriate force levels and readiness postures.
Edyth Wheeler, and Aline Stomfay-Stitz. "Voices From the Field: Teachers Talk About Strategies for Peace and Conflict Resolution." Childhood Education 82, no. 3 (April 1, 2006): 162F,162M.
In a focus group with teachers in early childhood programs and elementary schools, we listened to the teachers' concerns and their descriptions of what they are doing for peacemaking and conflict resolution. E-mail and class Web pages (for the families with online access), frequent newsletters, and informal notes home in accessible home language can supplement the back-to-school nights and parent meetings. Routine times during the day can be opportunities for children to "share personal thoughts or stories and may generate ideas [about] a particular question such as, 'Our class puppet, Mombo, is having a hard time making new friends; does anyone have an idea about what he could do to make new friends?' Valuable class discussions and opportunities for character building take place at times like these."
Haavelsrud, M.. "Education, political socialization and extremism :[1]." . British Journal of Sociology of Education 30, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 113.
Haavelsrud reviews Educating again extremism by Lynn Davies and Making enemies: humiliation and international conflict by Evelin Lindner.
Hanley, D.. "The Shami Family: Turning Troubles into Triumphs." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 4 (May 1, 2008): 37-38.
Dr. Jamil Shami, who has earned degrees in journalism and psychology, as well as a Ph.D. in higher education administration and a post-doctorate master's degree in public health administration, is an educator and journalist, an expert in peace and conflict resolution, and founder of Arab-American Republicans of the Washington, DC Area. Believing that education was the best weapon his people could use to continue their resistance, Mohammed started an adult literacy program for men and women in the West Bank. Farouk's multimillion-dollar beauty industries now include environmentally friendly natural dyes, the "Bio Silk" range of hair products, CHI nail lacquer and ceramic-plated hair dryers, as well as curling irons and other hair care products.
Innocenti, R.. "The War Inside Books." Bookbird 47, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 27-31.
[...] it is extremely home to me that now an Italian publisher who wants to publish my work has to import it from abroad, instead of the other way round, as would be normal. [...] I cannot understand the reason why the Ministry of Education of the Italian Republic has decided to cancel the teaching of Modern and Contemporary History in elementary schools.
Jones, A.. "Curriculum and Civil Society in Afghanistan." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 113-122,167-168.
Although research has traditionally discussed the ways in which societies in conflict develop educational practices, only recently have scholars begun to examine the role of education in creating or sustaining conflict. In Afghanistan, changing regimes have had an impact on state-sanctioned curricula over the past fifty years, drastically altering the purpose and ideology of education. In this article, Adele Jones traces the changing nature of Afghan curricula since the 1960s, highlighting the conflict surrounding curricula during the Soviet regime. She posits that resistance to state-sanctioned curricula was seen as resistance to the state regime, often putting schools at the center of conflict. This continues today, as Taliban groups resist the Western-influenced curricula of modern Afghanistan. Jones argues that understanding this cycle of resistance is critical for Western agencies aiming to support educational efforts in the country.
Kopeliovich, S., and J. Kuriansky. "Journeys for Peace: A model of human rights education for young people in Mexico." Counselling Psychology Quarterly 22, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 69.
This paper describes the "Journeys for Peace" program a Mexico-based NGO that facilitates young people to get involved, and take a leadership role, in the agenda of world peace. Volunteers engage in activities that help them understand the importance of spreading messages of peace, and that support them to implement educational and artistic workshops and projects that benefit their school, local community and public in other parts of the world. Projects based on creative and expressive arts include painting, photography, music, theatre and publishing, and address topics of human rights, tolerance and non-violence. Signature activities include mini-parliaments debating issues like diversity, media responsibility and children's rights, and the "Condition for Peace" activity whereby participants pose a question about peace to special guests, including world leaders. The program has received extensive media coverage and recognition by universities and organizations worldwide, including the Clinton Global Initiative, and has collaborated with other peace initiatives.
Lin, J.. "Love, Peace, and Wisdom in Education: Transforming Education for Peace." Harvard Educational Review 77, no. 3 (October 1, 2007): 362-365,392.
A paradigm shift toward education for love, peace, and wisdom is called for in which teachers and administrators discuss what matters the most in our lives; and teachers and students look at what causes human suffering and what brings genuine happiness to our lives.\n Using examples in daily life, employing simulation, brainstorming and role-plays, students acquire the skills to seek alternatives to violence. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, United Nations peacekeeping efforts, and work by NGOs and countless individuals to prevent and divert wars and bring peace to regions and countries should be incorporated into the content of daily learning in schools.
Linda Hogan, and John D'Arcy May. "SOCIAL ETHICS IN WESTERN EUROPE." Theological Studies 68, no. 1 (March 1, 2007): 154-171.
The article highlights the distinctiveness of European social ethics by beginning with an analysis of how theological ethicists have engaged with "Europe" as both idea and political project. Themes discussed include the role of religion in the public square, pluralism, and the limits of tolerance and intercultural ethics. Also considered are ethical questions arising from Europe's power as a significant economic bloc, as well as ethical responses to war and other forms of political violence. The article concludes with a comment on method.
Mikayelyan, A., and G. Markosyan. "Peace and conflict resolution education in Armenia: The work of women for development." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 25, no. 1 (October 1, 2007): 101.
This article reports the goal, main strategy, realized activities, and implementation of Peace and Conflict Resolution Education in Schools of Gyumri, Armenia, a project from Women for Development, a nongovernmental organization. It summarizes the outcomes, effectiveness, and efficiency level of a peace education and conflict resolution education project in Armenia.
Stomfay-Stitz, A., and E. Wheeler. "Caring for Each Other in a Peace Club." Childhood Education 84, no. 1 (October 1, 2007): 30H,30I,30K.
A Decade of Peace: 2001-2010 Under the broad umbrella of the United Nations, an International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of the World was launched to include 200 countries around the world (UNESCO, 2000). Children in cooperative learning groups can create colorful posters that should be displayed throughout the school, sharing news of their class's Peace Club. Hopefully, these shared experiences may plant the seeds of acceptance for alternative ways to soothe hurt feelings and stop insults, put-downs, ridicule, and other degrees of cruelty that have become too commonplace and acceptable among today's children.
Ulrike Niens, Jacqueline Reilly, and Roisin McLaughlin. "The Need for Human Rights Education in Northern Ireland: A Pupil Survey." Peace & Conflict 12, no. 3 (January 1, 2006): 251-268.
Internationally, human rights education is seen as 1 way of promoting active citizenship and, ultimately, social justice and peace. For the past 30 years, Northern Ireland has been characterized by political conflict and community divisions. With the continuation of the peace process, human rights have been identified as an essential component of the efforts to improve community relations and to achieve a lasting peace. As part of its responsibilities, the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission is required to promote awareness and understanding of human rights through educational activities and the Bill of Rights in Schools Project. Results of a baseline survey of 580 pupils indicate that despite moderate levels of interest in human rights and confidence in engaging with human rights, knowledge of human rights is extremely low in Northern Ireland postprimary schoolchildren. These findings are discussed in relation to the clear need for specific human rights education in divided societies.
Yifat Biton, and Gavriel Salomon. "Peace in the Eyes of Israeli and Palestinian Youths: Effects of Collective Narratives and Peace Education Program." Journal of Peace Research 43, no. 2 (March 1, 2006): 167-180.
The authors studied the extent to which the collective narrative of a group in conflict and participation in a peace education program affects youngsters' perceptions of peace. Participants in the study were 565 Jewish Israeli and Palestinian adolescents, about half of whom participated in a year-long schoolbased program; the other half served as a control group. Pre- and post-program questionnaires measured youngsters' free associations to the concept of peace, their explanations of it, and its perceived utility, and suggested strategies to attain it. Initially, Israeli students stressed the negative aspects of peace (absence of violence) and Palestinians stressed its structural aspects (independence, equality). Unlike the controls, both Israeli and Palestinian program participants came to stress more the positive aspects of peace (cooperation, harmony) following participation in the program. Also, whereas the controls came to increasingly suggest war as a means to attain peace, possibly as a function of the ongoing mutual hostilities (intifada), no such change took place among program participants. Palestinian controls also manifested greater hatred towards Jews, but no change took place among program participants. That is, peace education can serve as a barrier against the deterioration of perceptions and feelings. It became evident that individuals’ perceptions of peace are differentially colored by their group's collective narratives and more immediate experiences of current events, but are significantly altered by participation in a peace education program.
Week of October 8-October 15, 2009 (Focus on Nobel Peace Prize and President Obama):
Eric Zorn. "Nobel dust-up not aimed at making peace." Chicago Tribune, October 13, 2009,
[...] a panel of five Norwegians decided Obama's rhetoric on international relations was a prize-worthy contribution to a more peaceful world.
Frank Munger. "OPINION: Munger: Once again, ORNL gets a piece of a Nobel Prize." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
Here's the history there: n Eugene Wigner, former ORNL research director (1946-47), won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physics. n Cliff Shull, who did some of his pioneering work in neutron-scattering at ORNL in the late 1940s and early 1950s, shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1994 for the development of the neutron diffraction technique. n Several ORNL scientists were among the many researchers who contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former U.S. Vice President Al Gore.
Clive Cookson. "Female laureates 'fabulous role models' but women still trail men." Financial Times, October 13, 2009,
This year's boost takes the total number of women who have won any of the six Nobel prizes to 40 - compared with 762 male winners. Although Marie Curie won the physics and chemistry prizes - in 1903 and 1911 respectively - the Nobels remained virtually a male preserve until after the second world war.
Nobel prizes - with occasional exceptions such as Barack Obama's peace prize - are a lagging indicator of achievement: the three physics laureates this year were honoured for discoveries in the 1960s. So there is expectation that women will make up a rising proportion of future laureates.
Girard J Fortin. "OBAMA AND THE PEACE PRIZE." Boston Globe, October 14, 2009,
The Nobel Peace Prize handed to our president brought back memories of my son's 0-11 baseball season and the shiny trophy that once stood on a shelf in his room.
Ken Buday. "OPINION: Decision on Nobel Peace Prize bombs." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
NASA said the idea behind the bombing -- sorry, Lunar Impact Mission -- was to create a debris cloud that could then be tested to determine if signs of water were present. Michael Vick? (OK, I know it's been a couple of years and Vick has paid his price and is out of jail, but he's still good for a cheap joke every now and then.) I think we've progressed from awarding peace prizes to people who actually do something to create peace and harmony in the world to awarding the prize to anyone who manages not to kick his cat in a year.
Lou Parris. "'One America'." Spartanburg Herald - Journal, October 15, 2009,
Might as well give the Heisman to the president. [...] more of the same Breaking News from Rutherfordton, N.C., resident Ken Staggs: The Norwegians nailed it when they placed Obama in the same company with Al Gore. Since Gore had to share his gift with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, it is only fitting that President Obama share his with the teleprompters.
REG HENRY. "OBAMA'S PEACE PRIZE NOT WORTH SUCH A FIGHT." Pittsburgh Post - Gazette, October 14, 2009,
[...] one of my favorite stories, perhaps apocryphal, concerns a pacifist who, while promoting the cause of peace at Speakers Corner in London's Hyde Park, stepped down from the podium to punch a particularly irritating heckler in the nose.
Rami G. Khouri. "OPINION: A prize for America's peace with itself." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
The Norman Rockwell Museum is a trip back into another time and mindset, the America of the 1920s to 1960s, when mostly white people lived in safe suburbs in secure, loving homes and went to war only occasionally and reluctantly, to save the world from tyranny.
"Amnesty International; Amnesty International Terrorism Expert to Attend Khadr Hearings at GITMO." Defense & Aerospace Week, October 21, 2009, 170.
Amnesty International is a Nobel Peace Prize-winning grassroots activist organization with more than 2.2 million supporters, activists and volunteers in more than 150 countries campaigning for human rights worldwide.
"Does Obama deserve peace prize?" Detroit News, October 13, 2009,
Awarding Obama this coveted prize is akin to designating the Pittsburgh Steelers the Super Bowl champions on the first game of the 2009-10 National Football League season.
"Nobel invests hope in leadership." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October2009 ***[insert pages]***
The committee's decision to bestow the Peace Prize on Mr. Obama indicates its hope and expectation that doing so will provide impetus to his and the international community's efforts to resolve those issues, especially nuclear disarmament and the fight against global warming.
"Obama a curious Peace Prize pick." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
The Nobel committee cited several aspects of Obama's advocacy, attaching, for example, "special importance to Obama's vision of and work for a world without nuclear weapons."
"FEW Congratulates President Obama on Nobel Peace Prize." PR Newswire 14 October 2009.
FEW is a private, non-profit organization founded in 1968 after Executive Order 11375 was issued that added sex discrimination to the list of prohibited discrimination in the federal government.
"Five female laureates in 2009 are 'fabulous role models'." Financial Times, October 13, 2009,
Nobel prizes - with occasional exceptions such as Barack Obama's peace prize - are a lagging indicator of achievement; the three physics laureates this year were honoured for discoveries in the 1960s. So there is expectation that women will make up a rising proportion of future laureates, just as they are penetrating the bastions of scientific achievement such as the US National Academy of Sciences.
"NOBEL JUDGES DEFEND OBAMA AWARD." St. Petersburg Times, October 14, 2009,
"Where do these people come from?" said panelist Aagot Valle, a left-wing Norwegian politician. "Of course, all arguments have to be considered seriously. I'm not afraid of a debate." The decision stunned even seasoned Nobel watchers. They hadn't expected [Barack Obama], who took office barely two weeks before the Feb. 1 nomination deadline, to be seriously considered until at least next year.
"Scrap the Nobel Peace Prize," foreign affairs commentator Bronwen Maddox wrote in the Times of London. "It's an embarrassment and even an impediment to peace. President Obama, in letting the committee award it to him, has made himself look vain, a fool and dangerously lost in his own mystique."
"Where do these people come from?" said panelist Aagot Valle, a left-wing Norwegian politician. "Of course, all arguments have to be considered seriously. I'm not afraid of a debate." The decision stunned even seasoned Nobel watchers. They hadn't expected Obama, who took office barely two weeks before the Feb. 1 nomination deadline, to be seriously considered until at least next year.
"Obama's Nobel Peace Prize Ignites an Unprecedented Uproar of Conflicting Popular Opinion at CafePress - A CafePress Cultural Barometer(TM) Report." Business Wire 14 October 2009.
In April of 2009 CafePress created the Cultural Barometer(TM) Report to share some of the more interesting, obscure, newsworthy, overwhelming, and just plain funny trends that come to our attention via the almighty T-shirt.
"Peace prize isnt about stopping war." Daily Herald, October 14, 2009,
Irans president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad could win the Nobel Peace Prize in an instant if he announced his god had told him not to eradicate Israel, or usher in Armageddon. But Ahmadinejad wont, because he is evil and must be defeated. Same with Osama bin Laden. The United Nations would welcome him as a speaker and the Nobel Committee would award him their top prize if he would announce he no longer believes in terrorism and has become a follower of the Dalai Lama or some other "acceptable" pseudo-deity. He also will do no such thing because he is evil and must be defeated.
The Nobel Committee believes George W. Bush is evil, but apparently not bin Laden or Ahmadinejad. It cringes at leaders who wish to overcome evil by force rather than have the forces of evil overcome them. The Nobel Committee hates Israel, too. And this is because its members, and like-minded male wimps around the world, idolize Michael J. Fox instead of John Wayne and find their role models in the liberal ladies of "The View," not in muscular characters like Jack Bauer (and Chloe, who gets it) on "24."
"REP. BERNICE JOHNSON ISSUES STATEMENT ON AWARDING OF NOBEL PEACE PRIZE TO PRESIDENT OBAMA." US Fed News Service, Including US State News, October 14, 2009,
"Russian commentator takes issue with opponents of Obama's Nobel prize." BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union 13 October 2009.
The first reason is the undoubted desire to support [Barack Obama] on his arduous way to the creation of a new world structure. Encumbered by domestic problems and an economic crisis, the US president's approval rating in the United States itself is falling. This considerably narrows the space for foreign-policy steps that are unpopular among "America's hawks", but extremely necessary for the entire world community. In awarding Obama the Peace Prize the Nobel Committee is on behalf of the entire world community extending to him, as it were, the hand of assistance and support. American foreign policy has in recent decades ultimately been so catastrophic for the entire rest of the world that this same world is prepared to thank the new president, as if per the well-known aphorism, "if only for being well-intentioned". It is extremely important for everyone at this time that Obama, beneath the burden of problems and attacks, not become disillusioned with his chosen policy.
The second reason is there for all to see also - the prize was given on the principle: "beggars can't be choosers". The Nobel Committee has in recent years wrestled each time not with an abundance of contenders but with the paucity of the "menu of nominees". Under conditions where tension is escalating in various parts of the world and the modus of peace is beneath the burden of economic, ethnic, and religious local conflicts and trouble spots on the point of being replaced by the modus of war, there are increasingly few politicians and public figures who are "peacemakers" and true democrats. As [Vladimir Putin] once put it: "Since Gandhi there has been no one." Our former president was laying it on a bit thick, of course. Gorbachev, Carter, and a couple of other peacemaking Nobel Prize winners are still in fine fettle. And he could perfectly well drink with them a cup of coffee over reminiscences of the "peace-loving" and "democratic" counterterrorist operations in Chechnya, and the latter could tell him about their similar experience in Afghanistan, Riga, and Iraq. But when the prize was conferred on the former winners, people closed their eyes to all this.
"Russian website sees "scandalous" Nobel award feeding Obama's "narcissism"." BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union 13 October 2009.
In his statement to the press [Barack Obama] said that he was "surprised and deeply humbled by the Nobel Committee's decision". He went on: "I do not view it as a recognition of my own accomplishments, but rather as an affirmation of American leadership on behalf of aspirations held by people in all nations. To be honest, I do not feel that I deserve to be in the company of so many of the transformative figures who've been honoured by this prize - men and women who've inspired me and inspired the entire world through their courageous pursuit of peace." At the same time, the President's entire demeanour and intonation demonstrated that he is by no means humbled. He enunciated the word in exactly the same tone of voice as a well-mannered gentleman would say "your humble servant," without the slightest suggestion of humility.
To a Russian reader's ear there is something painfully familiar about these words. "Here I stand before you, a woman beaten by her husband...." "I speak as a mother and as a woman...." But most of all these speeches call to mind the argument pursued by Mikhail Gorbachev when he declared that his grandfather had taken the socialist option, so all of us must choose socialism. The International Olympic Committee was supposed grant the Obamas' request out of respect for their life stories. The President's entourage does much to feed his conceit by relentlessly praising his every inclination. Just consider the impact of a comment made to Obama by Senate Democratic Leader Harry Reid following a White House conference held to discuss strategy in Afghanistan: "Whatever decision you make, Congress will support you." And they still say that Congress is not a rubber stamp, ready to endorse the President's decisions.
Editorial and op-ed reactions to President Obama winning the Nobel Peace Prize." Denver Post, October 13, 2009,
"UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA WILMINGTON SOCIOLOGY PROFESSOR OFFERS EXPERT COMMENTARY ON OBAMA'S NOBEL PEACE PRIZE." US Fed News Service, Including US State News, October 14, 2009,
"We should all say thanks for the Nobel Peace Prize." Daily Herald, October 14, 2009,
To a degree, [Barack Obama] has contributed to this perception. For a while, he went on an apology bender, expressing regret for U.S. unilateralism "We have at times been disengaged and at times sought to dictate our terms" as well as for being "too easily distracted" and for Americas "failure to appreciate Europes leading role in the world." (Apres the Congress of Vienna, evidence for the latter is lacking.) He even took responsibility for the American contribution to the worldwide economic crisis "even if I wasnt president at the time" implying that it wouldnt have happened on his watch.
"World and nation in 60 seconds The world The nation." Daily Herald, October 14, 2009,
OSLO One judge noted with surprise that President Barack Obama "didnt look particularly happy" at being named the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Another marveled at how critics could be so patronizing. In a rare public defense of a process normally shrouded in secrecy, four of the Nobel jurys five judges spoke out Tuesday about a selection they said was both merited and unanimous. To those who say a Nobel is too much too soon in Obamas young presidency, "We simply disagree ... He got the prize for what he has done," committee chairman Thorbjorn Jagland told The Associated Press by telephone from Strasbourg, France, where he was attending meetings of the Council of Europe.
"YOUR TURN-The Nobel Peace Prize." San Antonio Express-News, October 14, 2009,Your Saturday editorial, "[Barack Obama]'s peace prize premature," hit the nail on the head.
Anyone who believes in the myth of "the liberal media" should be disabused of that notion after reading the recent spate of anti-Obama editorial cartoons in the Express-News and especially the headline announcing his receipt of the Nobel Peace Prize ("Obama's gold medal could turn to brass").
If anyone questions whether Barack Obama deserves the Peace Prize, he beat them to it by saying that himself upfront. I refer critics to the committee chairman's explanation for the decision (and why Obama reluctantly accepted it) that Obama has already achieved a remarkable turnaround in international relations and hope for peace, and that the award was given as much in hope and encouragement that the United States will continue to move further to lead the world in those respects.
Ian MacDougall, and Karl Ritter. "Nobel panel defends decision :Says Obama deserves prize." Boston Globe, October 14, 2009,
The left-leaning committee whose members are appointed by the Norwegian Parliament lauded the change in global mood wrought by Obama's calls for peace and cooperation, and praised his pledges to reduce the world stock of nuclear arms, ease US conflicts with Muslim nations and strengthen the US role in combating climate change.
Ian MacDougall, and Karl Ritter. "Nobel panel issues rare defense of its selection :Peace Prize committee takes critics of Obama honor to task." Chicago Tribune, October 14, 2009,
Controversial awards include the 1994 prize shared by Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli leaders Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin for Mideast peace efforts, as well as the joint prize to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho for a 1973 cease-fire agreement.
Week of September 28-October 2 2009:
Arnaldi, J., and J. Hudson. "Teaching the Applied Ethics of War and Peace." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 493-503.
This article describes a course that critically explored the ethics of war and peace within the historical context of the War in Iraq. Education has a central role in preparing students to deal with the challenges of organized violence and human security. Because academic and policy discourse about the ethics of war is often abstract and impersonal, it can fail to address vital human interests. This course was designed to provide compelling content that included first-person, subjective perspectives on the costs of war in terms of human suffering. Undergraduate students enrolled in the course had limited knowledge of history and current events, so content had to provide reasonable historical context to enable meaningful discussion of ethical concepts.
Antonenko, O.. "War and Peace in the Caucasus: Russia's Troubled Frontier." . Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 181.
War and Peace in the Caucasus: Russia's Troubled Frontier by Vicken Cheterian is reviewed.
Bajaj, M., and B. Chiu. "Education for Sustainable Development as Peace Education." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 441-455.
This article examines the intersections among peace education and environmental education to understand how these commonalities frame education for sustainable development. The authors trace the intersection of the two disciplines and explore the role of the United Nations in promoting and empowering individuals with the values to advance the twin goals of peace and ecological sustainability. The paper profiles the United Nation's Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, particularly as formal education, nonformal learning channels, and popular culture have embraced the holistic notion of ecological responsibility, peace, and social justice.
Barnett, J.. "The prize of peace (is eternal vigilance): a cautionary editorial essay on climate geopolitics." Climatic Change 96, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 1-6.
The 2007 Nobel Prize has put peace on the agenda of climate science. At the same time heightened awareness about the dangers of climate change has resulted in a new discourse on climate wars which sustains some of the institutions at the heart of the problem, and which work more towards the cause of war than of peace. This discourse on climate conflicts might be less legitimate and tenable if climate change research did not actively or tacitly support it, were instead more critically engaged with it, and sought to advance understanding through rigorous, applied and critically aware social science.
Bechev, D.. "Extending the European Security Community: Constructing Peace in the Balkans." . Slavic Review 68, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 679.
Bechev reviews Extending the European Security Community: Constructing Peace in the Balkans by Emilian Kavalski.
Censer, J.. "North Carolinians in the Era of the Civil War and Reconstruction." . The Journal of American History 96, no. 2 (September 1, 2009): 562.
Manning's article on the North Carolina gubernatorial election of 1864 tries to square the popularity of the peace stance of the candidate William W. Holden (who looked to a negotiated end to the war) among Confederate soldiers in North Carolina with his overwhelming defeat. Challenging the commonly perceived public-private divide for women, she argues that the notion of "keeping the peace" had made black and white women familiar with the legal system and the local magistrates who were its representatives.
Cienciala, A.. "The Soviet-Polish Peace of 1921 and the Creation of Interwar Europe." . Slavic Review 68, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 667.
Cienciala reviews The Soviet-Polish Peace of 1921 and the Creation of Interwar Europe by Jerzy Borzecki.
DeBenedetti, C.. "Educators and Armaments in Cold War America." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 425-440.
This essay was written prior to the end of the Cold War. It may very well be the last scholarly essay that peace movement historian Charles DeBenedetti wrote prior to his death. Charles sent it to me in 1984, and for many years it was kept in one of my files. It is a historical commentary about the nuclear arms race based upon a thorough reading of education journals. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate that in the very early years of the Cold War educators paid particular attention to the militarization of society and the construction of weapons of mass destruction. What is most telling is that from 1945 to the early 1950s concerned teachers voiced their worries regarding a race between catastrophe and education. However, by 1953, educators had dropped out of the race, falling victim to McCarthyism and the national government's concern for civil defense. This scholarly article points out that educators had a responsibility to teach the public about the horrors of nuclear armaments as an overwhelming threat and danger to humankind, but failed to do so as prosperity and government pressure silenced their voices. By the time of Sputnik in 1957, DeBenedetti tells us, they considered "nuclear weaponry as the very symbol of the uncharted ocean that separated advancing scientific and technological revolutions from the hoary human politics that made for an intractable Cold War." How can educators today rekindle that awareness and replace complacency with determination? What historical lessons can peace educators today learn from DeBenedetti's research on peace educators of the Cold War period?
Fischer, R., and K. Hanke. "Are Societal Values Linked to Global Peace and Conflict?" Peace & Conflict 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 227.
This study examines the link between societal level values measured in student and teacher samples and the Global Peace Index (GPI). Consistent with predictions, strong and consistent correlations between harmony, hierarchy (negative), and intellectual autonomy were observed. Overall, an integrated set of values was systematically related to GPI. Effects remain strong and stable even when controlling for economic, societal, and political development and perceptions of corruption. Furthermore, evidence that values and societal developments interact in their relation with GPI was found. Implications for conflict management are discussed.
Franklin, C.. "The Promise of Hope: Creating a Classroom Peace Summit." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 533-547.
This article examines an innovative way to engage young adolescents in developing deep understandings of peace. Using an approach called curriculum drama , the class works together to construct a "World Peace Summit" within the classroom. This extended project creates a pedagogical bridge that links student interests and energies to curricular content and academic skills. It emboldens students to use the power of imagination and inquiry in their learning and creates situations for student leadership and peer collaboration. Challenged by the task of portraying a notable figure of peace and interacting with others within this context, students take ownership in researching a particular biography of an individual who participated in a social reform movement. Through this process, students get involved in conversations within the topic of peace and, through their character portrayal, they begin to walk in the shoes of another.
Harris, I.. "A Select Bibliography for Peace Education." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 571-576.
Peace education is an umbrella term for education about problems of violence and strategies for peace. This bibliography provides references for books about the following aspects of peace education: nonviolence, peace, peace education, historical aspects of peace advocates, peace organizations, peace movements, and war and violence. The bibliography omits, e.g., multicultural education, international education/global studies, and human rights education.
Hashemi, S., and M. Shahraray. "How Do Iranian Adolescents Think About Peace? A Study of the Perception of Female Secondary School Students and Their Families." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 249.
This research investigates the role of perception in the process of solving a peace problem. Data was gathered through a semi-structured interview with 18 Iranian female secondary school students and their parents. Findings indicated that the main conceptualizations of peace were serenity, security, and solidarity. With regard to the cause of war and ways to achieve peace, 2 students emphasized religious beliefs, and 4 pointed to the message of textbooks on identifying and fighting enemies. Eight students presented a global, comprehensive view, and did not consider peace as the absence of war. The remaining 4 students indicated no clear view in their causal explanations and solutions. In only five cases was there a relative convergence between students and their parents.
Herrmann, R., P. Isernia, and P. Segatti. "Attachment to the Nation and International Relations: Dimensions of Identity and Their Relationship to War and Peace." Political Psychology 30, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 721-754.
Since the rise of mass politics, the role national identities play in international relations has been debated. Do they produce a popular reservoir easily tapped for war or bestow dignity thereby fostering cooperation and a democratic peace? The evidence for either perspective is thin, beset by different conceptions of identity and few efforts to identify its effects independent of situational factors. Using data drawn from new national surveys in Italy and the United States, we advance a three-dimensional conception of national identity, theoretically connecting the dimensions to conflictive and cooperative dispositions as well as to decisions to cooperate with the United Nations in containing Iran's nuclear proliferation and Sudan's humanitarian crisis in Darfur. Attachment to the nation in Italy and the United States is found to associate with less support for militarist options and more support for international cooperation as liberal nationalists expect. This depends, however, on containing culturally exclusive conceptions of the nation and chauvinism.
Hostetter, D.. "Reflections on Peace and Solidarity in the Classroom." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 504-509.
Incorporating a peace perspective into teaching history requires hands-on activities that expose students to the craft of the historian. Research into the legacy of the Nobel Peace Prize, debates on issues of war and peace, and oral history interviews have proven to be productive methods for engaging students. Remaining open to the experiences of students themselves is essential to creating a classroom where students and teachers can learn about making peace.
Houghton, D.. "The Role of Self-Fulfilling and Self-Negating Prophecies in International Relations." International Studies Review 11, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 552-584.
As constructivists and other advocates of constitutive theories have often noted, the natural world is very different from the social one. Our ideas about the social world not only reflect that world, but help shape and create it; we are part of the reality we try to describe and explain, and we therefore have the potential to alter the reality a theory is merely intended to describe or explain. Our theories about the social world may thus become self-fulfilling prophecies or autogenetic in character, or they may self-negate. And yet while social constructivists often make this point in epistemological debates, there have been relatively few attempts so far to address its empirical implications. With that objective in mind, this paper examines two prominent IR theories--the democratic peace and the commercial peace--arguing that each has a self-fulfilling character rather than being true or false in any objective or timeless sense, as well as the potential of a currently self-negating thesis--the clash of civilizations--to become self-fulfilling; each theory is, to paraphrase the now time-honored expression, what the relevant actors make of it. The article also probes the processes by which theories become self-generating or self-negating. It is suggested that a number of frameworks developed outside political science--especially diffusion theory, memetics, social contagion theories, George Lakoff's metaphor-based model, Malcolm Gladwell's "Tipping Point" approach and social network analysis--may in combination help us understand both how political ideas spread through academic and policy communities and why particular ideas "win out" over others.
Howes, S., S. Gasper, and T. O'Connor. "Sharpening the Focus of OIG Evaluations to Further Enhance Accountability in the Peace Corps." The Journal of Government Financial Management 58, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 20-28.
Some agencies face greater challenges than others in meeting the legislative, regulatory and public drumbeat for accountability. Yet, with the right focus and energy, a path can be found. Witness the Peace Corps. Its noble mission, unique and changing environment, as well as ongoing turnover of both volunteers and managers, certainly present heavy-duty challenges to demonstrating accountability in a visible and convincing manner. But, despite these challenges, the Peace Corps' annual report for FY 2007 was awarded AGA's prestigious Certificate of Excellence in Accountability Reporting. Peace Corps officials have pursued further enhancements in performance measurement and reporting. On a parallel level, the Office of the Inspector General (OIG) has also acted to provide another -- and independent -- viewpoint on accountability by sharpening its approach to performing evaluations. In this spirit, the OIG at Peace Corps has "re-engineered" its approach to its evaluations, which they believe provide a critical component of assuring accountability to overall program effectiveness.
Joyce, A.. "EDITOR'S NOTE." Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): III,IV.
The historic accomplishment of the Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, brokered in 1 978 by President Jimmy Carter and a top-flight team headed by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, was still fresh, although Carter had left onice in 1981 under the cloud of the Iranian hostage crisis (see the review of Carter's We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land, page 166). There followed the suicide bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks, the rebuilding of the PLO inside and outside the Occupied Territories, the first intifada, the birth of Hamas, the Iraq war for Kuwait, the Madrid Conference, the Oslo Accords, peace processing (see the review of Martin Indyk's Innocent Abroad, page 164), abortive talks with Syria, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, failure at Camp David II, the Taba talks, the second intifida, 9/11, the second Iraq war, the second Lebanon war, the latest Arab Peace Initiative, and the war on Gaza - to mention only selected high and low points.
Laouris, Y., A. Erel, M. Michaelides, M. Damdelen, T. Taraszow, I. Dagli, R. Laouri, and A. Christakis. "Exploring Options for Enhancement of Social Dialogue Between the Turkish and Greek Communities in Cyprus Using the Structured Dialogic Design Process." Systemic Practice and Action Research 22, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 361-381.
This paper summarizes results of a co-laboratory that took place 33 months after the negative outcome of the referendum on the UN's proposal for the solution of the Cyprus problem, and which was a follow-up (3 months later) of a previous co-laboratory. The earlier co-laboratory explored factors contributing to the increasing gap between the two conflicting communities. The co-laboratory reported here engaged relevant stakeholders (peace pioneers, academics, business people, activists and others representing the Turkish and Greek speaking communities of Cyprus) to come up with options aiming to enhance the social dialogue between the two communities. The Structured Dialogic Design Process was used to structure 27 proposed options and develop an influence map. The deep drivers, i.e., most influential factors, determined decisions taken by the participating peace pioneers regarding their future interventions. The results are also discussed within the framework of current (analysis reflects the political situation during the period reported here) political developments.
Longo, M., and E. Lust. "The Case for Peace before Disarmament." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 127.
Scholars and policymakers often argue that armed groups must first lay down their weapons before peace and democracy can be achieved. The existence of armed groups is considered antithetical to sustain peace and democracy, where the legitimate use of force belongs solely to the state. Here, Long and Lust shares their arguments regarding the insistence of disarmament as precondition to peace negotiations.
Maney, G., L. Woehrle, and P. Coy. "Ideological Consistency and Contextual Adaptation: U.S. Peace Movement Emotional Work Before and After 9/11." The American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 114.
The authors examine how the U.S. peace movement responded to the Bush administration's attempts to generate and capitalize on a heightened sense of threat after the 9/11 attacks. Longitudinal analysis of statements by U.S. peace movement organizations issued before and after 9/11 indicates that the movement's discourse is both ideologically consistent and contextually adaptive. In each period, movement discourse highlighted the U.S. government as a source of threat and people living outside of the United States as the targets of that threat. Nonetheless, the movement's discourse changed significantly in the exacerbated climate of fear in the first 4 months after the 9/11 attacks and then began to revert to pre-9/11 patterns during the Iraq War when the salience of threat declined. This research significantly advances knowledge of social movement discourse by establishing that ideological consistency and contextual adaptation are not mutually exclusive, by highlighting the contextual and dialogical factors that encourage certain types of movement responses to dominant discourses, and by explaining the role of emotional work in mobilizing dissent.
Marion, M., J. Rousseau, and K. Gollin. "Connecting Our Villages: The Afghan Sister Schools Project at the Carolina Friends School." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 548-570.
The Carolina Friends School has sustained a peace education effort grounded in a sister-school relationship with a school in rural Afghanistan since 2002. Activities at this Quaker school involve students from preschool through high school in pen pal friendships, ten-day diary exchanges, peace-quilt exchanges, fund-raisers, and a variety of in-class programs about Islam and Afghan culture. Funds have been used in Afghanistan to furnish classrooms, equip playgrounds, and support teacher training. The project aims to educate students about cultural differences underlying conflict in the world and to seek a more peaceful world through building relationships among the sister-school students.
Mattes, M., and B. Savun. "Fostering Peace After Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design." International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 737.
Lasting peace after civil war is difficult to establish. One promising way to ensure durable peace is by carefully designing civil war settlements. We use a single theoretical model to integrate existing work on civil war agreement design and to identify additional agreement provisions that should be particularly successful at bringing about enduring peace. We make use of the bargaining model of war which points to commitment problems as a central explanation for civil war. We argue that two types of provisions should mitigate commitment problems: fear-reducing and cost-increasing provisions. Fear-reducing provisions such as third-party guarantees and power-sharing alleviate the belligerents' concerns about opportunism by the other side. Provisions such as the separation of forces make the resumption of hostilities undesirable by increasing the costs of further fighting. Using newly expanded data on civil war agreements between 1945 and 2005, we demonstrate that cost-increasing provisions indeed reduce the chance of civil war recurrence. We also identify political power-sharing as the most promising fear-reducing provision.
Mingol, I.. "Coeducation: Teaching Peace from a Gender Perspective." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 456-470.
When analyzing peace education through a historical lens we should be sensitive to the gender dimension. Not only should we include critical analysis of the subordination of women and the denial of their rights throughout history, but we should also be sensitive to the way in which the educational system has recognized or denied women's historical legacy as caregivers and peace workers. In this article, the author analyzes care ethics as a key issue to explain the relationship between women and peace. Caring becomes a source of peace by enhancing such values as patience, responsibility, commitment, and tenderness. The historical evolution of the educational system in Spain from segregated schools to mixed schools and coeducative schools is analyzed to propose the inclusion of caring as part of a peace education curriculum. The aim is to generalize caring as a peaceful human value, not just a part of women's roles.
Morgan, B., and S. Vandrick. "Imagining a Peace Curriculum: What Second-Language Education Brings to the Table." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 510-532.
Just as peace and justice studies contributes much to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, the reverse is also true: second-language classes are particularly rich sites to explore diverse notions of the common good and implications for peace and war. Because of the intercultural interactions in such classrooms, and because such classes focus on language and communication, these settings offer unique opportunities to develop pedagogies addressing interethnic conflict and the dehumanizing language and images that promote it. English as a Second Language classrooms are productive settings for the telling of stories that counter official ones. Here we focus on critical pedagogies and curricula in two classroom settings. In the first, a class including Muslim students employs a critical media literacy perspective to investigate post-September 11th biases against Muslims. In the second, students read literature related to war and peace, examine its language, and make connections with their own stories and identities.
Neely, A., B. Barger, L. Bercaw, M. Espinosa, M. Hundley, A. Iddings, and R. Smith. "Peace, Locomotion.” Language Arts 87, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 77.
Peace, Locomotion Written by Jacqueline Woodson G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2009, 136 pp., ISBN 978-0-399-24655-5 Peace, Locomotion is a thoughtful companion text to Woodson's National Book Award Finalist, Locomotion.
Orwin, D.. "Turgenev and Russian Culture: Essays to Honour Richard Peace." . Slavic Review 68, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 707.
Orwin reviews Turgenev and Russian Culture: Essays to Honour Richard Peace edited by Joe Andrew, Derek Offord, and Robert Reid.
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Shinar, D.. "Can Peace Journalism Make Progress?: The Coverage of the 2006 Lebanon War in Canadian and Israeli Media." The International Communication Gazette 71, no. 6 (October 1, 2009): 451.
Johan Galtung's criticisms in the 1970s of media representations that glamorize war evolved as the peace journalism alternative approach. Since then, peace journalism has developed into a philosophical framework and an arsenal of framing techniques, but has been criticized for conceptual and practical weaknesses, and the need to strengthen its methodology, conceptual framework and empirical validation. This study of the 2006 Lebanon War press coverage in Canada and Israel aims at contributing to the empirical dimension. Stories published on and during the war by the Canadian Toronto Sun and the Israeli Yediot Aharonot were content analysed according to criteria adapted from the literature. General findings demonstrate an expected tendency towards 'war journalism'. Comparative findings for each newspaper, however, show that peace journalism is not entirely disregarded. While the study indicates both the salience and the resilience of war journalism, it also concludes that there are opportunities for the advancement of peace journalism and professional practices that could be adopted to achieve this.
Souaré, I.. "The International Criminal Court and African Conflicts: The Case of Uganda." Review of African Political Economy 36, no. 121 (September 1, 2009): 369.
For more than two decades, the rebel Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) has been committing some of the most appalling human rights violations and war crimes against civilian populations in northern Uganda. The Ugandan Government has been unable to defeat the rebel movement and effectively protect the civilian populations from its carnage. This situation led the government to pass the Amnesty Act of 2000 in a bid to entice the group's leaders to end the fighting. Subsequently, the International Criminal Court (ICC), at the request of the Ugandan Government, issued arrest warrants in 2005 for the five main leaders of the movement, a move regarded by some as the main stumbling block to peace in Uganda, as the rebels are insisting on the annulment of these warrants before they can sign a definitive peace agreement. This article examines the dilemma that this situation seems to have created in the peace process in Uganda. It concludes that the ICC should be firm in combating impunity, but flexible in accepting other alternatives to attributive justice whenever necessitated by the situation, as its own statute acknowledges.
Ward, V.. "Conflicts of Interest: Plasticity of Peace Tourism and the 21st Century Nation." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 8, no. 2/3 (April 1, 2009): 414.
Peace tourism is a holistic, multi-dimensional phenomenon that intersects natural, social, economic, political and spiritual systems. This paper analyzes the dynamic construct of nation through five study questions, two theoretical frameworks, and three cases demonstrating the impact of varied applications of peace tourism on quality-of-life in different regions of the world.
Week of September 17-September 24, 2009 (Focus on Nuclear Disarmament and Arms Control):
Acton, J.. "Nuclear Power, Disarmament and Technological Restraint." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 101.
There is a growing consensus that if key non-nuclear-weapons states are to be persuaded to strengthen the non-proliferation regime, nuclear-weapons states must start to live up to their commitment to work in good faith towards the elimination of such weapons. Here, Acton discusses the strategies and measures taken by states for abolishing nuclear weapons. These measures include placing all sensitive nuclear activities under multinational control and constructing the nuclear industry around less proliferation-sensitive technologies.
Andelman, D., and B. Pauker. "Back from the Brink: A Talk with Hans Blix." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 15.
Andelman and Pauker interview Hans Blix, a Swedish diplomat, about the issue on whether it is realistic to move toward a world of zero nuclear weapons. Among other things, Blix talks about the role of verification in assuring a peaceful world that is free from the threat of the use of nuclear weapons.
Andelman, D.. "Onward to Armageddon?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 115.
Andelman points out that the Americans believe in the sanctity of their nuclear deterrent, in part, because it is the only ultimate guarantor of their survival. But when they dig down another layer or two or three, they find an even more powerful and fundamental belief: that their survival is essential, not because of Radina, religion, or security, but rather because they see themselves as the standard bearers of democracy, freedom, and civil rights--and it is their duty, their destiny, to spread this to the rest of the world.
Anonymous, . "Armageddon's Shadow." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 1.
The legitimacy of nuclear power--and its obvious benefits when used peacefully for the betterment of mankind as a clean, carbon-free fuel, as a treatment for cancer and other horrific diseases--is largely unquestioned. But with the spread of these benefits comes the danger of diversion. "Zero," a world free from nuclear weapons, while a commendable goal, is unlikely to be a realistic scenario. Yet the proliferation of weapons is a slippery slope. Here, the perspective of nuclear powers, nuclear aspirants, and those who truly live in the shadow of Armageddon are explored.
Anonymous, . "By the Numbers." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 4.
Trends in Military Expenditures* $1,464 Billion Total world military expenditures in 2008 $607 Billion Total U.S. military expenditures in 2008 67% Increase in U.S. military expenditures since 1998** $85 Billion Total Chinese military expenditures in 2008 230% Increase in Chinese military expenditures since 1998** $66 Billion Total French military expenditures in 2008 4% Increase in French military expenditures since 1998** $65 Billion Total British military expenditures in 2008 20% Increase in British military expenditures since 1998** *Military expenditures include all current and capitel expenditures on personnel, procurement, operations, maintenance, and research and development for armed forces, defense ministries, and military space activities.
Anonymous, . "Conventional Arming and Disarming." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 5.
The U. S. -owned, Russian-built, mediumweight helicopters were requested by the Pakistani government and will be used to support operations against "militant extremists" and to provide humanitarian assistance to Pakistanis displaced by fighting, according to a June 11 article by the U.S. Department of Defense's American Forces Press Service.
Anonymous, . "Dangerous nuclear whispers." Nature 461, no. 7260 (September 3, 2009): 11.
For the United States to be developing a new warhead during this period would look to other nations like rank hypocrisy. [...] the replacement programme's very conceit, that existing warheads may not be reliable for much longer, will probably fuel conservative resistance to ratification of the CTBT.
Crail, P.. "IAEA Finds Uranium at Second Syrian Site." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 39-40.
According to the source, Syria said the IAEA would be expected to pick up activity from such renewed use. According to the June 5 report, Damascus told the IAEA that the pumping station was used for civil water purification.
Ensign, E.. "GAO Finds Gap in U.S. Export Controls." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 35-36.
According to the report, seven of the 12 types of sensitive dualuse and military items obtained during the investigation have previously been the focus of criminal indictments and convictions for violations of export control laws. At the confirmation hearing of Rep. Ellen Tauscher (D-Calif.), whose nomination to be undersecretary of state for arms control and international security was approved by the Senate June 25, Sen. Benjamin Cardin (D-Md.) expressed such concerns. Because "a lot of technological growth is international," companies would suffer if they "are prohibited from being engaged internationally," he said.
Erickson, E., and D. Horner. "Editor's NOTE." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 2.
According to Rolf Mowatt-Larssen, growing extremism, an expanding nuclear portfolio, and continuing instability challenge Pakistan's ability to protect its nuclear arsenal.
Etzioni, A.. "Zero is the Wrong Number." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 5.
Pres Barack Obama's strategy calls for leading by example in dealing with the weapons of mass destruction. It assumes that after the US and Russia re-commit themselves to nuclear disarmament, other nations will be inspired either to give up their nuclear arms or refrain from acquiring them. This goal, referred as the "zero strategy" (for zero nuclear weapons), is dangerous if implemented, distracts the international community from more certain and pressing goals, and is extremely unlikely to move those who do need to be inspired, cajoled, or otherwise made to forgo nuclear arms. Here, Etzioni stresses that if zero is indeed the goal of the Obama administration, it is a dangerous notion unless it is preceded by radical changes in the ways the world is governed.
Farrelly, N.. "'AK47/M16 Rifle - Rs. 15,000 each': what price peace on the Indo-Burmese frontier?" Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 283.
One of the key tools for achieving India's stated ambition of stopping national fragmentation in the Northeast is the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (1958) (AFSPA). This article assesses Indian Government efforts to manage the parts of the Indo-Burmese borderlands that are subject to this law. It compares the approaches of governments on the Burmese and Indian sides of the frontier and interrogates the financial incentives that complement security policies in their shared borderlands. Economic incentives for ceasefire and disarmament are, I argue, part of a portfolio of pacification and reintegration strategies that are premised on the controlled ambiguities of the borderlands. As such, I argue that the impunities allegedly at the heart of the AFSPA are matched by the freedom of the Indian Government to funnel resources into paying off its enemies. In the Indian case, the wider environment in which the AFSPA is implemented cannot be ignored if a full analysis of its 50 years of operation is to be offered. The implementation of surrender agreements in the ambiguous space of the Indo-Burmese borderlands exemplifies how the Indian Government has prioritised national cohesion above legal, political or economic consistency. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Fitzpatrick, M.. "Stopping Nuclear North Korea." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 5.
Following North Korean missile and nuclear tests and a series of other belligerent actions and threats, tensions on the peninsula have entered a dangerous phase. Demanding to be recognized as nuclear-armed and focused on leadership succession, Pyongyang seems no longer to be using brinksmanship for negotiation leverage. In response, the US and its Asian allies have signaled that North Korea cannot expect business as usual. Here, Fitzpatrick elaborates that there is a heightened potential for regional conflict and global repercussions if the wrong precedent are set by, for example, acquiescing to the North's nuclear rule-breaking.
Horner, D.. "Accord on New Rules Eludes Nuclear Suppliers." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 29-30.
According to a former U.S. diplomat, some European countries expressed concern that the arrangement would impose additional restrictions on their access to enrichment technology if they one day joined Urenco, the British-Dutch-German enrichment consortium. According to the NSG's Web site, the consultative group is the NSG's "standing intersessional working body."
Karpin, M.. "Deep in the Basement: Israel's Harmonious Nuclear Ambiguity." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 31.
Today, Israel is the only country outside of the great powers whose right to possess a doomsday weapon is accepted by the world's most influential countries. Unlike Pakistan, India, and North Korea, Israel has not been asked to give up its nuclear capability or bare its programs to the world's scrutiny. No major power has censured Israel for producing the ultimate weapon, nor has it been threatened by the United Nations with sanctions. Here, Karpin examines how Israel became the Middle East's only nuclear power and succeeded in keeping its atomic program secret.
Khan, F.. "Nuclear Security in Pakistan: Separating Myth From Reality." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 12-20.
The United States and Pakistan never saw eye to eye with regard to the latter's nuclear ambitions. Since the mid-1970s, every effort the United States undertook to block, stymie, and dissuade Pakistan eventually failed to stop Pakistan in its quest to acquire a nuclear deterrent.12 The story of Pakistan's clandestine means of acquisition is widely known,13 but less is known about the context, which involves domestic national politics, regional secu- rity, and intense geopolitical engagement with the United States.14 By the turn of the century, the U.S. policy of rolling back Pakistan's nuclear capability had be- come an unrealistic objective.
Kramer, D.. "Obama and Medvedev set new limits on nuclear arsenals; further cuts likely." Physics Today 62, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 18.
US Pres Barack Obama and Russian Pres Dmitry Medvedev apparently did not allow the recently strained relations between the two nations to impede progress on reducing the numbers of nuclear weapons in their arsenals. But the cutbacks that the two leaders agreed to at their meeting last month in Moscow were modest, and many observers expect larger reductions to come, perhaps as soon as next year.
Lindsey, E.. "MDA Tests Laser Amid Budget Cutbacks." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 36.
According to the press release, the MDA plans to continue testing the tracking system against progressively more difficult targets before carrying out a complete demonstration later this year, when the ABL system will track and destroy a ballistic missile in boost phase. Current programs focus on better-understood technology, such as the AEGIS ballistic missile defense system, a sea-based system that targets missiles during the ascent and descent portions of the midcourse phase, and the land-based Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system, which can intercept missiles in their terminal phase as they re-enter the atmosphere.
Longo, M., and E. Lust. "The Case for Peace before Disarmament." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 127.
Scholars and policymakers often argue that armed groups must first lay down their weapons before peace and democracy can be achieved. The existence of armed groups is considered antithetical to sustain peace and democracy, where the legitimate use of force belongs solely to the state. Here, Long and Lust shares their arguments regarding the insistence of disarmament as precondition to peace negotiations.
McCain, J.. "Notable Quotable." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 4.
Speaking before the Japanese Diet on November 1 1, 1983, President Ronald Reagan said, 'The only value in possessing nuclear weapons is to make sure they can't be used ever.
Mowatt-Larssen, R.. "Nuclear Security in Pakistan: Reducing the Risks of Nuclear Terrorism." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 6-11.
[...] a terrorist group would improvise a nuclear device or essentially build a crude nuclear bomb, one that has a low yield and may be unpredictable, inefficient, and unsafe in comparison with the complicated weapons systems in a national nuclear arsenal. [...] Pakistan should receive high-level reassurances concerning U.S. nonintervention in a crisis, possible means of assistance, and so on. [...] senior officials in both countries should agree to pursue specific joint actions and special communications mechanisms to be activated during a crisis, such as responses to a stolen or missing nuclear weapon or takeover of a nuclear facility.
Ramberg, B.. "Living with Nuclear North Korea." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 13.
North Korea's Oct 2008 agreement to open all declared nuclear sites to inspection by the International Atomic Energy Agency as a quid pro quo for its removal from the list of state sponsors of terrorism marked a high point for Pres George W. Bush's foreign policy. But even before Pyongyang began to abandon verification, Kim Jong II had outmaneuvered Bush by building and testing a nuclear device. Here, Ramberg emphasizes how the recent May 2009 nuclear detonation should put an end to the disarmament illusion, at least as long as the Kim regime remains in power. According to him, the time has come for Washington to stop trying to force Pyongyang to disarm and to recognize that nuclear non-proliferation is not an end in itself. Rather, it is only one means to prevent the use of atomic weapons, the ultimate objective.
Tamamoto, M.. "The Emperor's New Clothes: Can Japan Live Without the Bomb?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 63.
Clearly, a world free of nuclear weapons is a step-by-step process. It will take many years for the US and Russia--not to mention China or North Korea--to decommission their arsenals. But politicians in Japan fear, for the first time, that these moves are likely to cloud the clarity of America's commitment to defend the nation. Japan, which has foresworn offensive military capability since World War II and remains so reliant on a foreign protector, is deeply fearful of abandonment. Here, Tamamoto looks at whether Japan can live without nuclear weapons.
Tertrais, B.. "The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and its Proliferation/The Bomb: A New History." Review. Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 169.
Tertrais reviews The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and its Proliferation by Thomas C. Reed and Danny B. Stillman and The Bomb: A New History. by Stephen M. Younger.
Tertrais, B.. "Thinking About Nuclear Weapons: Principles, Problems, Prospects." Review. Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 167.
Tertrais reviews Thinking About Nuclear Weapons: Principles, Problems, Prospects by Michael Quinlan.
Thielmann, G.. "Looking Back: The National Missile Defense Act of 1999." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 45-48.
[...] China and Russia have increased the quality and, in the case of China, the quantity, of their strategic ballistic missile forces in response to U.S. missile defense programs. Following the superficial log- ic of the act, the United States discarded the ABM Treaty even though most of the U.S. missile defense activities that have taken place between then and now could have been accommodated under the broad con- ceptual framework of the treaty. [...] the United States rushed to deploy defenses against the rogue-state ICBM missile threat before that threat materialized and before U.S. defensive systems had been adequately tested.
Zhang, H.. "Ending North Korea's Nuclear Ambitions: The Need for Stronger Chinese Action." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 21-27.
According to media reports, Beijing was informed by Pyongyang less than half an hour in advance of the explosion and was greatly angered and offended by the test because it blatantly disregarded China's calls for denuclearization. North Korea's nuclear and missile development provides a pretext for Japan to accelerate deployment of a joint U.S.-Japanese missile defense shield, which could mitigate China's nuclear deterrent. [...] a worsening crisis would generate a massive flow of North Korean refugees headed for China.
Twigge, S.. "Operation Hullabaloo: Henry Kissinger, British Diplomacy, and the Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War*." Diplomatic History 33, no. 4 (September 1, 2009): 689-701.
Twigge examines the British role in the 1973 US-Soviet Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War. Although their involvement was not known at the time, British officials were central to the negotiations and even drafted large portions of the treaty.
Week of September 10-September 17, 2009 (Focus on the United Nations):
Anderson, K.. "United Nations Collective Security and the United States Security Guarantee in an Age of Rising Multipolarity: The Security Council as the Talking Shop of the Nations." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 55-90.
Other institutions are also taking note of the possible shifts and are responding. [...] the recent and quite remarkable European Court of Justice ("ECJ") ruling that, the Charter notwithstanding, the Security Council's resolutions under its binding power are not binding after all and subject to the rulings of institutions such as the ECJ itself.62 One may safely expect that a Security Council more driven by competitive Great Power politics will generate more, and more insistent, legal reconstructions from without, aimed at showing that the Security Council does not have the final juridical word in international peace and security, after all.
Anonymous. "David Killion Nominated as U.S. Ambassador to UNESCO." International Educator 18, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 10.
David Killion, who served as a senior professional staff member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee and was the committees leading expert on international organizations and State Department operations, was nominated this summer to the post of U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), with the rank of ambassador.
Akseli, O.. "THE CISG AND ITS IMPACT ON NATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEMS." Review The Journal of Business Law no. 6 (August 20, 2009): 630.
Ammar, N.. "The Relationship Between Street Children and the Justice System in Egypt." International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 53, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 556.
This article examines the relationship between street children and the justice system in Egypt. After introducing the context of street children in the Egyptian case, it explores whether the justice system exacerbates the problem of street children and whether its potential to play a positive part in alleviating the problem should be revisited. The article then explores the basis for the negative perspective on the role of the justice system and the steps required to improve its role in solving the problem of the increasing number of street children. It concludes with a three-pronged approach for the Egyptian justice system to adopt to effectively address the problem of street children. The article is based on an existing knowledge base that is scattered in small-sample empirical studies, large-scale surveys, United Nations reports, newspapers, and a few academic articles written in both English and Arabic.
The CISG and its Impact on National Legal Systems, edited by Franco Ferrari, is reviewed.
Bauer, J.. "Unlocking Russian Interests on the Korean Peninsula." Parameters 39, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 52-62.
[...] there is reason to believe that the two neighbors now share little in common. When North Korea conducted ballistic missile and underground nuclear tests in 2006, Russia responded by supporting United Nations Security Council resolutions 1695 and 1718, condemning both events.6 Six months later, Vladimir Putin demonstrated even further disapproval by signing a decree prohibiting Russian government agencies and commercial ventures from exporting or transporting military hardware, equipment, materiel, or technical assistance that could be used in any of North Korea's weapons programs. 7 Russian actions have shown that their desire for relations with North Korea does not eclipse their other, more compelling security interests.
Beaulier, S., J. Hall, and B. VanMetre. "THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION SHOW THE NEED FOR DIRECT TAXATION? IT JUST AIN'T SO!" Economic Affairs 29, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 93-94.
Historians and economists often refer to the United States experience under the Articles of Confederation as evidence against decentralised government finance. While it is true that the US government had difficulty raising money from the states during this period, we argue that these facts are a benefit of the system, not a flaw. A 'bottom-up' system of finance, such as the one that existed under the Articles of Confederation, is an important check on Leviathan and has implications for United Nations fund-raising efforts and development economics.
Bolton, J.. "Time to Test North Korea." New Perspectives Quarterly 26, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 66.
An interview with John Bolton, a former US undersecretary of state for arms control and international security affairs and former US ambassador to the United Nations regarding North Korea's nuclear test in late May 2009 is presented. Among other things, he shares his views on whether the Chinese' and the Russians' harsh condemnation of the nuclear test makes any difference at all.
Cajal, M.. "The Alliance of Civilizations: A Spanish View." Insight Turkey 11, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 45-55.
In the foreseeable future, the international system will become one of multipolarity. This new order can be sustainable and peaceful only if it can guarantee harmony and a common purpose among nations. To that end, it must be based upon a package of ethical principles under the aegis of a more powerful, democratic and efficient United Nations system. These principles - democracy, multilateralism, full compliance with international law and respect for human rights - are the same moral rules that underpin the Alliance of Civilizations project as initiated by Spain and Turkey. It was a consequence of the awareness that something new had to be done to prevent a potential confrontation between two worlds, two mindsets. There was, and still is, a danger of a further drift between Islamic and Western societies that might threaten international peace and stability.
Capling, A., and R. Higgott. "Introduction: The Future of the Multilateral Trade System-What Role for the World Trade Organization?" Global Governance 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 313-325.
Global governance through multilateral institutions has fallen on hard times in the twenty-first century. Whereas intergovernmental multilaterialism was the dominant form of international collective action in the second half of the twentieth century, today international cooperation through multilateral institutions is facing severe challenges. Over the past five years or so, contributors to global governance have grappled with these difficulties, particularly in relation to the problems confronting the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the United Nations and its associated bodies. Here, Capling and Higgott seek to contribute to the ongoing debates through an examination of the World Trade Organization and the future of the multilateral trade system.
Carter, M.. "Response to Tavin's "The Magical Quality of Aesthetics"." Studies in Art Education 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 400-404.
In this commentary, I argue that Kevin Tavin's (2008) use of Lacan's objet a in his Studies in Art Education commentary "The Magical Quality of Aesthetics" is not a helpful analogy or solution for art education's search for the role of aesthetics. I offer that a pragmatist and dialogic viewpoint may be more useful and, because it describes the phenomenological experience of meaning and value, I also suggest it as a way of viewing aesthetics itself. This argument is supported with two examples: the covering of the Guernica tapestry at the United Nations during Colin Powell's presentation in 2003, and Darryl McDaniels' (co-founder of Run-D.M.C.) experience with Sara McLachlan's song "In the Arms of an Angel."
Chai, M.. "Golden Bones: An Extraordinary Journey from Hell in Cambodia to a New Life in America." Review Asian Affairs, an American Review 36, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 98-99.
After a brief stint in a refugee camp in Thailand, Siv found a sponsor in the United States, worked temporarily as a taxicab driver in New York, attended a master's degree program at Columbia University, and eventually become the first Cambodian-American to be appointed U.S. ambassador to the United Nations. In another society, in any other time period, Siv's descriptions of his education, training as a flight attendant, family gatherings, weddings, and career aspirations might seem mundane.
Cheng, S., and B. Siankam. "The Impacts of the HIV/AIDS Pandemic and Socioeconomic Development on the Living Arrangements of Older Persons in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Country-Level Analysis." American Journal of Community Psychology 44, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 136-147.
This study investigates whether socioeconomic development and the HIV/AIDS pandemic are associated with living arrangement patterns in older persons in 23 sub-Saharan African countries. Country-level aggregate data were taken from previous household surveys and information provided by the United Nations, the World Bank, and the World Health Organization. Results showed that 13.5% of older persons (aged 60 years or over) were living with grandchildren but not adult children (i.e., skipped generation households). Countries higher in HIV/AIDS prevalence had more skipped generation households, and also more older persons living with spouse only and fewer older persons living with other relatives. Countries with higher socioeconomic development had fewer older persons living with children younger than 25 years old and more living with spouse only or with other relatives and unrelated persons. The pandemic and socioeconomic development combine to accelerate the breakdown of the extended family structure so that older persons are less and less likely to reside with, and to receive support from, their children. Cheng, S., and K. Heller. "Global Aging: Challenges for Community Psychology." American Journal of Community Psychology 44, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 161-163. Older persons are among the major marginalized, disenfranchised citizens worldwide, yet this group has generally been ignored in the community psychology literature. In this paper, we trace the demographic trends in aging worldwide, and draw the field's attention to the United Nations Program on Aging, which structures its policy recommendations in terms of concepts that are familiar to community psychologists. A central theme of the paper is that community psychology can have a role in producing the conceptual shifts needed to change societal attitudes now dominated by negative age stereotypes.
Older persons are among the major marginalized, disenfranchised citizens worldwide, yet this group has generally been ignored in the community psychology literature. In this paper, we trace the demographic trends in aging worldwide, and draw the field's attention to the United Nations Program on Aging, which structures its policy recommendations in terms of concepts that are familiar to community psychologists. A central theme of the paper is that community psychology can have a role in producing the conceptual shifts needed to change societal attitudes now dominated by negative age stereotypes. Clifford, J.. "New Heavens: My Life as a Fighter Pilot and a Founder of the Israel Air Force." Review Air & Space Power Journal 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 115-116. On one mission, he was shot down over the Adriatic, but a US Army PBY (patrol bomber) plucked him out of the freezing water in a daring rescue. After the United Nations mandate of 1 948, which created an independent Israel, he became one of the founding members of the new air force, serving as an Israeli pilot and eventually retiring with the rank of colonel.
Dolsak, N.. "Climate Change Policy Implementation: A Cross-Sectional Analysis." Review of Policy Research 26, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 551-570.
Why would countries invest resources to protect the global atmosphere, a global common-pool resource? After all, this is an open-access resource with no restrictions on appropriating its benefits. Furthermore, why would they do so under the aegis of a weak global regime (the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC) that has virtually no provisions for sanctioning noncompliance and when the largest contributor to the problem is not participating in the regime? This article examines why a number of countries have implemented the UNFCCC. I hypothesize that countries implement UNFCCC because they corner domestic environmental benefits, namely reduction in local pollution. In my empirical analysis of 127 countries, employing an ordinal logistic regression model, I find that local air pollution is associated with higher levels of implementation of the UNFCCC. Thus, I conclude that the incentives to implement a relatively weak global regime can be found in the domestic political economy.
Gheciu, A., and J. Welsh. "Introduction." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 115-120,89-90.
A second body of normative literature on postconflict reconstruction revolves around the policy debate over the "responsibility to rebuild." In late 2001 the independent International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) issued its report, 77ie Responsibility to Protect, which sets out the view that if the international community seeks to claim a responsibility to protect civilians through the use of force, it is obliged also to consider the aftermath of such military measures.10...
Gheciu, A., and J. Welsh. "The Imperative to Rebuild: Assessing the Normative Case for Postconflict Reconstruction." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 121-146,89-90.
The first question parallels the debate about which actors should carry out humanitarian intervention, and remains controversial in both academic and policy circles.
Gowan, R.. "Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War/UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars." Review Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 352-354.
Gowan reviews Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War by Virginia Page Fortna and UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars by Lise Morje Howard.
Gruenberg, J.. "AN ANALYSIS OF UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS: ARE ALL COUNTRIES TREATED EQUALLY?" Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 41, no. 2/3 (July 1, 2009): 469-511.
This Note argues that the Security Council fails to treat all Members of the United Nations equally, specifically singling out Israel, and to a lesser extent South Africa, for disparate treatment during the Cold War period. After introducing the Security Council, the Note creates a hierarchical classification system of wording in Security Council resolutions, specifically of emotive and instructive wording. Once the system is explained, the Note analyzes the words used in each Security Council resolution and cross-references those words with the Entity being discussed. To do this, the Note focuses on nine specific areas in which the disparate treatment among Members is evident, particularly with regards to Israel. The Note concludes by stressing the importance of correcting the underlying endemic flaws in the United Nations system rather than trying to patch problems with artificial devices, such as the Negroponte Doctrine. Only by ridding the Security Council of its biases can it serve the purpose it was created to fulfill.
Herrmann, R., P. Isernia, and P. Segatti. "Attachment to the Nation and International Relations: Dimensions of Identity and Their Relationship to War and Peace." Political Psychology 30, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 721-754.
Since the rise of mass politics, the role national identities play in international relations has been debated. Do they produce a popular reservoir easily tapped for war or bestow dignity thereby fostering cooperation and a democratic peace? The evidence for either perspective is thin, beset by different conceptions of identity and few efforts to identify its effects independent of situational factors. Using data drawn from new national surveys in Italy and the United States, we advance a three-dimensional conception of national identity, theoretically connecting the dimensions to conflictive and cooperative dispositions as well as to decisions to cooperate with the United Nations in containing Iran's nuclear proliferation and Sudan's humanitarian crisis in Darfur. Attachment to the nation in Italy and the United States is found to associate with less support for militarist options and more support for international cooperation as liberal nationalists expect. This depends, however, on containing culturally exclusive conceptions of the nation and chauvinism.
Hilton, L.. "Cultural Nationalism in Exile: The Case of Polish and Latvian Displaced Persons." Historian 71, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 280-317.
Hilton examines the plight of displaced persons from Poland and Latvia. Although the US and UN have offered assistance in repatriating these people, many refuse, fearing political or religious persecution in their former homelands, and therefore have established enclaves of their native culture in other lands.
Karlsson-vinkhuyzen, S., and H. van Asselt. "Introduction: exploring and explaining the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate." International Environmental Agreements : Politics, Law and Economics 9, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 195-211.
Issue Title: Special Issue: Exploring and explaining the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate/Guest Edited by Harro van Asselt and Sylvia Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen.
This introduction lays the groundwork for this Special Issue by providing an overview of the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP), and by introducing three main analytical themes. The first theme concerns the emergence and continuation of the APP. The contributions show that the emergence of the APP can be attributed to international factors, including the United States' rejection of the Kyoto Protocol, and its search for an alternative arena for global climate governance, and other countries' wish to maintain good relations with the US; as well as domestic factors, such as the presence of bureaucratic actors in favour of the Partnership, alignment with domestic priorities, and the potential for reaping economic benefits through participation. The second theme examines the nature of the Partnership, concluding that it falls on the very soft side of the hard-soft law continuum and that while being branded as a public-private partnership, governments remain in charge. Under the third theme, the influence which the APP exerts on the post-2012 United Nations (UN) climate change negotiations is scrutinised. The contributions show that at the very least, the APP is exerting some cognitive influence on the UN discussions through its promotion of a sectoral approach. The introduction concludes with outlining areas for future research.
Karpin, M.. "Deep in the Basement: Israel's Harmonious Nuclear Ambiguity." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 31.
Today, Israel is the only country outside of the great powers whose right to possess a doomsday weapon is accepted by the world's most influential countries. Unlike Pakistan, India, and North Korea, Israel has not been asked to give up its nuclear capability or bare its programs to the world's scrutiny. No major power has censured Israel for producing the ultimate weapon, nor has it been threatened by the United Nations with sanctions. Here, Karpin examines how Israel became the Middle East's only nuclear power and succeeded in keeping its atomic program secret.
Lhomme, J., R. Mougou, and M. Mansour. "Potential impact of climate change on durum wheat cropping in Tunisia." Climatic Change 96, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 549-564.
The potential effect of climate change on durum wheat in Tunisia is assessed using a simple crop simulation model and a climate projection for the 2071-2100 period, obtained from the Météo-France ARPEGE-Climate atmospheric model run under the IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) scenario A1B. In the process-oriented crop model, phenology is estimated through thermal time. Water balance is calculated on a daily basis by means of a simple modelling of actual evapotranspiration involving reference evapotranspiration, crop coefficients and some basic soil characteristics. The impact of crop water deficit on yield is accounted for through the linear crop-water production function developed by the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Two stations are chosen to study the climate change effect. They are representative of the main areas where cereals are grown in Tunisia: Jendouba in the northern region and Kairouan in the central region. In the future scenario, temperature systematically increases, whereas precipitation increases or decreases depending on the location and the period of the year. Mean annual precipitation declines in Jendouba and raises in Kairouan. Under climate change, the water conditions needed for sowing occur earlier and cycle lengths are reduced in both locations. Crop water deficit and the corresponding deficit in crop yield happen to be slightly lower in Kairouan; conversely, they become higher in Jendouba.
Lovett, J., P. Hofman, K. Morsink, A. Torres, J. Clancy, and K. Krabbendam. "Review of the 2008 UNFCCC meeting in Pozna." Energy Policy 37, no. 9 (September 1, 2009): 3701.
Technology transfer is a central component in policies and action to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Without creation and adoption of suitable environmentally sound technologies it will not be possible to follow the basic principles of sustainable development. Technology transfer was expected to be a major item at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Poznan, Poland, 1-12 December 2008, but was eclipsed by discussions on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries. However, agreement was reached on a report from the Global Environment Facility called the 'Poznan strategic programme on technology transfer' outlining proposals to scale-up investment. At the meeting it was not possible to reach agreement on inclusion of carbon capture and storage technology under the clean Related Articles in ScienceDirect development mechanism and other areas of unresolved discussion included intellectual property rights and revision of the principle of differentiated responsibility. Side-events to the main meeting provided two important indications of future directions. First, intellectual property rights were discussed at length primarily with the opinion that they were not a major barrier to technology transfer. Second, representatives from the business sector were regarding environmentally sound technologies as an opportunity for economic growth and development.
Marshall, G.. "Authenticating Gender Policies through Sustained-Pressure: The Strategy Behind the Success of Turkish Feminists." Social Politics 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 358.
The model of "boomerang effect" only partially explains the dynamics of the international and national activism of Turkish feminists. When their demands were not met by the state, feminists reached out to the United Nations and the European Union. However, rather than bypassing the Turkish state as it would be expected by the boomerang model, they kept pressuring the state. This political strategy, which I call sustained-pressure, helped feminists claim responsibility and success during and after the gender policy changes of the 2000s in Turkey. Establishing the indigenousness of the need for change eased ultra-nationalist opposition to external pressure.
Plath, D.. "International Policy Perspectives on Independence in Old Age." Journal of Aging & Social Policy 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 209.
The promotion of independence in old age has become a common principle in aging policies internationally. The term independence, however, has a variety of meanings that are shaped by social/political/economic contexts and the values and attitudes toward older people. Interpretations of independence affect the ways in which policies are translated into strategies and services. The promotion of independence features prominently in the aging policies of the United Nations and the World Health Organization but does not fit well with the cultural values and social contexts of some countries. A comparison of aging policies in four countries-Australia, Denmark, India, and United Kingdom-found that the principle of promoting independence is not universally adopted. The author proposes that the profile and meaning of independence in policy is shaped by values surrounding individual, family, and social responsibilities. Consideration is given to the limitations and culturally bound nature of independence as a policy principle.
Smith, B., M. Sabin, E. Berlin, and L. Nackerud. "Ethnomedical Syndromes and Treatment-Seeking Behavior among Mayan Refugees in Chiapas, Mexico." Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 366-81.
This survey investigated the prevalence of ethnomedical syndromes and examined treatments and treatment-seeking in Mayan Guatemalans living in United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR) camps in Chiapas, Mexico. Methods included a rapid ethnographic assessment to refine survey methods and inform the cross-sectional survey, which also examined mental health outcomes; 183 households were approached for interview, representing an estimated 1,546 residents in five refugee camps and 93% of all households. One adult per household (N = 170) was interviewed regarding his or her health; an additional 9 adults in three surveyed households participated and were included in this analysis; of the 179 participants, 95 primary child-care providers also answered a children's health questionnaire for their children. Results indicated that ethnomedical syndromes were common in this sample, with 59% of adults and 48.4% of children having experienced susto (fright condition) and 34.1% of adults reporting ataques de nervios (nervous attacks); both conditions were significantly associated with symptoms consistent with posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression and are mental health conditions recognized by the American Psychiatric Association. Combining healthcare provider and indigenous treatments such as physician prescribed medication (65%), medicinal plants (65.7%), and limpias (spiritual cleansings) (40.6%) was reported. Most participants (86%) sought routine medical treatment from UNHCR trained health promoters in their camp. Assessing ethnomedical health is important for informing mental health programs among this population.
Xavier Medina, F.. "Mediterranean diet, culture and heritage: challenges for a new conception." Public Health Nutrition 12, no. 9A (September 1, 2009): 1618-20.
The aim of the present article is to discuss the role of the Mediterranean diet as a part of Human Culture and Intangible Cultural Heritage. Until the present, Mediterranean diet has been observed as a healthy model of medical behaviour. After its proposal as a Cultural Heritage of the Humanity at UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), Mediterranean diet is actually being observed as a part of Mediterranean culture and starting its concept as an equivalent of Mediterranean Cultural Food System or Mediterranean Culinary System. At the candidacy of Mediterranean diet as a World Cultural Intangible Heritage to be presented at UNESCO in 2008, this new conception is making sense. A new point of view that will be capital in the future discussions about the Mediterranean diet, their challenges and their future perspectives. Zaum, D.. "The Norms and Politics of Exit: Ending Postconflict Transitional Administrations." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 189-208,90. The case of Kosovo highlights how the normative framework that governs postconflict Statebuilding has shaped the exit of the UN-led international administration in the territory. The "Kosovo standards," which became UNMIK's main exit mechanism, were an explicit use of exit benchmarks based on liberal norms; and references to local ownership and democracy were strategically used by local elites to argue for the faster handover of authority.
Week of August 14-August 20, 2009 (Focus on Nonviolence):
Alpaugh, . "The politics of escalation in French Revolutionary protest: political demonstrations, non-violence and violence in the grandes journées of 1789." French History 23, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 336-359.
The Réveillon riots, the storming of the Bastille and the October days of 1789 are known largely for their violent excesses, and they have been used by historians such as François Furet, Simon Schama and Arno Mayer to help place violence at the centre of the French Revolutionary experience. However, detailed studies of the early stages of these journées show that each of the protests began as essentially non-violent political demonstrations, which only turned physically violent in the face of attempted repression. Based upon a wide reading of Parisian newspapers, pamphlets, correspondence and other contemporary sources, this article highlights conciliatory aspects of Revolutionary protest and posits the existence of more peaceful alternatives to physical violence. Set in a wider context, where the overwhelming majority of Parisian street protests during the Revolution did not resort to physical violence, full-scale insurrection appears to have been only a secondary strategy, often adopted reluctantly.
Ahsan, A.. "The Preservation of the Rule of Law in Times of Strife." The International Lawyer 43, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 73-76.
The importance is that this is a terrorist war zone. [...] the existence of an independent and functioning juthciary is quite crucial to the prosecution of this form of war, which President Bush dubbed as a 'War on Terror'. [...] our movement continues despite the constitution of a new Parliament. [...] we continue to bear pressure upon those who govern, this time those who inhabit Parliament.
Astor, R., R. Benbenishty, and J. Estrada. "School Violence and Theoretically Atypical Schools: The Principal's Centrality in Orchestrating Safe Schools." American Educational Research Journal 46, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 423-461.
Theories often assume that schools in communities with high violence also have high rates of school violence, yet there are schools with very low violence in high violence communities. Organizational variables within these schools may buffer community influences. Nine "atypical" schools are selected from a national database in Israel. Three years of intense qualitative and quantitative methods are employed at these schools. The most important variable found is the leadership of the principal. These schools emphasize a school reform approach rather than packaged school violence evidence-based programs. The schools demonstrate "outward" oriented ideologies, a schoolwide awareness of violence, consistent procedures, integrated use of cultural and religious symbols, visual manifestations of student care, and the beautification of school grounds.
Couper, S.. "'An Embarrassment to the Congresses?': The Silencing of Chief Albert Luthuli and the Production of ANC History." Journal of Southern African Studies 35, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 331.
2007 was the 'Year of Luthuli' in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Throughout the year, events commemorating the 1967 death of the former President-General of the ANC celebrated his life and contribution to the liberation of South Africa. A year later, during the presidential succession battle various politicians paid tribute to Luthuli, positioning themselves as heirs to his political and moral legacy. Celebrated as a 'founding father' of South Africa's modern democratic state, who had led the ANC during some of the most dramatic events in its history and as Africa's first Nobel Peace Prize winner, Luthuli's name conjures awe and respect. Unsurprisingly, Luthuli has been assigned a prominent place in the process of nationalist myth making. This article is inspired by Michel Rolph Trouillot's, Silencing the Past: Power and Production of History (1995) and highlights the contrast between the present lionisation of Luthuli as a nationalist founding figure and the effective silencing of his stance on the shift to violence soon after the launch of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in December 1961. I argue that a silence in the archives is not primarily a result of poor health or the banning orders imposed on Luthuli, but rather of his embarrassingly persistent espousal of non-violent methods that led to his marginalisation as a leader of the ANC in the early 1960s. An examination of Luthuli's columns in the Golden City Post reveals that he argued against a turn to violence before and after the ANC's decision to prepare for the armed struggle and MK's launch. Luthuli's continued public advocacy of only non-violent methods discomfited many of his contemporaries. Consequently, his ability to lead the liberation movement was compromised and diminished significantly from 1961 until his death six years later. Narratives by former MK operatives affirm Luthuli's prescience regarding the strategic ineffectiveness of violence. Finally, the article demonstrates the inaccuracy of the self-justifying portrayals of Luthuli as a supporter of the armed struggle by both nationalist historians and politicians.
Daniel, J.. "States of Exile: Visions of Diaspora, Witness, and Return." Review Anglican Theological Review 91, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 501,503.
The claim is that exile is both the site and style of Christian witness. [...] the Christology of the creeds is understand as an example of the early church not being theologically in charge, of witnessing to Jesus Christ in the language of Greek ontology, while the church's witness to the state includes, besides its incarnate nonviolence, an appeal to "middle axioms," those standards by which the state justifies itself.
Deats, R.. "Active Nonviolence Across the World." Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 20-29.
Church leaders fully backed her call; in fact, the Catholic bishops made a historic decision to call upon the people to nonviolently oppose the [Ferdinand Marcos] government. Crucial defections from the government by two key leaders and a few hundred troops became the occasion for hundreds of thousands of unarmed Filipinos to pour into the streets of Manila to protect the defectors and demand the resignation of the discredited government. These "unarmed forces of the Philippines" gathered along the circumferential highway around Manila which ran alongside the camps where the rebel troops had gathered. The highway is called Epifanio de los Santos - the Epiphany of the Saints! Troops sent to attack the rebels were met by citizens massed in the streets, singing and praying, calling on the soldiers to join them in the "People Power Revolution." Clandestine radio broadcasts gave instructions in nonviolent resistance. When fighter planes were sent to bomb the rebel camp, the pilots saw it surrounded by the people and defected. A military man said, "This is something new. Soldiers are supposed to protect the civilians. In this particular case, you have civilians protecting the soldiers." Facing the collapse of his support, Marcos and his family fled the country. The dictatorship fell in four days.
The crushing of Czechoslovakia's 1968 experiment to create "socialism with a human face" strengthened the widely held assumption that communism was incapable of peaceful change and democratic openness, and that nonviolence might "work" in India or the United States, but never with communist regimes. Foreign policy "realists" held that authoritarian states could change but not totalitarian ones. This added fuel to the Cold War and the nuclear arms race and the belief that World War III was a virtual certainty. Not many paid attention to those aspects of the Czech experiment that contained hints of the "people power" revolutions that were to flower in the 1980s, but they were highly significant.
Why do we so resist the potential of the not yet stirring in the present moment? The sociologist Elise Boulding reminds us how deadly pessimism can be, for it can undermine our determination to work for a better tomorrow. Hope, on the other hand, infused in an apparendy hopeless situation can create an unexpected potential for change. As the theologian [Walter Wink] has written, "History belongs to the intercessors who believe the future into being." This is the faith that sings, in the face of police dogs and water cannons, "We Shall Overcome." Or, as [Joan Chittister] of Arc muses in George Bernard Shaw's St. Joan, "Some people see things as they are and ask 'Why?' I dream of things that never were and ask, 'Why not?'"
Domhoff, G.. "Creating a Liberal-Left Alliance for Social Change: Prescriptions From the Social Sciences Literature." The American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 151.
Based on research in the social sciences, this article suggests new directions and compromises that might make it possible for liberals and leftists to work together in the hopeful post-9/11, post-Bush/Cheney era. There are five basic issues - electoral strategy, the role of social movements, the need for a new model for the economy, the need for a reframing of who is "us" and who is "them," and the creation of a new organizational structure. It first explains why leftists should organize themselves into Egalitarian Democratic Clubs within the Democratic Party, followed by an analysis of why social movements are more valuable than many liberals have acknowledged but only when they embrace strategic nonviolence as their sole method of social disruption. It then suggests a new framework for thinking about an egalitarian economy that would allow liberals and leftists to work together even while disagreeing about how egalitarian that economy could become. Finally, it suggests a reframing of "us" and "them" in terms of people's values and policy prescriptions, not their class, race, gender, or sexual orientation, and the creation of a network of organizations that share a commitment to the proposed electoral, social movement, and economic strategies.
Garcia, R.. "Cesar Chavez and the Common Sense of Nonviolence." Review The Journal of American History 95, no. 4 (March 1, 2009): 1242-1243.
Orosco's central argument is that Chavez was a "community intellectual" (a combination of Antonio Gramsci's "organic intellectual" and Saul Alinsky's "radical community activist") involved in the "production of knowledge" and an "original thinker and a social theorist" who "developed a 'philosophy of nonviolence' . . . significantly distinct from the work of [Mahatma] Gandhi [positive-reaction] and [Martin Luther] King [civil disobethence]" and "more appropriate ... for social justice in America": a social theory of "Radical Democracy" (pp. 3-6, 30-31, 85, 96). The farm workers' struggle would serve as the catalyst for a new American "social movement" with a philosophy emphasizing a "sense of social agency"; a "historical consciousness"; a "self-realization of individuality and community"; a telos of the evolutionary dynamics of a "logic of nonviolence"; a belief that time exposes truth; a desire for a "culture of peace"; and a belief in "self-determination" (pp. 2325, 106-7).
Godrej, F.. "Towards a Cosmopolitan Political Thought: The Hermeneutics of Interpreting the Other*." Polity 41, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 135-165.
The emergence of the field of comparative political theory suggests that the encounter with non-Western texts be considered a legitimate and necessary part of political theory, so that the field is reconstituted in a truly cosmopolitan manner. However, this also presents unique challenges to political theorists. Chief among these is the question of what hermeneutic approach would allow us to understand well the ideas contained in these texts. This essay will argue for a particular approach to the interpretation of non-Western texts and ideas, providing an account of a methodologically self-conscious approach to comparative political theory. A serious comparative political theorist will inevitably have to alternate between an internal immersion in the lived experience of the text, and an external stance of commentary and exegesis of the text. Struggling with the conflicting imperatives of these moments is precisely the task of a more nuanced approach to comparative political theory. Ultimately, however, I also argue that this particular approach has implications for the development of a genuine cosmopolitanism in the field of political theory. A cosmopolitan political theory is precisely one in which such struggles and complex encounters with the otherness of texts are increasingly made available to provoke, dislocate, and challenge our own understandings of political life. The method I offer is thus deeply implicated in the evolution of our self-understanding as political theorists.
Hallward, M.. "Creative Responses to Separation: Israeli and Palestinian Joint Activism in Bil'in." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 541.
This article examines creative ways in which Israeli and Palestinian activists engage with each other and the powers seeking to separate them in their nonviolent struggles for a just and lasting peace. Using the geopolitical theory of territoriality, the article briefly examines a number of administrative, physical, and psychological barriers facing joint activism and the strategies activists use to counteract them. Drawing on nonviolent theory and practice, the article analyzes how activists exert power through the creative use of symbols and practices that undermine the legitimacy of occupation policies. Based on fieldwork conducted in 2004-05 and July 2006, the article explores the implications of this activism on conceptions of identity, and strategies for restarting a moribund peace process. The relative 'success' of sustained joint action in Bil'in can provide scholars and policymakers with innovative approaches for addressing some of the outstanding issues needing to be addressed by official negotiators. Although government bodies are more constrained than activists, the imaginative means of engaging with the system--and the reframing of issues through the redeployment of 'commonplaces'--can perhaps provide inspiration, if not leverage, for thinking outside of the box.
Hanssen, M.. "The Psychology of Nonviolence and Aggression." Review Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 456. Hanssen reviews The Psychology of Nonviolence and Aggression by V. K. Kool.
Harris, V.. "We, Too, Sing America." The Reading Teacher 62, no. 5 (February 1, 2009): 450-455.
[...] Parks was an intentional activist, a member of the local NAACP who had trained at the Highlander Center, an interracial organization devoted to training activists. There are several reasons for this concern, including the residual effects of political dissent precipitated by the Civil Rights movement, the Vietnam War, and the Watergate constitutional crisis, disenchantment with political institutions and leaders, and other factors related to cultural values and mores.
Huizenga, L.. "Obedience unto Death: The Matthean Gethsemane and Arrest Sequence and the Aqedah." The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 71, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 507-526.
[...] the Matthean Jesus and the Isaac of ancient Jewish tradition resemble each other to a remarkable degree: both are promised children conceived under extraordinary circumstances, beloved sons who, for redemptive purposes, willingly face their sacrifices at the season of Passover in obethence to their respective fathers. [...] when rightly read as a narrative with attention to its first-century C.E. cultural location, the Gospel of Matthew presents a significant Isaac typology. [...] 4Q225 sets the Aqedah in the context of the Passover, as it presents verbal parallels that suggest that it is dealing in a Jubilean way with several events that happened in the time of the Exodus from Egypt.
Inwood, J.. "Contested memory in the birthplace of a king: a case study of Auburn Avenue and the Martin Luther King Jr. National Park." Cultural Geographies 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 87-109.
A critical element in the process of racializing place is the construction of memorial landscapes. Using the Martin Luther King Jr National Historic Site and the surrounding Auburn Avenue community as a case study this paper argues that the sites dedicated to Dr King along Auburn Avenue embody a normative Civil Rights discourse which emphasizes national unity and non-violence and serves to silence and reframe more radical interpretations of Dr Martin Luther King Jr's social thought and action. More specifically the King National Historic Site represents King as a mainstream leader who used the existing democratic structure of US society to affect social change. This is related to the role the King National Historic Site plays in the construction of hegemony. A critical aspect of this process is the way this normative Civil Rights vision is used to market an understanding of the City of Atlanta. Thus the King memorials along Auburn Avenue are important sites to examine the connections between race, place and nation and the way the memorial landscape dedicated to Dr King embodies particular social values and ideas about the historic legacy of race in the United States.
Johnson, M.. "Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy/American Nonviolence: The History of An Idea." Review Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 41-42.
[John Haynes Holmes] was joined in his "discovery" and celebration of Mahatma Gandhi by black theologians and activists such as Howard Thurman and Bayard Rustin. The origin of Gandhi's philosophy of satyagraha in South Africa, in opposition to racial discrimination and segregation, caught the attention of Americans examining issues of race and labor justice. In the 1920s, Richard Gregg went to live with Gandhi on his ashram and begin work that led to his seminal book The Power of Nonviolence, the bible of the movement. By the 1930s, Thurman and Rustin were steeped in Gandhi's teachings and visiting him in India.
Over and over, [Joseph Kip Kosek] locates popular dating of nonviolence in U.S. politics in earlier precedents and long, vital debates of religious versus secular groundings of nonviolence, absolutist and idealist versus pragmatic and realist positions on applied nonviolence, and the relationship between war, racism, and materialism. The long and critical role of AJ. Muste - his passage through communist sympathies, debates with Reinhold Niebuhr, influence on Martin Luther King, Jr., banishment yet continued mentoring of Bayard Rustin, prescience in supporting George Houser's and John Swomley's projects in the United States and Africa - is fully discussed.
Though not a part of the tide, [Ira Chernus]'s premise is the same as Kosek's: "Although it is certainly possible to live a life of principled nonviolence without being a Christian, it is not possible to understand nonviolence in the United States without understanding its Christian origins."
Kelley, E.. "A Palestinian Christian Cry for Reconciliation." Review The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 74.
Rejecting the misuse of scriptures by Jewish and Christian Zionists, he has written a new book offering theological insights to biblical texts that help Palestinian Christians living under Israeli occupation. By shedding new light on Jesus' teachings with new knowledge of the history and culture of the New Testament, liberation theology made faith relevant to real life, helped the faithful to better understand their own suffering, inspired them to work for change, and pointed to a greater truth with definite political implications.
Kopeliovich, S., and J. Kuriansky. "Journeys for Peace: A model of human rights education for young people in Mexico." Counselling Psychology Quarterly 22, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 69.
This paper describes the "Journeys for Peace" program a Mexico-based NGO that facilitates young people to get involved, and take a leadership role, in the agenda of world peace. Volunteers engage in activities that help them understand the importance of spreading messages of peace, and that support them to implement educational and artistic workshops and projects that benefit their school, local community and public in other parts of the world. Projects based on creative and expressive arts include painting, photography, music, theatre and publishing, and address topics of human rights, tolerance and non-violence. Signature activities include mini-parliaments debating issues like diversity, media responsibility and children's rights, and the "Condition for Peace" activity whereby participants pose a question about peace to special guests, including world leaders. The program has received extensive media coverage and recognition by universities and organizations worldwide, including the Clinton Global Initiative, and has collaborated with other peace initiatives.
Martinez, T.. "In Harms Way: A History of Christian Peacemaker Teams/118 Days: Christian Peacemaker Teams Held Hostage in Iraq." Review Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 43-44.
[Kathleen Kern]'s comprehensive history of CPT frames and informs the more focused account of the Baghdad team's abduction. While In Harm's Way provides the reader with a carefully researched account of the political, historical, and theological streams flowing into CPT's emergence onto the peacemaking scene, 118 Days offers an intimate and dramatic account of one team's nightmarish ordeal. Taken together, both books offer an in-depth experience of active nonviolence in some of the world's most dangerous and violent locales.
Because CPT officially came into being in the late 1980s, Kern begins by invoking Ron Sider's address at the 1984 Mennonite World Conference in Strasbourg, France. According to Kern, Sider's address was instrumental in legitimizing the idea of a coordinated nonviolent response to violence. Kern acknowledges significant antecedents (she mentions Gandhi and the civil rights movement, among others). But it was during the 1980s, against the backdrop of neo-colonial intervention in Central America, that these peacemaking energies found expression first in an influential Mennonite study document and, soon after, in the establishment of Christian Peacemaker Teams.
Moghadam, V.. "Transformations: Feminist Pathways to Global Change: An Analytical Anthology." Review Contemporary Sociology 38, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 362-363.
Chapter topics are women-centered movements and alternative development; redefining work, gender, and development; feminist pathways to democracy and equality; humanizing social relations; restructuring gender to promote alternative development; feminists who reconstitute work and market; women and the environment, or regenerative development; and feminist movements for nonviolence and peace. [...] the emergence of movements that promote equality, democracy, environmental regeneration, humanizing work relations, and peace.
Nair, N.. "Bhagat Singh as 'Satyagrahi': The Limits to Non-violence in Late Colonial India." Modern Asian Studies 43, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 649-681.
Abstract
Among anti-colonial nationalists, Bhagat Singh and M.K. Gandhi are seen to exemplify absolutely contrasting strategies of resistance. Bhagat Singh is regarded as a violent revolutionary whereas Gandhi is the embodiment of non-violence. This paper argues that Bhagat Singh and his comrades became national heroes not after their murder of a police inspector in Lahore or after throwing bombs in the Legislative Assembly in New Delhi but during their practice of hunger strikes and non-violent civil disobedience within the walls of Lahore's prisons in 1929-30. In fact there was plenty in common in the strategies of resistance employed by both Gandhi and Bhagat Singh. By labelling these revolutionaries 'murderers' and 'terrorists', the British sought to dismiss their non-violent demands for rights as 'political prisoners'. The same labels were adopted by Gandhi and his followers. However, the quality of anti-colonial nationalism represented by Bhagat Singh was central to the resolution of many of the divisions that racked pre-partition Punjab.
O'Donnell, L., G. Agronick, R. Duran, A. Myint-U, and A. Stueve. "Intimate Partner Violence Among Economically Disadvantaged Young Adult Women: Associations With Adolescent Risk-Taking and Pregnancy Experiences." Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 41, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 84-91.
Intimate partner violence negatively impacts the health of substantial proportions of young women in economically disadvantaged communities, where sexual initiation, aggressive behaviors, unintended pregnancies and childbearing are common among adolescents. It is therefore important to assess how adolescent risk behaviors and pregnancy experiences are linked to such violence during young adulthood. Data from 526 participants in the Reach for Health Longitudinal Study who were surveyed during middle school (in 1995-1996 and 1996-1997) and at ages 22-25 (in 2005-2007) provided information on adolescent risk behaviors and pregnancy experiences, as well as experiences of intimate partner violence during young adulthood. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to identify correlates of intimate partner violence involvement. As young adults, 29% of women reported having been victims of intimate partner violence in the past 12 months; 21% reported having perpetrated such violence. In multivariate analyses, victimization and perpetration in the last year are positively associated with aggressive behavior in middle school (odds ratios, 1.9 and 2.5, respectively), lifetime number of sex partners (1.3 for both) and having a history of unintended pregnancy or pregnancy problems (1.3 for both). Perpetration also is associated with early sexual initiation (0.5) and living with a partner (1.8). It is important to consider women's pregnancy histories in programs aimed at preventing the adverse outcomes of relationship violence and in screening for partner violence in sexual and reproductive health services. Early intervention may help women develop the skills needed for resolving conflicts with peers and partners.
Osenbach, J., J. Stubbs, J. Wang, J. Russo, and D. Zatzick. "Legal Events as Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress in Injured Trauma Survivors." Psychiatry 72, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 70-8.
Prior research suggests that involvement in a lawsuit may be associated with the development of enduring posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as inflated and potentially invalid symptom reports. This research aimed to describe the spectrum of legal events experienced by injured trauma survivors and prospectively assessed the association between legal events and PTSD symptoms. Over a nine month period, hospitalized injury survivors were randomly screened for study participation. Legal events were prospectively assessed, and PTSD symptoms were reported twelve months after the injury. Linear regression was used to determine the association between legal events and higher PTSD symptom levels. Increasing numbers of legal events were associated with significantly higher PTSD symptom levels. Seeking legal counsel (34%), being a victim of non-violent crime (14%), and involvement in a lawsuit (9%) were the most common legal events reported. None of these categories of legal events, however, were associated with significantly higher PTSD symptom levels. Because injury survivors are frequently involved in a spectrum of legal events, it is important for future research to assess the cumulative burden of legal events, as these experiences may represent recurring stressful life events that have the potential to exacerbate PTSD symptoms.
Palmer-Mehta, V.. "Aung San Suu Kyi and the Rhetoric of Social Protest in Burma." Women's Studies in Communication 32, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 151-179.
This essay provides a case study of the speech that marks Aung San Suu Kyi's emergence as a leader of the pro-democracy opposition in Burma. I trace how she weaves together collective memory and an ethic of care to achieve political ascendancy and to create a space for nonviolent democratic revolution. The study contributes to progressive care theorizing by examining the construction of a care ethic in an authoritarian regime in the midst of revolution.
Rane, H.. "Jihad, competing norms and the Israel-Palestine impasse." Australian Journal of International Affairs 63, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 41.
A central factor in the failure to resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict is the direct competition that exists between its two most central international norms: 'self-determination', the fundamental claim of the Palestinians, and 'self-defence', the overriding concern of Israelis. Particularly since 9/11, Palestinian violence has been a liability for their cause and has served to validate Israel's self-defence arguments. Increasingly, Palestinian violence has been perpetrated by the Islamically oriented under the banner of jihad, which is understood almost exclusively in terms of armed struggle. Non-violence--which has the potential to undermine Israel's self-defence arguments and generate external pressure on Israel to adhere to the terms of a just peace--has been under-appreciated by such Palestinians. Non-violence is far from having a normative status in the Muslim world as an Islamically legitimate response to occupation and it is yet to be conceptualised as an effective form of resistance. The concept needs to be reformulated in accordance with the realities and opportunities confronting the Palestinians. Contextualisation combined with a maqasid or objective-oriented approach establishes non-violence as a preferable option to violence both in terms of the higher objectives of jihad, enshrined in the Quran, as well as of the attainment of Palestinian self-determination.
Sarchiapone, M., V. Carli, M. Di Giannantonion, and A. Roy. "Risk Factors for Attempting Suicide in Prisoners." Suicide & Life - Threatening Behavior 39, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 343-50.
We wished to examine determinants of suicidal behavior in prisoners. 903 male prisoners had a psychiatric interview which included various psychometric tests. Suicide attempters were compared with prisoners who had never attempted suicide. Significantly more of the attempters had a history of psychiatric disorder, substance abuse, a family history of suicidal behavior, convictions for violent crime, had exhibited aggressive behavior in jail, and had higher BGLHA aggression scores. A similar pattern of risk factors was found for prisoners with suicidal ideation. A lifetime history of attempting suicide, or of having suicidal ideation, is frequent in prisoners. Risk factors include family, developmental, aggression, personality, psychiatric, and substance abuse factors.
Schneider, N.. "The Original Peaceniks." Review. Commonweal 136, no. 10 (May 22, 2009): 26,28.
The Catholic critique of pacifism, voiced in this period by John Courtney Murray, among others, seems not to have troubled the Fellowship as much. Because of the Catholic Church's endorsement of just-war theory, "Catholics had been the hardest religious people to attract to the Christian nonviolent vanguard," Kosek writes.
Sen, R., and W. Wagner. "Cultural Mechanics of Fundamentalism: Religion as Ideology, Divided Identities and Violence in Post-Gandhi India." Culture & Psychology 15, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 299.
This study analyses the history of Hindu fundamentalism up to the present time, as it developed since India's independence. In the course of its rise, Hindutva destroyed the Gandhian symbolism of non-violence, reinterpreted cultural symbols to become political signs and prepared the ground for communal violence. Secularists and the religious out-group, Muslims, became targeted as enemies. During the resulting Hindu ethnic dominance, religion was converted from a faith into an ideology. The sequence of events in the development of this movement repeats the common scheme of a religious fundamentalist movement that serves the nationalist goals of political leaders. It is argued that such groups cannot reasonably be conceptualized in terms of an individual psychology or personality, that is, a trait, but as a cultural movement that unites people sharing membership of a social class, that is, a sociocultural state. Such movements, in contrast to Abrahamic religious fundamentalisms, do not form well-established stable groups over time, but are more like a waxing and waning political movement where membership is determined by social class and ethnic identity. Their politics trigger a heightened awareness of ethnic identity, prime a religiously ideological mindset and, as a consequence, release communal violence.
Vesely-Flad, E.. "Editor's Note." Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 3.
We are deeply grateful to the board of The Human Quest for its decision to distribute some assets, both financial and subscribers, to Fellowship (see story, page 18) in recognition of our commitment to promoting themes of nonviolence, peace, and freedom. As we commence our 90th year of publishing (75th as Fellowship), this significant support helps us to resume publishing on a regular basis.
Week of August 21-August 27, 2009:
Akhavan, P.. "Are International Criminal Tribunals a Disincentive to Peace?: Reconciling Judicial Romanticism with Political Realism." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 624-654.
A significant challenge to the efficacy of international criminal justice in global governance is the view that prosecution of political leaders still in power creates a disincentive to peace and thus prolongs atrocities. While "judicial romantics" are often oblivious to these complexities, the "political realists" have failed to demonstrate that tribunals are in fact an impediment to peace and stability. The impact of the International Criminal Court on three recent situations in Africa suggests that judicial intervention is more likely to help prevent atrocities rather than impede peace, even if arrest warrants cannot be executed.
Anonymous, . "Chad: New Peace Agreement." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 7 (August 1, 2009): 18041A-18041A.
Barnett, J.. "The prize of peace (is eternal vigilance): a cautionary editorial essay on climate geopolitics." Climatic Change 96, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 1-6.
Cavendish, R.. "AUG 1 1259: An Anglo-Welsh truce renewed." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 11.
Welsh independence in the 13th century did not mean separation from England - substantial areas were controlled by English barons - but the preservation of Welsh culture and local self-government in the Welsh heartland, with a native prince topping the feudal pyramid. Edward invaded Wales with overwhelm- ing force and in 1277 Liywelyn was made to accept an ignomin- ious peace treaty and a large fine (which Edward later waived) He was allowed to keep the homage of only five insignifi- cant Welsh lords and, though he retained his Prince of Wales tille, U was now meaningless.
Dean-Ruzicka, R.. "Tales for Little Rebels: A Collection of Radical Children's Literature." Review. Children's Literature Association Quarterly 34, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 291-293.
The book is structured around eight radical themes: "R Is for Rebel," "Subversive Science and Dramas of Ecology," "Work, Workers, and Money," "Organize," "Imagine," "History and Heroes," "A Person's a Person," and "Peace." [...] if one were interested in doing a full-length critical study of radical children's literature, this is one of the first texts I would recommend for research.
Evans, J., and J. Tonge. "Social Class and Party Choice in Northern Ireland's Ethnic Blocs." West European Politics 32, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 1012.
The peace process in Northern Ireland has not diminished the acute ethnic electoral faultline between the majority Protestant British population, supportive of parties favouring Northern Ireland's continuing place in the United Kingdom and the minority Catholic Nationalist population, which backs parties harbouring long-term ambitions for a united Ireland. Within each bloc, however, there has been a dramatic realignment in favour of parties once seen as extreme and militant. The Democratic Unionist Party has emerged as the main representative of the Protestant British population, whilst Sinn Fein, having for many years supported the Provisional IRA's 'armed struggle' against British rule, has become the dominant party amongst Catholic Nationalists. As both parties have entered the political mainstream and advanced electorally, to what extent have they moved from their electoral near-confinement among the working class to enjoy broader cross-class support - and how?
Farrelly, N.. "'AK47/M16 Rifle - Rs. 15,000 each': what price peace on the Indo-Burmese frontier?" Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 283.
One of the key tools for achieving India's stated ambition of stopping national fragmentation in the Northeast is the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (1958) (AFSPA). This article assesses Indian Government efforts to manage the parts of the Indo-Burmese borderlands that are subject to this law. It compares the approaches of governments on the Burmese and Indian sides of the frontier and interrogates the financial incentives that complement security policies in their shared borderlands. Economic incentives for ceasefire and disarmament are, I argue, part of a portfolio of pacification and reintegration strategies that are premised on the controlled ambiguities of the borderlands. As such, I argue that the impunities allegedly at the heart of the AFSPA are matched by the freedom of the Indian Government to funnel resources into paying off its enemies. In the Indian case, the wider environment in which the AFSPA is implemented cannot be ignored if a full analysis of its 50 years of operation is to be offered. The implementation of surrender agreements in the ambiguous space of the Indo-Burmese borderlands exemplifies how the Indian Government has prioritised national cohesion above legal, political or economic consistency.
Freeman, S., and A. Berger. "Nebraska Veterans' Preferences for End-of-Life Care." Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing 13, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-403.
More than 1,800 veterans die in a variety of healthcare settings each day, illustrating a need to improve their end-of-life (EOL) care. In 2006, the Nebraska End-of-Life Survey was mailed to 2,713 urban and rural Nebraskan adults' homes; 44 of 324 first-time respondents (14%) were veterans. This article compares survey responses from veterans and nonveterans and discusses four issues: personal desires during the dying process, fear of dying, completion of advance directives, and communication preferences. Compared to nonveterans, veterans were significantly less likely to want friends or family visiting at EOL, less likely to place importance on being at peace spiritually, less afraid of dying alone, more likely to turn to a spouse to initiate EOL conversations, and less trusting of primary physicians on EOL issues. In addition, veterans had higher rates of completion of advance directives. Examining the survey responses can help guide clinical oncology nurses in delivering EOL care to veterans.
Hook, J., E. Worthington, and S. Utsey. "Collectivism, Forgiveness, and Social Harmony." Counseling Psychologist 37, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 821.
Existing models of forgiveness and the strategies to promote forgiveness that draw from them are predominantly individualistic. As the United States becomes more diverse and counseling psychology becomes a more global field, counseling psychologists are increasingly likely to encounter clients who have a collectivistic worldview. The authors propose a theoretical model that clarifies the relationship between collectivism and forgiveness. The importance of maintaining social harmony in collectivistic cultures is central to this relationship. The model has two propositions. First, collectivistic forgiveness occurs within the broad context of social harmony, reconciliation, and relational repair. Second, collectivistic forgiveness is understood as primarily a decision to forgive but is motivated largely to promote and maintain group harmony rather than inner peace (as is more often the case in individualistically motivated forgiveness). Finally, the authors suggest a research agenda to study collectivistic forgiveness and provide guidelines for addressing forgiveness with collectivistic clients.
Koskenniemi, M.. "Miserable Comforters: International Relations as New Natural Law." European Journal of International Relations 15, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 395.
In his 'Perpetual Peace', Kant indicts the natural law tradition (Grotius, Pufendorf, Vattel) as 'miserable comforters' whose principles and doctrines 'cannot have the slightest legal force'. The indictment emerges from Kant's critique of natural law in both its empirical and rationalist variants as unable to uphold a really 'binding' notion of cosmopolitan legality. Since the early 1990s a new literature has emerged in the International Relations field that speaks about the effectiveness and legitimacy of international law as a form of supranational 'governance'. This article argues that that literature raises precisely the same problems that Kant detected in early modern natural law. Like the latter, this literature is best seen as an attempt to appropriate the voice of international legality to a fully instrumentalist discipline dedicated to serving the interests of power.
Laouris, Y., A. Erel, M. Michaelides, M. Damdelen, T. Taraszow, I. Dagli, R. Laouri, and A. Christakis. "Exploring Options for Enhancement of Social Dialogue Between the Turkish and Greek Communities in Cyprus Using the Structured Dialogic Design Process." Systemic Practice and Action Research 22, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 361-381.
This paper summarizes results of a co-laboratory that took place 33 months after the negative outcome of the referendum on the UN's proposal for the solution of the Cyprus problem, and which was a follow-up (3 months later) of a previous co-laboratory. The earlier co-laboratory explored factors contributing to the increasing gap between the two conflicting communities. The co-laboratory reported here engaged relevant stakeholders (peace pioneers, academics, business people, activists and others representing the Turkish and Greek speaking communities of Cyprus) to come up with options aiming to enhance the social dialogue between the two communities. The Structured Dialogic Design Process was used to structure 27 proposed options and develop an influence map. The deep drivers, i.e., most influential factors, determined decisions taken by the participating peace pioneers regarding their future interventions. The results are also discussed within the framework of current (analysis reflects the political situation during the period reported here) political developments.
Maney, G., L. Woehrle, and P. Coy. "Ideological Consistency and Contextual Adaptation: U.S. Peace Movement Emotional Work Before and After 9/11." The American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 114.
The authors examine how the U.S. peace movement responded to the Bush administration's attempts to generate and capitalize on a heightened sense of threat after the 9/11 attacks. Longitudinal analysis of statements by U.S. peace movement organizations issued before and after 9/11 indicates that the movement's discourse is both ideologically consistent and contextually adaptive. In each period, movement discourse highlighted the U.S. government as a source of threat and people living outside of the United States as the targets of that threat. Nonetheless, the movement's discourse changed significantly in the exacerbated climate of fear in the first 4 months after the 9/11 attacks and then began to revert to pre-9/11 patterns during the Iraq War when the salience of threat declined. This research significantly advances knowledge of social movement discourse by establishing that ideological consistency and contextual adaptation are not mutually exclusive, by highlighting the contextual and dialogical factors that encourage certain types of movement responses to dominant discourses, and by explaining the role of emotional work in mobilizing dissent.
McDuie-Ra, D.. "Vision 2020 or re-vision 1958: the contradictory politics of counter-insurgency in India's regional engagement." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 313.
Insurgency in Northeast India has long been explained as an outcome of poverty and isolation that in turn produces further poverty and militancy. In order to break this cycle and achieve 'peace and prosperity', the Indian Government released North Eastern Region Vision 2020 in July 2008 - a comprehensive policy agenda to achieve 'peace and prosperity' in the Northeast. This is to be realised through deeper economic and political engagement with neighbouring countries and a 'paradigm shift in development strategy' that will be simultaneously more participatory and more infrastructure intensive. This paper argues that in practice the political manifestations of increased regional engagement are contradictory. Each measure designed to break the region's isolation is countered by measures to maintain control of borders, trade, and the movement of people. At the head of this new development vision is a re-visioning of counter-insurgency underpinned by the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (1958). Far from signalling a new era in the region, the measures contained in this new development vision appear more likely to exacerbate the grievances of people in the region and reinforce the ways the region has been governed through five decades of counter-insurgency.
Mendeloff, D.. "Trauma and Vengeance: Assessing the Psychological and Emotional Effects of Post-Conflict Justice." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 592-623.
Do war crimes tribunals or truth commissions satisfy victims of war and atrocity and provide psychological relief from war-induced trauma? Do they make victims less vengeful and less likely to engage in or support violent retribution? Or does the experience of post-conflict justice simply reinforce and exacerbate emotional and psychological suffering? Answers to these questions are central to the logic of truth-telling's peace-promoting effects in post-authoritarian and post-war societies. Indeed, one of transitional justice's core arguments is that victims of wartime abuse demand truth and justice. These arguments, however, assume that truth-telling processes, on average, provide psychological and emotional benefits to victims. Some critics have argued, however, that they actually cause more harm than good. Although victims' preferences for truth and justice are well documented, we know considerably less about their actual impact. This article assesses that impact by surveying the extant empirical evidence from prominent cases of transitional justice, as well as research in forensic and clinical psychology. It finds a paltry empirical record that offers little support for claims of either salutary or harmful effects of post-conflict justice. Although there is little evidence that truth-telling in general dramatically harms individuals, the notion that formal truth-telling processes satisfy victims' need for justice, ease their emotional and psychological suffering, and dampen their desire for vengeance, remains highly dubious.
Monshipouri, M.. "Human Rights Matters: Local Politics and National Human Rights Institutions." Review. Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 830-834.
[...] some analysts shifted their attention to a local discourse about ethics and social justice, while attempting to contextualize and interpret human rights within a local context.1 More recently, some scholars have shown how national actors and non-governmental organizations can be instrumental in defending and promoting human rights. A strict adherence to a human rights-based approach may interfere with such desirable goals as national reconciliation and human security in some societies. [...] the argument that "peace over justice" may be the most effective means of reaching a compromise under certain circumstances.24 This difficulty does not reduce the value of the insights presented in this volume; rather, it demonstrates the enormity of the task facing these national human rights institutions.
Peskin, V.. "Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court's Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 655-691.
This article addresses the unfolding pursuit of state cooperation by the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explains that the prosecutor's recent shift from a cautionary to a confrontational pursuit is due to 1) the failure to persuade states to hand over suspects and 2) the lack of international backing for arrests amid the quest for a negotiated peace to ongoing conflicts. The article focuses on the prosecutor's forceful campaign to apprehend rebel leaders from Uganda and government suspects implicated in atrocities in Darfur, including President Bashir of Sudan.
Price, M.. "End of Television and Foreign Policy." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 625, (September 1, 2009): 196.
The transformation of television has altered the capacity of the state to control the agenda for making war, convening in peace, and otherwise exercising its foreign policy options. In the age of the state gatekeeper, there was at least the illusion (and often the reality) that the government could substantially control the flow of images within its borders. With transformations in television systems, national systems of broadcast regulation have declined, replaced by transnational flows of information where local gatekeepers are not so salient. The rise of satellites with regional footprints and the spread of the Internet give governments the ability to reach over the heads of the state and speak directly to populations. Both receiving and sending states will have foreign policies about the meaning of the right to receive and impart information and the extent to which satellite signals can be regulated or channeled.
Roos, J.. "Women's Rights, Nationalist Anxiety, and the "Moral" Agenda in the Early Weimar Republic: Revisiting the "Black Horror" Campaign against France's African Occupation Troops." Central European History 42, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 473-508.
In the months and years following ratification of the Versailles Treaty, the Allied occupation of the Rhineland became a focal point of German nationalist propaganda. The campaign against the so-called "black shame on the Rhine" (schwarze Schmach am Rhein), a racist slogan referring to the stationing of soldiers from northern Africa, Senegal, and Madagascar in the French zone of occupation, was one of the ugliest outgrowths of German opposition to the peace treaty. Support for the movement against France's African troops was disquietingly broad. An interpellation to the Reich government of May 1920 launched by the Majority Social Democrats (SPD) and endorsed by all parties in the national assembly except the Independent Socialists (USPD) is illustrative of the racist fears motivating "black horror" protests: "Even after the armistice, the French and Belgians continue to use colored troops in the occupied territories. ... For German women and children, men and boys, these savages pose a horrifying danger. Their honor, health and life, purity and innocence are being destroyed. ... This situation is disgraceful, humiliating, and insufferable!"
Scanlon, S.. "The Conservative Lobby and Nixon's "Peace with Honor" in Vietnam." Journal of American Studies 43, no. 2 (August 1, 2009): 255-276.
This essay explores the responses of conservative political activists to the Nixon administration's policy of "peace with honor" in Vietnam. Conservatives sought to influence the administration by acceptance of Vietnamization, a policy they interpreted as affording a more conventional prosecution of the war, and by pushing for increased aerial bombardment of North Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Divisions over the efficacy of détente derailed a unified conservative position on Vietnam and forced reassessments of the legitimacy of Nixon's promise of "peace with honor." While highlighting the basic premises of conservative foreign policy during the late 1960s, this essay explores the means by which conservative leaders attempted to forge consensus regarding the Vietnam War and the impact of increased political power on the conservative movement's foreign-policy priorities.
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Tsai, T.. "Public health and peace building in Nepal." The Lancet 374, no. 9689 (August 15, 2009): 515-516.
[...] with the resignation of the Maoist cabinet, after only 9 months in power, and the ensuing impasse in forming a coalition government led by the new Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal, it remains to be seen if promoting public health will still be a priority. Since the cessation of the civil war in 2006, Nepal has seen a large influx of development aid, with around US$700 million committed for fiscal year 2008-09-a substantial proportion of its $3 billion budget according to the Ministry of Finance.
Waghid, Y.. "Patriotism and Democratic Citizenship Education in South Africa: On the (im) possibility of reconciliation and nation building." Educational Philosophy and Theory 41, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-409.
In this article, I shall evaluate critically the democratic citizenship education project in South Africa to ascertain whether the patriotic sentiments expressed in the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) are in conflict with the achievement of reconciliation and nation building (specifically peace and friendship) after decades of apartheid rule. My first argument is that, although it seems as if the teaching of patriotism through the Department of Education's democratic citizenship agenda in South African schools is a laudable initiative that can contribute toward establishing a definitive break with our apartheid past, the expression of blind patriotic sentiments (such as pledging allegiance to one's country and its citizens only) as articulated in the Manifesto can potentially marginalise others (immigrant communities) as the country endeavours to build its fledgling democracy. My second argument is that the intended democratic form of patriotism of the Department of Education can possibly be undermined by cultivating a culture of 'safe expression', which could slow down the country's quest for reconciliation and nation building.
Yurita, M., and R. Dornan. "Hiroshima: Whose Story Is It?" Children's Literature Association Quarterly 34, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 229-240.
[...] people who found boats to escape the fire were soon pelted by a tar-like black rain that was contaminated by radioactive ash. [...] Sadako reached the age of ten in 1954, radiation from that rain seemed to have little effect on her, but then she was surprised to learn she had malignant acute bone marrow leukemia.
Zunes, S.. "Peace or Pax Americana? US Middle East policy and the threat to global security." International Politics: Special Issue: The Islamic World Between Europe and the 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 573-595.
This paper examines US policy in the greater Middle Eastern region in the aftermath of the September 2001 al-Qaida attacks on the United States. The paper argues that the US Administration had engaged in a series of policy initiatives which have posed a direct challenge to the post-World War II international legal order. The doctrine of preventative war, the invasion and occupation of Iraq, threats against Iran, the aggressive counter-insurgency operations and air campaigns in Afghanistan, the backing for some of the more militaristic and expansionist elements in Israel, and related policies have served to alienate the United States from Middle Eastern states and even traditional European and Asian allies whose cooperation is needed in the struggle against international terrorism. The overemphasis on military means to address complex political, social and economic problems in Iraq, Lebanon and Iran has emboldened extremists and weakened moderate voices and have resulted in a more anarchic international order which makes legitimate counter-terrorism efforts all the more difficult.
Week of August 14-August 20, 2009 (Focus on International Relations):
Anonymous, . "Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Anonymous, . "Peace Negotiations in the Shadow of Violence." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 407.
Anonymous, . "The Peace Process and Palestinian Refugee Claims: Addressing Claims for Property Compensation and Restitution." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 408-409.
Baumgartner, F.. "Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 941-942. Baumgartner reviews Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde by Paul Sonnino.
Brownfeld, A.. "Will American Jewish Leaders Embrace the Netanyahu-Lieberman Regime?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 49-50.
How will the U.S. government - and the leaders of established American Jewish organizations - respond to Mr. Netanyahu's failure to accept Palestinian statehood, which in the past decade has been the anchor of U.S. policy in the region, and which most American Jewish groups have supported? First Egypt, then Jordan rescinded that doctrine.
Cochrane, F., B. Baser, and A. Swain. "Home Thoughts from Abroad: Diasporas and Peace-Building in Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 681.
This article looks at the dynamics of Diaspora groups as a possible catalyst for peace-building within violent segmented societies. With the help of two case studies, Irish-America's role in Northern Ireland and Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora's role in Sri Lanka, it locates the variable impacts of Diaspora involvement in violent conflicts within their homelands. Despite their unique histories and individual complexity, both of these cases illustrate that Diasporas have a significant role to play in peace-building, are diverse rather than homogenous communities, and that they represent an important and often underutilized resource to bring negotiated settlement to violent conflicts.
Cunliffe, P.. "The Politics of Global Governance in UN Peacekeeping." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 323.
This article examines the allocation of roles and responsibilities in the construction of UN peacekeeping. The case is made that decision making in UN peacekeeping is not only fragmented between various states and institutional actors, but also critically lopsided, with an uneven distribution of responsibilities and the majority of political, military and strategic risks falling upon those countries least able to bear them - poor and weak states. States that hold decision-making power are not the states that have to implement those decisions. The article concludes by arguing that this governance structure is not a symptom of organizational dysfunction, but that it serves a political function by allowing influence to be wielded without risk.
Franke, V., and A. Warnecke. "Building peace: an inventory of UN Peace Missions since the end of the Cold War." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 407.
After a brief introduction, this contribution comprises a tabular inventory of the 69 UN peace missions since the end of the Cold War. It highlights the structural features of each mission, the background to crisis and the mission's contributions to security, socio-economic well-being, governance, justice and reconciliation.
Gizelis, T.. "Gender Empowerment and United Nations Peacebuilding." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 505.
Previous studies have suggested that societies where women have higher social and economic status and greater political representation are less likely to become involved in conflict. In this article, the author argues that the prospects for successful post-conflict peacebuilding under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) are generally better in societies where women have greater levels of empowerment. Women's status in a society reflects the existence of multiple social networks and domestic capacity not captured by purely economic measures of development such as GDP per capita. In societies where women have relatively higher status, women have more opportunities to express a voice in the peacemaking process and to elicit broader domestic participation in externally led peacekeeping operations. This higher level of participation in turn implies that UN Peacekeeping operations can tap into great social capital and have better prospects for success. An empirical analysis of post-conflict cases with a high risk of conflict recurrence shows that UN peacekeeping operations have been significantly more effective in societies in which women have relatively higher status. By contrast, UN peacekeeping operations in countries where women have comparatively lower social status are much less likely to succeed.
Höglund, K., and I. Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Sri Lanka has suffered from one of Asia's most intractable civil wars, and is remarkably resistant to resolution. The peace process was initiated with a ceasefire between the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the Sri Lankan Government in 2002. This article explores the implications of the Norwegian mediation on this process. We argue that Norway's aspiration to promote an image of being a global peacemaker and the consent from regional and global powers are important in explaining why Norway became involved. Moreover, the Norwegian mediation approach - based on impartiality, ownership by the two main parties, and internationalization - has had consequences for how the process has unfolded. For instance, it influenced the potential leverage of Norway and conceptions about bias. This article contributes to an understanding of how regional and global processes, as well as mediator characteristics and approaches, influence the dynamics of civil war termination.
Hallward, M.. "Creative Responses to Separation: Israeli and Palestinian Joint Activism in Bil'in." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 541.
This article examines creative ways in which Israeli and Palestinian activists engage with each other and the powers seeking to separate them in their nonviolent struggles for a just and lasting peace. Using the geopolitical theory of territoriality, the article briefly examines a number of administrative, physical, and psychological barriers facing joint activism and the strategies activists use to counteract them. Drawing on nonviolent theory and practice, the article analyzes how activists exert power through the creative use of symbols and practices that undermine the legitimacy of occupation policies. Based on fieldwork conducted in 2004-05 and July 2006, the article explores the implications of this activism on conceptions of identity, and strategies for restarting a moribund peace process. The relative 'success' of sustained joint action in Bil'in can provide scholars and policymakers with innovative approaches for addressing some of the outstanding issues needing to be addressed by official negotiators. Although government bodies are more constrained than activists, the imaginative means of engaging with the system--and the reframing of issues through the redeployment of 'commonplaces'--can perhaps provide inspiration, if not leverage, for thinking outside of the box.
Jensehaugen, J.. "Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace." Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 605. Jensehaugen reviews Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace by Avi Shlaim.
Joyce, A.. "Editor’s Note." Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): III,IV.
The historic accomplishment of the Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, brokered in 1 978 by President Jimmy Carter and a top-flight team headed by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, was still fresh, although Carter had left onice in 1981 under the cloud of the Iranian hostage crisis (see the review of Carter's We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land, page 166). There followed the suicide bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks, the rebuilding of the PLO inside and outside the Occupied Territories, the first intifada, the birth of Hamas, the Iraq war for Kuwait, the Madrid Conference, the Oslo Accords, peace processing (see the review of Martin Indyk's Innocent Abroad, page 164), abortive talks with Syria, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, failure at Camp David II, the Taba talks, the second intifida, 9/11, the second Iraq war, the second Lebanon war, the latest Arab Peace Initiative, and the war on Gaza - to mention only selected high and low points.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
As it redesigns U.S. policy toward Russia, the Obama administration really does need to turn a page rather than simply tinker at the edges. This means setting far more ambitious goals for the U.S.-Russian relationship and devising a strategy to reach them. It means starting a comprehensive strategic dialogue.
Lowicki-Zucca, M., S. Karmin, and K. Dehne. "HIV among Peacekeepers and its Likely Impact on Prevalence on Host Countries' HIV Epidemics." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 352.
Concerns have been expressed with regard to the public health impact of HIV-positive peacekeepers in the countries in which they serve. This article tests three common contentions: (1) that troop contributing countries have higher prevalence than that of the host country; (2) that HIV prevalence of the peacekeeping mission is higher than that of the host country; and (3) that peacekeepers have a large public health impact on the HIV epidemics of the host countries. Using 2008 prevalence data as well as mission information from the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, this article argues against these notions.
Magnani, E.. "United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 1027-1028. Magnani reviews United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004 edited by Mats Berdal and Spyros Economides.
Maoz, I., and C. McCauley. "Threat Perceptions and Feelings as Predictors of Jewish-Israeli Support for Compromise with Palestinians." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 525.
A representative sample of Israeli Jews completed a survey assessing attitudes towards compromise in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Support for compromise was well predicted by a combination of four scales: perception of collective threat from Palestinians, perception of zero-sum relations between Palestinians and Israelis, personal fear of Palestinians, and sympathy towards Palestinians. Feelings of hostility towards Palestinians did not make an independent contribution to this prediction. As hypothesized, respondents who perceived high collective threat and zero-sum relations were much less supportive of making concessions to Palestinians. However, respondents who indicated feeling personal fear were in regression analysis slightly more supportive of compromise. Sympathy toward Palestinians was associated with more support for compromise. Additionally, religiosity was strongly associated with decreased support for compromise. However, entering threat perceptions and sympathy into the equation substantially reduced the predictive value of religiosity, indicating that psychological mechanisms underlie, at least in part, the tendency of more religious respondents to show less support for making concessions to Palestinians.
Masood, E.. "The globe's green avenger." Nature 460, no. 7254 (July 23, 2009): 454-455.
Born into poverty in the Canadian town of Oak Lake, Manitoba, at the start of the Great Depression, he writes in his autobiography Where on Earth are We Going? that his childhood dream was to devote his life to the protection of nature and to work for world peace, having lived through the Second World War and seen its effects on humans and on the environment. There is no point to an agreement, he says, unless it has "binding real penalties, fines and trade bans that are designed to make agreements enforceable", rather like what happens in the World Trade Organization or the International Atomic Energy Agency.\n It has taken nearly four decades for a potential solution to emerge.
Overy, R.. "Parting with Pacifism." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 23-29.
The obvious explanation lies in the perceived threat of German expansion and no doubt this did convince an unquantifiable number of anti-war supporters to reverse their commitment once it was clear that negotiation or appeasement had failed following the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. The more pacifist National Peace Council, the umbrella organisation for a whole number of pacifist and anti-war groups, also accepted that war should not be opposed as such and confined its activities to promoting the idea of a negotiated peace and a better world order to follow.
Peskin, V.. "Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court's Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 655-691.
This article addresses the unfolding pursuit of state cooperation by the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explains that the prosecutor's recent shift from a cautionary to a confrontational pursuit is due to 1) the failure to persuade states to hand over suspects and 2) the lack of international backing for arrests amid the quest for a negotiated peace to ongoing conflicts. The article focuses on the prosecutor's forceful campaign to apprehend rebel leaders from Uganda and government suspects implicated in atrocities in Darfur, including President Bashir of Sudan.
Rodao, F.. "Japan and the Axis, 1937-8: Recognition of the Franco Regime and Manchukuo." Journal of Contemporary History 44, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 431.
After just one year of the Spanish Civil War, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident led to the Sino-Japanese War, both conflicts remaining for two years as daily reminders of the world conflicts of the time. This article attempts to emphasize the importance of the coincidence in time of those conflicts in delimiting each bloc, especially through a decision that was particularly divisive for the Japanese government, such as recognition of Franco's rebel government after the outbreak of the war in China. Efforts by Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki to avoid a decision that would further Japan's pro-Axis drift show the lines of division in the government. His maneuvers progressively failed, including the November 1937 proposal for negotiations to include the recognition of Manchukuo, accepted first by Franco's Spain, later by Italy and finally by the Germans. The article emphasizes the role of Italy in Asia, the reasons for Spanish actions, and the aims of other key persons in this period, such as Prime Minister Konoe, the postwar leader Yoshida Shigeru, or Ishihara Kanji, the officer who masterminded the 1931 invasion of Manchuria.
Scarlett, M.. "Imagining a World beyond Genocide: Teaching about Transitional Justice." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 169-176.
The study of the ways in which societies emerging from violent conflict and repressive regimes achieve peace and reconciliation through forms of transitional justice, such as truth commissions, tribunals, systems of reparations, and memorialization of the past, offers an opportunity for secondary social studies teachers to address issues of human rights in a positive and humanizing way. In this article, the author provides a rationale for including the study of transitional justice in the secondary social studies curriculum along with suggestions for teaching it. He argues that the study of transitional justice presents opportunities for students to become morally inclusive in their thinking, engage in global democratic citizenship, and study critically important current events unfolding in their world.
Stanley, E.. "Ending the Korean War: The Role of Domestic Coalition Shifts in Overcoming Obstacles to Peace." International Security 34, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 42.
Bargaining models of war suggest that war ends after two sides develop an overlapping bargaining space. Domestic mechanisms- domestic governing coalitions, a state's elite foreign policy decisionmaking group, and their role in ending interstate war-are critical in explaining how, when, and why that bargaining space develops. Through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles, wars can become "stuck" and require a change in expectations to produce a war-terminating bargaining space. A major source of such change is a shift in belligerents' governing coalitions. Events in the United States, China, and the Soviet Union during the Korean War illustrate the dynamics of these obstacles and the need for domestic coalition shifts in overcoming them before the conflict could be brought to an end.
Tripodi, C.. ""Good for one but not the other"; The "Sandeman System" of Pacification as Applied to Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier, 1877-1947(1)." The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 767-802.
This article examines the long-running debate over the application of the "Sandeman System" of pacification to the North-West Frontier of British India in 1877-1947. Colonel Sir Robert Sandeman's innovative doctrine of tribal administration had enabled the peaceful spread of British influence across Baluchistan during the late nineteenth century, yet the Government of India subsequently declared his methods inapplicable to the neighboring and perennially turbulent North-West Frontier. This essay seeks to provide a fuller understanding of the reasoning behind the policymakers' opposition to Sandeman's techniques and thus provide clarification of a debate that bedeviled British Frontier policy for over six decades.
Velázquez, A.. "Different Paths and Divergent Policies in the UN Security System: Brazil and Mexico in Comparative Perspective." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 364.
How can we explain foreign policy variation among UN member states? Brazil and Mexico are the most likely cases for international primacy in the UN system, given their territorial dimension, demographic tendencies, economic importance, geopolitical location and relative weight in Latin America. Yet, despite their structural similarities, their policies and behaviour in the UN system have varied, both in terms of engagement with the Security Council and commitment regarding peacekeeping. By comparing two of Latin America's most influential countries, this study identifies the underlying conditions and mechanisms that explain their differences in behaviour and policy in the UN. In particular, this article analyses and contrasts how geopolitics and civil-military relations in Brazil and Mexico affect their incentives to participate in international organizations and their overall international commitment to peace.
Wilén, N.. "Capacity-building or Capacity-taking? Legitimizing Concepts in Peace and Development Operations." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 337.
This article critically analyses capacity-building and local ownership in the context of UN peace operations through interviews with UN staff and NGO representatives in Liberia and Burundi. The argument is that these concepts are left ambiguous and undefined to avoid accountability for peace operations while still functioning as value-adding and legitimizing discursive instruments for the latter. This article proves that the many paradoxes and contradictions surrounding the concepts clearly deter their operation in practice, while their positive connotations remain important, discursively, as legitimizing tools.
Williams, I.. "Nationhood: Ties that Bind, or Free?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 123.
Williams talks about the importance of "nationhood," specifically depicting UN's mediation in these events. He highlights here Kosovo's first anniversary of freedom on Feb 2009 and its critical step toward international recognition of its status as a truly self-governing, self-reliant nation. According to him, these defining moments impel reflection on the question of what independence, sovereignty, and citizenship really mean in today's globalized world.
Wittman, D.. "Bargaining in the Shadow of War: When Is a Peaceful Resolution Most Likely?" American Journal of Political Science 53, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 588-602.
This article derives the optimal bargaining strategies of the belligerents when each side has private but incomplete information about the expected outcome of a war, should it take place. I show that the aggressor's demand curve can be below the defender's offer curve, that wars are possible even when both sides are jointly pessimistic, and that the relative cost of a war can radically alter the types of disputes that end in war. A simple diagram provides the intuition for most of the major propositions.
Week of August 6-August 13, 2009 (Focus on International Relations):
Zunes, S.. "Peace or Pax Americana? US Middle East policy and the threat to global security." International Politics: Special Issue: The Islamic World Between Europe and the 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 573-595.
This paper examines US policy in the greater Middle Eastern region in the aftermath of the September 2001 al-Qaida attacks on the United States. The paper argues that the US Administration had engaged in a series of policy initiatives which have posed a direct challenge to the post-World War II international legal order. The doctrine of preventative war, the invasion and occupation of Iraq, threats against Iran, the aggressive counter-insurgency operations and air campaigns in Afghanistan, the backing for some of the more militaristic and expansionist elements in Israel, and related policies have served to alienate the United States from Middle Eastern states and even traditional European and Asian allies whose cooperation is needed in the struggle against international terrorism. The overemphasis on military means to address complex political, social and economic problems in Iraq, Lebanon and Iran has emboldened extremists and weakened moderate voices and have resulted in a more anarchic international order which makes legitimate counter-terrorism efforts all the more difficult.
Hook, J., E. Worthington, and S. Utsey. "Collectivism, Forgiveness, and Social Harmony." Counseling Psychologist 37, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 821.
Existing models of forgiveness and the strategies to promote forgiveness that draw from them are predominantly individualistic. As the United States becomes more diverse and counseling psychology becomes a more global field, counseling psychologists are increasingly likely to encounter clients who have a collectivistic worldview. The authors propose a theoretical model that clarifies the relationship between collectivism and forgiveness. The importance of maintaining social harmony in collectivistic cultures is central to this relationship. The model has two propositions. First, collectivistic forgiveness occurs within the broad context of social harmony, reconciliation, and relational repair. Second, collectivistic forgiveness is understood as primarily a decision to forgive but is motivated largely to promote and maintain group harmony rather than inner peace (as is more often the case in individualistically motivated forgiveness). Finally, the authors suggest a research agenda to study collectivistic forgiveness and provide guidelines for addressing forgiveness with collectivistic clients.
Anderson, K.. "United Nations Collective Security and the United States Security Guarantee in an Age of Rising Multipolarity: The Security Council as the Talking Shop of the Nations." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 55-90.
Other institutions are also taking note of the possible shifts and are responding. [...] the recent and quite remarkable European Court of Justice ("ECJ") ruling that, the Charter notwithstanding, the Security Council's resolutions under its binding power are not binding after all and subject to the rulings of institutions such as the ECJ itself.62 One may safely expect that a Security Council more driven by competitive Great Power politics will generate more, and more insistent, legal reconstructions from without, aimed at showing that the Security Council does not have the final juridical word in international peace and security, after all.
Anonymous. "Middle East Peace and Unpleasant Listening." Dialog 48, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 113-115.
Anonymous. "Nanomaterials Risks and Benefits (NATO Science for Peace and Security Studies)." Review. Risk Analysis 29, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1192-1195.
Anonymous. "The Green Zones." Foreign Policy no. 173 (July 1, 2009): 88.
In the cool air-conditioning of the Silverbird Galleria mall in Lagos, Nigeria, it is hard to remember that you are in the 15th-most failed state in the world. The chic coffee shops and designer clothes oddly befit Africa's newest financial hub, where business suits and talk of the latest market returns are ubiquitous. Many such countries have shining capital cities or thriving commercial centers, while festering pockets of instability lurk elsewhere. Somaliland, since declaring autonomy in 1991, has held elections, created a functioning government, and carved out a semblance of peace in a country where anarchy reigns. On the other hand, Sudan is expecting to construct 11,000 luxury apartments and villas before 2013 for the growing ranks of the wealthy.
Anonymous. "What's so funny about peace, love and understanding?" Nature Genetics 41, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 861.
There was much to appreciate at this superb meeting, but in particular, the major research areas illuminated by complementary studies of multiple populations were deafness (Hammadi Ayadi, Mustafa Tekin), cancer (Koulis Yannoukakos, Ephrat Levy-Lahad, Mary-Claire King), neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases (Murat Gunel, Matthew State, Lefkos Middleton) and developmental disorders (Dian Donnai, Han Brunner, Andre Mégarbané, Nurten Akarsu, Aslihan Tolun). Among these tools are a clinical interface for rare diseases (Orphanet, http://www.orpha.net/ ), an EU network of excellence dedicated to harmonizing genetic testing services (EuroGentest, http://www.eurogentest.org/ ) and the regular genetic medicine courses organized by the European Genetics Foundation ( http://www.eurogene.org/ ) that are available to be taken in person or over internet links.
Bachrach, D.. "War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History - Edited by Philip de Souza and John France." Early Medieval Europe 17, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 361-362.
Cavendish, R.. "AUG 1 1259: An Anglo-Welsh truce renewed." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 11.
Welsh independence in the 13th century did not mean separation from England - substantial areas were controlled by English barons - but the preservation of Welsh culture and local self-government in the Welsh heartland, with a native prince topping the feudal pyramid. Edward invaded Wales with overwhelm- ing force and in 1277 Liywelyn was made to accept an ignomin- ious peace treaty and a large fine (which Edward later waived) He was allowed to keep the homage of only five insignifi- cant Welsh lords and, though he retained his Prince of Wales tille, U was now meaningless.
Cronfalk, B., P. Strang, and B. Ternestedt. "Inner power, physical strength and existential well-being in daily life: relatives' experiences of receiving soft tissue massage in palliative home care." Journal of Clinical Nursing 18, no. 15 (August 1, 2009): 2225.
Soft tissue massage gave the relatives' feelings of 'being cared for', 'body vitality' and 'peace of mind'. For a while, they put worries of daily life aside as they just experienced 'being'. During massage, it became apparent that body and mind is constituted of an indestructible completeness. The overarching theme was 'inner power, physical strength and existential well-being in their daily lives'. All relatives experienced soft tissue massage positively, although they were under considerable stress. Soft tissue massage could be an option to comfort and support relatives in palliative home care. In palliative nursing care, soft tissue massage could present a worthy supplement in supporting caring relatives.
Evans, M.. "Moral Responsibilities and the Conflicting Demands of Jus Post Bellum." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 147-164,89.
Brian Orend's influential version of jus post bellum exemplifies this formulation, focusing upon just peace terms and just compensation or reparations, with deeper involvement in a justly occupied state permitted only when what he cans "rehabilitation" is desirable.6 It is a restricted conception because (i) it is largely confined to matters of the ending and immediate aftermath of a just war; and (2) it focuses on the rights of just combatants, whereas their responsibilities are apparently...
Hollywood, A.. "Saint Paul and the New Man." Critical Inquiry 35, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 865.
According to many passages in the Hebrew Bible and in postbiblical Jewish literature, when God establishes his kingdom, Gentiles will come to Israel to worship him. In one of the most famous of these passages, the eighth-century Isaiah looks forward to a time of universal salvation and peace. Here, Hollywood emphasizes that this promise and ones like it provide the context in which Paul and other early followers of Christ believed that Christ and his message were meant not only for Jews but also for Gentiles.
Horner, D.. "S. Korean Pyroprocessing Awaits U.S. Decision." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 33-34.
In a rare public statement on the issue in May 2008 at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, Carter "Buzz" Savage, director of fuel cycle research and development in the Department of Energy, said pyroprocessing "obviously" is reprocessing if one carries out "the full flow sheet," the sequence of activities followed in the process. Sen. Richard Lugar (R-Ind.), the Foreign Relations Committee's ranking member, appeared to be seeking information on that point when he posed a written question to Rep. Ellen Tauscher (D-Calif.), as part of her confirmation process to be undersecretary of state for arms control and international security (see page 37).
House, J.. "The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Origins, Planning, and Crisis Management, June 1987-December 1989." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 145-146.
The Goldwater- Nichols Act of 1986 was intended to reduce misunderstandings and increase the integration of the military services, but Panama came to a head before that act was fully implemented. [...] Woerner and Thurman had to deal with a host of issues involving friction between the services.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
As it redesigns U.S. policy toward Russia, the Obama administration really does need to turn a page rather than simply tinker at the edges. This means setting far more ambitious goals for the U.S.-Russian relationship and devising a strategy to reach them. It means starting a comprehensive strategic dialogue.
Mirra, H.. "Project Statement." Critical Inquiry 35, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 1019.
Mirra shares that for a few years she had been writing indexes, attempting to turn the form into a kind of poetry. Here, she features her newest project, where she wrote indexes for two books by authors closely connected to the histories of the University of Chicago and the city of Chicago: John Dewey's Experience and Nature (1925) and Jane Addams's Newer Ideals of Peace (1907). According to her, both writers were motivated by a progressive, politically committed community engagement, and they each realized far-reaching experiments coordinating various forms of knowledge.
Overy, R.. "Parting with Pacifism." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 23-29.
The obvious explanation lies in the perceived threat of German expansion and no doubt this did convince an unquantifiable number of anti-war supporters to reverse their commitment once it was clear that negotiation or appeasement had failed following the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. The more pacifist National Peace Council, the umbrella organisation for a whole number of pacifist and anti-war groups, also accepted that war should not be opposed as such and confined its activities to promoting the idea of a negotiated peace and a better world order to follow.
Rahman, S., P. Junankar, and G. Mallik. "Factors influencing women's empowerment on microcredit borrowers: a case study in Bangladesh." Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 14, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 287.
Women's empowerment in relation to microcredit programmes is a prominent issue in the literature of microcredit. Not only the founder of the Grameen Bank is awarded the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize on the microcredit programme of Bangladesh but it has also been a topic of great interest to researchers since its introduction in mid-1970s. This study views women's empowerment from an emancipation perspective. The study uses quasi-experimental approach to compare women's empowerment between microcredit borrowers and non-borrowers. Using control-group method (non-borrowers from non-programme villages), this study identifies factors that influence women's empowerment. It also examines the impact on women's empowerment of borrowers having different levels of income. Results show that non-borrowers are equally empowered as microcredit borrowers. It has also been found that age and education levels of women are significant factors in such an empowerment.
Scalion, S.. "The Conservative Lobby and Nixon's "Peace with Honor" in Vietnam." Journal of American Studies 43, no. 2 (August 1, 2009): 255-276.
This essay explores the responses of conservative political activists to the Nixon administration's policy of "peace with honor" in Vietnam. Conservatives sought to influence the administration by acceptance of Vietnamization, a policy they interpreted as affording a more conventional prosecution of the war, and by pushing for increased aerial bombardment of North Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Divisions over the efficacy of détente derailed a unified conservative position on Vietnam and forced reassessments of the legitimacy of Nixon's promise of "peace with honor." While highlighting the basic premises of conservative foreign policy during the late 1960s, this essay explores the means by which conservative leaders attempted to forge consensus regarding the Vietnam War and the impact of increased political power on the conservative movement's foreign-policy priorities.
Sabl, A.. "The Last Artificial Virtue: Hume on Toleration and Its Lessons." Political Theory 37, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 511.
David flume's position on religion is, broadly speaking, "politic": instrumental and consequentialist. Religions should be tolerated or not according to their effects on political peace and order. Such theories of toleration are often rejected as immoral or unstable. The reading provided here responds by reading flume's position as one of radically indirect consequentialism. While religious policy should serve consequentialist ends, making direct reference to those ends merely gives free reign to religious-political bigotry and faction. Toleration, like Hume's other "artificial virtues" (justice, fidelity to promises, allegiance to government), is a universally useful response to our universal partiality--as Established uniformity, however tempting, is not. This implies that toleration can progress through political learning, becoming broader and more constitutionally established overtime. A sophisticated Humean approach thus shares the stability and nonnative attractiveness of respect- or rights- based arguments while responding more acutely and flexibly to problems the former often slights: antinomian religious extremism; underdefined political agency; and internationalized, politicized religious movements.
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Schwartz, T.. "Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969-1977." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 143-144.
The first section opens with Jussi Hanhimäki's essay, which makes clear that Nixon began his administration with a vision of creating a "structure of peace" through a "grand design" for American foreign policy, a realist design that would emphasize American national interests with a "healthy" sense of the "limits of American power" (42). Thomas Zeiler's discussion of Nixon's tough tactics toward Japan on economic issues acknowledges the domestic politics involved but gives Nixon credit for recognizing the future trends of the world economy and America's new position within it.
Stanley, E.. "Ending the Korean War: The Role of Domestic Coalition Shifts in Overcoming Obstacles to Peace." International Security 34, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 42.
Bargaining models of war suggest that war ends after two sides develop an overlapping bargaining space. Domestic mechanisms- domestic governing coalitions, a state's elite foreign policy decisionmaking group, and their role in ending interstate war-are critical in explaining how, when, and why that bargaining space develops. Through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles, wars can become "stuck" and require a change in expectations to produce a war-terminating bargaining space. A major source of such change is a shift in belligerents' governing coalitions. Events in the United States, China, and the Soviet Union during the Korean War illustrate the dynamics of these obstacles and the need for domestic coalition shifts in overcoming them before the conflict could be brought to an end.
Waghid, Y.. "Patriotism and Democratic Citizenship Education in South Africa: On the (im) possibility of reconciliation and nation building." Educational Philosophy and Theory 41, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-409.
In this article, I shall evaluate critically the democratic citizenship education project in South Africa to ascertain whether the patriotic sentiments expressed in the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) are in conflict with the achievement of reconciliation and nation building (specifically peace and friendship) after decades of apartheid rule. My first argument is that, although it seems as if the teaching of patriotism through the Department of Education's democratic citizenship agenda in South African schools is a laudable initiative that can contribute toward establishing a definitive break with our apartheid past, the expression of blind patriotic sentiments (such as pledging allegiance to one's country and its citizens only) as articulated in the Manifesto can potentially marginalise others (immigrant communities) as the country endeavours to build its fledgling democracy. My second argument is that the intended democratic form of patriotism of the Department of Education can possibly be undermined by cultivating a culture of 'safe expression', which could slow down the country's quest for reconciliation and nation building.
Whitehead, D.. "Teacher, Where Are You?" Childhood Education 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 242B.
The Quest for Power and the Search for Peace, author Sean Kay points out that teacher absenteeism is a growing problem that, ultimately, can even contribute to upsetting the delicate balance of global security. The growing teacher shortage around the world makes it vital to guarantee that individuals who have already made an earnest commitment to the profession of educating children remain present and available.
Wilson, P.. "Who Won the Thirty Years’ War?" History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 12-19.
Dame Veronica Wedgwood concluded her celebrated account of the Thirty Years War, first published in 1938, by claiming it 'solved no problem' and was 'the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict.' The voting procedure in the imperial diet and other institutions was changed to protect Protestants from the in-built Catholic majority where the agenda touched matters of religion.
Yanez, B., D. Edmondson, A. Stanton, C. Park, L. Kwan, P. Ganz, and T. Blank. "Facets of Spirituality as Predictors of Adjustment to Cancer: Relative Contributions of Having Faith and Finding Meaning." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 77, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 730.
Spirituality is a multidimensional construct, and little is known about how its distinct dimensions jointly affect well-being. In longitudinal studies (Study 1, n = 418 breast cancer patients; Study 2, n = 165 cancer survivors), the authors examined 2 components of spiritual well-being (i.e., meaning/peace and faith) and their interaction, as well as change scores on those variables, as predictors of psychological adjustment. In Study 1, higher baseline meaning/peace, as well as an increase in meaning/peace over 6 months, predicted a decline in depressive symptoms and an increase in vitality across 12 months in breast cancer patients. Baseline faith predicted an increase in perceived cancer-related growth. Study 2 revealed that an increase in meaning/peace was related to improved mental health and lower cancer-related distress. An increase in faith was related to increased cancer-related growth. Both studies revealed significant interactions between meaning/peace and faith in predicting adjustment. Findings suggest that the ability to find meaning and peace in life is the more influential contributor to favorable adjustment during cancer survivorship, although faith appears to be uniquely related to perceived cancer-related growth.
Anonymous, . "Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Anonymous, . "Peace Negotiations in the Shadow of Violence." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 407.
Anonymous, . "The Peace Process and Palestinian Refugee Claims: Addressing Claims for Property Compensation and Restitution." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 408-409.
Baumgartner, F.. "Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 941-942. Baumgartner reviews Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde by Paul Sonnino.
Brownfeld, A.. "Will American Jewish Leaders Embrace the Netanyahu-Lieberman Regime?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 49-50.
How will the U.S. government - and the leaders of established American Jewish organizations - respond to Mr. Netanyahu's failure to accept Palestinian statehood, which in the past decade has been the anchor of U.S. policy in the region, and which most American Jewish groups have supported? First Egypt, then Jordan rescinded that doctrine.
Cochrane, F., B. Baser, and A. Swain. "Home Thoughts from Abroad: Diasporas and Peace-Building in Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 681.
This article looks at the dynamics of Diaspora groups as a possible catalyst for peace-building within violent segmented societies. With the help of two case studies, Irish-America's role in Northern Ireland and Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora's role in Sri Lanka, it locates the variable impacts of Diaspora involvement in violent conflicts within their homelands. Despite their unique histories and individual complexity, both of these cases illustrate that Diasporas have a significant role to play in peace-building, are diverse rather than homogenous communities, and that they represent an important and often underutilized resource to bring negotiated settlement to violent conflicts.
Cunliffe, P.. "The Politics of Global Governance in UN Peacekeeping." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 323.
This article examines the allocation of roles and responsibilities in the construction of UN peacekeeping. The case is made that decision making in UN peacekeeping is not only fragmented between various states and institutional actors, but also critically lopsided, with an uneven distribution of responsibilities and the majority of political, military and strategic risks falling upon those countries least able to bear them - poor and weak states. States that hold decision-making power are not the states that have to implement those decisions. The article concludes by arguing that this governance structure is not a symptom of organizational dysfunction, but that it serves a political function by allowing influence to be wielded without risk.
Franke, V., and A. Warnecke. "Building peace: an inventory of UN Peace Missions since the end of the Cold War." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 407.
After a brief introduction, this contribution comprises a tabular inventory of the 69 UN peace missions since the end of the Cold War. It highlights the structural features of each mission, the background to crisis and the mission's contributions to security, socio-economic well-being, governance, justice and reconciliation.
Gizelis, T.. "Gender Empowerment and United Nations Peacebuilding." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 505.
Previous studies have suggested that societies where women have higher social and economic status and greater political representation are less likely to become involved in conflict. In this article, the author argues that the prospects for successful post-conflict peacebuilding under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) are generally better in societies where women have greater levels of empowerment. Women's status in a society reflects the existence of multiple social networks and domestic capacity not captured by purely economic measures of development such as GDP per capita. In societies where women have relatively higher status, women have more opportunities to express a voice in the peacemaking process and to elicit broader domestic participation in externally led peacekeeping operations. This higher level of participation in turn implies that UN Peacekeeping operations can tap into great social capital and have better prospects for success. An empirical analysis of post-conflict cases with a high risk of conflict recurrence shows that UN peacekeeping operations have been significantly more effective in societies in which women have relatively higher status. By contrast, UN peacekeeping operations in countries where women have comparatively lower social status are much less likely to succeed.
Höglund, K., and I. Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Sri Lanka has suffered from one of Asia's most intractable civil wars, and is remarkably resistant to resolution. The peace process was initiated with a ceasefire between the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the Sri Lankan Government in 2002. This article explores the implications of the Norwegian mediation on this process. We argue that Norway's aspiration to promote an image of being a global peacemaker and the consent from regional and global powers are important in explaining why Norway became involved. Moreover, the Norwegian mediation approach - based on impartiality, ownership by the two main parties, and internationalization - has had consequences for how the process has unfolded. For instance, it influenced the potential leverage of Norway and conceptions about bias. This article contributes to an understanding of how regional and global processes, as well as mediator characteristics and approaches, influence the dynamics of civil war termination.
Hallward, M.. "Creative Responses to Separation: Israeli and Palestinian Joint Activism in Bil'in." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 541.
This article examines creative ways in which Israeli and Palestinian activists engage with each other and the powers seeking to separate them in their nonviolent struggles for a just and lasting peace. Using the geopolitical theory of territoriality, the article briefly examines a number of administrative, physical, and psychological barriers facing joint activism and the strategies activists use to counteract them. Drawing on nonviolent theory and practice, the article analyzes how activists exert power through the creative use of symbols and practices that undermine the legitimacy of occupation policies. Based on fieldwork conducted in 2004-05 and July 2006, the article explores the implications of this activism on conceptions of identity, and strategies for restarting a moribund peace process. The relative 'success' of sustained joint action in Bil'in can provide scholars and policymakers with innovative approaches for addressing some of the outstanding issues needing to be addressed by official negotiators. Although government bodies are more constrained than activists, the imaginative means of engaging with the system--and the reframing of issues through the redeployment of 'commonplaces'--can perhaps provide inspiration, if not leverage, for thinking outside of the box.
Jensehaugen, J.. "Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace." Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 605. Jensehaugen reviews Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace by Avi Shlaim.
Joyce, A.. "Editor’s Note." Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): III,IV.
The historic accomplishment of the Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, brokered in 1 978 by President Jimmy Carter and a top-flight team headed by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, was still fresh, although Carter had left onice in 1981 under the cloud of the Iranian hostage crisis (see the review of Carter's We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land, page 166). There followed the suicide bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks, the rebuilding of the PLO inside and outside the Occupied Territories, the first intifada, the birth of Hamas, the Iraq war for Kuwait, the Madrid Conference, the Oslo Accords, peace processing (see the review of Martin Indyk's Innocent Abroad, page 164), abortive talks with Syria, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, failure at Camp David II, the Taba talks, the second intifida, 9/11, the second Iraq war, the second Lebanon war, the latest Arab Peace Initiative, and the war on Gaza - to mention only selected high and low points.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
As it redesigns U.S. policy toward Russia, the Obama administration really does need to turn a page rather than simply tinker at the edges. This means setting far more ambitious goals for the U.S.-Russian relationship and devising a strategy to reach them. It means starting a comprehensive strategic dialogue.
Lowicki-Zucca, M., S. Karmin, and K. Dehne. "HIV among Peacekeepers and its Likely Impact on Prevalence on Host Countries' HIV Epidemics." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 352.
Concerns have been expressed with regard to the public health impact of HIV-positive peacekeepers in the countries in which they serve. This article tests three common contentions: (1) that troop contributing countries have higher prevalence than that of the host country; (2) that HIV prevalence of the peacekeeping mission is higher than that of the host country; and (3) that peacekeepers have a large public health impact on the HIV epidemics of the host countries. Using 2008 prevalence data as well as mission information from the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, this article argues against these notions.
Magnani, E.. "United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 1027-1028. Magnani reviews United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004 edited by Mats Berdal and Spyros Economides.
Maoz, I., and C. McCauley. "Threat Perceptions and Feelings as Predictors of Jewish-Israeli Support for Compromise with Palestinians." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 525.
A representative sample of Israeli Jews completed a survey assessing attitudes towards compromise in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Support for compromise was well predicted by a combination of four scales: perception of collective threat from Palestinians, perception of zero-sum relations between Palestinians and Israelis, personal fear of Palestinians, and sympathy towards Palestinians. Feelings of hostility towards Palestinians did not make an independent contribution to this prediction. As hypothesized, respondents who perceived high collective threat and zero-sum relations were much less supportive of making concessions to Palestinians. However, respondents who indicated feeling personal fear were in regression analysis slightly more supportive of compromise. Sympathy toward Palestinians was associated with more support for compromise. Additionally, religiosity was strongly associated with decreased support for compromise. However, entering threat perceptions and sympathy into the equation substantially reduced the predictive value of religiosity, indicating that psychological mechanisms underlie, at least in part, the tendency of more religious respondents to show less support for making concessions to Palestinians.
Masood, E.. "The globe's green avenger." Nature 460, no. 7254 (July 23, 2009): 454-455.
Born into poverty in the Canadian town of Oak Lake, Manitoba, at the start of the Great Depression, he writes in his autobiography Where on Earth are We Going? that his childhood dream was to devote his life to the protection of nature and to work for world peace, having lived through the Second World War and seen its effects on humans and on the environment. There is no point to an agreement, he says, unless it has "binding real penalties, fines and trade bans that are designed to make agreements enforceable", rather like what happens in the World Trade Organization or the International Atomic Energy Agency.\n It has taken nearly four decades for a potential solution to emerge.
Overy, R.. "Parting with Pacifism." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 23-29.
The obvious explanation lies in the perceived threat of German expansion and no doubt this did convince an unquantifiable number of anti-war supporters to reverse their commitment once it was clear that negotiation or appeasement had failed following the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. The more pacifist National Peace Council, the umbrella organisation for a whole number of pacifist and anti-war groups, also accepted that war should not be opposed as such and confined its activities to promoting the idea of a negotiated peace and a better world order to follow.
Peskin, V.. "Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court's Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 655-691.
This article addresses the unfolding pursuit of state cooperation by the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explains that the prosecutor's recent shift from a cautionary to a confrontational pursuit is due to 1) the failure to persuade states to hand over suspects and 2) the lack of international backing for arrests amid the quest for a negotiated peace to ongoing conflicts. The article focuses on the prosecutor's forceful campaign to apprehend rebel leaders from Uganda and government suspects implicated in atrocities in Darfur, including President Bashir of Sudan.
Rodao, F.. "Japan and the Axis, 1937-8: Recognition of the Franco Regime and Manchukuo." Journal of Contemporary History 44, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 431.
After just one year of the Spanish Civil War, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident led to the Sino-Japanese War, both conflicts remaining for two years as daily reminders of the world conflicts of the time. This article attempts to emphasize the importance of the coincidence in time of those conflicts in delimiting each bloc, especially through a decision that was particularly divisive for the Japanese government, such as recognition of Franco's rebel government after the outbreak of the war in China. Efforts by Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki to avoid a decision that would further Japan's pro-Axis drift show the lines of division in the government. His maneuvers progressively failed, including the November 1937 proposal for negotiations to include the recognition of Manchukuo, accepted first by Franco's Spain, later by Italy and finally by the Germans. The article emphasizes the role of Italy in Asia, the reasons for Spanish actions, and the aims of other key persons in this period, such as Prime Minister Konoe, the postwar leader Yoshida Shigeru, or Ishihara Kanji, the officer who masterminded the 1931 invasion of Manchuria.
Scarlett, M.. "Imagining a World beyond Genocide: Teaching about Transitional Justice." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 169-176.
The study of the ways in which societies emerging from violent conflict and repressive regimes achieve peace and reconciliation through forms of transitional justice, such as truth commissions, tribunals, systems of reparations, and memorialization of the past, offers an opportunity for secondary social studies teachers to address issues of human rights in a positive and humanizing way. In this article, the author provides a rationale for including the study of transitional justice in the secondary social studies curriculum along with suggestions for teaching it. He argues that the study of transitional justice presents opportunities for students to become morally inclusive in their thinking, engage in global democratic citizenship, and study critically important current events unfolding in their world.
Stanley, E.. "Ending the Korean War: The Role of Domestic Coalition Shifts in Overcoming Obstacles to Peace." International Security 34, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 42.
Bargaining models of war suggest that war ends after two sides develop an overlapping bargaining space. Domestic mechanisms- domestic governing coalitions, a state's elite foreign policy decisionmaking group, and their role in ending interstate war-are critical in explaining how, when, and why that bargaining space develops. Through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles, wars can become "stuck" and require a change in expectations to produce a war-terminating bargaining space. A major source of such change is a shift in belligerents' governing coalitions. Events in the United States, China, and the Soviet Union during the Korean War illustrate the dynamics of these obstacles and the need for domestic coalition shifts in overcoming them before the conflict could be brought to an end.
Tripodi, C.. ""Good for one but not the other"; The "Sandeman System" of Pacification as Applied to Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier, 1877-1947(1)." The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 767-802.
This article examines the long-running debate over the application of the "Sandeman System" of pacification to the North-West Frontier of British India in 1877-1947. Colonel Sir Robert Sandeman's innovative doctrine of tribal administration had enabled the peaceful spread of British influence across Baluchistan during the late nineteenth century, yet the Government of India subsequently declared his methods inapplicable to the neighboring and perennially turbulent North-West Frontier. This essay seeks to provide a fuller understanding of the reasoning behind the policymakers' opposition to Sandeman's techniques and thus provide clarification of a debate that bedeviled British Frontier policy for over six decades.
Velázquez, A.. "Different Paths and Divergent Policies in the UN Security System: Brazil and Mexico in Comparative Perspective." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 364.
How can we explain foreign policy variation among UN member states? Brazil and Mexico are the most likely cases for international primacy in the UN system, given their territorial dimension, demographic tendencies, economic importance, geopolitical location and relative weight in Latin America. Yet, despite their structural similarities, their policies and behaviour in the UN system have varied, both in terms of engagement with the Security Council and commitment regarding peacekeeping. By comparing two of Latin America's most influential countries, this study identifies the underlying conditions and mechanisms that explain their differences in behaviour and policy in the UN. In particular, this article analyses and contrasts how geopolitics and civil-military relations in Brazil and Mexico affect their incentives to participate in international organizations and their overall international commitment to peace.
Wilén, N.. "Capacity-building or Capacity-taking? Legitimizing Concepts in Peace and Development Operations." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 337.
This article critically analyses capacity-building and local ownership in the context of UN peace operations through interviews with UN staff and NGO representatives in Liberia and Burundi. The argument is that these concepts are left ambiguous and undefined to avoid accountability for peace operations while still functioning as value-adding and legitimizing discursive instruments for the latter. This article proves that the many paradoxes and contradictions surrounding the concepts clearly deter their operation in practice, while their positive connotations remain important, discursively, as legitimizing tools.
Williams, I.. "Nationhood: Ties that Bind, or Free?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 123.
Williams talks about the importance of "nationhood," specifically depicting UN's mediation in these events. He highlights here Kosovo's first anniversary of freedom on Feb 2009 and its critical step toward international recognition of its status as a truly self-governing, self-reliant nation. According to him, these defining moments impel reflection on the question of what independence, sovereignty, and citizenship really mean in today's globalized world.
Wittman, D.. "Bargaining in the Shadow of War: When Is a Peaceful Resolution Most Likely?" American Journal of Political Science 53, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 588-602.
This article derives the optimal bargaining strategies of the belligerents when each side has private but incomplete information about the expected outcome of a war, should it take place. I show that the aggressor's demand curve can be below the defender's offer curve, that wars are possible even when both sides are jointly pessimistic, and that the relative cost of a war can radically alter the types of disputes that end in war. A simple diagram provides the intuition for most of the major propositions.
Week of July 30-August 6, 2009 (Focus on International Relations):
Abebe, D.. "Great Power Politics and the Structure of Foreign Relations Law." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 125-141.
The executive must account for the interests of competing great powers and internalize the costs that those competing great powers could impose. [...] extant internal constraints from foreign relations law are supported by the strength of external constraints from great power politics. [...] it might be preferable for courts to engage in an explicit discussion of international politics as they resolve some foreign relations law questions.
Stephan, P.. "Symmetry and Selectivity: What Happens in International Law When the World Changes." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 91-123.
Develops an informal model of asymmetry in interstate relations that assumes rational state actors and iterative interactions among these actors. [...] changes in the structure of international relations have a clearly observable effect on international law.
Frost, M.. "Ethical Competence in International Relations." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 91-100,89.
In August 2008, Georgian troops attacked and occupied South Ossetia. The action was presented by Georgia in ethical language - not as a grab for power, but as an ethically justifiable response by the government of a sovereign state to prior attempts by South Ossetia to use military force to expel Georgians from the territory. This attempt at forcible removal, the Georgian claim went, was made with a view to subsequent secession by South Ossetia.
Åslund, A.. "Ukraine's Financial Crisis, 2009." Eurasian Geogphy and Economics 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 371.
A prominent specialist in the economic affairs of the former Soviet Union relates and analyzes the state of Ukraine's economy in light of a series of discussions and interviews with the country's Prime Minister and leading economic officials in Kyiv in 2008 and April 2009. The author, a former economic advisor to the country's government and co-chair of the UN's Blue Ribbon Commission for Ukraine, devotes this paper to a penetrating analysis of the impact of the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 on Ukraine's budget, banks, exchange rates, money supply, industrial sectors (particularly energy and steel), GDP, and inflationary pressures. Due attention is given to economic relations with the EU and Russia as well as to financial assistance from the IMF.
Andres, A.. "Colonial Crisis and Spanish Diplomacy in the Caribbean During the Sexenio Revolucionario, 1868-1874." Bulletin of Latin American Research 28, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 325-342.
During the nineteenth century, the Caribbean was the stage for a complex geopolitical confrontation involving the United States, Spain, Great Britain, and France. The precarious balance of powers in that region was upset by the outbreak of the Cuban crisis in 1868 and by the dawn of the period of severe instability in Spain following the overthrow of Isabel II and the onset of the reformist period characterised by the Sexenio Revolucionario. The Cuban crisis strongly constrained the foreign policy of the new regime in Spain and turned the Caribbean Basin into a zone of vital interest for Spanish diplomacy.
Buckel, S., and A. Fischer-Lescano. "Gramsci Reconsidered: Hegemony in Global Law." Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 437-454.
This article focuses on Antonio Gramsci's hegemony theory. Hegemony, for Gramsci, is a particular way of living and thinking, a Weltanschauung (world-view), on which the preferences, taste, morality, ethics, and philosophical principles of the majority are based. Social struggles are transformed into legal ones in the course of processes in which juridical intellectuals are organizing hegemony under the special conditions of the legal system. We try to use this concept to contrast it with the prevailing readings of hegemony in international relations and in international law. 'Hegemonic law', we argue, is not the law of any superpower, but an asymmetric consensus which relies on a climate of world-society-wide recognition. The concrete form of hegemonic law under particular social conditions depends on the 'historical bloc', in which it is coupled with other social praxes. In the post-Westphalian system the historical bloc is fragmented into transnational and colliding legal regimes and law-generating processes in civil society.
Buzzini, G.. "Lights and Shadows of Immunities and Inviolability of State Officials in International Law: Some Comments on the Djibouti v. France Case." Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 455-483.
This article examines the reasoning and findings of the International Court of Justice in its judgment in Djibouti v. France on issues pertaining to the immunities and inviolability of state officials. While recognizing the Court's contribution to the clarification of certain aspects of the legal regime of the immunities and inviolability of state officials, the article emphasizes a number of points on which a clear response cannot be found in the judgment. Moreover, some concerns or doubts are raised about the way in which the Court dealt with certain issues regarding, in particular, the classification of immunities, their scope, their implementation, and the acts precluded by their operation. The Court's judgment clearly shows the complexities surrounding the legal treatment of numerous aspects of a topic which continues to be of the highest importance and sensitivity in international law and international relations.
Berik, G., Y. Rodgers, and S. Seguino. "Feminist Economics of Inequality, Development, and Growth." Feminist Economics 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 1.
This study examines connections between intergroup inequality and macroeconomic outcomes, considering various channels through which gender, growth, and development interact. It upholds the salience not only of equality in opportunities but also equality in outcomes. The contribution argues that inequalities based on gender, race, ethnicity, and class undermine the ability to provision and expand capabilities, and it examines the macroeconomic policies that are likely to promote broadly shared development. It explores how the macroeconomy acts as a structure of constraint in achieving gender equality and in turn how gender relations in areas like education and wage gaps can have macro-level impacts. Further, it underscores that the interaction of the macroeconomy and gender relations depends on the structure of the economy, the nature of job segregation, the particular measure of gender inequality, and a country's international relations. Finally, it outlines policies for promoting gender equality as both an intrinsic goal and a step toward improving well-being.
Bonkiewicz, L., A. Frost, S. Koon-Magnin, K. McIntosh, L. Rosell, R. Simon, and C. Tucker. "Security Disarmed: Critical Perspectives on Gender, Race, and Militarization." Review. Contemporary Sociology 38, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 386-387.
The editors define militarization as "how societies become dependent on and imbued by the logic of military institutions, in ways that permeate language, popular culture, economic priorities, education systems, government policies, and national values and identities" (p.4), and militarization is critically examined with an eye to bringing about a more peaceful society.
Boyce, R.. "That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 548.
Chan, . "The Legal Status of Taiwan and the Legality of the Use of Force in a Cross-Taiwan Strait Conflict." Chinese Journal of International Law 8, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 455-492.
The legal status of Taiwan remains one of the most important concerns in international relations, as the continual political tensions have the potential of generating armed conflicts, not only across the Taiwan Strait but also between the People's Republic of China government and the United States, and of destabilizing the security in the Asia-Pacific region and the international community. This article examines on the basis of international law whether Taiwan has a valid claim to statehood. The implications of relevant peace treaties, the issue of foreign recognition of States and governments, the nature and extent of the right to self-determination, and the permissibility of the use of force under the right of self-defense and the notion of humanitarian intervention in relation to the Taiwan question are discussed.
Chotiner, B.. "Inside the Soviet Alternate Universe: The Cold War's End and the Soviet Union's Fall Reappraised." Review. Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1134.
Cruz, J.. "The Invention of Spain: Cultural Relations between Britain and Spain, 1770-1870." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 534.
Genna, G.. "Positive country images, trust and public support for European integration." Comparative European Politics 7, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 213-232.
In this paper I contribute to the scholarship on public support for European integration by arguing that member-states' positive images influence individuals' support decisions. An attribute of this positive image is trust, which individuals utilize given the complexity of the integration process, the salient impact it has on their lives and the low levels of information individuals possess. The use of a member-state's image is therefore a short-cut to evaluate integration's impact on individuals. As the development of integration is strongly influenced by the relatively more economically powerful member-state, trust in Germany increases the level of support, more so than trusting the remaining members.
Giustino, C.. "Czechoslovakia in a Nationalist and Fascist Europe, 1918-1948." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 525.
Harvey, C.. "Russia Vetoes UN Mission in Georgia." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 43-44.
Russia voted against extending the mandate of the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) in the Security Council June 15, scuttling a last-minute effort to renew the mission's mandate and dealing another blow to the already strained Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty. Addressing the Security Council after the vote last month, Rosemary DiCarlo, the U.S. alternative representative for special political affairs at the UN, said the United States "deeply regrets" the failure to extend the UNOMIG mandate and stressed the importance of a UN presence in Georgia.
Kearney, G.. "Demanding times ahead." Australian Nursing Journal 17, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 56.
Delegates set policies that would help unions And a way through the next few years, through the financial crisis and beyond into economic stability. What is wrong with having any alleged incidents dealt with by existing laws; one law for all? A construction worker addressed the congress and explained he is facing a jail sentence after he attended a stop work meeting to elect a safety representative on an unsafe building site.
Kimball, D.. "Toward a Nuclear Freeze in South Asia." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 3.
If not for intensive U.S.led crisis diplomacy, that standoff and another in 2002 could have led to war between the two nuclear-armed rivals. [...] Indian and Pakistani nuclear and missile stockpiles have grown even larger, and the underlying conditions for conflict still persist.
Mead, W.. "A Hegemon's Coming of Age." Review. Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 138-0_9.
Michels, E. "A Stranger in Paris: Germany's Role in Republican France, 1870-1940." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 541.
Pons, S.. "Western Communists, Mikhail Gorbachev and the 1989 Revolutions." Contemporary European History: Revisiting 1989: Causes, Course and Consequences 18, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 349-362.
Western communists reflected two opposing responses to the final crisis of communism that had matured over time. The French communists represented a conservative response increasingly hostile to Gorbachev's perestroika, while the Italians were supporters of a reformist response in tune with his call for change. Thus Gorbachev was the chief reference, positive or negative, against which Western communists measured their own politics and identity. In 1989 the French aligned with the conservative communist leaderships of eastern Europe, and ended up opposing Gorbachev after the collapse of the Berlin Wall. Accordingly, the PCF became a residual entity of traditional communism. On the other hand, the Italian communists agreed with all Gorbachev's choices, and to some extent they even inspired his radical evolution. But they also shared Gorbachev's illusions, including the idea that the fall of the Berlin Wall would produce a renewal of socialism in Europe. Unlike the PCF, the PCI was able to undertake change in the aftermath of the 1989 revolutions, thus standing as a significant 'post-communist' force. However, if conservative communism was destined to become marginal, reform communism also failed in its objective of renewing the Soviet system and the communist political culture
Pifer, S.. "Ukraine's Geopolitical Choice, 2009." Eurasian Geography and Economics 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 387.
A noted specialist in international affairs and former U.S. ambassador to Ukraine reviews and analyzes the history of independent Ukraine's relations with Russia and the West following the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The author proceeds to examine the multifaceted Western position toward Kyiv as it has evolved through June 2009, paying due attention to the European Union and NATO. He then discusses the factors contributing to the volatility of Ukrainian-Russian relations following the Orange Revolution of 2004, including a range of specific concerns as well as more general Russian desires for a compliant government that would pay deference to key Russian interests. Concluding sections focus on Ukraine's future geopolitical trajectory in the run-up to the country's presidential elections in early 2010 and on internal problems (constitutional, market, and energy reform) that will command urgent attention once the political situation stabilizes and the outlines of a constructive engagement that could be pursued by the West are at hand.
Qian, C., and X. Wu. "The Art of China's Mediation during the Nuclear Crisis on the Korean Peninsula." Asian Affairs, an American Review 36, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 79-96.
Mediating regional conflict in Asia is a delicate art. It requires an acute understanding of the unique mediation culture in the region. China's mediation in the nuclear crisis on the Korean Peninsula reveals key elements of this art and offers useful lessons. China's experience illustrates that an influential but neutral and harmony-oriented mediator is critical in the Asian context. It is equally essential for the mediator to (1) abide by the principle of noninterference in other countries' internal affairs while maintaining active intervention as dispute escalates, (2) stand ready to nudge those being mediated toward action when necessary to advance peaceful negotiations, (3) establish an optimal environment to foster communication and reduce hostility between the major parties in dispute, (4) serve as an honest broker but remain firm in its own position and cautiously take initiatives to guide the talks, (5) advocate a step-by-step approach to the negotiation process, and (6) aim for the outcome of negotiations to be a give-and-take agreement. Although Asia is a conflict-prone region, Asians traditionally confuse mediation with meddling. As a result, non-Asians often try to serve as mediators for Asia. For more effective mediations, it is essential that Asians rediscover their useful mediation skills and that non-Asians better understand the Asian art of mediation when they act as mediator.
Robinson, W.. "Global Restructuring, State, Capital and Labour: Contesting Neo-Gramscian Perspectives." Review. Capital & Class no. 98 (July 1, 2009): 146-148,183.
Burnham, in his chapter on the changes in economic management in Britain in the 1990s, explains the shift from politicised to depoliticised forms of state economic management of contemporary capitalism in terms of capital's attempt to discipline labour in the wake of the relative class force the latter accumulated in the previous period. According to Bieler and Morton, in response to this, Open Marxism tends to obscure the way class struggle is mediated through specific material social practices, to prioritise the dominant reproduction of capitalism over resistance, and to engage in state-centric analysis and an overly theoretical and abstract style of discussion.
Shaw, T., and T. Moss. "African Development: making sense of the issues and actors." Review. The Journal of Modern African Studies 47, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 480-481.
Whilst debating several overlapping issues around 'Africa' like conflict, democracy and development, Todd Moss fails to notice its promise of insights for comparative international relations, which review articles in leading journals by Douglas Lemke and William Brown on both sides of the pond highlighted mid decade.
Schmidt, V.. "Explaining democracy in Europe." Comparative European Politics 7, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 396-407.
This response to the three reviews of Democracy in Europe addresses questions of democracy, institutions, and methodology. It first shows that naming the EU a 'regional state' enables us not only to define a new international form but also to envision new rules by which the EU could operate more effectively and democratically. Next it demonstrates that the book's qualitatively developed typology, which classifies the member-states of the EU along a continuum from simple to compound, yields descriptive inferences that need no quantitative operationalization, although it does not rule this out. It then considers how far we can take the argument about 'institutional fit,' with the causal inference that the EU is more disruptive to simple polities than to compound ones. It concludes with a discussion of the methodological approach of 'discursive institutionalism' by contrast with historical institutionalism, and of the importance of ideas and discourse for democracy in Europe.
Subotic, J.. "Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics." Review. Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 995.
Zückert, M.. "Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 522.
Zhang, H.. "Ending North Korea's Nuclear Ambitions: The Need for Stronger Chinese Action." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 21-27.
According to media reports, Beijing was informed by Pyongyang less than half an hour in advance of the explosion and was greatly angered and offended by the test because it blatantly disregarded China's calls for denuclearization. North Korea's nuclear and missile development provides a pretext for Japan to accelerate deployment of a joint U.S.-Japanese missile defense shield, which could mitigate China's nuclear deterrent. [...] a worsening crisis would generate a massive flow of North Korean refugees headed for China.
Week of July 24-July 30, 2009 (Focus on Reconciliation):
Shnabel, N., A. Nadler, J. Ullrich, J. Dovidio, and D. Carmi. "Promoting Reconciliation Through the Satisfaction of the Emotional Needs of Victimized and Perpetrating Group Members: The Needs-Based Model of Reconciliation." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1021.
Guided by the Needs-Based Model of Reconciliation, we hypothesized that being a member of a victimized group would be associated with a threat to the status and power of one's ingroup, whereas being a member of a perpetrating group would threaten the image of the ingroup as moral and socially acceptable. A social exchange interaction through which victims feel empowered by their perpetrators and perpetrators feel accepted by their victims was thus predicted to enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile. Supporting the predictions across two experiments, members of the perpetrator group (Jews in Study 1 and Germans in Study 2) showed greater willingness to reconcile when they received a message of acceptance, rather than empowerment, from a member of the victimized group. Members of the victimized group (Arabs in Study 1 and Jews in Study 2) demonstrated the opposite effect. Applied and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.
Siani-Davies, P., and S. Katsikas. "National Reconciliation After Civil War: The Case of Greece." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 559.
This article discusses post-conflict reconciliation in Greece following the divisive civil war of the 1940s. Focusing on the elite political discourse and the relationship between reconciliation and democratization, its chief argument is that in Greece continuing disagreement about the civil war did not inhibit a process of reconciliation because it was voiced within a normative framework in which violence had been repudiated as a political tool. Particularly since the fall of the Colonels' dictatorship in 1974, reconciliation has been linked to a number of distinct political projects, some of which were as divisive as conciliatory in their effect. In each case, reconciliation meant different things to differing shades of political opinion, but the widespread adoption of the term by both the governing and opposition elites, as well as society as a whole, gradually entrapped politicians of all persuasions into accepting that a process of reconciliation had occurred. Reconciliation in Greece has therefore rested not on the establishment of a single agreed narrative representing the truth about the past, but rather on the righting of perceived injustices and the free articulation of differing interpretations of that past by both left and right within a democratic environment.
Stock, O., M. Zancanaro, C. Rocchi, D. Tomasini, C. Koren, Z. Eisikovits, D. Goren-bar, and P. (tamar) Weiss. "The design of a collaborative interface for narration to support reconciliation in a conflict." AI & Society 24, no. 1 (August 1, 2009): 51-59.
This paper is about the development of a face-to-face collaborative technology to support shifting attitudes of participants in conflict via a narration task. The work is based on two cultural elements: conflict resolution theory and the design of a collaboration enforcing interface designed specifically for the task. The general claim is that participants may achieve a greater understanding of and appreciation for the other's viewpoint under conditions that support partaking in a tangible joint task and creating a shared narration. Specifically, a co-located interface for producing a joint narration as a tool for favoring reconciliation is presented and discussed. The process based on this technology implicitly includes classical steps in conflict resolution approaches, such as escalation and de-escalation. Our goal is to show that this interface is effective and constitutes an alternative to a typical face-to-face moderated discussion.
Sutcliffe, B.. "Liudmila Ulitskaia's Literature of Tolerance." The Russian Review 68, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 495.
Sutcliffe examines Liudmila Ulitskaia's literature of tolerance. He tells that when Ulitskaia published a novella, The Funeral Party in 1997, it received the critical scrutiny warranted by the latest work of an already prominent figure in post-Soviet letters. Her assessment is more than a commonplace designed to snare sensitive readers--it is a key to her prose and plays, shaping The Funeral Party and culminating in Daniel Stein, Interpreter (2006), a structurally heterogeneous novel about healing the rift between Jews and gentiles. These two works powerfully depict the results of misunderstanding and, more significantly in the context of Russian culture, stress the need for reconciliation. Both narratives foreground Ulitskaia's longstanding fascination with hybrid characters: those individuals who combine different (and usually divisive) ethnicities and belief systems.
Tavlas, G.. "Optimum-Currency-Area Paradoxes." Review of International Economics 17, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 536-551.
Contributions by Mundell (1961), McKinnon (1963), and Kenen (1969) laid the foundations for all subsequent work in the area of the theory of optimum currency areas. The development of the optimum-currency-area paradigm, however, has not been a smooth one. After a rise in research activity during the 1960s, the paradigm fell from favor in the 1970s and 1980s, before it re-emerged as an active area of research. This paper argues that the decline of the theory as an active area of research partly reflects paradoxes among the contributions of Mundell, McKinnon, and Kenen. Correspondingly, the renewed interest in the theory is due, in part, to a reconciliation of those paradoxes, reflecting both developments in academic thought and the evolution of the international monetary system.
Waghid, Y.. "Patriotism and Democratic Citizenship Education in South Africa: On the (im) possibility of reconciliation and nation building." Educational Philosophy and Theory 41, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-409.
In this article, I shall evaluate critically the democratic citizenship education project in South Africa to ascertain whether the patriotic sentiments expressed in the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) are in conflict with the achievement of reconciliation and nation building (specifically peace and friendship) after decades of apartheid rule. My first argument is that, although it seems as if the teaching of patriotism through the Department of Education's democratic citizenship agenda in South African schools is a laudable initiative that can contribute toward establishing a definitive break with our apartheid past, the expression of blind patriotic sentiments (such as pledging allegiance to one's country and its citizens only) as articulated in the Manifesto can potentially marginalise others (immigrant communities) as the country endeavours to build its fledgling democracy. My second argument is that the intended democratic form of patriotism of the Department of Education can possibly be undermined by cultivating a culture of 'safe expression', which could slow down the country's quest for reconciliation and nation building.
Woo, S.. "The Park Chung-hee Administration amid Inter-Korean Reconciliation in the Detente Period: Changes in the Threat Perception, Regi." Korea Journal 49, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 37.
This paper aims to explain South Korea's decision to open dialogue with North Korea in the detente period. President Park Chung-hee, who came to power in a military coup, did not pay much attention to unification matters in his early rule, but starting from the late 1960s, Park gradually began to change his North Korea policy due to a combination of external and internal conditions. I intend to explain the causes of Seoul's new approach toward Pyongyang through three variables: Threat perception, regime characteristics, and the distribution of power. A combination of these factors forced the Park regime to change its North Korea policy from confrontation to cooperation. However, inter- Korean cooperation proved to be short-lived. The early demise of rapprochement can be explained by the absence of compelling forces that could have driven the deepening of cooperation between the two parties.
Alcanzar, A.. "On Radical-Leftist Strategy: Propositions for Discussion." Left Curve no. 33 (January 1, 2009): 4-15,144.
[...] both agency and strategy are missing. [...] there is little consensus among us regarding aims or means, and we've tended to avoid the work of clarifying either. Reconciliation - the resolution of the social antagonism - would rather be the condition for the longsought liberation of difference and non-identity. [...] we live and struggle in unfreedom, imperfectly.
Anonymous, . "LIBYA-ITALY: Historic 'Reconciliation' Visit." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 18022B-18022C.
BARRY, G.. "Rehabilitating a Radical Catholic: Pope Benedict XV and Marc Sangnier, 1914-1922." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 514-533.
Pope Benedict xv's gradual rehabilitation of the French Christian Democrat Marc Sangnier, whose Sillon movement stood condemned for social Modernism, demonstrated his desire to end the excesses of his predecessor's anti-Modernist crusade and to return to the policies of Leo xiii. Sangnier, unofficial emissary of the French republic to the Vatican, helped to prepare for the restoration of diplomatic relations in 1921. Perplexed, like most French Catholics, by papal neutrality on the war, he later campaigned for Franco-German reconciliation, adopting the Vatican critique of the Versailles settlement. Sangnier's pardon, like Benedict's cautious endorsement of the Popolari in Italy, highlights the paradoxical papalism of advanced Social Catholicism.
Boyd, S.. "Christ in Our Midst: Incarnation, Church and Discipleship in the Theology of Pilgram Marpeck." . The Catholic Historical Review 95, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 616-618.
The inherent link between justification and sanctification led him to criticize the social and political quietism of many under the sway of Luther's justification by faith alone .According to Blough, Marpeck believed that the "victory of resurrection over the forces of evil and the subsequent sending of the Holy Spirit" brings not only "forgiveness and reconciliation" but also empowers disciples in the present to such things as feeding the hungry and the "confrontation of false theological, political or ethical options" (pp. 220, 226). Due to his emphasis on the cross of Christ and the noncoercive nature of the Holy Spirit, Marpeck rejected the role of the sword in matters of faith, whether wielded by the Anabaptists at Münster, the princes of the Schmalkaldic League, or Charles V Believers are empowered to follow Christ and are "transformed collectively in his image," thereby constituting the "unglorified" body of Christ, which is sent "into the world to take on the same form as Jesus of Nazareth, the form of self-giving and nonviolent love" (p. 220).
Brock, N.. "African Americans and Welfare Time Limits: Comparative Analysis of State Time Limit Policies Under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act of 1996." Journal of Black Studies 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 962.
This study examines state lifetime limit policies for the receipt of cash assistance under the 1996 welfare reform law. It performs cross-tabulation and correlational analysis to determine whether a relationship exists between the racial composition of African Americans in a state and lifetime limit policies under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act. Findings indicate a relationship and show that a majority of the states with a large population of African Americans have adopted some of the harshest lifetime limit policies for receipt of cash assistance.
DAVIES, B., and B. Marin; Zaidi. "Mainstreaming Ageing: Indicators to Monitor Sustainable Policies." Ageing and Society 29, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 841-843.
Most of the volume's papers include references to income maintenance, the derivation of indicators of system efficiency, and the incidence of costs and benefits on stakeholders, but by contrast there is no mention of using estimates of the relationships between service mixes, levels and costs to stakeholders, or of indicators of contributions to quality of life and care for long-term care for service systems covering the field. Life satisfaction and quality of life are thus recognised, though there is insufficient discussion of this compared with other sections of the constructive reconciliation of material and King Jigme Singye Wangchuck's maxim for Bhutan of 'gross national happiness'; a gap made more obvious by recent attention to these in several social sciences and the proliferation of wellbeing agenda policies by one name or another.
Hickman, M.. "The Novel and the Menagerie: Totality, Englishness, and Empire." . Modern Fiction Studies 55, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 383-386.
[...] Koenigsberger traces the evolution of the novel and the menagerie during the shift from Victorianism to modernism, as they index changing "worldviews" about empire (185). In his extended analysis of Dickens's Hard Times (chapter 2, "Circuses in Cabinets"), while his argument about the kind of elephant Dickens must evict from his imaginative "menagerie" to maintain his novel's investment in a reconciliation of commerce and "Fancy" engages in nice dialogue with existing commentary on the novel (it dovetails especially well with F. R. Leavis's classic remarks), it strains too hard for cleverness by suggesting that "Boz may be of Gradgrind's party without knowing it" (109), reading Dickens's sanitized "Sleary's Circus" as kindred to the "circuses in cabinets" favoured by Thomas Gradgrind.
Howell, B.. "Reagan at Bergen-Belsen and Bitburg." . Rhetoric & Public Affairs 12, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 334-337.
[...] Jensen describes the public controversy that followed the announcement of Reagan's plans to visit the Bitburg cemetery and the attempts by Reagan's staff to quell that controversy. In the Bitburg speech, Jensen points to Reagan's linking of "the effort by World War II veterans to fight Nazis with the current battle with the Soviet Union and other enemies" (109), rejecting "collective guilt" (111), embracing again the "role of secular preacher" (111), and even "as a pastor to the world" (111-112), celebrating "the reconciliation" that has occurred between formerly "bitter adversaries" (112).
Kab-Woo, K.. "Gone but Not Dead, Sprouting but Not Yet Blossoming: Transitions in the System of Division, 1980-1997." . Korea Journal 49, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 59.
This article reviews inter-Korean relations in the period from 1980 to 1997 during which Chun Doo-hwan, Roh Tae-woo, and Kim Young-sam led their respective governments. Detente became more prevalent around the division system on the Korean peninsula with various actors' choices intersecting with one another. At the peninsular level, the South and the North agreed on a new set of definitions for mutual recognition- albeit with limitations-in the 1991 South-North Basic Agreement on Reconciliation, Non-Aggression, and Exchanges and Cooperation, which created the so-called the S-N Basic Agreement "regime." However, the regime broke down soon after, making the Korean peninsula problem an international issue. In 1994, the United States and DPRK made a breakthrough in the Geneva Agreed Framework, despite which the division system developed minor fissures but remained intact. This failure shows that, despite changes in the international system surrounding the Korean peninsula, the division system will be extremely difficult to overcome unless each actor realizes a change of the mindset that is supplemented by a strong resolve to act on it.
Mchugh, K.. "Movement, memory, landscape: an excursion in non-representational thought." GeoJournal 74, no. 3 (January 1, 2009): 209-218. Issue Title: New directions in media geography
This paper is an excursion in non-representational thought. The primacy of movement charges this creative geography. Movement as sensation, thought, matter and memory crystallizes in ongoing assemblages (effects) we term selves and landscapes. This movement ontology is animated by a stream of thought running through Bergson, Deleuze, and Massumi, and by Ingold's temporality of landscape. Memory is vital, as past (virtual) and present (actual) coexist, pushing forward in duration, the dynamic continuation of movement and sensation. David Lynch's film, The Straight Story, offers dramatic illustration of the entanglement of movement, memory, and landscape. Landscape is emergent as relational lines of movement, an ongoing meshwork of practices and movement signatures. Alvin Straight's paced journey through Iowa on a John Deere lawn mower during autumn harvest is a road to reminiscence and reconciliation, an American sublime. Lynch's movement-images and soundscapes are sensorial undulations that illumine landscape as movement of incorporation, 'dwelling' in the moment to moment, geographies of care. The take-home message is that we are nothing more and nothing less than agents, next selves, 'passing' through. The collective trace of our 'passings' constitutes the making and remaking of place.
Moran, S.. "South Africa and the Colonial Intellectual." Research in African Literatures 40, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 109-124.
What are the characteristic features of the colonial intellectual? This essay approaches this question via two paths, historical and contemporary, in order to show the persistence of a legacy that shapes our work. Postapartheid South Africa and the debate around justice and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission are set in the broader context of nineteenth century colonial language studies. With the benefit of hindsight, the animating aspects of the colonial context are traced to a formative ambivalence regarding property and possession. This reading is extended to recent work on ethics and South African restitution and testimony. Hegel's treatment of Africa and his reading of Antigone form a thread linking past and present.
Overell, A.. "Cardinal Pole's Special Agent: Michael Throckmorton, c.1503-1558." History 94, no. 315 (July 1, 2009): 265-278.
Michael Throckmorton is best known for his peripatetic career as Cardinal Pole's agent. This article underlines the anxieties and dangers of that role, undertaken amidst fears that English agents would assassinate the cardinal. It also investigates Throckmorton's private life as a student in Italy in the 1530s and as a family man, one of a large clan divided by religion. Using the new evidence of his book inventory, it suggests that Throckmorton was a humanist, in whose library editions of the classics were outnumbered by medical texts. His ownership of banned or suspect religious works is set in the context of his friendship with the spirituali in Pole's household at Viterbo, especially the reformer-poet Marcantonio Flaminio. In 1553 Throckmorton carried to Queen Mary the papal bull making Pole the legate responsible for England's reconciliation. After delicate negotiations in England, Throckmorton returned to Mantua and died there in 1558, partly protected from the religious and political turmoil which afflicted Pole's last years. The article concludes by relating Throckmorton's life to wider contemporary experience: European perceptions of English religious change, the 'medical renaissance', Marian persecution, and the complexities faced by erstwhile spirituali .
Patzelt, A., R. Pirow, and J. Fischer. "Post-Conflict Affiliation in Barbary Macaques is Influenced by Conflict Characteristics and Relationship Quality, but Does Not Diminish Short-Term Renewed Aggression." Ethology 115, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 658-670.
Many group living primates have evolved mechanisms to repair their social relationships after conflicts ('reconciliation'). We analysed the post-conflict behaviour of female Barbary macaques, Macaca sylvanus, living in the enclosure 'La Foret des Singes' at Rocamadour, France. Based on a sample of 914 conflicts, we investigated whether relationship (kinship, rank, affiliation, support and sex) and conflict characteristics (conflict intensity, context and duration) affected the quality and frequency of affiliative post-conflict interactions. Thirty-two per cent of all conflicts were followed by post-conflict affiliation. Rates of socio-positive interactions and support were better predictors of post-conflict affiliation than kinship or rank. Short conflicts were followed by post-conflict affiliation relatively more frequently, after a shorter latency, but only briefly, and such interactions were initiated by both parties equally frequently. The majority of affiliative post-conflict interactions occurred immediately after the end of the conflict. In sum, female Barbary macaques invest more in post-conflict affiliation with valuable partners, and they modulate their post-conflict behaviour in relation to conflict characteristics. Remarkably, affiliative post-conflict interactions increased the short-term probability of renewed aggression by the former aggressor to 16% compared with 9% for conflicts that were not followed by affiliative behaviour. Such renewed aggression after post-conflict affiliation occurred particularly frequently among females and after conflicts over food, suggesting that post-conflict affiliation sometimes falsely lures the former victim to stay in the vicinity, even at the risk of receiving renewed aggression.
Sadat, L.. "Transjudicial Dialogue and the Rwandan Genocide: Aspects of Antagonism and Complementarity." Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 543-562.
The Rwandan genocide remains one of the most horrific atrocities of the twentieth century, resulting in the death of an estimated 500-800,000 human beings, massacred over a 100-day period. In the fourteen years since the genocide, attempts at justice and reconciliation in Rwanda have involved a delicate interplay between national legal systems and the international legal order. This article examines three fora in which Rwandans have been tried for involvement in the genocide: the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Rwandan courts including Gacaca tribunals, and French attempts to exercise universal jurisdiction. Using Rwanda as a case study, the article illustrates the issues, concerns, and difficulties that arise when multiple jurisdictions assert a right to exercise criminal jurisdiction over the perpetrators of serious atrocity crimes. Beginning with a discussion of the political context, this article considers what the competing narratives and litigation in various fora have meant for the project of international and transnational criminal justice. Cases involving the commission of atrocities pose unique challenges for the international legal order. As the normative structure of international criminal law has arguably been strengthened, political constraints increasingly come to the fore. As illustrated by Rwanda, universal jurisdiction or other bases of jurisdiction may remain necessary vehicles for justice and reconciliation, or, at the very least, they may serve as a catalyst for change in Rwanda itself.
Scarlett, M.. "Imagining a World beyond Genocide: Teaching about Transitional Justice." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 169-176.
The study of the ways in which societies emerging from violent conflict and repressive regimes achieve peace and reconciliation through forms of transitional justice, such as truth commissions, tribunals, systems of reparations, and memorialization of the past, offers an opportunity for secondary social studies teachers to address issues of human rights in a positive and humanizing way. In this article, the author provides a rationale for including the study of transitional justice in the secondary social studies curriculum along with suggestions for teaching it. He argues that the study of transitional justice presents opportunities for students to become morally inclusive in their thinking, engage in global democratic citizenship, and study critically important current events unfolding in their world.
Week of July 17-July 23, 2009 (Focus on Diplomacy):
Andres, A.. "Colonial Crisis and Spanish Diplomacy in the Caribbean During the Sexenio Revolucionario, 1868-1874." Bulletin of Latin American Research 28, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 325-342.
Blakely, A.. "A Russian Paints America: The Travels of Pavel P. Svin'in, 1811-1813." Review. The Russian Review 68, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 522.
Carolan, M.. "Genetically Modified Diplomacy: The Global Politics of Agricultural Biotechnology and the Environment." Review. Environmental Ethics 31, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 221.
Compton, T.. "Becoming a "Messenger of Peace": Jacob Hamblin in Tooele." Dialogue : A Journal of Mormon Thought 42, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 1-29,241.
Conway, M., and V. Viaene. "The papacy and the new world order. La papauté et le nouvel ordre mondial (1878-1903). Vatican diplomacy, Catholic opinion and international politics at the time of Leo XIII. Diplomatie vaticane, opinion catholique et politique internationale au temps de Leo XIII." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 637-639.
Crail, P.. "Congress Weighs Iran Sanctions, Diplomacy." Arms Control Today 39, no. 5 (June 1, 2009): 32-34.
Green, R.. "Mixed Signals." Taiwan Review 59, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 1.
Höglund, K., and I. Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Hughes, C.. "Japan's response to China's rise: regional engagement, global containment, dangers of collision." International Affairs 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 837-856.
Haren, M., and B. Bombi. "Il registro di Andrea Sapiti, procuratore alla curia avignonese." Review. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 586-587.
Hill, J.. "A New Diplomacy for Sustainable Development: The challenge of global change." Review. Geography 94, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 70.
Kader, O.. "Innocent Abroad: An Intimate Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East." Review. Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 164-166.
Kimball, D.. "Testing the World's Patience." Arms Control Today 39, no. 5 (June 1, 2009): 3.
Kitching, C.. "Diplomacy between the Wars: Five Diplomats and the Shaping of the Modern World." Review. The American Historical Review 114, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 727.
Maller, T.. "The Dangers of Diplomatic Disengagement in Counterterrorism." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 6 (June 1, 2009): 511.
Maulucci, T.. "Herbert Blankenhorn in the Third Reich." Central European History 42, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 253-278.
McErlean, J.. "The Princess and the Politicians: Sex, Intrigue and Diplomacy, 1812-40/Dorothea Lieven: A Russian Princess in London and Paris, 1785-1857/Ksiezna Dorothea Lieven wobec Polski i Polaków." Review. Slavic Review 68, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 427.
Mellon, H., and P. Andree. "Genetically Modified Diplomacy: The Global Politics of Agricultural Biotechnology and the Environment." Canadian Journal of Political Science 42, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 548-549.
Miller, I.. "The Genesis of African and Indian Cooperation in Colonial North America: An Interview with Helen Hornbeck Tanner." Ethnohistory 56, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 285.
Newhouse, J.. "Diplomacy, Inc." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 73-92.
Raw, L.. "The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy 1945-89." Review. The Journal of American Culture 32, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 183-184.
Rist, R., and M. Pegg. "A most holy war. The Albigensian Crusade and the battle for Christendom." Review. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 580-581.
Slantchev, B.. "The Steps to War: An Empirical Study." Review. Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 386-388.
Winkler, A.. "The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989." Review. The Journal of American History 96, no. 1 (June 1, 2009): 285.
Ziring, L.. "Unraveling the Afghanistan-Pakistan Riddle." Asian Affairs, an American Review 36, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 59-77.
de las Casas, G.. "Barack von Metternich." Foreign Policy no. 173 (July 1, 2009): 28.
Week of July 9-July 16, 2009 (Focus on Conflict Resolution):
Allen, S.. "A Study of a Violence Prevention Program in Prekindergarten Classrooms." Children & Schools 31, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 177-187.
Beardsley, K., and B. McQuinn. "Rebel Groups as Predatory Organizations: The Political Effects of the 2004 Tsunami in Indonesia and Sri Lanka." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 624.
Buhaug, H., S. Gates, and P. Lujala. "Geography, Rebel Capability, and the Duration of Civil Conflict." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 544.
Cederman, L., H. Buhaug, and J. Rød. "Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War: A GIS-Based Analysis." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 496.
Correa, N., A. Rao, and A. Nobre. "Anticipating Conflict Facilitates Controlled Stimulus-response Selection." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1461.
Cunningham, D., K. Gleditsch, and I. Salehyan. "It Takes Two: A Dyadic Analysis of Civil War Duration and Outcome." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 570.
Gallagher, J.. "Healing the Scar? Idealizing Britain in Africa, 1997-2007." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 435-451.
Geiken, R., B. Van Meeteren, and T. Kato. "Putting the Cart Before the Horse: The Role of a Socio-moral Atmosphere in an Inquiry-based Curriculum." Childhood Education 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 260-263.
Gerami, A.. "Bridging the theory-and-practice gap: Mediator power in practice." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 433.
Goldberg, R.. "How our worldviews shape our practice." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 405.
Hegre, H., G. Østby, and C. Raleigh. "Poverty and Civil War Events: A Disaggregated Study of Liberia." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 598.
Hewig, J., T. Straube, R. Trippe, N. Kretschmer, H. Hecht, M. Coles, and W. Miltner. "Decision-making under Risk: An fMRI Study." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1642.
Holtzworth-Munroe, A., A. Applegate, and B. D'Onofrio. "Family Dispute Resolution: Charting a Course for the Future." Family Court Review 47, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 493.
Levy, J., K. Hipel, and N. Howard. "Advances in Drama Theory for Managing Global Hazards and Disasters. Part I: Theoretical Foundation." Group Decision and Negotiation 18, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 303-316.
Levy, J., K. Hipel, and N. Howard. "Advances in Drama Theory for Managing Global Hazards and Disasters. Part II: Coping with Global Climate Change and Environmental Catastrophe." Group Decision and Negotiation 18, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 317-334.
Li, K., J. Levy, and P. Buckley. "Enhancing National Security and Energy Security in the Post-911 Era: Group Decision Support for Strategic Policy Analysis under Conditions of Conflict." Group Decision and Negotiation 18, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 369-386.
Li-On, L.. "The politics of community mediation: A study of community mediation in Israel." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 453.
Neves, T.. "Practice note: Community mediation as social intervention." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 481.
Pacholok, S.. "Gendered Strategies of Self: Navigating Hierarchy and Contesting Masculinities." Gender, Work and Organization 16, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 471-500.
Parchomovsky, G., and P. Siegelman. "Bribes vs. bombs: A study in Coasean warfare." International Review of Law and Economics 29, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 179.
Peter H Kim, Kurt T Dirks, and Cecily D Cooper. "The Repair of Trust: A Dynamic Bilateral Perspective and Multilevel Conceptualization." Academy of Management. The Academy of Management Review 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009).
Reid, W., and R. Karambayya. "Impact of dual executive leadership dynamics in creative organizations." Human Relations 62, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 1073.
Singer, J.. "Dispute Resolution and the Post-Divorce Family: Implications of a Paradigm Shift." Family Court Review 47, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 363.
Stock, O., M. Zancanaro, C. Rocchi, D. Tomasini, C. Koren, Z. Eisikovits, D. Goren-bar, and P. (tamar) Weiss. "The design of a collaborative interface for narration to support reconciliation in a conflict." AI & Society 24, no. 1 (August 1, 2009): 51-59.
Thomas, B., and M. Roberts. "Sibling Conflict Resolution Skills: Assessment and Training." Journal of Child and Family Studies 18, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 447-453.
Vlassenroot, K., and T. Raeymaekers. "Kivu’s Intractable Security Problem." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 475-484.
Weidmann, N.. "Geography as Motivation and Opportunity: Group Concentration and Ethnic Conflict." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 526.
Wing, L.. "Mediation and inequality reconsidered: Bringing the discussion to the table." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 383.
Week of July 1-July 8, 2009:
Anonymous. "Middle East Peace and Unpleasant Listening." Dialog 48, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 113-115.
Darling, J., and V. Heller. "Organization Development in an Era of Socioeconomic Change: A Focus on The Key to Successful Management Leadership." Organization Development Journal 27, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 9-26.
Dawes, J.. "The Gulf Wars and the US Peace Movement." American Literary History 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 418-428.
Dietrich, C.. "A Pact with the Devil: Washington's Bid for World Supremacy and the Betrayal of the American Promise - by Tony Smith." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 359-363.
Grocke, D., S. Bloch, and D. Castle. "The Effect of Group Music Therapy on Quality of Life for Participants Living with a Severe and Enduring Mental Illness." Journal of Music Therapy 46, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 90-104.
House, J.. "The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Origins, Planning, and Crisis Management, June 1987-December 1989." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 145-146.
Howlett, C.. "America's Military Today: Challenges for the Armed Forces in a Time of War - by Tod Ensign." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 349-352.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
Mehler, A.. "Peace and Power Sharing in Africa: A Not So Obvious Relationship." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 453-473.
Miller, S.. "The Notables and the Nation: The Political Schooling of the French, 1787-1788." Review. Journal of Social History 42, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 1087-1089.
Nadeem, M.. "Purchasing Equals Happiness Equals Giving! How Do you Plan to Spend Your Weekend?" Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge 15, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 229-234.
Oliver, A.. "A Tale of Two Quagmires: Iraq, Vietnam, and the Hard Lessons of War - by Kenneth J. Campbell." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 338-342.
Paola, C., D. Paola, D. Anna, A. Antonietta, and P. Fernando. "An Excessive Attention for Food Calories is a Risk Factor of Eating Disorders in Teenagers: Studies Issues "Make Peace with Food"." Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior: SNE 2009 ANNUAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 41, no. 4S (July 1, 2009): S17.
Parker, E.. "In love and struggle: letters in contemporary feminism." Feminist Review no. 92 (July 1, 2009): 178-179.
Riga, L., and J. Kennedy. "Tolerant majorities, loyal minorities and 'ethnic reversals': constructing minority rights at Versailles 1919." Nations and Nationalism 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 461-482.
Rahman, S., P. Junankar, and G. Mallik. "Factors influencing women's empowerment on microcredit borrowers: a case study in Bangladesh." Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 14, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 287.
Ross, E.. "Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853-1913/Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: the Murid Order." Review. African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 493-495.
SAGAR, R.. "State of mind: what kind of power will India become?" International Affairs 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 801-816.
Schwartz, T.. "Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969-1977." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 143-144.
Shenk, D.. "Muslims and Christians: Eschatology and Mission." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 33, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 120-123.
Sjoberg, L.. "From where we stand: war, women's activism and feminist analysis." Review. Feminist Review no. 92 (July 1, 2009): 180-182.
Walls, M.. "The Emergence of A Somali State: Building Peace from War in Somaliland." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 371-389.
Young, K.. "Blind into Baghdad: America's War in Iraq - by James Fallows and Beyond the Green Zone: Dispatches from an Unembedded Journalist in Occupied Iraq - by Dahr Jamail." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 282-289.
Zumkhawala-Cook, R.. "Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army - by Jeremy Scahill." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 321-325.
Week of June 11-June 18, 2009:
Adam Kirsch. "LIFE ON VENUS: Europe's Last Man." World Affairs 171, no. 4 (April 1, 2009): 11-22.
Ali A Jalali. "Winning in Afghanistan." Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 5-21.
Asher Kaufman. "ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT-Negotiating Under Fire: Preserving Peace Talks in the Face of Terror Attacks." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 322-323.
Catherine C Byrne. "Proactive Versus Defensive Ethics: Re-Humanizing Psychology." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 215.
Christopher R Noon. "THE USE OF RACIAL PREFERENCES IN PUBLIC PROCUREMENT FOR SOCIAL STABILITY." Public Contract Law Journal 38, no. 3 (April 1, 2009): 611-632.
Gawdat Bahgat. "THE ARAB PEACE INITIATIVE: AN ASSESSMENT." Middle East Policy 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 33-39.
Gwyneth C McClendon. "Global Justice: The Politics of War Crimes Trials." Review Perspectives on Political Science 38, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 117.
Johanna R Vollhardt. "The Role of Victim Beliefs in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Risk or Potential for Peace?" Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 135.
Laurie A Brand. "JORDAN-Inter-Arab Alliances: Regime Security and Jordanian
Foreign Policy." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 333-334.
Martin L Cook. "Arguing the Just War in Islam." Review. Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 117-119.
Michael C Keith. "Norman Corwin's One World Flight: The Found Journal of Radio's Greatest Writer." Journal of Radio & Audio Media 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 50.
Michael M Piechowski. "Peace Pilgrim, Exemplar of Level V." Roeper Review 31, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 103-112.
Michael Rubner. "The Hebrew Republic: How Secular Democracy and Global Enterprise Will Bring Israel Peace at Last." Review. Middle East Policy 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 149-151.
Monica Hakimi. "INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DETAINING TERRORISM SUSPECTS: MOVING BEYOND THE ARMED CONFLICT-CRIMINAL DIVIDE*." Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 40, no. 3 (January 1, 2009): 593-650.
Myron J Aronoff. "Camp David Rashomon: Contested Interpretations of the Israel/Palestine Peace Process." Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 143-0_10.
Raja Shehadeh. "Israel-Palestine: insiders and outsiders." Review. The Political
Quarterly 80, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 313.
Richard Bourke. "The slight hand of history." Review. The Political Quarterly 80, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 310.
Robert Fikes Jr. "How Black Professors Are Portrayed in American Fiction." The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education no. 63 (April 1, 2009): 66-69.
Stephen J Blank. "War, Peace, and International Relations: An Introduction to Strategic History." Review. Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 111-113.
T. V. Paul. "Four Crises and a Peace Process: American Engagement in South Asia." Review. Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 206-208.
Veda E. Ward. "Conflicts of Interest: Plasticity of Peace Tourism and the 21st Century Nation." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 8, no. 2/3 (April 1, 2009): 414.
"Chronology: Arab-Israeli Conflict." The Middle East Journal 63, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 285-289.
Bas Rietjens, Myriame Bollen, Masood Khalil, Sayed Fazlullah Wahidi. "Enhancing the Footprint: Stakeholders in Afghan Reconstruction." Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 22-39.
Daniel F McCleary, Robert L Williams. "Sociopolitical and Personality Correlates of Militarism in Democratic Societies." Review. Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 161.
Guy Elcheroth, Dario Spini. "Public Support for the Prosecution of Human Rights Violations in the Former Yugoslavia." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 189.
Mahjoob Zweiri, Simon Staffell. "TALKING WITH A REGION: LESSONS FROM IRAN,
TURKEY AND PAKISTAN." Middle East Policy 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 63-74.
Marcela Cornejo, Rodrigo C. Rojas, Francisca Mendoza. "From Testimony to Life Story: The Experience of Professionals in the Chilean National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 111.
Michael V White, Kurt Schuler. "Retrospectives: Who Said "Debauch the Currency": Keynes or Lenin?" The Journal of Economic Perspectives 23, no. 2
Reuven Abarjel, Smadar Lavie. "A Year into the Lebanon War: NGO-ing Mizrahi-Arab Paradoxes, and a One State Vision for Palestine/Israel *." Left Curve no. 33 (January 1, 2009): 29-36,144.
Week of June 5-June 11, 2009:
Adele Jones. "Curriculum and Civil Society in Afghanistan." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 113-122,167-168.
Amnon Boehm. "Involvement of Businesses in the Community at Times of Peace and of War on the Home Front." Business and Society Review 114, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 85.
C Kevin Marshall. "WHY CAN'T MARTHA STEWART HAVE A GUN?" Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 32, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 695-735.
Curtis H O'Sullivan. "The Road to Safwan: The 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry in the 1991 Persian Gulf War." Review. Air Power History 56, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 56.
David Ignatius. "Caught in the Middle." Foreign Policy no. 172 (May 1, 2009): 42-47,8.
Delinda C Hanley. "Kerry Holds Hearing on Engaging Muslims Around World." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 70-71.
El-Sayed El-Aswad. "Islamic Attitudes to Israel." Review. Domes 18, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 107-110.
Elaina Loveland. "Empowering the Poor." International Educator 18, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 28-32.
Elaine Pasquini. "Friends Rally for Tristan Anderson, Protest Israeli Shooting of Activist." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 67.
Elaine Pasquini. "Police Brutality Mars San Francisco Anti-War March." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 68.
G John Ikenberry. "Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson: Progressivism, Internationalism, War, and Peace." Review. Foreign Affairs 88, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 167-168.
Giorgio Mariani. "Ad bellum purificandum, or, Giving Peace a (Fighting) Chance in American Studies." American Literary History 21, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 96-122.
Henry Kissinger. "A New Nuclear Agenda." Hampton Roads International Security Quarterly: 2/3 IX, (April 1, 2009): 2427.
Lawrence R Benson. "With Honor: Melvin Laird in War, Peace, and Politics." Review. Air Power History 56, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 62-63.
Lucy Jones. "Obama's Afghan Plan Deserves "Fair Wind," Says Britain's Independent." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 39,45.
Makhdoom Qureshi. "NATO's Mission in Afghanistan: Pakistan's View." Hampton Roads International Security Quarterly: 2/3 IX, (April 1, 2009): 125128.
Michael Gillespie. "Seven Arrested in Ash Wednesday Occupation of Sen. Harkin's Office." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 71-72.
Niels Henrik Gregersen. "On Taboos: The Danish Cartoon Crisis 2005-2008." Dialog 48, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 79-96.
Noah W Sobe. "Educational Reconstruction "By the Dawn's Early Light": Violent Political Conflict and American Overseas Education Reform." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 123-131,168.
Ruth Zoë Ost. "Being in Pictures: An Intimate Photo Memoir." Review. Bridges : a Journal for Jewish Feminists and Our Friends 14, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 161-169,180.
Sergey B. Ivanov. "Non-Proliferation of WMD: The Case for Joint Effort." Hampton Roads International Security Quarterly: 2/3 IX, (April 1, 2009): 114117.
Todd M Compton. "Becoming a "Messenger of Peace": Jacob Hamblin in Tooele." Dialogue : A Journal of Mormon Thought 42, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 1-29,241.
Yair Mazor. "A History of Modern Israel." Review. Domes 18, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 97-102.
Zvi Bekerman. "Identity versus Peace: Identity Wins." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 74-83,166.
"A REGIONAL POWER FOR PEACE." Foreign Policy no. 172 (May 1, 2009): AN6-AN7.
"Letters." The Humanist 69, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 2,40.
Week of May 28-June 4, 2009:
D.w. Bebbington. "Conscience and Conflict: Methodism, Peace and War in the TwentiethCentury." Review. The English Historical Review CXXIV, no. 508 (June 1, 2009): 750-752.
Diane P Whitehead. "Teacher, Where Are You?" Childhood Education 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 242B.
Fidelma Ashe. "From Paramilitaries to Peacemakers: The Gender Dynamics of Community-Based Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland." British Journal of Politics & International Relations 11, no. 2 (May 1, 2009): 298-314.
Gerry O'Hanlon. "CHRISTIAN POLITICAL ETHICS." Review. Theological Studies 70, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 496-498.
Isak Svensson. "Who Brings Which Peace?: Neutral versus Biased Mediation and Institutional Peace Arrangements in Civil Wars." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 446.
James C. Simeon. "Exclusion Under Article 1F(a) of the 1951 Convention in Canada." International Journal of Refugee Law 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 193-217.
James Dawes. "The Gulf Wars and the US Peace Movement." American Literary History 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 418-428.
Jason Stearns. "In Congo's Conflict, a Surprising Twist." Current History 108, no. 718 (May 1, 2009): 202-207.
John Carlson. "Defining Noncompliance: NPT Safeguards Agreements." Arms Control Today 39, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 22-27.
Mika Junninen. "Finnish professional criminals and their organisations in the 1990SA." Crime, Law and Social Change 51, no. 5 (June 1, 2009): 487-509.
S William A Gunn. "Health as a bridge to peace." Review. Canadian Medical Association. Journal 180, no. 12 (June 9, 2009): 1234.
Tony Rayns. "Departures." Review. Film Comment 45, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 67-68.
"BURUNDI: Peace Process Breakthough." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 17937A-17938A.
"MALI/NIGER: Libya Hosts Peace." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 17940C-17941B.
Jennifer W Mack, Joanne Wolfe, E Francis Cook, Holcombe E Grier, Paul D Cleary, Jane C Weeks. "Peace of Mind and Sense of Purpose as Core Existential Issues Among Parents of Children With Cancer." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 163, no. 6 (June 1, 2009): 519.
John Prendergast, Colin Thomas-Jensen. "Sudan: A State on the Brink?" Current History 108, no. 718 (May 1, 2009): 208-213.
John R Darling, Victor L Heller. "Organization Development in an Era of Socioeconomic Change: A Focus on The Key to Successful Management Leadership." Organization Development Journal 27, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 9-26.
Kristine Höglund, Isak Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Paul Gifford, Frans Wijsen. "Seeds of Conflict in a Haven of Peace: From Religious Studies to Interreligious Studies in Africa." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London 72, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 412-413.
Shelley Howes, Susan Gasper, Thomas F O'Connor. "Sharpening the Focus of OIG Evaluations to Further Enhance Accountability in the Peace Corps." The Journal of Government Financial Management 58, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 20-28.
Sumon Kumar Bhaumik, Ira N Gang, Myeong-su Yun. "Rationality as a Barrier to Peace: Micro-evidence from Kosovo." Comparative Economic Studies 51, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 242-264.
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Peace Research Update (One World, Many Peaces)
One World, Many Peaces
Peace Research Update
Below is the complete Peace Research Updates of 2009, the 2010 is available in subscribable form here .
Week of December 16-December 24, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Judaism, Part 5 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Robinson, G., and M. Klein; Watzman. "A Possible Peace between Israel and Palestine: An Insider's Account of the Geneva Initiative." International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (November 1, 2009): 671-672.
Abarjel, R., and S. Lavie. "A Year into the Lebanon War: NGO-ing Mizrahi-Arab Paradoxes, and a One State Vision for Palestine/Israel *." Left Curve no. 33 (January 1, 2009): 29-36,144.
The "peace camp" progenitors orchestrated the Nakba ["catastrophe" in Arabic, by which Palestinians refer to their expulsion in 1948 -ed.] With the collapse of the Israeli government in Summer 2008, the polls predicted that in the forthcoming February 10, 2009 elections, the Right Wing block, led by Bibi Netanyahu, would receive a 65-70 mandate in a 120 seats Knesset. In a cyclical pattern, the Israeli establishment expands its military control over non-Jewish civilians beyond the everyday curfews, roadblocks, land appropriations, house demolitions and targeted killings.
Abrams, E., and M. Singh. "SPOILERS: The End of the Peace Process." World Affairs 172, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 69-76.
Many Palestinians, while still placing faith in an agreement that would deliver their long-awaited statehood, see the alternatives-whether engaging in armed conflict or pushing for a single multiethnic state-as increasingly attractive. Since the end of the Oslo process in 2000, the growing drift between these two positions has produced on the Israeli side a cynicism marked by paroxysms of despair, and on the Palestinian and Arab sides by a hardening of positions. [...] Arab states should find ways to reach out to Israel beyond the confines of the Peace Initiative-whether by increasing commercial cooperation or by agreeing to visits and visible diplomatic exchanges, thus persuading Israelis that peace is possible and will yield concrete dividends.
Alatout, S.. "Walls as Technologies of Government: The Double Construction of Geographies of Peace and Conflict in Israeli Politics, 2002-Present." Association of American Geographers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 956.
Since 2002, consecutive Israeli governing coalitions have been building a separation wall in the West Bank for the declared purposes of security and separation from the Palestinian population. Building on earlier phases of control, which relied on military orders, cantonment, roadblocks, and checkpoints, the wall functions as a regime of government that colonizes Palestinian life by regulating every nexus of body and space and population and territory. Rather than establishing peace, the wall's regime of government uses separation as a double construction of peace and conflict that isolates peace on the Israeli side and conflict on the Palestinian side.
Anonymous, . "Letters to the Editor." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 5-6.
Josh Wessler, New York, NY Just as illegal drug and weapons trafficking funds political turmoil and terrorism in South America, Afghanistan and Africa, Jewish organized crime funds illegal Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank, and is also used to corrupt Israeli and American politicians alike. An Abrahamic Approach Notwithstanding the fact that Ms. Rachelle Marshall is a member of Jewish Voice for Peace, which happens to be identified with the Israel Lobby [see Henry Hershkovitz's letter to the editor in the November 2009 issue], one has to admire her objectivity in reporting the plight of the Palestinians in Israel and under Israeli occupation.
Avnery, U.. "The Drama and the Farce: Obama's Mini Mideast Summit." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
Obama had demanded a freeze of all settlement activity, including East Jerusalem, as a condition for convening a tripartite summit meeting, in the wake of which accelerated peace negotiations were to start, leading to peace between two states-Israel and Palestine. The arsenal is inexhaustible-from a threat by the U.S. not to shield the Israeli government with its veto in the Security Council, to delaying the next shipment of arms. The impression is rapidly gaining ground that he is indeed an inspiring speaker with an uplifting message, but a weak politician, unable to turn his vision into reality.
Blumen, O., and S. Halevi. "Staging Peace Through a Gendered Demonstration: Women in Black in Haifa, Israel." Association of American Geographers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 977.
Israeli Women in Black was founded twenty years ago to demonstrate for peace and against the occupation of the Palestinian territories. Their political activism involves three spatial processes: outing their protest by taking to the streets, locating their protest through strategic siting, and performing their politics, thus redefining the places they occupy. The Haifa chapter has relocated its demonstrations several times in response to political opposition. Observations and interviews support our analysis of the geographical implications of their unique method of demonstration, their locational choices, and the tension between their femininity and activism played out against the city dynamic.
Etzioni, A.. "Israel: Samson's Children." Society 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 477.
Etzioni narrates that some people believe that Israel can be saved by what is called the two state solution, which would lead Palestinians and Jews to live side by side in security and peace--and pacify the Arab world and Iran to boot. However, he tells that no one believes that this road can be traveled quickly. Moreover, he stresses that no decent human being would oppose finding a diplomatic way out of the mounting crisis. Yet as the clouds gather and darken, for those who care, the question of the steps that must be taken if diplomacy fails can no longer be avoided.
Gaess, R.. "INTERVIEW: ISRAELI NEW HISTORIAN AVI SHLAIM." Middle East Policy 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 96-105.
[...] the mood in Israel is one of uncertainty and concern because all Israelis, whatever their political affiliation, know that America is the only friend they have in the world, and that they can no longer count on automatic American support. [...] it has had a peace treaty with Egypt and that peace has held. What they left is a series of Palestinian enclaves with Israel in charge, with roads for the settlers and an apartheid system that negates the possibility of a viable Palestinian state.
Gayer, C., S. Landman, E. Halperin, and D. Bar-Tal. "Overcoming Psychological Barriers to Peaceful Conflict Resolution: The Role of Arguments about Losses." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 6 (December 1, 2009): 951.
One of the most important psychological barriers to conflict resolution is the rigid structure of the sociopsychological repertoire that evolves in societies immersed in intractable conflict. This article examines ways to overcome the rigidity of this repertoire in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Specifically, in line with the prospect theory, the authors assumed that elicitation of beliefs about losses stemming from the continuing conflict may bring about a process of "unfreezing." To test this assumption, an exploratory study with a national sample of the Israeli-Jewish population and two subsequent experimental studies were conducted. The results demonstrated that exposure to information about losses inherent in continuing the conflict induces higher willingness to acquire new information about possible solutions to the conflict, higher willingness to reevaluate current positions about it, and more support for compromises than the exposure to neutral information or to information about possible gains derived from the peace agreement.
Hagerty, D.. "IRAN-Guardians of the Revolution: Iran and the World in the Age of the Ayatollahs." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 675-676.
With interested observers struggling to understand, and shape policy toward, the Islamic Republic of Iran in the aftermath of last summer's badly flawed presidential election and consequent protest movement, they are lucky to have at hand Ray Takeyh's excellent history of Iran's foreign and security policies in the three decades since the revolution. In a lively account that will be profitably read by scholars, students, policymakers, and the general reader, Takeyh traverses all of the important terrain: the 1979-1981 hostage crisis; the 1980- 1988 Iran-Iraq war; Tehran's role in the rise of Hizbullah in Lebanon during the early 1980s; the Iran-Contra scandal of the mid- 1980s; Iran's alliance with Syria; Tehran's support for terrorism against Israel and opposition to the Arab-Israeli peace process; the Iranian cultivation of Europe, China, and Russia as counterpoints to the United States; Iran's responses to the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent US wars in Afghanistan and Iraq; and the Iranian nuclear program.
Hanley, D.. "ATFP Fourth Annual Gala." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 46.
Liberty, Security, Prosperity, attended by more than 650 people, including members of Congress, current and former senior administration officials, ministers and ambassadors, prominent policy analysts, journalists and noted Palestinian and Arab Americans. In his introduction of General Jones, ATFP President Ziad J. Asali praised the national security adviser's "profound grasp of the integral relationship between politics, security and economic development, and his fairness in being able to see the perspectives, and understand the requirements, of both Israel and the Palestinians."
Hanley, D.. "Prof. Richard Falk Explains Why International Law Matters." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 53-54.
Dr. Said was often criticized for not endorsing a two-state solution, Falk noted, because, like a growing number of Palestinians and Americans, he believed that it is impossible to achieve any kind of peace with justice on the basis of two separated ethnic communities. [...] Falk stated that Israel/Palestine is "a de facto one state already."
Kaufman, A.. ""Let Sleeping Dogs Lie:" On Ghajar and Other Anomalies in the Syria-Lebanon-Israel Tri-Border Region." The Middle East Journal 63, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 539-560.
This article argues that the partition of the village of Ghajar between Israel and Lebanon by the Israeli Line of Withdrawal, as determined by the United Nations in 2000, was based on historical and cartographical errors. It demonstrates that the entire village was controlled by Syria until the June 1967 war when Israel occupied it along with the Golan Heights. The article shows that the entire pre-1967 tri-border region of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel suffered from border irregularities that remained dormant until 2000. Finally, the article argues that Ghajar should remain united, pending a Syrian-Israeli peace deal that theoretically would return the Golan Heights to Syria and include Ghajar in its entirety.
Marshall, R.. "Has Obama Made a Devil's Bargain With Israel?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 7-9.
According to a recent U.N. report, 70 percent of Gazans subsist on less than a dollar a day and 60 percent have no daily access to water (see p. 18). Because of the Israeli blockade it takes 85 days to get shelter kits into Gaza, where 20,000 people remain homeless.
McArthur, S.. "House, Senate Letters Want Arab States to Make "Dramatic Gestures Toward Israel"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
The letter cites "concrete measures" taken by Israel "to reaffirm its commitment to advancing the peace process" (but nowhere mentions illegal Israeli settlements in the occupied territories), and it encourages "Arab leaders to take similar tangible steps to demonstrate their commitment to the peace process." First was the 25-member Republican delegation, headed by Republican House Whip (and the only Republican Jewish member of Congress) Eric Cantor (R-VA).
Rubner, M.. "Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace/King Hussein of Jordan: A Political Life." Review. Middle East Policy 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 158-164.
[...] both authors attribute Hussein's ability to survive in his small, poor and militarily weak kingdom to his strong sense of personal empathy and pragmatism in dealing with internal and external foes. According to Shlaim, more than any other Arab leader, Hussein had a better understanding of the reasons for Israel's security fears.
Schaeffer-Duffy, C.. "Waging Peace: AAPER and Baltzer Team Up." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
Waging Peace: AAPER and Baltzer Team Up Since the spring of 2006, Anna Baltzer, the author of A Witness in Palestine, A Jewish American Woman in the Occupied Territories, has given more than 700 presentations on the plight of Palestinians in Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories.
Shechtman, Z., N. Wade, and A. Khoury. "Effectiveness of a Forgiveness Program for Arab Israeli Adolescents in Israel: An Empirical Trial." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 415.
This study evaluated the effect of a forgiveness counseling intervention with 146 Arab adolescents in Israel. Students from seven classrooms and schools participated in an experimental intervention study in which half of each class was randomly assigned to a forgiveness-promoting program while the other half remained in class for a social discussion with their homeroom teacher. Results indicated that students in the forgiveness intervention condition reported more increased empathy and greater reductions in endorsement of aggression, revenge, avoidance, and hostility than students in the control condition. Of the group process variables, depth of the session appears to be the best predictor of outcomes. The discussion highlights the theoretical, clinical, and didactical implications.
Weiss, L.. "ISRAEL'S FUTURE AND IRAN'S NUCLEAR PROGRAM." Middle East Policy 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 79-88.
U.S. and Israeli Policy Choices While the success of the project is important to Jewish nationalists, it should not be considered a vital national-security interest of the United States. [...] characterizing Iran's nuclear program as an "existential threat" to Israel is an attempt to obtain support for sanctions and/or military action against Iran by conflating the physical destruction of Israel by a surprise nuclear attack, which Washington should actively work to prevent, with the demographic threats to the Zionist project, which the United States is under no obligation to alleviate.
Wilcox, P.. "MODERN HISTORY AND POLITICS-A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East - From the Cold War to the War on Terror." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 683-686.
Washington has been slow to understand the core Palestinian conflict and to protect US interests through wiser management of its alliance with Israel. Because of years of US indulgence of Israeli occupation and settlement policies, the conflict has deepened.
Williams, I.. "Israel's Obsession With Goldstone Report Reflects Fears of War Crimes Prosecutions." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 9 (December 1, 2009): 14-15.
Israel's Western allies have been reduced to inanities, lamenting the mission's failure to hear the case the Israelis refused to make. "Because Israel did not cooperate with the Mission, which we regret, the report lacks an authoritative Israeli perspective on the events in question, so crucial to determining the legality of actions," declared the British envoy in Geneva, who should have been fully aware that it was precisely with that eventual excuse in mind that Israel refused to cooperate.
Yablon, Y.. "Promoting peace education via voluntary encounters." Cambridge Journal of Education 39, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 505.
As current study of contact between groups is somehow limited and self-referential, the present study joins other studies that suggest a deeper examination of intergroup contact in wider social processes which recognize the complex nature of intergroup relationships. A qualitative multiple-methods approach, supported by quantitative measures, was used to study a voluntary dialogue group of religious and secular students in Israel, to reveal its underlying force-driving processes and study its contribution to the enhancement of positive relationships between the groups. The findings reveal the strengths and weaknesses of such voluntary encounters and point to four fundamental factors for the formation and enhancement of this new venue for intergroup contact intervention programs: motivation, cooperation, meeting coordinator and group facilitator, and enjoying the meetings. Possible implications for school pedagogy and for the enhancement of positive intergroup relations are discussed.
al-Faisal, T.. "Land First, Then Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009):
[...] while Israel's neighbors want peace, they cannot be expected to tolerate what amounts to theft, and certainly should not be pressured into rewarding Israel for the return of land that does not belong to it. [...] Israel heeds President Obama's call for the removal of all settlements, the world must be under no illusion that Saudi Arabia will offer what the Israelis most desire-regional recognition.
Week of December 9-December 15, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Islam, Part 4 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Aksoy, S.. "MUSLIM - CHRISTIAN DIALOGUE IN PEYAMI SAFA'S: THE ARMCHAIR OF MADEMOISELLE NORALIYA." Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 20, no. 1/2 (January 1, 2008): 87-104.
Peyami Safa, a twentieth-century novelist, journalist, and intellectual, and one of the major personalities of conservatism in Turkey, encouraged Muslim and Christian believers to search for common ground and shared values that would yield a happy, virtuous way of life. His novel, The Armchair of Mademoislle Noraliya, features a character, Noraliya, who epitomizes the common ground between Islam and Christianity as a guide to peace of mind for individuals lost in the maze of modernity. Safa's literary construct is rooted in the both religious inclination and admiration for the modern mind. Drawing on the main elements of the novel, this essay focuses on those features that reflect Safa's idea of a personal mysticism reached through religion, as well as interreligious dialogue. Safa's approach exemplifies Turkey's unique position in the Muslim world, inviting comparison and appreciation of the nuances among the historical manifestations of Islam.
Alvi-Aziz, H.. "Iran Awakening: One Woman's Journey to Reclaim Her Life and Country/The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future." Review. Naval War College Review 62, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 154-155.
Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Eb adi' s autobiography Iran Awakening and Vali Nasr' s The Shia Revival provide unique insights and analyses of the powerhungry clerics ruling Iran and of the Sunni-versus-Shia paradigm. Each chapter contains shocking developments, but nothing grabs the reader more than the prologue, in which she describes her surreal discovery that she is next on the revolutionary clerics' hit list. The book's subtitle states his theory that it is the many conflicts within Islam that will shape the future.
Anonymous, . "Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Clingingsmith, D., A. Khwaja, and M. Kremer. "Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and Tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 1133.
We estimate the impact on pilgrims of performing the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Our method compares successful and unsuccessful applicants in a lottery used by Pakistan to allocate Hajj visas. Pilgrim accounts stress that the Hajj leads to a feeling of unity with fellow Muslims, but outsiders have sometimes feared that this could be accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. We find that participation in the Hajj increases observance of global Islamic practices, such as prayer and fasting, while decreasing participation in localized practices and beliefs, such as the use of amulets and dowry. It increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects and leads to more favorable attitudes toward women, including greater acceptance of female education and employment. Increased unity within the Islamic world is not accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. Instead, Hajjis show increased belief in peace, and in equality and harmony among adherents of different religions. The evidence suggests that these changes are likely due to exposure to and interaction with Hajjis from around the world, rather than to a changed social role of pilgrims upon return.
Cook, M.. "Arguing the Just War in Islam." Review. Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 117-119.
In 1993, he published Islam and War: A Case Study in Comparative Ethics, one of the first and clearest expositions ever to compare Islamic thought about just war with the dominant European, Christian, and international law models familiar to American scholars and lawyers. Kelsay reviews the arguments of a number of Islamic reformers who are attempting to reinterpret Islam in such a manner as to make it more compatible with pluralist democracy and equal human rights for all regardless of religious affiliation, etc.
El-Aswad, E.. "Islamic Attitudes to Israel." Review. Domes 18, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 107-110.
[...] the early roots of the battle between Palestinian and Israeli have been religion , including Islam (p. 72, italics are added) There seems to be an obvious contradiction and confusion in the author's assertions and claims about the roots of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.\n Chapter Seven: Iran, Israel and the Middle East Conflict discusses the shift in the Iran-Israel relationship from one of cooperation in the 1980s, when Israel was involved in arms deals with Iran because of the Iran-Iraq War (p.115), to one of hostility in the 1990s-especially since the 1991 Gulf War - which altered the Iranian society's attitude towards Israel. The main conclusion of Chapter Nine: "The Republic of Indonesia and Israel" can be summed up as follows: Because of its refusal to establish relations with Israel, Indonesia, among other Muslim states of Asia, has been portrayed as anti-Israel despite the fact that there is no evidence that any of the Indonesian leaders - namely Suharto, Habibie and Wahid - feared reactions from Arab states, (p. 156) The book does not convey new findings.
Ellian, A.. "Monotheism as a Political Problem: Political Islam and the Attack on Religious Equality and Freedom." Telos no. 145 (December 1, 2008): 87.
Ellian examines the relation between religion and politics, which is a legal-philosophical theme that has once again come to the foreground, due primarily to the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the ensuing international debate on the nature of Islam. Yet every discussion of Islam encounters the resistance of political correctness, which exercises an enormous pressure on academic freedom, often resulting in self-censorship. Philosophy does not have as its primary goal the establishment of world peace. Instead, it begins by asking questions and by analyzing reality, even if those questions and analyses turn out to be very painful to religious or political powers.
Erlanger, S.. ""THE ANTI-GERMANS" - THE PRO-ISRAEL GERMAN LEFT." Jewish Political Studies Review 21, no. 1/2 (April 1, 2009): 95-106,211.
It is no secret that the German Left's outlook today is, and has been for some time, predominantly anti-Israel and anti-American. Far less wellknown is the existence of a small but influential pro-Israel movement within the German Left, a movement which challenges the existing antiIsrael consensus. The "Anti-German" Movement, as it is known, grew out of a communist student organization. In 1989 it finally emerged as a movement in its own right in opposition to German reunification. Fearing the emergence of a new fascism from the social and political dynamics of reunification, the Anti-Germans fight any manifestation of German nationalism, aligning themselves with the victims of Nazi Germany and their descendants. Likewise, seeing elements of German nationalism in the German Peace Movement, the Anti-Germans have become its strong opponents. During the 1990s the movement perceived modern-day German existence as dominated by dynamics between the state, economy, and society similar to those that led to National Socialism and the Holocaust. Today the Anti-Germans discern fascism and militant anti-Semitism as most apparent in Islamism and therefore strongly denounce militant political Islam. At the same time, they offer unconditional support for Israel, the Jews, and the U.S., in opposition to the dominant political discourse amongst the German public in general and the left in particular. Unable to form a mass movement or an organization large enough to take an active role in political life, the Anti-German Movement has become an influential publicist movement centered on several magazines and journals. As writers, social scientists, and journalists, Anti-Germans have been able to exert a growing impact on the Left and on public opinion.
Gee, J.. "Obama's Speech: "It's Really About the Arabs"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 37.
[...] I was left with a couple of impressions of the reasons for this attitude. [...] in choosing to make his first presidential sally into the Muslim world a visit to the Middle East, Obama made the right choice if his primary concern was to take on the issue of the Palestine conflict.
Gillespie, M.. "Third Annual Des Moines Peace Fair Features Diversity." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 9 (December 1, 2008): 71.
Noting that television and media often traffic in stereotypes, he said the MSA works to provide accurate information about Islam to dispel unrealistic fears.
Gregersen, N.. "On Taboos: The Danish Cartoon Crisis 2005-20081." Dialog 48, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 79-96.
The international crisis following the publication of 12 Muhammad cartoons in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten (September 30, 2005) raises the general question of how to exercise the freedom of expression in relation to religious taboos. After briefly reviewing the Cartoon Crisis from September 2005 to the bombings on the Danish Ambassay in Pakistan in June 2008, the article addresses Lutheran resources for coping with secularisation and desecularisation, in particular as regards the taboos that persist as a part of religious and humanistic values. The thesis is that the Lutheran doctrine of the two kingdoms has given rise to two models of interpretation that have both been historically active. The doctrine of the two regiments has been interpreted both as a 'liberalist' argument for a principled separation of religion and politics, and as a 'social-conservative' (later Social Democratic) argument for the view that the state should take care of its citizens' welfare through education, the legal system and social services. In today's global and multi-religious world, this leads us to ask the question to what extent a welfare society, for the sake of peace and social order, should, or should not, protect religious sensitivities. Should religious communities always be kept out of public life, or can they be recognised as non-governmental organizations in civil society, hence as potential partners for the state?
Gunaratna, R., and M. Ali. "De-Radicalization Initiatives in Egypt: A Preliminary Insight." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 4 (April 1, 2009): 277.
This article provides a preliminary insight to the ideological revision of the two principle Islamist militant groups in Egypt, the Al-Gamaa Al-lslamiyya and Al-Jihad Al-Islami. Several leaders of these groups have taken steps to renounce violence and promote peace co-existence with the government and society. They have also repented and apologized for the past terror attacks in Egypt that led to the killing of many innocent civilians, government officials and tourists. In addition, they have gone to great lengths to counter and argue against Al Qaeda's violent ideology and to restrict its influence on the Muslim population. The ideological revision of these two groups reflects a significant shift in the efforts of the Egyptian authorities and community to address the problem of ideological extremism and terrorism in the country.
Hanley, D.. "Kerry Holds Hearing on Engaging Muslims Around World." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 70-71.
[...] Albright concluded, religion matters: "Both the Bible and Qur'an include enough rhetorical ammunition to start a war and enough moral uplift to engender permanent peace."
[...] he suggested treating Muslim visitors with more respect at our U.S. points of entry, and correcting the embarrassing delays for obtaining visitors' visas.
Hilsdon, A.. "Invisible Bodies: Gender, Conflict and Peace in Mindanao." Asian Studies Review 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 349-V.
Community forms of struggle such as clan feuds [ridos] are common within Muslim groups in Central and Western Mindanao, but these do not figure in classic scholarly definitions of "war" in the region and elsewhere (see Majul, 1999; McKenna, 1998), which emphasise larger political struggles against the state. [...] women seldom figure in explanations of either political or community conflict, as they have predominantly been considered integrally involved only in family life.4 Islam in the Philippines is diverse in its social and cultural expression, a pattern similarly noted for the Middle East by Akbar S. Ahmed (1992, p. 200) and Bryan S. Turner (1994, p. 13).
Jones, G.. "Islam and Violent Separatism: New Democracies in Southeast Asia." Review. Journal of Third World Studies 26, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 175-178.
Islamic radical behavior is not the cause of this social malady but rather one of its inheritors, a fact mat escaped the writers of this edited book. ' [...] endemic violence is brought under local control, liberal democracy has an uncertain future. The thesis governing the edited book is sound, Islamic radical groups have impacted Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia national efforts in fostering liberal democracy.
Marion, M., J. Rousseau, and K. Gollin. "Connecting Our Villages: The Afghan Sister Schools Project at the Carolina Friends School." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 548-570.
The Carolina Friends School has sustained a peace education effort grounded in a sister-school relationship with a school in rural Afghanistan since 2002. Activities at this Quaker school involve students from preschool through high school in pen pal friendships, ten-day diary exchanges, peace-quilt exchanges, fund-raisers, and a variety of in-class programs about Islam and Afghan culture. Funds have been used in Afghanistan to furnish classrooms, equip playgrounds, and support teacher training. The project aims to educate students about cultural differences underlying conflict in the world and to seek a more peaceful world through building relationships among the sister-school students.
Peabody, N.. "Disciplining the Body, Disciplining the Body-Politic: Physical Culture and Social Violence among North Indian Wrestlers." Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 372-400.
In the early evening of 14 September 1989, ferocious Hindu-Muslim rioting broke out in the city of Kota in the north Indian state of Rajasthan. The rioting started during the Hindu festival of Anant Chaturdashi, while celebrants were taking out religious processions through the city. Although most of the violence occurred during that first night, it would be another three days before the Indian army could restore an uneasy peace to the city and nearly three weeks more would pass before the military curfew that eventually confined city's inhabitants to their houses for all but a few hours a day was fully lifted. The mayhem claimed the lives of twenty-six individuals and left a further ninety-nine injured in hospital. Countless more 'walking wounded' were treated on an outpatient basis in local dispensaries or by friends or neighbors. In addition, vandalism, arson, and looting caused property losses exceeding ten million rupees. Although Muslims constituted only 9 percent of the city's population of roughly half-a-million, they suffered the vast majority of the casualties and bore a disproportionate amount of property loss. By convention we commonly refer to such rioting as 'Hindu-Muslim violence,' but the parity implied in this formula is deeply misleading. The vast majority of victims were Muslims.
Power, C.. "FAITH IN THE MARKET." Foreign Policy no. 170 (January 1, 2009): 70-75,4.
Amid the worst economic crisis in nearly a century, Yusuf Talal DeLorenzo sells peace of mind. A Muslim convert who is the product of both a Massachusetts prep school and a Karachi madrasa, DeLorenzo issues pronouncements on the spiritual soundness of modern finance for the world's Muslims. He served as a well-paid counsel to the international hedge-fund managers, bankers, and asset managers who are determined to invest in line with the Koran's principles. Sharia scholars such as DeLorenzo see Islamic finance as the path to a distinctly spiritual end. But not everyone is convinced. Take the claim of Islamic finance as a safe haven from the global economic crisis. Islamic finance, just like conventional finance, is vulnerable to sloppy vetting of customers' creditworthiness. Potential pitfalls for Islamic finance, then, are the same as those for conventional finance: greed and lax regulation. A larger issue is whether Islam and the modern economy can be reconciled at all.
Powers, J.. "RESTORING HARMONY TO GUJARAT: PEACE BUILDING AFTER THE 2002 RIOTS." Journal of Third World Studies 25, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 103-115.
Both parties centered on the ideology of V.D. Savarkar, whose book, Hindutva Who is a Hindu? ( 1923) called for recognizing Hinduism as both a race and a religion, essentially developing an "indigenous race" theory modeled on German nationalism and Aryan mythography.3 In order to celebrate the vitality and strength of a twice colonized nation, the Sangh emphasized physical fitness, martial arts and paramilitary training. The Sangh Parivar organizations consider their enemies to be a Indian followers of foreign religions (Islam and Christianity), b Communists and their sympathizers, c westernized members of the Indian intelligentsia committed to secularism, and d foreign powers.6 This sort of thinking has polarized Indian society, particularly in the north, pitting upper-caste and middle-class Hindus against Muslims, untouchables, converts to Islam and Christianity, and any who subscribe to "the false dogma of secularism."
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Simbar, R.. "The Changing Role of Islam in International Relations." Journal of International and Area Studies 15, no. 2 (December 1, 2008): 55-68.
This paper examines different aspects of the global Islamic movement and its impacts and implications. We study the theoretical background and different perspectives in Islamic ideology. We discuss the basis of inter-state relations between a Muslim polity and other Muslim or non-Muslim polities that can be found in traditional and neo-traditional literatures relevant to the topic. This paper argues that peace is the original basis in Islam and rejects the idea of perpetual war between Islamic and non-Islamic polity as espoused by Jihadist groups that have raised concerns among security agencies and non-Muslim political and community leaders. Political Islam is undergoing a transformation from being an opposition and marginalised political project to becoming a counter-hegemonic movement fighting at the front line between the West and the rest of the world. The strength of Islamism is shaped not only by its Islamic discourse and rhetoric, but also by its social components and political programs. This paper argues that the West must in one way or another understand, recognize and accommodate Islamism's political motivations and visions. Religious re-awakening, often in the form of fundamental revivalism, is a major phenomenon in the international relations today, especially in the Islamic regions.
Sodiq, Y.. "Can Muslims and Christians Live Together Peacefully in Nigeria?" The Muslim World 99, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 646-688.
The Nigerian constitution provides and guarantees for each citizen the freedom of religion, religious practice, and religious education.7 These rights are generally observed throughout Nigeria. [...] places of worship are freely established,8 and no restrictions are placed on the number of clergy trained in Nigeria9 or on the number of people who may perform pilgrimage.
Swazo, N.. ""MY BROTHER IS MY KING": EVALUATING THE MORAL DUTY OF GLOBAL JIHAD." International Journal on World Peace 25, no. 4 (December 1, 2008): 7-47.
This paper considers the problem of defining and describing terrorism associated with contemporary "political" or "radical" Islam and the statements of Osama bin Laden that ostensibly justify global jihad. The author's moral assessment considers the task of comparative jurisprudence that includes reasoning in Islamic jurisprudence. Given bin Laden's appeal to Islamic sources, attention needs to be paid to the authority of the Hanbali school of law and the jurist Ibn Taymiyya as these relate to the justification of global jihad. The article concludes that these sources provide political Islamists "just cause" to wage a defensive global jihad on behalf of global Islamic solidarity of the ummah, defensive insofar as these actions are taken against Western "imperialism" and American hegemony. This points to the need for American politicians to rethink the policy of waging what is called the global war on terrorism.
Tank, P.. "Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East?" Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 601.
Tank reviews Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East? by Gareth Jenkins.
Tank, P.. "The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World." Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 2 (March 1, 2009): 286.
Tank reviews The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World by Graham E. Fuller.
Week of December 3-December 9, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Hinduism, Part 3 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Powers, J.. "RESTORING HARMONY TO GUJARAT: PEACE BUILDING AFTER THE 2002 RIOTS." Journal of Third World Studies 25, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 103-115.
Both parties centered on the ideology of V.D. Savarkar, whose book, Hindutva Who is a Hindu? ( 1923) called for recognizing Hinduism as both a race and a religion, essentially developing an "indigenous race" theory modeled on German nationalism and Aryan mythography.3 In order to celebrate the vitality and strength of a twice colonized nation, the Sangh emphasized physical fitness, martial arts and paramilitary training. The Sangh Parivar organizations consider their enemies to be a Indian followers of foreign religions (Islam and Christianity), b Communists and their sympathizers, c westernized members of the Indian intelligentsia committed to secularism, and d foreign powers.6 This sort of thinking has polarized Indian society, particularly in the north, pitting upper-caste and middle-class Hindus against Muslims, untouchables, converts to Islam and Christianity, and any who subscribe to "the false dogma of secularism."
Tsai, T.. "Public health and peace building in Nepal." The Lancet 374, no. 9689 (August 15, 2009): 515-6.
[...] with the resignation of the Maoist cabinet, after only 9 months in power, and the ensuing impasse in forming a coalition government led by the new Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal, it remains to be seen if promoting public health will still be a priority. Since the cessation of the civil war in 2006, Nepal has seen a large influx of development aid, with around US$700 million committed for fiscal year 2008-09-a substantial proportion of its $3 billion budget according to the Ministry of Finance.
Jain, R.. "An Ethical Diet for Peace and Plenty." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 38-39.
IN INDIA, THE LAND OF AHIMSA, OR NONVIOLENCE, PEOPLE HAVE traditionally been vegetarian. Hailing from a family of staunch vegetarians, I consider myself fortunate to be living in harmony with the principles of nature. As a Jain follower, I strongly advocate a vegetarian diet, which I find superior not only from a moral stance, but also from the health and culinary points of view. Guests at our home, coming from both vegetarian and nonvegetarian backgrounds, are always overwhelmed with what they describe as the unbelievable taste and richness of our vegetarian cuisine.
Sadly, in recent times many Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, especially of the younger generation, are no longer so strict about our precepts and have taken to nonvegetarian food, mostly following the misconception that meat-eating is healthy. Truth be told, a vegetarian diet is actually much healthier than one based on animal protein. It is argued that there is a lot of protein in meat and eggs, but we do not need so much concentrated protein in our diet. There is plenty of protein in nuts, seeds, pulses and dairy products, which are also far easier to digest. Vegetarianism supports mental and physical health as well as spiritual cultivation. Fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts and milk products provide a balanced diet which does not make our system toxic. This is primarily because when an animal is killed, it becomes dead matter. In the case of many vegetables, if we eat part of the vegetable and re-plant another part, it can grow again; it is still a living organism.
My friend Martin Gluckman, who runs the Vedic Society and teaches organic and ayurvedic cooking in South Africa, hails Indian vegetarianism thusly: "India has the world's greatest cuisine and most variety of dishes, boasting to its amazing cultural and spiritual heritage. It has a time-tested vegetarian cuisine offering a delight for all senses and the heart. India can be proud to have the world's largest per-capita number of vegetarians (I have read reports of more than 40%). No other country can make such a statement of humanity and nonviolence. The vegetarian culture and lifestyle is India's greatest achievement and gift to the world. Only in years to come will the true value of this gift be known."
Nancy deWolf Smith. "Entertainment & Culture -- Review / Television: What the Magi Saw." Review. Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2008, Eastern Edition,
Less is knowable about the identity of the three wise men, or magi, referred to in the Gospel of Matthew -- and, it turns out, in unrelated scholarly records from about A.D. 50. The narrator and star, former Texas fundamentalist Edward T. Martin, explains that while teaching English abroad and serving in the Peace Corps in Afghanistan in 1974, he stumbled onto the theory that Jesus, when he was 12 or 13, joined a caravan on the Silk Road and wound up in India and Nepal, where he imbibed the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism before going home much later to be crucified.
P.K. Abdul Ghafour. "Geneva meeting seeks greater understanding among religions." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 1 October2009.
The latest international conference on interfaith dialogue -- the fourth in a series initiated by Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah -- began here on Wednesday with a call for greater understanding among the followers of different religions and culture in order to promote human welfare and world peace. Bandar Al-Eiban, president of the Human Rights Commission in Saudi Arabia; William Baker, president of Christians and Muslims for Peace in the US; Rev. Xue Cheng, vice chairman of Buddhist Association of China; Faisal bin Muammar, Saudi deputy minister of education; Sri Ravi Shankar, a renowned scholar on Hinduism; and Mohammad Ali Al-Taskhiri, general-secretary of the World Forum for Proximity of Islamic Schools of Thought in Iran.
Renuka Narayanan. "Hindustan Times, New Delhi, Renuka Narayanan column: Invite them in, for God's sake." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 11 October2008 ***[insert pages]***
[...] mullahs teaching Muslims to live at theological peace with Hindus, the custodians of saints' shrines could rethink letting women in close to the grave. The theme of this Makkan surah is that the basis of faith is God's power and goodness and the fruit of both is man's healing.
Soumyajit Pattnaik. "Tribals hold key to peace." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 19 December 2008.
When the riots first started in Kandhamal district on Christmas Day last year, the statewide shutdown call given by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad to protest against the attack on Swami Laxmanananda Saraswati's vehicle on December 24 (he was killed in August this year) coincided with a Kandhamal shutdown call given by the tribals' association for an entirely different reason.
Zia Haq. "VHP anti-terror message: part peace, part threat." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 2 March 2009.
At a 50-year-old ashram in this hub of India's Islamic clergy, just across the road from the Muslim seminary, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad on Sunday organised a yagya for Ram Rajya to defeat terror, with many seers saying Hinduism faced a "serious threat" from jihad and the fatwa proved of "little use".
"Peace Village' set for Sunday." Houston Chronicle, February 5, 2009,
Attendees will have the opportunity to learn about different spiritual practices - including Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and Bahai - and touch sacred objects from the various traditions, learn about them, pray for peace and enjoy an ethnic food table.
Agarwal, S.. "Learning to Be the Change." India Currents, October 1, 2008, 50.
The goal of Gandhi Camp is to teach youth to use Gandhi's principles of truthful- ness, tolerance, and self-help in our everyday lives. The camp was founded by a popular and dedicated Indian youth leader, S. N. Sub- ba Rao, who is also the chief of Gandhi Peace Foundation. Campers and counselors affec- tionately call Subba Raoji, Bhaiji, meaning "Elder Brother." Bhaiji believes that building inner strength is the best way to build charac- ter. He inspires all the young campers to learn Gandhian values like ahimsa (non-violence), love, peace, and harmony, and teaches us that the world's fortune lies in the youth.
Anonymous, . "AVS Plans Satsang to Promote Peace." India - West, May 30, 2008,
The Palm Bay, Floriada-based Akhanda Vishnu Sahasranama Organization is planning to channel Vishnu Sahasranama Stotra into a Satsang across the U.S....
Anonymous, . "Eco-friendly Gandhi celebration in Nevada." India Abroad, August 15, 2008,
The recitations at the sunset to honor the legacy of [Gandhi] will include Christian prayers in English, Muslim prayers in Arabic, Hindu shlokas in Sanskrit, Buddhist prayers in Pali, Jewish prayers in Hebrew, a Baha'i prayer in Persian, and a Native American chant in the Sioux tradition. Attendees will sing one of Gandhi's favorite bhajans, Raghupati Raghav Rajaram, said [Rajan Zed].
Zed and Reverend Savoy plan to make Gandhi Month an annual feature in Nevada. The two are also pushing for a Gandhi monument at the state capitol in Carson City and Gandhi statues in Las Vegas and Reno. A Nevada-wide essay competition will be held in October on topics including nonviolence, peace and conflict resolution.
Anonymous, . "Nirankari Mission Holds 'Peace Not Pieces' Event." India - West, September 25, 2009,
Guests attending the event included Tracy Mayor Brent Ives, as well as members of the interfaith and Ahmadiyya communities. Singh personally greeted and blessed attendees after the event, which also included a community dinner served by volunteers.
Anonymous, . "Nobel Prize Winners Voice Hindu Wisdom." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2008, 7.
THE 2007 NOBEL PEACE prize was jointly awarded to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Al Gore. The IPCC was credited for its definitive research on the issues and dangerous impact of climate change. Former US Vice President, Al Gore, was honored for single-handedly bringing the crisis to the forefront of world attention.
"Principles" was followed by "Indian Sculpture" (1932), "A Survey of Painting in the Deccan" (1937), "Indian Terracottas" (1939), "The Hindu Temple" (1946) and "Arts and Crafts of Travancore" (1948).
From 1932-50, Kramrisch coedited the Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art. In 1950, she moved to the United States, where she was professor of Soutii Asian art at die University of Pennsylvania and curator of Indian art at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, where she organized the exhibitions - "The Art of Nepal and Tibet" (1960), "Unknown India: Ritual Art in Tribe and Village" (1968) and "Himalayan Art 700-1900" (1978). She produced a show, "Manifestations of Siva," for the Philadelphia Museum in 1981. Her last exhibition was "Painted Delight," a show of Mughal paintings, also at the Philadelphia museum, in 1986.
Dutt, E.. "'I seek your blessings so I can practice my Hindu faith strongly'." News India - Times, April 25, 2008,
"As a Hindu, I am gratified to meet and shake hands with a Christian - so that I can continue to practice my religion stronger than ever. I would say to the Pope, "I am proud to be a Hindu and I seek your blessings also so that I can practice my faith more strongly, and also to work toward world peace."
"Four religions emanating from India, are represented at the meeting with the Pope in the U.S. It is remarkable. All Eastern faiths, more or less with common beliefs, are being represented on the same dais - it speaks of the strength of these religions in serving world peace.
Dutt, E.. "South Asians have high profile at meeting with Pope." News India - Times, April 25, 2008,
[Ravi Gupta], 25, a doctorate in Religion from University of Oxford, presented the sacred syllable [Om]' on a brass incense burner. He is the author of 'The Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami: When Knowledge Meets Devotion. He participated in a recent USCCB-Hindu consultation and is committed to pursuing interreligious dialogue in both his professional and personal capacities.
"I'd like to encourage him to open up a full dialogue with Hinduism and bring Hindus to the table," Gupta told The Washington Times before the Pope's visit, "That is important considering India's growing presence in the world. Religious issues in India are taking on a lot more significance than they used to."
"Naturally I feel the greatest honor in being able to meet one of the most revered people on this earth," [Aditya Vora] is quoted saying on the Catholic Bishops website blog. "More importantly the causes uniting us in this ceremony have filled me with great joy and hope. When leaders from the Islamic, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Buddhist and [Jain] faiths come together, I feel this symbolizes a universal priority of peace through religious tolerance."
Joseph, G.. "'America is on the cutting edge of the new Hindu-Jewish relationship'." India Abroad, July 10, 2009,
Swami Avdeshananda Giri, trustee of the Hindu [Dharma Acharya Sabha] who led the Hindu Sabha delegation, said, 'Hindus believe that the whole world is one family so we are committed to nonviolence, brotherhood and peace. To bring forth communal harmony and peace throughout the world, we need to engage m interfaith dialogue to foster mutual understanding and respect.'
I see great prospects for furthering strategic relations between India-Israel and India, Israel and the US,' [Bawa Jain] said. The World Council of Religions is committed to expand this dialogue by engaging the other major world traditions similarly in religious diplomacy.'
"Any dialogue that is based on or towards the end goal of mutual understanding and respect is imperative in an age where the vast majority of conflicts around the globe are driven by religious intolerance," she said. "This year, religious and spiritual leaders and the World Council believed it was time to bring the fruits of the two previous summits to the US in the form of high level meetings and a report release on Capitol Hill."
Malik, R.. "Swami Avdheshananda Giri, HINDU of the YEAR." Hinduism Today, January 1, 2009, 18-24.
As the Acharya, Swamiji assumed the mantle of guru for the akhara's numerous devotees. He said to our reporter, "May God forgive me and I say this without any kind of arrogance, but I interact with thousands of people every day." It requires stamina, dedication and a strong spiritual foundation to remain centered, and Swami found the answer in discipline. No matter where he is in the world, at 9AM his doors will open to devotees. With three to four flights every month and an average of twenty days away from the main ashram, Swami finds it helpful to plan ahead in detail. Everything is scheduled, even the time allocated for each meal. It is a demanding social routine, far removed from his beginnings as a Himalayan yogi. "What keeps me alive is my meditation," Swami says with candor. "I cannot live without meditation. It gives me energy, bliss, peace and vitality. When you close your eyes and sit in a proper posture, energy will grow and flow at a very rapid speed. Just close your eyes and observe it. There is nothing more powerful than dhyana. Dhyana gives birth to you, it introduces you to your own Self."
"We have constructed 350 to 400 dams," exults Swami Avdheshananda. And, he adds, 1,300 new Sivalingas have been installed, one for each village. "We wanted to develop their faith in God The villagers themselves worked to build them. In the past five years or so, the whole life of those people has been transformed." While he is pleased with the results, Swamiji wants to go farther. "Now we want to provide better education and medical help" The Shivganga yields humanitarian results and is also good for Hinduism. "Before we went there," Swami continues, "large-scale conversion was taking place. That has stopped altogether. Before, no religious events were happening; now we even have Hindu priests officiating at festivals. It is with a lot of enthusiasm that I am sharing with you our extensive plans for that area."
Previous awardees were Swami Paramananda Bharat i ('90), Swami Chidananda Saraswati ("91), Swami Chinmayananda ('92), Mata Amritanandamayi Ma ('93), Swami Satchidananda ('94), Pramukhswami Maharaj (95), Satya Sai Baba (96), Sri Chinmoy ('97), Swami Bua (98), Swami Chidananda Saraswati of Divine Life Society ("99), Ma Yoga Shakti ('00), T. S Sambamurthy Sivachariar ('01), Dada Vaswani ('02), Sri Tiruchi Mahaswamigal ('03). Dr. K. Pichai Sivacharya ('04), Swami Tejomayananda ('05). Ramesh Bhai Oza ('06) and Sri Balagandharanathas wami ('07).
Malik, R.. "The New Age Cycles Back to India." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 59-63.
Priyanka Malhotra, director of Full Circle Books, tells us, "The term New Age was coined in the US, and there people connect it to the hippie culture, or to magic. But it's actually about peace, love and understanding. Over the years, people misused and misunderstood the term in the West." Priyanka's Delhi-based publishing house and bookstore chain specializes in what she calls the "body, mind, spirit" segment of the publishing trade. "If I have to define the concept of New Age in the Indian mind, it is anything that goes beyond the physical body, and anything alternative to the mainstream."
Abhishek Jain of Motilal Banarsidass, one of India's largest and most respected publishers, started a New Age line eight years ago. Abhishek, who now specializes in that niche, explains, "These are books to heal yourself, to study yourself. Chakras, yoga, meditation, Reiki, auras, self-healing and alternative therapies are some of the popular subjects. Tai Chi, Chinese medicine, vastu and parapsychology are also part of our New Age section. Our collection also includes titles on Hindu Gods and Goddesses, Sai Baba, Buddhism, Ramana Maharishi and Hindu philosophy." Describing a market that is just the opposite in the West, he says, "We even carry a few titles on Islamic mysticism, but no books on Christianity. Christians don't buy these books, only Hindus and Buddhists do." He notes that there is plenty of room for growth in this segment: "I can see increasing market possibilities in India and in the Southeast Asian markets. Sometimes we buy the rights to a title for all of South Asia."
Where does all this leave us? In "The Hostile New Age Takeover of Yoga," back in America (an article in the online journal Slate, March 2007), Ron Rosenbaum laments the "commodification" and "dumbing down" of yoga and the Eastern philosophy that gives meaning to the practice. One of his readers agreed wholeheartedly, writing that she stopped subscribing to Yoga Journal "when there were more recommendations for $130 pants and $4,000 retreats than there were actual discussions of philosophy and form." They could not have made the same complaints about the New Age in India- and that's a good thing.
Pasquini, E.. "Hinduism, Islam Discussed at San Francisco Ladies Consular Corps Luncheon." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 5 (July 1, 2008): 48-49.
Activist Lobbies for Anti-War Resolution Forty years after Mill Valley resident Alan Barnett successfully helped lobby his town council to adopt a resolution urging then-President Lyndon B. Johnson to "immediately formulate a policy of peace in Vietnam and an orderly withdrawal," the 80-year-old activist is trying to do the same regarding the Iraq war. While the council adopted an anti-war resolution in 1968, 17 years later it changed its official policy to "not take a position for or against issues which are state or national in scope?" Barnett and fellow members of the Marin Peace and Justice Center are trying to change the city's position.
Peabody, N.. "Disciplining the Body, Disciplining the Body-Politic: Physical Culture and Social Violence among North Indian Wrestlers." Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 372-400.
In the early evening of 14 September 1989, ferocious Hindu-Muslim rioting broke out in the city of Kota in the north Indian state of Rajasthan. The rioting started during the Hindu festival of Anant Chaturdashi, while celebrants were taking out religious processions through the city. Although most of the violence occurred during that first night, it would be another three days before the Indian army could restore an uneasy peace to the city and nearly three weeks more would pass before the military curfew that eventually confined city's inhabitants to their houses for all but a few hours a day was fully lifted. The mayhem claimed the lives of twenty-six individuals and left a further ninety-nine injured in hospital. Countless more 'walking wounded' were treated on an outpatient basis in local dispensaries or by friends or neighbors. In addition, vandalism, arson, and looting caused property losses exceeding ten million rupees. Although Muslims constituted only 9 percent of the city's population of roughly half-a-million, they suffered the vast majority of the casualties and bore a disproportionate amount of property loss. By convention we commonly refer to such rioting as 'Hindu-Muslim violence,' but the parity implied in this formula is deeply misleading. The vast majority of victims were Muslims.
Prothero, S.. "Obama opens dialogue with Muslims in Egypt." Miami Times, June 24, 2009,
[Barack Obama] began Thursday's speech with the customary Muslim greeting: "Assalaamu alaykum,"or "peace be upon you." He invoked what he referred to as "the holy Quran" five times. And though he confessed his Christian faith, he reminded us that he is descended from Muslims in Kenya, and that he grew up in Indonesia hearing the Islamic call to prayer.
Just as he drew on Catholicism to argue for tolerance and mutual respect in the abortion debate, Obama drew on Islam to remind Muslims and Americans alike of the Islamic tradition's commitments to peace and religious pluralism. While Martin Luther King Jr. dreamed of Alabama becoming a place where Black children and white children would join hands as sisters and brothers, Obama dreamed of Jerusalem becoming "a place for all of the children of Abraham to mingle peacefully together as ... when Moses, Jesus and Mohammed (peace be upon them ) joined in prayer."
This speech by our Empathy President has been billed as a call for a "new beginning" in the relationship between America and the Muslim world, but at its heart it was yet another Obamaesque call for religious pluralism and mutual respect. At his inauguration, Obama referred to the United States as "a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus, and non-believers." In South Bend, he traced the Golden Rule not just to Jesus but to "Christianity and Judaism ... Islam and Hinduism ... Buddhism and humanism." In Cairo, he confessed that it was this same rule that called him to Egypt to speak.
Rao, S.. "Hindu Prayer Opens State Legislatures For The First Time." Asianweek, March 28, 2008,
CUPERTINO, Calif. - Rajan Zed first sprinkled holy water from the Ganges River in India (Ganga jal) on the podium, a tradition in Hindu worship ceremony, before chanting "Om," which in Hinduism is used to introduce and conclude religious work. This marked the first recitation of the Hindu prayer to open a state Senate session in the history of the Arizona state Senate and House of Representatives in Phoenix on March 24.
In his sermon, Reno, Nev.-native Zed usually reads from ancient Hindu scriptures of Rig-Veda, Upanisads and Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord), and ends with a universal call for peace in the Hindu tradition before concluding with "Om shanti, shanti, shanti, "which he then translated as "Peace, peace, peace be unto all."
Sperling, V.. "What Modern Parents Can Do." Hinduism Today, January 1, 2009, 54-55.
Focus on cultivating tolerance and patience in yourself. Treat the child as you would expect him to treat you when you grow old, powerless, dependent and needy. Talk to your child about the expression of positive rasas when the time is right. In the meantime, just show him by the example of your own behavior how the expression of positive rasas brings joy to the family. Set a family time-free from technology-to create an ideal environment for cultivating your child and teaching him about the display of positive rasas.
As children grow up and display rasas, parents need to continue to grow up as well-not just in the physical manifestations of age, the wrinkles and gray hair, but in wisdom. This is what a study of the display of rasas in childhood is all about: a caU for parents to monitor the growth of their wisdom. When parents learn to take charge of their own growth in terms of tolerance and empathy and resolve to let children be chUdren first, allowing them an age-appropriate display of rasas, they have an opportunity to become truly close to their children and know them in their totality. As children mature, good parents take the initiative for gently channeling their rasas at the appropriate time and place. When parents take this positive approach to child-rearing, the options of violent discipline and drug-based treatments become obsolete. While we continue to ponder who is raising whom, learning to flow with the rasas will bring about lasting peace and joy in many households.
Taylor, M.. "Irish Embrace Hinduism's Healing Heart." Hinduism Today, July 1, 2009, 32-35.
"Ani-mates" stallholder Paula Wynburne, of European parentage, said she was no ger conscious of looking different. In the past, she said, "Ireland was very insular, and it was quite racist." Paula welcomed the presence of Hinduism and other religions, "because it is not good for Northern Ireland to have just Catholics and Protestants." Fran and Tony had a Spanish food stall, La Terreta. "Indian people are good guys. I like them," said Fran. What does he think about Hinduism? "I am not a religious man. No politics, no religion."
Over the years, the Indian community has grown more diverse, and ICC is no longer the only game in town. [Ramesh Chada] explained, "Until ten years ago, 95% of Indians here were from the Punjab." Then South Indian students and professionals started to arrive, followed by Indians from a variety of regions and backgrounds. ArtsEkta, a multicultural group which celebrates diversity, began when young modernizers, Nisha Tandon, Mukesh Sharma and others, split from ICC around five years ago. The group emphasizes the arts rather than traditional religious activities. "So," I asked Nisha, "are you religious or not?" She replied that she does not feel the need to worship in temples or to fast, but she prays daily. Her favorite prayers? The Gayatri Mantra and and Satyameva Jayate, Indian's national motto, which means "Truth alone Triumphs."
Brian Lambkin, founding director of the Centre for Migration Studies in Omagh, praised the Festival of India as "a substantial expression of the rest of the world in the center of Belfast" which "broadens people's perspective and alters how the local community sees newcomers." The Indian community's role has been as "a means of integration and peace outside the political process," declared Duncan Morrow, director of Northern Ireland's Community Relations Council. "A non-white, non-Christian minority with a generosity of spirit created different conversations around difference, which fed back into conversations around sectarianism." Referring to the Indian community's outreach work, he added, "They engaged people on a totally different basis. They provided relief from a deadlocked sectarian strife." And the result? "Celebrating diversity became possible."
Vaswani, D.. "QUOTES & QUIPS." Hinduism Today, October 1, 2008, 14-15.
Man needs a guru. But a man must have faith in the guru's words. He succeeds in spiritual life by looking on his guru as God Himself. Therefore the Vaishnavas speak of guru, Krishna and Vishnu equally. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1836-1886)
If today is a typical day on planet Earth, we will lose 116 square miles of rainforest-an acre per second. Forty to a hundred species will disappear. Today, human population will increase by 250,000 and we will add 15 million tons of carbon to the atmosphere. By tonight, Earth will be a little hotter, its waters more acidic, and the fabric of life more threadbare. David OPP, American environmentalist, in a book published in 1991. If he said it today, the numbers would be 312 square miles, 130 species, 220,000 people and 60 million tons of carbon
It is impossible for me to reconcile with the idea of conversion as it happens today. It is an error and perhaps the greatest impediment to the world's progress toward peace. Why should a Christian want to convert a Hindu? Why should he not be satisfied if the Hindu is a good or godly man? Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) As the bee takes the essence of a flower and flies away without destroying its beauty and perfume, so let the sage wander in this life. Dhammapada, 50
Veylanswami, S.. "Introduction to Hinduism." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 10-16.
An unexpected Hindu resurgence has burst forth across the globe in the last twenty years, driven in part by the Hindu diaspora and in part by India's newfound pride and influence. Hinduism entered the 21st century with fervent force as recent generations discovered its treasures and its relevance to their times. Hinduism is going digital, working on its faults and bolstering its strengths. Leaders are stepping forth, parents are striving for ways to convey to their children the best of their faith to help them do better in school and live a fruitful life. Temples are coming up across the Earth by the thousands. Communities are celebrating Hindu festivals, parading their Deities in the streets of Paris, Berlin, Toronto and Sydney in grand style without worrying that people might think them odd or "pagan." Yoga is being universally practiced, in all faith communities. Eloquent spokesmen are now representing Hinduism's billion followers at international peace conferences, interfaith gatherings and discussions about Hindu rights. Hindu students in high schools and universities are going back to their traditions, turning to the Gods in the temples, not because their parents say they should, but to satisfy their own inner need, to improve their daily life, to fulfill their souls' call. When it comes time to explain our religion in any of these settings, we offer the following:
It is crucial, if we are to get along in an increasingly pluralistic world, that Earth's peoples learn about and appreciate the religions, cultures, viewpoints and concerns of their planetary neighbors. The [Sanatana Dharma], with its sublime tolerance and belief in the all-pervasiveness of Divinity, has much to contribute in this regard. Nowhere on Earth have religions lived and thrived in such close and harmonious proximity as in India. For thousands of years India has been a home to followers of virtually every major world religion, the exemplar of tolerance toward all paths. It has offered a refuge to Jews, Zoroastrians, Sufis, Buddhists, Christians and nonbelievers. Today over one hundred million Indians are Muslim, for the most part magnanimously accepted by their majority Hindu neighbors. Such religious amity has occurred out of an abiding respect for all genuine religious pursuits. The oft-quoted axiom that conveys this attitude is "Ekam sat anekah panthah," "Truth is one, paths are many." What can be learned from the Hindu land that has given birth to Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism and has been a generous protector of all other religions? India's original faith offers a rare look at a peaceful, rational and practical path for making sense of our world, for gaining personal spiritual insight, and as a potential blueprint for grounding our society in a more spiritually rewarding worldview.
Perhaps one of Hinduism's most refreshing characteristics is that it encourages free and open thought. Scriptures and gurus encourage followers to inquire and investigate into the nature of Truth, to explore worshipful, inner and meditative regimens to directly experience the Divine. This openness is at the root of Hinduism's famed tolerance of other cultures, religions and points of view, capsulated in the adage, "Ekam sat viprah bahuda vadanti" meaning "Truth is one, the wise describe it in different ways." The Hindu is free to choose his path, his way of approaching the Divine, and he can change it in the course of his lifetime. There is no heresy or apostasy in Hinduism. This, coupled with Hinduism's natural inclusiveness, gives little room for fanaticism, fundamentalism or closed-mindedness anywhere within the framework of Hinduism. It has been aptly called a threshold, not an enclosure.
Yogaswami, S.. "QUOTES & QUIPS." Hinduism Today, April 1, 2009, 20-21.
Sectarianism, bigotry and its horrible descendant, fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful Earth. They have filled the Earth with violence, drenched it often with human blood, destroyed civilizations and sent whole nations to despair. Had it not been for these horrible demons, human society would be far more advanced than it is now. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), disciple of Sri Ramakrisha
From one seed arises a huge tree; from it comes numerous seeds, each one of which in its turn grows into a tree. No two fruits are alike. Yet it is one life that throbs in every particle of the tree. So, it is the same Atman everywhere. All creation is That. There is beauty in the birds and in the animals. They too eat and drink like us, mate and multiply; but there is this difference: we can realize our true nature, the Atman. Having been born as human beings, we must not waste this opportunity. Sri Anandamayi Ma, (1896-1982), Bengali mystic
The saints, sages and satgurus are Hinduism's holy men and women. Saints, devoid of ego, reflect the peace, humility and purity of a devout life. Sages, though perfectly liberated, may outwardly appear detached and ordinary. Satgurus, also fully enlightened, guide others on the path. Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (1927-2001), founder of HINDUISM TODAY
Zore, P.. "Fear and voting in Kandhamal." India Abroad, April 24, 2009.
"We will not vote unless the people who have gone outside the state come back for voting," he asserts. "Nor can we go back to our homes as local Hindu leaders threaten us with murder if we ever went back," he says, making it clear he resents the police inaction.
"They have openly stated in front of all the district officials that peace can never return to Kandhamal unless Christians reconvert to Hinduism," he says. "What's the point [in voting] if others who have left the state can't vote and the state government can't provide adequate protection to Christians living in the district?"
"Yes, swamiji's death is an election issue," says Ashok Sahu, the Bharatiya Janata Party candidate for the Kandhamal Lok Sabha constituency. "That's the reason why I chose Kandhamal to contest."
Week of November 27-December 3, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Islam, Part 2 of 5 weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
Zeki Saritoprak. "An Islamic Approach to Peace and Nonviolence: A Turkish Experience." The Muslim World 95, no. 3 (July 1, 2005): 413-427.
Saritoprak discusses the Islamic approach to peace and nonviolence through an examination of the Turkish experience. Among others, he explores the Qur'an and the hadith perspective on peace and nonviolence. He further deals with Turkish Islamic figures who promoted peace and nonviolence through their teachings and activities, such as Suleyman Hilmi Tunahan, Mehmet Zahit Kotku, and expecially Bediuzzaman Said Nursi and Fethullah Gulen.
As'ad AbuKhalil. "Islam, Judaism, and the Political Role of Religions in the Middle East." Review. Journal of Palestine Studies 34, no. 4 (July 1, 2005): 116-117.
Islam, Judaism, and the Political Role of Religions in the Middle East edited by John Bunzl is reviewed.
Carl Coon. "Islamophobia." The Humanist 66, no. 3 (May 1, 2006): 4-5.
Islamophobia is raising its ugly head in the US as in Europe. It's beginning to metastasize into a virulent form of xenophobia, an eruption of the atavistic human tendency to pick sides and then if necessary fight to the death for the side one chooses, and to not reason why. Coon asserts that to solve the problem, one should stand back and let cooler heads prevail. If anyone is to set an example of international good manners for the rest of the world, it should be, first and foremost, the Humanists.
David M Witty. "War, Terror, and Peace in the Qur'an and Islam: Insights for Military and Government Leaders." Review. The Journal of Military History 70, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 283-284.
Witty reviews War, Terror, and Peace in the Qur'an and Islam: Insights for Military and Government Leaders by T. P. Schwartz-Barcott.
Delinda C Hanley. "Jerusalem Women Speak." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 24, no. 4 (May 1, 2005): 65-66.
Congresswoman Eddie Bernice Johnson hosted a Mar 29 Capitol Hill briefing at the Rayburn House Office Building, the first stop of a Spring tour by Jerusalem Women Speak, sponsored by Partners for Peace. According to Jerri Bird, who founded Partners for Peace in 1998, each of the three tours will feature "extraordinary ordinary women."
Doug Marlette. "The Muslim Cartoon Controversy Exposed an Absence of Courage." Nieman Reports 60, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 84-86.
Marlette notes that the Muslim cartoon controversy exposed an absence of courage. He further marks that the continuing timidity of the American media looked increasingly like cowardice, appeasement, or better-you-than-me cynicism. By denying their audiences the opportunity to look at the images, American media outlets, with few exceptions, kept the public in the dark about the roots of one o the year's major news stories.
Elaina Loveland. "Toward Equality for All." International Educator 15, no. 4 (July 1, 2006): 20-23.
In 2003 Shirin Ebadi became the first Iranian and Muslim woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for her efforts toward achieving democracy and human rights for women and children, in particular. However, nondemocratic Islamic governments who do not wish to observe human life speak about the incompatibility of Islam and human rights. The most important issue is to support the United Nations and also the Commission on Human Rights and encourage the government to ratify the International Criminal Court Treaty.
James L Rowell. "Has Nonviolent Religion Been Trumped?" Theology Today 63, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 223-226.
Nonviolence in some form is essential to dispel the whirlwind of destruction that affects Iraq, but violence has become a quicker, easier, and much more relied upon tactic. Christians need to turn to the tactics of peace which Martin Luther King and Mohandas Gandhi pursued.
Laura el-Sabaawi. "War, Terror, & Peace in the Qur'an and in Islam: Insights for Military & Government Leaders." Review. The Middle East Journal 59, no. 2 (April 1, 2005): 340.
El-Sabaawi reviews War, Terror, & Peace in the Qur'an and in Islam: Insights for Military & Government Leaders by T. P. Schwartz-Barcott.
Mahmood Monshipouri. "The Road to Globalization Runs through Women's Struggle: Iran and the Impact of the Nobel Peace Prize." World Affairs 167, no. 1 (July 1, 2004): 3-14.
The Nobel Peace Prize committee frequently has tried to use the prize to mobilize international pressure to promote universal human rights. Monshipouri argues that the prize could foster and strengthen Islamic feminism in all its forms in Iran, and discusses the ways in which it could profoundly influence the country's growing gender problems. The answer to the question of whether Iranian leaders will be more open to modernity and globalizing pressures has become inseparable from the extent to which women's rights are upheld.
Marvin F Zayed. "Reflections on the Concepts of Hudna and Tahd'ia." Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture 13, no. 4 (January 1, 2007): 101-103.
A clear exposition of this issue, the way Muslims deal with it, and the conditions under which they should accept peace with non-Muslims can be found in Mohammad Izzat Darwazah's book, Jihad for the Sake of Allah in the Qur'an and the Hadith. The writings of Muslim theologians, ranging from those predating Imam Ibn Taymiyya5 to the most articulate ideologue of the Muslim Brotherhood in the 20th century, the late Sayyed Qutb; and from the historical fuqaha' (theological scholars) to the contemporary al-Azhar and Qum scholars; show unanimous agreement that a peace treaty between Muslims and non-Muslims is a temporary period of time between wars.
Matthew S Hull. "Zenana: Everyday Peace in a Karachi Apartment Building." Review. Anthropological Quarterly 80, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 253-257.
The book's setting is a multi-story, lower-middle class apartment building, pseudonymously called "The Shipyard," sheltering nearly fifty families with members of most the major ethnic groups of Pakistan (Pattans, Baluchis, Punjabis, Sindhis) pursuing a variety of livelihoods (government doctors and engineers, teachers, shopkeepers). Ring argues both Western liberal ideology (figuring the home as a "private, feminine realm, cut off from the world of the political" [2]) and post-colonial studies (concentrating on Indian reformist views of the domestic as sites of cultural authenticity untouched by colonial power) have missed the broader political significance of what takes place within the zenana.
Mustafa Abu Sway. "The Concept of Hudna (Truce) in Islamic Sources." Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture 13, no. 3 (July 1, 2006): 20-27.
Ultimately, to sustain international peace and order, international laws and treaties require a combination of just conditions on the ground, good intentions, and a democratic (e.g., no veto rights) international body that has the mandate to stop the violators without discrimination. Successful indeed are the believers...who faithfully observe their trusts and their covenants(Qur'an 23:1-8).
Najwa Saad. "Queen Noor on "The Power of People With Faith to Accomplish Change"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 24, no. 4 (May 1, 2005): 67-68.
As the second speaker in the Mosaic Foundation's lecture series "Legends In Their Own Right," Queen Noor addressed a capacity crowd of more than 600 at the World Bank on Apr 4. Queen Noor spoke of having been viewed as "a traitor" by some, but of finding enormous value in her ability to bridge the United States and the Islamic world. Especially now, she is determined to do her part to facilitate a better life in the Arab world-and that includes the peace process between Israel and Palestine, to which she alluded several times.
Rachelle Marshall. "How the "War on Terrorism" Fuels More Violence." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 24, no. 7 (September 1, 2005): 7-9.
The week of Aug 15 was a time when two noteworthy events were to take place: the dismantling of Jewish settlements in Gaza, and the completion of a draft constitution in Iraq. But hopes that peace would eventually follow faded as Israel and the US remained unwilling to withdraw their troops--making resistance to the occupying armies continue, and provoking powerful countermeasures that in turn led to more violence. Marshall elaborates.
Rafia Zakaria. "Encyclopedia of Women in Islamic Cultures Vols. I and II." Review. NWSA Journal 18, no. 3 (October 1, 2006): 202-205.
Ingrid Mattson's chapter on Islamic family law as it evolved in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries shows how this core moral prescription retained its centrality in Islamic law and was translated into the exclusion of women from the public sphere with the concomitant result that "the more scholarship became institutionalized and closely associated with the state, the less opportunity women may have had to participate in legal discourse" Vol. seek to absolve religion and point accusingly to the deficient practice of Islam as the root of gender inequality in the Muslim world-if only true Islam were practiced, such inequality would not exist; secular feminists who are suspicious of all political rhetoric tinged with religious discourse and advocate an extra-religious path toward reform eschewing all religious frameworks; and religious feminists, who can be situated somewhere between the other two, wish to acknowledge the role of Islam in the lives of Muslim women and mediate the tension between secularists and Islamists by finding routes for reform within the Islamic paradigm Vol.
Robert Azzi. "Deconstructing 'the Other'-And Ourselves." Nieman Reports 61, no. 2 (July 1, 2007): 26-28.
[...] it shows what impact the pope's gestures have had here apparently on Turkish public opinion. -Margaret Warner, PBS When the Lehrer NewsHour 's correspondent Margaret Warner reported from Istanbul in November 2006 during the pope's visit, she casually dismissed centuries of understanding about Abrahamic monotheism by suggesting that the pope was praying to a different God than was the grand mufti.
Zachary Karabell. "Can't We All Just Get Along?" Commonweal 134, no. 10 (May 18, 2007): 8-9.
Every week for the past five years, there have been news stories of U.S. soldiers being killed in Iraq or Afghanistan; stories of Israeli Jews either attacking or being attacked by Palestinians; reports of sectarian Sunni Muslims in Baghdad murdering Shiites, and vice-versa; and Muslim militias ravaging the Darfur region of Sudan. Over the past few years, many religious groups have made Herculean efforts to bridge divisions through educational initiatives as well as gatherings of religious leaders. seeds for Peace and Search for Common Ground, for example, have brought Arabs and Israelis together to air grievances and develop bonds.
Awad, B.. "AFSC Search for Global Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 26, no. 8 (November 1, 2007): 60-61.
Also speaking were W. Clinton Pettus, regional director of AFSC's Mid-Atlantic Region, Mubarak Awad of Nonviolence International, Sara Ibrahim of AFSC's Project Voice, Anise Jenkins of Stand-Up! for Democracy in DC Coalition, Aura Kanegis of AFSC, Walda Katz-Fishman of Howard University, Fidele Lumeya of Church World Service, Mindy Reiser of Global Peace Services USA, and Byron Sandford of William Penn House.
Cristina Jayme Montiel, and Maria Elizabeth J Macapagal. "Effects of Social Position on Societal Attributions of an Asymmetric Conflict." Journal of Peace Research 43, no. 2 (March 1, 2006): 219-227.
Traditionally, the study of peace and conflict has employed macro explanations such as social structure and state conditions. This article extends the discourse on peace and conflict by considering psychological conditions during a heated social conflict. The focus is on societal attribution, a cognitive process involving shared beliefs about the causes of societal events. The present study examines the effects of social positions on causal attributions in an asymmetric conflict that is taking place in the Philippines on the war-torn island of Mindanao. It was expected that causal attributions of the Mindanao war would differ between Christians and Muslims. Four hundred and thirty Muslims and Christians at Mindanao State University-Marawi stated their degree of agreement on belief statements about perceived intergroup inequality and ranked the three most important causes of the conflict in Mindanao. Results indicated that power inequality between groups is perceived only by the disadvantaged Muslim group, while members in the dominant social position were not sensitized to systemic issues. Findings also indicated intergroup disagreements about the causes of the war. The marginalized Muslims believed that structural problems, namely, displaced and landless Bangsa Moro (Muslim Nation) and loss of rights to self-determination were important origins of the conflict. On the other hand, the dominant Christian group attributed the Mindanao conflict to person-related causes like corruption of the mind and moral fiber, as well as sociocultural discrimination. Implications for attribution theory and the practice of peacemaking in asymmetric conflicts are discussed.
Emmanuel Karagiannis, and Clark McCauley. "Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami: Evaluating the Threat Posed by a Radical Islamic Group That Remains Nonviolent." Terrorism & Political Violence 18, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 315-334.
Hizb ut-Tahrir is a transnational movement that currently finds support among young Muslims in Central Asia and Western Europe. It presents a complex challenge to both Western and Muslim governments because it calls for the unification of all Muslim countries into a single Caliphate but has consistently rejected violence as a tool of political change. In this paper we focus on Hizb ut-Tahrir in Uzbekistan, a country that is a key U.S. ally in the war on terrorism. Drawing on extensive fieldwork in Central Asia, we find that social movement theories (resource mobilization theory, political opportunities theory, framing theory) cannot explain why Hizb ut-Tahrir has remained opposed to violence under the same circumstances in which the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, the other important radical Islamic group in the region, has embraced violence. We suggest that ideology is crucial for understanding why Hizb ut-Tahrir remains peaceful, and consider several scenarios in which the group might reconsider its ideology and turn to terrorism.
Farhang, M.. "MARK LEVINE, Why They Don't Hate Us: Lifting the Veil on the Axis of Evil (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2005). Pp. 455. $27.50 cloth." International Journal of Middle East Studies 38, no. 4 (November 1, 2006): 584-585.
It is vastly different from the official story and the mainstream media coverage of the conflict, for he places the war in the context of the Bush administration's decision to use Iraq as a laboratory for its neoliberal design to remake the political economy of the Middle East region LeVine maintains that young Muslims are best positioned to join the global struggle for peace and justice, but the cultural imperialism of the economically progressive Western activists makes it difficult for them to identify with the movement.
Ferrone, R.. "Uncommon Opportunity." Commonweal 135, no. 1 (January 18, 2008): 8-9.
Egyptian Catholic Islamic expert, Samir Khalil Samir, SJ, writing in AsiaNews, observed that in Islam (from a Sunni perspective) every point of faith rests on three sources: the Qur'an, the traditions (hadith), and community consensus (ijma`), but consensus can be difficult to establish. Leaders of mainline Protestant churches, theologians, scholars, and heads of theological schools, and a wide variety of Catholics also signed the Yale statement, which attracted attention in the Muslim world by apologizing for the Crusades and for excesses against Muslims in the "war on terror."
Gee, J.. "Obama's Speech: "It's Really About the Arabs"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 37.
[...] I was left with a couple of impressions of the reasons for this attitude. [...] in choosing to make his first presidential sally into the Muslim world a visit to the Middle East, Obama made the right choice if his primary concern was to take on the issue of the Palestine conflict.
Gillespie, M.. "Third Annual Des Moines Peace Fair Features Diversity." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 9 (December 1, 2008): 71.
Noting that television and media often traffic in stereotypes, he said the MSA works to provide accurate information about Islam to dispel unrealistic fears.
Haque, M.. "Islamic Peace Paradigms." Review. Journal of Third World Studies 24, no. 2 (October 1, 2007): 247-249.
Fourth, in addition to negotiation, pure mediation, power mediation and arbitration, Islam brings the concepts of conciliation, consultation, interactive problem-solving strategy and conflict transformation by recognizing the rights of different tribes, nations and religious groups to bring social order as these processes fit to the larger scheme of peace.
Johnson, J.. "THINKING COMPARATIVELY ABOUT RELIGION AND WAR." Review. Journal of Religious Ethics 36, no. 1 (March 1, 2008): 157-179.
In contrast to the period when the Journal of Religious Ethics began publishing, the study of religion in relation to war and connected issues has prospered in recent years. This article examines three collections of essays providing comparative perspectives on these topics, two recently authored studies of Buddhism and Islam in relation to war, and a compendious collection of texts on Western moral tradition concerning war, peace, and related issues from classical Greece and Rome to the present.
Margaret A Mills, and Sally L Kitch. ""Afghan Women Leaders Speak": An Academic Activist Conference, Mershon Center for International Security Studies, Ohio State University, November 17-19, 2005." NWSA Journal 18, no. 3 (October 1, 2006): 191-201.
Afghan women activists emphasize that the first and continuing need in Afghanistan is physical security, which will enable developments in education, health care, and women's fuller social and political participation. Recent legal and electoral reform from above does not yet substantially affect grassroots gender inequality, severe poverty, and lack of infrastructural development. Real reform will require long-term, culturally sensitive collaboration among Afghan women activists, other progressive Afghans, and would-be external supporters. The conference participants see such progress as possible for Afghanistan only in a progressive Islamic ideological environment, which does not yet exist.
Sharapova, S.. "Islam, Oil, and Geopolitics, Central Asia after September 11." Review. Central Asian Survey 26, no. 2 (June 1, 2007): 301.
Sharapova reviews Islam, Oil, and Geopolitics, Central Asia after September 11 edited by E.V.W. Davis and R. Azizian.
Sodiq, Y.. "Can Muslims and Christians Live Together Peacefully in Nigeria?" The Muslim World 99, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 646-688.
The Nigerian constitution provides and guarantees for each citizen the freedom of religion, religious practice, and religious education.7 These rights are generally observed throughout Nigeria. [...] places of worship are freely established,8 and no restrictions are placed on the number of clergy trained in Nigeria9 or on the number of people who may perform pilgrimage.
Week of November 20-November 27, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Religion, Begins five weekly segments on Peace and World Religions):
"Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Browne, R. "The Benjamin Lee Whorf Legacy." Review. The Journal of American Culture 32, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 182-183.
An introduction to the collection takes a cultural studies approach to Whorf, and the dissertation will be of interest to scholars of the postWorld War I decade because it places the discussions of religion, science, and language within a historical context. After the "war to end all wars," Alexander Korzybski devised his famous "structural differential" and launched the General Semantics movement while Ludwig Zamenhof and others devised and popularized the artificial language of Esperanto-both efforts by Polish intellectuals to promote international understanding and peace.) The "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis" is discussed every day on the Internet, often with a "shock of recognition," to use Edmund Wilson's expression (borrowed from Melville.
CAPERN, A. "New Perspectives on the English Reformation." Journal of Religious History 33, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 235-253.
The historiography of the English Reformation has been driven by several key themes for three or four decades: the chronology of religious change and the success or failure of Protestantism to establish itself, the position of Puritanism vis-à-vis Church conformity, the role of Arminianism (anti-Calvinism) in doctrinal and ecclesiological debates and its impact on ecclesiastical politics and, more latterly, the continuities of ideas and beliefs between medieval Catholicism and Reformation Protestantism. This survey article on six new books in the field of Reformation studies argues that while the current historiography is generating very exciting work on the religious mentalite of early-modern English people and the transmission of ideas across the Catholic-Protestant divide, as well as generating a thriving debate on Calvinist consensus (or not) and the rise of Arminianism (or not), there are further rich seams to mine that incorporate gender into the analysis and that add the Atlantic World perspective to that of the European context for Reformation.
Clingingsmith, D., A. Khwaja, and M. Kremer. "Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and Tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 1133.
We estimate the impact on pilgrims of performing the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Our method compares successful and unsuccessful applicants in a lottery used by Pakistan to allocate Hajj visas. Pilgrim accounts stress that the Hajj leads to a feeling of unity with fellow Muslims, but outsiders have sometimes feared that this could be accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. We find that participation in the Hajj increases observance of global Islamic practices, such as prayer and fasting, while decreasing participation in localized practices and beliefs, such as the use of amulets and dowry. It increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects and leads to more favorable attitudes toward women, including greater acceptance of female education and employment. Increased unity within the Islamic world is not accompanied by antipathy toward non-Muslims. Instead, Hajjis show increased belief in peace, and in equality and harmony among adherents of different religions. The evidence suggests that these changes are likely due to exposure to and interaction with Hajjis from around the world, rather than to a changed social role of pilgrims upon return. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Dolbee, S. "When Belief Overrides the Ethics of Journalism." Review. Nieman Reports 63, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 82.
Lobdell reviews Losing My Religion: How I Lost My Faith Reporting on Religion in America--and Found Unexpected Peace by William Lobdell.
Elshout, J. "Hamas a Necessary Partner for Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 7 (September 1, 2009): 14-15.
Contrary to public opinion, however, Hamas has proffered positive pragmatic proposals that could have contributed to peace. [..] a durable peace requires Palestinian unity, and the refusal of the West to communicate with Hamas constitutes an obstacle to Israeli-Palestinian peace.
Evans, J., and J. Tonge. "Social Class and Party Choice in Northern Ireland's Ethnic Blocs." West European Politics 32, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 1012.
The peace process in Northern Ireland has not diminished the acute ethnic electoral faultline between the majority Protestant British population, supportive of parties favouring Northern Ireland's continuing place in the United Kingdom and the minority Catholic Nationalist population, which backs parties harbouring long-term ambitions for a united Ireland. Within each bloc, however, there has been a dramatic realignment in favour of parties once seen as extreme and militant. The Democratic Unionist Party has emerged as the main representative of the Protestant British population, whilst Sinn Fein, having for many years supported the Provisional IRA's 'armed struggle' against British rule, has become the dominant party amongst Catholic Nationalists. As both parties have entered the political mainstream and advanced electorally, to what extent have they moved from their electoral near-confinement among the working class to enjoy broader cross-class support - and how? [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Gifford, P., and F. Wijsen. "Seeds of Conflict in a Haven of Peace: From Religious Studies to Interreligious Studies in Africa." Review. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London 72, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 412-413.
Present-day Africa provides a breeding ground for interreligious conflict, yet African intellectuals seem not to address this. Noting the lack of any adequate theory of interreligious relations from an African perspective, Wijsen sets out to provide one. He addresses three questions: "First, why are African theologians and scholars of religion so remarkably silent about interreligious relations? Secondly, is there an African model for interreligious relations, and if so, what does it look like?
Hanley, D. "Prospects for Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-54.
According to Halim Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land.
Hilsdon, A. "Invisible Bodies: Gender, Conflict and Peace in Mindanao." Asian Studies Review 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 349-V.
Community forms of struggle such as clan feuds [ridos] are common within Muslim groups in Central and Western Mindanao, but these do not figure in classic scholarly definitions of "war" in the region and elsewhere (see Majul, 1999; McKenna, 1998), which emphasise larger political struggles against the state. [..] women seldom figure in explanations of either political or community conflict, as they have predominantly been considered integrally involved only in family life.4 Islam in the Philippines is diverse in its social and cultural expression, a pattern similarly noted for the Middle East by Akbar S. Ahmed (1992, p. 200) and Bryan S. Turner (1994, p. 13).
Jackson, P. "'Negotiating with Ghosts': Religion, Conflict and Peace in Northern Uganda." Round Table 98, no. 402 (June 1, 2009): 319.
This article outlines the current situation with regard to the Lord's Resistance Army and the possibilities for peace in Northern Uganda. It seeks to add to the discourse on rethinking Africa's international relations in the context of a specific conflict and with regard to a specific tool of the international community: the International Criminal Court (ICC) and its involvement in issuing warrants for insurgency leaders in October 2005. The article discusses the role of traditional justice systems and the ICC in ending the war, concluding that justice in Northern Uganda requires an end to the false dichotomy of 'traditional' and ICC approaches and that the two must complement each other in order to address the different groups within the LRA and the Acholi population. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Janowski, Z. "AGAINST THRONE AND ALTAR: MACHIAVELLI AND POLITICAL THEORY UNDER THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC." Review. First Things no. 196 (October 1, 2009): 63.
Nedham, with his idea of raison d'etat, made material interest- not justice, honor, or religion- a regulative principle in politics, and thus he was not only a student of Machiavelli but a real embodiment of MachiavelH's teaching. Nedham's contemporary, the poet John Milton, supported Oliver Cromwell. [..] for Milton- who was, after all, a representative of classical republicanism with virtue as its foundation- the failure of the republic was due to the fact that Britain was "not over fertile of men able to govern justlie & prudently in peace."
Karabin, G. "DOES MARX MAKE A RELIGIOUS TURN?" Philosophy Today 53, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 317-332.
[..] Marx's thought emerges from and remains within a JudeoChristian heritage.3 Given this horizon, his rejection of religious life should be understood as pertaining to these formations. According to his schema, only once the illusion is eliminated, only once the masses are no longer separated from their anguish by the buffer of a Utopian bUss, or the conviction that suffering is intelligible, will the necessity of action be fully apparent.
Kelly, J. "Vatican II: A Sociological Analysis of Religious Change." Review. Sociology of Religion 70, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 335-337.
[..] her lively narrative invites her reader to wonder what sort of contingent events are necessary so that a worldwide Catholicism might once again experience the inspiration of the Holy Spirit as it seeks to renew this century's increasingly less Western and more universal Catholicism so that it might bettet contribute to the world's search for peace and justice and solidarity?
Kim, C. "KOREAN SPIRITUALITY." Review. Pacific Affairs 82, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 343-345.
Korea may be, in fact, the only country in the world with an even number of Christians and Buddhists. [..] not only are the various religions coexisting in relative peace; they all seem to be growing and vibrant.
Lake, P. "HER PLACE IN THESE DESIGNS." Review. First Things no. 194 (June 1, 2009): 59.
A religious skeptic, aware of the contingencies of chance and fate, Espaillat employs the language of religion- grace, redemption, peace, love, blessed- so as to suggest a fundamentally religious vision, where certainty, which eludes us when we seek / in reason's name, will come for love; where, though God may seem absent any father of the drowned, I the burned, the starved, the gassed, be named and found I until pity and shame have made Him be. -
Merkle, J. "GLOBALIZATION, SPIRITUALITY, AND JUSTICE: NAVIGATING THE PATH TO PEACE." Review. Theological Studies 70, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 727-728.
G. identifies resources firmly within the lived ecclesiastical tradition that can ground the quest for justice, allowing neither a divorce of piety from the realities of the 21st century nor an isolation of concern for justice simply to the self -initiated who are socially inclined. A Christian theological reflection that is attentive to poverty and in dialogue with world religions and other academic disciplines is capable of helping us respond to the challenges of building an alternative world today.
O'Hanlon, G. "CHRISTIAN POLITICAL ETHICS." Review. Theological Studies 70, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 496-498.
The contributors are distinguished Christian scholars from diverse theological and ethical perspectives - Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anabaptist, though not Orthodox - and they deal with issues around state and civil society, boundaries and justice, pluralism, international society, and war and peace. The final section, on war and peace, provides an interesting contrast between two paired pieces (by John Finnis and Joseph Boyle) from the just war, "realist" school of Catholic natural law that substantially agree with each other, and two pieces (by Theodore Koontz and Michael Cartwright) from a pacifist stance.
Purcell, H. "Paris Peace Discord." History Today 59, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 38-40.
According to Hunter Miller, this was a clear reference to Cecil and the British Empire Delegation; it was they who prevented the adoption. [..] there was no chance to vote.
Ross, E. "Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853-1913/Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: the Murid Order." Review. African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 493-495.
Sheikh Amadu Bamba Mback?e resolutely rejected the lesser jihad, which had dominated politico-religious discourse in Senegambia since the eighteenth century, in favour of the greater one, and he helped establish proper Muslim comportment as the new, reformed, civil norm. [..] in his rejection of the lesser jihad, the Sufi sheikh committed himself and his nascent movement to peace.
Sabl, A. "The Last Artificial Virtue: Hume on Toleration and Its Lessons." Political Theory 37, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 511.
David flume's position on religion is, broadly speaking, "politic": instrumental and consequentialist. Religions should be tolerated or not according to their effects on political peace and order. Such theories of toleration are often rejected as immoral or unstable. The reading provided here responds by reading flume's position as one of radically indirect consequentialism. While religious policy should serve consequentialist ends, making direct reference to those ends merely gives free reign to religious-political bigotry and faction. Toleration, like Hume's other "artificial virtues" (justice, fidelity to promises, allegiance to government), is a universally useful response to our universal partiality--as Established uniformity, however tempting, is not. This implies that toleration can progress through political learning, becoming broader and more constitutionally established overtime. A sophisticated Humean approach thus shares the stability and nonnative attractiveness of respect- or rights- based arguments while responding more acutely and flexibly to problems the former often slights: antinomian religious extremism; underdefined political agency; and internationalized, politicized religious movements. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Sandberg, B. "Governing Passions: Peace and Reform in the French Kingdom, 1576-1585." Review. Journal of Social History 43, no. 1 (October 1, 2009): 234-236.
The texts of speeches that French notables presented during Estates General meetings, peace conferences, official ceremonies, and other assemblies circulated in manuscript and printed copies, provoking political debates and promoting reform agendas. Mark Greengrass weaves together an immense body of speeches, reform proposals, lectures, procès verbaux, and pamphlets conserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France and various municipal and departmental archives, producing an impressive history of French political culture during Henri Ill's reign.
Sleeper, J. "AMERICAN BRETHREN: Hebrews and Puritans." World Affairs 172, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 46-60.
[..] Niebuhr noted, the children of darkness misuse that wisdom to manipulate and discourage do-gooders who think that all people can be led by example to peace and light. [..] Niebuhr added, The children of light must be armed with the wisdom of the children of darkness but remain free from their malice.
Sodiq, Y. "Can Muslims and Christians Live Together Peacefully in Nigeria?" The Muslim World 99, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 646-688.
The Nigerian constitution provides and guarantees for each citizen the freedom of religion, religious practice, and religious education.7 These rights are generally observed throughout Nigeria. [..] places of worship are freely established,8 and no restrictions are placed on the number of clergy trained in Nigeria9 or on the number of people who may perform pilgrimage.
Wilson, P. "WHO WON THE THIRTY YEARS WAR?" History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 12-19.
Dame Veronica Wedgwood concluded her celebrated account of the Thirty Years War, first published in 1938, by claiming it 'solved no problem' and was 'the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict.' The voting procedure in the imperial diet and other institutions was changed to protect Protestants from the in-built Catholic majority where the agenda touched matters of religion.
Yaremko, J. "Cuba: Religion, Social Capital, and Development." Review. The Americas 66, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 294-295.
Anonymous. "Cross Examination." Commonweal 136, no. 17 (October 9, 2009): 7-12.
Evidently, the Vatican is concerned that the LCWR has not been forthcoming about the mag is ter i urn's teachings regarding the ordination of women, the relation of the Catholic Church to non-Christian religions, and the "intrinsically disordered" nature of homosexual acts. The Vatican's visitation - conducted under the auspices of the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life (CICLSAL) - does not assess the "quality of life" of cloistered orders of Carmelites, Benedictines, Dominicans, or other communities devoted to the monastic contemplative life. Rather, the visitation exclusively targets active women religious whose centers and houses of formation are in the United States - women educated here and trained for religious life here, women who work with major health-care and educational institutions in this country, and who collaborate with one another financially on ministerial projects such as peace and justice ministries.
Anonymous. "LETTERS." First Things no. 193 (May 1, 2009): 2-12.
[..] Christian nations have developed capitalism, which today is eliminating world poverty faster than all the charitable giving and government grants in our world can ever hope to do. Could it be, perhaps, that an active faith of some kind is required in order to be rational? [..] to decide accurately whether God exists may require a more whole-person response, rather than just a mind or language game "in the head."
Week of November 5-November 12, 2009 (Focus on Peace and Religion, Begins four-week segments on Peace and World Religions):
Basedau, M., and J. Lay. "Resource Curse or Rentier Peace? The Ambiguous Effects of Oil Wealth and Oil Dependence on Violent Conflict." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 757.
The 'resource curse' hypothesis claims that abundance in natural resources, particularly oil, encourages especially civil war. Natural resources provide both motive and opportunity for conflict and create indirect institutional and economic causes of instability. Contrarily, the theory of the rentier state - largely neglected in the study of peace and war in this respect - suggests that regimes use revenue from abundant resources to buy off peace through patronage, large-scale distributive policies and effective repression. Consequently, such rentier states would tend to be more stable politically and less prone to conflict. These two theories thus imply ambivalent effects of resource abundance on conflict proneness. This article presents part of a solution to this apparent puzzle for the case of oil-producing countries. The key argument is that both resource wealth per capita and resource dependence need to be taken into account, since only the availability of very high per capita revenues from oil allows governments to achieve internal stability. The empirical analysis supports this hypothesis. The findings of multivariate cross-country regressions indicate a U-shaped relationship between oil dependence and civil war onset, while high resource wealth per capita tends to be associated with less violence. The results of a macro-qualitative comparison for a reduced sample of highly dependent oil exporters are even more clearcut. Using the same reduced sample, we find that oil-wealthy countries apparently manage to maintain political stability by a combination of large-scale distribution, high spending on the security apparatus and protection by outsiders. Compared to oil-poor countries and in contradiction to the rentier state theory, the institutions of oil-wealthy countries do not seem to be particularly characterized by patronage and clientelism.
Beamish, T., and A. Luebbers. "Alliance Building across Social Movements: Bridging Difference in a Peace and Justice Coalition." Social Problems 56, no. 4 (November 1, 2009): 647-676.
Alliance building across social movement groups is an important aspect of social movement dynamics, contributing to their viability and capacity to promote social change. Yet, with few exceptions, cross-movement coalitions have received little sustained theoretical or empirical attention. This article contributes to an understanding of cross-movement coalition building through the examination of a successful case of alliance: a coalition of environmental justice and peace and anti-weapons proliferation groups to stop a federally funded U.S. biodefense laboratory from being built and operated in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Cross-movement collaboration was challenged by tensions arising from differences in positionality. Positional differences reflect status distinctions such as race, class, gender, and place and the differential experiences and expectations that result. Nonetheless, this coalition was able to resolve positional tensions and, as a result, remained a viable protest vehicle. We found this was accomplished through a cross-movement bridging process that involved (1) cause affirmation, (2) strategic deployment, (3) exclusion, and (4) co-development of cross-movement commitments. We extend existent accounts of cross-movement coalition by providing both a culturally founded and fine-grained account of coalition work in the maintenance of alliance relations. The article and its conclusions also address the broader implications of understanding successful trans-positional cross-movement alliances.
Berhane-Selassie, T.. "The Gendered Economy of the Return Migration of Internally Displaced Women in Sierra Leone :[1]." The European Journal of Development Research 21, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 737.
Focusing on the return home of victims of sexual violence in Sierra Leone, this article shows how the decade-long conflict resulted in transforming women's lives for the worse. Abuses led not only to discontinuities in their marital lives, but, subsequently, also to accusations of pollution. On returning home, therefore, the women were marginalized from their marriage-based rights of access to land. Their efforts to reverse this meant making a fresh start with men, including their husbands. This article, in outlining their culture-bound economic, personal and social challenges, underlines how the women perceive and seek to deal with the entangling webs of their subordination. Juxtaposing their strategies with women's universal human rights, it advocates their inclusion in the records, analysis and policy considerations of transformative development and peace processes.
Berhane-selassie, T.. "The Gendered Economy of the Return Migration of Internally Displaced Women in Sierra Leone." The European Journal of Development Research 21, no. 5 (December 1, 2009): 737-751.
Focusing on the return home of victims of sexual violence in Sierra Leone, this article shows how the decade-long conflict resulted in transforming women's lives for the worse. Abuses led not only to discontinuities in their marital lives, but, subsequently, also to accusations of pollution. On returning home, therefore, the women were marginalized from their marriage-based rights of access to land. Their efforts to reverse this meant making a fresh start with men, including their husbands. This article, in outlining their culture-bound economic, personal and social challenges, underlines how the women perceive and seek to deal with the entangling webs of their subordination. Juxtaposing their strategies with women's universal human rights, it advocates their inclusion in the records, analysis and policy considerations of transformative development and peace processes.
Cet article se penche sur le retour dans leurs communautés d'origine de femmes victimes de violences sexuelles pendant le conflit qui a affecté le Sierra Leone pendant plus d'une décennie et sur les effets des violences subies sur leurs vies. Les abus dont elles ont été victimes ont non seulement mené à des ruptures dans leurs vies conjugales, mais aussi à des accusations de pollution sociale. Ces femmes ont donc été marginalisées, et privées de leurs droits liés au mariage, tel que l'accès à la terre. Leurs efforts pour inverser cette tendance ont nécessité l'établissement de nouvelles relations avec les hommes, y compris avec leurs maris. Cet article décrit les défis économiques, personnels, et sociaux - liés au contexte culturel local - auxquels ces femmes ont dû faire face, soulignant en particulier la manière dont elles perçoivent et cherchent à gérer des relations complexes de dépendance. En juxtaposant ces stratégies avec les droits humain universels des femmes, cet article préconise leur prise en compte dans l'analyse et la détermination des politiques de développement transformatiste, ainsi que des processus de résolution de conflits.
Brulé, D., and L. Williams. "Democracy and Diversion: Government Arrangements, the Economy, and Dispute Initiation." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 777.
Do legislative constraints constrain or compel democratic executives' conflict behavior during periods of economic decline? Although institutional constraints are thought to reduce democratic executives' propensity to engage in interstate conflict, other research suggests that such constraints may provide incentives to engage in diversionary uses of force. Incorporating work from the comparative study of economic voting and cross-national research on the diversionary use of force, this article contends that government arrangements - coalition, minority, weak party cohesion - influence democratic conflict behavior by (1) shaping the extent to which the executive is held accountable for the economy and (2) determining the executive's capacity to address the economy with legislation. Specifically, the argument presented here suggests that governing parties in coalition governments share the blame for a poor economy, reducing the likelihood that the executive initiates disputes in response to the economy. Compared to single-party majority governments with high party discipline, executives presiding over minority governments, or whose parties are plagued by a lack of cohesion, are more likely to initiate disputes when faced with poor economic conditions, because these executives are likely to face resistance to remedial economic policy. Probit analyses of the interactive effects of government arrangements and economic performance on dispute initiation among industrialized democracies, 1950-97, support the argument. The article concludes with implications for research in comparative politics and international relations, including, for example, executive-legislative relations and strategic conflict avoidance.
Bruton, B.. "In the Quicksands of Somalia." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 79-94.
The US government needs to change its Somalia policy -- and fast. For the better part of two decades, instability and violence have confounded US and international efforts to bring peace to Somalia. The international community's repeated attempts to create a government have failed, even backfired. The US' efforts since 9/11 to prevent Somalia from becoming a safe haven for al Qaeda have alienated large parts of the Somali population, polarized the country's diverse Islamist reform movement into moderate and extremist camps, and propelled indigenous Salafi jihadist groups to power. For now, the US should commit itself to a strategy that promotes development without regard to governance. At the same time, it will have to continue its counterterrorism efforts, although preferably in the form of monitoring and deradicalization strategies pursued in cooperation with the local population rather than air strikes. And it must learn to understand the value of relationships that local rivals build in pursuit of common economic goals.
Caprioli, M., V. Hudson, B. Ballif-Spanvill, C. Emmett, and S. Stearmer. "The WomanStats Project Database: Advancing an Empirical Research Agenda." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 839.
This article describes the WomanStats Project Database - a multidisciplinary creation of a central repository for cross-national data and information on women available for use by academics, policy-makers, journalists, and all others. WomanStats is freely accessible online, thus facilitating worldwide scholarship on issues with gendered aspects. WomanStats contains over 260 variables for 174 countries and their attendant subnational divisions (where such information is available) and currently contains over 68,000 individual data points. WomanStats provides nuanced data on the situation and status of women internationally and in so doing facilitates the current trend to disaggregate analyses. This article introduces the dataset, which is now publicly available, describes its creation, discusses its utility, and uses measures of association and mapping to draw attention to theoretically interesting patterns concerning the various dimensions of women's inequality that are worthy of further exploration. Two of nine variables clusters are introduced - women's physical security and son preference/sex ratio. The authors confirm the multidimensionality of women's status and show that the impact of democracy and state wealth vary based on the type of violence against women. Overall, the authors find a high level of violence against women worldwide.
Etzioni, A.. "Israel: Samson's Children." Society 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 477.
Etzioni narrates that some people believe that Israel can be saved by what is called the two state solution, which would lead Palestinians and Jews to live side by side in security and peace--and pacify the Arab world and Iran to boot. However, he tells that no one believes that this road can be traveled quickly. Moreover, he stresses that no decent human being would oppose finding a diplomatic way out of the mounting crisis. Yet as the clouds gather and darken, for those who care, the question of the steps that must be taken if diplomacy fails can no longer be avoided.
Freedman, L.. "Recent Books on International Relations: Military, Scientific, and Technological: A Fiery Peace in a Cold War: Bernard Schriever and the Ultimate Weapon." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 157.
GAJDA, A.. "DEBATING WAR AND PEACE IN LATE ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND." The Historical Journal 52, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 851-878.
ABSTRACT
Peace with Spain was debated by Elizabeth I's government from 1598, when France and Spain made peace by signing the Treaty of Vervins. Robert Devereux, second earl of Essex was zealously hostile to accommodation with Spain, while other privy councillors argued in favour of peace. Arguments for and against peace were, however, also articulated in wider contexts, in particular in a series of manuscript treatises, and also in printed tracts from the Netherlands, which appeared in English translation in the late 1590s. This article explores ways that ideas of war and peace were disseminated in manuscript and printed media outside the privy council and court. It is argued that disagreement about the direction of the war reveals differing contemporary responses to the legitimacy of the Dutch abjuration of Spanish sovereignty and the polity of the United Provinces, which have implications for our understanding of political mentalities in late Elizabethan England.
Gaibulloev, K., and T. Sandler. "Hostage Taking: Determinants of Terrorist Logistical and Negotiation Success." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 739.
This article investigates the determinants of logistical and negotiation success from the terrorists' viewpoint in hostage-taking missions. Logistical success indicates that the terrorists apparently completed the mission as planned, while negotiation success means that the terrorists received some of their initial demands. In the empirical analysis, the article utilizes a new dataset on hostage incidents from 1978 through 2005 for the logit regressions. Empirical results broadly support the authors' theoretical predictions. Logistical success depends positively on terrorist resources and target vulnerability, while negotiation success increases with the relative disagreement values and relative bargaining strengths of the terrorists. More specifically, terrorist success at the execution stage depends positively on kidnappings and large hostage grabs and varies negatively with attack force diversity and terrorist casualties. Negotiation success depends on bargaining variables (i.e. the number of hostages, casualties, incident duration, and other proxies). The article shows that the factors that determine terrorist negotiation success differ between kidnappings and non-kidnappings (i.e. skyjackings, the takeover of buildings, and the hijacking of non-aerial means of transport), owing to location and other considerations (e.g. types of demands). In particular, making multiple demands bolsters negotiated success in non-kidnappings, while demanding money fosters negotiated success in kidnappings. Lengthier incidents have a positive influence on the likelihood of terrorists gaining concessions in kidnappings and non-kidnappings.
Geary, F., and H. Alonso. "Robert E. Sherwood: The Playwright in Peace and War." Theatre Survey 50, no. 2 (November 1, 2009): 361-363.
Gillespie, M.. "Waging Peace: Des Moines Activists Send Anti-War Message to President Obama." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
Efforts on behalf of health care insurance reform have occupied substantial amounts of time and energy among U.S. peace and social justice organizations and activists in recent months. [...] with a Democratic president in the White House, some who were more vocal and active in their opposition to U.S. military actions in Iraq and Afghanistan during the Bush/Cheney administration have muted their criticism of Obama's decision to widen the war in Afghanistan.
Grodsky, B.. "Re-Ordering Justice: Towards A New Methodological Approach to Studying Transitional Justice." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 819.
Scholars and policymakers have turned increasing attention to questions of transitional justice, those legal responses to a former regime's repressive acts following a change in political systems. Although there is a rich, interdisciplinary literature that addresses the value of various transitional justice measures, theoretical arguments for how and under what conditions we should expect to see these measures implemented tend to gravitate to intuitively appealing relative power considerations. But attempts at parsimony have tended to leave the dependent variable either overly restrictive or poorly defined, yielding theories that are difficult to test. In this article, the author proposes a 'transitional justice spectrum' based on a hierarchical series of possible accountability mechanisms and designed to allow researchers to conduct more rigorous, cross-national tests of justice arguments. The objective here is not to posit a broad theory of transitional justice, but to open the debate into a methodological weakness in the transitional justice literature. The article includes seven accountability mechanisms: cessation and codification of human rights violations; condemnation of the old system; rehabilitation and compensation for victims; creation of a truth commission; purging human rights abusers from public function; criminal prosecution of 'executors' (those lower on the chain-of-command); criminal prosecution of commanders (those higher on the chain-of-command).
Hall, J., and R. Lawson. "Economic Freedom and Peace." Atlantic Economic Journal 37, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 445-446.
Her, K.. "Putting Compassion into Action." Taiwan Review 59, no. 11 (November 1, 2009): 1.
Her discusses the important role played by non-governmental organizations in assisting Taiwan in its recovery from Typhoon Morakot. Two of which are the Chang Yung-fa Charity Foundation and Taiwan Root Medical Peace Corps, composed of physicians, nurses, pharmacists, medical technologists and logistics volunteers.
Jacobsson, A.. "War and peace--cyclical phenomena?" Public Choice 141, no. 3-4 (December 1, 2009): 467-480.
This paper demonstrates how the analysis can differ dramatically between two common static modeling approaches to conflict. The first approach uses a one-period setup and associates positive arms investments with conflict. The second approach has two periods, where arming decisions are taken in the first period, and the decision on whether to go to war is taken separately in the second. Building on the latter approach, I introduce a repeated game protocol with myopic players. Under these circumstances countries may end up in cycles of war and peace. This result offers a novel explanation for a common pattern in history.
Koch, M.. "Governments, Partisanship, and Foreign Policy: The Case of Dispute Duration." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 799.
Do variations in partisanship and political outcomes among democratic states affect the duration of militarized interstate disputes? To answer this question, the author develops a model of partisan competition derived from the government failure literature. The author argues factors associated with government failure determine the ability of governments to contend with the domestic political costs of militarized disputes, specifically the duration of those disputes. The author tests his expectations using hazard analysis on a dataset of 20 democratic governments and militarized disputes between 1945 and 1992. The results suggest the outcome of party competition in the form of a government's sensitivity to the potential political costs of conflict is an important part of the conflict process. The author concludes that differences in domestic political outcomes influence the duration of militarized interstate disputes. Governments that are politically more secure in their tenure engage in longer disputes. Alternatively, governments that are more vulnerable have significantly shorter disputes. In addition, because government partisanship contributes to vulnerability, it also affects dispute duration, with governments of the left engaging in shorter disputes, while governments of the right fight longer disputes.
Lieber, K., and D. Press. "The Nukes We Need." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 39-51.
Nuclear weapons helped keep the peace in Europe throughout the Cold War, preventing the bitter dispute from engulfing the continent in another catastrophic conflict. But after nearly 65 years without a major war or a nuclear attack, many prominent statesmen, scholars, and analysts have begun to take deterrence for granted. They are now calling for a major drawdown of the US nuclear arsenal and a new commitment to pursue a world without these weapons. Debating the future of the US nuclear arsenal is critical now because the Obama administration has pledged to pursue steep cuts in the force and has launched a major review of US nuclear policy. The nuclear forces the US builds today must be able to act as a reliable deterrent, even in much darker times. Many of those who recommend a much smaller US nuclear arsenal fail to consider the great difficulties of maintaining deterrence during conventional wars.
Marshall, R.. "Effects of Past U.S. Policy Remain to Haunt Obama." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
According to Afghan scholar Tamim Ansary, the insurgency is "fueled more by rural resentment, tribal nationalism and Afghan xenophobia than by any global ideology." [...] Palestinians and others with U.S. or European citizenship who open a West Bank business cannot buy or sell goods in Jerusalem, and similarly those in Jerusalem cannot do business in the West Bank.
McArthur, S.. "House, Senate Letters Want Arab States to Make "Dramatic Gestures Toward Israel"." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
The letter cites "concrete measures" taken by Israel "to reaffirm its commitment to advancing the peace process" (but nowhere mentions illegal Israeli settlements in the occupied territories), and it encourages "Arab leaders to take similar tangible steps to demonstrate their commitment to the peace process." First was the 25-member Republican delegation, headed by Republican House Whip (and the only Republican Jewish member of Congress) Eric Cantor (R-VA).
Nathan, A.. "Recent Books on International Relations: Asia and Pacific: Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace With China." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 170.
Patel, S.. "Buffalo Soldiers Reburied." Archaeology 62, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 12.
The 64 soldiers and civilian men, women, and children left behind in the cemetery at Fort Craig, a Civil War-era outpost near Socorro NM, finally have peace. The cemetery came to the attention of federal authorities in 2005, as part of an investigation into criminal looting of the site--including the theft of the remains of Buffalo Soldiers who served and died at the fort. Following a criminal investigation that identified one of the Southwest's most destructive looters, federal authorities decided to exhume and rebury any additional remains to keep them safe from illegal digging.
Robinson, G., and M. Klein; Watzman. "A Possible Peace between Israel and Palestine: An Insider's Account of the Geneva Initiative." International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (November 1, 2009): 671-672.
Suedfeld, P., and R. Jhangiani. "Cognitive Management in an Enduring International Rivalry: The Case of India and Pakistan." Political Psychology 30, no. 6 (December 1, 2009): 937-951.
Using integrative complexity scoring, the current study addresses how communications by leaders of India and Pakistan have revealed their information processing and decision-making strategies. The hostility between India and Pakistan started with the official creation of the two states and has lasted through more than a half-century. It has been marked by four full-scale wars and almost constant ethnopolitical, terrorist, and guerrilla violence. It is one of the most enduring and bloody binational rivalries of recent decades. Shared aspects of history and culture make the comparisons relatively free of confounding factors. In common with previous findings, complexity scores have shown reliable associations with impending war and with continued peace (or low-intensity conflict).
Wall, A.. "The great purge of 1625: 'the late Murraine amongst the Gentlemen of the peace'." Historical Research 82, no. 218 (November 1, 2009): 677-693.
It is known that late in 1625 some county J.P.s were dismissed, but close investigation reveals there was in fact a major purge. On 22 December 1625, chancery issued new commissions of the peace to remove justices. But how can we discover who, how many, and why? For at least 20 counties we can reconstruct the composition of the commissions of the peace, and show that between thirty and forty per cent of J.P.s were abruptly dismissed. It was not only the lazy or the insignificant that lost their places, but nobles, knights and those who had carried the burden of sessions work--especially if they had opposed King Charles and the duke of Buckingham.
al-Faisal, T.. "Land First, Then Peace." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
[...] while Israel's neighbors want peace, they cannot be expected to tolerate what amounts to theft, and certainly should not be pressured into rewarding Israel for the return of land that does not belong to it. [...] Israel heeds President Obama's call for the removal of all settlements, the world must be under no illusion that Saudi Arabia will offer what the Israelis most desire-regional recognition.
Anonymous, . "THE FUTURIST BOOKSHELF." Review. The Futurist 43, no. 6 (November 1, 2009): 61-63.
Fourteen new and noteworthy books are reviewed. These include: Building Peace: Practical Reflections from the Field, edited by Craig Zelizer and Robert A. Rubinstein; Futures Research Methodology: Version 3.0, edited by Jerome C. Glenn and Theodore J. Gordon; How We Decide, by Jonah Lehrer; Long-Range Futures Research: An Application of Complexity Science, by Robert H. Samet; The Overflowing Brain: Information Overload and the Limits of Working Memory, by Torkel Klingberg; The Parents We Mean to Be: How Well-Intentioned Adults Undermine Children's Moral and Emotional Development, by Richard Weissbourd; The Passionate Mind Revisited: Expanding Personal and Social Awareness, by Joel Kramer and Diana Alstad; The Penn Center Guide to Bioethics, edited by Vardit Ravitsky; The Price of Perfection: Individualism and Society in the Era of Biomedical Enhancement, by Maxwell J. Mehlman; 2009 State of the Future, by Jerome C. Glenn, Theodore J. Gordon, and Elizabeth Florescu; Taming the Dragons of Change in Business: 10 Tips for Anticipating, Embracing, and Using Change to Achieve Success, by Richard G. Stieglitz.
Avnery, U.. "The Drama and the Farce: Obama's Mini Mideast Summit." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 8 (November 1, 2009).
Obama had demanded a freeze of all settlement activity, including East Jerusalem, as a condition for convening a tripartite summit meeting, in the wake of which accelerated peace negotiations were to start, leading to peace between two states-Israel and Palestine. The arsenal is inexhaustible-from a threat by the U.S. not to shield the Israeli government with its veto in the Security Council, to delaying the next shipment of arms. The impression is rapidly gaining ground that he is indeed an inspiring speaker with an uplifting message, but a weak politician, unable to turn his vision into reality.
Week of October 28-November 5, 2009 (Focus on the Cold War and Peace):
Ban Ki-moon. "Disarm nuclear weapons for peace." The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, August 7, 2009,
[...] I urged the Security Council to consider other ways to strengthen security in the disarmament process, and to assure non-nuclear-weapon states against nuclear weapons threats. [...] I am urging progress in eliminating other weapons of mass destruction and limiting missiles, space weapons and conventional arms --- all of which are needed for a nuclear weapon-free world.
CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. "IRAN WANTS TO ANNIHILATE ISRAEL; THE U.S. MUST FOCUS ON DETERRENCE." Pittsburgh Post - Gazette, April 12, 2008,
On Tuesday, Iran announced it was installing 6,000 more centrifuges -- they produce enriched uranium, the key ingredient of a nuclear weapon -- in addition to the 3,000 already operating. During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union created vast and invulnerable submarine fleets to ensure a retaliatory strike and, thus, deterrence.
Kevin Bonham. "N.D.'s contribution to the Cold War." Grand Forks Herald, July 12, 2009,
In the Cold War period, the nuclear missiles served as fortification--modern-day forts--against the constant threat of war from the Soviet Union. Because of the missile fields, North Dakota commonly was called the world's third largest nuclear power. McNamara served as Secretary of Defense from 1961 to 1968, under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson. Besides being considered the chief architect of the Vietnam War, he was a key player in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when Soviet nuclear missiles were discovered in Cuba and the world teetered on the threshold of nuclear war for 13 days.
Mark Babineck. "At the heart of new nuclear weapons: Pantex looks to build plutonium cores in addition to disassembly." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 28 October2007 ***[insert pages]***
Pantex also is one of five sites under consideration for a new "consolidated plutonium center" to process and build the lethal hearts of nuclear warheads -- the plutonium cores that cause the mushroom-cloud detonations when properly triggered.
Arancibia-Clavel, F.. "CHILE and ARGENTINA: From Measures of Trust to Military Integration." Military Review, September 1, 2007, 104-108.
Chile and Argentina must design a new institutional process to * Advance a common security and defense policy. * Bring together political, politico-strategic, and strategic managers to obtain efficient results when common goals present themselves. * Define and monitor the creation of combined units. * Establish military personnel systems that facilitate interoperability. * Standardize armament, materiel, equipment, and logistic procedures. * Continue with other developed measures.
Ayam, J.. "THE DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA-U.S. RELATIONS." Journal of Third World Studies 25, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 117-132.
[...] U.S. President Eisenhower's message, for instance, assured Nigeria's leaders of U.S. support but cautioned on possible threats coming from without-an ostensible reference to the former Soviet Union.2 But Nigeria's Prime Minister, Tafawa Balewa, did not wish his country's newly won sovereignty and independence to be dragged into the Cold War rivalry between the East and West. [...] the two nations would, in future, continue to explore close political, diplomatic and economic ties due to the significance of the economic interests that bind the two nations: the importance of Nigerian oil to the U.S. economy in addition to the large market for American goods while Nigeria would continue to search for technology and investment avenues from the American market.
Bratcher, D.. "A Fiery Peace in a Cold War." Review. Washingtonian, October 1, 2009, 13.
A Fiery Peace in a Cold War by Neil Sheehan is reviewed.
Brown, J.. "War, Peace and Army Transformation." Army, July 1, 2009, 86-87.
The war we were in trumped the more distant future. [...] Objective Force technologies likely to be useful in Iraq and Afghanistan were brought forward and fielded as rapidly as possible. Global positioning systems, satellite communications, digital equipment of many types and various off-the-shelf equipment procured through the Rapid Fielding Initiative became similarly ubiquitous.
Dabelko, G.. "AN UNCOMMON PEACE: Environment, Development, and the Global Security Agenda." Environment 50, no. 3 (May 1, 2008): 32,34-41,43-45.
In 1988, nuclear war was undoubtedly the gravest" threat facing the environment, according to Our Common Future, commonly known as the Brundtland report.1 The possible environmental consequences of thermonuclear war-radioactive contamination, nuclear winter, and genetic mutations-were widely feared during the Cold War, especially by citizens of the United States and Soviet Union, which the report called "prisoners of their own arms race. [...] in the 20 years since the report's publication, the specter of nuclear destruction has not yet been "removed from the face of the Earth,"3 as the report called for, but has merely changed scale: the threat of the mushroom cloud has been replaced by the threat of the the dirty bomb-a crude device that a terrorist cell could fashion out of pilfered nuclear material.
Davis, D.. "The Cold War after Stalin's Death: A Missed Opportunity for Peace?" Review. The Journal of American History 94, no. 3 (December 1, 2007): 987-988.
The essays in this work provide fresh evidence and evaluations contending that both Moscow and Washington missed a slim chance to end the Cold War after Joseph Stalin's death and then wasted enormous resources for three and a half decades. In them, he evaluated Malenkov's new line by proposing that the Soviet Union prove its intentions with deeds, not just words: for example, ending the Korean War; concluding an Austrian State Treaty; and releasing German prisoners of war.
Dekar, P.. "Cold War Letters." Review. Cross Currents 59, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 92-94.
Crucially, Merton reminds us that when atomic bombs fell on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the problem of seeking and keeping world peace ceased to be a social concern among many; it became the dominant problem not simply for Merton (who penned some of these letters amidst the Cuban missile crisis) and his generation, but also for ours. Along with the suppressed book and anthologies of Merton's social essays,3 it is a great benefit to have the letters in a single volume, with an appendix providing biographical information about the original recipients of the Cold War Letters.
Fein, L.. "Peace Now? If Not Now, Then When?" Jewish Exponent, September 27, 2007.
Yitzhak Rabin knew well the world of occasional opportunity. When the Cold War ended, he began to speak of a "window of opportunity" that had suddenly opened for Israel and its neighbors. No longer would Israelis and their Arab neighbors be used as pawns or as surrogates in the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. There was urgency to his understanding because he believed that before long, elements of the Arab world would develop the competence to threaten Israel as it had never been threatened. Iran, then still a slumbering giant, was of explicit and particular concern to him.
Filteau, J.. "U.S. bishops strangely absent from current nuclear debate." National Catholic Reporter, April 3, 2009, 7.
[...] a quarter-century later, the U.S. Catholic bishops, with a few notable exceptions (see accompanying story), are strangely absent from a new public debate over nuclear disarmament - even as leading U.S. policy figures and military analysts from the Cold War have begun to frame the question in ways that the 1983 class of bishops would have welcomed. While the bishops' International Policy Committee has intervened with Congress and the executive branch on some specific issues in recent years -such as successfully opposing research for the development of a new generation of nuclear weapons and appropriations for relatively small Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator weapons -the bishops as a body have not addressed the nuclear deterrence issue substantively since their 1993 follow-up statement, "The Harvest of Peace Is Sown in Justice."
Fox, T.. "A world without nukes." National Catholic Reporter, August 7, 2009, 1A,2A,3A.
For Obama, the goal of a world without nuclear weapons is not just one among many It is, he says, "the core challenge of the 21st century" Can the United States, which is the only nation that has ever used an atomic weapon on another nation, lead a campaign to halt the spread of these weapons of mass destruction when it shares with Russia by far the largest arsenals of nuclear weapons on the planet? The current START treaty is set to expire Dec. 5. * Seeking a new global treaty that verifiably ends the production of fissile materials (weapons-grade uranium and plutonium) intended for use in state nuclear weapons.
Gates, R.. "Beyond Guns and Steel: Reviving the Nonmilitary Instruments of American Power." Military Review, January 1, 2008, 2-9.
In important respects, the great struggles of the 20th century-World War I and World War II and the Cold War-covered over conflicts that had boiled and seethed and provoked wars and instability for centuries before 1914: ethnic strife, religious wars, independence movements, and, especially in the last quarter of the 19th century, terrorism. Unfortunately, the dangers and challenges of old have been joined by new forces of instability and conflict, among them * A new and more malignant form of global terrorism rooted in extremist and violent jihadism; * New manifestations of ethnic, tribal, and sectarian conflict all over the world; * The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; * Failed and failing states; * States enriched with oil profits and discontented with the current international order; and * Centrifugal forces in other countries that threaten national unity, stability, and internal peace-but also with implications for regional and global security.\n" In an address at Harvard in 1943, Winston Churchill said, "The price of greatness is responsibility ...
Gingrich, N.. "WHAT COULD HAVE BEEN." USA Today, November 1, 2008, 55-60.
The Islamists have: a potential access to weapons of mass destruction that could devastate Western life; religious appeal that provides deeper resonance and greater staying power than the artificial ideologies of fascism or communism; impressively conceptualized, funded, and organized institutional machinery that builds credibility, goodwill, and electoral success; an ideology capable of appealing to Muslims of every size and shape, from Lumpenproletariat to privileged, from illiterates to Ph.D.s, from the well-adjusted to psychopaths, from Yemenis to Canadians; and a huge number of committed cadres. Too dependent on foreign oil Given the centrality of oil money to Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, and Russia in 2001, and the degree to which the U.S. had been financing its own enemies, in November 2001, Pres. Bush called for a massive, market-oriented incentive program to develop alternatives to foreign oil-including nuclear power, biofuels, conservation through radical innovations in engines to vehicle weight ratios, new exploration for oil and natural gas, a crash program for clean coal, and an initiative to move to a hydrogen economy as rapidly as possible.
Harper, J.. "Technology, Politics, and the New Space Race: The Legality and Desirability of Bush's National Space Policy under the Public and Customary International Laws of Space." Chicago Journal of International Law 8, no. 2 (January 1, 2008): 681-699.
[...] customary international law of space also suggests that the NSP06 is legal. section II grounds the NSP06 in the historical context of space competition from the Cold War to the War on Terror, as well as in general national security policy since the September llth attacks.
Johnston, T.. "Peace or Pacifism? The Soviet 'Struggle For Peace in All the World', 1948-54." The Slavonic and East European Review 86, no. 2 (April 1, 2008): 259.
This article examines the Soviet 'Struggle for Peace in All the World' between 1948 and 1954. The 'Struggle for Peace' was a vital arena in the early Cold War within which a new image of the Soviet relationship with the outside world was forged. 'Peace' emerged in this context as a shorthand for the USSR's muscular and moral patronage of the oppressed peoples of the world. Soviet citizens responded to the 'Struggle for Peace' with great enthusiasm. This enthusiasm has been cited as evidence that the Soviet population were naively duped into accepting a harsh post-war settlement in return for peace. In reality, Soviet citizens were not so passive in their engagement with the late-Stalinist state. Drawing on Kotkin's description of the 'little tactics of the habitat' this article suggests that some participants in the Peace Campaigns creatively reappropriated them as a platform for the articulation of their personal grief from the past war and their pacifist sentiments. It also offers some provisional suggestions about how the 'tactics' employed by Soviet citizens in relation to the government changed after 1945. The Soviet government could mobilize its population to 'Struggle for Peace', but it could not guarantee that they shared its understanding of what 'peace' meant.
Joya, A.. "I IS FOR INFIDEL..., J IS FOR JIHAD, K IS FOR KALASHNIKOV: FROM HOLY WAR TO HOLY TERROR IN AFGHANISTAN." Review. Canadian Foreign Policy 14, no. 3 (October 1, 2008): 133-135.
Gannon believes that without understanding the complex history of the Cold War, the nature of the social forces that shape the Middle East region, and the interests that contend the state in Afghanistan, it is impossible to understand the rise of the neo-Taliban and especially the suicide bombers and the challenges in the way of building peace and stability in Afghanistan. Besides providing a valuable historical analysis of the rise of the neo-Taliban and why Afghanistan is still a mess, Gannon is clearly one of the very few brave and admirable female Canadians who has undertaken some of the most dangerous investigative journalism, interviewing notorious Afghan warlords and leaders in search of truth.
Kengor, P.. "The "March of Freedom" From Reagan to Bush." Policy Review no. 146 (December 1, 2007): 77-86.
By the end of that year, Solidarity candidates had swept 99 of 100 seats in a free and fair election in communist Poland, the Berlin Wall had crashed in a soon-to-be-reunified Germany, Vaclav Havel had left prison for the presidency of Czechoslovakia, and the continent's worst living dictator, Romania's Nicolai Ceausescu, had been lined up against a wall by the masses and shot on Christmas Day - a day he had sought to ban.
Langille, D.. "THE LONG MARCH OF THE CANADIAN PEACE MOVEMENT." Canadian Dimension, May 1, 2008, 27-32,4.
The early peace movement depended upon leadership from the Canadian churches, from women's groups like the Voice of Women and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, as well as from communists and socialists active in unions and the Canadian Peace Congress.
MORO, R.. "The Catholic Church, Italian Catholics and Peace Movements: The Cold War Years, 1947-1962." Contemporary European History 17, no. 3 (August 1, 2008): 365-390.
This article focuses on the early years of the cold war in Italy in the form of an analysis of the Catholic press from 1947 to the eve of the Second Vatican Council in 1962. In so doing it attempts to answer key questions for Italian Catholicism relating to peace building that arose from total war in the age of mass democracy.
L'église catholique, le catholicisme italien et le mouvement pour la paix: la guerre froide, 1947-1962
En focalisant sur le début de la guerre froide en Italie, cet article (basé sur l'analyse de la presse catholique en Italie depuis 1947 jusqu'au Deuxième concile cuménique du Vatican) cherche à répondre aux questions centrales suivantes: comment réagissaient l'Eglise catholique et les catholiques italiens face à guerre totale et democratie de masse? Avaient-ils une vision de la paix et de l'ordre international qui pouvait se maintenir face aux idéologies dominantes du vingtième siècle?
Die katholische Kirche, italienischer Katholizismus und Friedensbewegungen: der Kalte Krieg, 1947-1962
Indem sich dieser Aufsatz auf die eng umrissene Phase des frühen Kalten Krieges konzentriert, möchte er einen Beitrag zu der Frage leisten, wie sich das katholische Milieu in Italien an die Verhältnisse der Massengesellschaft im Kontext der Debatten über Frieden und kommunistische Friedensbewegung anpaßte. Er basiert auf der Analyse der katholischen Presse in Italien zwischen 1947 bis zum Vorabend des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils.
Perkovich, G.. "Keeping up with the nuclear neighbours." Review. Nature 458, no. 7238 (April 2, 2009): 574-575.
Notwithstanding a series of treaties meant to manage their nuclear competition and help shape a global nuclear order - from the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963 through to the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II 30 years later - Washington DC and Moscow ordered the construction of thousands more nuclear weapons and kept them ready for use, even when no crisis was at hand. Framing such dialogue with an explicit objective of creating conditions for incremental, verifiable steps towards nuclear disarmament would add an important Asian dimension to the global effort to live up to the promise made in the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, the future of which has come into question.
Sikes, T.. "The Meaning of Military Victory." Review. RUSI Journal, October 1, 2007, 86-87.
The Meaning of Military Victory identifies six elements of strategic victory: information control, military deterrence, political self-determination, economic reconstruction, social justice, and diplomatic respect.
Stanley, W.. "STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY IN LATIN AMERICA." Review. Journal of Third World Studies 24, no. 2 (October 1, 2007): 241-245.
Ladutke then turns to a review of several issues, including accountability for wartime human rights violations, reforms to the police, the apparent resurgence of death squad killings in the first year of peace, prosecution of the alleged perpetrators in a notorious police murder, and the emergence of apparent "social cleansing" death squads involving the police. Several facts support this view: most of the Salvadoran peace accords were implemented (in contrast to the comparative sham in neighboring Guatemala); there has been no resumption of combat (in contrast to less-successful UN peacekeeping ventures worldwide); and El Salvador's democratic system encompasses a broader spectrum of political opinion than many advanced industrial democracies.
Thatcher, J.. "Korean Leaders Call for Peace Treaty." Moscow News (in English), October 5, 2007,
Leaders of the two Koreas agreed on Thursday to try to bring peace to the Cold War's last frontier, just a day after the North signed up to an international deal to disable its nuclear facilities. But some analysts said the pledges at only the second summit between North and South Korea were limited, with the hermit North clearly reluctant to break much new ground. North and South Korea shared the view they must end the current armistice and build a permanent peace regime, President Roh Moo-hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il said in a joint statement at the end of their three-day meeting in Pyongyang. They will push for talks next month with China and the United States to formally end the 1950-53 Korean War, for which a peace treaty has yet to be signed.
Trenin, D.. "NATO and Russia: Partnership or Peril?" Current History 108, no. 720 (October 1, 2009): 299-303.
By permanently involving the United States and Canada with Western Europe, it created a security community spanning the North Atlantic: the modern world's first zone of stable peace. Since the end of the Western-Soviet confrontation, NATO has not withered away - it has evolved, alongside the European Union, into a premier pillar of European security. Even if one of these highly unlikely conditions were met, Russia's hypothetical accession would needlessly exacerbate Russia's own, and the West's, relations with China, much to the detriment of global stability and security. [...] since no shortcut is possible, the West and Russia need to embark on a long, tortuous, and potentially rocky path toward creating a security community in Europe that would include both NATO members and nonmembers.
Wallace, M., C. Borch, and G. Gauchat. "MILITARY KEYNESIANISM IN THE POST-VIETNAM WAR ERA: A VIEW FROM THE AMERICAN STATES." Journal of Political and Military Sociology 36, no. 2 (December 1, 2008): 215-0_6.
A prominent explanation for U.S. military spending in the three decades following World War II suggests that state managers used military spending as a countercyclical fiscal policy to stabilize the economy. This military Keynesian argument contends that military spending fluctuates in response to a confluence of interests among capitalist firms in the monopoly sector, organized labor, and politicians who seek to ensure their incumbency in office. With the end of the Cold War and the rise of a "new military" era, with its focus on technologically advanced weapons and a small standing army, military Keynesian arguments have fallen out of favor. On the other hand, the enormity of the military budget and the fact that the livelihoods of millions of citizens are still tied to the military sector renews questions about the role of military spending in shaping economic policy. In this article, we revisit the thesis of military Keynesianism during the post-Vietnam era (1977-2004) using state-level data for 49 U.S. states. Our analysis provides new evidence that military Keynesianism is still relevant in this largely peacetime economy. Several implications of these findings are also discussed.
Wilson, J.. "How Grand was Reagans Strategy, 1976-1984?" Diplomacy & Statecraft 18, no. 4 (December 1, 2007): 773.
This article disputes the assertions of the new Reagan literature. Drawing upon radio broadcasts, speeches, correspondences, and documents from his presidential library, as well as recently published diaries from his White House years, it argues that Ronald Reagan had no grand strategy in the years 1976-1984. Indeed, throughout this period, he possessed two less-than-grand strategies I label "peace through strength" and "a crusade for freedom." Each of these contained its own respective set of goals and employed its own corresponding set of tactics. Yet there was no grand strategy for ending the Cold War.
Yilmaz, M.. "INTRA-STATE CONFLICTS IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA." International Journal on World Peace 24, no. 4 (December 1, 2007): 11-33.
This article provides an analytical discussion of the dynamics of intra-state conflicts that seem to have replaced the ideological clashes of the Cold War as the principal sources of current conflicts. By looking through major ethnopolitical conflicts around the globe and trying to find out some main points in common, the study reaches the conclusion that such conflicts are correlated with, but not limited to, the desire to express cultural identity, discrimination, anti-democratic political system, economic underdevelopment and unjust distribution of national wealth, unresolved past traumas, as well as external support. The study also reveals that ethnopolitical conflicts cannot be resolved through force only. In the resolution process, multi-level efforts are needed by domestic and international actors to be responsive to the underlying causes of intra-state conflicts.
Week of October 16-October 22, 2009 (Focus on Peace Education):
Erten Gokce. "PEACE EDUCATION: VIEWPOINTS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ABOUT PEACE." International Journal of Humanities and Peace 22, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 30-36.
Peace, family, school, media, environment Rapid process of change, which is the result of social dynamism and environmental factors, leads communities to pay considerable attention to the provision of more qualified man power and education of better quality. Contemporary approaches to peace education incorporate a wide range of responses to a variety of forms of violence, including coping and sharing skills among peers, the need for recognition of the ëotheri and the development of care. In this sense, necessity of encouraging people to preserve peace to abolish violence is significant, so the principle of UNICEF for maintenance of peace can be considered to be straightforward: Disputes may be inevitable, but violence is not.\n By means of continuous, effective studies and cooperation, understanding of peace culture from the beginning of the education given at primary school will spread increasingly to all societies.
Gavriel Salomon. "Does Peace Education Really Make a Difference?" Peace & Conflict 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 37-48.
An inconsistency is pointed out between formidable and thus discouraging hurdles facing peace education in the context of intractable conflicts and actual, encouraging research findings of such programs. It is suggested that the hurdles pertain to the most deep-seated and thus unchangeable convictions constituting the backbone of a group's collective narrative. On the other hand, the change-objects affected by peace education programs pertain to more peripheral attitudes and beliefs, which are more easily changeable, more weakly associated with behaviors, and thus less consequential. This hypothetical possibility is briefly examined from both a theoretical and practical perspective, leading to three clusters of research questions: (a) Is the proposed distinction between central and peripheral attitudes and beliefs applicable to peace education programs?, (b) How stable are changes of peripheral attitudes in the absence of changes of the more central ones?, and (c) To what extent can only long-term, socialization-like programs affect core beliefs and attitudes?
Jeremy Cohen. "Peace." Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 61, no. 1 (April 1, 2006): 3-6.
Cohen mentions that democracy and educational successes are inseparably coupled. He notes that democracy and education are stressed today by a confluence of powerful forces. Some are deeply rooted in political self-interest and the amassment of personal wealth, some in cultural, nationalistic or religious proselytizing that defy the constitutional foundations of the American democratic experiment and that devalue the appreciation for, and the practice of, the tenets of education, political accountability, and individual rights.
John S Hill. "The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism, and Patriotism, 1914-1940." . Canadian Journal of History 42, no. 1 (April 1, 2007): 124-127.
Flanked by a substantial introduction and a brief summary conclusion, Siegel's chapters consider the highly nationalistic primary education provided during the First World War, trace the schools' contribution to shaping a collective memory after the war, delineate the reactive forging of a new ideological consensus - rooted in socialist internationalism and feminist pacifism - during the twenties, turn a critical eye on the pacifist scholastic narratives of the Great War, untangle the strands of patriotic education between the wars, and limn the teachers' confrontation with fascism and international conflict from 1933 to 1940. In pursuit of her quarry, Siegel has read through more than a hundred textbooks of the time for an understanding of their message to students, examined the professional journals and newsletters in which teachers discussed their calling, and, for three departments (Somme, Seine, Dordogne), searched the archival holdings of teachers' lessons and students' essays for insight into the actual classroom experience.
Kathleen Weiler. "The Education of Jane Addams/Diva Julia: The Public Romance and Private Agony of Julia Ward Howe/Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters." . NWSA Journal 18, no. 2 (July 1, 2006): 230-234.
Weiler reviews The Education of Jane Addams by Victoria Bissell Brown, Diva Julia: The Public Romance and Private Agony of Julia Ward Howe by Valarie Ziegler, and Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters by Barbara Sicherman.
Roger Soder. "Books for Summer Reading." . Phi Delta Kappan 88, no. 10 (June 1, 2007): 787-791.
In this volume is ample proof that nonviolent civil disobedience, led by King and his associates, dramatically transformed American democracy by winning the right to vote lor Alrican American citizens. Branch recounts each step toward that hard-earned prize, traversing rivers of facts after beginning with a statement about the importance ol voting: Nonviolence is an orphan among democratic ideas . . . the most basic element of free government - the vote has no other meaning. . . . the whole architecture of representative government springs from the handiwork of nonviolence.
Veronica Gaylie. "RAISING AWARENESS OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND WAR THROUGH FILM AND POETRY." Radical Teacher no. 79 (October 1, 2007): 39-40.
The Voices in Wartime Education project is a non-profit organization dedicated to exploring conflict through education and the arts. The 74-minute documentary Voices in Wartime juxtaposes images of war with the words of soldiers, poets, and others who experience armed conflict first hand. I ordered the DVD and decided to show the film to my student teachers at UBC Okanagan, a campus located in the predominantly suburban city of Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada.
Wairagala Wakabi. "Peace has come to southern Sudan, but challenges remain." The Lancet 368, no. 9538 (September 2, 2006): 829-30.
WHO says neglected tropical diseases like leprosy, elephantiasis, river blindness, sleeping sickness, guinea worms, and Buruli ulcers are resurfacing in southern Sudan, while cholera epidemics continue to claim hundreds of lives. A massive UN-backed campaign to stop deadly outbreaks of measles in southern Sudan saw over 1 million children immunised between last November and June in a region where less than 20% of children younger than 5 years were vaccinated during the two decades of civil war.
Yaacov Boaz Yablon. "Contact Intervention Programs for Peace Education and the Reality of Dynamic Conflicts." Teachers College Record 109, no. 4 (April 1, 2007): 991-1012.
Background: Great efforts are made to develop and implement contact activities for groups in conflict, yet studies of effects of planned contact interventions yielded mixed results. Previous attempts to explain why contact interventions do not fulfill their promise focused on the contact itself. However, the main focus of the present study was the underlying prevention strategy and the implementation of contact interventions. This was done in the context of planned face-to-face encounters between Jewish and Arab high school students in Israel. Purpose of Study: The aim of this study was to examine whether there is a unique embodiment of a social conflict in different subgroups of one prototypical social group. It has been suggested that one of the reasons for the failure of contact intervention programs is that they are usually based on a primary prevention strategy, which does not consider intragroup differences or developments over time. Population: The research sample consisted of 255 Israeli Jewish and Israeli Arab students who intended to participate in a peace education encounter program. Participants in the study were 17-year-old 11th-grade students from 12 classes--6 in Jewish high schools and 6 in Arab high schools. Research Design: Quantitative analysis was used to measure differences within and between groups at the onset of a contact intervention program. Data were collected at three waves (three different points in time). Each wave was held for a few days, usually within a week, before the onset of the planned encounters. In each wave, two schools, one Jewish and one Arab, were sampled. The waves were 2 months apart, so that all questionnaires were collected within a 6-month period. Findings: Results revealed significant differences within the subgroups in the perceptional and affective domains but not in variables indicating behavioral aspects of social relationships. Additional findings regarding differences between groups (majority and minority) suggested that the majority group was less negative toward the minority group than the minority group was toward the majority. Conclusions: Results suggest that although mutual relationships between groups are negatively based, they are neither stable nor monolithic. Within a social group, different subgroups hold and present different attitudes, perceptions, and feelings toward their counterparts. Therefore, peace education programs, and especially face-to-face contact intervention, should be based on secondary intervention strategies and not, as is often the case, on primary prevention strategies.
"DOD Combatant Command for Africa Created." Foreign Policy Bulletin 17, no. 3 (July 1, 2007): 132-134.
The Somali people and the international community have an historic opportunity to begin to move beyond two-decades of warlordism, extreme violence, and human suffering. As part of America's effort to help parties resolve the ongoing political and humanitarian crises in Somalia, it has dispatched Assistant Secretary for African Affairs Jendayi Frazer to the Horn of Africa region to meet with regional partners and Somali representatives to urge inclusive political dialogue, reconciliation to build a legitimate, functioning government that will serve all Somalis, and to move forward with the urgent deployment of a regional stabilization force (IGA-SOM). They will continue to work in the context of the Somalia Contact Group to mobilize the support of the international community in support of the Somali people.
"Is Israeli-Palestinian Peace Possible?" Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture 13, no. 4 (January 1, 2007): 112.
The featured guest speaker was Prof. Johan Galtung of Transcend, a Peace Development Network; founder of the Peace Research Institute, Oslo; and recipient of the 1987 Right Livelihood Award.
Anonymous, . "JOINT STATEMENT - UNITED STATES-PAKISTAN STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP." Pakistan Journal of American Studies 24, no. 1/2 (April 1, 2006): 143-148.
Peace and Security * Build a robust defense relationship that advances sharedsecurity goals, promotes regional stability, and contributes to international security. * Continue robust U.S. security assistance to meet Pakistan's legitimate defense needs and bolster its capabilities in the war on terror. * Deepen bilateral collaboration in the fields of defense training, joint exercises, defense procurement, technology transfers, and international peacekeeping. * Decide to increase the frequency of defense policy discussions to strengthen collaboration in the identified sectors. * Work together to ensure the maintenance of peace, security, and stability in the South Asia region and beyond. * Cooperate closely in international institutions, including bodies of the United Nations, on matters of mutual concern. Social Sector Development * Continue U.S. support in the health sector through collaborative projects and programs. * Reinforce Pakistan's efforts to reform and expand access to its public education through continuing U.S. cooperation. * Encourage educational programs and greater interaction and linkages between the research and academic institutions of the two countries. * Promote exchange of students and scholars, fellowship programs, and strengthened research collaboration, including through institutional support for higher education and training. * Establish a wide-ranging High Level Dialogue on Education to enhance and strengthen cooperation in the education sector.
Anonymous, . "Voices for Peace: Educators Respond to the Virginia Tech Shootings." Harvard Educational Review 77, no. 3 (October 1, 2007): 344-345.
Jing Lin draws our attention to the vicious cycle of hatred and aggression often perpetrated by adults and urges educators to break this cycle by moving away from a focus on consumerism and competition and toward a focus on love and wisdom, encouraging students to learn to see each other as connected by their common humanity. It will take time for our nation to fully respond to and understand the Virginia Tech incident and similar acts of violence, but we offer these essays to spark and continue conversations about how to create a culture of peace in educational settings.
Ashton, C.. "Using theory of change to enhance peace education evaluation." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 25, no. 1 (October 1, 2007): 39-53.
This article brings together concepts and practices from the fields of peace education, conflict resolution, and evaluation. It examines the implementation and evaluations of selected peace education programs conducted by UNICEF to determine if theories of change can be identified and to consider how theories of change may inform the design and evaluation of future peace education programs.
BAIESI, N., M. GIGLI, E. MONICELLI, and R. PELLIZZOLI. "Places of Memory as a Tool for Education: The Peace in Four Voices Summer Camps at Monte Sole." The Public Historian 30, no. 1 (February 1, 2008): 27-37.
This essay explores how a place of memory can be used as a crucial tool in peace education activities with students from elementary to high school. It draws on the work of the Peace School of Monte Sole and specifically focuses on the Peace in Four Voices summer camp, which brings together youth from conflict regions to foster a culture of peace. The camp is a major activity in the Peace School project, since it is from this ten-year-long experience that the idea of a Peace School was conceived of and developed.
Beal, F., and L. Ross. "Excerpts from the Voices of Feminism Oral History Project: Interview with Frances Beal." Meridians 8, no. 2 (July 1, 2008): 126-165.
In this oral history, Frances M. Beal describes her unique childhood as the daughter of parents of refugee Jewish, African American, and Native American descent. The interview focuses on her activism in the United States and in France, including founding the Women's Committee of SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee). Beal's story captures the challenges of anti-racist, anti-fascist, and anti-imperialist organizing with a gender perspective.
Conway, J., G. Roughead, and T. Allen. "A COOPERATIVE STRATEGY FOR 21ST CENTURY SEAPOWER." Naval War College Review 61, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 6-19.
Guided by the objectives articulated in the National Security Strategy, National Defense Strategy, National Military Strategy and the National Strategy for Maritime Security, the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard will act across the full range of military operations to secure the United States from direct attack; secure strategic access and retain global freedom of action; strengthen existing and emerging alliances and partnerships and establish favorable security conditions. Such operations require a broadly shared responsibility among: the on-scene commander responsible for ensuring actions are in accordance with the commander's intent; the higher commander responsible for providing intent and guidance to subordinates; the parent service of dispersed forces responsible for ensuring that units are trained, equipped, and culturally prepared for the missions they will undertake; and, finally, the regional commanders responsible for determining appropriate force levels and readiness postures.
Edyth Wheeler, and Aline Stomfay-Stitz. "Voices From the Field: Teachers Talk About Strategies for Peace and Conflict Resolution." Childhood Education 82, no. 3 (April 1, 2006): 162F,162M.
In a focus group with teachers in early childhood programs and elementary schools, we listened to the teachers' concerns and their descriptions of what they are doing for peacemaking and conflict resolution. E-mail and class Web pages (for the families with online access), frequent newsletters, and informal notes home in accessible home language can supplement the back-to-school nights and parent meetings. Routine times during the day can be opportunities for children to "share personal thoughts or stories and may generate ideas [about] a particular question such as, 'Our class puppet, Mombo, is having a hard time making new friends; does anyone have an idea about what he could do to make new friends?' Valuable class discussions and opportunities for character building take place at times like these."
Haavelsrud, M.. "Education, political socialization and extremism :[1]." . British Journal of Sociology of Education 30, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 113.
Haavelsrud reviews Educating again extremism by Lynn Davies and Making enemies: humiliation and international conflict by Evelin Lindner.
Hanley, D.. "The Shami Family: Turning Troubles into Triumphs." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 27, no. 4 (May 1, 2008): 37-38.
Dr. Jamil Shami, who has earned degrees in journalism and psychology, as well as a Ph.D. in higher education administration and a post-doctorate master's degree in public health administration, is an educator and journalist, an expert in peace and conflict resolution, and founder of Arab-American Republicans of the Washington, DC Area. Believing that education was the best weapon his people could use to continue their resistance, Mohammed started an adult literacy program for men and women in the West Bank. Farouk's multimillion-dollar beauty industries now include environmentally friendly natural dyes, the "Bio Silk" range of hair products, CHI nail lacquer and ceramic-plated hair dryers, as well as curling irons and other hair care products.
Innocenti, R.. "The War Inside Books." Bookbird 47, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 27-31.
[...] it is extremely home to me that now an Italian publisher who wants to publish my work has to import it from abroad, instead of the other way round, as would be normal. [...] I cannot understand the reason why the Ministry of Education of the Italian Republic has decided to cancel the teaching of Modern and Contemporary History in elementary schools.
Jones, A.. "Curriculum and Civil Society in Afghanistan." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 113-122,167-168.
Although research has traditionally discussed the ways in which societies in conflict develop educational practices, only recently have scholars begun to examine the role of education in creating or sustaining conflict. In Afghanistan, changing regimes have had an impact on state-sanctioned curricula over the past fifty years, drastically altering the purpose and ideology of education. In this article, Adele Jones traces the changing nature of Afghan curricula since the 1960s, highlighting the conflict surrounding curricula during the Soviet regime. She posits that resistance to state-sanctioned curricula was seen as resistance to the state regime, often putting schools at the center of conflict. This continues today, as Taliban groups resist the Western-influenced curricula of modern Afghanistan. Jones argues that understanding this cycle of resistance is critical for Western agencies aiming to support educational efforts in the country.
Kopeliovich, S., and J. Kuriansky. "Journeys for Peace: A model of human rights education for young people in Mexico." Counselling Psychology Quarterly 22, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 69.
This paper describes the "Journeys for Peace" program a Mexico-based NGO that facilitates young people to get involved, and take a leadership role, in the agenda of world peace. Volunteers engage in activities that help them understand the importance of spreading messages of peace, and that support them to implement educational and artistic workshops and projects that benefit their school, local community and public in other parts of the world. Projects based on creative and expressive arts include painting, photography, music, theatre and publishing, and address topics of human rights, tolerance and non-violence. Signature activities include mini-parliaments debating issues like diversity, media responsibility and children's rights, and the "Condition for Peace" activity whereby participants pose a question about peace to special guests, including world leaders. The program has received extensive media coverage and recognition by universities and organizations worldwide, including the Clinton Global Initiative, and has collaborated with other peace initiatives.
Lin, J.. "Love, Peace, and Wisdom in Education: Transforming Education for Peace." Harvard Educational Review 77, no. 3 (October 1, 2007): 362-365,392.
A paradigm shift toward education for love, peace, and wisdom is called for in which teachers and administrators discuss what matters the most in our lives; and teachers and students look at what causes human suffering and what brings genuine happiness to our lives.\n Using examples in daily life, employing simulation, brainstorming and role-plays, students acquire the skills to seek alternatives to violence. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, United Nations peacekeeping efforts, and work by NGOs and countless individuals to prevent and divert wars and bring peace to regions and countries should be incorporated into the content of daily learning in schools.
Linda Hogan, and John D'Arcy May. "SOCIAL ETHICS IN WESTERN EUROPE." Theological Studies 68, no. 1 (March 1, 2007): 154-171.
The article highlights the distinctiveness of European social ethics by beginning with an analysis of how theological ethicists have engaged with "Europe" as both idea and political project. Themes discussed include the role of religion in the public square, pluralism, and the limits of tolerance and intercultural ethics. Also considered are ethical questions arising from Europe's power as a significant economic bloc, as well as ethical responses to war and other forms of political violence. The article concludes with a comment on method.
Mikayelyan, A., and G. Markosyan. "Peace and conflict resolution education in Armenia: The work of women for development." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 25, no. 1 (October 1, 2007): 101.
This article reports the goal, main strategy, realized activities, and implementation of Peace and Conflict Resolution Education in Schools of Gyumri, Armenia, a project from Women for Development, a nongovernmental organization. It summarizes the outcomes, effectiveness, and efficiency level of a peace education and conflict resolution education project in Armenia.
Stomfay-Stitz, A., and E. Wheeler. "Caring for Each Other in a Peace Club." Childhood Education 84, no. 1 (October 1, 2007): 30H,30I,30K.
A Decade of Peace: 2001-2010 Under the broad umbrella of the United Nations, an International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of the World was launched to include 200 countries around the world (UNESCO, 2000). Children in cooperative learning groups can create colorful posters that should be displayed throughout the school, sharing news of their class's Peace Club. Hopefully, these shared experiences may plant the seeds of acceptance for alternative ways to soothe hurt feelings and stop insults, put-downs, ridicule, and other degrees of cruelty that have become too commonplace and acceptable among today's children.
Ulrike Niens, Jacqueline Reilly, and Roisin McLaughlin. "The Need for Human Rights Education in Northern Ireland: A Pupil Survey." Peace & Conflict 12, no. 3 (January 1, 2006): 251-268.
Internationally, human rights education is seen as 1 way of promoting active citizenship and, ultimately, social justice and peace. For the past 30 years, Northern Ireland has been characterized by political conflict and community divisions. With the continuation of the peace process, human rights have been identified as an essential component of the efforts to improve community relations and to achieve a lasting peace. As part of its responsibilities, the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission is required to promote awareness and understanding of human rights through educational activities and the Bill of Rights in Schools Project. Results of a baseline survey of 580 pupils indicate that despite moderate levels of interest in human rights and confidence in engaging with human rights, knowledge of human rights is extremely low in Northern Ireland postprimary schoolchildren. These findings are discussed in relation to the clear need for specific human rights education in divided societies.
Yifat Biton, and Gavriel Salomon. "Peace in the Eyes of Israeli and Palestinian Youths: Effects of Collective Narratives and Peace Education Program." Journal of Peace Research 43, no. 2 (March 1, 2006): 167-180.
The authors studied the extent to which the collective narrative of a group in conflict and participation in a peace education program affects youngsters' perceptions of peace. Participants in the study were 565 Jewish Israeli and Palestinian adolescents, about half of whom participated in a year-long schoolbased program; the other half served as a control group. Pre- and post-program questionnaires measured youngsters' free associations to the concept of peace, their explanations of it, and its perceived utility, and suggested strategies to attain it. Initially, Israeli students stressed the negative aspects of peace (absence of violence) and Palestinians stressed its structural aspects (independence, equality). Unlike the controls, both Israeli and Palestinian program participants came to stress more the positive aspects of peace (cooperation, harmony) following participation in the program. Also, whereas the controls came to increasingly suggest war as a means to attain peace, possibly as a function of the ongoing mutual hostilities (intifada), no such change took place among program participants. Palestinian controls also manifested greater hatred towards Jews, but no change took place among program participants. That is, peace education can serve as a barrier against the deterioration of perceptions and feelings. It became evident that individuals’ perceptions of peace are differentially colored by their group's collective narratives and more immediate experiences of current events, but are significantly altered by participation in a peace education program.
Week of October 8-October 15, 2009 (Focus on Nobel Peace Prize and President Obama):
Eric Zorn. "Nobel dust-up not aimed at making peace." Chicago Tribune, October 13, 2009,
[...] a panel of five Norwegians decided Obama's rhetoric on international relations was a prize-worthy contribution to a more peaceful world.
Frank Munger. "OPINION: Munger: Once again, ORNL gets a piece of a Nobel Prize." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
Here's the history there: n Eugene Wigner, former ORNL research director (1946-47), won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physics. n Cliff Shull, who did some of his pioneering work in neutron-scattering at ORNL in the late 1940s and early 1950s, shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1994 for the development of the neutron diffraction technique. n Several ORNL scientists were among the many researchers who contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former U.S. Vice President Al Gore.
Clive Cookson. "Female laureates 'fabulous role models' but women still trail men." Financial Times, October 13, 2009,
This year's boost takes the total number of women who have won any of the six Nobel prizes to 40 - compared with 762 male winners. Although Marie Curie won the physics and chemistry prizes - in 1903 and 1911 respectively - the Nobels remained virtually a male preserve until after the second world war.
Nobel prizes - with occasional exceptions such as Barack Obama's peace prize - are a lagging indicator of achievement: the three physics laureates this year were honoured for discoveries in the 1960s. So there is expectation that women will make up a rising proportion of future laureates.
Girard J Fortin. "OBAMA AND THE PEACE PRIZE." Boston Globe, October 14, 2009,
The Nobel Peace Prize handed to our president brought back memories of my son's 0-11 baseball season and the shiny trophy that once stood on a shelf in his room.
Ken Buday. "OPINION: Decision on Nobel Peace Prize bombs." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
NASA said the idea behind the bombing -- sorry, Lunar Impact Mission -- was to create a debris cloud that could then be tested to determine if signs of water were present. Michael Vick? (OK, I know it's been a couple of years and Vick has paid his price and is out of jail, but he's still good for a cheap joke every now and then.) I think we've progressed from awarding peace prizes to people who actually do something to create peace and harmony in the world to awarding the prize to anyone who manages not to kick his cat in a year.
Lou Parris. "'One America'." Spartanburg Herald - Journal, October 15, 2009,
Might as well give the Heisman to the president. [...] more of the same Breaking News from Rutherfordton, N.C., resident Ken Staggs: The Norwegians nailed it when they placed Obama in the same company with Al Gore. Since Gore had to share his gift with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, it is only fitting that President Obama share his with the teleprompters.
REG HENRY. "OBAMA'S PEACE PRIZE NOT WORTH SUCH A FIGHT." Pittsburgh Post - Gazette, October 14, 2009,
[...] one of my favorite stories, perhaps apocryphal, concerns a pacifist who, while promoting the cause of peace at Speakers Corner in London's Hyde Park, stepped down from the podium to punch a particularly irritating heckler in the nose.
Rami G. Khouri. "OPINION: A prize for America's peace with itself." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
The Norman Rockwell Museum is a trip back into another time and mindset, the America of the 1920s to 1960s, when mostly white people lived in safe suburbs in secure, loving homes and went to war only occasionally and reluctantly, to save the world from tyranny.
"Amnesty International; Amnesty International Terrorism Expert to Attend Khadr Hearings at GITMO." Defense & Aerospace Week, October 21, 2009, 170.
Amnesty International is a Nobel Peace Prize-winning grassroots activist organization with more than 2.2 million supporters, activists and volunteers in more than 150 countries campaigning for human rights worldwide.
"Does Obama deserve peace prize?" Detroit News, October 13, 2009,
Awarding Obama this coveted prize is akin to designating the Pittsburgh Steelers the Super Bowl champions on the first game of the 2009-10 National Football League season.
"Nobel invests hope in leadership." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October2009 ***[insert pages]***
The committee's decision to bestow the Peace Prize on Mr. Obama indicates its hope and expectation that doing so will provide impetus to his and the international community's efforts to resolve those issues, especially nuclear disarmament and the fight against global warming.
"Obama a curious Peace Prize pick." McClatchy - Tribune Business News 14 October 2009.
The Nobel committee cited several aspects of Obama's advocacy, attaching, for example, "special importance to Obama's vision of and work for a world without nuclear weapons."
"FEW Congratulates President Obama on Nobel Peace Prize." PR Newswire 14 October 2009.
FEW is a private, non-profit organization founded in 1968 after Executive Order 11375 was issued that added sex discrimination to the list of prohibited discrimination in the federal government.
"Five female laureates in 2009 are 'fabulous role models'." Financial Times, October 13, 2009,
Nobel prizes - with occasional exceptions such as Barack Obama's peace prize - are a lagging indicator of achievement; the three physics laureates this year were honoured for discoveries in the 1960s. So there is expectation that women will make up a rising proportion of future laureates, just as they are penetrating the bastions of scientific achievement such as the US National Academy of Sciences.
"NOBEL JUDGES DEFEND OBAMA AWARD." St. Petersburg Times, October 14, 2009,
"Where do these people come from?" said panelist Aagot Valle, a left-wing Norwegian politician. "Of course, all arguments have to be considered seriously. I'm not afraid of a debate." The decision stunned even seasoned Nobel watchers. They hadn't expected [Barack Obama], who took office barely two weeks before the Feb. 1 nomination deadline, to be seriously considered until at least next year.
"Scrap the Nobel Peace Prize," foreign affairs commentator Bronwen Maddox wrote in the Times of London. "It's an embarrassment and even an impediment to peace. President Obama, in letting the committee award it to him, has made himself look vain, a fool and dangerously lost in his own mystique."
"Where do these people come from?" said panelist Aagot Valle, a left-wing Norwegian politician. "Of course, all arguments have to be considered seriously. I'm not afraid of a debate." The decision stunned even seasoned Nobel watchers. They hadn't expected Obama, who took office barely two weeks before the Feb. 1 nomination deadline, to be seriously considered until at least next year.
"Obama's Nobel Peace Prize Ignites an Unprecedented Uproar of Conflicting Popular Opinion at CafePress - A CafePress Cultural Barometer(TM) Report." Business Wire 14 October 2009.
In April of 2009 CafePress created the Cultural Barometer(TM) Report to share some of the more interesting, obscure, newsworthy, overwhelming, and just plain funny trends that come to our attention via the almighty T-shirt.
"Peace prize isnt about stopping war." Daily Herald, October 14, 2009,
Irans president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad could win the Nobel Peace Prize in an instant if he announced his god had told him not to eradicate Israel, or usher in Armageddon. But Ahmadinejad wont, because he is evil and must be defeated. Same with Osama bin Laden. The United Nations would welcome him as a speaker and the Nobel Committee would award him their top prize if he would announce he no longer believes in terrorism and has become a follower of the Dalai Lama or some other "acceptable" pseudo-deity. He also will do no such thing because he is evil and must be defeated.
The Nobel Committee believes George W. Bush is evil, but apparently not bin Laden or Ahmadinejad. It cringes at leaders who wish to overcome evil by force rather than have the forces of evil overcome them. The Nobel Committee hates Israel, too. And this is because its members, and like-minded male wimps around the world, idolize Michael J. Fox instead of John Wayne and find their role models in the liberal ladies of "The View," not in muscular characters like Jack Bauer (and Chloe, who gets it) on "24."
"REP. BERNICE JOHNSON ISSUES STATEMENT ON AWARDING OF NOBEL PEACE PRIZE TO PRESIDENT OBAMA." US Fed News Service, Including US State News, October 14, 2009,
"Russian commentator takes issue with opponents of Obama's Nobel prize." BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union 13 October 2009.
The first reason is the undoubted desire to support [Barack Obama] on his arduous way to the creation of a new world structure. Encumbered by domestic problems and an economic crisis, the US president's approval rating in the United States itself is falling. This considerably narrows the space for foreign-policy steps that are unpopular among "America's hawks", but extremely necessary for the entire world community. In awarding Obama the Peace Prize the Nobel Committee is on behalf of the entire world community extending to him, as it were, the hand of assistance and support. American foreign policy has in recent decades ultimately been so catastrophic for the entire rest of the world that this same world is prepared to thank the new president, as if per the well-known aphorism, "if only for being well-intentioned". It is extremely important for everyone at this time that Obama, beneath the burden of problems and attacks, not become disillusioned with his chosen policy.
The second reason is there for all to see also - the prize was given on the principle: "beggars can't be choosers". The Nobel Committee has in recent years wrestled each time not with an abundance of contenders but with the paucity of the "menu of nominees". Under conditions where tension is escalating in various parts of the world and the modus of peace is beneath the burden of economic, ethnic, and religious local conflicts and trouble spots on the point of being replaced by the modus of war, there are increasingly few politicians and public figures who are "peacemakers" and true democrats. As [Vladimir Putin] once put it: "Since Gandhi there has been no one." Our former president was laying it on a bit thick, of course. Gorbachev, Carter, and a couple of other peacemaking Nobel Prize winners are still in fine fettle. And he could perfectly well drink with them a cup of coffee over reminiscences of the "peace-loving" and "democratic" counterterrorist operations in Chechnya, and the latter could tell him about their similar experience in Afghanistan, Riga, and Iraq. But when the prize was conferred on the former winners, people closed their eyes to all this.
"Russian website sees "scandalous" Nobel award feeding Obama's "narcissism"." BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union 13 October 2009.
In his statement to the press [Barack Obama] said that he was "surprised and deeply humbled by the Nobel Committee's decision". He went on: "I do not view it as a recognition of my own accomplishments, but rather as an affirmation of American leadership on behalf of aspirations held by people in all nations. To be honest, I do not feel that I deserve to be in the company of so many of the transformative figures who've been honoured by this prize - men and women who've inspired me and inspired the entire world through their courageous pursuit of peace." At the same time, the President's entire demeanour and intonation demonstrated that he is by no means humbled. He enunciated the word in exactly the same tone of voice as a well-mannered gentleman would say "your humble servant," without the slightest suggestion of humility.
To a Russian reader's ear there is something painfully familiar about these words. "Here I stand before you, a woman beaten by her husband...." "I speak as a mother and as a woman...." But most of all these speeches call to mind the argument pursued by Mikhail Gorbachev when he declared that his grandfather had taken the socialist option, so all of us must choose socialism. The International Olympic Committee was supposed grant the Obamas' request out of respect for their life stories. The President's entourage does much to feed his conceit by relentlessly praising his every inclination. Just consider the impact of a comment made to Obama by Senate Democratic Leader Harry Reid following a White House conference held to discuss strategy in Afghanistan: "Whatever decision you make, Congress will support you." And they still say that Congress is not a rubber stamp, ready to endorse the President's decisions.
Editorial and op-ed reactions to President Obama winning the Nobel Peace Prize." Denver Post, October 13, 2009,
"UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA WILMINGTON SOCIOLOGY PROFESSOR OFFERS EXPERT COMMENTARY ON OBAMA'S NOBEL PEACE PRIZE." US Fed News Service, Including US State News, October 14, 2009,
"We should all say thanks for the Nobel Peace Prize." Daily Herald, October 14, 2009,
To a degree, [Barack Obama] has contributed to this perception. For a while, he went on an apology bender, expressing regret for U.S. unilateralism "We have at times been disengaged and at times sought to dictate our terms" as well as for being "too easily distracted" and for Americas "failure to appreciate Europes leading role in the world." (Apres the Congress of Vienna, evidence for the latter is lacking.) He even took responsibility for the American contribution to the worldwide economic crisis "even if I wasnt president at the time" implying that it wouldnt have happened on his watch.
"World and nation in 60 seconds The world The nation." Daily Herald, October 14, 2009,
OSLO One judge noted with surprise that President Barack Obama "didnt look particularly happy" at being named the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Another marveled at how critics could be so patronizing. In a rare public defense of a process normally shrouded in secrecy, four of the Nobel jurys five judges spoke out Tuesday about a selection they said was both merited and unanimous. To those who say a Nobel is too much too soon in Obamas young presidency, "We simply disagree ... He got the prize for what he has done," committee chairman Thorbjorn Jagland told The Associated Press by telephone from Strasbourg, France, where he was attending meetings of the Council of Europe.
"YOUR TURN-The Nobel Peace Prize." San Antonio Express-News, October 14, 2009,Your Saturday editorial, "[Barack Obama]'s peace prize premature," hit the nail on the head.
Anyone who believes in the myth of "the liberal media" should be disabused of that notion after reading the recent spate of anti-Obama editorial cartoons in the Express-News and especially the headline announcing his receipt of the Nobel Peace Prize ("Obama's gold medal could turn to brass").
If anyone questions whether Barack Obama deserves the Peace Prize, he beat them to it by saying that himself upfront. I refer critics to the committee chairman's explanation for the decision (and why Obama reluctantly accepted it) that Obama has already achieved a remarkable turnaround in international relations and hope for peace, and that the award was given as much in hope and encouragement that the United States will continue to move further to lead the world in those respects.
Ian MacDougall, and Karl Ritter. "Nobel panel defends decision :Says Obama deserves prize." Boston Globe, October 14, 2009,
The left-leaning committee whose members are appointed by the Norwegian Parliament lauded the change in global mood wrought by Obama's calls for peace and cooperation, and praised his pledges to reduce the world stock of nuclear arms, ease US conflicts with Muslim nations and strengthen the US role in combating climate change.
Ian MacDougall, and Karl Ritter. "Nobel panel issues rare defense of its selection :Peace Prize committee takes critics of Obama honor to task." Chicago Tribune, October 14, 2009,
Controversial awards include the 1994 prize shared by Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli leaders Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin for Mideast peace efforts, as well as the joint prize to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho for a 1973 cease-fire agreement.
Week of September 28-October 2 2009:
Arnaldi, J., and J. Hudson. "Teaching the Applied Ethics of War and Peace." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 493-503.
This article describes a course that critically explored the ethics of war and peace within the historical context of the War in Iraq. Education has a central role in preparing students to deal with the challenges of organized violence and human security. Because academic and policy discourse about the ethics of war is often abstract and impersonal, it can fail to address vital human interests. This course was designed to provide compelling content that included first-person, subjective perspectives on the costs of war in terms of human suffering. Undergraduate students enrolled in the course had limited knowledge of history and current events, so content had to provide reasonable historical context to enable meaningful discussion of ethical concepts.
Antonenko, O.. "War and Peace in the Caucasus: Russia's Troubled Frontier." . Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 181.
War and Peace in the Caucasus: Russia's Troubled Frontier by Vicken Cheterian is reviewed.
Bajaj, M., and B. Chiu. "Education for Sustainable Development as Peace Education." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 441-455.
This article examines the intersections among peace education and environmental education to understand how these commonalities frame education for sustainable development. The authors trace the intersection of the two disciplines and explore the role of the United Nations in promoting and empowering individuals with the values to advance the twin goals of peace and ecological sustainability. The paper profiles the United Nation's Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, particularly as formal education, nonformal learning channels, and popular culture have embraced the holistic notion of ecological responsibility, peace, and social justice.
Barnett, J.. "The prize of peace (is eternal vigilance): a cautionary editorial essay on climate geopolitics." Climatic Change 96, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 1-6.
The 2007 Nobel Prize has put peace on the agenda of climate science. At the same time heightened awareness about the dangers of climate change has resulted in a new discourse on climate wars which sustains some of the institutions at the heart of the problem, and which work more towards the cause of war than of peace. This discourse on climate conflicts might be less legitimate and tenable if climate change research did not actively or tacitly support it, were instead more critically engaged with it, and sought to advance understanding through rigorous, applied and critically aware social science.
Bechev, D.. "Extending the European Security Community: Constructing Peace in the Balkans." . Slavic Review 68, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 679.
Bechev reviews Extending the European Security Community: Constructing Peace in the Balkans by Emilian Kavalski.
Censer, J.. "North Carolinians in the Era of the Civil War and Reconstruction." . The Journal of American History 96, no. 2 (September 1, 2009): 562.
Manning's article on the North Carolina gubernatorial election of 1864 tries to square the popularity of the peace stance of the candidate William W. Holden (who looked to a negotiated end to the war) among Confederate soldiers in North Carolina with his overwhelming defeat. Challenging the commonly perceived public-private divide for women, she argues that the notion of "keeping the peace" had made black and white women familiar with the legal system and the local magistrates who were its representatives.
Cienciala, A.. "The Soviet-Polish Peace of 1921 and the Creation of Interwar Europe." . Slavic Review 68, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 667.
Cienciala reviews The Soviet-Polish Peace of 1921 and the Creation of Interwar Europe by Jerzy Borzecki.
DeBenedetti, C.. "Educators and Armaments in Cold War America." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 425-440.
This essay was written prior to the end of the Cold War. It may very well be the last scholarly essay that peace movement historian Charles DeBenedetti wrote prior to his death. Charles sent it to me in 1984, and for many years it was kept in one of my files. It is a historical commentary about the nuclear arms race based upon a thorough reading of education journals. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate that in the very early years of the Cold War educators paid particular attention to the militarization of society and the construction of weapons of mass destruction. What is most telling is that from 1945 to the early 1950s concerned teachers voiced their worries regarding a race between catastrophe and education. However, by 1953, educators had dropped out of the race, falling victim to McCarthyism and the national government's concern for civil defense. This scholarly article points out that educators had a responsibility to teach the public about the horrors of nuclear armaments as an overwhelming threat and danger to humankind, but failed to do so as prosperity and government pressure silenced their voices. By the time of Sputnik in 1957, DeBenedetti tells us, they considered "nuclear weaponry as the very symbol of the uncharted ocean that separated advancing scientific and technological revolutions from the hoary human politics that made for an intractable Cold War." How can educators today rekindle that awareness and replace complacency with determination? What historical lessons can peace educators today learn from DeBenedetti's research on peace educators of the Cold War period?
Fischer, R., and K. Hanke. "Are Societal Values Linked to Global Peace and Conflict?" Peace & Conflict 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 227.
This study examines the link between societal level values measured in student and teacher samples and the Global Peace Index (GPI). Consistent with predictions, strong and consistent correlations between harmony, hierarchy (negative), and intellectual autonomy were observed. Overall, an integrated set of values was systematically related to GPI. Effects remain strong and stable even when controlling for economic, societal, and political development and perceptions of corruption. Furthermore, evidence that values and societal developments interact in their relation with GPI was found. Implications for conflict management are discussed.
Franklin, C.. "The Promise of Hope: Creating a Classroom Peace Summit." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 533-547.
This article examines an innovative way to engage young adolescents in developing deep understandings of peace. Using an approach called curriculum drama , the class works together to construct a "World Peace Summit" within the classroom. This extended project creates a pedagogical bridge that links student interests and energies to curricular content and academic skills. It emboldens students to use the power of imagination and inquiry in their learning and creates situations for student leadership and peer collaboration. Challenged by the task of portraying a notable figure of peace and interacting with others within this context, students take ownership in researching a particular biography of an individual who participated in a social reform movement. Through this process, students get involved in conversations within the topic of peace and, through their character portrayal, they begin to walk in the shoes of another.
Harris, I.. "A Select Bibliography for Peace Education." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 571-576.
Peace education is an umbrella term for education about problems of violence and strategies for peace. This bibliography provides references for books about the following aspects of peace education: nonviolence, peace, peace education, historical aspects of peace advocates, peace organizations, peace movements, and war and violence. The bibliography omits, e.g., multicultural education, international education/global studies, and human rights education.
Hashemi, S., and M. Shahraray. "How Do Iranian Adolescents Think About Peace? A Study of the Perception of Female Secondary School Students and Their Families." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 249.
This research investigates the role of perception in the process of solving a peace problem. Data was gathered through a semi-structured interview with 18 Iranian female secondary school students and their parents. Findings indicated that the main conceptualizations of peace were serenity, security, and solidarity. With regard to the cause of war and ways to achieve peace, 2 students emphasized religious beliefs, and 4 pointed to the message of textbooks on identifying and fighting enemies. Eight students presented a global, comprehensive view, and did not consider peace as the absence of war. The remaining 4 students indicated no clear view in their causal explanations and solutions. In only five cases was there a relative convergence between students and their parents.
Herrmann, R., P. Isernia, and P. Segatti. "Attachment to the Nation and International Relations: Dimensions of Identity and Their Relationship to War and Peace." Political Psychology 30, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 721-754.
Since the rise of mass politics, the role national identities play in international relations has been debated. Do they produce a popular reservoir easily tapped for war or bestow dignity thereby fostering cooperation and a democratic peace? The evidence for either perspective is thin, beset by different conceptions of identity and few efforts to identify its effects independent of situational factors. Using data drawn from new national surveys in Italy and the United States, we advance a three-dimensional conception of national identity, theoretically connecting the dimensions to conflictive and cooperative dispositions as well as to decisions to cooperate with the United Nations in containing Iran's nuclear proliferation and Sudan's humanitarian crisis in Darfur. Attachment to the nation in Italy and the United States is found to associate with less support for militarist options and more support for international cooperation as liberal nationalists expect. This depends, however, on containing culturally exclusive conceptions of the nation and chauvinism.
Hostetter, D.. "Reflections on Peace and Solidarity in the Classroom." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 504-509.
Incorporating a peace perspective into teaching history requires hands-on activities that expose students to the craft of the historian. Research into the legacy of the Nobel Peace Prize, debates on issues of war and peace, and oral history interviews have proven to be productive methods for engaging students. Remaining open to the experiences of students themselves is essential to creating a classroom where students and teachers can learn about making peace.
Houghton, D.. "The Role of Self-Fulfilling and Self-Negating Prophecies in International Relations." International Studies Review 11, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 552-584.
As constructivists and other advocates of constitutive theories have often noted, the natural world is very different from the social one. Our ideas about the social world not only reflect that world, but help shape and create it; we are part of the reality we try to describe and explain, and we therefore have the potential to alter the reality a theory is merely intended to describe or explain. Our theories about the social world may thus become self-fulfilling prophecies or autogenetic in character, or they may self-negate. And yet while social constructivists often make this point in epistemological debates, there have been relatively few attempts so far to address its empirical implications. With that objective in mind, this paper examines two prominent IR theories--the democratic peace and the commercial peace--arguing that each has a self-fulfilling character rather than being true or false in any objective or timeless sense, as well as the potential of a currently self-negating thesis--the clash of civilizations--to become self-fulfilling; each theory is, to paraphrase the now time-honored expression, what the relevant actors make of it. The article also probes the processes by which theories become self-generating or self-negating. It is suggested that a number of frameworks developed outside political science--especially diffusion theory, memetics, social contagion theories, George Lakoff's metaphor-based model, Malcolm Gladwell's "Tipping Point" approach and social network analysis--may in combination help us understand both how political ideas spread through academic and policy communities and why particular ideas "win out" over others.
Howes, S., S. Gasper, and T. O'Connor. "Sharpening the Focus of OIG Evaluations to Further Enhance Accountability in the Peace Corps." The Journal of Government Financial Management 58, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 20-28.
Some agencies face greater challenges than others in meeting the legislative, regulatory and public drumbeat for accountability. Yet, with the right focus and energy, a path can be found. Witness the Peace Corps. Its noble mission, unique and changing environment, as well as ongoing turnover of both volunteers and managers, certainly present heavy-duty challenges to demonstrating accountability in a visible and convincing manner. But, despite these challenges, the Peace Corps' annual report for FY 2007 was awarded AGA's prestigious Certificate of Excellence in Accountability Reporting. Peace Corps officials have pursued further enhancements in performance measurement and reporting. On a parallel level, the Office of the Inspector General (OIG) has also acted to provide another -- and independent -- viewpoint on accountability by sharpening its approach to performing evaluations. In this spirit, the OIG at Peace Corps has "re-engineered" its approach to its evaluations, which they believe provide a critical component of assuring accountability to overall program effectiveness.
Joyce, A.. "EDITOR'S NOTE." Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): III,IV.
The historic accomplishment of the Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, brokered in 1 978 by President Jimmy Carter and a top-flight team headed by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, was still fresh, although Carter had left onice in 1981 under the cloud of the Iranian hostage crisis (see the review of Carter's We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land, page 166). There followed the suicide bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks, the rebuilding of the PLO inside and outside the Occupied Territories, the first intifada, the birth of Hamas, the Iraq war for Kuwait, the Madrid Conference, the Oslo Accords, peace processing (see the review of Martin Indyk's Innocent Abroad, page 164), abortive talks with Syria, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, failure at Camp David II, the Taba talks, the second intifida, 9/11, the second Iraq war, the second Lebanon war, the latest Arab Peace Initiative, and the war on Gaza - to mention only selected high and low points.
Laouris, Y., A. Erel, M. Michaelides, M. Damdelen, T. Taraszow, I. Dagli, R. Laouri, and A. Christakis. "Exploring Options for Enhancement of Social Dialogue Between the Turkish and Greek Communities in Cyprus Using the Structured Dialogic Design Process." Systemic Practice and Action Research 22, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 361-381.
This paper summarizes results of a co-laboratory that took place 33 months after the negative outcome of the referendum on the UN's proposal for the solution of the Cyprus problem, and which was a follow-up (3 months later) of a previous co-laboratory. The earlier co-laboratory explored factors contributing to the increasing gap between the two conflicting communities. The co-laboratory reported here engaged relevant stakeholders (peace pioneers, academics, business people, activists and others representing the Turkish and Greek speaking communities of Cyprus) to come up with options aiming to enhance the social dialogue between the two communities. The Structured Dialogic Design Process was used to structure 27 proposed options and develop an influence map. The deep drivers, i.e., most influential factors, determined decisions taken by the participating peace pioneers regarding their future interventions. The results are also discussed within the framework of current (analysis reflects the political situation during the period reported here) political developments.
Longo, M., and E. Lust. "The Case for Peace before Disarmament." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 127.
Scholars and policymakers often argue that armed groups must first lay down their weapons before peace and democracy can be achieved. The existence of armed groups is considered antithetical to sustain peace and democracy, where the legitimate use of force belongs solely to the state. Here, Long and Lust shares their arguments regarding the insistence of disarmament as precondition to peace negotiations.
Maney, G., L. Woehrle, and P. Coy. "Ideological Consistency and Contextual Adaptation: U.S. Peace Movement Emotional Work Before and After 9/11." The American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 114.
The authors examine how the U.S. peace movement responded to the Bush administration's attempts to generate and capitalize on a heightened sense of threat after the 9/11 attacks. Longitudinal analysis of statements by U.S. peace movement organizations issued before and after 9/11 indicates that the movement's discourse is both ideologically consistent and contextually adaptive. In each period, movement discourse highlighted the U.S. government as a source of threat and people living outside of the United States as the targets of that threat. Nonetheless, the movement's discourse changed significantly in the exacerbated climate of fear in the first 4 months after the 9/11 attacks and then began to revert to pre-9/11 patterns during the Iraq War when the salience of threat declined. This research significantly advances knowledge of social movement discourse by establishing that ideological consistency and contextual adaptation are not mutually exclusive, by highlighting the contextual and dialogical factors that encourage certain types of movement responses to dominant discourses, and by explaining the role of emotional work in mobilizing dissent.
Marion, M., J. Rousseau, and K. Gollin. "Connecting Our Villages: The Afghan Sister Schools Project at the Carolina Friends School." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 548-570.
The Carolina Friends School has sustained a peace education effort grounded in a sister-school relationship with a school in rural Afghanistan since 2002. Activities at this Quaker school involve students from preschool through high school in pen pal friendships, ten-day diary exchanges, peace-quilt exchanges, fund-raisers, and a variety of in-class programs about Islam and Afghan culture. Funds have been used in Afghanistan to furnish classrooms, equip playgrounds, and support teacher training. The project aims to educate students about cultural differences underlying conflict in the world and to seek a more peaceful world through building relationships among the sister-school students.
Mattes, M., and B. Savun. "Fostering Peace After Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design." International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 737.
Lasting peace after civil war is difficult to establish. One promising way to ensure durable peace is by carefully designing civil war settlements. We use a single theoretical model to integrate existing work on civil war agreement design and to identify additional agreement provisions that should be particularly successful at bringing about enduring peace. We make use of the bargaining model of war which points to commitment problems as a central explanation for civil war. We argue that two types of provisions should mitigate commitment problems: fear-reducing and cost-increasing provisions. Fear-reducing provisions such as third-party guarantees and power-sharing alleviate the belligerents' concerns about opportunism by the other side. Provisions such as the separation of forces make the resumption of hostilities undesirable by increasing the costs of further fighting. Using newly expanded data on civil war agreements between 1945 and 2005, we demonstrate that cost-increasing provisions indeed reduce the chance of civil war recurrence. We also identify political power-sharing as the most promising fear-reducing provision.
Mingol, I.. "Coeducation: Teaching Peace from a Gender Perspective." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 456-470.
When analyzing peace education through a historical lens we should be sensitive to the gender dimension. Not only should we include critical analysis of the subordination of women and the denial of their rights throughout history, but we should also be sensitive to the way in which the educational system has recognized or denied women's historical legacy as caregivers and peace workers. In this article, the author analyzes care ethics as a key issue to explain the relationship between women and peace. Caring becomes a source of peace by enhancing such values as patience, responsibility, commitment, and tenderness. The historical evolution of the educational system in Spain from segregated schools to mixed schools and coeducative schools is analyzed to propose the inclusion of caring as part of a peace education curriculum. The aim is to generalize caring as a peaceful human value, not just a part of women's roles.
Morgan, B., and S. Vandrick. "Imagining a Peace Curriculum: What Second-Language Education Brings to the Table." Peace & Change 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 510-532.
Just as peace and justice studies contributes much to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, the reverse is also true: second-language classes are particularly rich sites to explore diverse notions of the common good and implications for peace and war. Because of the intercultural interactions in such classrooms, and because such classes focus on language and communication, these settings offer unique opportunities to develop pedagogies addressing interethnic conflict and the dehumanizing language and images that promote it. English as a Second Language classrooms are productive settings for the telling of stories that counter official ones. Here we focus on critical pedagogies and curricula in two classroom settings. In the first, a class including Muslim students employs a critical media literacy perspective to investigate post-September 11th biases against Muslims. In the second, students read literature related to war and peace, examine its language, and make connections with their own stories and identities.
Neely, A., B. Barger, L. Bercaw, M. Espinosa, M. Hundley, A. Iddings, and R. Smith. "Peace, Locomotion.” Language Arts 87, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 77.
Peace, Locomotion Written by Jacqueline Woodson G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2009, 136 pp., ISBN 978-0-399-24655-5 Peace, Locomotion is a thoughtful companion text to Woodson's National Book Award Finalist, Locomotion.
Orwin, D.. "Turgenev and Russian Culture: Essays to Honour Richard Peace." . Slavic Review 68, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 707.
Orwin reviews Turgenev and Russian Culture: Essays to Honour Richard Peace edited by Joe Andrew, Derek Offord, and Robert Reid.
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Shinar, D.. "Can Peace Journalism Make Progress?: The Coverage of the 2006 Lebanon War in Canadian and Israeli Media." The International Communication Gazette 71, no. 6 (October 1, 2009): 451.
Johan Galtung's criticisms in the 1970s of media representations that glamorize war evolved as the peace journalism alternative approach. Since then, peace journalism has developed into a philosophical framework and an arsenal of framing techniques, but has been criticized for conceptual and practical weaknesses, and the need to strengthen its methodology, conceptual framework and empirical validation. This study of the 2006 Lebanon War press coverage in Canada and Israel aims at contributing to the empirical dimension. Stories published on and during the war by the Canadian Toronto Sun and the Israeli Yediot Aharonot were content analysed according to criteria adapted from the literature. General findings demonstrate an expected tendency towards 'war journalism'. Comparative findings for each newspaper, however, show that peace journalism is not entirely disregarded. While the study indicates both the salience and the resilience of war journalism, it also concludes that there are opportunities for the advancement of peace journalism and professional practices that could be adopted to achieve this.
Souaré, I.. "The International Criminal Court and African Conflicts: The Case of Uganda." Review of African Political Economy 36, no. 121 (September 1, 2009): 369.
For more than two decades, the rebel Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) has been committing some of the most appalling human rights violations and war crimes against civilian populations in northern Uganda. The Ugandan Government has been unable to defeat the rebel movement and effectively protect the civilian populations from its carnage. This situation led the government to pass the Amnesty Act of 2000 in a bid to entice the group's leaders to end the fighting. Subsequently, the International Criminal Court (ICC), at the request of the Ugandan Government, issued arrest warrants in 2005 for the five main leaders of the movement, a move regarded by some as the main stumbling block to peace in Uganda, as the rebels are insisting on the annulment of these warrants before they can sign a definitive peace agreement. This article examines the dilemma that this situation seems to have created in the peace process in Uganda. It concludes that the ICC should be firm in combating impunity, but flexible in accepting other alternatives to attributive justice whenever necessitated by the situation, as its own statute acknowledges.
Ward, V.. "Conflicts of Interest: Plasticity of Peace Tourism and the 21st Century Nation." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 8, no. 2/3 (April 1, 2009): 414.
Peace tourism is a holistic, multi-dimensional phenomenon that intersects natural, social, economic, political and spiritual systems. This paper analyzes the dynamic construct of nation through five study questions, two theoretical frameworks, and three cases demonstrating the impact of varied applications of peace tourism on quality-of-life in different regions of the world.
Week of September 17-September 24, 2009 (Focus on Nuclear Disarmament and Arms Control):
Acton, J.. "Nuclear Power, Disarmament and Technological Restraint." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 101.
There is a growing consensus that if key non-nuclear-weapons states are to be persuaded to strengthen the non-proliferation regime, nuclear-weapons states must start to live up to their commitment to work in good faith towards the elimination of such weapons. Here, Acton discusses the strategies and measures taken by states for abolishing nuclear weapons. These measures include placing all sensitive nuclear activities under multinational control and constructing the nuclear industry around less proliferation-sensitive technologies.
Andelman, D., and B. Pauker. "Back from the Brink: A Talk with Hans Blix." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 15.
Andelman and Pauker interview Hans Blix, a Swedish diplomat, about the issue on whether it is realistic to move toward a world of zero nuclear weapons. Among other things, Blix talks about the role of verification in assuring a peaceful world that is free from the threat of the use of nuclear weapons.
Andelman, D.. "Onward to Armageddon?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 115.
Andelman points out that the Americans believe in the sanctity of their nuclear deterrent, in part, because it is the only ultimate guarantor of their survival. But when they dig down another layer or two or three, they find an even more powerful and fundamental belief: that their survival is essential, not because of Radina, religion, or security, but rather because they see themselves as the standard bearers of democracy, freedom, and civil rights--and it is their duty, their destiny, to spread this to the rest of the world.
Anonymous, . "Armageddon's Shadow." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 1.
The legitimacy of nuclear power--and its obvious benefits when used peacefully for the betterment of mankind as a clean, carbon-free fuel, as a treatment for cancer and other horrific diseases--is largely unquestioned. But with the spread of these benefits comes the danger of diversion. "Zero," a world free from nuclear weapons, while a commendable goal, is unlikely to be a realistic scenario. Yet the proliferation of weapons is a slippery slope. Here, the perspective of nuclear powers, nuclear aspirants, and those who truly live in the shadow of Armageddon are explored.
Anonymous, . "By the Numbers." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 4.
Trends in Military Expenditures* $1,464 Billion Total world military expenditures in 2008 $607 Billion Total U.S. military expenditures in 2008 67% Increase in U.S. military expenditures since 1998** $85 Billion Total Chinese military expenditures in 2008 230% Increase in Chinese military expenditures since 1998** $66 Billion Total French military expenditures in 2008 4% Increase in French military expenditures since 1998** $65 Billion Total British military expenditures in 2008 20% Increase in British military expenditures since 1998** *Military expenditures include all current and capitel expenditures on personnel, procurement, operations, maintenance, and research and development for armed forces, defense ministries, and military space activities.
Anonymous, . "Conventional Arming and Disarming." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 5.
The U. S. -owned, Russian-built, mediumweight helicopters were requested by the Pakistani government and will be used to support operations against "militant extremists" and to provide humanitarian assistance to Pakistanis displaced by fighting, according to a June 11 article by the U.S. Department of Defense's American Forces Press Service.
Anonymous, . "Dangerous nuclear whispers." Nature 461, no. 7260 (September 3, 2009): 11.
For the United States to be developing a new warhead during this period would look to other nations like rank hypocrisy. [...] the replacement programme's very conceit, that existing warheads may not be reliable for much longer, will probably fuel conservative resistance to ratification of the CTBT.
Crail, P.. "IAEA Finds Uranium at Second Syrian Site." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 39-40.
According to the source, Syria said the IAEA would be expected to pick up activity from such renewed use. According to the June 5 report, Damascus told the IAEA that the pumping station was used for civil water purification.
Ensign, E.. "GAO Finds Gap in U.S. Export Controls." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 35-36.
According to the report, seven of the 12 types of sensitive dualuse and military items obtained during the investigation have previously been the focus of criminal indictments and convictions for violations of export control laws. At the confirmation hearing of Rep. Ellen Tauscher (D-Calif.), whose nomination to be undersecretary of state for arms control and international security was approved by the Senate June 25, Sen. Benjamin Cardin (D-Md.) expressed such concerns. Because "a lot of technological growth is international," companies would suffer if they "are prohibited from being engaged internationally," he said.
Erickson, E., and D. Horner. "Editor's NOTE." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 2.
According to Rolf Mowatt-Larssen, growing extremism, an expanding nuclear portfolio, and continuing instability challenge Pakistan's ability to protect its nuclear arsenal.
Etzioni, A.. "Zero is the Wrong Number." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 5.
Pres Barack Obama's strategy calls for leading by example in dealing with the weapons of mass destruction. It assumes that after the US and Russia re-commit themselves to nuclear disarmament, other nations will be inspired either to give up their nuclear arms or refrain from acquiring them. This goal, referred as the "zero strategy" (for zero nuclear weapons), is dangerous if implemented, distracts the international community from more certain and pressing goals, and is extremely unlikely to move those who do need to be inspired, cajoled, or otherwise made to forgo nuclear arms. Here, Etzioni stresses that if zero is indeed the goal of the Obama administration, it is a dangerous notion unless it is preceded by radical changes in the ways the world is governed.
Farrelly, N.. "'AK47/M16 Rifle - Rs. 15,000 each': what price peace on the Indo-Burmese frontier?" Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 283.
One of the key tools for achieving India's stated ambition of stopping national fragmentation in the Northeast is the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (1958) (AFSPA). This article assesses Indian Government efforts to manage the parts of the Indo-Burmese borderlands that are subject to this law. It compares the approaches of governments on the Burmese and Indian sides of the frontier and interrogates the financial incentives that complement security policies in their shared borderlands. Economic incentives for ceasefire and disarmament are, I argue, part of a portfolio of pacification and reintegration strategies that are premised on the controlled ambiguities of the borderlands. As such, I argue that the impunities allegedly at the heart of the AFSPA are matched by the freedom of the Indian Government to funnel resources into paying off its enemies. In the Indian case, the wider environment in which the AFSPA is implemented cannot be ignored if a full analysis of its 50 years of operation is to be offered. The implementation of surrender agreements in the ambiguous space of the Indo-Burmese borderlands exemplifies how the Indian Government has prioritised national cohesion above legal, political or economic consistency. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Fitzpatrick, M.. "Stopping Nuclear North Korea." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 5.
Following North Korean missile and nuclear tests and a series of other belligerent actions and threats, tensions on the peninsula have entered a dangerous phase. Demanding to be recognized as nuclear-armed and focused on leadership succession, Pyongyang seems no longer to be using brinksmanship for negotiation leverage. In response, the US and its Asian allies have signaled that North Korea cannot expect business as usual. Here, Fitzpatrick elaborates that there is a heightened potential for regional conflict and global repercussions if the wrong precedent are set by, for example, acquiescing to the North's nuclear rule-breaking.
Horner, D.. "Accord on New Rules Eludes Nuclear Suppliers." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 29-30.
According to a former U.S. diplomat, some European countries expressed concern that the arrangement would impose additional restrictions on their access to enrichment technology if they one day joined Urenco, the British-Dutch-German enrichment consortium. According to the NSG's Web site, the consultative group is the NSG's "standing intersessional working body."
Karpin, M.. "Deep in the Basement: Israel's Harmonious Nuclear Ambiguity." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 31.
Today, Israel is the only country outside of the great powers whose right to possess a doomsday weapon is accepted by the world's most influential countries. Unlike Pakistan, India, and North Korea, Israel has not been asked to give up its nuclear capability or bare its programs to the world's scrutiny. No major power has censured Israel for producing the ultimate weapon, nor has it been threatened by the United Nations with sanctions. Here, Karpin examines how Israel became the Middle East's only nuclear power and succeeded in keeping its atomic program secret.
Khan, F.. "Nuclear Security in Pakistan: Separating Myth From Reality." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 12-20.
The United States and Pakistan never saw eye to eye with regard to the latter's nuclear ambitions. Since the mid-1970s, every effort the United States undertook to block, stymie, and dissuade Pakistan eventually failed to stop Pakistan in its quest to acquire a nuclear deterrent.12 The story of Pakistan's clandestine means of acquisition is widely known,13 but less is known about the context, which involves domestic national politics, regional secu- rity, and intense geopolitical engagement with the United States.14 By the turn of the century, the U.S. policy of rolling back Pakistan's nuclear capability had be- come an unrealistic objective.
Kramer, D.. "Obama and Medvedev set new limits on nuclear arsenals; further cuts likely." Physics Today 62, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 18.
US Pres Barack Obama and Russian Pres Dmitry Medvedev apparently did not allow the recently strained relations between the two nations to impede progress on reducing the numbers of nuclear weapons in their arsenals. But the cutbacks that the two leaders agreed to at their meeting last month in Moscow were modest, and many observers expect larger reductions to come, perhaps as soon as next year.
Lindsey, E.. "MDA Tests Laser Amid Budget Cutbacks." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 36.
According to the press release, the MDA plans to continue testing the tracking system against progressively more difficult targets before carrying out a complete demonstration later this year, when the ABL system will track and destroy a ballistic missile in boost phase. Current programs focus on better-understood technology, such as the AEGIS ballistic missile defense system, a sea-based system that targets missiles during the ascent and descent portions of the midcourse phase, and the land-based Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system, which can intercept missiles in their terminal phase as they re-enter the atmosphere.
Longo, M., and E. Lust. "The Case for Peace before Disarmament." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 127.
Scholars and policymakers often argue that armed groups must first lay down their weapons before peace and democracy can be achieved. The existence of armed groups is considered antithetical to sustain peace and democracy, where the legitimate use of force belongs solely to the state. Here, Long and Lust shares their arguments regarding the insistence of disarmament as precondition to peace negotiations.
McCain, J.. "Notable Quotable." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 4.
Speaking before the Japanese Diet on November 1 1, 1983, President Ronald Reagan said, 'The only value in possessing nuclear weapons is to make sure they can't be used ever.
Mowatt-Larssen, R.. "Nuclear Security in Pakistan: Reducing the Risks of Nuclear Terrorism." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 6-11.
[...] a terrorist group would improvise a nuclear device or essentially build a crude nuclear bomb, one that has a low yield and may be unpredictable, inefficient, and unsafe in comparison with the complicated weapons systems in a national nuclear arsenal. [...] Pakistan should receive high-level reassurances concerning U.S. nonintervention in a crisis, possible means of assistance, and so on. [...] senior officials in both countries should agree to pursue specific joint actions and special communications mechanisms to be activated during a crisis, such as responses to a stolen or missing nuclear weapon or takeover of a nuclear facility.
Ramberg, B.. "Living with Nuclear North Korea." Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 13.
North Korea's Oct 2008 agreement to open all declared nuclear sites to inspection by the International Atomic Energy Agency as a quid pro quo for its removal from the list of state sponsors of terrorism marked a high point for Pres George W. Bush's foreign policy. But even before Pyongyang began to abandon verification, Kim Jong II had outmaneuvered Bush by building and testing a nuclear device. Here, Ramberg emphasizes how the recent May 2009 nuclear detonation should put an end to the disarmament illusion, at least as long as the Kim regime remains in power. According to him, the time has come for Washington to stop trying to force Pyongyang to disarm and to recognize that nuclear non-proliferation is not an end in itself. Rather, it is only one means to prevent the use of atomic weapons, the ultimate objective.
Tamamoto, M.. "The Emperor's New Clothes: Can Japan Live Without the Bomb?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 63.
Clearly, a world free of nuclear weapons is a step-by-step process. It will take many years for the US and Russia--not to mention China or North Korea--to decommission their arsenals. But politicians in Japan fear, for the first time, that these moves are likely to cloud the clarity of America's commitment to defend the nation. Japan, which has foresworn offensive military capability since World War II and remains so reliant on a foreign protector, is deeply fearful of abandonment. Here, Tamamoto looks at whether Japan can live without nuclear weapons.
Tertrais, B.. "The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and its Proliferation/The Bomb: A New History." Review. Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 169.
Tertrais reviews The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and its Proliferation by Thomas C. Reed and Danny B. Stillman and The Bomb: A New History. by Stephen M. Younger.
Tertrais, B.. "Thinking About Nuclear Weapons: Principles, Problems, Prospects." Review. Survival 51, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 167.
Tertrais reviews Thinking About Nuclear Weapons: Principles, Problems, Prospects by Michael Quinlan.
Thielmann, G.. "Looking Back: The National Missile Defense Act of 1999." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 45-48.
[...] China and Russia have increased the quality and, in the case of China, the quantity, of their strategic ballistic missile forces in response to U.S. missile defense programs. Following the superficial log- ic of the act, the United States discarded the ABM Treaty even though most of the U.S. missile defense activities that have taken place between then and now could have been accommodated under the broad con- ceptual framework of the treaty. [...] the United States rushed to deploy defenses against the rogue-state ICBM missile threat before that threat materialized and before U.S. defensive systems had been adequately tested.
Zhang, H.. "Ending North Korea's Nuclear Ambitions: The Need for Stronger Chinese Action." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 21-27.
According to media reports, Beijing was informed by Pyongyang less than half an hour in advance of the explosion and was greatly angered and offended by the test because it blatantly disregarded China's calls for denuclearization. North Korea's nuclear and missile development provides a pretext for Japan to accelerate deployment of a joint U.S.-Japanese missile defense shield, which could mitigate China's nuclear deterrent. [...] a worsening crisis would generate a massive flow of North Korean refugees headed for China.
Twigge, S.. "Operation Hullabaloo: Henry Kissinger, British Diplomacy, and the Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War*." Diplomatic History 33, no. 4 (September 1, 2009): 689-701.
Twigge examines the British role in the 1973 US-Soviet Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War. Although their involvement was not known at the time, British officials were central to the negotiations and even drafted large portions of the treaty.
Week of September 10-September 17, 2009 (Focus on the United Nations):
Anderson, K.. "United Nations Collective Security and the United States Security Guarantee in an Age of Rising Multipolarity: The Security Council as the Talking Shop of the Nations." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 55-90.
Other institutions are also taking note of the possible shifts and are responding. [...] the recent and quite remarkable European Court of Justice ("ECJ") ruling that, the Charter notwithstanding, the Security Council's resolutions under its binding power are not binding after all and subject to the rulings of institutions such as the ECJ itself.62 One may safely expect that a Security Council more driven by competitive Great Power politics will generate more, and more insistent, legal reconstructions from without, aimed at showing that the Security Council does not have the final juridical word in international peace and security, after all.
Anonymous. "David Killion Nominated as U.S. Ambassador to UNESCO." International Educator 18, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 10.
David Killion, who served as a senior professional staff member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee and was the committees leading expert on international organizations and State Department operations, was nominated this summer to the post of U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), with the rank of ambassador.
Akseli, O.. "THE CISG AND ITS IMPACT ON NATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEMS." Review The Journal of Business Law no. 6 (August 20, 2009): 630.
Ammar, N.. "The Relationship Between Street Children and the Justice System in Egypt." International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 53, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 556.
This article examines the relationship between street children and the justice system in Egypt. After introducing the context of street children in the Egyptian case, it explores whether the justice system exacerbates the problem of street children and whether its potential to play a positive part in alleviating the problem should be revisited. The article then explores the basis for the negative perspective on the role of the justice system and the steps required to improve its role in solving the problem of the increasing number of street children. It concludes with a three-pronged approach for the Egyptian justice system to adopt to effectively address the problem of street children. The article is based on an existing knowledge base that is scattered in small-sample empirical studies, large-scale surveys, United Nations reports, newspapers, and a few academic articles written in both English and Arabic.
The CISG and its Impact on National Legal Systems, edited by Franco Ferrari, is reviewed.
Bauer, J.. "Unlocking Russian Interests on the Korean Peninsula." Parameters 39, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 52-62.
[...] there is reason to believe that the two neighbors now share little in common. When North Korea conducted ballistic missile and underground nuclear tests in 2006, Russia responded by supporting United Nations Security Council resolutions 1695 and 1718, condemning both events.6 Six months later, Vladimir Putin demonstrated even further disapproval by signing a decree prohibiting Russian government agencies and commercial ventures from exporting or transporting military hardware, equipment, materiel, or technical assistance that could be used in any of North Korea's weapons programs. 7 Russian actions have shown that their desire for relations with North Korea does not eclipse their other, more compelling security interests.
Beaulier, S., J. Hall, and B. VanMetre. "THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION SHOW THE NEED FOR DIRECT TAXATION? IT JUST AIN'T SO!" Economic Affairs 29, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 93-94.
Historians and economists often refer to the United States experience under the Articles of Confederation as evidence against decentralised government finance. While it is true that the US government had difficulty raising money from the states during this period, we argue that these facts are a benefit of the system, not a flaw. A 'bottom-up' system of finance, such as the one that existed under the Articles of Confederation, is an important check on Leviathan and has implications for United Nations fund-raising efforts and development economics.
Bolton, J.. "Time to Test North Korea." New Perspectives Quarterly 26, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 66.
An interview with John Bolton, a former US undersecretary of state for arms control and international security affairs and former US ambassador to the United Nations regarding North Korea's nuclear test in late May 2009 is presented. Among other things, he shares his views on whether the Chinese' and the Russians' harsh condemnation of the nuclear test makes any difference at all.
Cajal, M.. "The Alliance of Civilizations: A Spanish View." Insight Turkey 11, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 45-55.
In the foreseeable future, the international system will become one of multipolarity. This new order can be sustainable and peaceful only if it can guarantee harmony and a common purpose among nations. To that end, it must be based upon a package of ethical principles under the aegis of a more powerful, democratic and efficient United Nations system. These principles - democracy, multilateralism, full compliance with international law and respect for human rights - are the same moral rules that underpin the Alliance of Civilizations project as initiated by Spain and Turkey. It was a consequence of the awareness that something new had to be done to prevent a potential confrontation between two worlds, two mindsets. There was, and still is, a danger of a further drift between Islamic and Western societies that might threaten international peace and stability.
Capling, A., and R. Higgott. "Introduction: The Future of the Multilateral Trade System-What Role for the World Trade Organization?" Global Governance 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 313-325.
Global governance through multilateral institutions has fallen on hard times in the twenty-first century. Whereas intergovernmental multilaterialism was the dominant form of international collective action in the second half of the twentieth century, today international cooperation through multilateral institutions is facing severe challenges. Over the past five years or so, contributors to global governance have grappled with these difficulties, particularly in relation to the problems confronting the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the United Nations and its associated bodies. Here, Capling and Higgott seek to contribute to the ongoing debates through an examination of the World Trade Organization and the future of the multilateral trade system.
Carter, M.. "Response to Tavin's "The Magical Quality of Aesthetics"." Studies in Art Education 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 400-404.
In this commentary, I argue that Kevin Tavin's (2008) use of Lacan's objet a in his Studies in Art Education commentary "The Magical Quality of Aesthetics" is not a helpful analogy or solution for art education's search for the role of aesthetics. I offer that a pragmatist and dialogic viewpoint may be more useful and, because it describes the phenomenological experience of meaning and value, I also suggest it as a way of viewing aesthetics itself. This argument is supported with two examples: the covering of the Guernica tapestry at the United Nations during Colin Powell's presentation in 2003, and Darryl McDaniels' (co-founder of Run-D.M.C.) experience with Sara McLachlan's song "In the Arms of an Angel."
Chai, M.. "Golden Bones: An Extraordinary Journey from Hell in Cambodia to a New Life in America." Review Asian Affairs, an American Review 36, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 98-99.
After a brief stint in a refugee camp in Thailand, Siv found a sponsor in the United States, worked temporarily as a taxicab driver in New York, attended a master's degree program at Columbia University, and eventually become the first Cambodian-American to be appointed U.S. ambassador to the United Nations. In another society, in any other time period, Siv's descriptions of his education, training as a flight attendant, family gatherings, weddings, and career aspirations might seem mundane.
Cheng, S., and B. Siankam. "The Impacts of the HIV/AIDS Pandemic and Socioeconomic Development on the Living Arrangements of Older Persons in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Country-Level Analysis." American Journal of Community Psychology 44, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 136-147.
This study investigates whether socioeconomic development and the HIV/AIDS pandemic are associated with living arrangement patterns in older persons in 23 sub-Saharan African countries. Country-level aggregate data were taken from previous household surveys and information provided by the United Nations, the World Bank, and the World Health Organization. Results showed that 13.5% of older persons (aged 60 years or over) were living with grandchildren but not adult children (i.e., skipped generation households). Countries higher in HIV/AIDS prevalence had more skipped generation households, and also more older persons living with spouse only and fewer older persons living with other relatives. Countries with higher socioeconomic development had fewer older persons living with children younger than 25 years old and more living with spouse only or with other relatives and unrelated persons. The pandemic and socioeconomic development combine to accelerate the breakdown of the extended family structure so that older persons are less and less likely to reside with, and to receive support from, their children. Cheng, S., and K. Heller. "Global Aging: Challenges for Community Psychology." American Journal of Community Psychology 44, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 161-163. Older persons are among the major marginalized, disenfranchised citizens worldwide, yet this group has generally been ignored in the community psychology literature. In this paper, we trace the demographic trends in aging worldwide, and draw the field's attention to the United Nations Program on Aging, which structures its policy recommendations in terms of concepts that are familiar to community psychologists. A central theme of the paper is that community psychology can have a role in producing the conceptual shifts needed to change societal attitudes now dominated by negative age stereotypes.
Older persons are among the major marginalized, disenfranchised citizens worldwide, yet this group has generally been ignored in the community psychology literature. In this paper, we trace the demographic trends in aging worldwide, and draw the field's attention to the United Nations Program on Aging, which structures its policy recommendations in terms of concepts that are familiar to community psychologists. A central theme of the paper is that community psychology can have a role in producing the conceptual shifts needed to change societal attitudes now dominated by negative age stereotypes. Clifford, J.. "New Heavens: My Life as a Fighter Pilot and a Founder of the Israel Air Force." Review Air & Space Power Journal 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 115-116. On one mission, he was shot down over the Adriatic, but a US Army PBY (patrol bomber) plucked him out of the freezing water in a daring rescue. After the United Nations mandate of 1 948, which created an independent Israel, he became one of the founding members of the new air force, serving as an Israeli pilot and eventually retiring with the rank of colonel.
Dolsak, N.. "Climate Change Policy Implementation: A Cross-Sectional Analysis." Review of Policy Research 26, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 551-570.
Why would countries invest resources to protect the global atmosphere, a global common-pool resource? After all, this is an open-access resource with no restrictions on appropriating its benefits. Furthermore, why would they do so under the aegis of a weak global regime (the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC) that has virtually no provisions for sanctioning noncompliance and when the largest contributor to the problem is not participating in the regime? This article examines why a number of countries have implemented the UNFCCC. I hypothesize that countries implement UNFCCC because they corner domestic environmental benefits, namely reduction in local pollution. In my empirical analysis of 127 countries, employing an ordinal logistic regression model, I find that local air pollution is associated with higher levels of implementation of the UNFCCC. Thus, I conclude that the incentives to implement a relatively weak global regime can be found in the domestic political economy.
Gheciu, A., and J. Welsh. "Introduction." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 115-120,89-90.
A second body of normative literature on postconflict reconstruction revolves around the policy debate over the "responsibility to rebuild." In late 2001 the independent International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) issued its report, 77ie Responsibility to Protect, which sets out the view that if the international community seeks to claim a responsibility to protect civilians through the use of force, it is obliged also to consider the aftermath of such military measures.10...
Gheciu, A., and J. Welsh. "The Imperative to Rebuild: Assessing the Normative Case for Postconflict Reconstruction." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 121-146,89-90.
The first question parallels the debate about which actors should carry out humanitarian intervention, and remains controversial in both academic and policy circles.
Gowan, R.. "Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War/UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars." Review Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 352-354.
Gowan reviews Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War by Virginia Page Fortna and UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars by Lise Morje Howard.
Gruenberg, J.. "AN ANALYSIS OF UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS: ARE ALL COUNTRIES TREATED EQUALLY?" Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 41, no. 2/3 (July 1, 2009): 469-511.
This Note argues that the Security Council fails to treat all Members of the United Nations equally, specifically singling out Israel, and to a lesser extent South Africa, for disparate treatment during the Cold War period. After introducing the Security Council, the Note creates a hierarchical classification system of wording in Security Council resolutions, specifically of emotive and instructive wording. Once the system is explained, the Note analyzes the words used in each Security Council resolution and cross-references those words with the Entity being discussed. To do this, the Note focuses on nine specific areas in which the disparate treatment among Members is evident, particularly with regards to Israel. The Note concludes by stressing the importance of correcting the underlying endemic flaws in the United Nations system rather than trying to patch problems with artificial devices, such as the Negroponte Doctrine. Only by ridding the Security Council of its biases can it serve the purpose it was created to fulfill.
Herrmann, R., P. Isernia, and P. Segatti. "Attachment to the Nation and International Relations: Dimensions of Identity and Their Relationship to War and Peace." Political Psychology 30, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 721-754.
Since the rise of mass politics, the role national identities play in international relations has been debated. Do they produce a popular reservoir easily tapped for war or bestow dignity thereby fostering cooperation and a democratic peace? The evidence for either perspective is thin, beset by different conceptions of identity and few efforts to identify its effects independent of situational factors. Using data drawn from new national surveys in Italy and the United States, we advance a three-dimensional conception of national identity, theoretically connecting the dimensions to conflictive and cooperative dispositions as well as to decisions to cooperate with the United Nations in containing Iran's nuclear proliferation and Sudan's humanitarian crisis in Darfur. Attachment to the nation in Italy and the United States is found to associate with less support for militarist options and more support for international cooperation as liberal nationalists expect. This depends, however, on containing culturally exclusive conceptions of the nation and chauvinism.
Hilton, L.. "Cultural Nationalism in Exile: The Case of Polish and Latvian Displaced Persons." Historian 71, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 280-317.
Hilton examines the plight of displaced persons from Poland and Latvia. Although the US and UN have offered assistance in repatriating these people, many refuse, fearing political or religious persecution in their former homelands, and therefore have established enclaves of their native culture in other lands.
Karlsson-vinkhuyzen, S., and H. van Asselt. "Introduction: exploring and explaining the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate." International Environmental Agreements : Politics, Law and Economics 9, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 195-211.
Issue Title: Special Issue: Exploring and explaining the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate/Guest Edited by Harro van Asselt and Sylvia Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen.
This introduction lays the groundwork for this Special Issue by providing an overview of the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP), and by introducing three main analytical themes. The first theme concerns the emergence and continuation of the APP. The contributions show that the emergence of the APP can be attributed to international factors, including the United States' rejection of the Kyoto Protocol, and its search for an alternative arena for global climate governance, and other countries' wish to maintain good relations with the US; as well as domestic factors, such as the presence of bureaucratic actors in favour of the Partnership, alignment with domestic priorities, and the potential for reaping economic benefits through participation. The second theme examines the nature of the Partnership, concluding that it falls on the very soft side of the hard-soft law continuum and that while being branded as a public-private partnership, governments remain in charge. Under the third theme, the influence which the APP exerts on the post-2012 United Nations (UN) climate change negotiations is scrutinised. The contributions show that at the very least, the APP is exerting some cognitive influence on the UN discussions through its promotion of a sectoral approach. The introduction concludes with outlining areas for future research.
Karpin, M.. "Deep in the Basement: Israel's Harmonious Nuclear Ambiguity." World Policy Journal 26, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 31.
Today, Israel is the only country outside of the great powers whose right to possess a doomsday weapon is accepted by the world's most influential countries. Unlike Pakistan, India, and North Korea, Israel has not been asked to give up its nuclear capability or bare its programs to the world's scrutiny. No major power has censured Israel for producing the ultimate weapon, nor has it been threatened by the United Nations with sanctions. Here, Karpin examines how Israel became the Middle East's only nuclear power and succeeded in keeping its atomic program secret.
Lhomme, J., R. Mougou, and M. Mansour. "Potential impact of climate change on durum wheat cropping in Tunisia." Climatic Change 96, no. 4 (October 1, 2009): 549-564.
The potential effect of climate change on durum wheat in Tunisia is assessed using a simple crop simulation model and a climate projection for the 2071-2100 period, obtained from the Météo-France ARPEGE-Climate atmospheric model run under the IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) scenario A1B. In the process-oriented crop model, phenology is estimated through thermal time. Water balance is calculated on a daily basis by means of a simple modelling of actual evapotranspiration involving reference evapotranspiration, crop coefficients and some basic soil characteristics. The impact of crop water deficit on yield is accounted for through the linear crop-water production function developed by the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Two stations are chosen to study the climate change effect. They are representative of the main areas where cereals are grown in Tunisia: Jendouba in the northern region and Kairouan in the central region. In the future scenario, temperature systematically increases, whereas precipitation increases or decreases depending on the location and the period of the year. Mean annual precipitation declines in Jendouba and raises in Kairouan. Under climate change, the water conditions needed for sowing occur earlier and cycle lengths are reduced in both locations. Crop water deficit and the corresponding deficit in crop yield happen to be slightly lower in Kairouan; conversely, they become higher in Jendouba.
Lovett, J., P. Hofman, K. Morsink, A. Torres, J. Clancy, and K. Krabbendam. "Review of the 2008 UNFCCC meeting in Pozna." Energy Policy 37, no. 9 (September 1, 2009): 3701.
Technology transfer is a central component in policies and action to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Without creation and adoption of suitable environmentally sound technologies it will not be possible to follow the basic principles of sustainable development. Technology transfer was expected to be a major item at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Poznan, Poland, 1-12 December 2008, but was eclipsed by discussions on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries. However, agreement was reached on a report from the Global Environment Facility called the 'Poznan strategic programme on technology transfer' outlining proposals to scale-up investment. At the meeting it was not possible to reach agreement on inclusion of carbon capture and storage technology under the clean Related Articles in ScienceDirect development mechanism and other areas of unresolved discussion included intellectual property rights and revision of the principle of differentiated responsibility. Side-events to the main meeting provided two important indications of future directions. First, intellectual property rights were discussed at length primarily with the opinion that they were not a major barrier to technology transfer. Second, representatives from the business sector were regarding environmentally sound technologies as an opportunity for economic growth and development.
Marshall, G.. "Authenticating Gender Policies through Sustained-Pressure: The Strategy Behind the Success of Turkish Feminists." Social Politics 16, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 358.
The model of "boomerang effect" only partially explains the dynamics of the international and national activism of Turkish feminists. When their demands were not met by the state, feminists reached out to the United Nations and the European Union. However, rather than bypassing the Turkish state as it would be expected by the boomerang model, they kept pressuring the state. This political strategy, which I call sustained-pressure, helped feminists claim responsibility and success during and after the gender policy changes of the 2000s in Turkey. Establishing the indigenousness of the need for change eased ultra-nationalist opposition to external pressure.
Plath, D.. "International Policy Perspectives on Independence in Old Age." Journal of Aging & Social Policy 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 209.
The promotion of independence in old age has become a common principle in aging policies internationally. The term independence, however, has a variety of meanings that are shaped by social/political/economic contexts and the values and attitudes toward older people. Interpretations of independence affect the ways in which policies are translated into strategies and services. The promotion of independence features prominently in the aging policies of the United Nations and the World Health Organization but does not fit well with the cultural values and social contexts of some countries. A comparison of aging policies in four countries-Australia, Denmark, India, and United Kingdom-found that the principle of promoting independence is not universally adopted. The author proposes that the profile and meaning of independence in policy is shaped by values surrounding individual, family, and social responsibilities. Consideration is given to the limitations and culturally bound nature of independence as a policy principle.
Smith, B., M. Sabin, E. Berlin, and L. Nackerud. "Ethnomedical Syndromes and Treatment-Seeking Behavior among Mayan Refugees in Chiapas, Mexico." Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 366-81.
This survey investigated the prevalence of ethnomedical syndromes and examined treatments and treatment-seeking in Mayan Guatemalans living in United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR) camps in Chiapas, Mexico. Methods included a rapid ethnographic assessment to refine survey methods and inform the cross-sectional survey, which also examined mental health outcomes; 183 households were approached for interview, representing an estimated 1,546 residents in five refugee camps and 93% of all households. One adult per household (N = 170) was interviewed regarding his or her health; an additional 9 adults in three surveyed households participated and were included in this analysis; of the 179 participants, 95 primary child-care providers also answered a children's health questionnaire for their children. Results indicated that ethnomedical syndromes were common in this sample, with 59% of adults and 48.4% of children having experienced susto (fright condition) and 34.1% of adults reporting ataques de nervios (nervous attacks); both conditions were significantly associated with symptoms consistent with posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression and are mental health conditions recognized by the American Psychiatric Association. Combining healthcare provider and indigenous treatments such as physician prescribed medication (65%), medicinal plants (65.7%), and limpias (spiritual cleansings) (40.6%) was reported. Most participants (86%) sought routine medical treatment from UNHCR trained health promoters in their camp. Assessing ethnomedical health is important for informing mental health programs among this population.
Xavier Medina, F.. "Mediterranean diet, culture and heritage: challenges for a new conception." Public Health Nutrition 12, no. 9A (September 1, 2009): 1618-20.
The aim of the present article is to discuss the role of the Mediterranean diet as a part of Human Culture and Intangible Cultural Heritage. Until the present, Mediterranean diet has been observed as a healthy model of medical behaviour. After its proposal as a Cultural Heritage of the Humanity at UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), Mediterranean diet is actually being observed as a part of Mediterranean culture and starting its concept as an equivalent of Mediterranean Cultural Food System or Mediterranean Culinary System. At the candidacy of Mediterranean diet as a World Cultural Intangible Heritage to be presented at UNESCO in 2008, this new conception is making sense. A new point of view that will be capital in the future discussions about the Mediterranean diet, their challenges and their future perspectives. Zaum, D.. "The Norms and Politics of Exit: Ending Postconflict Transitional Administrations." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 189-208,90. The case of Kosovo highlights how the normative framework that governs postconflict Statebuilding has shaped the exit of the UN-led international administration in the territory. The "Kosovo standards," which became UNMIK's main exit mechanism, were an explicit use of exit benchmarks based on liberal norms; and references to local ownership and democracy were strategically used by local elites to argue for the faster handover of authority.
Week of August 14-August 20, 2009 (Focus on Nonviolence):
Alpaugh, . "The politics of escalation in French Revolutionary protest: political demonstrations, non-violence and violence in the grandes journées of 1789." French History 23, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 336-359.
The Réveillon riots, the storming of the Bastille and the October days of 1789 are known largely for their violent excesses, and they have been used by historians such as François Furet, Simon Schama and Arno Mayer to help place violence at the centre of the French Revolutionary experience. However, detailed studies of the early stages of these journées show that each of the protests began as essentially non-violent political demonstrations, which only turned physically violent in the face of attempted repression. Based upon a wide reading of Parisian newspapers, pamphlets, correspondence and other contemporary sources, this article highlights conciliatory aspects of Revolutionary protest and posits the existence of more peaceful alternatives to physical violence. Set in a wider context, where the overwhelming majority of Parisian street protests during the Revolution did not resort to physical violence, full-scale insurrection appears to have been only a secondary strategy, often adopted reluctantly.
Ahsan, A.. "The Preservation of the Rule of Law in Times of Strife." The International Lawyer 43, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 73-76.
The importance is that this is a terrorist war zone. [...] the existence of an independent and functioning juthciary is quite crucial to the prosecution of this form of war, which President Bush dubbed as a 'War on Terror'. [...] our movement continues despite the constitution of a new Parliament. [...] we continue to bear pressure upon those who govern, this time those who inhabit Parliament.
Astor, R., R. Benbenishty, and J. Estrada. "School Violence and Theoretically Atypical Schools: The Principal's Centrality in Orchestrating Safe Schools." American Educational Research Journal 46, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 423-461.
Theories often assume that schools in communities with high violence also have high rates of school violence, yet there are schools with very low violence in high violence communities. Organizational variables within these schools may buffer community influences. Nine "atypical" schools are selected from a national database in Israel. Three years of intense qualitative and quantitative methods are employed at these schools. The most important variable found is the leadership of the principal. These schools emphasize a school reform approach rather than packaged school violence evidence-based programs. The schools demonstrate "outward" oriented ideologies, a schoolwide awareness of violence, consistent procedures, integrated use of cultural and religious symbols, visual manifestations of student care, and the beautification of school grounds.
Couper, S.. "'An Embarrassment to the Congresses?': The Silencing of Chief Albert Luthuli and the Production of ANC History." Journal of Southern African Studies 35, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 331.
2007 was the 'Year of Luthuli' in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Throughout the year, events commemorating the 1967 death of the former President-General of the ANC celebrated his life and contribution to the liberation of South Africa. A year later, during the presidential succession battle various politicians paid tribute to Luthuli, positioning themselves as heirs to his political and moral legacy. Celebrated as a 'founding father' of South Africa's modern democratic state, who had led the ANC during some of the most dramatic events in its history and as Africa's first Nobel Peace Prize winner, Luthuli's name conjures awe and respect. Unsurprisingly, Luthuli has been assigned a prominent place in the process of nationalist myth making. This article is inspired by Michel Rolph Trouillot's, Silencing the Past: Power and Production of History (1995) and highlights the contrast between the present lionisation of Luthuli as a nationalist founding figure and the effective silencing of his stance on the shift to violence soon after the launch of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in December 1961. I argue that a silence in the archives is not primarily a result of poor health or the banning orders imposed on Luthuli, but rather of his embarrassingly persistent espousal of non-violent methods that led to his marginalisation as a leader of the ANC in the early 1960s. An examination of Luthuli's columns in the Golden City Post reveals that he argued against a turn to violence before and after the ANC's decision to prepare for the armed struggle and MK's launch. Luthuli's continued public advocacy of only non-violent methods discomfited many of his contemporaries. Consequently, his ability to lead the liberation movement was compromised and diminished significantly from 1961 until his death six years later. Narratives by former MK operatives affirm Luthuli's prescience regarding the strategic ineffectiveness of violence. Finally, the article demonstrates the inaccuracy of the self-justifying portrayals of Luthuli as a supporter of the armed struggle by both nationalist historians and politicians.
Daniel, J.. "States of Exile: Visions of Diaspora, Witness, and Return." Review Anglican Theological Review 91, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 501,503.
The claim is that exile is both the site and style of Christian witness. [...] the Christology of the creeds is understand as an example of the early church not being theologically in charge, of witnessing to Jesus Christ in the language of Greek ontology, while the church's witness to the state includes, besides its incarnate nonviolence, an appeal to "middle axioms," those standards by which the state justifies itself.
Deats, R.. "Active Nonviolence Across the World." Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 20-29.
Church leaders fully backed her call; in fact, the Catholic bishops made a historic decision to call upon the people to nonviolently oppose the [Ferdinand Marcos] government. Crucial defections from the government by two key leaders and a few hundred troops became the occasion for hundreds of thousands of unarmed Filipinos to pour into the streets of Manila to protect the defectors and demand the resignation of the discredited government. These "unarmed forces of the Philippines" gathered along the circumferential highway around Manila which ran alongside the camps where the rebel troops had gathered. The highway is called Epifanio de los Santos - the Epiphany of the Saints! Troops sent to attack the rebels were met by citizens massed in the streets, singing and praying, calling on the soldiers to join them in the "People Power Revolution." Clandestine radio broadcasts gave instructions in nonviolent resistance. When fighter planes were sent to bomb the rebel camp, the pilots saw it surrounded by the people and defected. A military man said, "This is something new. Soldiers are supposed to protect the civilians. In this particular case, you have civilians protecting the soldiers." Facing the collapse of his support, Marcos and his family fled the country. The dictatorship fell in four days.
The crushing of Czechoslovakia's 1968 experiment to create "socialism with a human face" strengthened the widely held assumption that communism was incapable of peaceful change and democratic openness, and that nonviolence might "work" in India or the United States, but never with communist regimes. Foreign policy "realists" held that authoritarian states could change but not totalitarian ones. This added fuel to the Cold War and the nuclear arms race and the belief that World War III was a virtual certainty. Not many paid attention to those aspects of the Czech experiment that contained hints of the "people power" revolutions that were to flower in the 1980s, but they were highly significant.
Why do we so resist the potential of the not yet stirring in the present moment? The sociologist Elise Boulding reminds us how deadly pessimism can be, for it can undermine our determination to work for a better tomorrow. Hope, on the other hand, infused in an apparendy hopeless situation can create an unexpected potential for change. As the theologian [Walter Wink] has written, "History belongs to the intercessors who believe the future into being." This is the faith that sings, in the face of police dogs and water cannons, "We Shall Overcome." Or, as [Joan Chittister] of Arc muses in George Bernard Shaw's St. Joan, "Some people see things as they are and ask 'Why?' I dream of things that never were and ask, 'Why not?'"
Domhoff, G.. "Creating a Liberal-Left Alliance for Social Change: Prescriptions From the Social Sciences Literature." The American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 151.
Based on research in the social sciences, this article suggests new directions and compromises that might make it possible for liberals and leftists to work together in the hopeful post-9/11, post-Bush/Cheney era. There are five basic issues - electoral strategy, the role of social movements, the need for a new model for the economy, the need for a reframing of who is "us" and who is "them," and the creation of a new organizational structure. It first explains why leftists should organize themselves into Egalitarian Democratic Clubs within the Democratic Party, followed by an analysis of why social movements are more valuable than many liberals have acknowledged but only when they embrace strategic nonviolence as their sole method of social disruption. It then suggests a new framework for thinking about an egalitarian economy that would allow liberals and leftists to work together even while disagreeing about how egalitarian that economy could become. Finally, it suggests a reframing of "us" and "them" in terms of people's values and policy prescriptions, not their class, race, gender, or sexual orientation, and the creation of a network of organizations that share a commitment to the proposed electoral, social movement, and economic strategies.
Garcia, R.. "Cesar Chavez and the Common Sense of Nonviolence." Review The Journal of American History 95, no. 4 (March 1, 2009): 1242-1243.
Orosco's central argument is that Chavez was a "community intellectual" (a combination of Antonio Gramsci's "organic intellectual" and Saul Alinsky's "radical community activist") involved in the "production of knowledge" and an "original thinker and a social theorist" who "developed a 'philosophy of nonviolence' . . . significantly distinct from the work of [Mahatma] Gandhi [positive-reaction] and [Martin Luther] King [civil disobethence]" and "more appropriate ... for social justice in America": a social theory of "Radical Democracy" (pp. 3-6, 30-31, 85, 96). The farm workers' struggle would serve as the catalyst for a new American "social movement" with a philosophy emphasizing a "sense of social agency"; a "historical consciousness"; a "self-realization of individuality and community"; a telos of the evolutionary dynamics of a "logic of nonviolence"; a belief that time exposes truth; a desire for a "culture of peace"; and a belief in "self-determination" (pp. 2325, 106-7).
Godrej, F.. "Towards a Cosmopolitan Political Thought: The Hermeneutics of Interpreting the Other*." Polity 41, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 135-165.
The emergence of the field of comparative political theory suggests that the encounter with non-Western texts be considered a legitimate and necessary part of political theory, so that the field is reconstituted in a truly cosmopolitan manner. However, this also presents unique challenges to political theorists. Chief among these is the question of what hermeneutic approach would allow us to understand well the ideas contained in these texts. This essay will argue for a particular approach to the interpretation of non-Western texts and ideas, providing an account of a methodologically self-conscious approach to comparative political theory. A serious comparative political theorist will inevitably have to alternate between an internal immersion in the lived experience of the text, and an external stance of commentary and exegesis of the text. Struggling with the conflicting imperatives of these moments is precisely the task of a more nuanced approach to comparative political theory. Ultimately, however, I also argue that this particular approach has implications for the development of a genuine cosmopolitanism in the field of political theory. A cosmopolitan political theory is precisely one in which such struggles and complex encounters with the otherness of texts are increasingly made available to provoke, dislocate, and challenge our own understandings of political life. The method I offer is thus deeply implicated in the evolution of our self-understanding as political theorists.
Hallward, M.. "Creative Responses to Separation: Israeli and Palestinian Joint Activism in Bil'in." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 541.
This article examines creative ways in which Israeli and Palestinian activists engage with each other and the powers seeking to separate them in their nonviolent struggles for a just and lasting peace. Using the geopolitical theory of territoriality, the article briefly examines a number of administrative, physical, and psychological barriers facing joint activism and the strategies activists use to counteract them. Drawing on nonviolent theory and practice, the article analyzes how activists exert power through the creative use of symbols and practices that undermine the legitimacy of occupation policies. Based on fieldwork conducted in 2004-05 and July 2006, the article explores the implications of this activism on conceptions of identity, and strategies for restarting a moribund peace process. The relative 'success' of sustained joint action in Bil'in can provide scholars and policymakers with innovative approaches for addressing some of the outstanding issues needing to be addressed by official negotiators. Although government bodies are more constrained than activists, the imaginative means of engaging with the system--and the reframing of issues through the redeployment of 'commonplaces'--can perhaps provide inspiration, if not leverage, for thinking outside of the box.
Hanssen, M.. "The Psychology of Nonviolence and Aggression." Review Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 456. Hanssen reviews The Psychology of Nonviolence and Aggression by V. K. Kool.
Harris, V.. "We, Too, Sing America." The Reading Teacher 62, no. 5 (February 1, 2009): 450-455.
[...] Parks was an intentional activist, a member of the local NAACP who had trained at the Highlander Center, an interracial organization devoted to training activists. There are several reasons for this concern, including the residual effects of political dissent precipitated by the Civil Rights movement, the Vietnam War, and the Watergate constitutional crisis, disenchantment with political institutions and leaders, and other factors related to cultural values and mores.
Huizenga, L.. "Obedience unto Death: The Matthean Gethsemane and Arrest Sequence and the Aqedah." The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 71, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 507-526.
[...] the Matthean Jesus and the Isaac of ancient Jewish tradition resemble each other to a remarkable degree: both are promised children conceived under extraordinary circumstances, beloved sons who, for redemptive purposes, willingly face their sacrifices at the season of Passover in obethence to their respective fathers. [...] when rightly read as a narrative with attention to its first-century C.E. cultural location, the Gospel of Matthew presents a significant Isaac typology. [...] 4Q225 sets the Aqedah in the context of the Passover, as it presents verbal parallels that suggest that it is dealing in a Jubilean way with several events that happened in the time of the Exodus from Egypt.
Inwood, J.. "Contested memory in the birthplace of a king: a case study of Auburn Avenue and the Martin Luther King Jr. National Park." Cultural Geographies 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 87-109.
A critical element in the process of racializing place is the construction of memorial landscapes. Using the Martin Luther King Jr National Historic Site and the surrounding Auburn Avenue community as a case study this paper argues that the sites dedicated to Dr King along Auburn Avenue embody a normative Civil Rights discourse which emphasizes national unity and non-violence and serves to silence and reframe more radical interpretations of Dr Martin Luther King Jr's social thought and action. More specifically the King National Historic Site represents King as a mainstream leader who used the existing democratic structure of US society to affect social change. This is related to the role the King National Historic Site plays in the construction of hegemony. A critical aspect of this process is the way this normative Civil Rights vision is used to market an understanding of the City of Atlanta. Thus the King memorials along Auburn Avenue are important sites to examine the connections between race, place and nation and the way the memorial landscape dedicated to Dr King embodies particular social values and ideas about the historic legacy of race in the United States.
Johnson, M.. "Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy/American Nonviolence: The History of An Idea." Review Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 41-42.
[John Haynes Holmes] was joined in his "discovery" and celebration of Mahatma Gandhi by black theologians and activists such as Howard Thurman and Bayard Rustin. The origin of Gandhi's philosophy of satyagraha in South Africa, in opposition to racial discrimination and segregation, caught the attention of Americans examining issues of race and labor justice. In the 1920s, Richard Gregg went to live with Gandhi on his ashram and begin work that led to his seminal book The Power of Nonviolence, the bible of the movement. By the 1930s, Thurman and Rustin were steeped in Gandhi's teachings and visiting him in India.
Over and over, [Joseph Kip Kosek] locates popular dating of nonviolence in U.S. politics in earlier precedents and long, vital debates of religious versus secular groundings of nonviolence, absolutist and idealist versus pragmatic and realist positions on applied nonviolence, and the relationship between war, racism, and materialism. The long and critical role of AJ. Muste - his passage through communist sympathies, debates with Reinhold Niebuhr, influence on Martin Luther King, Jr., banishment yet continued mentoring of Bayard Rustin, prescience in supporting George Houser's and John Swomley's projects in the United States and Africa - is fully discussed.
Though not a part of the tide, [Ira Chernus]'s premise is the same as Kosek's: "Although it is certainly possible to live a life of principled nonviolence without being a Christian, it is not possible to understand nonviolence in the United States without understanding its Christian origins."
Kelley, E.. "A Palestinian Christian Cry for Reconciliation." Review The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 74.
Rejecting the misuse of scriptures by Jewish and Christian Zionists, he has written a new book offering theological insights to biblical texts that help Palestinian Christians living under Israeli occupation. By shedding new light on Jesus' teachings with new knowledge of the history and culture of the New Testament, liberation theology made faith relevant to real life, helped the faithful to better understand their own suffering, inspired them to work for change, and pointed to a greater truth with definite political implications.
Kopeliovich, S., and J. Kuriansky. "Journeys for Peace: A model of human rights education for young people in Mexico." Counselling Psychology Quarterly 22, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 69.
This paper describes the "Journeys for Peace" program a Mexico-based NGO that facilitates young people to get involved, and take a leadership role, in the agenda of world peace. Volunteers engage in activities that help them understand the importance of spreading messages of peace, and that support them to implement educational and artistic workshops and projects that benefit their school, local community and public in other parts of the world. Projects based on creative and expressive arts include painting, photography, music, theatre and publishing, and address topics of human rights, tolerance and non-violence. Signature activities include mini-parliaments debating issues like diversity, media responsibility and children's rights, and the "Condition for Peace" activity whereby participants pose a question about peace to special guests, including world leaders. The program has received extensive media coverage and recognition by universities and organizations worldwide, including the Clinton Global Initiative, and has collaborated with other peace initiatives.
Martinez, T.. "In Harms Way: A History of Christian Peacemaker Teams/118 Days: Christian Peacemaker Teams Held Hostage in Iraq." Review Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 43-44.
[Kathleen Kern]'s comprehensive history of CPT frames and informs the more focused account of the Baghdad team's abduction. While In Harm's Way provides the reader with a carefully researched account of the political, historical, and theological streams flowing into CPT's emergence onto the peacemaking scene, 118 Days offers an intimate and dramatic account of one team's nightmarish ordeal. Taken together, both books offer an in-depth experience of active nonviolence in some of the world's most dangerous and violent locales.
Because CPT officially came into being in the late 1980s, Kern begins by invoking Ron Sider's address at the 1984 Mennonite World Conference in Strasbourg, France. According to Kern, Sider's address was instrumental in legitimizing the idea of a coordinated nonviolent response to violence. Kern acknowledges significant antecedents (she mentions Gandhi and the civil rights movement, among others). But it was during the 1980s, against the backdrop of neo-colonial intervention in Central America, that these peacemaking energies found expression first in an influential Mennonite study document and, soon after, in the establishment of Christian Peacemaker Teams.
Moghadam, V.. "Transformations: Feminist Pathways to Global Change: An Analytical Anthology." Review Contemporary Sociology 38, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 362-363.
Chapter topics are women-centered movements and alternative development; redefining work, gender, and development; feminist pathways to democracy and equality; humanizing social relations; restructuring gender to promote alternative development; feminists who reconstitute work and market; women and the environment, or regenerative development; and feminist movements for nonviolence and peace. [...] the emergence of movements that promote equality, democracy, environmental regeneration, humanizing work relations, and peace.
Nair, N.. "Bhagat Singh as 'Satyagrahi': The Limits to Non-violence in Late Colonial India." Modern Asian Studies 43, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 649-681.
Abstract
Among anti-colonial nationalists, Bhagat Singh and M.K. Gandhi are seen to exemplify absolutely contrasting strategies of resistance. Bhagat Singh is regarded as a violent revolutionary whereas Gandhi is the embodiment of non-violence. This paper argues that Bhagat Singh and his comrades became national heroes not after their murder of a police inspector in Lahore or after throwing bombs in the Legislative Assembly in New Delhi but during their practice of hunger strikes and non-violent civil disobedience within the walls of Lahore's prisons in 1929-30. In fact there was plenty in common in the strategies of resistance employed by both Gandhi and Bhagat Singh. By labelling these revolutionaries 'murderers' and 'terrorists', the British sought to dismiss their non-violent demands for rights as 'political prisoners'. The same labels were adopted by Gandhi and his followers. However, the quality of anti-colonial nationalism represented by Bhagat Singh was central to the resolution of many of the divisions that racked pre-partition Punjab.
O'Donnell, L., G. Agronick, R. Duran, A. Myint-U, and A. Stueve. "Intimate Partner Violence Among Economically Disadvantaged Young Adult Women: Associations With Adolescent Risk-Taking and Pregnancy Experiences." Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 41, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 84-91.
Intimate partner violence negatively impacts the health of substantial proportions of young women in economically disadvantaged communities, where sexual initiation, aggressive behaviors, unintended pregnancies and childbearing are common among adolescents. It is therefore important to assess how adolescent risk behaviors and pregnancy experiences are linked to such violence during young adulthood. Data from 526 participants in the Reach for Health Longitudinal Study who were surveyed during middle school (in 1995-1996 and 1996-1997) and at ages 22-25 (in 2005-2007) provided information on adolescent risk behaviors and pregnancy experiences, as well as experiences of intimate partner violence during young adulthood. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to identify correlates of intimate partner violence involvement. As young adults, 29% of women reported having been victims of intimate partner violence in the past 12 months; 21% reported having perpetrated such violence. In multivariate analyses, victimization and perpetration in the last year are positively associated with aggressive behavior in middle school (odds ratios, 1.9 and 2.5, respectively), lifetime number of sex partners (1.3 for both) and having a history of unintended pregnancy or pregnancy problems (1.3 for both). Perpetration also is associated with early sexual initiation (0.5) and living with a partner (1.8). It is important to consider women's pregnancy histories in programs aimed at preventing the adverse outcomes of relationship violence and in screening for partner violence in sexual and reproductive health services. Early intervention may help women develop the skills needed for resolving conflicts with peers and partners.
Osenbach, J., J. Stubbs, J. Wang, J. Russo, and D. Zatzick. "Legal Events as Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress in Injured Trauma Survivors." Psychiatry 72, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 70-8.
Prior research suggests that involvement in a lawsuit may be associated with the development of enduring posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as inflated and potentially invalid symptom reports. This research aimed to describe the spectrum of legal events experienced by injured trauma survivors and prospectively assessed the association between legal events and PTSD symptoms. Over a nine month period, hospitalized injury survivors were randomly screened for study participation. Legal events were prospectively assessed, and PTSD symptoms were reported twelve months after the injury. Linear regression was used to determine the association between legal events and higher PTSD symptom levels. Increasing numbers of legal events were associated with significantly higher PTSD symptom levels. Seeking legal counsel (34%), being a victim of non-violent crime (14%), and involvement in a lawsuit (9%) were the most common legal events reported. None of these categories of legal events, however, were associated with significantly higher PTSD symptom levels. Because injury survivors are frequently involved in a spectrum of legal events, it is important for future research to assess the cumulative burden of legal events, as these experiences may represent recurring stressful life events that have the potential to exacerbate PTSD symptoms.
Palmer-Mehta, V.. "Aung San Suu Kyi and the Rhetoric of Social Protest in Burma." Women's Studies in Communication 32, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 151-179.
This essay provides a case study of the speech that marks Aung San Suu Kyi's emergence as a leader of the pro-democracy opposition in Burma. I trace how she weaves together collective memory and an ethic of care to achieve political ascendancy and to create a space for nonviolent democratic revolution. The study contributes to progressive care theorizing by examining the construction of a care ethic in an authoritarian regime in the midst of revolution.
Rane, H.. "Jihad, competing norms and the Israel-Palestine impasse." Australian Journal of International Affairs 63, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 41.
A central factor in the failure to resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict is the direct competition that exists between its two most central international norms: 'self-determination', the fundamental claim of the Palestinians, and 'self-defence', the overriding concern of Israelis. Particularly since 9/11, Palestinian violence has been a liability for their cause and has served to validate Israel's self-defence arguments. Increasingly, Palestinian violence has been perpetrated by the Islamically oriented under the banner of jihad, which is understood almost exclusively in terms of armed struggle. Non-violence--which has the potential to undermine Israel's self-defence arguments and generate external pressure on Israel to adhere to the terms of a just peace--has been under-appreciated by such Palestinians. Non-violence is far from having a normative status in the Muslim world as an Islamically legitimate response to occupation and it is yet to be conceptualised as an effective form of resistance. The concept needs to be reformulated in accordance with the realities and opportunities confronting the Palestinians. Contextualisation combined with a maqasid or objective-oriented approach establishes non-violence as a preferable option to violence both in terms of the higher objectives of jihad, enshrined in the Quran, as well as of the attainment of Palestinian self-determination.
Sarchiapone, M., V. Carli, M. Di Giannantonion, and A. Roy. "Risk Factors for Attempting Suicide in Prisoners." Suicide & Life - Threatening Behavior 39, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 343-50.
We wished to examine determinants of suicidal behavior in prisoners. 903 male prisoners had a psychiatric interview which included various psychometric tests. Suicide attempters were compared with prisoners who had never attempted suicide. Significantly more of the attempters had a history of psychiatric disorder, substance abuse, a family history of suicidal behavior, convictions for violent crime, had exhibited aggressive behavior in jail, and had higher BGLHA aggression scores. A similar pattern of risk factors was found for prisoners with suicidal ideation. A lifetime history of attempting suicide, or of having suicidal ideation, is frequent in prisoners. Risk factors include family, developmental, aggression, personality, psychiatric, and substance abuse factors.
Schneider, N.. "The Original Peaceniks." Review. Commonweal 136, no. 10 (May 22, 2009): 26,28.
The Catholic critique of pacifism, voiced in this period by John Courtney Murray, among others, seems not to have troubled the Fellowship as much. Because of the Catholic Church's endorsement of just-war theory, "Catholics had been the hardest religious people to attract to the Christian nonviolent vanguard," Kosek writes.
Sen, R., and W. Wagner. "Cultural Mechanics of Fundamentalism: Religion as Ideology, Divided Identities and Violence in Post-Gandhi India." Culture & Psychology 15, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 299.
This study analyses the history of Hindu fundamentalism up to the present time, as it developed since India's independence. In the course of its rise, Hindutva destroyed the Gandhian symbolism of non-violence, reinterpreted cultural symbols to become political signs and prepared the ground for communal violence. Secularists and the religious out-group, Muslims, became targeted as enemies. During the resulting Hindu ethnic dominance, religion was converted from a faith into an ideology. The sequence of events in the development of this movement repeats the common scheme of a religious fundamentalist movement that serves the nationalist goals of political leaders. It is argued that such groups cannot reasonably be conceptualized in terms of an individual psychology or personality, that is, a trait, but as a cultural movement that unites people sharing membership of a social class, that is, a sociocultural state. Such movements, in contrast to Abrahamic religious fundamentalisms, do not form well-established stable groups over time, but are more like a waxing and waning political movement where membership is determined by social class and ethnic identity. Their politics trigger a heightened awareness of ethnic identity, prime a religiously ideological mindset and, as a consequence, release communal violence.
Vesely-Flad, E.. "Editor's Note." Fellowship 75, no. 1-6 (January 1, 2009): 3.
We are deeply grateful to the board of The Human Quest for its decision to distribute some assets, both financial and subscribers, to Fellowship (see story, page 18) in recognition of our commitment to promoting themes of nonviolence, peace, and freedom. As we commence our 90th year of publishing (75th as Fellowship), this significant support helps us to resume publishing on a regular basis.
Week of August 21-August 27, 2009:
Akhavan, P.. "Are International Criminal Tribunals a Disincentive to Peace?: Reconciling Judicial Romanticism with Political Realism." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 624-654.
A significant challenge to the efficacy of international criminal justice in global governance is the view that prosecution of political leaders still in power creates a disincentive to peace and thus prolongs atrocities. While "judicial romantics" are often oblivious to these complexities, the "political realists" have failed to demonstrate that tribunals are in fact an impediment to peace and stability. The impact of the International Criminal Court on three recent situations in Africa suggests that judicial intervention is more likely to help prevent atrocities rather than impede peace, even if arrest warrants cannot be executed.
Anonymous, . "Chad: New Peace Agreement." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 7 (August 1, 2009): 18041A-18041A.
Barnett, J.. "The prize of peace (is eternal vigilance): a cautionary editorial essay on climate geopolitics." Climatic Change 96, no. 1-2 (September 1, 2009): 1-6.
Cavendish, R.. "AUG 1 1259: An Anglo-Welsh truce renewed." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 11.
Welsh independence in the 13th century did not mean separation from England - substantial areas were controlled by English barons - but the preservation of Welsh culture and local self-government in the Welsh heartland, with a native prince topping the feudal pyramid. Edward invaded Wales with overwhelm- ing force and in 1277 Liywelyn was made to accept an ignomin- ious peace treaty and a large fine (which Edward later waived) He was allowed to keep the homage of only five insignifi- cant Welsh lords and, though he retained his Prince of Wales tille, U was now meaningless.
Dean-Ruzicka, R.. "Tales for Little Rebels: A Collection of Radical Children's Literature." Review. Children's Literature Association Quarterly 34, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 291-293.
The book is structured around eight radical themes: "R Is for Rebel," "Subversive Science and Dramas of Ecology," "Work, Workers, and Money," "Organize," "Imagine," "History and Heroes," "A Person's a Person," and "Peace." [...] if one were interested in doing a full-length critical study of radical children's literature, this is one of the first texts I would recommend for research.
Evans, J., and J. Tonge. "Social Class and Party Choice in Northern Ireland's Ethnic Blocs." West European Politics 32, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 1012.
The peace process in Northern Ireland has not diminished the acute ethnic electoral faultline between the majority Protestant British population, supportive of parties favouring Northern Ireland's continuing place in the United Kingdom and the minority Catholic Nationalist population, which backs parties harbouring long-term ambitions for a united Ireland. Within each bloc, however, there has been a dramatic realignment in favour of parties once seen as extreme and militant. The Democratic Unionist Party has emerged as the main representative of the Protestant British population, whilst Sinn Fein, having for many years supported the Provisional IRA's 'armed struggle' against British rule, has become the dominant party amongst Catholic Nationalists. As both parties have entered the political mainstream and advanced electorally, to what extent have they moved from their electoral near-confinement among the working class to enjoy broader cross-class support - and how?
Farrelly, N.. "'AK47/M16 Rifle - Rs. 15,000 each': what price peace on the Indo-Burmese frontier?" Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 283.
One of the key tools for achieving India's stated ambition of stopping national fragmentation in the Northeast is the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (1958) (AFSPA). This article assesses Indian Government efforts to manage the parts of the Indo-Burmese borderlands that are subject to this law. It compares the approaches of governments on the Burmese and Indian sides of the frontier and interrogates the financial incentives that complement security policies in their shared borderlands. Economic incentives for ceasefire and disarmament are, I argue, part of a portfolio of pacification and reintegration strategies that are premised on the controlled ambiguities of the borderlands. As such, I argue that the impunities allegedly at the heart of the AFSPA are matched by the freedom of the Indian Government to funnel resources into paying off its enemies. In the Indian case, the wider environment in which the AFSPA is implemented cannot be ignored if a full analysis of its 50 years of operation is to be offered. The implementation of surrender agreements in the ambiguous space of the Indo-Burmese borderlands exemplifies how the Indian Government has prioritised national cohesion above legal, political or economic consistency.
Freeman, S., and A. Berger. "Nebraska Veterans' Preferences for End-of-Life Care." Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing 13, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-403.
More than 1,800 veterans die in a variety of healthcare settings each day, illustrating a need to improve their end-of-life (EOL) care. In 2006, the Nebraska End-of-Life Survey was mailed to 2,713 urban and rural Nebraskan adults' homes; 44 of 324 first-time respondents (14%) were veterans. This article compares survey responses from veterans and nonveterans and discusses four issues: personal desires during the dying process, fear of dying, completion of advance directives, and communication preferences. Compared to nonveterans, veterans were significantly less likely to want friends or family visiting at EOL, less likely to place importance on being at peace spiritually, less afraid of dying alone, more likely to turn to a spouse to initiate EOL conversations, and less trusting of primary physicians on EOL issues. In addition, veterans had higher rates of completion of advance directives. Examining the survey responses can help guide clinical oncology nurses in delivering EOL care to veterans.
Hook, J., E. Worthington, and S. Utsey. "Collectivism, Forgiveness, and Social Harmony." Counseling Psychologist 37, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 821.
Existing models of forgiveness and the strategies to promote forgiveness that draw from them are predominantly individualistic. As the United States becomes more diverse and counseling psychology becomes a more global field, counseling psychologists are increasingly likely to encounter clients who have a collectivistic worldview. The authors propose a theoretical model that clarifies the relationship between collectivism and forgiveness. The importance of maintaining social harmony in collectivistic cultures is central to this relationship. The model has two propositions. First, collectivistic forgiveness occurs within the broad context of social harmony, reconciliation, and relational repair. Second, collectivistic forgiveness is understood as primarily a decision to forgive but is motivated largely to promote and maintain group harmony rather than inner peace (as is more often the case in individualistically motivated forgiveness). Finally, the authors suggest a research agenda to study collectivistic forgiveness and provide guidelines for addressing forgiveness with collectivistic clients.
Koskenniemi, M.. "Miserable Comforters: International Relations as New Natural Law." European Journal of International Relations 15, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 395.
In his 'Perpetual Peace', Kant indicts the natural law tradition (Grotius, Pufendorf, Vattel) as 'miserable comforters' whose principles and doctrines 'cannot have the slightest legal force'. The indictment emerges from Kant's critique of natural law in both its empirical and rationalist variants as unable to uphold a really 'binding' notion of cosmopolitan legality. Since the early 1990s a new literature has emerged in the International Relations field that speaks about the effectiveness and legitimacy of international law as a form of supranational 'governance'. This article argues that that literature raises precisely the same problems that Kant detected in early modern natural law. Like the latter, this literature is best seen as an attempt to appropriate the voice of international legality to a fully instrumentalist discipline dedicated to serving the interests of power.
Laouris, Y., A. Erel, M. Michaelides, M. Damdelen, T. Taraszow, I. Dagli, R. Laouri, and A. Christakis. "Exploring Options for Enhancement of Social Dialogue Between the Turkish and Greek Communities in Cyprus Using the Structured Dialogic Design Process." Systemic Practice and Action Research 22, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 361-381.
This paper summarizes results of a co-laboratory that took place 33 months after the negative outcome of the referendum on the UN's proposal for the solution of the Cyprus problem, and which was a follow-up (3 months later) of a previous co-laboratory. The earlier co-laboratory explored factors contributing to the increasing gap between the two conflicting communities. The co-laboratory reported here engaged relevant stakeholders (peace pioneers, academics, business people, activists and others representing the Turkish and Greek speaking communities of Cyprus) to come up with options aiming to enhance the social dialogue between the two communities. The Structured Dialogic Design Process was used to structure 27 proposed options and develop an influence map. The deep drivers, i.e., most influential factors, determined decisions taken by the participating peace pioneers regarding their future interventions. The results are also discussed within the framework of current (analysis reflects the political situation during the period reported here) political developments.
Maney, G., L. Woehrle, and P. Coy. "Ideological Consistency and Contextual Adaptation: U.S. Peace Movement Emotional Work Before and After 9/11." The American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 114.
The authors examine how the U.S. peace movement responded to the Bush administration's attempts to generate and capitalize on a heightened sense of threat after the 9/11 attacks. Longitudinal analysis of statements by U.S. peace movement organizations issued before and after 9/11 indicates that the movement's discourse is both ideologically consistent and contextually adaptive. In each period, movement discourse highlighted the U.S. government as a source of threat and people living outside of the United States as the targets of that threat. Nonetheless, the movement's discourse changed significantly in the exacerbated climate of fear in the first 4 months after the 9/11 attacks and then began to revert to pre-9/11 patterns during the Iraq War when the salience of threat declined. This research significantly advances knowledge of social movement discourse by establishing that ideological consistency and contextual adaptation are not mutually exclusive, by highlighting the contextual and dialogical factors that encourage certain types of movement responses to dominant discourses, and by explaining the role of emotional work in mobilizing dissent.
McDuie-Ra, D.. "Vision 2020 or re-vision 1958: the contradictory politics of counter-insurgency in India's regional engagement." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 313.
Insurgency in Northeast India has long been explained as an outcome of poverty and isolation that in turn produces further poverty and militancy. In order to break this cycle and achieve 'peace and prosperity', the Indian Government released North Eastern Region Vision 2020 in July 2008 - a comprehensive policy agenda to achieve 'peace and prosperity' in the Northeast. This is to be realised through deeper economic and political engagement with neighbouring countries and a 'paradigm shift in development strategy' that will be simultaneously more participatory and more infrastructure intensive. This paper argues that in practice the political manifestations of increased regional engagement are contradictory. Each measure designed to break the region's isolation is countered by measures to maintain control of borders, trade, and the movement of people. At the head of this new development vision is a re-visioning of counter-insurgency underpinned by the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (1958). Far from signalling a new era in the region, the measures contained in this new development vision appear more likely to exacerbate the grievances of people in the region and reinforce the ways the region has been governed through five decades of counter-insurgency.
Mendeloff, D.. "Trauma and Vengeance: Assessing the Psychological and Emotional Effects of Post-Conflict Justice." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 592-623.
Do war crimes tribunals or truth commissions satisfy victims of war and atrocity and provide psychological relief from war-induced trauma? Do they make victims less vengeful and less likely to engage in or support violent retribution? Or does the experience of post-conflict justice simply reinforce and exacerbate emotional and psychological suffering? Answers to these questions are central to the logic of truth-telling's peace-promoting effects in post-authoritarian and post-war societies. Indeed, one of transitional justice's core arguments is that victims of wartime abuse demand truth and justice. These arguments, however, assume that truth-telling processes, on average, provide psychological and emotional benefits to victims. Some critics have argued, however, that they actually cause more harm than good. Although victims' preferences for truth and justice are well documented, we know considerably less about their actual impact. This article assesses that impact by surveying the extant empirical evidence from prominent cases of transitional justice, as well as research in forensic and clinical psychology. It finds a paltry empirical record that offers little support for claims of either salutary or harmful effects of post-conflict justice. Although there is little evidence that truth-telling in general dramatically harms individuals, the notion that formal truth-telling processes satisfy victims' need for justice, ease their emotional and psychological suffering, and dampen their desire for vengeance, remains highly dubious.
Monshipouri, M.. "Human Rights Matters: Local Politics and National Human Rights Institutions." Review. Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 830-834.
[...] some analysts shifted their attention to a local discourse about ethics and social justice, while attempting to contextualize and interpret human rights within a local context.1 More recently, some scholars have shown how national actors and non-governmental organizations can be instrumental in defending and promoting human rights. A strict adherence to a human rights-based approach may interfere with such desirable goals as national reconciliation and human security in some societies. [...] the argument that "peace over justice" may be the most effective means of reaching a compromise under certain circumstances.24 This difficulty does not reduce the value of the insights presented in this volume; rather, it demonstrates the enormity of the task facing these national human rights institutions.
Peskin, V.. "Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court's Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 655-691.
This article addresses the unfolding pursuit of state cooperation by the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explains that the prosecutor's recent shift from a cautionary to a confrontational pursuit is due to 1) the failure to persuade states to hand over suspects and 2) the lack of international backing for arrests amid the quest for a negotiated peace to ongoing conflicts. The article focuses on the prosecutor's forceful campaign to apprehend rebel leaders from Uganda and government suspects implicated in atrocities in Darfur, including President Bashir of Sudan.
Price, M.. "End of Television and Foreign Policy." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 625, (September 1, 2009): 196.
The transformation of television has altered the capacity of the state to control the agenda for making war, convening in peace, and otherwise exercising its foreign policy options. In the age of the state gatekeeper, there was at least the illusion (and often the reality) that the government could substantially control the flow of images within its borders. With transformations in television systems, national systems of broadcast regulation have declined, replaced by transnational flows of information where local gatekeepers are not so salient. The rise of satellites with regional footprints and the spread of the Internet give governments the ability to reach over the heads of the state and speak directly to populations. Both receiving and sending states will have foreign policies about the meaning of the right to receive and impart information and the extent to which satellite signals can be regulated or channeled.
Roos, J.. "Women's Rights, Nationalist Anxiety, and the "Moral" Agenda in the Early Weimar Republic: Revisiting the "Black Horror" Campaign against France's African Occupation Troops." Central European History 42, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 473-508.
In the months and years following ratification of the Versailles Treaty, the Allied occupation of the Rhineland became a focal point of German nationalist propaganda. The campaign against the so-called "black shame on the Rhine" (schwarze Schmach am Rhein), a racist slogan referring to the stationing of soldiers from northern Africa, Senegal, and Madagascar in the French zone of occupation, was one of the ugliest outgrowths of German opposition to the peace treaty. Support for the movement against France's African troops was disquietingly broad. An interpellation to the Reich government of May 1920 launched by the Majority Social Democrats (SPD) and endorsed by all parties in the national assembly except the Independent Socialists (USPD) is illustrative of the racist fears motivating "black horror" protests: "Even after the armistice, the French and Belgians continue to use colored troops in the occupied territories. ... For German women and children, men and boys, these savages pose a horrifying danger. Their honor, health and life, purity and innocence are being destroyed. ... This situation is disgraceful, humiliating, and insufferable!"
Scanlon, S.. "The Conservative Lobby and Nixon's "Peace with Honor" in Vietnam." Journal of American Studies 43, no. 2 (August 1, 2009): 255-276.
This essay explores the responses of conservative political activists to the Nixon administration's policy of "peace with honor" in Vietnam. Conservatives sought to influence the administration by acceptance of Vietnamization, a policy they interpreted as affording a more conventional prosecution of the war, and by pushing for increased aerial bombardment of North Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Divisions over the efficacy of détente derailed a unified conservative position on Vietnam and forced reassessments of the legitimacy of Nixon's promise of "peace with honor." While highlighting the basic premises of conservative foreign policy during the late 1960s, this essay explores the means by which conservative leaders attempted to forge consensus regarding the Vietnam War and the impact of increased political power on the conservative movement's foreign-policy priorities.
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Tsai, T.. "Public health and peace building in Nepal." The Lancet 374, no. 9689 (August 15, 2009): 515-516.
[...] with the resignation of the Maoist cabinet, after only 9 months in power, and the ensuing impasse in forming a coalition government led by the new Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal, it remains to be seen if promoting public health will still be a priority. Since the cessation of the civil war in 2006, Nepal has seen a large influx of development aid, with around US$700 million committed for fiscal year 2008-09-a substantial proportion of its $3 billion budget according to the Ministry of Finance.
Waghid, Y.. "Patriotism and Democratic Citizenship Education in South Africa: On the (im) possibility of reconciliation and nation building." Educational Philosophy and Theory 41, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-409.
In this article, I shall evaluate critically the democratic citizenship education project in South Africa to ascertain whether the patriotic sentiments expressed in the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) are in conflict with the achievement of reconciliation and nation building (specifically peace and friendship) after decades of apartheid rule. My first argument is that, although it seems as if the teaching of patriotism through the Department of Education's democratic citizenship agenda in South African schools is a laudable initiative that can contribute toward establishing a definitive break with our apartheid past, the expression of blind patriotic sentiments (such as pledging allegiance to one's country and its citizens only) as articulated in the Manifesto can potentially marginalise others (immigrant communities) as the country endeavours to build its fledgling democracy. My second argument is that the intended democratic form of patriotism of the Department of Education can possibly be undermined by cultivating a culture of 'safe expression', which could slow down the country's quest for reconciliation and nation building.
Yurita, M., and R. Dornan. "Hiroshima: Whose Story Is It?" Children's Literature Association Quarterly 34, no. 3 (October 1, 2009): 229-240.
[...] people who found boats to escape the fire were soon pelted by a tar-like black rain that was contaminated by radioactive ash. [...] Sadako reached the age of ten in 1954, radiation from that rain seemed to have little effect on her, but then she was surprised to learn she had malignant acute bone marrow leukemia.
Zunes, S.. "Peace or Pax Americana? US Middle East policy and the threat to global security." International Politics: Special Issue: The Islamic World Between Europe and the 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 573-595.
This paper examines US policy in the greater Middle Eastern region in the aftermath of the September 2001 al-Qaida attacks on the United States. The paper argues that the US Administration had engaged in a series of policy initiatives which have posed a direct challenge to the post-World War II international legal order. The doctrine of preventative war, the invasion and occupation of Iraq, threats against Iran, the aggressive counter-insurgency operations and air campaigns in Afghanistan, the backing for some of the more militaristic and expansionist elements in Israel, and related policies have served to alienate the United States from Middle Eastern states and even traditional European and Asian allies whose cooperation is needed in the struggle against international terrorism. The overemphasis on military means to address complex political, social and economic problems in Iraq, Lebanon and Iran has emboldened extremists and weakened moderate voices and have resulted in a more anarchic international order which makes legitimate counter-terrorism efforts all the more difficult.
Week of August 14-August 20, 2009 (Focus on International Relations):
Anonymous, . "Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Anonymous, . "Peace Negotiations in the Shadow of Violence." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 407.
Anonymous, . "The Peace Process and Palestinian Refugee Claims: Addressing Claims for Property Compensation and Restitution." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 408-409.
Baumgartner, F.. "Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 941-942. Baumgartner reviews Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde by Paul Sonnino.
Brownfeld, A.. "Will American Jewish Leaders Embrace the Netanyahu-Lieberman Regime?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 49-50.
How will the U.S. government - and the leaders of established American Jewish organizations - respond to Mr. Netanyahu's failure to accept Palestinian statehood, which in the past decade has been the anchor of U.S. policy in the region, and which most American Jewish groups have supported? First Egypt, then Jordan rescinded that doctrine.
Cochrane, F., B. Baser, and A. Swain. "Home Thoughts from Abroad: Diasporas and Peace-Building in Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 681.
This article looks at the dynamics of Diaspora groups as a possible catalyst for peace-building within violent segmented societies. With the help of two case studies, Irish-America's role in Northern Ireland and Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora's role in Sri Lanka, it locates the variable impacts of Diaspora involvement in violent conflicts within their homelands. Despite their unique histories and individual complexity, both of these cases illustrate that Diasporas have a significant role to play in peace-building, are diverse rather than homogenous communities, and that they represent an important and often underutilized resource to bring negotiated settlement to violent conflicts.
Cunliffe, P.. "The Politics of Global Governance in UN Peacekeeping." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 323.
This article examines the allocation of roles and responsibilities in the construction of UN peacekeeping. The case is made that decision making in UN peacekeeping is not only fragmented between various states and institutional actors, but also critically lopsided, with an uneven distribution of responsibilities and the majority of political, military and strategic risks falling upon those countries least able to bear them - poor and weak states. States that hold decision-making power are not the states that have to implement those decisions. The article concludes by arguing that this governance structure is not a symptom of organizational dysfunction, but that it serves a political function by allowing influence to be wielded without risk.
Franke, V., and A. Warnecke. "Building peace: an inventory of UN Peace Missions since the end of the Cold War." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 407.
After a brief introduction, this contribution comprises a tabular inventory of the 69 UN peace missions since the end of the Cold War. It highlights the structural features of each mission, the background to crisis and the mission's contributions to security, socio-economic well-being, governance, justice and reconciliation.
Gizelis, T.. "Gender Empowerment and United Nations Peacebuilding." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 505.
Previous studies have suggested that societies where women have higher social and economic status and greater political representation are less likely to become involved in conflict. In this article, the author argues that the prospects for successful post-conflict peacebuilding under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) are generally better in societies where women have greater levels of empowerment. Women's status in a society reflects the existence of multiple social networks and domestic capacity not captured by purely economic measures of development such as GDP per capita. In societies where women have relatively higher status, women have more opportunities to express a voice in the peacemaking process and to elicit broader domestic participation in externally led peacekeeping operations. This higher level of participation in turn implies that UN Peacekeeping operations can tap into great social capital and have better prospects for success. An empirical analysis of post-conflict cases with a high risk of conflict recurrence shows that UN peacekeeping operations have been significantly more effective in societies in which women have relatively higher status. By contrast, UN peacekeeping operations in countries where women have comparatively lower social status are much less likely to succeed.
Höglund, K., and I. Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Sri Lanka has suffered from one of Asia's most intractable civil wars, and is remarkably resistant to resolution. The peace process was initiated with a ceasefire between the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the Sri Lankan Government in 2002. This article explores the implications of the Norwegian mediation on this process. We argue that Norway's aspiration to promote an image of being a global peacemaker and the consent from regional and global powers are important in explaining why Norway became involved. Moreover, the Norwegian mediation approach - based on impartiality, ownership by the two main parties, and internationalization - has had consequences for how the process has unfolded. For instance, it influenced the potential leverage of Norway and conceptions about bias. This article contributes to an understanding of how regional and global processes, as well as mediator characteristics and approaches, influence the dynamics of civil war termination.
Hallward, M.. "Creative Responses to Separation: Israeli and Palestinian Joint Activism in Bil'in." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 541.
This article examines creative ways in which Israeli and Palestinian activists engage with each other and the powers seeking to separate them in their nonviolent struggles for a just and lasting peace. Using the geopolitical theory of territoriality, the article briefly examines a number of administrative, physical, and psychological barriers facing joint activism and the strategies activists use to counteract them. Drawing on nonviolent theory and practice, the article analyzes how activists exert power through the creative use of symbols and practices that undermine the legitimacy of occupation policies. Based on fieldwork conducted in 2004-05 and July 2006, the article explores the implications of this activism on conceptions of identity, and strategies for restarting a moribund peace process. The relative 'success' of sustained joint action in Bil'in can provide scholars and policymakers with innovative approaches for addressing some of the outstanding issues needing to be addressed by official negotiators. Although government bodies are more constrained than activists, the imaginative means of engaging with the system--and the reframing of issues through the redeployment of 'commonplaces'--can perhaps provide inspiration, if not leverage, for thinking outside of the box.
Jensehaugen, J.. "Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace." Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 605. Jensehaugen reviews Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace by Avi Shlaim.
Joyce, A.. "Editor’s Note." Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): III,IV.
The historic accomplishment of the Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, brokered in 1 978 by President Jimmy Carter and a top-flight team headed by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, was still fresh, although Carter had left onice in 1981 under the cloud of the Iranian hostage crisis (see the review of Carter's We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land, page 166). There followed the suicide bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks, the rebuilding of the PLO inside and outside the Occupied Territories, the first intifada, the birth of Hamas, the Iraq war for Kuwait, the Madrid Conference, the Oslo Accords, peace processing (see the review of Martin Indyk's Innocent Abroad, page 164), abortive talks with Syria, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, failure at Camp David II, the Taba talks, the second intifida, 9/11, the second Iraq war, the second Lebanon war, the latest Arab Peace Initiative, and the war on Gaza - to mention only selected high and low points.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
As it redesigns U.S. policy toward Russia, the Obama administration really does need to turn a page rather than simply tinker at the edges. This means setting far more ambitious goals for the U.S.-Russian relationship and devising a strategy to reach them. It means starting a comprehensive strategic dialogue.
Lowicki-Zucca, M., S. Karmin, and K. Dehne. "HIV among Peacekeepers and its Likely Impact on Prevalence on Host Countries' HIV Epidemics." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 352.
Concerns have been expressed with regard to the public health impact of HIV-positive peacekeepers in the countries in which they serve. This article tests three common contentions: (1) that troop contributing countries have higher prevalence than that of the host country; (2) that HIV prevalence of the peacekeeping mission is higher than that of the host country; and (3) that peacekeepers have a large public health impact on the HIV epidemics of the host countries. Using 2008 prevalence data as well as mission information from the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, this article argues against these notions.
Magnani, E.. "United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 1027-1028. Magnani reviews United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004 edited by Mats Berdal and Spyros Economides.
Maoz, I., and C. McCauley. "Threat Perceptions and Feelings as Predictors of Jewish-Israeli Support for Compromise with Palestinians." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 525.
A representative sample of Israeli Jews completed a survey assessing attitudes towards compromise in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Support for compromise was well predicted by a combination of four scales: perception of collective threat from Palestinians, perception of zero-sum relations between Palestinians and Israelis, personal fear of Palestinians, and sympathy towards Palestinians. Feelings of hostility towards Palestinians did not make an independent contribution to this prediction. As hypothesized, respondents who perceived high collective threat and zero-sum relations were much less supportive of making concessions to Palestinians. However, respondents who indicated feeling personal fear were in regression analysis slightly more supportive of compromise. Sympathy toward Palestinians was associated with more support for compromise. Additionally, religiosity was strongly associated with decreased support for compromise. However, entering threat perceptions and sympathy into the equation substantially reduced the predictive value of religiosity, indicating that psychological mechanisms underlie, at least in part, the tendency of more religious respondents to show less support for making concessions to Palestinians.
Masood, E.. "The globe's green avenger." Nature 460, no. 7254 (July 23, 2009): 454-455.
Born into poverty in the Canadian town of Oak Lake, Manitoba, at the start of the Great Depression, he writes in his autobiography Where on Earth are We Going? that his childhood dream was to devote his life to the protection of nature and to work for world peace, having lived through the Second World War and seen its effects on humans and on the environment. There is no point to an agreement, he says, unless it has "binding real penalties, fines and trade bans that are designed to make agreements enforceable", rather like what happens in the World Trade Organization or the International Atomic Energy Agency.\n It has taken nearly four decades for a potential solution to emerge.
Overy, R.. "Parting with Pacifism." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 23-29.
The obvious explanation lies in the perceived threat of German expansion and no doubt this did convince an unquantifiable number of anti-war supporters to reverse their commitment once it was clear that negotiation or appeasement had failed following the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. The more pacifist National Peace Council, the umbrella organisation for a whole number of pacifist and anti-war groups, also accepted that war should not be opposed as such and confined its activities to promoting the idea of a negotiated peace and a better world order to follow.
Peskin, V.. "Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court's Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 655-691.
This article addresses the unfolding pursuit of state cooperation by the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explains that the prosecutor's recent shift from a cautionary to a confrontational pursuit is due to 1) the failure to persuade states to hand over suspects and 2) the lack of international backing for arrests amid the quest for a negotiated peace to ongoing conflicts. The article focuses on the prosecutor's forceful campaign to apprehend rebel leaders from Uganda and government suspects implicated in atrocities in Darfur, including President Bashir of Sudan.
Rodao, F.. "Japan and the Axis, 1937-8: Recognition of the Franco Regime and Manchukuo." Journal of Contemporary History 44, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 431.
After just one year of the Spanish Civil War, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident led to the Sino-Japanese War, both conflicts remaining for two years as daily reminders of the world conflicts of the time. This article attempts to emphasize the importance of the coincidence in time of those conflicts in delimiting each bloc, especially through a decision that was particularly divisive for the Japanese government, such as recognition of Franco's rebel government after the outbreak of the war in China. Efforts by Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki to avoid a decision that would further Japan's pro-Axis drift show the lines of division in the government. His maneuvers progressively failed, including the November 1937 proposal for negotiations to include the recognition of Manchukuo, accepted first by Franco's Spain, later by Italy and finally by the Germans. The article emphasizes the role of Italy in Asia, the reasons for Spanish actions, and the aims of other key persons in this period, such as Prime Minister Konoe, the postwar leader Yoshida Shigeru, or Ishihara Kanji, the officer who masterminded the 1931 invasion of Manchuria.
Scarlett, M.. "Imagining a World beyond Genocide: Teaching about Transitional Justice." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 169-176.
The study of the ways in which societies emerging from violent conflict and repressive regimes achieve peace and reconciliation through forms of transitional justice, such as truth commissions, tribunals, systems of reparations, and memorialization of the past, offers an opportunity for secondary social studies teachers to address issues of human rights in a positive and humanizing way. In this article, the author provides a rationale for including the study of transitional justice in the secondary social studies curriculum along with suggestions for teaching it. He argues that the study of transitional justice presents opportunities for students to become morally inclusive in their thinking, engage in global democratic citizenship, and study critically important current events unfolding in their world.
Stanley, E.. "Ending the Korean War: The Role of Domestic Coalition Shifts in Overcoming Obstacles to Peace." International Security 34, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 42.
Bargaining models of war suggest that war ends after two sides develop an overlapping bargaining space. Domestic mechanisms- domestic governing coalitions, a state's elite foreign policy decisionmaking group, and their role in ending interstate war-are critical in explaining how, when, and why that bargaining space develops. Through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles, wars can become "stuck" and require a change in expectations to produce a war-terminating bargaining space. A major source of such change is a shift in belligerents' governing coalitions. Events in the United States, China, and the Soviet Union during the Korean War illustrate the dynamics of these obstacles and the need for domestic coalition shifts in overcoming them before the conflict could be brought to an end.
Tripodi, C.. ""Good for one but not the other"; The "Sandeman System" of Pacification as Applied to Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier, 1877-1947(1)." The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 767-802.
This article examines the long-running debate over the application of the "Sandeman System" of pacification to the North-West Frontier of British India in 1877-1947. Colonel Sir Robert Sandeman's innovative doctrine of tribal administration had enabled the peaceful spread of British influence across Baluchistan during the late nineteenth century, yet the Government of India subsequently declared his methods inapplicable to the neighboring and perennially turbulent North-West Frontier. This essay seeks to provide a fuller understanding of the reasoning behind the policymakers' opposition to Sandeman's techniques and thus provide clarification of a debate that bedeviled British Frontier policy for over six decades.
Velázquez, A.. "Different Paths and Divergent Policies in the UN Security System: Brazil and Mexico in Comparative Perspective." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 364.
How can we explain foreign policy variation among UN member states? Brazil and Mexico are the most likely cases for international primacy in the UN system, given their territorial dimension, demographic tendencies, economic importance, geopolitical location and relative weight in Latin America. Yet, despite their structural similarities, their policies and behaviour in the UN system have varied, both in terms of engagement with the Security Council and commitment regarding peacekeeping. By comparing two of Latin America's most influential countries, this study identifies the underlying conditions and mechanisms that explain their differences in behaviour and policy in the UN. In particular, this article analyses and contrasts how geopolitics and civil-military relations in Brazil and Mexico affect their incentives to participate in international organizations and their overall international commitment to peace.
Wilén, N.. "Capacity-building or Capacity-taking? Legitimizing Concepts in Peace and Development Operations." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 337.
This article critically analyses capacity-building and local ownership in the context of UN peace operations through interviews with UN staff and NGO representatives in Liberia and Burundi. The argument is that these concepts are left ambiguous and undefined to avoid accountability for peace operations while still functioning as value-adding and legitimizing discursive instruments for the latter. This article proves that the many paradoxes and contradictions surrounding the concepts clearly deter their operation in practice, while their positive connotations remain important, discursively, as legitimizing tools.
Williams, I.. "Nationhood: Ties that Bind, or Free?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 123.
Williams talks about the importance of "nationhood," specifically depicting UN's mediation in these events. He highlights here Kosovo's first anniversary of freedom on Feb 2009 and its critical step toward international recognition of its status as a truly self-governing, self-reliant nation. According to him, these defining moments impel reflection on the question of what independence, sovereignty, and citizenship really mean in today's globalized world.
Wittman, D.. "Bargaining in the Shadow of War: When Is a Peaceful Resolution Most Likely?" American Journal of Political Science 53, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 588-602.
This article derives the optimal bargaining strategies of the belligerents when each side has private but incomplete information about the expected outcome of a war, should it take place. I show that the aggressor's demand curve can be below the defender's offer curve, that wars are possible even when both sides are jointly pessimistic, and that the relative cost of a war can radically alter the types of disputes that end in war. A simple diagram provides the intuition for most of the major propositions.
Week of August 6-August 13, 2009 (Focus on International Relations):
Zunes, S.. "Peace or Pax Americana? US Middle East policy and the threat to global security." International Politics: Special Issue: The Islamic World Between Europe and the 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 573-595.
This paper examines US policy in the greater Middle Eastern region in the aftermath of the September 2001 al-Qaida attacks on the United States. The paper argues that the US Administration had engaged in a series of policy initiatives which have posed a direct challenge to the post-World War II international legal order. The doctrine of preventative war, the invasion and occupation of Iraq, threats against Iran, the aggressive counter-insurgency operations and air campaigns in Afghanistan, the backing for some of the more militaristic and expansionist elements in Israel, and related policies have served to alienate the United States from Middle Eastern states and even traditional European and Asian allies whose cooperation is needed in the struggle against international terrorism. The overemphasis on military means to address complex political, social and economic problems in Iraq, Lebanon and Iran has emboldened extremists and weakened moderate voices and have resulted in a more anarchic international order which makes legitimate counter-terrorism efforts all the more difficult.
Hook, J., E. Worthington, and S. Utsey. "Collectivism, Forgiveness, and Social Harmony." Counseling Psychologist 37, no. 6 (August 1, 2009): 821.
Existing models of forgiveness and the strategies to promote forgiveness that draw from them are predominantly individualistic. As the United States becomes more diverse and counseling psychology becomes a more global field, counseling psychologists are increasingly likely to encounter clients who have a collectivistic worldview. The authors propose a theoretical model that clarifies the relationship between collectivism and forgiveness. The importance of maintaining social harmony in collectivistic cultures is central to this relationship. The model has two propositions. First, collectivistic forgiveness occurs within the broad context of social harmony, reconciliation, and relational repair. Second, collectivistic forgiveness is understood as primarily a decision to forgive but is motivated largely to promote and maintain group harmony rather than inner peace (as is more often the case in individualistically motivated forgiveness). Finally, the authors suggest a research agenda to study collectivistic forgiveness and provide guidelines for addressing forgiveness with collectivistic clients.
Anderson, K.. "United Nations Collective Security and the United States Security Guarantee in an Age of Rising Multipolarity: The Security Council as the Talking Shop of the Nations." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 55-90.
Other institutions are also taking note of the possible shifts and are responding. [...] the recent and quite remarkable European Court of Justice ("ECJ") ruling that, the Charter notwithstanding, the Security Council's resolutions under its binding power are not binding after all and subject to the rulings of institutions such as the ECJ itself.62 One may safely expect that a Security Council more driven by competitive Great Power politics will generate more, and more insistent, legal reconstructions from without, aimed at showing that the Security Council does not have the final juridical word in international peace and security, after all.
Anonymous. "Middle East Peace and Unpleasant Listening." Dialog 48, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 113-115.
Anonymous. "Nanomaterials Risks and Benefits (NATO Science for Peace and Security Studies)." Review. Risk Analysis 29, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1192-1195.
Anonymous. "The Green Zones." Foreign Policy no. 173 (July 1, 2009): 88.
In the cool air-conditioning of the Silverbird Galleria mall in Lagos, Nigeria, it is hard to remember that you are in the 15th-most failed state in the world. The chic coffee shops and designer clothes oddly befit Africa's newest financial hub, where business suits and talk of the latest market returns are ubiquitous. Many such countries have shining capital cities or thriving commercial centers, while festering pockets of instability lurk elsewhere. Somaliland, since declaring autonomy in 1991, has held elections, created a functioning government, and carved out a semblance of peace in a country where anarchy reigns. On the other hand, Sudan is expecting to construct 11,000 luxury apartments and villas before 2013 for the growing ranks of the wealthy.
Anonymous. "What's so funny about peace, love and understanding?" Nature Genetics 41, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 861.
There was much to appreciate at this superb meeting, but in particular, the major research areas illuminated by complementary studies of multiple populations were deafness (Hammadi Ayadi, Mustafa Tekin), cancer (Koulis Yannoukakos, Ephrat Levy-Lahad, Mary-Claire King), neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases (Murat Gunel, Matthew State, Lefkos Middleton) and developmental disorders (Dian Donnai, Han Brunner, Andre Mégarbané, Nurten Akarsu, Aslihan Tolun). Among these tools are a clinical interface for rare diseases (Orphanet, http://www.orpha.net/ ), an EU network of excellence dedicated to harmonizing genetic testing services (EuroGentest, http://www.eurogentest.org/ ) and the regular genetic medicine courses organized by the European Genetics Foundation ( http://www.eurogene.org/ ) that are available to be taken in person or over internet links.
Bachrach, D.. "War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History - Edited by Philip de Souza and John France." Early Medieval Europe 17, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 361-362.
Cavendish, R.. "AUG 1 1259: An Anglo-Welsh truce renewed." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 11.
Welsh independence in the 13th century did not mean separation from England - substantial areas were controlled by English barons - but the preservation of Welsh culture and local self-government in the Welsh heartland, with a native prince topping the feudal pyramid. Edward invaded Wales with overwhelm- ing force and in 1277 Liywelyn was made to accept an ignomin- ious peace treaty and a large fine (which Edward later waived) He was allowed to keep the homage of only five insignifi- cant Welsh lords and, though he retained his Prince of Wales tille, U was now meaningless.
Cronfalk, B., P. Strang, and B. Ternestedt. "Inner power, physical strength and existential well-being in daily life: relatives' experiences of receiving soft tissue massage in palliative home care." Journal of Clinical Nursing 18, no. 15 (August 1, 2009): 2225.
Soft tissue massage gave the relatives' feelings of 'being cared for', 'body vitality' and 'peace of mind'. For a while, they put worries of daily life aside as they just experienced 'being'. During massage, it became apparent that body and mind is constituted of an indestructible completeness. The overarching theme was 'inner power, physical strength and existential well-being in their daily lives'. All relatives experienced soft tissue massage positively, although they were under considerable stress. Soft tissue massage could be an option to comfort and support relatives in palliative home care. In palliative nursing care, soft tissue massage could present a worthy supplement in supporting caring relatives.
Evans, M.. "Moral Responsibilities and the Conflicting Demands of Jus Post Bellum." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 147-164,89.
Brian Orend's influential version of jus post bellum exemplifies this formulation, focusing upon just peace terms and just compensation or reparations, with deeper involvement in a justly occupied state permitted only when what he cans "rehabilitation" is desirable.6 It is a restricted conception because (i) it is largely confined to matters of the ending and immediate aftermath of a just war; and (2) it focuses on the rights of just combatants, whereas their responsibilities are apparently...
Hollywood, A.. "Saint Paul and the New Man." Critical Inquiry 35, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 865.
According to many passages in the Hebrew Bible and in postbiblical Jewish literature, when God establishes his kingdom, Gentiles will come to Israel to worship him. In one of the most famous of these passages, the eighth-century Isaiah looks forward to a time of universal salvation and peace. Here, Hollywood emphasizes that this promise and ones like it provide the context in which Paul and other early followers of Christ believed that Christ and his message were meant not only for Jews but also for Gentiles.
Horner, D.. "S. Korean Pyroprocessing Awaits U.S. Decision." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 33-34.
In a rare public statement on the issue in May 2008 at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, Carter "Buzz" Savage, director of fuel cycle research and development in the Department of Energy, said pyroprocessing "obviously" is reprocessing if one carries out "the full flow sheet," the sequence of activities followed in the process. Sen. Richard Lugar (R-Ind.), the Foreign Relations Committee's ranking member, appeared to be seeking information on that point when he posed a written question to Rep. Ellen Tauscher (D-Calif.), as part of her confirmation process to be undersecretary of state for arms control and international security (see page 37).
House, J.. "The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Origins, Planning, and Crisis Management, June 1987-December 1989." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 145-146.
The Goldwater- Nichols Act of 1986 was intended to reduce misunderstandings and increase the integration of the military services, but Panama came to a head before that act was fully implemented. [...] Woerner and Thurman had to deal with a host of issues involving friction between the services.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
As it redesigns U.S. policy toward Russia, the Obama administration really does need to turn a page rather than simply tinker at the edges. This means setting far more ambitious goals for the U.S.-Russian relationship and devising a strategy to reach them. It means starting a comprehensive strategic dialogue.
Mirra, H.. "Project Statement." Critical Inquiry 35, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 1019.
Mirra shares that for a few years she had been writing indexes, attempting to turn the form into a kind of poetry. Here, she features her newest project, where she wrote indexes for two books by authors closely connected to the histories of the University of Chicago and the city of Chicago: John Dewey's Experience and Nature (1925) and Jane Addams's Newer Ideals of Peace (1907). According to her, both writers were motivated by a progressive, politically committed community engagement, and they each realized far-reaching experiments coordinating various forms of knowledge.
Overy, R.. "Parting with Pacifism." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 23-29.
The obvious explanation lies in the perceived threat of German expansion and no doubt this did convince an unquantifiable number of anti-war supporters to reverse their commitment once it was clear that negotiation or appeasement had failed following the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. The more pacifist National Peace Council, the umbrella organisation for a whole number of pacifist and anti-war groups, also accepted that war should not be opposed as such and confined its activities to promoting the idea of a negotiated peace and a better world order to follow.
Rahman, S., P. Junankar, and G. Mallik. "Factors influencing women's empowerment on microcredit borrowers: a case study in Bangladesh." Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 14, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 287.
Women's empowerment in relation to microcredit programmes is a prominent issue in the literature of microcredit. Not only the founder of the Grameen Bank is awarded the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize on the microcredit programme of Bangladesh but it has also been a topic of great interest to researchers since its introduction in mid-1970s. This study views women's empowerment from an emancipation perspective. The study uses quasi-experimental approach to compare women's empowerment between microcredit borrowers and non-borrowers. Using control-group method (non-borrowers from non-programme villages), this study identifies factors that influence women's empowerment. It also examines the impact on women's empowerment of borrowers having different levels of income. Results show that non-borrowers are equally empowered as microcredit borrowers. It has also been found that age and education levels of women are significant factors in such an empowerment.
Scalion, S.. "The Conservative Lobby and Nixon's "Peace with Honor" in Vietnam." Journal of American Studies 43, no. 2 (August 1, 2009): 255-276.
This essay explores the responses of conservative political activists to the Nixon administration's policy of "peace with honor" in Vietnam. Conservatives sought to influence the administration by acceptance of Vietnamization, a policy they interpreted as affording a more conventional prosecution of the war, and by pushing for increased aerial bombardment of North Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Divisions over the efficacy of détente derailed a unified conservative position on Vietnam and forced reassessments of the legitimacy of Nixon's promise of "peace with honor." While highlighting the basic premises of conservative foreign policy during the late 1960s, this essay explores the means by which conservative leaders attempted to forge consensus regarding the Vietnam War and the impact of increased political power on the conservative movement's foreign-policy priorities.
Sabl, A.. "The Last Artificial Virtue: Hume on Toleration and Its Lessons." Political Theory 37, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 511.
David flume's position on religion is, broadly speaking, "politic": instrumental and consequentialist. Religions should be tolerated or not according to their effects on political peace and order. Such theories of toleration are often rejected as immoral or unstable. The reading provided here responds by reading flume's position as one of radically indirect consequentialism. While religious policy should serve consequentialist ends, making direct reference to those ends merely gives free reign to religious-political bigotry and faction. Toleration, like Hume's other "artificial virtues" (justice, fidelity to promises, allegiance to government), is a universally useful response to our universal partiality--as Established uniformity, however tempting, is not. This implies that toleration can progress through political learning, becoming broader and more constitutionally established overtime. A sophisticated Humean approach thus shares the stability and nonnative attractiveness of respect- or rights- based arguments while responding more acutely and flexibly to problems the former often slights: antinomian religious extremism; underdefined political agency; and internationalized, politicized religious movements.
Sandole, D.. "Turkey's unique role in nipping in the bud the 'clash of civilizations'." International Politics 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 636-655.
This paper focuses on Turkey, a Muslim (but secular) country located culturally and geographically in, and between, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. It has a well-embedded Jewish community, enjoys a strong positive relationship with the State of Israel and is a long-term member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Turkey has also been negotiating entry into the European Union, the pre-eminent example of the Kantian system of 'perpetual peace.' The paper addresses these and other aspects of Turkey's complex identity, exploring their implications for 'civilizational' peace, security and stability regionally and worldwide. The paper contributes, therefore, to the discussion on the complex relationship between Islam and the West by framing Turkey as uniquely well positioned to undermine and perhaps even reverse self-fulfilling, post-9/11 trajectories toward a full-blown 'clash of civilizations.'
Schwartz, T.. "Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969-1977." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 143-144.
The first section opens with Jussi Hanhimäki's essay, which makes clear that Nixon began his administration with a vision of creating a "structure of peace" through a "grand design" for American foreign policy, a realist design that would emphasize American national interests with a "healthy" sense of the "limits of American power" (42). Thomas Zeiler's discussion of Nixon's tough tactics toward Japan on economic issues acknowledges the domestic politics involved but gives Nixon credit for recognizing the future trends of the world economy and America's new position within it.
Stanley, E.. "Ending the Korean War: The Role of Domestic Coalition Shifts in Overcoming Obstacles to Peace." International Security 34, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 42.
Bargaining models of war suggest that war ends after two sides develop an overlapping bargaining space. Domestic mechanisms- domestic governing coalitions, a state's elite foreign policy decisionmaking group, and their role in ending interstate war-are critical in explaining how, when, and why that bargaining space develops. Through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles, wars can become "stuck" and require a change in expectations to produce a war-terminating bargaining space. A major source of such change is a shift in belligerents' governing coalitions. Events in the United States, China, and the Soviet Union during the Korean War illustrate the dynamics of these obstacles and the need for domestic coalition shifts in overcoming them before the conflict could be brought to an end.
Waghid, Y.. "Patriotism and Democratic Citizenship Education in South Africa: On the (im) possibility of reconciliation and nation building." Educational Philosophy and Theory 41, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-409.
In this article, I shall evaluate critically the democratic citizenship education project in South Africa to ascertain whether the patriotic sentiments expressed in the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) are in conflict with the achievement of reconciliation and nation building (specifically peace and friendship) after decades of apartheid rule. My first argument is that, although it seems as if the teaching of patriotism through the Department of Education's democratic citizenship agenda in South African schools is a laudable initiative that can contribute toward establishing a definitive break with our apartheid past, the expression of blind patriotic sentiments (such as pledging allegiance to one's country and its citizens only) as articulated in the Manifesto can potentially marginalise others (immigrant communities) as the country endeavours to build its fledgling democracy. My second argument is that the intended democratic form of patriotism of the Department of Education can possibly be undermined by cultivating a culture of 'safe expression', which could slow down the country's quest for reconciliation and nation building.
Whitehead, D.. "Teacher, Where Are You?" Childhood Education 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 242B.
The Quest for Power and the Search for Peace, author Sean Kay points out that teacher absenteeism is a growing problem that, ultimately, can even contribute to upsetting the delicate balance of global security. The growing teacher shortage around the world makes it vital to guarantee that individuals who have already made an earnest commitment to the profession of educating children remain present and available.
Wilson, P.. "Who Won the Thirty Years’ War?" History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 12-19.
Dame Veronica Wedgwood concluded her celebrated account of the Thirty Years War, first published in 1938, by claiming it 'solved no problem' and was 'the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict.' The voting procedure in the imperial diet and other institutions was changed to protect Protestants from the in-built Catholic majority where the agenda touched matters of religion.
Yanez, B., D. Edmondson, A. Stanton, C. Park, L. Kwan, P. Ganz, and T. Blank. "Facets of Spirituality as Predictors of Adjustment to Cancer: Relative Contributions of Having Faith and Finding Meaning." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 77, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 730.
Spirituality is a multidimensional construct, and little is known about how its distinct dimensions jointly affect well-being. In longitudinal studies (Study 1, n = 418 breast cancer patients; Study 2, n = 165 cancer survivors), the authors examined 2 components of spiritual well-being (i.e., meaning/peace and faith) and their interaction, as well as change scores on those variables, as predictors of psychological adjustment. In Study 1, higher baseline meaning/peace, as well as an increase in meaning/peace over 6 months, predicted a decline in depressive symptoms and an increase in vitality across 12 months in breast cancer patients. Baseline faith predicted an increase in perceived cancer-related growth. Study 2 revealed that an increase in meaning/peace was related to improved mental health and lower cancer-related distress. An increase in faith was related to increased cancer-related growth. Both studies revealed significant interactions between meaning/peace and faith in predicting adjustment. Findings suggest that the ability to find meaning and peace in life is the more influential contributor to favorable adjustment during cancer survivorship, although faith appears to be uniquely related to perceived cancer-related growth.
Anonymous, . "Muslim-American Activism." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 53-56.
According to HaUm Rane of Australia's Griffith University, religion has never played a positive role in the Holy Land. Delinda C. Hanley Future Prospects for Islam and Democracy A CSID luncheon speech by Ahmed Shaheed, rninister of foreign affairs for the Republic of Maldives, focused on his conservative, mostly Muslim country's recent peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy. Pat McDonnell Twair Muslims Unite to Oppose FBI Abuse Following an April 19 meeting in Washington, DC, the American Muslim Taskforce on Civil Rights and Elections (AMT), a national coalition of major Islamic organizations, issued a statement re-affirming its opposition to FBI tactics and government policies targeting the Muslim community.
Anonymous, . "Peace Negotiations in the Shadow of Violence." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 407.
Anonymous, . "The Peace Process and Palestinian Refugee Claims: Addressing Claims for Property Compensation and Restitution." Negotiation Journal 25, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 408-409.
Baumgartner, F.. "Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 941-942. Baumgartner reviews Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde by Paul Sonnino.
Brownfeld, A.. "Will American Jewish Leaders Embrace the Netanyahu-Lieberman Regime?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 49-50.
How will the U.S. government - and the leaders of established American Jewish organizations - respond to Mr. Netanyahu's failure to accept Palestinian statehood, which in the past decade has been the anchor of U.S. policy in the region, and which most American Jewish groups have supported? First Egypt, then Jordan rescinded that doctrine.
Cochrane, F., B. Baser, and A. Swain. "Home Thoughts from Abroad: Diasporas and Peace-Building in Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 681.
This article looks at the dynamics of Diaspora groups as a possible catalyst for peace-building within violent segmented societies. With the help of two case studies, Irish-America's role in Northern Ireland and Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora's role in Sri Lanka, it locates the variable impacts of Diaspora involvement in violent conflicts within their homelands. Despite their unique histories and individual complexity, both of these cases illustrate that Diasporas have a significant role to play in peace-building, are diverse rather than homogenous communities, and that they represent an important and often underutilized resource to bring negotiated settlement to violent conflicts.
Cunliffe, P.. "The Politics of Global Governance in UN Peacekeeping." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 323.
This article examines the allocation of roles and responsibilities in the construction of UN peacekeeping. The case is made that decision making in UN peacekeeping is not only fragmented between various states and institutional actors, but also critically lopsided, with an uneven distribution of responsibilities and the majority of political, military and strategic risks falling upon those countries least able to bear them - poor and weak states. States that hold decision-making power are not the states that have to implement those decisions. The article concludes by arguing that this governance structure is not a symptom of organizational dysfunction, but that it serves a political function by allowing influence to be wielded without risk.
Franke, V., and A. Warnecke. "Building peace: an inventory of UN Peace Missions since the end of the Cold War." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 407.
After a brief introduction, this contribution comprises a tabular inventory of the 69 UN peace missions since the end of the Cold War. It highlights the structural features of each mission, the background to crisis and the mission's contributions to security, socio-economic well-being, governance, justice and reconciliation.
Gizelis, T.. "Gender Empowerment and United Nations Peacebuilding." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 505.
Previous studies have suggested that societies where women have higher social and economic status and greater political representation are less likely to become involved in conflict. In this article, the author argues that the prospects for successful post-conflict peacebuilding under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) are generally better in societies where women have greater levels of empowerment. Women's status in a society reflects the existence of multiple social networks and domestic capacity not captured by purely economic measures of development such as GDP per capita. In societies where women have relatively higher status, women have more opportunities to express a voice in the peacemaking process and to elicit broader domestic participation in externally led peacekeeping operations. This higher level of participation in turn implies that UN Peacekeeping operations can tap into great social capital and have better prospects for success. An empirical analysis of post-conflict cases with a high risk of conflict recurrence shows that UN peacekeeping operations have been significantly more effective in societies in which women have relatively higher status. By contrast, UN peacekeeping operations in countries where women have comparatively lower social status are much less likely to succeed.
Höglund, K., and I. Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Sri Lanka has suffered from one of Asia's most intractable civil wars, and is remarkably resistant to resolution. The peace process was initiated with a ceasefire between the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the Sri Lankan Government in 2002. This article explores the implications of the Norwegian mediation on this process. We argue that Norway's aspiration to promote an image of being a global peacemaker and the consent from regional and global powers are important in explaining why Norway became involved. Moreover, the Norwegian mediation approach - based on impartiality, ownership by the two main parties, and internationalization - has had consequences for how the process has unfolded. For instance, it influenced the potential leverage of Norway and conceptions about bias. This article contributes to an understanding of how regional and global processes, as well as mediator characteristics and approaches, influence the dynamics of civil war termination.
Hallward, M.. "Creative Responses to Separation: Israeli and Palestinian Joint Activism in Bil'in." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 541.
This article examines creative ways in which Israeli and Palestinian activists engage with each other and the powers seeking to separate them in their nonviolent struggles for a just and lasting peace. Using the geopolitical theory of territoriality, the article briefly examines a number of administrative, physical, and psychological barriers facing joint activism and the strategies activists use to counteract them. Drawing on nonviolent theory and practice, the article analyzes how activists exert power through the creative use of symbols and practices that undermine the legitimacy of occupation policies. Based on fieldwork conducted in 2004-05 and July 2006, the article explores the implications of this activism on conceptions of identity, and strategies for restarting a moribund peace process. The relative 'success' of sustained joint action in Bil'in can provide scholars and policymakers with innovative approaches for addressing some of the outstanding issues needing to be addressed by official negotiators. Although government bodies are more constrained than activists, the imaginative means of engaging with the system--and the reframing of issues through the redeployment of 'commonplaces'--can perhaps provide inspiration, if not leverage, for thinking outside of the box.
Jensehaugen, J.. "Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace." Review. Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 605. Jensehaugen reviews Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace by Avi Shlaim.
Joyce, A.. "Editor’s Note." Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): III,IV.
The historic accomplishment of the Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, brokered in 1 978 by President Jimmy Carter and a top-flight team headed by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, was still fresh, although Carter had left onice in 1981 under the cloud of the Iranian hostage crisis (see the review of Carter's We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land, page 166). There followed the suicide bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks, the rebuilding of the PLO inside and outside the Occupied Territories, the first intifada, the birth of Hamas, the Iraq war for Kuwait, the Madrid Conference, the Oslo Accords, peace processing (see the review of Martin Indyk's Innocent Abroad, page 164), abortive talks with Syria, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, failure at Camp David II, the Taba talks, the second intifida, 9/11, the second Iraq war, the second Lebanon war, the latest Arab Peace Initiative, and the war on Gaza - to mention only selected high and low points.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
As it redesigns U.S. policy toward Russia, the Obama administration really does need to turn a page rather than simply tinker at the edges. This means setting far more ambitious goals for the U.S.-Russian relationship and devising a strategy to reach them. It means starting a comprehensive strategic dialogue.
Lowicki-Zucca, M., S. Karmin, and K. Dehne. "HIV among Peacekeepers and its Likely Impact on Prevalence on Host Countries' HIV Epidemics." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 352.
Concerns have been expressed with regard to the public health impact of HIV-positive peacekeepers in the countries in which they serve. This article tests three common contentions: (1) that troop contributing countries have higher prevalence than that of the host country; (2) that HIV prevalence of the peacekeeping mission is higher than that of the host country; and (3) that peacekeepers have a large public health impact on the HIV epidemics of the host countries. Using 2008 prevalence data as well as mission information from the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, this article argues against these notions.
Magnani, E.. "United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004." Review. The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 1027-1028. Magnani reviews United Nations Interventionism 1991-2004 edited by Mats Berdal and Spyros Economides.
Maoz, I., and C. McCauley. "Threat Perceptions and Feelings as Predictors of Jewish-Israeli Support for Compromise with Palestinians." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 525.
A representative sample of Israeli Jews completed a survey assessing attitudes towards compromise in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Support for compromise was well predicted by a combination of four scales: perception of collective threat from Palestinians, perception of zero-sum relations between Palestinians and Israelis, personal fear of Palestinians, and sympathy towards Palestinians. Feelings of hostility towards Palestinians did not make an independent contribution to this prediction. As hypothesized, respondents who perceived high collective threat and zero-sum relations were much less supportive of making concessions to Palestinians. However, respondents who indicated feeling personal fear were in regression analysis slightly more supportive of compromise. Sympathy toward Palestinians was associated with more support for compromise. Additionally, religiosity was strongly associated with decreased support for compromise. However, entering threat perceptions and sympathy into the equation substantially reduced the predictive value of religiosity, indicating that psychological mechanisms underlie, at least in part, the tendency of more religious respondents to show less support for making concessions to Palestinians.
Masood, E.. "The globe's green avenger." Nature 460, no. 7254 (July 23, 2009): 454-455.
Born into poverty in the Canadian town of Oak Lake, Manitoba, at the start of the Great Depression, he writes in his autobiography Where on Earth are We Going? that his childhood dream was to devote his life to the protection of nature and to work for world peace, having lived through the Second World War and seen its effects on humans and on the environment. There is no point to an agreement, he says, unless it has "binding real penalties, fines and trade bans that are designed to make agreements enforceable", rather like what happens in the World Trade Organization or the International Atomic Energy Agency.\n It has taken nearly four decades for a potential solution to emerge.
Overy, R.. "Parting with Pacifism." History Today 59, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 23-29.
The obvious explanation lies in the perceived threat of German expansion and no doubt this did convince an unquantifiable number of anti-war supporters to reverse their commitment once it was clear that negotiation or appeasement had failed following the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. The more pacifist National Peace Council, the umbrella organisation for a whole number of pacifist and anti-war groups, also accepted that war should not be opposed as such and confined its activities to promoting the idea of a negotiated peace and a better world order to follow.
Peskin, V.. "Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court's Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan." Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 655-691.
This article addresses the unfolding pursuit of state cooperation by the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explains that the prosecutor's recent shift from a cautionary to a confrontational pursuit is due to 1) the failure to persuade states to hand over suspects and 2) the lack of international backing for arrests amid the quest for a negotiated peace to ongoing conflicts. The article focuses on the prosecutor's forceful campaign to apprehend rebel leaders from Uganda and government suspects implicated in atrocities in Darfur, including President Bashir of Sudan.
Rodao, F.. "Japan and the Axis, 1937-8: Recognition of the Franco Regime and Manchukuo." Journal of Contemporary History 44, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 431.
After just one year of the Spanish Civil War, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident led to the Sino-Japanese War, both conflicts remaining for two years as daily reminders of the world conflicts of the time. This article attempts to emphasize the importance of the coincidence in time of those conflicts in delimiting each bloc, especially through a decision that was particularly divisive for the Japanese government, such as recognition of Franco's rebel government after the outbreak of the war in China. Efforts by Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki to avoid a decision that would further Japan's pro-Axis drift show the lines of division in the government. His maneuvers progressively failed, including the November 1937 proposal for negotiations to include the recognition of Manchukuo, accepted first by Franco's Spain, later by Italy and finally by the Germans. The article emphasizes the role of Italy in Asia, the reasons for Spanish actions, and the aims of other key persons in this period, such as Prime Minister Konoe, the postwar leader Yoshida Shigeru, or Ishihara Kanji, the officer who masterminded the 1931 invasion of Manchuria.
Scarlett, M.. "Imagining a World beyond Genocide: Teaching about Transitional Justice." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 169-176.
The study of the ways in which societies emerging from violent conflict and repressive regimes achieve peace and reconciliation through forms of transitional justice, such as truth commissions, tribunals, systems of reparations, and memorialization of the past, offers an opportunity for secondary social studies teachers to address issues of human rights in a positive and humanizing way. In this article, the author provides a rationale for including the study of transitional justice in the secondary social studies curriculum along with suggestions for teaching it. He argues that the study of transitional justice presents opportunities for students to become morally inclusive in their thinking, engage in global democratic citizenship, and study critically important current events unfolding in their world.
Stanley, E.. "Ending the Korean War: The Role of Domestic Coalition Shifts in Overcoming Obstacles to Peace." International Security 34, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 42.
Bargaining models of war suggest that war ends after two sides develop an overlapping bargaining space. Domestic mechanisms- domestic governing coalitions, a state's elite foreign policy decisionmaking group, and their role in ending interstate war-are critical in explaining how, when, and why that bargaining space develops. Through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles, wars can become "stuck" and require a change in expectations to produce a war-terminating bargaining space. A major source of such change is a shift in belligerents' governing coalitions. Events in the United States, China, and the Soviet Union during the Korean War illustrate the dynamics of these obstacles and the need for domestic coalition shifts in overcoming them before the conflict could be brought to an end.
Tripodi, C.. ""Good for one but not the other"; The "Sandeman System" of Pacification as Applied to Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier, 1877-1947(1)." The Journal of Military History 73, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 767-802.
This article examines the long-running debate over the application of the "Sandeman System" of pacification to the North-West Frontier of British India in 1877-1947. Colonel Sir Robert Sandeman's innovative doctrine of tribal administration had enabled the peaceful spread of British influence across Baluchistan during the late nineteenth century, yet the Government of India subsequently declared his methods inapplicable to the neighboring and perennially turbulent North-West Frontier. This essay seeks to provide a fuller understanding of the reasoning behind the policymakers' opposition to Sandeman's techniques and thus provide clarification of a debate that bedeviled British Frontier policy for over six decades.
Velázquez, A.. "Different Paths and Divergent Policies in the UN Security System: Brazil and Mexico in Comparative Perspective." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 364.
How can we explain foreign policy variation among UN member states? Brazil and Mexico are the most likely cases for international primacy in the UN system, given their territorial dimension, demographic tendencies, economic importance, geopolitical location and relative weight in Latin America. Yet, despite their structural similarities, their policies and behaviour in the UN system have varied, both in terms of engagement with the Security Council and commitment regarding peacekeeping. By comparing two of Latin America's most influential countries, this study identifies the underlying conditions and mechanisms that explain their differences in behaviour and policy in the UN. In particular, this article analyses and contrasts how geopolitics and civil-military relations in Brazil and Mexico affect their incentives to participate in international organizations and their overall international commitment to peace.
Wilén, N.. "Capacity-building or Capacity-taking? Legitimizing Concepts in Peace and Development Operations." International Peacekeeping 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 337.
This article critically analyses capacity-building and local ownership in the context of UN peace operations through interviews with UN staff and NGO representatives in Liberia and Burundi. The argument is that these concepts are left ambiguous and undefined to avoid accountability for peace operations while still functioning as value-adding and legitimizing discursive instruments for the latter. This article proves that the many paradoxes and contradictions surrounding the concepts clearly deter their operation in practice, while their positive connotations remain important, discursively, as legitimizing tools.
Williams, I.. "Nationhood: Ties that Bind, or Free?" World Policy Journal 26, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 123.
Williams talks about the importance of "nationhood," specifically depicting UN's mediation in these events. He highlights here Kosovo's first anniversary of freedom on Feb 2009 and its critical step toward international recognition of its status as a truly self-governing, self-reliant nation. According to him, these defining moments impel reflection on the question of what independence, sovereignty, and citizenship really mean in today's globalized world.
Wittman, D.. "Bargaining in the Shadow of War: When Is a Peaceful Resolution Most Likely?" American Journal of Political Science 53, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 588-602.
This article derives the optimal bargaining strategies of the belligerents when each side has private but incomplete information about the expected outcome of a war, should it take place. I show that the aggressor's demand curve can be below the defender's offer curve, that wars are possible even when both sides are jointly pessimistic, and that the relative cost of a war can radically alter the types of disputes that end in war. A simple diagram provides the intuition for most of the major propositions.
Week of July 30-August 6, 2009 (Focus on International Relations):
Abebe, D.. "Great Power Politics and the Structure of Foreign Relations Law." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 125-141.
The executive must account for the interests of competing great powers and internalize the costs that those competing great powers could impose. [...] extant internal constraints from foreign relations law are supported by the strength of external constraints from great power politics. [...] it might be preferable for courts to engage in an explicit discussion of international politics as they resolve some foreign relations law questions.
Stephan, P.. "Symmetry and Selectivity: What Happens in International Law When the World Changes." Chicago Journal of International Law 10, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 91-123.
Develops an informal model of asymmetry in interstate relations that assumes rational state actors and iterative interactions among these actors. [...] changes in the structure of international relations have a clearly observable effect on international law.
Frost, M.. "Ethical Competence in International Relations." Ethics & International Affairs 23, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 91-100,89.
In August 2008, Georgian troops attacked and occupied South Ossetia. The action was presented by Georgia in ethical language - not as a grab for power, but as an ethically justifiable response by the government of a sovereign state to prior attempts by South Ossetia to use military force to expel Georgians from the territory. This attempt at forcible removal, the Georgian claim went, was made with a view to subsequent secession by South Ossetia.
Åslund, A.. "Ukraine's Financial Crisis, 2009." Eurasian Geogphy and Economics 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 371.
A prominent specialist in the economic affairs of the former Soviet Union relates and analyzes the state of Ukraine's economy in light of a series of discussions and interviews with the country's Prime Minister and leading economic officials in Kyiv in 2008 and April 2009. The author, a former economic advisor to the country's government and co-chair of the UN's Blue Ribbon Commission for Ukraine, devotes this paper to a penetrating analysis of the impact of the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 on Ukraine's budget, banks, exchange rates, money supply, industrial sectors (particularly energy and steel), GDP, and inflationary pressures. Due attention is given to economic relations with the EU and Russia as well as to financial assistance from the IMF.
Andres, A.. "Colonial Crisis and Spanish Diplomacy in the Caribbean During the Sexenio Revolucionario, 1868-1874." Bulletin of Latin American Research 28, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 325-342.
During the nineteenth century, the Caribbean was the stage for a complex geopolitical confrontation involving the United States, Spain, Great Britain, and France. The precarious balance of powers in that region was upset by the outbreak of the Cuban crisis in 1868 and by the dawn of the period of severe instability in Spain following the overthrow of Isabel II and the onset of the reformist period characterised by the Sexenio Revolucionario. The Cuban crisis strongly constrained the foreign policy of the new regime in Spain and turned the Caribbean Basin into a zone of vital interest for Spanish diplomacy.
Buckel, S., and A. Fischer-Lescano. "Gramsci Reconsidered: Hegemony in Global Law." Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 437-454.
This article focuses on Antonio Gramsci's hegemony theory. Hegemony, for Gramsci, is a particular way of living and thinking, a Weltanschauung (world-view), on which the preferences, taste, morality, ethics, and philosophical principles of the majority are based. Social struggles are transformed into legal ones in the course of processes in which juridical intellectuals are organizing hegemony under the special conditions of the legal system. We try to use this concept to contrast it with the prevailing readings of hegemony in international relations and in international law. 'Hegemonic law', we argue, is not the law of any superpower, but an asymmetric consensus which relies on a climate of world-society-wide recognition. The concrete form of hegemonic law under particular social conditions depends on the 'historical bloc', in which it is coupled with other social praxes. In the post-Westphalian system the historical bloc is fragmented into transnational and colliding legal regimes and law-generating processes in civil society.
Buzzini, G.. "Lights and Shadows of Immunities and Inviolability of State Officials in International Law: Some Comments on the Djibouti v. France Case." Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 455-483.
This article examines the reasoning and findings of the International Court of Justice in its judgment in Djibouti v. France on issues pertaining to the immunities and inviolability of state officials. While recognizing the Court's contribution to the clarification of certain aspects of the legal regime of the immunities and inviolability of state officials, the article emphasizes a number of points on which a clear response cannot be found in the judgment. Moreover, some concerns or doubts are raised about the way in which the Court dealt with certain issues regarding, in particular, the classification of immunities, their scope, their implementation, and the acts precluded by their operation. The Court's judgment clearly shows the complexities surrounding the legal treatment of numerous aspects of a topic which continues to be of the highest importance and sensitivity in international law and international relations.
Berik, G., Y. Rodgers, and S. Seguino. "Feminist Economics of Inequality, Development, and Growth." Feminist Economics 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 1.
This study examines connections between intergroup inequality and macroeconomic outcomes, considering various channels through which gender, growth, and development interact. It upholds the salience not only of equality in opportunities but also equality in outcomes. The contribution argues that inequalities based on gender, race, ethnicity, and class undermine the ability to provision and expand capabilities, and it examines the macroeconomic policies that are likely to promote broadly shared development. It explores how the macroeconomy acts as a structure of constraint in achieving gender equality and in turn how gender relations in areas like education and wage gaps can have macro-level impacts. Further, it underscores that the interaction of the macroeconomy and gender relations depends on the structure of the economy, the nature of job segregation, the particular measure of gender inequality, and a country's international relations. Finally, it outlines policies for promoting gender equality as both an intrinsic goal and a step toward improving well-being.
Bonkiewicz, L., A. Frost, S. Koon-Magnin, K. McIntosh, L. Rosell, R. Simon, and C. Tucker. "Security Disarmed: Critical Perspectives on Gender, Race, and Militarization." Review. Contemporary Sociology 38, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 386-387.
The editors define militarization as "how societies become dependent on and imbued by the logic of military institutions, in ways that permeate language, popular culture, economic priorities, education systems, government policies, and national values and identities" (p.4), and militarization is critically examined with an eye to bringing about a more peaceful society.
Boyce, R.. "That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 548.
Chan, . "The Legal Status of Taiwan and the Legality of the Use of Force in a Cross-Taiwan Strait Conflict." Chinese Journal of International Law 8, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 455-492.
The legal status of Taiwan remains one of the most important concerns in international relations, as the continual political tensions have the potential of generating armed conflicts, not only across the Taiwan Strait but also between the People's Republic of China government and the United States, and of destabilizing the security in the Asia-Pacific region and the international community. This article examines on the basis of international law whether Taiwan has a valid claim to statehood. The implications of relevant peace treaties, the issue of foreign recognition of States and governments, the nature and extent of the right to self-determination, and the permissibility of the use of force under the right of self-defense and the notion of humanitarian intervention in relation to the Taiwan question are discussed.
Chotiner, B.. "Inside the Soviet Alternate Universe: The Cold War's End and the Soviet Union's Fall Reappraised." Review. Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1134.
Cruz, J.. "The Invention of Spain: Cultural Relations between Britain and Spain, 1770-1870." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 534.
Genna, G.. "Positive country images, trust and public support for European integration." Comparative European Politics 7, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 213-232.
In this paper I contribute to the scholarship on public support for European integration by arguing that member-states' positive images influence individuals' support decisions. An attribute of this positive image is trust, which individuals utilize given the complexity of the integration process, the salient impact it has on their lives and the low levels of information individuals possess. The use of a member-state's image is therefore a short-cut to evaluate integration's impact on individuals. As the development of integration is strongly influenced by the relatively more economically powerful member-state, trust in Germany increases the level of support, more so than trusting the remaining members.
Giustino, C.. "Czechoslovakia in a Nationalist and Fascist Europe, 1918-1948." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 525.
Harvey, C.. "Russia Vetoes UN Mission in Georgia." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 43-44.
Russia voted against extending the mandate of the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) in the Security Council June 15, scuttling a last-minute effort to renew the mission's mandate and dealing another blow to the already strained Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty. Addressing the Security Council after the vote last month, Rosemary DiCarlo, the U.S. alternative representative for special political affairs at the UN, said the United States "deeply regrets" the failure to extend the UNOMIG mandate and stressed the importance of a UN presence in Georgia.
Kearney, G.. "Demanding times ahead." Australian Nursing Journal 17, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 56.
Delegates set policies that would help unions And a way through the next few years, through the financial crisis and beyond into economic stability. What is wrong with having any alleged incidents dealt with by existing laws; one law for all? A construction worker addressed the congress and explained he is facing a jail sentence after he attended a stop work meeting to elect a safety representative on an unsafe building site.
Kimball, D.. "Toward a Nuclear Freeze in South Asia." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 3.
If not for intensive U.S.led crisis diplomacy, that standoff and another in 2002 could have led to war between the two nuclear-armed rivals. [...] Indian and Pakistani nuclear and missile stockpiles have grown even larger, and the underlying conditions for conflict still persist.
Mead, W.. "A Hegemon's Coming of Age." Review. Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 138-0_9.
Michels, E. "A Stranger in Paris: Germany's Role in Republican France, 1870-1940." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 541.
Pons, S.. "Western Communists, Mikhail Gorbachev and the 1989 Revolutions." Contemporary European History: Revisiting 1989: Causes, Course and Consequences 18, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 349-362.
Western communists reflected two opposing responses to the final crisis of communism that had matured over time. The French communists represented a conservative response increasingly hostile to Gorbachev's perestroika, while the Italians were supporters of a reformist response in tune with his call for change. Thus Gorbachev was the chief reference, positive or negative, against which Western communists measured their own politics and identity. In 1989 the French aligned with the conservative communist leaderships of eastern Europe, and ended up opposing Gorbachev after the collapse of the Berlin Wall. Accordingly, the PCF became a residual entity of traditional communism. On the other hand, the Italian communists agreed with all Gorbachev's choices, and to some extent they even inspired his radical evolution. But they also shared Gorbachev's illusions, including the idea that the fall of the Berlin Wall would produce a renewal of socialism in Europe. Unlike the PCF, the PCI was able to undertake change in the aftermath of the 1989 revolutions, thus standing as a significant 'post-communist' force. However, if conservative communism was destined to become marginal, reform communism also failed in its objective of renewing the Soviet system and the communist political culture
Pifer, S.. "Ukraine's Geopolitical Choice, 2009." Eurasian Geography and Economics 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 387.
A noted specialist in international affairs and former U.S. ambassador to Ukraine reviews and analyzes the history of independent Ukraine's relations with Russia and the West following the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The author proceeds to examine the multifaceted Western position toward Kyiv as it has evolved through June 2009, paying due attention to the European Union and NATO. He then discusses the factors contributing to the volatility of Ukrainian-Russian relations following the Orange Revolution of 2004, including a range of specific concerns as well as more general Russian desires for a compliant government that would pay deference to key Russian interests. Concluding sections focus on Ukraine's future geopolitical trajectory in the run-up to the country's presidential elections in early 2010 and on internal problems (constitutional, market, and energy reform) that will command urgent attention once the political situation stabilizes and the outlines of a constructive engagement that could be pursued by the West are at hand.
Qian, C., and X. Wu. "The Art of China's Mediation during the Nuclear Crisis on the Korean Peninsula." Asian Affairs, an American Review 36, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 79-96.
Mediating regional conflict in Asia is a delicate art. It requires an acute understanding of the unique mediation culture in the region. China's mediation in the nuclear crisis on the Korean Peninsula reveals key elements of this art and offers useful lessons. China's experience illustrates that an influential but neutral and harmony-oriented mediator is critical in the Asian context. It is equally essential for the mediator to (1) abide by the principle of noninterference in other countries' internal affairs while maintaining active intervention as dispute escalates, (2) stand ready to nudge those being mediated toward action when necessary to advance peaceful negotiations, (3) establish an optimal environment to foster communication and reduce hostility between the major parties in dispute, (4) serve as an honest broker but remain firm in its own position and cautiously take initiatives to guide the talks, (5) advocate a step-by-step approach to the negotiation process, and (6) aim for the outcome of negotiations to be a give-and-take agreement. Although Asia is a conflict-prone region, Asians traditionally confuse mediation with meddling. As a result, non-Asians often try to serve as mediators for Asia. For more effective mediations, it is essential that Asians rediscover their useful mediation skills and that non-Asians better understand the Asian art of mediation when they act as mediator.
Robinson, W.. "Global Restructuring, State, Capital and Labour: Contesting Neo-Gramscian Perspectives." Review. Capital & Class no. 98 (July 1, 2009): 146-148,183.
Burnham, in his chapter on the changes in economic management in Britain in the 1990s, explains the shift from politicised to depoliticised forms of state economic management of contemporary capitalism in terms of capital's attempt to discipline labour in the wake of the relative class force the latter accumulated in the previous period. According to Bieler and Morton, in response to this, Open Marxism tends to obscure the way class struggle is mediated through specific material social practices, to prioritise the dominant reproduction of capitalism over resistance, and to engage in state-centric analysis and an overly theoretical and abstract style of discussion.
Shaw, T., and T. Moss. "African Development: making sense of the issues and actors." Review. The Journal of Modern African Studies 47, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 480-481.
Whilst debating several overlapping issues around 'Africa' like conflict, democracy and development, Todd Moss fails to notice its promise of insights for comparative international relations, which review articles in leading journals by Douglas Lemke and William Brown on both sides of the pond highlighted mid decade.
Schmidt, V.. "Explaining democracy in Europe." Comparative European Politics 7, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 396-407.
This response to the three reviews of Democracy in Europe addresses questions of democracy, institutions, and methodology. It first shows that naming the EU a 'regional state' enables us not only to define a new international form but also to envision new rules by which the EU could operate more effectively and democratically. Next it demonstrates that the book's qualitatively developed typology, which classifies the member-states of the EU along a continuum from simple to compound, yields descriptive inferences that need no quantitative operationalization, although it does not rule this out. It then considers how far we can take the argument about 'institutional fit,' with the causal inference that the EU is more disruptive to simple polities than to compound ones. It concludes with a discussion of the methodological approach of 'discursive institutionalism' by contrast with historical institutionalism, and of the importance of ideas and discourse for democracy in Europe.
Subotic, J.. "Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics." Review. Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 995.
Zückert, M.. "Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism." Review. European History Quarterly 39, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 522.
Zhang, H.. "Ending North Korea's Nuclear Ambitions: The Need for Stronger Chinese Action." Arms Control Today 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 21-27.
According to media reports, Beijing was informed by Pyongyang less than half an hour in advance of the explosion and was greatly angered and offended by the test because it blatantly disregarded China's calls for denuclearization. North Korea's nuclear and missile development provides a pretext for Japan to accelerate deployment of a joint U.S.-Japanese missile defense shield, which could mitigate China's nuclear deterrent. [...] a worsening crisis would generate a massive flow of North Korean refugees headed for China.
Week of July 24-July 30, 2009 (Focus on Reconciliation):
Shnabel, N., A. Nadler, J. Ullrich, J. Dovidio, and D. Carmi. "Promoting Reconciliation Through the Satisfaction of the Emotional Needs of Victimized and Perpetrating Group Members: The Needs-Based Model of Reconciliation." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1021.
Guided by the Needs-Based Model of Reconciliation, we hypothesized that being a member of a victimized group would be associated with a threat to the status and power of one's ingroup, whereas being a member of a perpetrating group would threaten the image of the ingroup as moral and socially acceptable. A social exchange interaction through which victims feel empowered by their perpetrators and perpetrators feel accepted by their victims was thus predicted to enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile. Supporting the predictions across two experiments, members of the perpetrator group (Jews in Study 1 and Germans in Study 2) showed greater willingness to reconcile when they received a message of acceptance, rather than empowerment, from a member of the victimized group. Members of the victimized group (Arabs in Study 1 and Jews in Study 2) demonstrated the opposite effect. Applied and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.
Siani-Davies, P., and S. Katsikas. "National Reconciliation After Civil War: The Case of Greece." Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 559.
This article discusses post-conflict reconciliation in Greece following the divisive civil war of the 1940s. Focusing on the elite political discourse and the relationship between reconciliation and democratization, its chief argument is that in Greece continuing disagreement about the civil war did not inhibit a process of reconciliation because it was voiced within a normative framework in which violence had been repudiated as a political tool. Particularly since the fall of the Colonels' dictatorship in 1974, reconciliation has been linked to a number of distinct political projects, some of which were as divisive as conciliatory in their effect. In each case, reconciliation meant different things to differing shades of political opinion, but the widespread adoption of the term by both the governing and opposition elites, as well as society as a whole, gradually entrapped politicians of all persuasions into accepting that a process of reconciliation had occurred. Reconciliation in Greece has therefore rested not on the establishment of a single agreed narrative representing the truth about the past, but rather on the righting of perceived injustices and the free articulation of differing interpretations of that past by both left and right within a democratic environment.
Stock, O., M. Zancanaro, C. Rocchi, D. Tomasini, C. Koren, Z. Eisikovits, D. Goren-bar, and P. (tamar) Weiss. "The design of a collaborative interface for narration to support reconciliation in a conflict." AI & Society 24, no. 1 (August 1, 2009): 51-59.
This paper is about the development of a face-to-face collaborative technology to support shifting attitudes of participants in conflict via a narration task. The work is based on two cultural elements: conflict resolution theory and the design of a collaboration enforcing interface designed specifically for the task. The general claim is that participants may achieve a greater understanding of and appreciation for the other's viewpoint under conditions that support partaking in a tangible joint task and creating a shared narration. Specifically, a co-located interface for producing a joint narration as a tool for favoring reconciliation is presented and discussed. The process based on this technology implicitly includes classical steps in conflict resolution approaches, such as escalation and de-escalation. Our goal is to show that this interface is effective and constitutes an alternative to a typical face-to-face moderated discussion.
Sutcliffe, B.. "Liudmila Ulitskaia's Literature of Tolerance." The Russian Review 68, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 495.
Sutcliffe examines Liudmila Ulitskaia's literature of tolerance. He tells that when Ulitskaia published a novella, The Funeral Party in 1997, it received the critical scrutiny warranted by the latest work of an already prominent figure in post-Soviet letters. Her assessment is more than a commonplace designed to snare sensitive readers--it is a key to her prose and plays, shaping The Funeral Party and culminating in Daniel Stein, Interpreter (2006), a structurally heterogeneous novel about healing the rift between Jews and gentiles. These two works powerfully depict the results of misunderstanding and, more significantly in the context of Russian culture, stress the need for reconciliation. Both narratives foreground Ulitskaia's longstanding fascination with hybrid characters: those individuals who combine different (and usually divisive) ethnicities and belief systems.
Tavlas, G.. "Optimum-Currency-Area Paradoxes." Review of International Economics 17, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 536-551.
Contributions by Mundell (1961), McKinnon (1963), and Kenen (1969) laid the foundations for all subsequent work in the area of the theory of optimum currency areas. The development of the optimum-currency-area paradigm, however, has not been a smooth one. After a rise in research activity during the 1960s, the paradigm fell from favor in the 1970s and 1980s, before it re-emerged as an active area of research. This paper argues that the decline of the theory as an active area of research partly reflects paradoxes among the contributions of Mundell, McKinnon, and Kenen. Correspondingly, the renewed interest in the theory is due, in part, to a reconciliation of those paradoxes, reflecting both developments in academic thought and the evolution of the international monetary system.
Waghid, Y.. "Patriotism and Democratic Citizenship Education in South Africa: On the (im) possibility of reconciliation and nation building." Educational Philosophy and Theory 41, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 399-409.
In this article, I shall evaluate critically the democratic citizenship education project in South Africa to ascertain whether the patriotic sentiments expressed in the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) are in conflict with the achievement of reconciliation and nation building (specifically peace and friendship) after decades of apartheid rule. My first argument is that, although it seems as if the teaching of patriotism through the Department of Education's democratic citizenship agenda in South African schools is a laudable initiative that can contribute toward establishing a definitive break with our apartheid past, the expression of blind patriotic sentiments (such as pledging allegiance to one's country and its citizens only) as articulated in the Manifesto can potentially marginalise others (immigrant communities) as the country endeavours to build its fledgling democracy. My second argument is that the intended democratic form of patriotism of the Department of Education can possibly be undermined by cultivating a culture of 'safe expression', which could slow down the country's quest for reconciliation and nation building.
Woo, S.. "The Park Chung-hee Administration amid Inter-Korean Reconciliation in the Detente Period: Changes in the Threat Perception, Regi." Korea Journal 49, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 37.
This paper aims to explain South Korea's decision to open dialogue with North Korea in the detente period. President Park Chung-hee, who came to power in a military coup, did not pay much attention to unification matters in his early rule, but starting from the late 1960s, Park gradually began to change his North Korea policy due to a combination of external and internal conditions. I intend to explain the causes of Seoul's new approach toward Pyongyang through three variables: Threat perception, regime characteristics, and the distribution of power. A combination of these factors forced the Park regime to change its North Korea policy from confrontation to cooperation. However, inter- Korean cooperation proved to be short-lived. The early demise of rapprochement can be explained by the absence of compelling forces that could have driven the deepening of cooperation between the two parties.
Alcanzar, A.. "On Radical-Leftist Strategy: Propositions for Discussion." Left Curve no. 33 (January 1, 2009): 4-15,144.
[...] both agency and strategy are missing. [...] there is little consensus among us regarding aims or means, and we've tended to avoid the work of clarifying either. Reconciliation - the resolution of the social antagonism - would rather be the condition for the longsought liberation of difference and non-identity. [...] we live and struggle in unfreedom, imperfectly.
Anonymous, . "LIBYA-ITALY: Historic 'Reconciliation' Visit." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 18022B-18022C.
BARRY, G.. "Rehabilitating a Radical Catholic: Pope Benedict XV and Marc Sangnier, 1914-1922." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 514-533.
Pope Benedict xv's gradual rehabilitation of the French Christian Democrat Marc Sangnier, whose Sillon movement stood condemned for social Modernism, demonstrated his desire to end the excesses of his predecessor's anti-Modernist crusade and to return to the policies of Leo xiii. Sangnier, unofficial emissary of the French republic to the Vatican, helped to prepare for the restoration of diplomatic relations in 1921. Perplexed, like most French Catholics, by papal neutrality on the war, he later campaigned for Franco-German reconciliation, adopting the Vatican critique of the Versailles settlement. Sangnier's pardon, like Benedict's cautious endorsement of the Popolari in Italy, highlights the paradoxical papalism of advanced Social Catholicism.
Boyd, S.. "Christ in Our Midst: Incarnation, Church and Discipleship in the Theology of Pilgram Marpeck." . The Catholic Historical Review 95, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 616-618.
The inherent link between justification and sanctification led him to criticize the social and political quietism of many under the sway of Luther's justification by faith alone .According to Blough, Marpeck believed that the "victory of resurrection over the forces of evil and the subsequent sending of the Holy Spirit" brings not only "forgiveness and reconciliation" but also empowers disciples in the present to such things as feeding the hungry and the "confrontation of false theological, political or ethical options" (pp. 220, 226). Due to his emphasis on the cross of Christ and the noncoercive nature of the Holy Spirit, Marpeck rejected the role of the sword in matters of faith, whether wielded by the Anabaptists at Münster, the princes of the Schmalkaldic League, or Charles V Believers are empowered to follow Christ and are "transformed collectively in his image," thereby constituting the "unglorified" body of Christ, which is sent "into the world to take on the same form as Jesus of Nazareth, the form of self-giving and nonviolent love" (p. 220).
Brock, N.. "African Americans and Welfare Time Limits: Comparative Analysis of State Time Limit Policies Under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act of 1996." Journal of Black Studies 39, no. 6 (July 1, 2009): 962.
This study examines state lifetime limit policies for the receipt of cash assistance under the 1996 welfare reform law. It performs cross-tabulation and correlational analysis to determine whether a relationship exists between the racial composition of African Americans in a state and lifetime limit policies under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act. Findings indicate a relationship and show that a majority of the states with a large population of African Americans have adopted some of the harshest lifetime limit policies for receipt of cash assistance.
DAVIES, B., and B. Marin; Zaidi. "Mainstreaming Ageing: Indicators to Monitor Sustainable Policies." Ageing and Society 29, no. 5 (July 1, 2009): 841-843.
Most of the volume's papers include references to income maintenance, the derivation of indicators of system efficiency, and the incidence of costs and benefits on stakeholders, but by contrast there is no mention of using estimates of the relationships between service mixes, levels and costs to stakeholders, or of indicators of contributions to quality of life and care for long-term care for service systems covering the field. Life satisfaction and quality of life are thus recognised, though there is insufficient discussion of this compared with other sections of the constructive reconciliation of material and King Jigme Singye Wangchuck's maxim for Bhutan of 'gross national happiness'; a gap made more obvious by recent attention to these in several social sciences and the proliferation of wellbeing agenda policies by one name or another.
Hickman, M.. "The Novel and the Menagerie: Totality, Englishness, and Empire." . Modern Fiction Studies 55, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 383-386.
[...] Koenigsberger traces the evolution of the novel and the menagerie during the shift from Victorianism to modernism, as they index changing "worldviews" about empire (185). In his extended analysis of Dickens's Hard Times (chapter 2, "Circuses in Cabinets"), while his argument about the kind of elephant Dickens must evict from his imaginative "menagerie" to maintain his novel's investment in a reconciliation of commerce and "Fancy" engages in nice dialogue with existing commentary on the novel (it dovetails especially well with F. R. Leavis's classic remarks), it strains too hard for cleverness by suggesting that "Boz may be of Gradgrind's party without knowing it" (109), reading Dickens's sanitized "Sleary's Circus" as kindred to the "circuses in cabinets" favoured by Thomas Gradgrind.
Howell, B.. "Reagan at Bergen-Belsen and Bitburg." . Rhetoric & Public Affairs 12, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 334-337.
[...] Jensen describes the public controversy that followed the announcement of Reagan's plans to visit the Bitburg cemetery and the attempts by Reagan's staff to quell that controversy. In the Bitburg speech, Jensen points to Reagan's linking of "the effort by World War II veterans to fight Nazis with the current battle with the Soviet Union and other enemies" (109), rejecting "collective guilt" (111), embracing again the "role of secular preacher" (111), and even "as a pastor to the world" (111-112), celebrating "the reconciliation" that has occurred between formerly "bitter adversaries" (112).
Kab-Woo, K.. "Gone but Not Dead, Sprouting but Not Yet Blossoming: Transitions in the System of Division, 1980-1997." . Korea Journal 49, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 59.
This article reviews inter-Korean relations in the period from 1980 to 1997 during which Chun Doo-hwan, Roh Tae-woo, and Kim Young-sam led their respective governments. Detente became more prevalent around the division system on the Korean peninsula with various actors' choices intersecting with one another. At the peninsular level, the South and the North agreed on a new set of definitions for mutual recognition- albeit with limitations-in the 1991 South-North Basic Agreement on Reconciliation, Non-Aggression, and Exchanges and Cooperation, which created the so-called the S-N Basic Agreement "regime." However, the regime broke down soon after, making the Korean peninsula problem an international issue. In 1994, the United States and DPRK made a breakthrough in the Geneva Agreed Framework, despite which the division system developed minor fissures but remained intact. This failure shows that, despite changes in the international system surrounding the Korean peninsula, the division system will be extremely difficult to overcome unless each actor realizes a change of the mindset that is supplemented by a strong resolve to act on it.
Mchugh, K.. "Movement, memory, landscape: an excursion in non-representational thought." GeoJournal 74, no. 3 (January 1, 2009): 209-218. Issue Title: New directions in media geography
This paper is an excursion in non-representational thought. The primacy of movement charges this creative geography. Movement as sensation, thought, matter and memory crystallizes in ongoing assemblages (effects) we term selves and landscapes. This movement ontology is animated by a stream of thought running through Bergson, Deleuze, and Massumi, and by Ingold's temporality of landscape. Memory is vital, as past (virtual) and present (actual) coexist, pushing forward in duration, the dynamic continuation of movement and sensation. David Lynch's film, The Straight Story, offers dramatic illustration of the entanglement of movement, memory, and landscape. Landscape is emergent as relational lines of movement, an ongoing meshwork of practices and movement signatures. Alvin Straight's paced journey through Iowa on a John Deere lawn mower during autumn harvest is a road to reminiscence and reconciliation, an American sublime. Lynch's movement-images and soundscapes are sensorial undulations that illumine landscape as movement of incorporation, 'dwelling' in the moment to moment, geographies of care. The take-home message is that we are nothing more and nothing less than agents, next selves, 'passing' through. The collective trace of our 'passings' constitutes the making and remaking of place.
Moran, S.. "South Africa and the Colonial Intellectual." Research in African Literatures 40, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 109-124.
What are the characteristic features of the colonial intellectual? This essay approaches this question via two paths, historical and contemporary, in order to show the persistence of a legacy that shapes our work. Postapartheid South Africa and the debate around justice and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission are set in the broader context of nineteenth century colonial language studies. With the benefit of hindsight, the animating aspects of the colonial context are traced to a formative ambivalence regarding property and possession. This reading is extended to recent work on ethics and South African restitution and testimony. Hegel's treatment of Africa and his reading of Antigone form a thread linking past and present.
Overell, A.. "Cardinal Pole's Special Agent: Michael Throckmorton, c.1503-1558." History 94, no. 315 (July 1, 2009): 265-278.
Michael Throckmorton is best known for his peripatetic career as Cardinal Pole's agent. This article underlines the anxieties and dangers of that role, undertaken amidst fears that English agents would assassinate the cardinal. It also investigates Throckmorton's private life as a student in Italy in the 1530s and as a family man, one of a large clan divided by religion. Using the new evidence of his book inventory, it suggests that Throckmorton was a humanist, in whose library editions of the classics were outnumbered by medical texts. His ownership of banned or suspect religious works is set in the context of his friendship with the spirituali in Pole's household at Viterbo, especially the reformer-poet Marcantonio Flaminio. In 1553 Throckmorton carried to Queen Mary the papal bull making Pole the legate responsible for England's reconciliation. After delicate negotiations in England, Throckmorton returned to Mantua and died there in 1558, partly protected from the religious and political turmoil which afflicted Pole's last years. The article concludes by relating Throckmorton's life to wider contemporary experience: European perceptions of English religious change, the 'medical renaissance', Marian persecution, and the complexities faced by erstwhile spirituali .
Patzelt, A., R. Pirow, and J. Fischer. "Post-Conflict Affiliation in Barbary Macaques is Influenced by Conflict Characteristics and Relationship Quality, but Does Not Diminish Short-Term Renewed Aggression." Ethology 115, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 658-670.
Many group living primates have evolved mechanisms to repair their social relationships after conflicts ('reconciliation'). We analysed the post-conflict behaviour of female Barbary macaques, Macaca sylvanus, living in the enclosure 'La Foret des Singes' at Rocamadour, France. Based on a sample of 914 conflicts, we investigated whether relationship (kinship, rank, affiliation, support and sex) and conflict characteristics (conflict intensity, context and duration) affected the quality and frequency of affiliative post-conflict interactions. Thirty-two per cent of all conflicts were followed by post-conflict affiliation. Rates of socio-positive interactions and support were better predictors of post-conflict affiliation than kinship or rank. Short conflicts were followed by post-conflict affiliation relatively more frequently, after a shorter latency, but only briefly, and such interactions were initiated by both parties equally frequently. The majority of affiliative post-conflict interactions occurred immediately after the end of the conflict. In sum, female Barbary macaques invest more in post-conflict affiliation with valuable partners, and they modulate their post-conflict behaviour in relation to conflict characteristics. Remarkably, affiliative post-conflict interactions increased the short-term probability of renewed aggression by the former aggressor to 16% compared with 9% for conflicts that were not followed by affiliative behaviour. Such renewed aggression after post-conflict affiliation occurred particularly frequently among females and after conflicts over food, suggesting that post-conflict affiliation sometimes falsely lures the former victim to stay in the vicinity, even at the risk of receiving renewed aggression.
Sadat, L.. "Transjudicial Dialogue and the Rwandan Genocide: Aspects of Antagonism and Complementarity." Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 543-562.
The Rwandan genocide remains one of the most horrific atrocities of the twentieth century, resulting in the death of an estimated 500-800,000 human beings, massacred over a 100-day period. In the fourteen years since the genocide, attempts at justice and reconciliation in Rwanda have involved a delicate interplay between national legal systems and the international legal order. This article examines three fora in which Rwandans have been tried for involvement in the genocide: the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Rwandan courts including Gacaca tribunals, and French attempts to exercise universal jurisdiction. Using Rwanda as a case study, the article illustrates the issues, concerns, and difficulties that arise when multiple jurisdictions assert a right to exercise criminal jurisdiction over the perpetrators of serious atrocity crimes. Beginning with a discussion of the political context, this article considers what the competing narratives and litigation in various fora have meant for the project of international and transnational criminal justice. Cases involving the commission of atrocities pose unique challenges for the international legal order. As the normative structure of international criminal law has arguably been strengthened, political constraints increasingly come to the fore. As illustrated by Rwanda, universal jurisdiction or other bases of jurisdiction may remain necessary vehicles for justice and reconciliation, or, at the very least, they may serve as a catalyst for change in Rwanda itself.
Scarlett, M.. "Imagining a World beyond Genocide: Teaching about Transitional Justice." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 169-176.
The study of the ways in which societies emerging from violent conflict and repressive regimes achieve peace and reconciliation through forms of transitional justice, such as truth commissions, tribunals, systems of reparations, and memorialization of the past, offers an opportunity for secondary social studies teachers to address issues of human rights in a positive and humanizing way. In this article, the author provides a rationale for including the study of transitional justice in the secondary social studies curriculum along with suggestions for teaching it. He argues that the study of transitional justice presents opportunities for students to become morally inclusive in their thinking, engage in global democratic citizenship, and study critically important current events unfolding in their world.
Week of July 17-July 23, 2009 (Focus on Diplomacy):
Andres, A.. "Colonial Crisis and Spanish Diplomacy in the Caribbean During the Sexenio Revolucionario, 1868-1874." Bulletin of Latin American Research 28, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 325-342.
Blakely, A.. "A Russian Paints America: The Travels of Pavel P. Svin'in, 1811-1813." Review. The Russian Review 68, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 522.
Carolan, M.. "Genetically Modified Diplomacy: The Global Politics of Agricultural Biotechnology and the Environment." Review. Environmental Ethics 31, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 221.
Compton, T.. "Becoming a "Messenger of Peace": Jacob Hamblin in Tooele." Dialogue : A Journal of Mormon Thought 42, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 1-29,241.
Conway, M., and V. Viaene. "The papacy and the new world order. La papauté et le nouvel ordre mondial (1878-1903). Vatican diplomacy, Catholic opinion and international politics at the time of Leo XIII. Diplomatie vaticane, opinion catholique et politique internationale au temps de Leo XIII." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 637-639.
Crail, P.. "Congress Weighs Iran Sanctions, Diplomacy." Arms Control Today 39, no. 5 (June 1, 2009): 32-34.
Green, R.. "Mixed Signals." Taiwan Review 59, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 1.
Höglund, K., and I. Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Hughes, C.. "Japan's response to China's rise: regional engagement, global containment, dangers of collision." International Affairs 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 837-856.
Haren, M., and B. Bombi. "Il registro di Andrea Sapiti, procuratore alla curia avignonese." Review. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 586-587.
Hill, J.. "A New Diplomacy for Sustainable Development: The challenge of global change." Review. Geography 94, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 70.
Kader, O.. "Innocent Abroad: An Intimate Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East." Review. Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 164-166.
Kimball, D.. "Testing the World's Patience." Arms Control Today 39, no. 5 (June 1, 2009): 3.
Kitching, C.. "Diplomacy between the Wars: Five Diplomats and the Shaping of the Modern World." Review. The American Historical Review 114, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 727.
Maller, T.. "The Dangers of Diplomatic Disengagement in Counterterrorism." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 6 (June 1, 2009): 511.
Maulucci, T.. "Herbert Blankenhorn in the Third Reich." Central European History 42, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 253-278.
McErlean, J.. "The Princess and the Politicians: Sex, Intrigue and Diplomacy, 1812-40/Dorothea Lieven: A Russian Princess in London and Paris, 1785-1857/Ksiezna Dorothea Lieven wobec Polski i Polaków." Review. Slavic Review 68, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 427.
Mellon, H., and P. Andree. "Genetically Modified Diplomacy: The Global Politics of Agricultural Biotechnology and the Environment." Canadian Journal of Political Science 42, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 548-549.
Miller, I.. "The Genesis of African and Indian Cooperation in Colonial North America: An Interview with Helen Hornbeck Tanner." Ethnohistory 56, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 285.
Newhouse, J.. "Diplomacy, Inc." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 73-92.
Raw, L.. "The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy 1945-89." Review. The Journal of American Culture 32, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 183-184.
Rist, R., and M. Pegg. "A most holy war. The Albigensian Crusade and the battle for Christendom." Review. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 580-581.
Slantchev, B.. "The Steps to War: An Empirical Study." Review. Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 386-388.
Winkler, A.. "The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989." Review. The Journal of American History 96, no. 1 (June 1, 2009): 285.
Ziring, L.. "Unraveling the Afghanistan-Pakistan Riddle." Asian Affairs, an American Review 36, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 59-77.
de las Casas, G.. "Barack von Metternich." Foreign Policy no. 173 (July 1, 2009): 28.
Week of July 9-July 16, 2009 (Focus on Conflict Resolution):
Allen, S.. "A Study of a Violence Prevention Program in Prekindergarten Classrooms." Children & Schools 31, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 177-187.
Beardsley, K., and B. McQuinn. "Rebel Groups as Predatory Organizations: The Political Effects of the 2004 Tsunami in Indonesia and Sri Lanka." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 624.
Buhaug, H., S. Gates, and P. Lujala. "Geography, Rebel Capability, and the Duration of Civil Conflict." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 544.
Cederman, L., H. Buhaug, and J. Rød. "Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War: A GIS-Based Analysis." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 496.
Correa, N., A. Rao, and A. Nobre. "Anticipating Conflict Facilitates Controlled Stimulus-response Selection." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1461.
Cunningham, D., K. Gleditsch, and I. Salehyan. "It Takes Two: A Dyadic Analysis of Civil War Duration and Outcome." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 570.
Gallagher, J.. "Healing the Scar? Idealizing Britain in Africa, 1997-2007." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 435-451.
Geiken, R., B. Van Meeteren, and T. Kato. "Putting the Cart Before the Horse: The Role of a Socio-moral Atmosphere in an Inquiry-based Curriculum." Childhood Education 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 260-263.
Gerami, A.. "Bridging the theory-and-practice gap: Mediator power in practice." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 433.
Goldberg, R.. "How our worldviews shape our practice." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 405.
Hegre, H., G. Østby, and C. Raleigh. "Poverty and Civil War Events: A Disaggregated Study of Liberia." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 598.
Hewig, J., T. Straube, R. Trippe, N. Kretschmer, H. Hecht, M. Coles, and W. Miltner. "Decision-making under Risk: An fMRI Study." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21, no. 8 (August 1, 2009): 1642.
Holtzworth-Munroe, A., A. Applegate, and B. D'Onofrio. "Family Dispute Resolution: Charting a Course for the Future." Family Court Review 47, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 493.
Levy, J., K. Hipel, and N. Howard. "Advances in Drama Theory for Managing Global Hazards and Disasters. Part I: Theoretical Foundation." Group Decision and Negotiation 18, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 303-316.
Levy, J., K. Hipel, and N. Howard. "Advances in Drama Theory for Managing Global Hazards and Disasters. Part II: Coping with Global Climate Change and Environmental Catastrophe." Group Decision and Negotiation 18, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 317-334.
Li, K., J. Levy, and P. Buckley. "Enhancing National Security and Energy Security in the Post-911 Era: Group Decision Support for Strategic Policy Analysis under Conditions of Conflict." Group Decision and Negotiation 18, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 369-386.
Li-On, L.. "The politics of community mediation: A study of community mediation in Israel." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 453.
Neves, T.. "Practice note: Community mediation as social intervention." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 481.
Pacholok, S.. "Gendered Strategies of Self: Navigating Hierarchy and Contesting Masculinities." Gender, Work and Organization 16, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 471-500.
Parchomovsky, G., and P. Siegelman. "Bribes vs. bombs: A study in Coasean warfare." International Review of Law and Economics 29, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 179.
Peter H Kim, Kurt T Dirks, and Cecily D Cooper. "The Repair of Trust: A Dynamic Bilateral Perspective and Multilevel Conceptualization." Academy of Management. The Academy of Management Review 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009).
Reid, W., and R. Karambayya. "Impact of dual executive leadership dynamics in creative organizations." Human Relations 62, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 1073.
Singer, J.. "Dispute Resolution and the Post-Divorce Family: Implications of a Paradigm Shift." Family Court Review 47, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 363.
Stock, O., M. Zancanaro, C. Rocchi, D. Tomasini, C. Koren, Z. Eisikovits, D. Goren-bar, and P. (tamar) Weiss. "The design of a collaborative interface for narration to support reconciliation in a conflict." AI & Society 24, no. 1 (August 1, 2009): 51-59.
Thomas, B., and M. Roberts. "Sibling Conflict Resolution Skills: Assessment and Training." Journal of Child and Family Studies 18, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 447-453.
Vlassenroot, K., and T. Raeymaekers. "Kivu’s Intractable Security Problem." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 475-484.
Weidmann, N.. "Geography as Motivation and Opportunity: Group Concentration and Ethnic Conflict." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 526.
Wing, L.. "Mediation and inequality reconsidered: Bringing the discussion to the table." Conflict Resolution Quarterly 26, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 383.
Week of July 1-July 8, 2009:
Anonymous. "Middle East Peace and Unpleasant Listening." Dialog 48, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 113-115.
Darling, J., and V. Heller. "Organization Development in an Era of Socioeconomic Change: A Focus on The Key to Successful Management Leadership." Organization Development Journal 27, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 9-26.
Dawes, J.. "The Gulf Wars and the US Peace Movement." American Literary History 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 418-428.
Dietrich, C.. "A Pact with the Devil: Washington's Bid for World Supremacy and the Betrayal of the American Promise - by Tony Smith." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 359-363.
Grocke, D., S. Bloch, and D. Castle. "The Effect of Group Music Therapy on Quality of Life for Participants Living with a Severe and Enduring Mental Illness." Journal of Music Therapy 46, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 90-104.
House, J.. "The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Origins, Planning, and Crisis Management, June 1987-December 1989." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 145-146.
Howlett, C.. "America's Military Today: Challenges for the Armed Forces in a Time of War - by Tod Ensign." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 349-352.
Legvold, R.. "The Russia File." Foreign Affairs 88, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 78-0_7.
Mehler, A.. "Peace and Power Sharing in Africa: A Not So Obvious Relationship." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 453-473.
Miller, S.. "The Notables and the Nation: The Political Schooling of the French, 1787-1788." Review. Journal of Social History 42, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 1087-1089.
Nadeem, M.. "Purchasing Equals Happiness Equals Giving! How Do you Plan to Spend Your Weekend?" Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge 15, no. 1 (September 1, 2009): 229-234.
Oliver, A.. "A Tale of Two Quagmires: Iraq, Vietnam, and the Hard Lessons of War - by Kenneth J. Campbell." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 338-342.
Paola, C., D. Paola, D. Anna, A. Antonietta, and P. Fernando. "An Excessive Attention for Food Calories is a Risk Factor of Eating Disorders in Teenagers: Studies Issues "Make Peace with Food"." Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior: SNE 2009 ANNUAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 41, no. 4S (July 1, 2009): S17.
Parker, E.. "In love and struggle: letters in contemporary feminism." Feminist Review no. 92 (July 1, 2009): 178-179.
Riga, L., and J. Kennedy. "Tolerant majorities, loyal minorities and 'ethnic reversals': constructing minority rights at Versailles 1919." Nations and Nationalism 15, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 461-482.
Rahman, S., P. Junankar, and G. Mallik. "Factors influencing women's empowerment on microcredit borrowers: a case study in Bangladesh." Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 14, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 287.
Ross, E.. "Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853-1913/Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: the Murid Order." Review. African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 493-495.
SAGAR, R.. "State of mind: what kind of power will India become?" International Affairs 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 801-816.
Schwartz, T.. "Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969-1977." Review. History 37, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 143-144.
Shenk, D.. "Muslims and Christians: Eschatology and Mission." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 33, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 120-123.
Sjoberg, L.. "From where we stand: war, women's activism and feminist analysis." Review. Feminist Review no. 92 (July 1, 2009): 180-182.
Walls, M.. "The Emergence of A Somali State: Building Peace from War in Somaliland." African Affairs 108, no. 432 (July 1, 2009): 371-389.
Young, K.. "Blind into Baghdad: America's War in Iraq - by James Fallows and Beyond the Green Zone: Dispatches from an Unembedded Journalist in Occupied Iraq - by Dahr Jamail." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 282-289.
Zumkhawala-Cook, R.. "Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army - by Jeremy Scahill." Peace & Change 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 321-325.
Week of June 11-June 18, 2009:
Adam Kirsch. "LIFE ON VENUS: Europe's Last Man." World Affairs 171, no. 4 (April 1, 2009): 11-22.
Ali A Jalali. "Winning in Afghanistan." Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 5-21.
Asher Kaufman. "ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT-Negotiating Under Fire: Preserving Peace Talks in the Face of Terror Attacks." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 322-323.
Catherine C Byrne. "Proactive Versus Defensive Ethics: Re-Humanizing Psychology." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 215.
Christopher R Noon. "THE USE OF RACIAL PREFERENCES IN PUBLIC PROCUREMENT FOR SOCIAL STABILITY." Public Contract Law Journal 38, no. 3 (April 1, 2009): 611-632.
Gawdat Bahgat. "THE ARAB PEACE INITIATIVE: AN ASSESSMENT." Middle East Policy 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 33-39.
Gwyneth C McClendon. "Global Justice: The Politics of War Crimes Trials." Review Perspectives on Political Science 38, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 117.
Johanna R Vollhardt. "The Role of Victim Beliefs in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Risk or Potential for Peace?" Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 135.
Laurie A Brand. "JORDAN-Inter-Arab Alliances: Regime Security and Jordanian
Foreign Policy." Review. The Middle East Journal 63, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 333-334.
Martin L Cook. "Arguing the Just War in Islam." Review. Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 117-119.
Michael C Keith. "Norman Corwin's One World Flight: The Found Journal of Radio's Greatest Writer." Journal of Radio & Audio Media 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 50.
Michael M Piechowski. "Peace Pilgrim, Exemplar of Level V." Roeper Review 31, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 103-112.
Michael Rubner. "The Hebrew Republic: How Secular Democracy and Global Enterprise Will Bring Israel Peace at Last." Review. Middle East Policy 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 149-151.
Monica Hakimi. "INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DETAINING TERRORISM SUSPECTS: MOVING BEYOND THE ARMED CONFLICT-CRIMINAL DIVIDE*." Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 40, no. 3 (January 1, 2009): 593-650.
Myron J Aronoff. "Camp David Rashomon: Contested Interpretations of the Israel/Palestine Peace Process." Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 143-0_10.
Raja Shehadeh. "Israel-Palestine: insiders and outsiders." Review. The Political
Quarterly 80, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 313.
Richard Bourke. "The slight hand of history." Review. The Political Quarterly 80, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 310.
Robert Fikes Jr. "How Black Professors Are Portrayed in American Fiction." The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education no. 63 (April 1, 2009): 66-69.
Stephen J Blank. "War, Peace, and International Relations: An Introduction to Strategic History." Review. Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 111-113.
T. V. Paul. "Four Crises and a Peace Process: American Engagement in South Asia." Review. Political Science Quarterly 124, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 206-208.
Veda E. Ward. "Conflicts of Interest: Plasticity of Peace Tourism and the 21st Century Nation." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 8, no. 2/3 (April 1, 2009): 414.
"Chronology: Arab-Israeli Conflict." The Middle East Journal 63, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 285-289.
Bas Rietjens, Myriame Bollen, Masood Khalil, Sayed Fazlullah Wahidi. "Enhancing the Footprint: Stakeholders in Afghan Reconstruction." Parameters 39, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 22-39.
Daniel F McCleary, Robert L Williams. "Sociopolitical and Personality Correlates of Militarism in Democratic Societies." Review. Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 161.
Guy Elcheroth, Dario Spini. "Public Support for the Prosecution of Human Rights Violations in the Former Yugoslavia." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 189.
Mahjoob Zweiri, Simon Staffell. "TALKING WITH A REGION: LESSONS FROM IRAN,
TURKEY AND PAKISTAN." Middle East Policy 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 63-74.
Marcela Cornejo, Rodrigo C. Rojas, Francisca Mendoza. "From Testimony to Life Story: The Experience of Professionals in the Chilean National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture." Peace & Conflict 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 111.
Michael V White, Kurt Schuler. "Retrospectives: Who Said "Debauch the Currency": Keynes or Lenin?" The Journal of Economic Perspectives 23, no. 2
Reuven Abarjel, Smadar Lavie. "A Year into the Lebanon War: NGO-ing Mizrahi-Arab Paradoxes, and a One State Vision for Palestine/Israel *." Left Curve no. 33 (January 1, 2009): 29-36,144.
Week of June 5-June 11, 2009:
Adele Jones. "Curriculum and Civil Society in Afghanistan." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 113-122,167-168.
Amnon Boehm. "Involvement of Businesses in the Community at Times of Peace and of War on the Home Front." Business and Society Review 114, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 85.
C Kevin Marshall. "WHY CAN'T MARTHA STEWART HAVE A GUN?" Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 32, no. 2 (April 1, 2009): 695-735.
Curtis H O'Sullivan. "The Road to Safwan: The 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry in the 1991 Persian Gulf War." Review. Air Power History 56, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 56.
David Ignatius. "Caught in the Middle." Foreign Policy no. 172 (May 1, 2009): 42-47,8.
Delinda C Hanley. "Kerry Holds Hearing on Engaging Muslims Around World." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 70-71.
El-Sayed El-Aswad. "Islamic Attitudes to Israel." Review. Domes 18, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 107-110.
Elaina Loveland. "Empowering the Poor." International Educator 18, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 28-32.
Elaine Pasquini. "Friends Rally for Tristan Anderson, Protest Israeli Shooting of Activist." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 67.
Elaine Pasquini. "Police Brutality Mars San Francisco Anti-War March." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 68.
G John Ikenberry. "Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson: Progressivism, Internationalism, War, and Peace." Review. Foreign Affairs 88, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 167-168.
Giorgio Mariani. "Ad bellum purificandum, or, Giving Peace a (Fighting) Chance in American Studies." American Literary History 21, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 96-122.
Henry Kissinger. "A New Nuclear Agenda." Hampton Roads International Security Quarterly: 2/3 IX, (April 1, 2009): 2427.
Lawrence R Benson. "With Honor: Melvin Laird in War, Peace, and Politics." Review. Air Power History 56, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 62-63.
Lucy Jones. "Obama's Afghan Plan Deserves "Fair Wind," Says Britain's Independent." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 39,45.
Makhdoom Qureshi. "NATO's Mission in Afghanistan: Pakistan's View." Hampton Roads International Security Quarterly: 2/3 IX, (April 1, 2009): 125128.
Michael Gillespie. "Seven Arrested in Ash Wednesday Occupation of Sen. Harkin's Office." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 71-72.
Niels Henrik Gregersen. "On Taboos: The Danish Cartoon Crisis 2005-2008." Dialog 48, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 79-96.
Noah W Sobe. "Educational Reconstruction "By the Dawn's Early Light": Violent Political Conflict and American Overseas Education Reform." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 123-131,168.
Ruth Zoë Ost. "Being in Pictures: An Intimate Photo Memoir." Review. Bridges : a Journal for Jewish Feminists and Our Friends 14, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 161-169,180.
Sergey B. Ivanov. "Non-Proliferation of WMD: The Case for Joint Effort." Hampton Roads International Security Quarterly: 2/3 IX, (April 1, 2009): 114117.
Todd M Compton. "Becoming a "Messenger of Peace": Jacob Hamblin in Tooele." Dialogue : A Journal of Mormon Thought 42, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 1-29,241.
Yair Mazor. "A History of Modern Israel." Review. Domes 18, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 97-102.
Zvi Bekerman. "Identity versus Peace: Identity Wins." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 1 (April 1, 2009): 74-83,166.
"A REGIONAL POWER FOR PEACE." Foreign Policy no. 172 (May 1, 2009): AN6-AN7.
"Letters." The Humanist 69, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 2,40.
Week of May 28-June 4, 2009:
D.w. Bebbington. "Conscience and Conflict: Methodism, Peace and War in the TwentiethCentury." Review. The English Historical Review CXXIV, no. 508 (June 1, 2009): 750-752.
Diane P Whitehead. "Teacher, Where Are You?" Childhood Education 85, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 242B.
Fidelma Ashe. "From Paramilitaries to Peacemakers: The Gender Dynamics of Community-Based Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland." British Journal of Politics & International Relations 11, no. 2 (May 1, 2009): 298-314.
Gerry O'Hanlon. "CHRISTIAN POLITICAL ETHICS." Review. Theological Studies 70, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 496-498.
Isak Svensson. "Who Brings Which Peace?: Neutral versus Biased Mediation and Institutional Peace Arrangements in Civil Wars." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 446.
James C. Simeon. "Exclusion Under Article 1F(a) of the 1951 Convention in Canada." International Journal of Refugee Law 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 193-217.
James Dawes. "The Gulf Wars and the US Peace Movement." American Literary History 21, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 418-428.
Jason Stearns. "In Congo's Conflict, a Surprising Twist." Current History 108, no. 718 (May 1, 2009): 202-207.
John Carlson. "Defining Noncompliance: NPT Safeguards Agreements." Arms Control Today 39, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 22-27.
Mika Junninen. "Finnish professional criminals and their organisations in the 1990SA." Crime, Law and Social Change 51, no. 5 (June 1, 2009): 487-509.
S William A Gunn. "Health as a bridge to peace." Review. Canadian Medical Association. Journal 180, no. 12 (June 9, 2009): 1234.
Tony Rayns. "Departures." Review. Film Comment 45, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 67-68.
"BURUNDI: Peace Process Breakthough." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 17937A-17938A.
"MALI/NIGER: Libya Hosts Peace." Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 46, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 17940C-17941B.
Jennifer W Mack, Joanne Wolfe, E Francis Cook, Holcombe E Grier, Paul D Cleary, Jane C Weeks. "Peace of Mind and Sense of Purpose as Core Existential Issues Among Parents of Children With Cancer." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 163, no. 6 (June 1, 2009): 519.
John Prendergast, Colin Thomas-Jensen. "Sudan: A State on the Brink?" Current History 108, no. 718 (May 1, 2009): 208-213.
John R Darling, Victor L Heller. "Organization Development in an Era of Socioeconomic Change: A Focus on The Key to Successful Management Leadership." Organization Development Journal 27, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 9-26.
Kristine Höglund, Isak Svensson. "Mediating between tigers and lions: Norwegian peace diplomacy in Sri Lanka's civil war." Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 175.
Paul Gifford, Frans Wijsen. "Seeds of Conflict in a Haven of Peace: From Religious Studies to Interreligious Studies in Africa." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London 72, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 412-413.
Shelley Howes, Susan Gasper, Thomas F O'Connor. "Sharpening the Focus of OIG Evaluations to Further Enhance Accountability in the Peace Corps." The Journal of Government Financial Management 58, no. 2 (July 1, 2009): 20-28.
Sumon Kumar Bhaumik, Ira N Gang, Myeong-su Yun. "Rationality as a Barrier to Peace: Micro-evidence from Kosovo." Comparative Economic Studies 51, no. 2 (June 1, 2009): 242-264.
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i don't know
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Which country, the world's fifth-largest, is named after its first export?
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Largest Countries in the World, Top 10 Biggest Countries by Area
Africa
2,381,741
Russia's geographical position is commonly described as "Eurasia". Its Asian part alone has larger area as compared to an entire country.
As the largest country in the Western Hemisphere, Canada has the longest coastline. Its border with the United States is the world's longest land border.
Slighter smaller in area than Canada, the United States of America is bordered by Mexico to the south and Canada to the north. It has the world's most fertile growing areas.
China shares its border with 14 different countries, including Afghanistan to the east, Russia to the north, and Vietnam to the south. It is also home to 56 recognized ethnic groups.
As the largest country in South America, Brazil is the home to the world's largest rainforest named as the Amazon. Also, it has a lengthy Atlantic coastline on the eastern side.
As the largest country in Oceania, Australia is a continental landmass and not an island. The country is well known for its extreme climate and wildlife.
With rapidly changing boundaries over the past century, India has China, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal sharing their borders with it. It was once separated from Asia by a particular sea.
As the largest Spanish-speaking nation in the world, Argentina has a varied climate and geography. Its southern tip, Cape Horn is the stormiest location available on Earth.
Formerly part of the USSR, Kazakhstan has been the largest nation in the world for most of the 20th century. It is also the largest landlocked country on the globe.
Algeria is situated in Northern Africa and has a majority of its desert regions highly elevated. The Algerian Sahara desert extends all the way to the south of Algeria past its borders with Mali and Niger
The world's ten biggest countries by size are ranked based on information from the CIA World Factbook.
The numbers shown are based on the total land area of each country, including both land and water areas within the international boundaries.
Russia is the largest country in the world by a wide margin, covering 17,098,242 square kilometers. Russia stretches across Eurasia, spanning nine time zones and covering about an eighth of the inhabited land area of the Earth.
The next largest country is also located in the far north. Canada covers the northern part of the Western Hemisphere, with a total area of 9,984,670 square kilometers. The United States and China are next on the list, so close in size that their positions are sometimes reversed, depending on the inclusion of particular territories and water areas.
Just behind China and the USA is the largest country in South America, Brazil, with an area of 8,514,877 square miles, followed by Australia with an area of 7,692,024 square kilometers. Rounding out the top ten are the much smaller countries of India, Argentina, Kazakhstan and Algeria.
Interactive Map of Largest Countries in the World
The map of the ten largest countries by area is an interactive map of the world showing the largest countries. Hover your mouse over each of the top ten countries to see their areas in square kilometers.
You must be Interested to Know
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Brazil
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Which country's name, existing 1929-2003, meant 'South Slavs'?
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The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency
Afghanistan
Afghanistan's economy is recovering from decades of conflict. The economy has improved significantly since the fall of the Taliban regime in 2001 largely because of the infusion of international assistance, the recovery of the agricultural sector, and ser
The international community remains committed to Afghanistan's development, pledging over $67 billion at nine donors' conferences between 2003 and 2010. In July 2012, the donors at the Tokyo conference pledged an additional $16 billion in civilian aid thr
Afghanistan's growth rate slowed markedly in 2014-15, but rose to 2% in 2016. The drawdown of international security forces that started in 2014 has negatively affected economic growth, as a substantial portion of commerce, especially in the services sect
Albania
Albania, a formerly closed, centrally-planned state, is a developing country with a modern open-market economy. Albania managed to weather the first waves of the global financial crisis but, more recently, the negative effects of the crisis have caused a
Remittances, a significant catalyst for economic growth, declined from 12-15% of GDP before the 2008 financial crisis to 5.7% of GDP in 2014, mostly from Albanians residing in Greece and Italy. The agricultural sector, which accounts for almost half of em
Albania’s electricity supply is uneven despite upgraded transmission capacities with neighboring countries. Technical and non-technical losses in electricity - including theft and non-payment - continue to undermine the financial viability of the entire s
Inward FDI has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The government is focused on the simplification of licensing requirements
Algeria
Algeria's economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist postindependence development model. In recent years the Algerian Government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports an
Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 30% of GDP, 60% of budget revenues, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. I
Algiers has strengthened protectionist measures since 2015 to limit its import bill and encourage domestic production of non-oil and gas industries. Since 2015, the government has imposed additional regulatory requirements on access to foreign exchange fo
With declining revenues caused by falling oil prices, the government has been under pressure to reduce spending. A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted Algiers to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary
Long-term economic challenges include diversifying the economy away from its reliance on hydrocarbon exports, bolstering the private sector, attracting foreign investment, and providing adequate jobs for younger Algerians.
American Samoa
American Samoa has a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the US with which American Samoa conducts most of its commerce. Tuna fishing and tuna processing plants are
In late September 2009, an earthquake and the resulting tsunami devastated American Samoa and nearby Samoa, disrupting transportation and power generation, and resulting in about 200 deaths. The US Federal Emergency Management Agency oversaw a relief prog
Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism is a promising developing sector. In 2015, a new fish processing company comp
Andorra
Tourism, retail sales, and finance are the mainstays of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounting for more than three-quarters of GDP. Andorra's duty-free status for some products and its summer and winter resorts attract millions of visitors annuall
Slower growth in Spain and France has dimmed Andorra's economic prospects. Since 2010, a drop in tourism contributed to a contraction in GDP and a sharp deterioration of public finances, prompting the government to begin implementing several austerity mea
Angola
Angola's economy is overwhelmingly driven by its oil sector. Oil production and its supporting activities contribute about 50% of GDP, more than 70% of government revenue, and more than 90% of the country's exports. Diamonds contribute an additional 5% to
Increased oil production supported growth averaging more than 17% per year from 2004 to 2008. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth in construction and agriculture as well. Some of the country'
The global recession that started in 2008 stalled economic growth. In particular, lower prices for oil and diamonds during the global recession slowed GDP growth to 2.4% in 2009, and many construction projects stopped because Luanda accrued $9 billion in
Falling oil prices and slower than expected growth in non-oil GDP have reduced growth prospects. Angola has responded by reducing government subsidies and by proposing import quotas and a more restrictive licensing regime. Corruption, especially in the ex
Antarctica
Scientific undertakings rather than commercial pursuits are the predominant human activity in Antarctica. Offshore fishing and tourism, both based abroad, account for Antarctica's limited economic activity.
Antarctic fisheries, targeting three main species - Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides and D. mawsoni), mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari), and krill (Euphausia superba) – reported landing 295,000 metric tons in 2013-14 (
A total of 36,702 tourists visited the Antarctic Treaty area in the 2014-15 Antarctic summer, slightly lower than the 37,405 visitors in 2013-14. These estimates were provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Ope
Antigua and Barbuda
Tourism continues to dominate Antigua and Barbuda's economy, accounting for nearly 60% of GDP and 40% of investment. The dual-island nation's agricultural production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited water supply and a labor s
After taking office in 2004, the SPENCER government adopted an ambitious fiscal reform program and was successful in reducing its public debt-to-GDP ratio from approximately 130% in 2010 to 89% in 2012. In 2009, the country's economy was severely hit by t
Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on tourist arrivals from the US, Canada, and Europe and potential damages from natural disasters.
Argentina
Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. Although one of the world's wealthiest countries 100 years ago, Argentina suffered during most of the
A severe depression, growing public and external indebtedness, and an unprecedented bank run culminated in 2001 in the most serious economic, social, and political crisis in the country's turbulent history. Interim President Adolfo RODRIGUEZ SAA declared
Cristina FERNANDEZ DE KIRCHNER succeeded her husband as president in late 2007, and the rapid economic growth of previous years began to slow sharply the following year as government policies held back exports and the world economy fell into recession. Th
The government has taken multiple steps in recent years to deal with these problems. It expanded state intervention in the economy throughout 2012. In May 2012 the Congress approved the nationalization of the oil company YPF from Spain's Repsol. The gover
In 2014, the government also took some measures to mend ties with the international financial community, including engaging with the IMF to improve its economic data reporting, reaching a compensation agreement with Repsol for the expropriation of YPF, an
After being elected into office in December 2015, President MACRI has taken significant steps to liberalize the Argentine economy. His administration lifted capital controls; floated the peso, negotiated debt payments with holdout bond creditors, and remo
Armenia
Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics, in exchange for raw materials and energy. Armenia has since switched to small-
Armenia joined the WTO in January 2003. The government has made some improvements in tax and customs administration in recent years, but anti-corruption measures have been ineffective. Armenia will need to pursue additional economic reforms and strengthen
Armenia's geographic isolation, a narrow export base, and pervasive monopolies in important business sectors have made it particularly vulnerable to the sharp deterioration in the global economy and the economic downturn in Russia. Armenia is particularly
Aruba
Tourism, petroleum bunkering, hospitality, and financial and business services are the mainstays of the small open Aruban economy.
Tourist arrivals have rebounded strongly following a dip after the 2008 global financial crisis. Tourism now accounts for a majority of economic activity. Over 1 million tourists per year visit Aruba, with the large majority of those from the US. The rapi
Aruba is heavily dependent on imports and is making efforts to expand exports to achieve a more desirable trade balance. Almost all consumer and capital goods are imported, with the US, the Netherlands, and Panama being the major suppliers.
Aruba weathered two major shocks in recent years: fallout from the global financial crisis, which had its largest impact on tourism, and the closure of its oil refinery in 2009. However, tourism and related industries have continued to grow, and the Aruba
Australia
Following two decades of continuous growth, low unemployment, contained inflation, very low public debt, and a strong and stable financial system, Australia enters 2017 facing a range of growth constraints, principally driven by the sharp fall in global p
The services sector is the largest part of the Australian economy, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of jobs. Australia was comparatively unaffected by the global financial crisis as the banking system has remained strong and inflation is under cont
Australia benefited from a dramatic surge in its terms of trade in recent years, although this trend has reversed due to falling global commodity prices. Australia is a significant exporter of natural resources, energy, and food. Australia's abundant and
Australia is an open market with minimal restrictions on imports of goods and services. The process of opening up has increased productivity, stimulated growth, and made the economy more flexible and dynamic. Australia plays an active role in the World Tr
Austria
Austria, with its well-developed market economy, skilled labor force, and high standard of living, is closely tied to other EU economies, especially Germany's. Its economy features a large service sector, a relatively sound industrial sector, and a small,
Economic growth has been relatively weak in recent years, approaching 0.9% in 2015, but rising to 1.4% in 2016. Austria's 5.8% unemployment rate, while low by European standards, is at its highest rate since the end of World War II, driven by an increased
Although Austria's fiscal position compares favorably with other euro-zone countries, it faces several external risks, such as unexpectedly weak world economic growth threatening the export market, Austrian banks' continued exposure to Central and Eastern
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan's high economic growth has been attributable to large and growing oil and gas exports, but some non-export sectors also featured double-digit growth, including construction, banking, and real estate. Oil exports through the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan
Azerbaijan has made only limited progress on instituting market-based economic reforms. Pervasive public and private sector corruption and structural economic inefficiencies remain a drag on long-term growth, particularly in non-energy sectors. Several ot
Long-term prospects depend on world oil prices, Azerbaijan's ability to negotiate export routes for its growing gas production, and its ability to use its energy wealth to promote growth and spur employment in non-energy sectors of the economy.
Bahrain
Low oil prices have generated a budget deficit of at least a $4 billion deficit in 2016, nearly 14% of GDP. Bahrain has few options for covering this deficit, with meager foreign assets and a constrained borrowing ability, stemming in part from a sovereig
Oil comprises 86% of Bahraini budget revenues, despite past efforts to diversify its economy and to build communication and transport facilities for multinational firms with business in the Gulf. As part of its diversification plans, Bahrain implemented a
Other major economic activities are production of aluminum - Bahrain's second biggest export after oil - finance, and construction. Bahrain continues to seek new natural gas supplies as feedstock to support its expanding petrochemical and aluminum industr
In 2011 Bahrain experienced economic setbacks as a result of domestic unrest driven by the majority Shia population, however, the economy recovered in 2012-15, partly as a result of improved tourism. In addition to addressing its current fiscal woes, Bahr
Bangladesh
Bangladesh's economy has grown roughly 6% per year since 1996 despite political instability, poor infrastructure, corruption, insufficient power supplies, slow implementation of economic reforms, and the 2008-09 global financial crisis and recession. Alth
Garment exports, the backbone of Bangladesh's industrial sector, accounted for more than 80% of total exports and surpassed $25 billion in 2016. The sector continues to grow, despite a series of factory accidents that have killed more than 1,000 workers,
Belarus
As part of the former Soviet Union, Belarus had a relatively well-developed, though aging industrial base; it retained this industrial base - which is now outdated, energy inefficient, and dependent on subsidized Russian energy and preferential access to
Economic output, which had declined for several years following the collapse of the Soviet Union, revived in the mid-2000s due to the boom in oil prices. Belarus has only small reserves of crude oil, though it imports most of its crude oil and natural gas
Little new foreign investment has occurred in recent years. In 2011, a financial crisis began, triggered by government directed salary hikes unsupported by commensurate productivity increases. The crisis was compounded by an increased cost in Russian ener
Belgium
This modern, open, and private-enterprise-based economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the more heavily-populated r
In 2015-16, Belgian GDP grew by 1.4% per year, the unemployment rate stabilized at 8.4-8.5%, and the budget deficit was 2.7% of GDP. Prime Minister Charles MICHEL's center-right government has pledged to further reduce the deficit in response to EU pressu
The government has pledged to pursue a reform program to improve Belgium’s competitiveness, including changes to tax policy, labor market rules, and welfare benefits. These changes risk worsening tensions with trade unions and triggering extended strikes.
Belize
Tourism is the number one foreign exchange earner in this small economy, followed by exports of crude oil, marine products, sugar, citrus, and bananas.
The government's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated in September 1998, led to GDP growth averaging nearly 4% in 1999-2007. Oil discoveries in 2006 bolstered this growth and oil exploration continues, but production has fallen in recent y
Although Belize has the third highest per capita income in Central America, the average income figure masks a huge income disparity between rich and poor, and a key government objective remains reducing poverty and inequality with the help of internationa
Benin
The free market economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Cotton is a key export commodity; high prices supported export earnings. Growth in real output has averaged about 5% s
An insufficient electrical supply continues to hamper Benin's economic growth though the government recently has taken steps to increase domestic power production. Private foreign direct investment is small, and foreign aid accounts for the majority of in
Benin’s 2001 privatization policy continues in telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculture. Benin has appealed for international assistance to mitigate piracy against commercial shipping in its territory. Though security remains a problem, the
Bermuda
Tourism accounts for about 5% of Bermuda's GDP, but a much larger share of employment. Over 80% of its visitors come from the US. The sector struggled in the wake of the global recession of 2008-09. International business, which consists primarily of rein
Bermuda's economy entered its seventh straight year of recession in 2015. Unemployment is 9%, public debt is growing and exceeds $2.3 billion, the government pension fund faces a $2.4 billion shortfall, and the economy has not attracted significant amount
Bhutan
Bhutan's economy, small and less developed, is based largely on hydropower, agriculture, and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for more than half of the population. Because rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and
Multilateral development organizations administer most educational, social, and environment programs, and take into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. For example, the government, in its cautious
Bhutan’s largest export - hydropower to India - could spur sustainable growth in the coming years if Bhutan resolves chronic delays in construction. Bhutan currently taps only 5% of its 30,000-megawatt hydropower potential and is behind schedule in buildi
Bolivia
Bolivia is a resource rich country with strong growth attributed to captive markets for natural gas exports – to Brazil and Argentina. Gas accounts for roughly 50% of Bolivia's total exports and will fund more than half of its 2015 budget. However, the co
Following a disastrous economic crisis during the early 1980s, reforms spurred private investment, stimulated economic growth, and cut poverty rates in the 1990s. The period 2003-05 was characterized by political instability, racial tensions, and violent
A lack of foreign investment in the key sectors of mining and hydrocarbons, along with conflict among social groups, pose challenges for the Bolivian economy. In 2015, President Evo MORALES expanded efforts to court international investment and boost Boli
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia has a transitional economy with limited market reforms. The economy relies heavily on the export of metals, energy, textiles, and furniture as well as on remittances and foreign aid. A highly decentralized government hampers economic policy coordin
Interethnic warfare in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused production to plummet by 80% from 1992 to 1995 and unemployment to soar, but the economy made progress until 2008, when the global economic crisis caused a downturn. Bosnia and Herzegovina became a full
Bosnia's private sector is growing slowly, but foreign investment has dropped sharply since 2007. High unemployment remains the most serious macroeconomic problem. Successful implementation of a value-added tax in 2006 provided a steady source of revenue
Bosnia and Herzegovina's top economic priorities are: acceleration of integration into the EU; strengthening the fiscal system; public administration reform; World Trade Organization membership; and securing economic growth by fostering a dynamic, competi
Botswana
Until the global recession, Botswana maintained one of the world's highest economic growth rates since independence in 1966. Diamond mining fueled much of the expansion and currently accounts for one quarter of GDP, approximately 85% of export earnings, a
Botswana's economy is highly correlated with global economic trends because of its heavy reliance on a single luxury export. According to official government statistics, unemployment is 19.5%, but unofficial estimates run much higher. De Beers, a major in
Following the 2008 global recession Botswana’s economy recovered in 2010. In the time since then, the economy grew modestly. This was primarily due to the downturn in the global diamond market; water and power shortages also played a role. In October 2015
The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is second highest in the world and threatens the country's impressive economic gains.
Brazil
Characterized by large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, and a rapidly expanding middle class, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries, and Brazil is expanding its presence in world
After strong growth in 2007 and 2008, the onset of the global financial crisis hit Brazil in 2008. Brazil experienced two quarters of recession, as global demand for Brazil's commodity-based exports dwindled and external credit dried up. However, Brazil w
Brazil’s fiscal and current account balances have eroded during the past four years as the government attempted to boost economic growth through targeted tax cuts for industry and incentives to spur household consumption. After winning reelection in Octob
Brazil seeks to strengthen its workforce and its economy over the long run by imposing local content and technology transfer requirements on foreign businesses, by investing in education through social programs such as Bolsa Familia and the Brazil Science
British Virgin Islands
The economy, one of the most stable and prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism generating an estimated 45% of the national income. More than 934,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 2008. Because of traditionally c
Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements.
In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. Roughly 400,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 2000. Th
Brunei
Brunei is an energy-rich sultanate on the northern coast of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Brunei boasts a well-educated, largely English-speaking population; excellent infrastructure; and a stable government intent on attracting foreign investment. Crude oil
Per capita GDP is among the highest in the world, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic hydrocarbon production. Bruneian citizens do not pay personal income taxes, and the government provides free medical service
The Bruneian Government wants to diversify its economy away from hydrocarbon exports to other industries such as information and communications technology and halal manufacturing. Brunei’s trade in 2016 is set to increase following its regional economic i
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, a former communist country that entered the EU on 1 January 2007, averaged more than 6% annual growth from 2004 to 2008, driven by significant amounts of bank lending, consumption, and foreign direct investment.
Successive governments have demonstrated a commitment to economic reforms and responsible fiscal planning, but the global downturn sharply reduced domestic demand, exports, capital inflows, and industrial production. GDP contracted by 5.5% in 2009, and ha
Despite a favorable investment regime, including low, flat corporate income taxes, significant challenges remain. Corruption in public administration, a weak judiciary, and the presence of organized crime continue to hamper the country's investment climat
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso is a poor, landlocked country that depends on adequate rainfall. About 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming and cotton is the main cash crop. The country has few natural resources and a weak industrial base.
Cotton and gold are Burkina Faso’s key exports - gold has accounted for about three-quarters of the country’s total export revenues. Burkina Faso’s economic growth and revenue depends on global prices for the two commodities. The Burkinabe economy experie
Burkina Faso experienced a number of public protests over the high cost of living, corruption, and other socioeconomic issues in 2013, while the fall of the COMPAORE government in 2014 and failed coup in September 2015 disrupted economic activity and stra
Burma
Since the transition to a civilian government in 2011, Burma has begun an economic overhaul aimed at attracting foreign investment and reintegrating into the global economy. Economic reforms have included establishing a managed float of the Burmese kyat i
The government’s commitment to reform, and the subsequent easing of most Western sanctions, led to accelerated growth in 2013 and 2014. In 2015, growth slowed because of political uncertainty in an election year, summer floods, and external factors, inclu
Despite these improvements, living standards have not improved for the majority of the people residing in rural areas. Burma remains one of the poorest countries in Asia – approximately 26% of the country’s 51 million people live in poverty. The previous
Burundi
Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. Agriculture accounts for over 40% of GDP and employs more than 90% of the population. Burundi's primary exports are coffee and tea, which account for 90% of foreig
An ethnic war that ended in 2005 resulted in more than 200,000 deaths, forced more than 48,000 refugees into Tanzania, and displaced 140,000 others internally. Political stability, aid flows, and economic activity improved following the end of the civil w
In 2015, Burundi’s economy suffered from political turmoil over President NKURUNZIZA’s controversial third term. Blocked transportation routes disrupted the flow of agricultural goods. And donors withdrew aid, increasing Burundi’s budget deficit. When the
Cabo Verde
Cabo Verde’s economy is vulnerable to external shocks and depends on development aid, foreign investment, remittances, and tourism. The economy is service-oriented with commerce, transport, tourism, and public services accounting for about three-fourths o
Although about 40% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of food production in GDP is low. The island economy suffers from a poor natural resource base, including serious water shortages, exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought, and poor so
Economic reforms are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy and mitigate high unemployment. The government’s elevated debt levels have limited its capacity to finance any shortfalls.
Cambodia
Cambodia has experienced strong economic growth over the last decade; GDP grew at an average annual rate of over 8% between 2000 and 2010 and at least 7% since 2011. The tourism, garment, construction and real estate, and agriculture sectors accounted for
Cambodia remains one of the poorest countries in Asia and long-term economic development remains a daunting challenge, inhibited by endemic corruption, limited human resources, high income inequality, and poor job prospects. As of 2012, approximately 2.66
The Cambodian Government has been working with bilateral and multilateral donors, including the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and IMF, to address the country's many pressing needs; more than 30% of the government budget comes from donor assistanc
Cameroon
Modest oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions provide Cameroon with one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in Sub-Saharan Africa. Oil remains Cameroon’s main export commodity, and despite falling global oil prices, still accounts
Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The IMF continues to press for economic reforms, i
Cameroon devotes significant resources to several large infrastructure projects currently under construction, including a deep sea port in Kribi and the Lom Pangar Hydropower Project. Cameroon’s energy sector continues to diversify, recently opening a nat
Canada
As a high-tech industrial society in the trillion-dollar class, Canada resembles the US in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. Since World War II, the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and s
The 1989 US-Canada Free Trade Agreement and the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (which includes Mexico) touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the US, its principal trading partner. Canada enjoys a substantial trad
Given its abundant natural resources, highly skilled labor force, and modern capital plant, Canada enjoyed solid economic growth from 1993 through 2007. Buffeted by the global economic crisis, the economy dropped into a sharp recession in the final months
Cayman Islands
With no direct taxation, the islands are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 93,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 2008, including almost 300 banks, 800 insurers, and 10,000 mutual funds. A stock exchange was opened in 1
Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1.9 million in 2008, wit
Central African Republic
Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry and mining, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with about 60% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates more than half of GDP. Timb
Since 2009, the IMF has worked closely with the government to institute reforms that have resulted in some improvement in budget transparency, but other problems remain. The government's additional spending in the run-up to the 2011 election worsened CAR'
Kimberley Process participants partially lifted the ban on diamond exports from the country in 2015, but persistent insecurity will prevent GDP from recovering to its pre-2013 level.
Chad
Chad’s landlocked location results in high transportation costs for imported goods and dependence on neighboring countries. Oil and agriculture are mainstays of Chad’s economy. Oil provides about 60% of export revenues, while cotton, cattle, livestock, an
Nearly all of Chad’s fuel is provided by one domestic refinery, and unanticipated shutdowns occasionally result in shortages. The country regulates the price of domestic fuel, providing an incentive for black market sales.
Chad’s fiscal position is encumbered by declining oil prices, though high oil prices and strong local harvests supported the economy in recent years. Chad relies on foreign assistance and foreign capital for much public and private sector investment. Chad
Chile
Chile has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade and a reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. Exports of goods and services a
From 2003 through 2013, real growth averaged almost 5% per year, despite the slight contraction in 2009 that resulted from the global financial crisis. Growth slowed to an estimated 1.7% in 2016. A continued drop in copper prices prompted Chile to experie
Chile deepened its longstanding commitment to trade liberalization with the signing of a free trade agreement with the US, which took effect on 1 January 2004. Chile has 22 trade agreements covering 60 countries including agreements with the EU, Mercosur,
The Chilean Government has generally followed a countercyclical fiscal policy, accumulating surpluses in sovereign wealth funds during periods of high copper prices and economic growth, and generally allowing deficit spending only during periods of low co
In 2014, President Michelle BACHELET introduced tax reforms aimed at delivering her campaign promise to fight inequality and to provide access to education and health care. The reforms are expected to generate additional tax revenues equal to 3% of Chile’
China
Since the late 1970s, China has moved from a closed, centrally planned system to a more market-oriented one that plays a major global role. China has implemented reforms in a gradualist fashion, resulting in efficiency gains that have contributed to a mor
After keeping its currency tightly linked to the US dollar for years, China in July 2005 moved to an exchange rate system that references a basket of currencies. From mid-2005 to late 2008, the renminbi appreciated more than 20% against the US dollar, but
China’s economic growth has slowed since 2011. The Chinese Government faces numerous economic challenges including: (a) reducing its high domestic savings rate and correspondingly low domestic consumption; (b) servicing its high debt burdens to maintain f
The government's 13th Five-Year Plan, unveiled in March 2016, emphasizes the need to increase innovation and boost domestic consumption to make the economy less dependent on government investment, exports, and heavy industry. However, China has made only
Colombia
Colombia's consistently sound economic policies and aggressive promotion of free trade agreements in recent years have bolstered its ability to weather external shocks. Colombia depends heavily on energy and mining exports, making it vulnerable to a drop
Declining oil prices have resulted in a drop in government revenues. In 2014, Colombia passed a tax reform bill to offset the lost revenue from the global drop in oil prices. The SANTOS administration is also using tax reform to help finance implementatio
Despite austerity measures put in place by the SANTOS administration, GDP and foreign direct investment fell in 2015, while the El Nino weather phenomenon caused food and energy prices to rise, with inflation spiking to 6.8%. In order to combat inflation,
Real GDP growth averaged 4.8% per year from 2010-2014, continuing a decade of strong economic performance, before dropping in 2015. All three major ratings agencies upgraded Colombia's government debt to investment grade in 2013 and 2014, which helped to
The SANTOS Administration's foreign policy has focused on bolstering Colombia's commercial ties and boosting investment at home. Colombia has signed or is negotiating Free Trade Agreements (FTA) with more than a dozen countries; the US-Colombia FTA went i
Comoros
One of the world's poorest countries, Comoros is made up of three islands that are hampered by inadequate transportation links, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes
Authorities are negotiating with the IMF for triennial program assistance. The government - which is racked by internal political disputes - is struggling to provide basic services, upgrade education and technical training, privatize commercial and indust
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - a nation endowed with vast natural resource wealth - is slowly recovering after decades of decline.
Systemic corruption since independence in 1960, combined with countrywide instability and conflict that began in the early-90s, has dramatically reduced national output and government revenue and increased external debt. With the installation of a transit
Renewed activity in the mining sector, the source of most export income, has boosted Kinshasa's fiscal position and GDP growth in recent years, although recent commodity price declines threaten to erase progress. An uncertain legal framework, corruption,
The country marked its fourteenth consecutive year of positive economic expansion in 2016. Much economic activity still occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data. The DRC signed a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility with the IMF in
Congo, Republic of the
The economy is a mixture of subsistence farming and hunting, an industrial sector based largely on oil and support services, and government spending. Oil has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy, providing a major share of government revenue
Economic reform efforts have been undertaken with the support of international organizations, notably the World Bank and the IMF, including the recently concluded Article IV consultations. The current administration faces difficult economic challenges of
Officially the country became a net external creditor as of 2011, with external debt representing only about 16% of GDP and debt servicing less than 3% of government revenue.
Costa Rica
Prior to the global economic crisis, Costa Rica enjoyed stable economic growth. The economy contracted in 2009 but resumed growth at about 4% per year in 2010-16. While traditional agricultural exports of bananas, coffee, sugar, and beef are still the bac
Foreign investors remain attracted by the country's political stability and relatively high education levels, as well as the incentives offered in the free-trade zones; Costa Rica has attracted one of the highest levels of foreign direct investment per ca
Costa Rica’s economy also faces challenges due to a rising fiscal deficit, rising public debt, and relatively low levels of domestic revenue. Poverty has remained around 20-25% for nearly 20 years, and the strong social safety net that had been put into p
Cote d'Ivoire
Cote d'Ivoire is heavily dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly two-thirds of the population. Cote d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer and exporter of cocoa beans and a significant producer and exporter of coffee and pa
Following the end of more than a decade of civil conflict in 2011, Cote d’Ivoire has experienced a boom in foreign investment and economic growth. In June 2012, the IMF and the World Bank announced $4.4 billion in debt relief for Cote d'Ivoire under the H
Croatia
Though still one of the wealthiest of the former Yugoslav republics, Croatia's economy suffered badly during the 1991-95 war. The country's output during that time collapsed, and Croatia missed the early waves of investment in Central and Eastern Europe t
Croatia experienced an abrupt slowdown in the economy in 2008 and has yet to recover; economic growth was stagnant or negative in each year since 2009, but picked up in 2015-16. Difficult problems still remain including a stubbornly high unemployment rate
On 1 July 2013, Croatia joined the EU, following a decade-long application process. Croatia will be a member of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism until it meets the criteria for joining the Economic and Monetary Union and adopts the euro as its currenc
Cuba
The government continues to balance the need for loosening its socialist economic system against a desire for firm political control. In April 2011, the government held the first Cuban Communist Party Congress in almost 13 years, during which leaders appr
The Cuban regime has updated its economic model to include permitting the private ownership and sale of real estate and new vehicles, allowing private farmers to sell agricultural goods directly to hotels, allowing the creation of non-agricultural coopera
Since late 2000, Venezuela has provided petroleum products to Cuba on preferential terms, supplying nearly 100,000 barrels per day. Cuba has been paying for the oil, in part, with the services of Cuban personnel in Venezuela, including some 30,000 medical
Curacao
Most of Curacao’s GDP results from services. Tourism, petroleum refining and bunkering, offshore finance, and transportation and communications are the mainstays of this small island economy, which is closely tied to the outside world. Curacao has limited
Curacao has an excellent natural harbor that can accommodate large oil tankers, and the port of Willemstad hosts a free trade zone and a dry dock. Venezuelan state oil company PdVSA, under a contract in effect until 2019, leases the single refinery on the
The government is attempting to diversify its industry and trade and has signed an Association Agreement with the EU to expand business there. In 2013, the government implemented changes to the sales tax and reformed the public pension and health care sys
Cyprus
The area of the Republic of Cyprus under government control has a market economy dominated by the service sector, which accounts for more than four-fifths of GDP. Tourism, financial services, shipping, and real estate have traditionally been the most impo
During the first five years of EU membership, the Cyprus economy grew at an average rate of about 4%, with unemployment between 2004 and 2008 averaging about 4%. However, the economy tipped into recession in 2009 as the ongoing global financial crisis and
Shortly after the election of President Nikos ANASTASIADES in February 2013, Cyprus reached an agreement with the Troika on a $13 billion bailout that triggered a two-week bank closure and the imposition of capital controls that remained partially in plac
In October 2013, a US-Israeli consortium completed preliminary appraisals of hydrocarbon deposits in Cyprus’ exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which revealed an estimated gross mean reserve of about 130 billion cubic meters. Though exploration continues in C
Czechia
Czechia is a stable and prosperous market economy that is closely integrated with the EU, especially since the country's EU accession in 2004. The auto industry is the largest single industry, and, together with its upstream suppliers, accounts for nearly
While the conservative, inward-looking Czech financial system has remained relatively healthy, the small, open, export-driven Czech economy remains sensitive to changes in the economic performance of its main export markets, especially Germany. When Weste
Foreign and domestic businesses alike voice concerns about corruption, especially in public procurement. Other long term challenges include dealing with a rapidly aging population, funding an unsustainable pension and health care system, and diversifying
Denmark
This thoroughly modern market economy features a high-tech agricultural sector, advanced industry with world-leading firms in pharmaceuticals, maritime shipping and renewable energy, and a high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is a net exporter of foo
Denmark is a member of the EU; Danish legislation and regulations conform to EU standards on almost all issues. Despite previously meeting the criteria to join the European Economic and Monetary Union, Denmark has negotiated an opt-out with the EU and is
After a long consumption-driven upswing, Denmark's economy began slowing in 2007 with the end of a housing boom. Housing prices dropped markedly in 2008-09 but, with significant regional differences, have since recovered. Household indebtedness is still r
The global financial crisis exacerbated this cyclical slowdown by increasing domestic borrowing costs and lowering foreign demand for Danish exports. Denmark maintained a healthy budget surplus for many years up to 2008, but the budget balance swung into
Djibouti
Djibouti's economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location as a deepwater port on the Red Sea. Three-fourths of Djibouti's inhabitants live in the capital city; the remainder are mostly nomadic herders. Scant rainfal
Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. Imports, exports, and re-exports represent 70% of port activity at Djibouti's container terminal. Reexports consist primarily of coff
Djibouti’s reliance on diesel-generated electricity and imported food and water leave average consumers vulnerable to global price shocks, though in mid-2015 Djibouti passed new legislation to liberalize the energy sector. The government has emphasized in
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic has long been viewed primarily as an exporter of sugar, coffee, and tobacco, but in recent years the service sector has overtaken agriculture as the economy's largest employer, due to growth in construction, tourism, and free trade
The economy is highly dependent upon the US, the destination for approximately half of exports. Remittances from the US amount to about 7% of GDP, equivalent to about a third of exports and two-thirds of tourism receipts. The Central America-Dominican Rep
The Dominican Republic's economy rebounded from the global recession in 2010-16, and the fiscal situation is improving. A tax reform package passed in November 2012, a reduction in government spending, and lower energy costs helped to narrow the central g
Ecuador
Ecuador is substantially dependent on its petroleum resources, which have accounted for more than half of the country's export earnings and approximately 25% of public sector revenues in recent years.
In 1999/2000, Ecuador's economy suffered from a banking crisis, with GDP contracting by 5.3% and poverty increasing significantly. In March 2000, the Congress approved a series of structural reforms that also provided for the adoption of the US dollar as
Economic policies under the CORREA administration - for example, an announcement in late 2009 of its intention to terminate 13 bilateral investment treaties, including one with the US - have generated economic uncertainty and discouraged private investmen
The level of foreign investment in Ecuador continues to be one of the lowest in the region as a result of an unstable regulatory environment, weak rule of law, and the crowding-out effect of public investments. Faced with a 2013 trade deficit of $1.1 bill
Egypt
Occupying the northeast corner of the African continent, Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile valley, where most economic activity takes place. Egypt's economy was highly centralized during the rule of former President Gamal Abdel NASSER but opene
Cairo from 2004 to 2008 pursued business climate reforms to attract foreign investment and facilitate growth. Poor living conditions and limited job opportunities for the average Egyptian contribute to public discontent, a major factor leading to the Janu
Weak growth and limited foreign exchange earnings have made public finances unsustainable, leaving authorities dependent on expensive borrowing for deficit finance and on Gulf allies to help cover the import bill. In 2015-16, higher levels of foreign inve
El Salvador
The smallest country in Central America geographically, El Salvador has the fourth largest economy in the region. With the global recession, real GDP contracted in 2009 and economic growth has since remained low, averaging less than 2% from 2010 to 2014,
In 2006, El Salvador was the first country to ratify the Dominican Republic-Central American Free Trade Agreement, which has bolstered the export of processed foods, sugar, and ethanol, and supported investment in the apparel sector amid increased Asian c
The Salvadoran Government maintained fiscal discipline during post-war reconstruction and rebuilding following earthquakes in 2001 and hurricanes in 1998 and 2005, but El Salvador's public debt, estimated at 65% of GDP in 2015, has been growing over the l
Equatorial Guinea
Exploitation of oil and gas deposits, beginning in the 1990s, has driven economic growth in Equatorial Guinea, allowing per capita GDP (at purchasing power parity) to rise to over $38,700 in 2016. Forestry and farming are minor components of GDP. Although
Foreign assistance programs by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut since 1993 because of corruption and mismanagement, and as a middle income country Equatorial Guinea is now ineligible for most donor assistance. The government has been widely critic
Equatorial Guinea hosted two economic diversification symposia in 2014 that focused on attracting investment in five sectors: agriculture and animal ranching, fishing, mining and petrochemicals, tourism, and financial services. Undeveloped mineral resourc
Eritrea
Since formal independence from Ethiopia in 1993, Eritrea has faced many economic problems, including lack of financial resources and chronic drought, which have been exacerbated by restrictive economic policies. Eritrea has a command economy under the con
Since the conclusion of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war in 2000, the government has expanded use of military and party-owned businesses to complete President ISAIAS's development agenda. The government has strictly controlled the use of foreign currency by limit
While reliable statistics on food security are difficult to obtain, erratic rainfall and the percentage of the labor force tied up in national service continue to interfere with agricultural production and economic development. Eritrea's harvests generall
Estonia
Estonia, a member of the EU since 2004 and the euro zone since 2011, has a modern market-based economy and one of the higher per capita income levels in Central Europe and the Baltic region. Estonia's successive governments have pursued a free market, pro
The economy benefits from strong electronics and telecommunications sectors and strong trade ties with Finland, Sweden, and Germany. After two years of robust recovery in 2011 and 2012, the Estonian economy faltered in 2013 with only 1.6% GDP growth, main
Estonia is challenged by a shortage of labor, both skilled and unskilled, although the government has amended its immigration law to allow easier hiring of highly qualified foreign workers.
Ethiopia
For more than a decade before 2016 Ethiopia grew at a rate between 8% and 11% annually; the country was the fifth-fastest growing economy among the 188 IMF member countries. This growth was driven by sustained progress in the agricultural and service sect
Almost 80% of Ethiopia’s population is still employed in the agricultural sector, but services have surpassed agriculture as the principal source of GDP. Under Ethiopia's constitution, the state owns all land and provides long-term leases to tenants. Sinc
Ethiopia’s export earnings are led by the services sector - primarily Ethiopian airlines - followed by several commodities. While coffee remains the largest foreign exchange earner, Ethiopia is diversifying exports and commodities such as gold, sesame, kh
Ethiopia remains a one-party state with a planned economy. In the fall of 2015, the government finalized and published the current 2016-2020 five year plan, known as the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II). GTP II emphasizes developing manufactures in
European Union
Internally, the 28 EU member states have adopted the framework of a single market with free movement of goods, services and capital. Internationally, the EU aims to bolster Europe's trade position and its political and economic weight.
Despite great differences in per capita income among member states (from $13,000 to $82,000) and in national attitudes toward issues like inflation, debt, and foreign trade, the EU has achieved a high degree of coordination of monetary and fiscal policies
The EU economy is slowly recovering from the 2008-09 global economic crisis and the ensuing sovereign debt crisis in the euro zone in 2011. The bloc posted moderate GDP growth for 2014 through 2016, but the recovery has been uneven. Some EU member states
Beyond the risk of deflation, the EU economy is vulnerable to a slowdown of global trade that would shrink the EU’s ample external trade surplus. Another round of financial market turmoil because of disagreements between bailed-out Greece and its euro-zon
In June 2016, the UK voted to withdraw from the EU, the first member country ever to attempt to secede. Formal documents implementing the withdrawal have yet to be submitted to Brussels.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
The economy was formerly based on agriculture, mainly sheep farming, but fishing and tourism currently comprise the bulk of economic activity. In 1987, the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falkland Islands
Dairy farming supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Foreign exchange earnings come from shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and from the sale of postage stamps and coins. In 2001, the government purchased 100 reindeer with the int
Tourism, especially ecotourism, is increasing rapidly, with about 69,000 visitors in 2009. The British military presence also provides a sizable economic boost. The islands are now self-financing except for defense.
In 1993, the British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day. Political tensions between the UK and Argentina remai
Faroe Islands
The Faroese economy has experienced a period of significant growth since 2011, due to increases in fish prices, salmon farming, and catches in the pelagic fisheries. Nominal GDP growth was an estimated 7.5% in 2013 and 5.9% in 2014. The fisheries sector a
The public budget has exhibited deficits since 2008, which were financed through increased borrowing. Public debt reached 38% of GDP in 2015. Aided by an annual subsidy from Denmark amounting to about 4% of Faroese GDP, the Faroese have a standard of livi
Dependence on fishing makes the economy vulnerable to price fluctuations. Projections for fish prices are favorable and increasing public infrastructure investments are likely to lead to continued growth in the short term.
Fiji
Fiji, endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, is one of the most developed and connected of the Pacific island economies. Earnings from the tourism industry, with an estimated 755,000 tourists visiting in 2015, and remittances from Fijian’s work
Fiji's sugar remains a significant industry and a major export. The sugar industry reforms since 2010 have improved productivity and returns, but the industry faces the complete withdrawal of European Union preferential prices by 2017. Fiji’s trade imbala
The return to parliamentary democracy and successful elections in September 2014 have boosted investor confidence. Private sector investment in 2016 exceeded 20% of GDP, compared to 13% in 2013.
Finland
Finland has a highly industrialized, largely free-market economy with per capita GDP almost as high as that of Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, or Sweden. Trade is important, with exports accounting for over one-third of GDP in recent years.
Finland is historically competitive in manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, engineering, telecommunications, and electronics industries. Finland excels in export of technology for mobile phones as well as promotion of startups in the information
Finland had been one of the best performing economies within the EU before 2009 and its banks and financial markets avoided the worst of global financial crisis. However, the world slowdown hit exports and domestic demand hard in that year, causing Finlan
Finland's main challenges will be reducing high labor costs and boosting demand for its exports. In the long term, Finland must address a rapidly aging population and decreasing productivity in traditional industries that threaten competitiveness, fiscal
France
The French economy is diversified across all sectors. The government has partially or fully privatized many large companies, including Air France, France Telecom, Renault, and Thales. However, the government maintains a strong presence in some sectors, pa
France's real GDP increased by 1.3% in 2016. The unemployment rate (including overseas territories) increased from 7.8% in 2008 to 10.1% in 2015 before falling in 2016. Youth unemployment in metropolitan France decreased from a high of 25.4% in the fourth
Lower-than-expected growth and high spending have strained France's public finances. The budget deficit rose sharply from 3.3% of GDP in 2008 to 7.5% of GDP in 2009 before improving to 3.2% of GDP in 2016, while France's public debt rose from 68% of GDP t
Elected on a conventionally leftist platform, President Francois HOLLANDE surprised and angered many supporters with a January 2014 speech announcing a sharp change in his economic policy, recasting himself as a liberalizing reformer. The government's bud
French Polynesia
Since 1962, when France stationed military personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a subsistence agricultural economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industr
After growing at an average yearly rate of 4.2% from 1997-2007, GDP stagnated in 2008 and fell by 4.2% in 2009, marking French Polynesia’s entry into recession. GDP growth was positive in 2010-12. Following steady employment level increases between 2002 a
French Polynesia’s tourism-dominated service sector accounted for 85% of total value added for the economy in 2009, employing 80% of the workforce. A small manufacturing sector predominantly processes products from French Polynesia’s primary sector - 3% o
Gabon
Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most sub-Saharan African nations, but because of high income inequality, a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon relied on timber and manganese exports until oil was discovered offshore
Gabon faces fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, and manganese exports. A rebound of oil prices from 2001 to 2013 helped growth, but declining production, as some fields passed their peak production, has hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential ga
Despite an abundance of natural wealth, poor fiscal management and over-reliance on oil has stifled the economy. There are frequent power cuts and water shortages. However, President BONGO has made efforts to increase transparency and is taking steps to m
Gambia, The
The government has invested strongly in the agriculture sector because three-quarters of the population depends on the sector for its livelihood and agriculture provides for another one-fifth of GDP. The agricultural sector has untapped potential - less t
The Gambia has sparse natural resource deposits and a limited agricultural base. It relies heavily on remittances from workers overseas and tourist receipts. Remittance inflows to The Gambia amount to about one-fifth of the country’s GDP. The Gambia's nat
Economic progress depends on sustained bilateral and multilateral aid, on responsible government economic management, and on continued technical assistance from multilateral and bilateral donors. International donors and lenders continue to be concerned a
Gaza Strip
Israeli security measures and Israeli-Palestinian violence continue to degrade economic conditions in the Gaza Strip, the smaller of the two areas comprising the Palestinian territories. Israeli-imposed border controls became more restrictive after HAMAS
Egypt’s ongoing crackdown on the Gaza Strip’s extensive tunnel-based smuggling network has exacerbated fuel, construction material, and consumer goods shortages in the territory. The 51-day conflict in July 2014 that HAMAS and other Gaza-based militant gr
Georgia
Georgia's main economic activities include cultivation of agricultural products such as grapes, citrus fruits, and hazelnuts; mining of manganese, copper, and gold; and producing alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, metals, machinery, and chemicals in sm
Georgia has overcome the chronic energy shortages and gas supply interruptions of the past by renovating hydropower plants and by increasingly relying on natural gas imports from Azerbaijan instead of from Russia. Construction of the Baku-T'bilisi-Ceyhan
Georgia's economy sustained GDP growth of more than 10% in 2006-07, based on strong inflows of foreign investment and robust government spending. However, GDP growth slowed following the August 2008 conflict with Russia, and sunk to negative 4% in 2009 as
The country is pinning its hopes for renewed growth on a determined effort to continue to liberalize the economy by reducing regulation, taxes, and corruption in order to attract foreign investment, with a focus on hydropower, agriculture, tourism, and te
Germany
The German economy - the fifth largest economy in the world in PPP terms and Europe's largest - is a leading exporter of machinery, vehicles, chemicals, and household equipment and benefits from a highly skilled labor force. Like its Western European neig
Reforms launched by the government of Chancellor Gerhard SCHROEDER (1998-2005), deemed necessary to address chronically high unemployment and low average growth, contributed to strong growth and falling unemployment. These advances, as well as a governmen
Stimulus and stabilization efforts initiated in 2008 and 2009 and tax cuts introduced in Chancellor Angela MERKEL's second term increased Germany's total budget deficit - including federal, state, and municipal - to 4.1% in 2010, but slower spending and h
The German economy suffers from low levels of investment, and a government plan to invest 15 billion euros during 2016-18, largely in infrastructure, is intended to spur needed private investment. Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, Chanc
Ghana
Ghana's economy was strengthened by a quarter century of relatively sound management, a competitive business environment, and sustained reductions in poverty levels, but in recent years has suffered the consequences of loose fiscal policy, high budget and
Agriculture accounts for about 20% of GDP and employs more than half of the workforce, mainly small landholders. Gold and cocoa exports, and individual remittances, are major sources of foreign exchange. Expansion of Ghana’s nascent oil industry has boost
As of 2016, the biggest single economic issue facing Ghana is the lack of consistent electricity. While the MAHAMA administration is taking steps to improve the situation, little progress has been made. Ghana signed a $920 million extended credit facility
Gibraltar
Self-sufficient Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center. Tax rates are low to attract foreign investment. The British military presence has been sharply reduced and now
The financial sector, tourism (over 11 million visitors in 2012), gaming revenues, shipping services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. The financial sector, tourism, and the shipping sector contribute 30%, 30%, and 25%, respectivel
Greece
Greece has a capitalist economy with a public sector accounting for about 40% of GDP and with per capita GDP about two-thirds that of the leading euro-zone economies. Tourism provides 18% of GDP. Immigrants make up nearly one-fifth of the work force, main
The Greek economy averaged growth of about 4% per year between 2003 and 2007, but the economy went into recession in 2009 as a result of the world financial crisis, tightening credit conditions, and Athens' failure to address a growing budget deficit. By
In April 2010, a leading credit agency assigned Greek debt its lowest possible credit rating, and in May 2010, the International Monetary Fund and euro-zone governments provided Greece emergency short- and medium-term loans worth $147 billion so that the
In 2014, the Greek economy began to turn the corner on the recession. Greece achieved three significant milestones: balancing the budget - not including debt repayments; issuing government debt in financial markets for the first time since 2010; and gener
Despite the nascent recovery, widespread discontent with austerity measures helped propel the far-left Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) party into government in national legislative elections in January 2015. Between January and July 2015, frustrati
Greenland
The economy remains critically dependent on exports of shrimp and fish, income from resource exploration and extraction, and on a substantial subsidy from the Danish Government. The subsidy was budgeted to be about $535 million in 2015, approximately 56%
The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. Greenland's real GDP contracted about 5% from 2012 to 2014. Real growth is projected for 2015 and 2016 due to increasing world
During the last decade the Greenland Home Rule Government pursued conservative fiscal and monetary policies, but public pressure has increased for better schools, health care, and retirement systems. The public budget exhibited a deficit of 2% of GDP in 2
The Greenlandic economy has benefited from increasing catches and exports of shrimp, Greenland halibut and, more recently, mackerel. Due to Greenland's continued dependence on exports of fish - which accounted for 91% of exports in 2015 - the economy rema
The Greenlandic economy is expected to expand in 2016, but significant challenges face the island. High unemployment, structural challenges stemming from low levels of qualified labor, geographic dispersion, an undiversified economy, the long-term sustain
Tourism offers another avenue of economic growth for Greenland, with increasing numbers of cruise lines now operating in Greenland's western and southern waters during the peak summer tourism season.
Grenada
Grenada relies on tourism as its main source of foreign exchange especially since the construction of an international airport in 1985. Strong performances in construction and manufacturing, together with the development of tourism and higher education -
Hurricanes Ivan (2004) and Emily (2005) severely damaged the agricultural sector - particularly nutmeg and cocoa cultivation - which had been a key driver of economic growth. Grenada has rebounded from the devastating effects of the hurricanes but is now
Guam
US national defense spending is the main driver of Guam’s economy, followed by tourism and other services. Total federal spending (defense and non-defense) amounted to $1.973 billion in 2014, or 40.4% of GDP. Service exports, mainly spending by foreign to
Guatemala
Guatemala is the most populous country in Central America with a GDP per capita roughly half the average for Latin America and the Caribbean. The agricultural sector accounts for 13.2% of GDP and 31% of the labor force; key agricultural exports include su
The 1996 peace accords, which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment, and since then Guatemala has pursued important reforms and macroeconomic stabilization. The Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement
The distribution of income remains highly unequal with the richest 20% of the population accounting for more than 51% of Guatemala's overall consumption. More than half of the population is below the national poverty line, and 23% of the population lives
Guatemala is facing growing fiscal pressures exacerbated by multiple corruption scandals in 2015 that led to the resignation of the president, vice president, and numerous high-level economic officials.
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau is highly dependent on subsistence agriculture, cashew nut exports, and foreign assistance. Two out of three Bissau-Guineans remain below the absolute poverty line. The legal economy is based on farming and fishing, but illegal logging and t
Guinea-Bissau has substantial potential for development of mineral resources including phosphates, bauxite, and mineral sands. The country’s climate and soil make it feasible to grow a wide range of cash crops, fruit, vegetables, and tubers; however, cash
With renewed donor support following elections in April-May 2014 and a successful regional bond issuance, the government of Guinea-Bissau made progress paying salaries, settling domestic arrears, and gaining more control over revenues and expenditures, bu
Guinea
Guinea is a poor country of approximately 11.7 million people that possesses the world's largest reserves of bauxite and largest untapped high-grade iron ore reserves (Simandou), as well as gold and diamonds. In addition, Guinea has fertile soil, ample ra
Following the death of long-term President Lansana CONTE in 2008 and the coup that followed, international donors, including the G-8, the IMF, and the World Bank, significantly curtailed their development programs in Guinea. However, the IMF approved a ne
The biggest threats to Guinea’s economy are political instability, a reintroduction on of the Ebola virus epidemic, and low international commodity prices. Rising international donor support and reduced government investment spending will lessen fiscal st
Successive governments have failed to address the country's crumbling infrastructure, which is needed for economic development. Guinea suffers from chronic electricity shortages; poor roads, rail lines and bridges; and a lack of access to clean water - al
Guyana
The Guyanese economy exhibited moderate economic growth in recent years and is based largely on agriculture and extractive industries. The economy is heavily dependent upon the export of six commodities - sugar, gold, bauxite, shrimp, timber, and rice - w
Guyana's entrance into the Caricom Single Market and Economy in January 2006 broadened the country's export market, primarily in the raw materials sector. Guyana has experienced positive growth almost every year over the past decade. Inflation has been ke
Chronic problems include a shortage of skilled labor and a deficient infrastructure.
Haiti
Haiti's economy suffered a severe setback in January 2010 when a 7.0 magnitude earthquake destroyed much of its capital city, Port-au-Prince, and neighboring areas. Currently the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, with 80% of the population living
Haiti is a free market economy with low labor costs and tariff-free access to the US for many of its exports. Two-fifths of all Haitians depend on the agricultural sector, mainly small-scale subsistence farming, which remains vulnerable to damage from fre
US economic engagement under the Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA) and the 2008 Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act (HOPE II) helped increase apparel exports and investment by providing duty-free access to the
Investment in Haiti is hampered by the difficulty of doing business and weak infrastructure, including access to electricity. Haiti's outstanding external debt was cancelled by donor countries following the 2010 earthquake, but has since risen to nearly $
Holy See (Vatican City)
The Holy See is supported financially by a variety of sources, including investments, real estate income, and donations from Catholic individuals, dioceses, and institutions; these help fund the Roman Curia (Vatican bureaucracy), diplomatic missions, and
The separate Vatican City State budget includes the Vatican museums and post office and is supported financially by the sale of stamps, coins, medals, and tourist mementos; by fees for admission to museums; and by publication sales. Its revenues increased
Honduras
Honduras, the second poorest country in Central America, suffers from extraordinarily unequal distribution of income, as well as high underemployment. While historically dependent on the export of bananas and coffee, Honduras has diversified its export ba
Honduras’s economy depends heavily on US trade and remittances. The US-Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement came into force in 2006 and has helped foster foreign direct investment, but physical and political insecurity, as well as crime
The economy registered modest economic growth of 3.1%-3.6% from 2010 to 2016, insufficient to improve living standards for the nearly 65% of the population in poverty. In 2016, Honduras faced rising public debt but its economy has performed better than ex
Hong Kong
Hong Kong has a free market economy, highly dependent on international trade and finance - the value of goods and services trade, including the sizable share of re-exports, is about four times GDP. Hong Kong has no tariffs on imported goods, and it levies
Hong Kong's open economy left it exposed to the global economic slowdown that began in 2008. Although increasing integration with China through trade, tourism, and financial links helped it to make an initial recovery more quickly than many observers anti
The Hong Kong Government is promoting the Special Administrative Region (SAR) as the site for Chinese renminbi (RMB) internationalization. Hong Kong residents are allowed to establish RMB-denominated savings accounts; RMB-denominated corporate and Chinese
The mainland has long been Hong Kong's largest trading partner, accounting for about half of Hong Kong's total trade by value. Hong Kong's natural resources are limited, and food and raw materials must be imported. As a result of China's easing of travel
Credit expansion and a tight housing supply have caused Hong Kong property prices to rise rapidly; consumer prices increased 4.4% in 2014, but slowed to 2.9% in 2015. Lower- and middle-income segments of the population are increasingly unable to afford ad
Hong Kong’s economic integration with the mainland continues to be most evident in the banking and finance sector. Initiatives like the Hong Kong-Shanghai Stock Connect, the Mutual Recognition of Funds, and The Hong Kong Shanghai Gold Connect are all impo
Hungary
Hungary has made the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy, with a per capita income nearly two-thirds that of the EU-28 average.
In late 2008, Hungary's impending inability to service its short-term debt - brought on by the global financial crisis - led Budapest to obtain an IMF/EU/World Bank-arranged financial assistance package worth over $25 billion. The global economic downturn
Hungary’s progress reducing its deficit to under 3% of GDP led the European Commission in 2013 to permit Hungary for the first time since joining the EU in 2004 to exit the Excessive Deficit Procedure. The government remains committed to keeping the budge
Iceland
Iceland's Scandinavian-type social-market economy combines a capitalist structure and free-market principles with an extensive welfare system. Except for a brief period during the 2008 crisis, Iceland has achieved high growth, low unemployment, and a rema
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, particularly within the fields of tourism, software production, and biotechnology. In fall 2013, the Icelandic Government approved a joint application by
Following the privatization of the banking sector in the early 2000s, domestic banks expanded aggressively in foreign markets, and consumers and businesses borrowed heavily in foreign currencies. Worsening global financial conditions throughout 2008 resul
Since the collapse of Iceland's financial sector, government economic priorities have included stabilizing the krona, implementing capital controls, reducing Iceland's high budget deficit, containing inflation, addressing high household debt, restructurin
India
India's diverse economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of services. Slightly less than half of the work force is in agriculture, but services are the major sourc
India is developing into an open-market economy, yet traces of its past autarkic policies remain. Economic liberalization measures, including industrial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and reduced controls on foreign trade and inve
Growth rebounded in 2014 through 2016, with exceeding 7% each year. Investors’ perceptions of India improved in early 2014, due to a reduction of the current account deficit and expectations of post-election economic reform, resulting in a surge of inboun
The outlook for India's long-term growth is moderately positive due to a young population and corresponding low dependency ratio, healthy savings and investment rates, and increasing integration into the global economy. However, India's discrimination aga
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. It
Indonesia
Indonesia, the largest economy in Southeast Asia, has seen a slowdown in growth since 2012, mostly due to the end of the commodities export boom. During the global financial crisis, Indonesia outperformed its regional neighbors and joined China and India
Indonesia still struggles with poverty and unemployment, inadequate infrastructure, corruption, a complex regulatory environment, and unequal resource distribution among its regions. President Joko WIDODO - elected in July 2014 – seeks to develop Indonesi
Iran
Iran's economy is marked by statist policies, inefficiencies, and reliance on oil and gas exports, but Iran also possesses significant agricultural, industrial, and service sectors. The Iranian government directly owns and operates hundreds of state-owned
Private sector activity includes small-scale workshops, farming, some manufacturing, and services, in addition to medium-scale construction, cement production, mining, and metalworking. Significant informal market activity flourishes and corruption is wid
Fiscal and monetary constraints, following the expansion of international sanctions in 2012 on Iran's Central Bank and oil exports, significantly reduced Iran's oil revenue, forced government spending cuts, and sparked a sharp currency depreciation. Iran’
In June 2013, the election of President Hasan RUHANI generated widespread public expectations of economic improvement and greater international engagement. Almost three years into his term, RUHANI has achieved some success, including reining in inflation
Iraq
Iraq's GDP grew by more than 10% in 2016, the best performance in the past decade, because of rising oil prices, which are a significant driver of Iraqi GDP. During 2016, security and financial stability throughout Iraq began to improve as Iraqi Security
Iraq's largely state-run economy is dominated by the oil sector, which provides more than 90% of government revenue and 80% of foreign exchange earnings. Oil exports in 2016 averaged 3.3 million barrels per day from southern Iraq, up from 2015. Moreover,
Iraqi oil exports from northern fields are hampered by fundamental disagreements between the Iraqi Government and autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq’s Kurdistan region (IKR) on the roles of federal and regional authorities in the devel
Iraq is making slow progress enacting laws and developing the institutions needed to implement economic policy, and political reforms are still needed to assuage investors' concerns regarding the uncertain business climate. The Government of Iraq is eager
Inflation has remained under control since 2006. However, Iraqi leaders remain hard-pressed to translate macroeconomic gains into an improved standard of living for the Iraqi populace. Unemployment remains a problem throughout the country despite a bloate
Ireland
Ireland is a small, modern, trade-dependent economy. Ireland was among the initial group of 12 EU nations that began circulating the euro on 1 January 2002.
GDP growth averaged 6% in 1995-2007, but economic activity dropped sharply during the world financial crisis and the subsequent collapse of its domestic property market and construction industry. Faced with sharply reduced revenues and a burgeoning budget
In late 2013, Ireland formally exited its EU-IMF bailout program, benefiting from its strict adherence to deficit-reduction targets and success in refinancing a large amount of banking-related debt. In 2014, the economy rapidly picked up and GDP grew by 5
In the wake of the collapse of the construction sector and the downturn in consumer spending and business investment, the export sector, dominated by foreign multinationals, has become an even more important component of Ireland's economy. Ireland’s low c
Israel
Israel has a technologically advanced free market economy. Cut diamonds, high-technology equipment, and pharmaceuticals are among its leading exports. Its major imports include crude oil, grains, raw materials, and military equipment. Israel usually posts
Between 2004 and 2013, growth averaged nearly 5% per year, led by exports. The global financial crisis of 2008-09 spurred a brief recession in Israel, but the country entered the crisis with solid fundamentals, following years of prudent fiscal policy and
Slowing domestic and international demand and decreased investment resulting from Israel’s uncertain security situation reduced GDP growth to an average of roughly 2.6% per year during 2014-16. Natural gas fields discovered off Israel's coast since 2009 h
Income inequality and high housing and commodity prices continue to be a concern for many Israelis. Israel's income inequality and poverty rates are among the highest of OECD countries, and there is a broad perception among the public that a small number
In the long term, Israel faces structural issues, including low labor participation rates for its fastest growing social segments - the ultraorthodox and Arab-Israeli communities. Also, Israel's progressive, globally competitive, knowledge-based technolog
Italy
Italy has a diversified economy, which is divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less-developed, highly subsidized, agricultural south, where unemployment is higher. The Italian economy is driven in large part by
Italy is the third-largest economy in the euro zone, but its exceptionally high public debt and structural impediments to growth have rendered it vulnerable to scrutiny by financial markets. Public debt has increased steadily since 2007, topping 132% of G
Jamaica
The Jamaican economy is heavily dependent on services, which accounts for more than 70% of GDP. The country continues to derive most of its foreign exchange from tourism, remittances, and bauxite/alumina. Remittances and tourism each account for 30% of GD
Jamaica's economy faces many challenges to growth: high crime and corruption, large-scale unemployment and underemployment, and a debt-to-GDP ratio of about 130%. The attendant debt servicing cost consumes a large portion of the government's budget, limit
Jamaica's onerous public debt burden is largely the result of government bailouts to ailing sectors of the economy, most notably the financial sector. In early 2010, the Jamaican Government initiated the Jamaica Debt Exchange to retire high-priced domesti
Japan
Over the past 70 years, government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation (1% of GDP) have helped Japan develop an advanced economy. Two notable characteristics of the post-World
Scarce in many natural resources, Japan has long been dependent on imported raw materials. Since the complete shutdown of Japan’s nuclear reactors after the earthquake and tsunami disaster in 2011, Japan's industrial sector has become even more dependent
For three decades, overall real economic growth had been impressive - a 10% average in the 1960s, 5% in the 1970s, and 4% in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, averaging just 1.7%, largely because of the aftereffects of inefficient investment
Japan enjoyed a sharp uptick in growth in 2013 on the basis of Prime Minister Shinzo ABE’s “Three Arrows” economic revitalization agenda - dubbed “Abenomics” - of monetary easing, “flexible” fiscal policy, and structural reform. In 2015, ABE revised his “
Measured on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis that adjusts for price differences, Japan in 2016 stood as the fourth-largest economy in the world after first-place China, which surpassed Japan in 2001, and third-place India, which edged out Japan in 20
Jordan
Jordan's economy is among the smallest in the Middle East, with insufficient supplies of water, oil, and other natural resources, underlying the government's heavy reliance on foreign assistance. Other economic challenges for the government include chroni
King ABDALLAH, during the first decade of the 2000s, implemented significant economic reforms, such as expanding foreign trade and privatizing state-owned companies that attracted foreign investment and contributed to average annual economic growth of 8%
To diversify its energy mix, Jordan has secured several contracts for liquefied natural gas and is currently exploring nuclear power generation, exploitation of abundant oil shale reserves and renewable technologies, as well as the import of Israeli offsh
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, geographically the largest of the former Soviet republics, excluding Russia, possesses substantial fossil fuel reserves and other minerals and metals, such as uranium, copper, and zinc. It also has a large agricultural sector featuring livesto
Kazakhstan's vast hydrocarbon and mineral reserves form the backbone of its economy. Kazakhstan is landlocked and depends on Russia to export its oil to Europe. In 2010, Kazakhstan joined Russia and Belarus to establish a Customs Union in an effort to boo
The economic downturn of its EEU partner, Russia, and the decline in global commodity prices have contributed to an economic slowdown in Kazakhstan, which is experiencing its slowest economic growth since the financial crises of 2008-09. Kazakhstan devalu
Kenya
Kenya is the economic and transport hub of East Africa. Kenya’s real GDP growth has averaged over 5% for the last eight years. Since 2014 Kenya has been ranked as a lower middle income country because its per capita GDP crossed a World Bank threshold. Whi
Agriculture remains the backbone of the Kenyan economy, contributing one-third of GDP. About 80% of Kenya’s population of roughly 42 million work at least part-time in the agricultural sector, including livestock and pastoral activities. Over 75% of agric
Inadequate infrastructure continues to hamper Kenya’s efforts to improve its economic growth to the 8-10% range so that it can meaningfully address poverty and unemployment. The KENYATTA administration sought external investment in infrastructure developm
Tourism holds a significant place in Kenya’s economy. Multiple terror attacks by the Somalia-based group al-Shabaab in the time since the 2013 attack on Nairobi’s Westgate mall, which killed at least 67, had a negative effect on international tourism earn
Kiribati
A remote country of 33 scattered coral atolls, Kiribati has few natural resources and is one of the least developed Pacific Island countries. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted by the time of independence from the United Kingdom in 1979
Economic development is constrained by a shortage of skilled workers, weak infrastructure, and remoteness from international markets. The public sector dominates economic activity, with ongoing capital projects in infrastructure including the road rehabil
Kiribati is dependent on foreign aid, which was estimated to have contributed over 43% in 2013 to the government’s finances. The country’s sovereign fund, the Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund (RERF), which is held offshore, had an estimated balance of $6
Korea, North
North Korea, one of the world's most centrally directed and least open economies, faces chronic economic problems. Industrial capital stock is nearly beyond repair as a result of years of underinvestment, shortages of spare parts, and poor maintenance. La
The mid 1990s were marked by severe famine and widespread starvation. Significant food aid was provided by the international community through 2009. Since that time, food assistance has declined significantly. In the last few years, domestic corn and rice
In December 2009, North Korea carried out a redenomination of its currency, capping the amount of North Korean won that could be exchanged for the new notes, and limiting the exchange to a one-week window. A concurrent crackdown on markets and foreign cur
The North Korean government continues to stress its goal of improving the overall standard of living, but has taken few steps to make that goal a reality for its populace. In 2013-14, the regime rolled out 20 new economic development zones - now totaling
Korea, South
South Korea over the past four decades has demonstrated incredible economic growth and global integration to become a high-tech industrialized economy. In the 1960s, GDP per capita was comparable with levels in the poorer countries of Africa and Asia. In
A system of close government and business ties, including directed credit and import restrictions, initially made this success possible. The government promoted the import of raw materials and technology at the expense of consumer goods and encouraged sav
The Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 exposed longstanding weaknesses in South Korea's development model, including high debt/equity ratios and massive short-term foreign borrowing. GDP plunged by 7% in 1998, and then recovered by 9% in 1999-2000. South K
South Korea's export focused economy was hit hard by the 2008 global economic downturn, but quickly rebounded in subsequent years, reaching over 6% growth in 2010. The US-Korea Free Trade Agreement was ratified by both governments in 2011 and went into ef
The South Korean economy's long-term challenges include a rapidly aging population, inflexible labor market, dominance of large conglomerates (chaebols), and the heavy reliance on exports, which comprise more than 40% of GDP. In an effort to address the l
Kosovo
Kosovo's economy has shown progress in transitioning to a market-based system and maintaining macroeconomic stability, but it is still highly dependent on the international community and the diaspora for financial and technical assistance. Remittances fro
Kosovo's citizens are the poorest in Europe with a per capita GDP (PPP) of $8,000 in 2016. An unemployment rate of 31%, and a youth unemployment rate near 60%, in a country where the average age is 26, encourages emigration and fuels a significant informa
Minerals and metals production - including lignite, lead, zinc, nickel, chrome, aluminum, magnesium, and a wide variety of construction materials - once the backbone of industry, has declined because of ageing equipment and insufficient investment. A limi
In June 2009, Kosovo joined the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, and began servicing its share of the former Yugoslavia's debt. In order to help integrate Kosovo into regional economic structures, UNMIK signed (on behalf of Kosovo) its accessio
Kosovo experienced its first federal budget deficit in 2012, when government expenditures climbed sharply. In May 2014, the government introduced a 25% salary increase for public sector employees and an equal increase in certain social benefits. Central r
Kuwait
Kuwait has a geographically small, but wealthy, relatively open economy with crude oil reserves of about 102 billion barrels - more than 6% of world reserves. Kuwaiti officials plan to increase oil production to 4 million barrels per day by 2020. Petroleu
In 2015, Kuwait, for the first time in 15 years, realized a budget deficit after decades of high oil prices. Kuwaiti authorities have tried to reduce the deficit by decreasing spending on subsidies for the local population, but with limited success - in 2
Kuwait has failed to diversify its economy or bolster the private sector, because of a poor business climate, a large public sector that crowds out private employment of Kuwaiti nationals, and an acrimonious relationship between the National Assembly and
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan is a poor, mountainous country with an economy dominated by minerals extraction, agriculture, and reliance on remittances from citizens working abroad. Cotton, wool, and meat are the main agricultural products, although only cotton is exported
Following independence, Kyrgyzstan rapidly carried out market reforms, such as improving the regulatory system and instituting land reform. Kyrgyzstan was the first Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) country to be accepted into the World Trade Organ
Kyrgyz leaders hope the country’s August 2015 accession to the Eurasian Economic Union will bolster trade and investment, but slowing economies in Russia and China, low commodity prices, and currency fluctuations continue to hamper economic growth. The ke
Laos
The government of Laos, one of the few remaining one-party communist states, began decentralizing control and encouraging private enterprise in 1986. Economic growth averaged 6% per year from 1988-2008 except during the short-lived drop caused by the Asia
Nevertheless, Laos remains a country with an underdeveloped infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. It has a basic, but improving, road system, and limited external and internal land-line telecommunications. Electricity is available to 83% of the pop
Laos' economy is heavily dependent on capital-intensive natural resource exports. The economy has benefited from high-profile foreign direct investment in hydropower dams along the Mekong River, copper and gold mining, logging, and construction, although
Laos gained Normal Trade Relations status with the US in 2004 and applied for Generalized System of Preferences trade benefits in 2013 after being admitted to the World Trade Organization earlier in the year. Laos began a one-year chairmanship of ASEAN in
Latvia
Latvia is a small, open economy with exports contributing more than half of GDP. Due to its geographical location, transit services are highly-developed, along with timber and wood-processing, agriculture and food products, and manufacturing of machinery
Latvia's economy experienced GDP growth of more than 10% per year during 2006-07, but entered a severe recession in 2008 as a result of an unsustainable current account deficit and large debt exposure amid the softening world economy. Triggered by the col
The IMF, EU, and other international donors provided substantial financial assistance to Latvia as part of an agreement to defend the currency's peg to the euro in exchange for the government's commitment to stringent austerity measures. The IMF/EU progra
Lebanon
Lebanon has a free-market economy and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The government does not restrict foreign investment; however, the investment climate suffers from red tape, corruption, arbitrary licensing decisions, complex customs proce
The 1975-90 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and derailed Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Following the civil war, Lebanon rebuilt much of its war-torn physical an
Spillover from the Syrian conflict, including the influx of more than 1.1 million registered Syrian refugees, has increased internal tension and slowed economic growth to the 1-2% range in 2011-16, after four years of averaging 8% growth. Syrian refugees
Lesotho
Small, mountainous, and completely landlocked by South Africa, Lesotho depends on a narrow economic base of textile manufacturing, agriculture, remittances, and regional customs revenue. About three-fourths of the people live in rural areas and engage in
Lesotho relies on South Africa for much of its economic activity; Lesotho imports 90% of the goods it consumes from South Africa, including most agricultural inputs. Households depend heavily on remittances from family members working in South Africa, in
The government maintains a large presence in the economy - government consumption accounted for 27% of GDP in 2016 and the government remains Lesotho's largest employer. Access to credit remains a problem for the private sector. Lesotho's largest private
Liberia
Liberia is a low income country that relies heavily on foreign assistance. It is richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture. Its principal exports are iron ore, rubber, gold and timber. The government has
In the 1990s and early 2000s, civil war and government mismanagement destroyed much of Liberia's economy, especially infrastructure in and around the capital. With the conclusion of fighting and the installation of a democratically elected government in 2
Revitalizing the economy in the future will depend on increasing investment and trade, higher global commodity prices, sustained foreign aid and remittances, development of infrastructure and institutions, and maintaining political stability and security.
Libya
Libya's economy, almost entirely dependent on oil and gas exports, has struggled since 2014 as the country plunged into civil war and world oil prices dropped to seven-year lows. In early 2015, armed conflict between rival forces for control of the countr
Libya’s economic transition away from QADHAFI’s notionally socialist model has completely stalled as political chaos persists and security continues to deteriorate. Libya’s leaders have hindered economic development by failing to use its financial resourc
Extremists affiliated with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) attacked Libyan oilfields in the first half of 2015; ISIL has a presence in many cities across Libya including near oil infrastructure, threatening future government revenues from
Liechtenstein
Despite its small size and lack of natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and the third highest per capita income in the world, after Qatar and
The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as
Since 2008, Liechtenstein has faced renewed international pressure - particularly from Germany and the US - to improve transparency in its banking and tax systems. In December 2008, Liechtenstein signed a Tax Information Exchange Agreement with the US. Up
Lithuania
Lithuania gained membership in the WTO in May 2001 and joined the EU in May 2004. Lithuania's trade with the EU and CIS countries accounts for approximately 87.3% of total trade. Foreign investment and EU funding have aided in the transition from the form
Luxembourg
This small, stable, high-income economy has historically featured solid growth, low inflation, and low unemployment. The industrial sector, initially dominated by steel, has become increasingly diversified to include chemicals, machinery and equipment, ru
Luxembourg experienced uneven economic growth in the aftermath of the global economic crisis that began in late 2008. Luxembourg's GDP contracted 3.6% in 2009, but has steadily recovered since 2013. Unemployment has remained below the EU average despite h
The country continues to enjoy an extraordinarily high standard of living - GDP per capita ranks among the highest in the world and is the highest in the euro zone. Luxembourg has one of the highest current account surpluses as a share of GDP in the euro
Luxembourg has lost some of its advantage as a favorable tax location because of OECD and EU pressure. In 2015, the government’s compliance with EU requirements to implement automatic exchange of tax information on savings accounts - thus ending banking s
Macau
Since opening up its locally-controlled casino industry to foreign competition in 2001, Macau has attracted tens of billions of dollars in foreign investment, transforming the territory into one of the world's largest gaming centers. Macau's gaming and to
Macau's economy slowed dramatically in 2009 as a result of the global economic slowdown, but strong growth resumed in 2010-13, largely on the back of tourism from mainland China and the gaming sectors. In 2015, this city of 646,800 hosted nearly 30.7 mill
Macau continues to face the challenges of managing its growing casino industry, risks from money-laundering activities, and the need to diversify the economy away from heavy dependence on gaming revenues. Macau's currency, the pataca, is closely tied to t
Macedonia
Since its independence in 1991, Macedonia has made progress in liberalizing its economy and improving its business environment, but has lagged the Balkan region in attracting foreign investment. Corruption and weak rule of law remain significant problems.
Macedonia’s economy is closely linked to Europe as a customer for exports and source of investment, and has suffered as a result of prolonged weakness in the euro zone. Unemployment has remained consistently high at about 30% since 2008, but may be overst
Macedonia maintained macroeconomic stability through the global financial crisis by conducting prudent monetary policy, which keeps the domestic currency pegged against the euro, and by limiting fiscal deficits. The government has been loosening fiscal po
Madagascar
Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay of the economy, accounting for more than one-fourth of GDP and employing roughly 80% of the population. Deforestation and erosion, aggravated by the use of firewood as the primary source of fuel,
After discarding socialist economic policies in the mid-1990s, Madagascar followed a World Bank- and IMF-led policy of privatization and liberalization until the onset of a political crisis, which lasted from 2009 to 2013. The free market strategy had pla
Madagascar regained AGOA access in January 2015 following the democratic election of a new president the previous year. In November 2015, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a Rapid Credit Facility to Madagascar worth about $42.1 million to hel
Malawi
Landlocked Malawi ranks among the world's most densely populated and least developed countries. The country’s economic performance has historically been constrained by policy inconsistency, macroeconomic instability, limited connectivity to the region and
The economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and individual donor nations. In 2006, Malawi was approved for relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program. Between 2005 and 2009 Malawi’s governm
Since 2009, however, Malawi has experienced some setbacks, including a general shortage of foreign exchange, which has damaged its ability to pay for imports, and fuel shortages that hinder transportation and productivity. In October 2013, the African Dev
The government faces many challenges, including developing a market economy, improving educational facilities, addressing environmental problems, dealing with HIV/AIDS, and satisfying foreign donors on anti-corruption efforts.
Malaysia
Malaysia, a middle-income country, has transformed itself since the 1970s from a producer of raw materials into an emerging multi-sector economy. Under current Prime Minister NAJIB, Malaysia is attempting to achieve high-income status by 2020 and to move
The NAJIB administration is continuing efforts to boost domestic demand and reduce the economy's dependence on exports. Nevertheless, exports - particularly of electronics, oil and gas, palm oil, and rubber - remain a significant driver of the economy. Gr
Bank Negara Malaysia (the central bank) maintains healthy foreign exchange reserves; a well-developed regulatory regime has limited Malaysia's exposure to riskier financial instruments and the global financial crisis. In order to attract increased investm
Malaysia is a member of the 12-nation Trans-Pacific Partnership free trade agreement negotiations and, with the nine other ASEAN members, will form the ASEAN Economic Community in 2015.
Maldives
Maldives has rapidly grown into a middle-income country, driven by tourism development. In 2015, the economy’s growth slowed to 4.8%, mainly due to lower tourism sector growth as tourist arrivals from China declined. However, the slowdown is expected to r
In July 2015, Maldives’ Parliament passed a constitutional amendment legalizing foreign ownership of land; foreign land-buyers must reclaim at least 70% of the desired land from the ocean and invest at least $1 billion in a construction project approved b
Diversifying the economy beyond tourism and fishing, reforming public finance, increasing employment opportunities, and combating corruption, cronyism, and a growing drug problem are near-term challenges facing the government. Over the longer term Maldivi
Mali
Among the 25 poorest countries in the world, Mali is a landlocked country that depends on gold mining and agricultural exports for revenue. The country's fiscal status fluctuates with gold and agricultural commodity prices and the harvest; cotton and gold
Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger River and about 65% of its land area is desert or semidesert. About 10% of the population is nomadic and about 80% of the labor force is engaged in farming and fishing. Indu
Mali is developing its iron ore extraction industry to diversify foreign exchange earnings away from gold, but the pace will largely depend on global price trends. Mali’s economic performance has improved since 2013 although physical insecurity, high popu
Malta
Malta - the smallest economy in the euro zone - produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited fresh water supplies, and has few domestic energy sources. Malta's economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing, and tourism. Malta joined the E
Malta has weathered the euro-zone crisis better than most EU member states due to a low debt-to-GDP ratio and financially sound banking sector. It has low unemployment relative to other European countries, and growth has recovered since the 2009 recession
Malta’s services sector continued to grow in 2015, with noted increases in the financial services and online gaming sectors. Malta continues to enhance its regulation of the financial services sector, and passed additional legislation in 2014 and 2015 to
Malta’s 2015-16 GDP growth was bolstered by energy infrastructure investments, and revenue growth is expected to continue, supported by a strong labor market and proceeds from a citizenship by investment program equal to roughly 0.9% of GDP. Malta's geogr
Marshall Islands
US assistance and lease payments for the use of Kwajalein Atoll as a US military base are the mainstay of this small island country. Agricultural production, primarily subsistence, is concentrated on small farms; the most important commercial crops are co
The Marshall Islands received roughly $1 billion in aid from the US during 1986-2001 under the original Compact of Free Association (Compact). In 2002 and 2003, the US and the Marshall Islands renegotiated the Compact's financial package for a 20-year per
Mauritania
Mauritania's economy is dominated by natural resources and agriculture. Half the population still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood, even though many nomads and subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in t
Mauritania's extensive mineral resources include iron ore, gold, copper, gypsum, and phosphate rock, and exploration is ongoing for uranium, crude oil, and natural gas. Extractive commodities make up about three-quarters of Mauritania's total exports, sub
Risks to Mauritania's economy include its recurring droughts, dependence on foreign aid and investment, and insecurity in neighboring Mali, as well as significant shortages of infrastructure, institutional capacity, and human capital. Mauritania has sough
Mauritius
Since independence in 1968, Mauritius has undergone a remarkable economic transformation from a low-income, agriculturally based economy to a diversified, upper middle-income economy with growing industrial, financial, and tourist sectors. Mauritius has a
The economy currently rests on sugar, tourism, textiles and apparel, and financial services, but is expanding into fish processing, information and communications technology, and hospitality and property development. Sugarcane is grown on about 90% of the
Mauritius' sound economic policies and prudent banking practices helped to mitigate negative effects of the global financial crisis in 2008-09. GDP grew in the 3-4% per year range in 2010-16, and the country continues to expand its trade and investment ou
Mexico
Mexico's $2.2 trillion economy has become increasingly oriented toward manufacturing since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) entered into force in 1994. Per capita income is roughly one-third that of the US; income distribution remains highl
Mexico has become the US' second-largest export market and third-largest source of imports. In 2015, two-way trade in goods and services exceeded $592 billion. Mexico has free trade agreements with 46 countries, putting more than 90% of trade under free t
Mexico's current government, led by President Enrique PENA NIETO, emphasized economic reforms during its first two years in office, passing and implementing sweeping education, energy, financial, fiscal, and telecommunications reform legislation, among ot
Since 2013, Mexico’s economic growth has averaged 2% annually, falling short of private-sector expectations that President Pena Nieto’s sweeping reforms would bolster economic prospects. Growth is predicted to remain below potential given falling oil prod
Micronesia, Federated States of
Economic activity consists largely of subsistence farming and fishing, and government, which employs two-thirds of the adult working population and receives funding largely - 58% in 2013 – from Compact of Free Association assistance provided by the US. Th
Under the terms of the original Compact, the US provided $1.3 billion in grants and aid from 1986 to 2001. The US and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) negotiated a second (amended) Compact agreement in 2002-03 that took effect in 2004. The amended
The country's medium-term economic outlook appears fragile because of dependence on US assistance and lackluster performance of its small and stagnant private sector.
Moldova
Despite recent progress, Moldova remains one of the poorest countries in Europe. With a moderate climate and productive farmland, Moldova's economy relies heavily on its agriculture sector, featuring fruits, vegetables, wine, and tobacco. Moldova also dep
With few natural energy resources, Moldova imports almost all of its energy supplies from Russia and Ukraine. Moldova's dependence on Russian energy is underscored by a more than $5 billion debt to Russian natural gas supplier Gazprom, largely the result
The government's stated goal of EU integration has resulted in some market-oriented progress. Moldova experienced better than expected economic growth in 2014 due to increased agriculture production, to economic policies adopted by the Moldovan government
Over the longer term, Moldova's economy remains vulnerable to corruption, political uncertainty, weak administrative capacity, vested bureaucratic interests, higher fuel prices, Russian political and economic pressure, and unresolved separatism in Moldova
Monaco
Monaco, bordering France on the Mediterranean coast, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate. The principality also is a banking center and has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added,
The state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices. Monaco, however, is not a tax-free shelter; it charges nea
Monaco's reliance on tourism and banking for its economic growth has left it vulnerable to a downturn in France and other European economies which are the principality's main trade partners. In 2009, Monaco's GDP fell by 11.5% as the euro-zone crisis prec
Mongolia
Foreign direct investment in Mongolia's extractive industries – which are based on extensive deposits of copper, gold, coal, molybdenum, fluorspar, uranium, tin, and tungsten - has transformed Mongolia's landlocked economy from its traditional dependence
Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990 and 1991 at the time of the dismantlement of the USSR. The following decade saw Mongolia endure both deep recession, because of political inaction, and natural disaste
Growth averaged nearly 9% per year in 2004-08 largely because of high copper prices globally and new gold production. By late 2008, Mongolia was hit by the global financial crisis and Mongolia's real economy contracted 1.3% in 2009. In early 2009, the IMF
The current government has made restoring investor trust and reviving the economy its top priority, but has failed to invigorate the economy in the face of the large drop off in foreign direct investment, mounting external debt, and a sizeable budget defi
Montenegro
Montenegro's economy is transitioning to a market system. From the beginning of the privatization process in 1999 through 2015, around 85% of Montenegrin state-owned companies have been privatized, including 100% of banking, telecommunications, and oil di
Montenegro uses the euro as its domestic currency, though it is not an official member of the euro zone. In January 2007, Montenegro joined the World Bank and IMF, and in December 2011, the WTO. Montenegro began negotiations to join the EC in June, 2012,
The government recognizes the need to remove impediments in order to remain competitive and open the economy to foreign investors. The biggest foreign investors in Montenegro are Italy, Norway, Austria, Russia, Hungary and the UK. Net foreign direct inves
Montenegro is currently planning major overhauls of its road and rail networks, and possible expansions of its air transportation system. In 2014, the Government of Montenegro selected two Chinese companies to construct a 41 km-long section of the country
Montserrat
Severe volcanic activity, which began in July 1995, has put a damper on this small, open economy. A catastrophic eruption in June 1997 closed the airport and seaports, causing further economic and social dislocation. Two-thirds of the 12,000 inhabitants f
Prospects for the economy depend largely on developments in relation to the volcanic activity and on public sector construction activity. Half of the island remains uninhabitable. In January 2013, the EU announced the disbursement of a $55.2 million aid p
Morocco
Morocco has capitalized on its proximity to Europe and relatively low labor costs to work towards building a diverse, open, market-oriented economy. Key sectors of the economy include agriculture, tourism, aerospace, automotive, phosphates, textiles, appa
In the 1980s, Morocco was a heavily indebted country before pursuing austerity measures and pro-market reforms, overseen by the IMF. Since taking the throne in 1999, King MOHAMMED VI has presided over a stable economy marked by steady growth, low inflatio
Despite Morocco's economic progress, the country suffers from high unemployment, poverty, and illiteracy, particularly in rural areas. Key economic challenges for Morocco include reforming the education system and the judiciary.
Mozambique
At independence in 1975, Mozambique was one of the world's poorest countries. Socialist policies, economic mismanagement, and a brutal civil war from 1977 to 1992 further impoverished the country. In 1987, the government embarked on a series of macroecono
In spite of these gains, more than half the population remains below the poverty line. Subsistence agriculture continues to employ the vast majority of the country's work force. Citizens rioted in September 2010 after fuel, water, electricity, and bread p
A substantial trade imbalance persists, although aluminum production from the Mozal Aluminum Smelter has significantly boosted export earnings in recent years. In 2012, The Mozambican Government took over Portugal's last remaining share in the Cahora Bass
Mozambique's once substantial foreign debt was reduced through forgiveness and rescheduling under the IMF's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC initiatives. However, in 2013, the Mozambique Tuna Company (EMATUM) issued an $850 million
Mozambique grew at an average annual rate of 6%-8% in the decade up to 2015, one of Africa's strongest performances, but growth slowed in 2016 as low commodity prices reduced exports. Mozambique's ability to attract large investment projects in natural re
Namibia
The economy is heavily dependent on the extraction and processing of minerals for export. Mining accounts for 11.5% of GDP, but provides more than 50% of foreign exchange earnings. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quali
Namibia is the world's fifth-largest producer of uranium. The Chinese owned Husab uranium mine in expected to start producing uranium ore in 2017. Once the Husab mine reaches full production, Namibia is expected to become the world’s second-largest produc
Namibia normally imports about 50% of its cereal requirements; in drought years food shortages can be a problem in rural areas. A high per capita GDP, relative to the region, hides one of the world's most unequal income distributions. A priority of the cu
A five-year, Millennium Challenge Corporation compact ended in September 2014. As an upper middle income country, Namibia is ineligible for a second compact. The Namibian economy is closely linked to South Africa with the Namibian dollar pegged one-to-one
Nauru
Revenues of this tiny island - a coral atoll with a land area of 21 square kilometers - traditionally have come from exports of phosphates. Few other resources exist, with most necessities being imported, mainly from Australia, its former occupier and lat
The rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates are serious long-term problems. In anticipation of the exhaustion of Nauru's phosphate deposits, substantial amounts of phosphate income were invested in trust funds to help cu
Although revenue sources for government are limited, the opening of the Australian Regional Processing Center for asylum seekers since 2012 has sparked growth in the economy. Revenue derived from fishing licenses under the "vessel day scheme" has also boo
Nepal
Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world, with about one-quarter of its population living below the poverty line. Nepal is heavily dependent on remittances, which amount to as much as 29% of GDP. Agriculture is the mainstay of
Nepal has considerable scope for exploiting its potential in hydropower, with an estimated 42,000 MW of commercially feasible capacity. Nepal and India signed trade and investment agreements in 2014 that increase Nepal’s hydropower potential, but politica
Nepal was hit by massive earthquakes in early 2015, which damaged or destroyed infrastructure and homes and set back economic development. Political gridlock in the past several years and recent public protests, predominantly in the southern Tarai region,
Netherlands
The Netherlands, the sixth-largest economy in the European Union, plays an important role as a European transportation hub, with a persistently high trade surplus, stable industrial relations, and moderate unemployment. Industry focuses on food processing
The Netherlands is part of the euro zone, and as such, its monetary policy is controlled by the European Central Bank. The Dutch financial sector is highly concentrated, with four commercial banks possessing over 90% of banking assets. The sector suffered
The government of Prime Minister Mark RUTTE has since implemented significant austerity measures to improve public finances and has instituted broad structural reforms in key policy areas, including the labor market, the housing sector, the energy market,
New Caledonia
New Caledonia has about 25% of the world's known nickel reserves. Only a small amount of the land is suitable for cultivation, and food accounts for about 20% of imports. In addition to nickel, substantial financial support from France - equal to more tha
During 2009-10, France sent more development assistance to New Caledonia than to any of its other overseas territories. In October 2014, French Prime Minster Manuel VALLS confirmed financial support to New Caledonia totaling $500 million for the period 20
Substantial new investment in the nickel industry — including two major new plants - combined with the recovery of global nickel prices, has brightened the economic outlook for the next several years. In 2015, New Caledonia helped fill China’s shortfall i
New Zealand
Over the past 30 years, the government has transformed New Zealand from an agrarian economy, dependent on concessionary British market access, to a more industrialized, free market economy that can compete globally. This dynamic growth has boosted real in
Per capita income rose for ten consecutive years until 2007 in purchasing power parity terms, but fell in 2008-09. Debt-driven consumer spending drove robust growth in the first half of the decade, fueling a large balance of payments deficit that posed a
The economy fell into recession before the start of the global financial crisis and contracted for five consecutive quarters in 2008-09. In line with global peers, the central bank cut interest rates aggressively and the government developed fiscal stimul
Nicaragua
Nicaragua, the poorest country in Central America and the second poorest in the Western Hemisphere, has widespread underemployment and poverty. Textiles and agriculture combined account for nearly 50% of Nicaragua's exports.
The Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many Nicaraguan agricultural and manufactured goods.
In 2013, the government granted a 50-year concession to a newly formed Chinese-run company to finance and build an inter-oceanic canal and related projects, at an estimated cost of $50 billion. The canal construction has not started.
Nigeria
Following an April 2014 statistical "rebasing" exercise, Nigeria has emerged as Africa's largest economy, with 2015 GDP estimated at $1.1 trillion. Oil has been a dominant source of income and government revenues since the 1970s. Following the 2008-9 glob
Despite its strong fundamentals, oil-rich Nigeria has been hobbled by inadequate power supply, lack of infrastructure, delays in the passage of legislative reforms, an inefficient property registration system, restrictive trade policies, an inconsistent r
Because of lower oil prices, GDP in 2016 fell 1.7%, and government revenues declined, while the nonoil sector also contracted due to economic policy uncertainty. President BUHARI, elected in March 2015, has established a cabinet of economic ministers that
Niger
Niger is a landlocked, sub-Saharan nation, whose economy centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Agriculture contributes nearly 40% of GDP and provides livelihood for most of the population. The UN ranked
Since 2011 public debt has increased due to efforts to scale-up public investment, particularly that related to infrastructure. The government relies on foreign donor resources for a large portion of its fiscal budget. The economy in recent years has been
Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Although Niger has sizable reserves of oil, the profitability of these commodities has been called in to question due to the prolonged drop in oil prices. Food
Niue
The economy suffers from the typical Pacific island problems of geographic isolation, few resources, and a small population. The agricultural sector consists mainly of subsistence gardening, although some cash crops are grown for export. Industry consists
Government expenditures regularly exceed revenues, and the shortfall is made up by critically needed grants from New Zealand that are used to pay wages to public employees. Economic aid allocation from New Zealand in FY13/14 was US$10.1 million. Niue has
The island in recent years has suffered a serious loss of population because of emigration to New Zealand. Efforts to increase GDP include the promotion of tourism and financial services, although the International Banking Repeal Act of 2002 resulted in t
Northern Mariana Islands
The Northern Mariana Islands' economy benefits substantially from financial assistance from the US. In fiscal year 2013, federal grants accounted for 35.4% of the Commonwealth’s total revenues. A small agriculture sector is made up of cattle ranches and s
The Commonwealth’s economy continued to recover in 2013. Real GDP increased 4.4%, following a 2.1% gain in 2012. Economic growth in 2013 reflected increases in consumer spending and exports of services, mainly spending by foreign tourists.
Tourism continued to grow in 2013, after posting double-digit growth in 2012. The tourist industry employs approximately a quarter of the work force and accounts for roughly one-fourth of GDP. The Commonwealth is making a concerted effort to broaden its t
Norway
Norway's has a stable economy with a vibrant private sector, a large state sector, and an extensive social safety net. Norway opted out of the EU during a referendum in November 1994; nonetheless, as a member of the European Economic Area, it contributes
The country is richly endowed with natural resources in addition to oil and gas, including hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. The government manages the country’s petroleum resources through extensive regulation. The petroleum sector provides about
In anticipation of eventual declines in oil and gas production, Norway saves state revenue from petroleum sector activities in the world's largest sovereign wealth fund, valued at over $800 billion as of early 2016. The government allows itself to use up
Oman
Oman is heavily dependent on its dwindling oil resources, which generate 84% of government revenue. In 2016, low global oil prices drove Oman’s budget deficit to $11.3 billion, or nearly 19% of GDP. Oman has limited foreign assets and is issuing debt to c
Oman is using enhanced oil recovery techniques to boost production and has actively pursued a development plan that focuses on diversification, industrialization, and privatization, with the objective of reducing the oil sector's contribution to GDP from
Muscat also is focused on creating more jobs to employ the rising number of Omanis entering the workforce. Increases in social welfare benefits, however, particularly since the Arab Spring, dating to 2011, have challenged the government's ability to effec
Pakistan
Decades of internal political disputes and low levels of foreign investment have led to slow growth and underdevelopment in Pakistan. Pakistan has a large English-speaking population. Nevertheless, a challenging security environment, electricity shortages
In 2013, Pakistan embarked on a $6.3 billion IMF Extended Fund Facility, which focused on reducing energy shortages, stabilizing public finances, increasing revenue collection, and improving its balance of payments position. The program concluded in Septe
Pakistan must continue to address several long-standing issues, including expanding investment in education and healthcare, adapting to the effects of climate change and natural disasters, improving the country’s business environment, reducing dependence
In an effort to boost development, Pakistan and China are implementing the “China-Pakistan Economic Corridor”, a $46 billion investment program targeted towards the energy sector and other infrastructure projects that Islamabad and Beijing had agreed on i
Palau
The economy consists of tourism and other services such as trade, subsistence agriculture, and fishing. Government is a major employer of the work force relying on financial assistance from the US under the Compact of Free Association (Compact) with the U
Business and leisure tourist arrivals numbered over 125,000 in fiscal year 2014, a 13.4% increase over the previous year. Long-run prospects for tourism have been bolstered by the expansion of air travel in the Pacific, the rising prosperity of industrial
Panama
Panama's dollar-based economy rests primarily on a well-developed services sector that accounts for more than three-quarters of GDP. Services include operating the Panama Canal, logistics, banking, the Colon Free Trade Zone, insurance, container ports, fl
Growth will be bolstered by the Panama Canal expansion project that began in 2007 and was completed in 2016 at a cost of $5.3 billion - about 10-15% of current GDP. The expansion project will more than double the Canal's capacity, enabling it to accommoda
Strong economic performance has not translated into broadly shared prosperity, as Panama has the second worst income distribution in Latin America. About one-fourth of the population lives in poverty; however, from 2006 to 2012 poverty was reduced by 10 p
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (PNG) is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by rugged terrain, land tenure issues, and the high cost of developing infrastructure. The economy has a small formal sector, focused mainly on the export
Mineral deposits, including copper, gold, and oil, account for nearly two-thirds of export earnings. Natural gas reserves amount to an estimated 155 billion cubic meters. A consortium led by a major American oil company is constructing a liquefied natural
Numerous challenges still face the government of Peter O'NEILL, including providing physical security for foreign investors, regaining investor confidence, restoring integrity to state institutions, promoting economic efficiency by privatizing moribund st
Paraguay
Landlocked Paraguay has a market economy distinguished by a large informal sector, featuring re-export of imported consumer goods to neighboring countries, as well as the activities of thousands of microenterprises and urban street vendors. A large percen
On a per capita basis, real income has stagnated at 1980 levels. The economy grew rapidly between 2003 and 2008 as growing world demand for commodities combined with high prices and favorable weather to support Paraguay's commodity-based export expansion.
In addition to the agricultural challenges, political uncertainty, corruption, limited progress on structural reform, and deficient infrastructure are the main obstacles to long-term growth.
Peru
Peru's economy reflects its varied topography - an arid lowland coastal region, the central high sierra of the Andes, the dense forest of the Amazon, with tropical lands bordering Colombia and Brazil. A wide range of important mineral resources are found
The Peruvian economy grew by an average of 5.6% from 2009-13 with a stable exchange rate and low inflation, which in 2013 was just below the upper limit of the Central Bank target range of 1% to 3%. This growth was due partly to high international prices
Peru's rapid expansion coupled with cash transfers and other programs have helped to reduce the national poverty rate by 28 percentage points since 2002, but inequality persists and continues to pose a challenge for the Ollanta HUMALA administration, whic
Peru's free trade policy has continued under the HUMALA administration; since 2006, Peru has signed trade deals with the US, Canada, Singapore, China, Korea, Mexico, Japan, the EU, the European Free Trade Association, Chile, Thailand, Costa Rica, Panama,
Philippines
The economy has been relatively resilient to global economic shocks due to less exposure to troubled international securities, lower dependence on exports, relatively resilient domestic consumption, large remittances from about 10 million overseas Filipin
Efforts to improve tax administration and expenditures management have helped ease the Philippines' debt burden and tight fiscal situation. The Philippines received investment-grade credit ratings on its sovereign debt under the former AQUINO administrati
Economic growth has accelerated, averaging 6.0% per year from 2011 to 2016, compared with 4.5% under the MACAPAGAL-ARROYO government; and competitiveness rankings have improved. FDI to the Philippines has continued to lag regional peers, in part because t
Although the economy grew at a faster pace under the AQUINO government, challenges to achieving more inclusive growth remain. The unemployment rate has declined somewhat in recent years but remains high, hovering at around 6.5%; underemployment is also hi
2016 saw the election of President Rodrigo DUTERTE, who has pledged to make poverty reduction his top policy priority. Duterte believes that illegal drug use, crime and corruption are key barriers to economic development among the lower class. Duterte has
Poland
Poland has pursued a policy of economic liberalization since 1990 and Poland's economy was the only EU country to avoid a recession through the 2008-09 economic downturn. Although EU membership and access to EU structural funds have provided a major boost
The government of Prime Minister Donald TUSK steered the Polish economy through the economic downturn by skillfully managing public finances and adopting controversial pension and tax reforms to further shore up public finances. While the Polish economy h
Poland faces several challenges, which include addressing some of the remaining deficiencies in its road and rail infrastructure, business environment, rigid labor code, commercial court system, government red tape, and burdensome tax system, especially f
Portugal
Portugal has become a diversified and increasingly service-based economy since joining the European Community - the EU's predecessor - in 1986. Over the following two decades, successive governments privatized many state-controlled firms and liberalized k
The economy grew by more than the EU average for much of the 1990s, but the rate of growth slowed in 2001-08. The economy contracted in 2009, and fell again from 2011 to 2013, as the government implemented spending cuts and tax increases to comply with co
A continued reduction in private- and public-sector debt weighed on consumption and investment in 2016, holding back a stronger recovery. The prior center-right government passed legislation aimed at reducing labor market rigidity, and, this, along with s
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico had one of the most dynamic economies in the Caribbean region until 2006; however, growth has been negative for each of the last ten years. The downturn coincided with the phaseout of tax preferences that had led US firms to invest heavily in
Diminished job opportunities prompted a sharp rise in outmigration, as many Puerto Ricans sought jobs on the US mainland. Unemployment reached 16% in 2011, but declined to 13.7% in December 2014. US minimum wage laws apply in Puerto Rico, hampering job ex
The industrial sector greatly exceeds agriculture as the locus of economic activity and income. Tourism has traditionally been an important source of income with estimated arrivals of more than 3.6 million tourists in 2008. Puerto Rico's merchandise trade
Closing the budget deficit while restoring economic growth and employment remain the central concerns of the government. The gap between revenues and expenditures amounted to 0.6% of GDP in 2016, although analysts believe that not all expenditures have be
Qatar
Qatar has prospered in the last several years with continued high real GDP growth, but low oil prices have dampened the outlook. Qatar was the only Gulf Cooperation Council member that avoided a budget deficit in 2015, but it had a $12 billion deficit, 7.
GDP is driven largely by the oil and gas sector; however, growth in manufacturing, construction, and financial services have lifted the non-oil sectors to just over half of Qatar’s nominal GDP. Economic policy is focused on sustaining Qatar's non-associat
Qatar's successful 2022 World Cup bid is accelerating large-scale infrastructure projects such as its metro system, light rail system, construction of a new port, roads, stadiums and related sporting infrastructure.
Romania
Romania, which joined the EU on 1 January 2007, began the transition from communism in 1989 with a largely obsolete industrial base and a pattern of output unsuited to the country's needs. Romania's macroeconomic gains have only recently started to spur c
In the aftermath of the global financial crisis, Romania signed a $26 billion emergency assistance package from the IMF, the EU, and other international lenders, but GDP contracted until 2011. In March 2011, Romania and the IMF/EU/World Bank signed a 24-m
Economic growth rebounded in 2013-16, driven by strong industrial exports and excellent agricultural harvests, and the fiscal deficit was reduced substantially. Industry outperformed other sectors of the economy in 2016. Exports remained an engine of econ
An aging population, significant tax evasion, insufficient health care, and an aggressive loosening of the fiscal package jeopardize the low fiscal deficit and public debt and are the economy's top vulnerabilities.
Russia
Russia has undergone significant changes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, moving from a centrally planned economy towards a more market-based system. Both economic growth and reform have stalled in recent years, however, and Russia remains a predom
Russia is one of the world's leading producers of oil and natural gas, and is also a top exporter of metals such as steel and primary aluminum. Russia's reliance on commodity exports makes it vulnerable to boom and bust cycles that follow the volatile swi
The economy, which had averaged 7% growth during 1998-2008 as oil prices rose rapidly, has seen diminishing growth rates since then due to the exhaustion of Russia’s commodity-based growth model.
A combination of falling oil prices, international sanctions, and structural limitations pushed Russia into a deep recession in 2015, with the GDP falling by close to 4%. The downturn continued through 2016. Government support for import substitution has
Rwanda
Rwanda is a rural country with about 90% of the population engaged in subsistence agriculture and some mineral and agro-processing. Tourism, minerals, coffee and tea are Rwanda's main sources of foreign exchange. Despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food p
The 1994 genocide decimated Rwanda's fragile economic base, severely impoverished the population, particularly women, and temporarily stalled the country's ability to attract private and external investment. However, Rwanda has made substantial progress i
Africa's most densely populated country is trying to overcome the limitations of its small, landlocked economy by leveraging regional trade; Rwanda joined the East African Community and is aligning its budget, trade, and immigration policies with its regi
The Rwandan Government is seeking to become a regional leader in information and communication technologies. In 2012, Rwanda completed the first modern Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in Kigali. The SEZ seeks to attract investment in all sectors, but specific
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
The economy depends largely on financial assistance from the UK, which amounted to about $27 million in FY06/07 or more than twice the level of annual budgetary revenues. The local population earns income from fishing, raising livestock, and sales of hand
Saint Kitts and Nevis
The economy of Saint Kitts and Nevis depends on tourism; since the 1970s, tourism has replaced sugar as the economy’s traditional mainstay. Roughly 200,000 tourists visited the islands in 2009, but reduced tourism arrivals and foreign investment led to an
Following the 2005 harvest, the government closed the sugar industry after several decades of losses. To compensate for lost jobs, the government has embarked on a program to diversify the agricultural sector and to stimulate other sectors of the economy,
Saint Lucia
The island nation has been able to attract foreign business and investment, especially in its offshore banking and tourism industries. Tourism is Saint Lucia's main source of jobs and income - accounting for 65% of GDP - and the island's main source of fo
Saint Lucia is vulnerable to a variety of external shocks, including volatile tourism receipts, natural disasters, and dependence on foreign oil. Furthermore, high public debt - 77% of GDP in 2012 - and high debt servicing obligations constrain the ANTHON
St. Lucia has experienced anemic growth since the onset of the global financial crisis in 2008, largely because of a slowdown in tourism - airlines cut back on their routes to St. Lucia in 2012. Also, St. Lucia introduced a value added tax in 2012 of 15%,
Saint Martin
The economy of Saint Martin centers on tourism with 85% of the labor force engaged in this sector. Over one million visitors come to the island each year with most arriving through the Princess Juliana International Airport in Sint Maarten. No significant
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
The inhabitants have traditionally earned their livelihood by fishing and by servicing fishing fleets operating off the coast of Newfoundland. The economy has been declining, however, because of disputes with Canada over fishing quotas and a steady declin
In 1992, an arbitration panel awarded the islands an exclusive economic zone of 12,348 sq km to settle a longstanding territorial dispute with Canada, although it represents only 25% of what France had sought. France heavily subsidizes the islands to the
The government hopes an expansion of tourism will boost economic prospects. Fish farming, crab fishing, and agriculture are being developed to diversify the local economy. Recent test drilling for oil may pave the way for development of the energy sector.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Success of the economy hinges upon seasonal variations in agriculture, tourism, and construction activity as well as remittances. Much of the workforce is employed in banana production and tourism, but persistent high unemployment has prompted many to lea
This lower-middle-income country is vulnerable to natural disasters - tropical storms wiped out substantial portions of crops in 1994, 1995, and 2002. Floods and mudslides caused by unseasonable rainfall in 2013, caused substantial damage to infrastructur
In 2013, the islands had more than 200,000 tourist arrivals, mostly to the Grenadines. Arrivals represented a marginal increase from 2012 but remain 26% below St. Vincent's 2009 peak. Weak recovery in the tourism and construction sectors limited growth in
Samoa
The economy of Samoa has traditionally been dependent on development aid, family remittances from overseas, tourism, agriculture, and fishing. It has a nominal GDP of $780 million. Agriculture, including fishing, employs roughly two-thirds of the labor fo
The country is vulnerable to devastating storms. In September 2009, an earthquake and the resulting tsunami severely damaged Samoa and nearby American Samoa, disrupting transportation and power generation, and resulting in about 200 deaths. In December 20
The Samoan Government has called for deregulation of the country's financial sector, encouragement of investment, and continued fiscal discipline, while at the same time protecting the environment. Foreign reserves are relatively healthy and inflation is
San Marino
San Marino's economy relies heavily on tourism, banking, and the manufacture and export of ceramics, clothing, fabrics, furniture, paints, spirits, tiles, and wine. The manufacturing and financial sectors account for more than half of San Marino's GDP. Th
San Marino's economy has been contracting since 2008, largely due to weakened demand from Italy - which accounts for nearly 90% of its export market - and financial sector consolidation. Difficulties in the banking sector, the recent global economic downt
The economy benefits from foreign investment due to its relatively low corporate taxes and low taxes on interest earnings. The income tax rate is also very low, about one-third the average EU level. San Marino continues to work towards harmonizing its fis
Sao Tome and Principe
This small, poor island economy has become increasingly dependent on cocoa since independence in 1975. Cocoa production has substantially declined in recent years because of drought and mismanagement. Sao Tome and Principe has to import fuels, most manufa
Over the years, Sao Tome and Principe has had difficulty servicing its external debt and has relied heavily on concessional aid and debt rescheduling. It benefited from $200 million in debt relief in December 2000 under the Highly Indebted Poor Countries
Considerable potential exists for development of a tourist industry, and the government has taken steps to expand facilities in recent years. Potential also exists for the development of petroleum resources in Sao Tome and Principe's territorial waters in
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. It possesses about 16% of the world's proven petroleum reserves, ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum, and plays a leading role in OPEC. The petrol
Saudi Arabia is encouraging the growth of the private sector in order to diversify its economy and to employ more Saudi nationals. Over 6 million foreign workers play an important role in the Saudi economy, particularly in the oil and service sectors; at
In 2016, the Kingdom incurred a budget deficit estimated at 13.6% of GDP, which was financed by bond sales and drawing down reserves. Although the Kingdom can finance high deficits for several years by drawing down its considerable foreign assets or by bo
Senegal
Senegal’s economy is driven by mining, construction, tourism, fisheries and agriculture, which is the primary source of employment in rural areas. The country's key export industries include phosphate mining, fertilizer production, agricultural products a
President Macky SALL, who was elected in March 2012 under a reformist policy agenda, inherited an economy with high energy costs, a challenging business environment, and a culture of overspending. President SALL unveiled an ambitious economic plan, the Em
Senegal is receiving technical support from the IMF from 2015-2017 under a Policy Support Instrument (PSI) to assist with implementation of the ESP. The PSI implementation continues to be satisfactory as concluded by the IMF’s second review mission in Mar
The government will focus on 19 projects under the ESP for the 2016 budget to continue the structural transformation of the economy. These 19 projects include the Thies-Touba Highway, including the new airport- Mbour-Thies Highway. Senegal will increase t
Serbia
Serbia has a transitional economy largely dominated by market forces, but the state sector remains significant in certain areas and many institutional reforms are needed. The economy relies on manufacturing and exports, driven largely by foreign investmen
After former Federal Yugoslav President MILOSEVIC was ousted in September 2000, the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS) coalition government implemented stabilization measures and embarked on a market reform program. Serbia renewed its membership in the
High unemployment and stagnant household incomes are ongoing political and economic problems. Structural economic reforms needed to ensure the country's long-term prosperity have largely stalled since the onset of the global financial crisis. Growing budg
Major challenges ahead include: high unemployment rates and the need for job creation; high government expenditures for salaries, pensions, healthcare, and unemployment benefits; a growing need for new government borrowing; rising public and private forei
Seychelles
Since independence in 1976, per capita output in this Indian Ocean archipelago has expanded to roughly seven times the pre-independence, near-subsistence level, moving the island into the upper-middle-income group of countries. Growth has been led by the
In recent years, the government has encouraged foreign investment to upgrade hotels and other services. At the same time, the government has moved to reduce the dependence on tourism by promoting the development of farming, fishing, and small-scale manufa
In 2008, having depleted its foreign exchange reserves, Seychelles defaulted on interest payments due on a $230 million Eurobond, requested assistance from the IMF, and immediately enacted a number of significant structural reforms, including liberalizati
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone is extremely poor and nearly half of the working-age population engages in subsistence agriculture. The country possesses substantial mineral, agricultural, and fishery resources, but it is still recovering from a civil war that destroyed mos
In recent years economic growth has been driven by mining - particularly iron ore. The country’s principal exports are iron ore, diamonds, and rutile, and the economy is vulnerable to fluctuations in international prices. Until 2014, the government had re
While the World Health Organization declared an end to the Ebola outbreak in Sierra Leone in November 2015, economic recovery will depend on rising commodities prices and increased efforts to diversify the sources of growth. Pervasive corruption and undev
Singapore
Singapore has a highly developed and successful free-market economy. It enjoys a remarkably open and corruption-free environment, stable prices, and a per capita GDP higher than that of most developed countries. Unemployment is very low. The economy depen
The economy contracted 0.6% in 2009 as a result of the global financial crisis, but has continued to grow since 2010 on the strength of renewed exports. Growth in 2014-16 was slower at under 3%, largely a result of soft demand for exports amid a sluggish
The government is attempting to restructure Singapore’s economy by weaning its dependence on foreign labor, addressing weak productivity, and increasing Singaporean wages. Singapore has attracted major investments in pharmaceuticals and medical technology
Slovakia
Slovakia has made significant economic reforms since its separation from the Czech Republic in 1993. With a population of 5.4 million, the Slovak Republic has a small, open economy, with exports, at about 95% of GDP, serving as the main driver of GDP grow
Slovakia has led the region garnering FDI, because of its relatively low-cost, highly-skilled labor force, reasonable tax rates, and favorable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe. However, recent increases in corporate taxes, as well as cha
Slovenia
With excellent infrastructure, a well-educated work force, and a strategic location between the Balkans and Western Europe, Slovenia has one of the highest per capita GDPs in Central Europe, despite having suffered a protracted recession in 2008-2009 in t
In March 2004, Slovenia became the first transition country to graduate from borrower status to donor partner at the World Bank. In 2007, Slovenia was invited to begin the process for joining the OECD; it became a member in 2012. However, long-delayed pri
Prime Minister CERAR’s government took office in September 2014, pledging to press ahead with commitments to privatize a select group of state-run companies, rationalize public spending, and further stabilize the banking sector.
Somalia
Despite the lack of effective national governance, Somalia maintains an informal economy largely based on livestock, remittance/money transfer companies, and telecommunications. Somalia's government lacks the ability to collect domestic revenue and extern
Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock normally accounting for about 40% of GDP and more than 50% of export earnings. Nomads and semi-pastoralists, who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood, make up a large portion of the pop
In recent years, Somalia's capital city, Mogadishu, has witnessed the development of the city's first gas stations, supermarkets, and airline flights to Turkey since the collapse of central authority in 1991. Mogadishu's main market offers a variety of go
South Africa
South Africa is a middle-income emerging market with an abundant supply of natural resources; well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors; and a stock exchange that is Africa’s largest and among the top 20 in the world.
Economic growth has decelerated in recent years, slowing to just 1.5% in 2014. Unemployment, poverty, and inequality - among the highest in the world - remain a challenge. Official unemployment is roughly 25% of the workforce, and runs significantly highe
South Africa's economic policy has focused on controlling inflation; however, the country faces structural constraints that also limit economic growth, such as skills shortages, declining global competitiveness, and frequent work stoppages due to strike a
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
Some fishing takes place in adjacent waters. Harvesting finfish and krill are potential sources of income. The islands receive income from postage stamps produced in the UK, the sale of fishing licenses, and harbor and landing fees from tourist vessels. T
South Sudan
Following several decades of civil war with Sudan, industry and infrastructure in landlocked South Sudan are severely underdeveloped and poverty is widespread. Subsistence agriculture provides a living for the vast majority of the population. Property rig
South Sudan has little infrastructure - approximately 200 kilometers of paved roads. Electricity is produced mostly by costly diesel generators, and indoor plumbing and potable water are scarce. South Sudan depends largely on imports of goods, services, a
Nevertheless, South Sudan does have abundant natural resources. At independence in 2011, South Sudan produced nearly three-fourths of former Sudan's total oil output of nearly a half million barrels per day. The government of South Sudan used to rely on o
South Sudan is currently burdened by considerable debt because of increased military spending and revenue shortfalls due to low oil prices and decreased production. South Sudan has received more than $4 billion in foreign aid since 2005, largely from the
Spain
After experiencing a prolonged recession in the wake of the global financial crisis that began in 2008, in 2016 Spain marked the third full year of positive economic growth in nine years, largely due to increased private consumption. At the onset of the f
Until 2014, credit contraction in the private sector, fiscal austerity, and high unemployment weighed on domestic consumption and investment. The unemployment rate rose from a low of about 8% in 2007 to more than 26% in 2013, but labor reforms prompted a
Exports were resilient throughout the economic downturn and helped to bring Spain's current account into surplus in 2013 for the first time since 1986, where it remained in 2014-16. Rising labor productivity and an internal devaluation resulting from mode
The government's efforts to implement labor, pension, healthcare, tax, and education reforms - aimed at supporting investor sentiment - have become overshadowed by political activity in 2015 in anticipation of the national parliamentary elections in Decem
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka continues to experience strong economic growth following the end of the government's 26-year conflict with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. The government has been pursuing large-scale reconstruction and development projects in its efforts
The government's high debt payments and bloated civil service have contributed to historically high budget deficits and low tax revenues remain a concern. Government debt of about 77% of GDP remains among the highest in emerging markets.
The new government in 2015 drastically increased wages for public sector employees, which boosted demand for consumer goods but hurt the overall balance of payments and reduced foreign exchange reserves.
Sudan
Sudan has experienced protracted social conflict, civil war, and, in July 2011, the loss of three-quarters of its oil production due to the secession of South Sudan. The oil sector had driven much of Sudan's GDP growth since 1999. For nearly a decade, the
Sudan is also subject to comprehensive US sanctions. Sudan is attempting to develop non-oil sources of revenues, such as gold mining, while carrying out an austerity program to reduce expenditures. The world’s largest exporter of gum Arabic, Sudan produce
Sudan introduced a new currency, still called the Sudanese pound, following South Sudan's secession, but the value of the currency has fallen since its introduction. Khartoum devalued the currency in June 2012 and November 2016, in both cases to accompany
Suriname
The economy is dominated by the mining industry, with exports of oil, gold, and alumina accounting for about 85% of exports and 27% of government revenues, making the economy highly vulnerable to mineral price volatility.
Economic growth declined annually from just under 5% in 2012 to -7% in 2016. In January 2011, the government devalued the currency by 20% and raised taxes to reduce the budget deficit. As a result of these measures, inflation receded to less than 4% in 20
Suriname's economic prospects for the medium term will depend on continued commitment to responsible monetary and fiscal policies and to the introduction of structural reforms to liberalize markets and promote competition. The government's reliance on rev
Svalbard
Tourism and international research are Svalbard's major revenue sources. Coal mining has historically been the dominant economic activity, and a treaty of 9 February 1920 gave the 41 signatories equal rights to exploit mineral deposits, subject to Norwegi
The settlements on Svalbard were established as company towns, and at their height in the 1950s, the Norwegian state-owned coal company supported around 1,000 jobs. Today, around 300 people work in the mining industry.
Goods such as alcohol, tobacco, and vehicles, normally highly taxed on mainland Norway, are considerably cheaper in Svalbard in an effort by the Norwegian government to entice more people to live on the Arctic archipelago. By law, Norway collects only eno
Swaziland
Surrounded by South Africa, except for a short border with Mozambique, Swaziland depends on South Africa for 60% of its exports and for more than 90% of its imports. Swaziland's currency is pegged to the South African rand, effectively relinquishing Swazi
Subsistence agriculture employs approximately 70% of the population. The manufacturing sector diversified in the 1980s and 1990s, but manufacturing has grown little in the last decade. Sugar and wood pulp had been major foreign exchange earners until the
With an estimated 40% unemployment rate, Swaziland's need to increase the number and size of small and medium enterprises and to attract foreign direct investment is acute. Overgrazing, soil depletion, drought, and floods are persistent problems. On 1 Jan
The IMF forecasted that Swaziland’s economy will grow at a slower pace in 2017 because of a region-wide drought, which is likely to hurt Swaziland’s revenue from sugar exports and other agricultural products, and a decline in the tourism and transport sec
Sweden
Sweden has achieved an enviable standard of living with its combination of free-market capitalism and extensive welfare benefits. Sweden remains outside the euro zone largely out of concern that joining the European Economic and Monetary Union would dimin
Sweden’s economy experienced modest growth in 2014-16, with real GDP growth above 2%, but continues to struggle with deflationary pressure.
Switzerland
Switzerland, a country that espouses neutrality, is a prosperous and modern market economy with low unemployment, a highly skilled labor force, and a per capita GDP among the highest in the world. Switzerland's economy benefits from a highly developed ser
The Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with the EU's to enhance their international competitiveness, but some trade protectionism remains, particularly for its small agricultural sector. The fate of the Swiss economy is ti
The sovereign debt crises unfolding in neighboring euro-zone countries, however, coupled with ongoing economic instability in Russia and other eastern European economies continue to pose a significant risk to the Swiss economy, driving up demand for the S
In recent years, Switzerland has responded to increasing pressure from neighboring countries and trading partners to reform its banking secrecy laws, by agreeing to conform to OECD regulations on administrative assistance in tax matters, including tax eva
Syria
Syria's economy continues to deteriorate amid the ongoing conflict that began in 2011, declining by more than 70% from 2010 to 2016. The government has struggled to address the effects of international sanctions, widespread infrastructure damage, diminish
During 2014, the ongoing conflict and continued unrest and economic decline worsened the humanitarian crisis and elicited a greater need for international assistance, as the number of people in need inside Syria increased from 9.3 million to 12.2 million,
Prior to the turmoil, Damascus had begun liberalizing economic policies, including cutting lending interest rates, opening private banks, consolidating multiple exchange rates, raising prices on some subsidized items, and establishing the Damascus Stock E
Taiwan
Taiwan has a dynamic capitalist economy with gradually decreasing government guidance on investment and foreign trade. Exports, led by electronics, machinery, and petrochemicals have provided the primary impetus for economic development. This heavy depend
Free trade agreements have proliferated in East Asia over the past several years. Following the landmark Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA) signed with China in June 2010, Taiwan in July 2013 signed a free trade deal with New Zealand - Taipei
Taiwan's total fertility rate of just over one child per woman is among the lowest in the world, raising the prospect of future labor shortages, falling domestic demand, and declining tax revenues. Taiwan's population is aging quickly, with the number of
The island runs a trade surplus, largely because of its surplus with China, and its foreign reserves are the world's fifth largest, behind those of China, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Switzerland. In 2006 China overtook the US to become Taiwan's second-larges
Closer economic links with the mainland bring opportunities for Taiwan’s economy but also pose challenges as political differences remain unresolved and China’s economic growth is slowing. Domestic economic issues loomed large in public debate ahead of th
Tajikistan
Tajikistan is a poor, mountainous country with an economy dominated by minerals extraction, metals processing, agriculture, and reliance on remittances from citizens working abroad. The 1992-97 civil war severely damaged an already weak economic infrastru
Because of a lack of employment opportunities in Tajikistan, more than one million Tajik citizens work abroad - roughly 90% in Russia - supporting families back home through remittances that have been equivalent to nearly 50% of GDP. Some experts estimate
Since the end of the devastating, five-year civil war, the country has pursued half-hearted reforms and privatizations, but the poor business climate remains a hurdle to attracting investment. Tajikistan has sought to develop its substantial hydroelectric
Recent slowdowns in the Russian and Chinese economies, low commodity prices, and currency fluctuations are hampering economic growth in Tajikistan. By some estimates, the dollar value of remittances from Russia to Tajikistan dropped by more than 65% in 20
Tanzania
Tanzania is one of the world's poorest economies in terms of per capita income, but has achieved high growth rates based on its vast natural resource wealth and tourism. GDP growth in 2009-16 was an impressive 6-7% per year. Dar es Salaam used fiscal stim
The economy depends on agriculture, which accounts for more than one-quarter of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs about 80% of the work force; agriculture accounts for 7% of government expenditures. All land in Tanzania is owned by the government,
The financial sector in Tanzania has expanded in recent years and foreign-owned banks account for about 48% of the banking industry's total assets. Competition among foreign commercial banks has resulted in significant improvements in the efficiency and q
The World Bank, the IMF, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's aging infrastructure, including rail and port, that provide important trade links for inland countries. In 2013, Tanzania completed the world's largest Millennium
In late 2014, a highly publicized scandal in the energy sector involving senior Tanzanian officials resulted in international donors freezing nearly $500 million in direct budget support to the government. The Tanzanian shilling weakened in 2015 because o
Thailand
With a well-developed infrastructure, a free-enterprise economy, and generally pro-investment policies, Thailand historically has had a strong economy, but it experienced slow growth in 2013-14 as a result of domestic political turmoil and sluggish global
Thailand faces labor shortages, and has attracted an estimated 2-4 million migrant workers from neighboring countries. The Thai Government in 2013 implemented a nationwide 300 baht (roughly $10) per day minimum wage policy and deployed new tax reforms des
Timor-Leste
Since gaining independence in 1999, Timor-Leste has faced great challenges in rebuilding its infrastructure, strengthening the civil administration, and generating jobs for young people entering the work force. The development of offshore oil and gas reso
In June 2005, the National Parliament unanimously approved the creation of the Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund to serve as a repository for all petroleum revenues and to preserve the value of Timor-Leste's petroleum wealth for future generations. The Fund held
Annual government budget expenditures increased markedly between 2009 and 2012 but dropped significantly in 2013-16. Historically, the government failed to spend as much as its budget allowed. The government has focused significant resources on basic infr
Togo
This small, sub-Saharan economy depends heavily on both commercial and subsistence agriculture, which provides employment for a significant share of the labor force. Some basic foodstuffs must still be imported. Cocoa, coffee, and cotton generate about 40
The government's decade-long effort, supported by the World Bank and the IMF, to implement economic reform measures, encourage foreign investment, and bring revenues in line with expenditures has moved slowly. Togo completed its IMF Extended Credit Facili
Togo’s 2016 economic growth remained steady at 5.3%, largely driven by infusions of foreign aid, infrastructure investment in the port and mineral sectors, and improvements in the business climate. Foreign direct investment inflows have slowed in recent y
Tokelau
Tokelau's small size (three villages), isolation, and lack of resources greatly restrain economic development and confine agriculture to the subsistence level. The principal sources of revenue come from sales of copra, postage stamps, souvenir coins, and
The people rely heavily on aid from New Zealand - about $15 million annually in FY12/13 and FY13/14 - to maintain public services. New Zealand's support amounts to 80% of Tokelau's recurrent government budget. An international trust fund, currently worth
Tonga
Tonga has a small, open, island economy and is the last constitutional monarchy among the Pacific Island countries. It has a narrow export base in agricultural goods. Squash, vanilla beans, and yams are the main crops. Agricultural exports, including fish
The country remains dependent on external aid and remittances from overseas Tongans to offset its trade deficit. The government is emphasizing the development of the private sector, encouraging investment, and is committing increased funds for healthcare
Tonga has a reasonably sound basic infrastructure and well developed social services. The government faces high unemployment among the young, moderate inflation, pressures for democratic reform, and rising civil service expenditures.
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago attracts considerable foreign direct investment from international businesses, particularly in energy, and has one of the highest per capita incomes in Latin America. Economic growth between 2000 and 2007 averaged slightly over 8% per
Energy production and downstream industrial use dominate the economy. Trinidad and Tobago produces about nine times more natural gas than crude oil on an energy equivalent basis with gas contributing about two-thirds of energy sector government revenue. O
Trinidad and Tobago is buffered by considerable foreign reserves and a sovereign wealth fund that equals about one-and-a-half times the national budget, but the country is in a recession and the government faces the dual challenge of gas shortages and a l
Economic diversification is a longstanding government talking point, and Trinidad and Tobago has much potential due to its stable, democratic government and its educated, English speaking workforce. Although Trinidad and Tobago enjoys cheap electricity fr
Tunisia
Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and the Middle East, but it faces an array of challenges following the 2011 Arab Spring revolution, including slow economic growth and high unemployment. Following
Tunisia's liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improving living standards. Former President Zine el Abidine BEN ALI (1987-2011) continued these policies, but as his reign
Tunisia’s government remains under pressure to boost economic growth quickly to mitigate chronic socio-economic challenges, especially high levels of youth unemployment, which has persisted since the revolution in 2011. Successive terrorist attacks agains
Turkey
Turkey's largely free-market economy is increasingly driven by its industry and service sectors, although its traditional agriculture sector still accounts for about 25% of employment. An aggressive privatization program has reduced state involvement in b
Oil began to flow through the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline in May 2006, marking a major milestone that has brought up to 1 million barrels per day from the Caspian region to market. The joint Turkish-Azeri Trans Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) is m
After Turkey experienced a severe financial crisis in 2001, Ankara adopted financial and fiscal reforms as part of an IMF program. The reforms strengthened the country's economic fundamentals and ushered in an era of strong growth averaging more than 6% a
Despite these positive trends, GDP growth dropped to the 3-4% range in 2014-2016, largely due to lackluster consumer demand both domestically and in Europe, Turkey’s most important export market. High interest rates have also contributed to the slowdown i
The Turkish economy retains significant weaknesses. Specifically, Turkey's relatively high current account deficit, uncertain commitment to structural reform, and turmoil within Turkey's neighborhood leave the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in
Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan is largely a desert country with intensive agriculture in irrigated oases and significant natural gas and oil resources. The two largest crops are cotton, most of which is produced for export, and wheat, which is domestically consumed. Althou
Turkmenistan’s autocratic governments under presidents NIYAZOW (1991-2006) and BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 2007) have made little progress improving the business climate, privatizing state-owned industries, and combatting corruption, limiting economic developme
Low energy prices since mid-2014 are hampering Turkmenistan’s economic growth and reducing government revenues. The government has cut subsidies in several areas, and wage arrears have increased. In January 2014, the Central Bank of Turkmenistan devalued
Turks and Caicos Islands
The Turks and Caicos economy is based on tourism, offshore financial services, and fishing. Most capital goods and food for domestic consumption are imported. The US is the leading source of tourists, accounting for more than three-quarters of the more th
Tuvalu
Tuvalu consists of a densely populated, scattered group of nine coral atolls with poor soil. Only eight of the atolls are inhabited. It is one of the smallest countries in the world, with its highest point at 4.6 meters above sea level. The country is iso
The public sector dominates economic activity. Tuvalu has few natural resources, except for its fisheries. Earnings from fish exports and fishing licenses for Tuvalu’s territorial waters are a significant source of government revenue. In 2013, revenue fro
Official aid from foreign development partners has also increased. Tuvalu has substantial assets abroad. The Tuvalu Trust Fund, an international trust fund established in 1987 by development partners, has grown to $141 million in 2013 and is an important
Uganda
Uganda has substantial natural resources, including fertile soils, regular rainfall, small deposits of copper, gold, and other minerals, and recently discovered oil. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, employing one third of the work
Since 1986, the government - with the support of foreign countries and international agencies - has acted to rehabilitate and stabilize the economy by undertaking currency reform, raising producer prices on export crops, increasing prices of petroleum pro
The global economic downturn in 2008 hurt Uganda's exports; however, Uganda's GDP growth has largely recovered due to past reforms and a rapidly growing urban consumer population. Oil revenues and taxes are expected to become a larger source of government
Uganda faces many challenges. Instability in South Sudan has led to a sharp increase in Sudanese refugees and is disrupting Uganda's main export market. High energy costs, inadequate transportation and energy infrastructure, insufficient budgetary discipl
The budget is dominated by energy and road infrastructure spending, while relying on donor support for long-term drivers of growth, including agriculture, health, and education. The largest infrastructure projects are externally financed through low-inter
Ukraine
After Russia, the Ukrainian republic was the most important economic component of the former Soviet Union, producing about four times the output of the next-ranking republic. Its fertile black soil generated more than one-fourth of Soviet agricultural out
Shortly after independence in August 1991, the Ukrainian Government liberalized most prices and erected a legal framework for privatization, but widespread resistance to reform within the government and the legislature soon stalled reform efforts and led
Ukraine's dependence on Russia for energy supplies and the lack of significant structural reform have made the Ukrainian economy vulnerable to external shocks. Ukraine depends on imports to meet about three-fourths of its annual oil and natural gas requir
Ukraine’s oligarch-dominated economy grew slowly from 2010 to 2013. After former President YANUKOVYCH fled the country during the Revolution of Dignity, the international community began efforts to stabilize the Ukrainian economy, including a March 2014 I
Russia’s occupation of Crimea in March 2014 and on-going aggression in eastern Ukraine have hurt economic growth. With the loss of a major portion of Ukraine’s heavy industry in Donbas and ongoing violence, Ukraine’s economy contracted by 6.6% in 2014 and
United Arab Emirates
The UAE has an open economy with a high per capita income and a sizable annual trade surplus. Successful efforts at economic diversification have reduced the portion of GDP based on oil and gas output to 25%.
Since the discovery of oil in the UAE more than 30 years ago, the country has undergone a profound transformation from an impoverished region of small desert principalities to a modern state with a high standard of living. The government has increased spe
The global financial crisis of 2008-09, tight international credit, and deflated asset prices constricted the economy in 2009. UAE authorities tried to blunt the crisis by increasing spending and boosting liquidity in the banking sector. The crisis hit Du
Dependence on oil, a large expatriate workforce, and growing inflation pressures are significant long-term challenges. Low oil prices have prompted the UAE to take steps to reduce its social spending, including eliminating fuel subsidies in August 2015, b
United Kingdom
The UK, a leading trading power and financial center, is the third largest economy in Europe after Germany and France. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with less than 2% of
In 2008, the global financial crisis hit the economy particularly hard, due to the importance of its financial sector. Falling home prices, high consumer debt, and the global economic slowdown compounded Britain's economic problems, pushing the economy in
In 2012, weak consumer spending and subdued business investment weighed on the economy, however, GDP grew 1.7% in 2013 and 3.1% in 2014, accelerating because of greater consumer spending and a recovering housing market. As of late 2015, the Bank of Englan
United States
The US has the most technologically powerful economy in the world, with a per capita GDP of $57,300. US firms are at or near the forefront in technological advances, especially in computers, pharmaceuticals, and medical, aerospace, and military equipment;
In the US, private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions, and the federal and state governments buy needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace. US business firms enjoy greater flexibility than their counterparts
Long-term problems for the US include stagnation of wages for lower-income families, inadequate investment in deteriorating infrastructure, rapidly rising medical and pension costs of an aging population, energy shortages, and sizable current account and
The onrush of technology has been a driving factor in the gradual development of a "two-tier" labor market in which those at the bottom lack the education and the professional/technical skills of those at the top and, more and more, fail to get comparable
Imported oil accounts for nearly 55% of US consumption and oil has a major impact on the overall health of the economy. Crude oil prices doubled between 2001 and 2006, the year home prices peaked; higher gasoline prices ate into consumers' budgets and man
The sub-prime mortgage crisis, falling home prices, investment bank failures, tight credit, and the global economic downturn pushed the US into a recession by mid-2008. GDP contracted until the third quarter of 2009, making this the deepest and longest do
Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan required major shifts in national resources from civilian to military purposes and contributed to the growth of the budget deficit and public debt. Through 2014, the direct costs of the wars totaled more than $1.5 trillion, ac
In March 2010, President OBAMA signed into law the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, a health insurance reform that was designed to extend coverage to an additional 32 million Americans by 2016, through private health insurance for the general p
In July 2010, the president signed the DODD-FRANK Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, a law designed to promote financial stability by protecting consumers from financial abuses, ending taxpayer bailouts of financial firms, dealing with troubl
In December 2012, the Federal Reserve Board (Fed) announced plans to purchase $85 billion per month of mortgage-backed and Treasury securities in an effort to hold down long-term interest rates, and to keep short term rates near zero until unemployment dr
Uruguay
Uruguay has a free market economy characterized by an export-oriented agricultural sector, a well-educated workforce, and high levels of social spending. Uruguay has sought to expand trade within the Common Market of the South (Mercosur) and with non-Merc
Following financial difficulties in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Uruguay's economic growth averaged 8% annually during the period 2004-08. The 2008-09 global financial crisis put a brake on Uruguay's vigorous growth, which decelerated to 2.6% in 2009.
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan is a landlocked country with more than 60% of the population living in densely populated rural communities. Since its independence in September 1991, the government maintained its Soviet-style command economy with subsidies and tight controls o
While aware of the need to improve the investment climate, the government continues to intervene in the business sector and has not addressed the impediments to foreign investment in the country. In the past, Uzbekistani authorities have accused US and ot
In 2003, the government accepted Article VIII obligations under the IMF, providing for full currency convertibility. However, strict currency controls and tightening of borders have lessened the effects of convertibility and have also led to some shortage
Vanuatu
This South Pacific island economy is based primarily on small-scale agriculture, which provides a living for about two-thirds of the population. Fishing, offshore financial services, and tourism, with nearly 197,000 visitors in 2008, are other mainstays o
Economic development is hindered by dependence on relatively few commodity exports, vulnerability to natural disasters, and long distances from main markets and between constituent islands. In response to foreign concerns, the government has promised to t
Since 2002, the government has stepped up efforts to boost tourism through improved air connections, resort development, and cruise ship facilities. Agriculture, especially livestock farming, is a second target for growth.
Venezuela
Venezuela remains highly dependent on oil revenues, which account for almost all export earnings and nearly half of the government’s revenue. In 2016 the GDP contracted 10%, inflation hit 545%, people faced widespread shortages of consumer goods, and cent
Falling oil prices since 2014 have aggravated Venezuela’s economic crisis. Insufficient access to dollars, price controls, and rigid labor regulations have led some US and multinational firms to reduce or shut down their Venezuelan operations. Market unce
Under President Nicolas MADURO, the Venezuelan Government’s response to the economic crisis has been to increase state control over the economy and blame the private sector for the shortages. The Venezuelan government has maintained strict currency contro
Vietnam
Vietnam is a densely populated developing country that has been transitioning from the rigidities of a centrally-planned economy since 1986. Agriculture's share of economic output has shrunk from about 25% in 2000 to 17% in 2016, while industry's share in
Vietnamese authorities have reaffirmed their commitment to economic modernization and a more open economy. Vietnam joined the WTO in January 2007, which has promoted more competitive, export-driven industries. Vietnam was one of 12-nations that concluded
Hanoi has oscillated between promoting growth and emphasizing macroeconomic stability in recent years. Poverty has declined significantly, and Vietnam is working to create jobs to meet the challenge of a labor force that is growing by more than one millio
Vietnam is trying to reform its economy by restructuring public investment, state-owned enterprises, and the banking sector, although Hanoi’s progress in meeting its goals is lagging behind the proposed schedule. Vietnam's economy continues to face challe
In 2016 Vietnam cancelled its civilian nuclear energy development program, citing public concerns about safety and the high cost of the program. As the 2017 APEC chair, Vietnam will lead the regional dialogue on key APEC priorities such as inclusive growt
Virgin Islands
Tourism, trade, and other services are the primary economic activities, accounting for nearly 60% of the Virgin Island's GDP and about half of total civilian employment. The islands host nearly 3 million tourists per year, mostly from visiting cruise ship
Federal programs and grants, totaling $241.4 million in 2013, contributed 19.7% of the territory’s total revenues. The economy declined in 2013, due to decreases in exports resulting from the loss of refined oil products. Nevertheless, the economy remains
Wallis and Futuna
The economy is limited to traditional subsistence agriculture, with 80% of labor force earnings coming from agriculture (coconuts and vegetables), livestock (mostly pigs), and fishing. However, roughly 70% of the labor force is employed in the public sect
Revenues come from French Government subsidies, licensing of fishing rights to Japan and South Korea, import taxes, and remittances from expatriate workers in New Caledonia. France directly finances the public sector and healthcare and education services.
A key concern for Wallis and Futuna is an aging population with consequent economic development issues. Very few people aged 18-30 live on the islands due to the limited formal employment opportunities. Improving job creation is a current priority for the
West Bank
Israeli-Palestinian violence in 2015 exacerbated challenges to economic growth in the West Bank - the larger of the two areas comprising the Palestinian Territories. Increased security restrictions and political instability slowed economic activity, and I
Longstanding Israeli closure policies continue to disrupt labor and trade flows and the territory’s industrial capacity, limit imports and exports, and constrain private sector development. The PA for the foreseeable future will continue to rely heavily o
Western Sahara
Western Sahara has a small market-based economy whose main industries are fishing, phosphate mining, and pastoral nomadism. The territory's arid desert climate makes sedentary agriculture difficult, and Western Sahara imports much of its food. The Morocca
Western Sahara's unresolved legal status makes the exploitation of its natural resources a contentious issue between Morocco and the Polisario. Morocco and the EU in December 2013 finalized a four-year agreement allowing European vessels to fish off the c
Oil has never been found in Western Sahara in commercially significant quantities, but Morocco and the Polisario have quarreled over who has the right to authorize and benefit from oil exploration in the territory. Western Sahara's main long-term economic
World
The international financial crisis of 2008-09 led to the first downturn in global output since 1946 and presented the world with a major new challenge: determining what mix of fiscal and monetary policies to follow to restore growth and jobs, while keepin
Fiscal and monetary data for 2013 are currently available for 180 countries, which together account for 98.5% of world GDP. Of the 180 countries, 82 pursued unequivocally expansionary policies, boosting government spending while also expanding their money
(For more information, see attached spreadsheet, Fiscal and
Yemen
Yemen is a low-income country that faces difficult long-term challenges to stabilizing and growing its economy, and the current conflict has only exacerbated those issues. The ongoing war has halted Yemen’s exports, pressured the currency’s exchange rate,
Prior to the start of the conflict in 2014, Yemen was highly dependent on declining oil resources for revenue. Oil and gas earnings accounted for roughly 25% of GDP and 65% of government revenue. The Yemeni Government regularly faced annual budget shortfa
However, the conflict that began in 2014 stalled these reform efforts. Rebel Huthi groups have interfered with Ministry of Finance and Central Bank operations and diverted funds for their own use. Yemen’s Central Bank reserves, which stood at $5.2 billion
Yemen will require significant international assistance during and after the protracted conflict to stabilize its economy. Long-term challenges include a high population growth rate, high unemployment, declining water resources, and severe food scarcity.
Zambia
Zambia had one of the world’s fastest growing economies for the ten years up to 2014, with real GDP growth averaging roughly 6.7% per annum, though growth slowed in 2015 and 2016 to just over 3%, due to falling copper prices, reduced power generation, and
Despite recent strong economic growth and its status as a lower middle-income country, widespread and extreme rural poverty and high unemployment levels remain significant problems, made worse by a high birth rate, a relatively high HIV/AIDS burden, and b
Poor management of water resources has also contributed to a power generation shortage, which has hampered industrial productivity and contributed to an increase in year-on-year inflation to more than 20% in 2016. Zambia’s currency, the kwacha, also depre
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe's economy depends heavily on its mining and agriculture sectors. Following a decade of contraction from 1998 to 2008, the economy recorded real growth of more than 10% per year in the period 2010-13, before slowing to roughly 4% in 2014 due to po
Until early 2009, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) routinely printed money to fund the budget deficit, causing hyperinflation. Dollarization in early 2009 - which allowed currencies such as the Botswana pula, the South Africa rand, and the US dollar to
Zimbabwe’s government entered a second Staff Monitored Program with the IMF in 2014 and undertook other measures to reengage with international financial institutions. Foreign and domestic investment continues to be hindered by the lack of clarity regardi
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i don't know
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The human brain's frontal lobe, chiefly processing cognitive functions relating to reward, attention, short-term memory tasks, planning, motivation, etc., is fully mature at (very) approximately what age?
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lish2 Symptomsand syndromes with regional affiliations | Kraeplinpsychiatry's Blog
lish2 Symptomsand syndromes with regional affiliations
Posted on June 19, 2010 by kraeplinpsychiatry
Page 21 Chapter 2: Symptoms and Syndromes with Regional AffiliationsCertain psychological manifestations deserve particular attention because they are sometimes found in association with relatively circumscribed brain lesions. In every case they can also be seen with pathology which involves the brain diffusely or disturbs its functions widely, so their presence is not by any means a certain indication of a single localised lesion. Nevertheless when they emerge as isolated defects, or stand out prominently against a background of mild impairment of other cerebral functions, they command especial care in the search for focal pathology.
What we ask of psychological symptoms as guides to focal pathology must be considerably less than we expect of neurological signs. The latter will often point with fair precision to the site of the lesion, but psychological symptoms can often tell us little more than that the pathology is unlikely to be diffuse. The careful analysis of dysphasia or of visual perceptual deficits may take us some way towards assessing the site of the lesion, but even here we must usually be content with rather broad indications of the areas of brain that fail to function. Thus with rare exceptions there remains uncertainty about the ’regional’ as opposed to the ’focal’ implications of most of the syndromes considered in this chapter. Some of them will be found to owe their origin, in different patients, to focal lesions in a variety of sites.
The majority of focal psychological symptoms represent defects of cognitive functioning. Less can be said with certainty about the focal significance of emotional, motivational or ’personality’ abnormalities. ’Psychotic’ symptoms in particular elude clear ties to focal brain pathology, and here other determinants are known to be more important. Nevertheless, certain non-cognitive disorders and even some psychotic manifestations do show interesting regional affiliations, and these will also be briefly reviewed.
Strictly focal brain damage or dysfunction is rare, except when produced by operations on the brain. In naturally occurring disease we see merely a focal emphasis in pathology, with effects which are then compounded by the effects of damage elsewhere. Focal head injury, for example, is usually accompanied by brain damage remote from the site of principal destruction; epileptic disturbances which originate focally disrupt other cerebral systems more or less widely; and circumscribed tumours produce distant effects by distortion of brain tissue, vascular complications or raised intracranial pressure. It is not surprising, therefore, that knowledge of regional cerebral disorder has been slow to accumulate and raises many areas of controversy. Brain imaging by computerised tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and the more recent development of sophisticated functional imaging techniques, now hold promise of clarifying some of the problems in this area. Evidence from work with animals has given important leads, but even so has obvious limitations. It has also sometimes produced results which have appeared to undermine the supposition that discrete lesions can produce discrete defects of function. Thus both laboratory work and clinical observation have taken part in determining the swings of the pendulum between holistic and atomistic theories of brain function which have characterised progress during the past 100 years.
Historical development
Holistic views of brain function fitted well with early humoral theories of the mind and appeared to be upheld by the early experiments of Flourens (1824) in the first part of the 19th century. It was shown that piecemeal removal of the pigeon’s cerebral hemispheres produced a decline in many abilities, so that by the time they were blind the birds were also unable to learn. In the 20th century the influential work of Lashley (1929) again led to an holistic orientation, this time specifically in relation to the acquisition of new knowledge. In tests of maze learning in rats it was shown that the size but not the location of the lesion was related to impairment of learning. Lashley’s law of mass action expressed the view that learning ability is determined by the total mass of normally
Page 22 CHAPTER
functioning cortex, and his law of equipotentiality that no part could be considered prepotent in this regard. In the clinical field, Goldstein (1939) was the most determined antagonist of mosaic theories of brain function, claiming that clinical reporting often highlighted the rare and exceptional in pointing to focal functions, and that the techniques of clinical examination had led to spurious i findings where many clinicopathological correlations are concerned.
Radically opposite views have meanwhile flourished alongside these opinions. Stria localisationist views gained impetus in the early 19th century from the widespread credibility accorded to Franz Joseph Gall and his followers. Though a leading neuroanatomist, Gall propounded the dottrines of phrenology, which ultimately reached the fantastic lengths of claiming cerebral centres for such funaions as ’hope’, ’patriotism’ and ’attraction to wine’. The reaction and counter-reaction to such excesses has perhaps continued to influence the building of theories where definitive information is lacking. As recently as 1937, Kleist was still attempting elaborate diagrams which partitioned functions such as ’skills’, ’efficiency of thought’ and ’personal and social ego’ to discrete parts of the cerebral cortex.
Focal representation of function has, of course, been firmly established for basic sensory and motor functions. Early notable observations were those of Hughlings Jackson (1869) who saw that motor seizures developed on the side opposite the cerebral lesion, and Fritsch and Hitzig (1870) who showed that discrete motor movements followed discrete stimulation of the cortex. Knowledge of the cerebral representation of such ’lower level’ functions is now extensive, though even here it is important to recognise the immense complexities and intricacies which have proved to be involved.
The symbolic functions of language were also recognised at an early stage to depend on circumscribed regions of the brain. Dax (1836) and Broca (1861) noted that articulated speech was disturbed by left posterior frontal pathology, and shortly thereafter Wernicke (1874) found disturbance of comprehension of speech with a left superior temporal lesion. Since this time there has been a steady though far from smooth accumulation of evidence concerning the cerebral representation of language and of other symbolic ’gnostic’ functions. Unfortunately much of this initially depended upon uncritical compilations of case material, and at the turn of the century the ’diagram makers’ were frequently in confusion. Hughlings Jackson’s theory of levels of functional organisation within the nervous system, and the emergence of symptoms by a process of dissolution of such levels, received little attention at the time. Progress even now remains bedevilled by
the complexities of the issues involved in analysing impairment of higher cognitive functions, quite apart from the difficulty of finding suitable case material on which detailed pathological observations can be made.
Luria (1964) set forth some of the problems in the way of clearer understanding, and the fallacies which led to ’ error both in the hands of over-localisers and the hands of those who held an over-holistic view. His arguments have such general significance that they will be dealt with in some detail:
2Luria pointed out that even so elementary a process as the knee jerk has in fact a complex structure which can be affected by lesions at many points in a chain. Even simple visual recognition requires eye movements to investigate the object, the registration of its most informative signs, and the participation of language to relate it to a certain class. More complex mental functions will have a correspondingly more complex structure, involving many functional systems and many hierarchically arranged localisations within the nervous system. Destruction of any one of many links may impair performance, and it is therefore not surprising that the symptoms of deficit may follow from lesions at very different points in the brain. Observations which remain restricted to the level of, gross functional deficits will therefore tend towards holistic views of brain function. But careful qualitative analysis of the nature of the deficits may still allow localisation, because the particular way in which the function is disturbed will depend upon which particular link is broken. The accomplishment of writing, for example, may be disturbed in a number of ways and by several factors, with a net result superficially the same but in fact with a variety of underlying disturbances of function. Agraphia may prove to be due to defective acoustic analysis of speech, in which case consonants close to each other in sound will be especially confused and copying of a clear visual image of well-known words will be relatively preserved (left temporal lesion); or the patient may handle separate sounds well but easily lose the correct ordering of sequences (premotor lesion); or the essential difficulties may lie in the visuospatial analysis of letters and the motor act of writing (parieto-occipital lesion). Here then the detailed analysis of the symptom may still allow disturbance of a complex mental function to be used in regional diagnosis.
A related task is to search for common factors in a series of seemingly disparate symptoms, since a single functional defect may have issue in many forms. A left parietal lesion may disturb orientation in space and numerical schemes together, which at first sight appear to be very different functions. But Luria suggests that detailed analysis shows a common factor in that both represent disturbance of the organisation of elements into simultaneous spatially orientated schemes.
All such analyses are of course harder because strictly focal damage is rarely seen, and usually the lesion touches on several zones and damages several overlapping systems together. Moreover, the plasticity of organisation is such that the structure of a psychological function may vary with the particular mental task involved; for example the recall of one series may utilise a mnemonic logical path, and the recall of another series, a path based on visual images.
PAGE 23 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
Finally Luria underlined Hughlings Jackson’s important warning that a clear distinction must always be maintained between the localisation of the pathology accounting for symptoms, and the localisation of the functions whose disturbance the symptoms represent. The undisturbed function may emanate from the central nervous system in a much more complex manner and may have a completely different organisation.
In the field of new learning, Lashley’s views of mass action and equipotentiality in rats have had to be decisively modified for man. Whilst the cortex as a whole is undoubtedly involved in learning and in the storage of information, lesions in different parts do not have equivalent effects. Left temporal lesions impair verbal learning, and right temporal lesions non-verbal learning to a special extent. Highly discrete lesions in the hypothalamicdiencephalic region, or damage restricted to the hippocampal areas, may virtually abolish new learning in any modality. Thus we now have clear evidence that the proper organisation of memory functions involves to some considerable degree discrete systems within the brain.
The search for focal deficits has also been extended into matters other than cognitive function. In animals focal brain lesions can lead to dramatic changes of temperament-rage reactions or placidity-depending on the site of the lesion. In the split-brain monkey, Downer (1962) showed that the emotional disposition could vary according to the hemisphere which processed information; visual information fed to an amygdalectomised hemisphere elicited a mild response, whereas in the same animal information fed to the intact hemisphere met with the animal’s usual ferocity. Papez (1937) proposed that the limbic system constituted an essential mechanism for the elaboration of emotional experience and emotional expression, and MacLean (1955) has reviewed the evidence suggesting that this applies to man as well as to lower animals.
With special parts of the brain involved in cognitive functions and emotional regulation, what of higher functions still such as ’personality’ and social behaviour? Certainly in monkeys interesting results can follow focal extirpations of brain tissue. Removal of the temporal lobes leads not only to placidity, but also to strong oral tendencies in examining available objects, tendencies to attend and react to every visual stimulus, and an increase in sexual behaviour (Kliiver & Bucy 1939). The human counterpart of such a syndrome has been reported in certain patients (Pilleri 1966; Marlowe et al. 1975; Lilly et al. 1983). Cingulectomy in monkeys leads to inquisitiveness, loss of shyness for man and loss of ’social conscience’ in interaction with other monkeys (Ward 1948; Glees et al. 1950). In man the hope for further discoveries has been spurred on by the observation of frontal lobe deficits which can clearly involve profound disturbance of aspects of personality and social behaviour. The temporal lobe has also frequently come under suspicion, especially in view of the personality disturbances which may accompany epilepsy arising within the temporal lobes (pp. 266-8).
However, systematic attempts to investigate the relationship between location of brain damage and such matters as personality or social behaviour have often given disappointing results. In view of the foregoing discussion this should perhaps not be surprising, since the complexity of structure of such higher order functions must be immense. Chapman and Wolff (1959), for example, carried out a thorough survey of the life patterns and behaviour of patients in whom circumscribed cortical excisions had been performed:
Four categories of ’highest integrative function’ were measured by detailed interview and rating procedures. They comprised: the capacity to express needs, appetites and drives, such as ability to express affect, to interact with the environment and to engage in purposive activity; the mechanisms for goal achievement, including learning, memory and the categorisation of information; the capacity to initiate, organise and maintain appropriate adaptive reactions, as evidenced by the deployment of psychological defence mechanisms such as projection and denial; and the capacity to maintain organisation during stress and to recover promptly from its effects. For a given amount of tissue loss, impairment was less in those who premorbidly had shown a high order of adaptive versatility, but as the amount of tissue loss increased this individual variation was seen to a diminishing extent. Overall, the degree of impairment in such functions was directly related to the mass of cerebral cortex which had been lost, but was entirely without regard to side or site.
Chapman and Wolff concluded that where highest level integrative functions were concerned, impairment due to brain damage is likely to be related to the total number of neurones lost but not to the area from which the loss occurs. Other evidence indicated that it was immaterial whether the loss was aggregated in one place or distributed diffusely throughout the hemispheres.
The verdict concerning focal brain dysfunction in relation to personality and social behaviour therefore remains ’unproven’. It remains possible that with less ambitious design, and a closer focusing on predetermined areas of ’higher function’, some focal effects may yet emerge to supplement what we already know about the frontal lobes.
Finally, the most ambitious development is to carry the debate into the field of mental pathologies, such as affective disorders and schizophrenia. Focal biochemical pathology has been suspected in some depressive illnesses, with indications of disturbed monoamine levels in certain hindbrain structures in patients who have corn-
Page
mitted suicide (Bourne et al. 1968; Pare et al. 1969). The consensus, however, is that depression is biochemically heterogeneous in terms of the anatomical sites and precise neurochemistry involved (Delgado et al 1992). Schizophrenia has proved more interesting with respect to regional brain disorder, appearing to show a special relationship with temporal lobe disturbance and with patterns of hemispheric lateralisation. These latter developments are discussed at the end of the present chapter.
24 CHAPTER 2Disorder of memory
Memory disorder is a symptom of the utmost importance in psychiatric practice, in that it is often the decisive clinical feature which indicates the presence of underlying cerebral disease. It is, in fact, one of the most sensitive indicators of brain damage or dysfunction, regardless of the ultimate pathology.
Organic amnesias can be divided into two broad categories which are not mutually exclusive-those due to focal and those due to diffuse cerebral disorder. In the former, amnesic defects can result from lesions in highly discrete parts of the brain and stand out against the relative preservation of other cognitive functions. In the latter, amnesic defects form an integral part of acute or chronic generalised organic reactions but may nonetheless be for some tune the most intrusive psychological symptom. It is possible that memory disorder hi these two categories depends on different fundamental disturbances of the memory mechanisms of the brain, and this may to some extent be reflected in the detailed nature of the amnesic deficits that are produced. In both, moreover, the form of memory loss is different from that seen in amnesias of psychogenic origin where brain damage does not exist. Two aspects of memory disorder will therefore be considered below-first the cerebral systems which appear to be mainly involved, and then the psychological structure of common amnesic states.
Cerebral systems involved in memory
The relationship between disorder of memory and cerebral pathology has repaid detailed study, and clinicopathological correlations have here reached firmer ground than where most other psychological symptoms are concerned. This is largely because many aspects of memory are amenable to objective measurement by simple testing procedures, and can often be studied in lower animals as well as in man himself. These are both features that are rarely encountered in symptoms and syndromes of key importance in psychiatry. What we have learned in the clinical field, however, still leaves unanswered the more fundamental question of the mechanisms of memory storage itself. The various possibilities that have been considered all remain highly speculative and unsatisfactory. Physiological theories which postulate changes in electrical activity of neurones and their interconnections serve to explain very shortterm storage, but for the establishment of durable memories there must be the ability to withstand profound derangement of electrical activity as in anaesthesia, hypothermia or convulsions. Connectionist theories, which propose anatomical changes in synaptic relationships between cells, fail to explain why focal extirpation of brain tissue does not lead to loss of detailed memories for particular past events (while paradoxically punctate stimulation of the brain may sometimes evoke specific recall of past experiences (Penfield 1968)).
The development of biochemical theories, which suggest changes in the synthesis of neurotransmitters and intracellular proteins, or changes in gene expression within the neurone, may perhaps offer more hope for explanation when taken in conjunction with earlier ideas.
Squire (1987), Kandel and Hawkins (1992) and Tranel and Damasio (1995) discuss some of the more recent and exciting findings in this area. Studies of the mollusc, Aplysia, for example, have shown unequivocal evidence both of changes in transmitter release and morphological alterations in synapses during learning.
The discovery that brief high frequency stimulation can alter the excitability of postsynaptic cells in the hippocampus for several hours or even weeks (’long-term potentiation’, LTP) has also been shown to have relevance to learning. The initiation of LTP is subserved by the binding of glutamate to receptors on target cells; whereas its maintenance appears to depend on some factor, possibly nitric oxide, which acts in a retrograde manner on presynaptic terminals to enhance transmitter release. And both electrical and biochemical theories are brought together by the discovery that the JV-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor has a channel that opens to extracellular ions only when the cell is depolarized. This dual requirement for both receptor binding and electrical depolarization suggests that NMDA receptors may act as conjunction detectors in the hippocampus with a role in associative learning.
Perhaps of equal significance, it has been shown in Aplysia that the adenylate cyclase of the cell can be activated by dual chemical mechanisms (serotonin and calcium), such that exposure to the one predisposes to greater production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) in response to the other; this provides a close biochemical model for the principle of contiguity in classic conditioning.
The problems of coding for storage are, however, only less baffling than the possible mechanisms of recall, which can allow near-instantaneous retrieval of the required information from the past.
Page 25 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
The two main regions of the brain that have emerged as specially significant in relation to amnesia are the hypothalamic-diencephalic region and the hippocampal apparatus. Damage to either of these relatively circumscribed areas can selectively impair the capacity to form durable records of experience. It is associated also with a variable retrograde gap for memories laid down before the damage occurred, whilst beyond this the majority of remote memories remain substantially intact. Thus although these are the sites where the smallest lesions can have the most devastating effect they de not represent the ’repositories’ or storehouses of memories. They appear rather to be concerned with adding to the store and perhaps with retrieval from the store, as will be considered further below. The whereabouts as well as the mechanism of memory storage remains unknown. Phylogenetic considerations point to the participation of the cerebral cortex in the storage of past experience, but no one part of it can be singled out as pre-eminent in this function.
Besides these parts of the brain, other neural systems must be implicated in the processes of remembering. We preserve in memory mainly those things towards which attention is directed, and the alerting mechanisms of the brain must therefore be involved. The emotional connotations of material can also influence its recall (Lishman
1972, 1974; Master etal 1983, 1986; Dunbar & Lishman
1984), and here the emotional apparatus of the brain must play a part. Other complex variables normally affect the detailed content of what is available for future recall, such as interest in the material perceived, its relevance, importance, and consistency with existing frames of reference for the subject (Bartlett 1932; Edwards 1942). These complexities can be carried even further by consideration of the highly individual determinants of specific amnesias as revealed by psychoanalytic study. Clearly therefore the clinicopathological correlations outlined below reveal but a small pan of the total mechanisms involved in remembering. They perhaps reveal something of the mechanisms which determine the distinction between memory for remote and recent events, but very little indeed about the neural basis which underlies other more complex features. Fortunately our appraisal of amnesia as a symptom in cerebral disease depends principally on the temporal sequence by which memories are impaired, and very little on higher order distinctions.
Hypothalamic-diencephalic system
Lesions in the posterior hypothalamus and nearby midline structures were the first to be firmly linked with amnesia. They constitute the principal pathological basis of Korsakoff’s syndrome, and involve areas around the third ventricle, the periaqueductal grey matter, the upper brain stem, certain thalamic nuclei”,” and the posterior hypothalamus. The mamillary bodies along with the terminal portions of the fornices are nearly always affected, and certain publications reviewed by Brierley (1966) have suggested that damage confined almost exclusively to the mamillary bodies can account for the Korsakoff memory defect. Victor (1964), however, in a particularly careful study suggested that lesions in the medial dorsal nuclei of the thalamus were of more critical importance and may in fact be crucial for the development of amnesic symptoms in Korsakoff’s syndrome. The importance of the thalamus has been reinforced by the remarkable example of patient ’N.A.’, who became severely amnesic after a stab wound from a miniature fencing foil; CT scans showed damage apparently restricted to the left dorsal thalamus, in a region corresponding to the dorsomedial nucleus (Squire & Moore 1979)
Debate continues, nonetheless, over the relative importance of the mamillary bodies and the thalamic nuclei in Korsakoff patients, or indeed whether both must be involved together (Mair et al. 1979). Lesion studies in animals, as reviewed by Squire (198*7), may ultimately help to resolve the problem. Kopelman (1995) reviews recent evidence suggesting that a circuit involving the mamillary bodies, the mamillothalamic tracts and the anterior (rather than the medial dorsal) nuclei of the thalamus may be particularly critical for memory function.
The common cause for lesions in this situation is thiamine deficiency, the amnesic difficulties developing as a sequel to Wernicke’s encephalopathy (p. 575). Chronic alcoholism is the usual prelude to the vitamin deficiency, but other established causes include carcinoma of the stomach, pregnancy, severe malnutrition, or persistent vomiting from any cause.
Some authorities reserve the term ’Korsakoff’s syndrome’ for cases with such an aetiology, while others employ it more widely to include the similar amnesic states which may follow other forms of damage to the same brain regions. Tumours in the neighbourhood of the hypothalamus and third ventricle may produce a closely similar picture (p. 227). Subarachnoid haemorrhage may occasionally be followed by a pronounced amnesic syndrome, due to local haemorrhage or organisation of the clot in the basal regions of the brain (p. 394). In the severe stages of tuberculous meningitis a picture closely similar to Korsakoff’s syndrome may be witnessed over many weeks (p. 367). With recovery normal memory function gradually returns, leaving only an amnesic gap for the acute phase of the illness and a retrograde amnesia for a variable period before it (Williams & Smith 1954). The characteristic pathology of tuberculous meningitis in the
page 26 CHAPTER 2
amnesic phase is an inflammatory process with organisation of exudate, largely limited to the anterior basal cisterns of the brain and involving the mamillary region and the floor of the third ventricle. There is evidence to suggest that these regions have escaped the main impact of the infective process in those few cases where memory difficulties do not appear.
While the importance of diencephalic and hypothalamic lesions in relation to amnesia cannot be doubted, it is important to remember that the pathology of Korsakoff’s syndrome involves additional brain regions, including those which contain important neurochemical nuclei. Thus the locus caeruleus may be implicated, leading to monoaminergic depletion in the cortex, likewise the basal forebrain including the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Arendt et al. (1983) were able to demonstrate severe loss of neurones in the Meynert nucleus in a small group of alcoholic Korsakoff patients. This has led to the suggestion that loss of cholinergic inputs to cortical and limbic structures may play an important part in adding to the memory difficulties of Korsakoff patients (Butters 1985). Animal models, created by prolonged alcohol consumption in rodents, have confirmed cholinergic depletion in the cortex and hippocampus accompanied by memory deficits, both being reversible by cholinergicrich foetal brain transplants (Arendt et al. 1988; Hodges et al. 1991). Unfortunately, however, such biochemical hypotheses have not led to clearcut therapeutic strategies in man, as outlined on pp. 484-5.
Hippocampal system
Long after the description of Korsakoff’s syndrome, the opportunity arose to study an amnesic syndrome closely similar in phenomenology to that of the korsakovian defect, but which surprisingly stems from lesions in quite different pans of the brain. This results from bilateral lesions of the hippocampus and hippocampal gyrus, which lie on the inferomedial margins of the temporal lobes. That such regions should be closely implicated in amnesia is all the more remarkable in that the hippocampal areas are usually free from damage in the typical case of Korsakoff’s syndrome. The responsible lesions can be demarcated with some precision because the condition was first fully recognised after surgical extirpation of brain tissue for the relief of psychotic illness and epilepsy (Scoville 1954; Scoville & Milner 1957).
Lesions of the temporal neocortex have no effect on memory, similarly damage restricted to the uncus and amygdaloid region of the archipallium. It is essential that the lesions should extend far enough posteriorly to damage portions of the hippocampus and hippocampal gyrus, and the extent of their removal then appears to be roughly proportional to the severity of the memory disorder (Milner 1966). It is also fairly certain that bilateral lesions are required before global amnesia will appear and persist. When amnesic symptoms have followed unilateral temporal lobe resection there has usually been evidence that the remaining hippocampal zone was already defective. Thus, in occasional patients global amnesia has followed unilateral temporal lobectomy, but only when bilateral temporal lobe damage has been suspected. Serafetinides and Falconer (1962a) found that mild subjective forgetfulness sometimes followed unilateral right lobectomy, but in all such cases there was evidence of a postoperative spike discharging focus at the opposite temporal lobe, indicating dysfunction if not a lesion there.
These clear examples produced by circumscribed surgical lesions almost certainly reveal the mechanism responsible for other naturally occurring amnesic states. Cerebrovascular accidents may sometimes be followed by the acute onset of similar amnesic difficulties, as in the patient described by Victor et al. (1961) who suffered occlusion of each posterior cerebral artery in turn, and at autopsy was found to have lesions in the inferomedial portions of each temporal lobe. Two years intervened between the two strokes and it was only after the second episode that the amnesic syndrome appeared. Glees and Griffith (1952) reported a patient with sudden onset of dementia in whom amnesic symptoms figured very prominently, and who at autopsy showed cystic degeneration, consistent with old infarction, in the medial temporal lobe structures. The enduring memory difficulties which follow some cases of encephalitis (Rose & Symonds 1960) may also depend upon pathology in this distribution, since encephalitis due to the herpes simplex virus is known to have a predilection for the ’limbic lobe’ which includes the hippocampus and the hippocampal gyrus (Fields & Blattner 1958; Brierley etal.
1960). Evidence from epilepsy similarly points to the importance of the hippocampal areas for memory, since these are the regions implicated in complex partial seizures where amnesia constitutes an essential feature of the attacks.
Some debate has centred on whether damage to the hippocampus alone is sufficient to produce amnesia, or whether there must be conjoint damage to the hippocampus and amygdala. In the lesions described above both structures are almost invariably involved together, and animal experimental work has shown that damage to both leads to a more severe deficit than hippocampal lesions alone (Mishkin 1978). However, the issue appears to have been resolved by the patient reported by ZolaMorgan etal. (1986), who developed a marked and persistent anterograde amnesia after ischaemic damage restricted to the CA1 fields of the hippocampus bilaterally.
Page 27 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
High resolution MRI has proved capable of visualising hippocampal damage during life in amnesic patients. Press et al. (1989) reported three patients with circumscribed amnesic states, one due to respiratory arrest and the others of unknown aetiology, all of whom showed bilateral hippocampal abnormalities on coronal Tj-weighted images taken perpendicularly to the long axis of the hippocampus. The area of the hippocampal ^ formation (including the fimbria, dentate gyrus, hippocampus proper and subiculum) was approximately half that seen in 1 control subjects, whereas the total temporal lobe area was virtually identical. It was possible on occasion to see that components J such as the pyramidal cell layers of the subiculum or hippocampus were less distinct, and to detect marked reduction in size of the dentate gyrus. Squire etal. (1990) have further used MRI to detect the size of the mamillary bodies in patients with alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome, thus aiding distinctions during life between amnesias of hippocampal or diencephalic origin.
Other clinicopathological correlations
It is tempting to see a unitary mechanism for memory functions in the two brain regions described above. However, early reports suggested that the fomix bundles, which provide the main connection between the hippocampi and the hypothalamic structures, could be cut bilaterally without disturbing memory (Dott 1938; Caims & Mosberg 1951). Such patients, however, were not subjected to formal neuropsychological evaluation. More recently memory deficits have been documented after lesions of the fornix, even in the absence of CT or MRI evidence of damage to other key memory structures (Grafman et al. 1985; Hodges & Carpenter 1991). The patient reported by Tucker et al. (1988) was particularly interesting in that a small focal astrocytoma of the left fornix led to a memory deficit confined to verbal material, much as would be expected from a left hippocampal lesion.
Damage to the fornix may also be chiefly responsible for the examples of ’retrosplenial amnesia’ reported after vascular accidents or with tumours of the splenium of the corpus callosum (Valenstein et al. 1987; Rudge & Warrington 1991). The fomix is closely applied to the splenium during this part of its course. However, the retrosplenial cortex, situated in the cingulate gyrus just above and posterior to the splenium, also contains relays between the anterior nucleus of the thalamus and the medial temporal lobe and may be directly involved itself.
With regard to the neocortex, difficulty with memory appears to be related to size rather than locus of cortical lesions (McFie & Piercy 1952; Chapman & Wolff 1959), but it is difficult to obtain firm evidence because damage must be widespread before generalised memory impairment results. The accompanying intellectual disturbance then hampers careful analysis of the memory disorder.
The frontal lobes have been increasingly highlighted where memory functions are concerned. Operations on the frontal lobes rarely produce enduring memory disorders, though in the early postoperative period there may be a striking deficit of retention of current experience together with patchy retrograde amnesia (Klein 1952; Krai & Durost 1953). Whitty and Lewin (1960) described a transient memory disorder involving especially the temporal sequence of events following limited ablations of the anterior cingulate cortex. The early amnesic patient recorded by Mabille and Pitres (1913) was found to have symmetrical areas of infarction in the frontal white matter, strategically placed to interrupt long association fibres from the frontal lobes to other parts of the brain. However, this isolated though fascinating case has remained something of a medical curiosity.
It remains a matter of controversy whether the frontal lobes play a primary role in memory per se, or merely influence it by virtue of their involvement in such functions as attention, problem solving and the general organisation of behaviour. There are numerous pathways between the prefrontal cortex and the medial temporal lobe structures through which such influences could be exerted, without needing to postulate neural mechanisms for memory in the frontal lobes themselves (Goldman Rakic 1987). Evidence accumulates, nonetheless, for frontal involvement in relation to special aspects of the memory process, for example in the suppression of irrelevant associations, in memory for temporal order and spatiotemporal context (’source memory’), and in the efficient retrieval of memories from the past (Mayes et al.
1985; Schacter 1987; Mayes 1988; Kopelman 1991). The role of superadded frontal lobe damage in Korsakoff’s syiidromejb.as been especially closely studied (pp. 582-3).
Special parts of the brain appear to be related to memory for special types of experience as displayed in verbal, visuospatial or motor learning, though it remains uncertain how far deficits in such individual functions should be regarded as failures of memory rather than defects in perception or in the categorisation of ideas. A temporal lobe (hippocampal) lesion in the hemisphere dominant for speech impairs the learning and retention of verbal material, resulting for example in forgetfulness for names, for material read in newspapers or material heard in lectures. Conversely, patients with non-dominant temporal lobe lesions are impaired in the memorising of matters which cannot be categorised in words, such as tunes, faces and meaningless drawings. There is now a considerable body of experimental data available on such
page 28 CHAPTER
distinctions between left and right hemisphere lesions. These specific disorders are, however, relatively trivial, often requiring special testing for their detection, and seem not to affect the recall of events. They are considered further on p. 312.
Some forms of dysphasia, apraxia or agnosia can be regarded as ’limited amnesias’ consequent upon focal cortical damage, but as their manifestations are so specific they are best considered quite separately from amnesia.
Functional brain imaging techniques have recently been applied to examine anatomical aspects of memory processing in normal subjects. A particularly fascinating result has been the differential implication of the left and right prefrontal cortex during encoding and retrieval of memories, respectively. Such laterality effects had scarcely been expected from the extensive experience gained from examining patients with brain lesions.
Fletcher et al. (1995), for example, have used positron emission tomography (PET) scans to follow changes in regional cerebral blood flow during performance on a paired-associate learning task. Subtraction techniques were employed to pinpoint the brain areas involved in memory processing as distinct from those concurrently activated by other cognitive processes involved in the task. During the phase of encoding the regions activated were the left prefrontal cortex and the retrosplenial area of the posterior cingulate cortex; during retrieval, by contrast, there was activation of the right prefrontal cortex and the precuneus. These, then, appear to be the regions critically involved in auditory-verbal episodic memory. Tulving et al. (1994) review other PET scan studies utilizing rather different memory tasks which support prefrontal asymmetry in encoding and retrieval.
In parallel experiments, Fletcher et al. (1995) tested retrieval from semantic memory (p. 29). This was found to engage a different though overlapping neural system compared to that involved in retrieval from episodic memory, lending anatomical support to the distinction between the two.
The absence of demonstrable activation of medial temporal lobe structures in these studies is surprising. It could be that the hippocampus was continually active during both the memory and the control tasks, and therefore failed to be highlighted with the subtraction technique employed. Or the PET scan may be insufficiently sensitive to reveal activation in circumscribed groups of hippocampal neurones. Squire et al. (1992) were nevertheless able to demonstrate activation of the right hippocampus and rjarahippocampal gyrus during PET scan studies of word recall.
2Clinical picture in amnesia
The detailed structure of amnesic states has been most comprehensively studied in patients who are relatively free from other intellectual impairments, namely in patients with focal lesions in the hypothalamicdiencephalic or hippocampal systems. This has provided important clinical guides which help in distinguishing them from amnesia due to diffuse brain damage and from psychogenic amnesia. In clinical practice a complex admixture of causes will sometimes be seen, but first the classic pictures may be outlined.
For purposes of clinical description a somewhat arbitrary division is made into ’immediate’, ’recent’ and ’remote’ memory. The immediate memory span (or ’ultra short-term memory’) is reflected in the reproduction of material such as brief digit sequences which fall within the span of attention. It appears to represent the functioning of short-term storage mechanisms, which need not, even in normal circumstances, lead on to an enduring record. Clinically it provides evidence that registration is intact. Recent memory is reflected in ability to acquire and retain new knowledge (’current memorising’, ’new learning’) and requires a process of consolidation in addition to registration. Clinically it is assessed by noting ability to learn or retain material over short spans of time, usually by testing ability to repeat simple information after several minutes have elapsed. Remote memory is reflected in the ability to recall information acquired at a considerable distance in time, and certainly before the onset of the memory difficulties. It therefore represents a process of retrieval of material which has been held in long-term storage.
In everyday clinical practice it is convenient to employ the terms ’immediate’, ’recent’ and ’remote’ as outlined just above. Unfortunately, however, considerable confusion can arise over some of the terms used in referring to memory mechanisms, and particularly when attempting to translate the experimental literature to clinical practice. ’Short-term memory’, for example, is often used by psychologists as synonymous with immediate memory, and often in medical practice as broadly congruent with recent memory.
An important division is recognised between short- and longterm memory mechanisms (STM and LTM, respectively) both in animal and human experimental work. STM is also referred to as ’primary memory’ and LTM as ’secondary memory”. Each has certain characteristics not shared by the other. Primary memory (STM) has a strictly limited capacity, being able to hold only a small number of unrelated items of information at a time. Decay from it is rapid when rehearsal is prevented. This is the aspect of memory tested by the digit span. The material held in primary memory is retained in a form closely tied to the qualities of the initial percepts (timbre, visual detail, precise verbal content, etc.); it is non-selective, and material can be reproduced from it without comprehension of the meaning. Subsequent entries to the system displace what is already there. Primary memory thus acts as a short-term back-up to perceptual experience, giving time for selective attention to focus on what is meaningful and valuable for transfer into secondary memory.
Secondary memory (LTM) has very different properties. Material held in secondary memory is encoded mainly in semantic terms, i.e. in the form of meaningful concepts, and the primary qualities of the percepts involved become obscured. The result is a far more durable record. There is no known limit to the
Page 29 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
amount that can be stored. Secondary memory thus encompasses all material retained beyond a period of several seconds, and includes both the recent and the remote memory of the usual clinical terminology.
Studies carried out both in normal subjects and in patients with amnesia have in general upheld these broad divisions, though complex interrelationships clearly exist between the two memory storage systems. Valuable reviews of more recent experimental work in the area are to be found in Cermak (1982), Squire (1987) and Parkin (1987).
A number of further terms are in vogue for denning different aspects of memory. ’Working memory’ (Baddeley 1976; Hitch 1984) is an elaboration of the concept of “primary memory described above. It emphasises those components which can hold information in short-term storage and manipulate it while performing on-going cognitive tasks, and recognises the existence of different subsystems dealing with specialised forms of material. The ’articulatory loop’, for example, deals with phonological information, and the ’visuospatial scratch pad’ with visual images. Suitable experimental paradigms, and studies in patients with brain lesions, can show the relative independence of the one from the other (Vallar & Papagno 1995).
The ’episodic-semantic’ distinction was introduced by Tulving (1972) and can be useful in describing the detailed content of losses from the long-term memory store. Episodic memory refers to memory for specific, personally experienced events or episodes from the individual’s past; thus its content accumulates along with the individual’s day-to-day experiences, and it is usually recalled in the form of temporally dated episodes. Semantic memory or ’knowledge memory’ is less personally orientated and deals essentially with organised knowledge about the world-knowledge of objects, labels, vocabulary, principles and concepts. As such it is shared with others, not held in temporally specific order, and is largely acquired early in life. Both episodic and semantic aspects of memory can be affected (or spared) in amnesic states. Thus episodic memory for long-distant events may remain unaffected, whereas the disruption of new learning may prevent the addition of new facts to the semantic store. Nevertheless episodic memory appears to be the more vulnerable of the two in most amnesic syndromes.
A further distinction is made between ’declarative’ and ’procedural’ memory, and has particular relevance to the classic amnesic syndrome. Declarative (’explicit’) memory refers to knowledge of facts and data acquired by processing information, and is directly accessible to conscious awareness by a process of recall (Squire 1987). It thus embraces both episodic and semantic memory as defined above. Procedural (’implicit’) memory, by contrast, is shown by the capacity to perform a particular task, without necessarily knowing when or where one learned to do it. This ’knowing how’ is expressed only in performance, not in the form of detailed conscious recollection. The various forms of procedural memory include skill memory (e.g. how to ride a bicycle or tie shoe laces), and the capacity for certain cognitive operations (e.g. how to solve certain types of puzzle). The phenomenon of ’priming’ probably also falls within the domain of procedural memory, i.e. the capacity to profit from prior exposure to cues, such as previously perceived or partially completed words, in the execution of a task. Again this represents ’unconscious memory’, manifest only in behaviour. Procedural memory is typically preserved when declarative memory is severely disrupted by hippocampal or diencephalic lesions.
Thus there appear to be several independent memory systems, possibly tied to different neural networks within the brain. Declarative memory is clearly closely associated with hippocampal and diencephalic structures; and there is some evidence that skill learning may be related to the striatum, and priming effects to the neocortex (Squire 1986).
Amnesia due to diencephalic and hippocampal lesions
There are many important respects in which the memory deficits are closely similar, whether produced by lesions in the hypothalamic-diencephalic system or in the hippocampal regions. Thus perception is unimpaired, the immediate memory span is well preserved, and beyond a variable retrograde gap remote memories are substantially intact. The principal defect with both types of cerebral lesion emerges in the field of recent memory (current memorising) so that current events become less available for future recall. More recent detailed studies have served to qualify the view that all amnesic syndromes are identical, as described on pp. 37-8, but in broad outline they can be described together as follows.
The preservation of the immediate memory span
is a point of great importance clinically. Performance on a test of digit span is usually normal, and therefore will fail to reveal the existence even of a severe amnesic syndrome. The cases with bilateral temporal lobe resection, in whom good ability to cooperate is well preserved, have shown that in the absence of distraction such brief information can be retained for several minutes by dint of constant verbal rehearsal. Forgetting occurs, however, as soon as new activity demands a shift away from the task in hand. Moreover, the learning of a list which slightly exceeds the normal digit span is markedly impaired, revealing thePage 30 CHAPTER 2
essential difficulty in getting new material into longer term store (Drachman & Arbit 1966).
Recent memory
It seems clear also that these defects of memory are to a large extent independent of the significance of the material involved. In mild cases it is sometimes found that memory for personal matters is better preserved than for impersonal, and for concrete matters better than for abstract. Events of high emotional significance may sometimes appear to be remembered especially well. But within this framework there will usually be exceptions and surprising instances. Victor (1964), in a group of alcoholic Korsakoff patients, was unable to discern any factors that governed what was remembered and what was forgotten. A patient might fail to retain news of a bereavement which shocked him profoundly at the time, yet retain other matters of no significance whatever. The most severe case following bilateral hippocampal resection described by Milner (1966), ’H.M.’, showed a failure of retention which cut across all factors of vividness or emotional significance:’… His initial emotional reaction may be intense, but it will be short-lived, since the incident provoking it will soon be forgotten. Thus, when informed of the death of his uncle, of whom he was very fond, he became extremely upset, but then appeared to forget the whole matter and from time to time thereafter would ask when his uncle was coming to visit them; each time, on hearing anew of his uncle’s death, he would show the same intense dismay, with no sign of habituation.’
Despite such pervasive deficits procedural memory (p. 29) is well preserved, even in the most severely affected patients. Milner’s (1966) patient, for example, showed a normal learning curve for a task of mirror drawing, even though on each test occasion he was completely unaware that he had tried the task before. Other tests of motor and perceptual skills, such as pursuit-rotor tasks or the reading of mirror-reversed words, have also revealed learning and retention over considerable periods of time (Corkin 1968; Starr & Phillips 1970; Cohen & Squire 1980). ’Priming effects’ are largely preserved, as when prior presentation of a word increases the tendency to produce that word when its initial letters are shown some minutes later (Squire et al. 1987). Thus the forms of memory which are accessible only in performance, and not as acts of conscious recollection or recognition, appear to be spared in the classic amnesic syndrome.
The retrograde amnesia often covers a period of months or years before the onset of the illness. This is usually dense for events just prior to the onset, but may be incomplete and patchy where the parts most distant in time are concerned. Tune sense is characteristically disordered within the retrograde gap, with jumbling of the sequential ordering of those events which are recalled. In patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome of alcoholic origin the retrograde amnesia is often of particularly long duration, extending even over several decades but showing a clearcut temporal gradient. In discrete amnesic syndromes of other aetiologies the difficulties with recall seem rarely to exceed 2-4 years. The careful experimental studies which have addressed such issues are described on pp. 36-7. Over the course of time many retrograde amnesias may shrink considerably, especially those seen after temporal lobe resection or when the pathology resolves as in tuberculous meningitis.
Disturbance of time sense
Remote memory,
Confabulation
can be a striking feature in amnesias duefor matters beyond the retrograde gap, is much better preserved. In severe amnesias after temporal lobe resection, remote events are often reported to be perfectly preserved, though in Korsakoff’s syndrome the distinction is less clear-cut and remote memories are often found to be somewhat impaired when opportunities arise to check them in detail. It is, of course, difficult to assess the competence of remote memory in any comprehensive way, as discussed on p. 99.and of the ordering of events is an outstanding characteristic, particularly in Korsakoff’s syndrome. The patient may allocate some recent remembered event to the distant past, or bring up a past event as a recent happening. He may condense long periods of time or telescope repeated happenings into one. This affects recent memory and the period of the retrograde gap particularly, but may be observed for more remote happenings as well. Talland (1965) suggested that the problem is due not to loss of appreciation of the flow of time, but rather to ’contextual isolation’; that is to say, events within the memory store appear to lose relationship with the totality of experience which surrounds them and in which they would normally be framed sequentially.is thus defective, and disorientation at least in time is almost universal. New learning is impaired, and in the most extreme cases may be reduced to nil, so that as time goes by there is a continuing and extending anterograde amnesia. If recovery subsequently occurs, a dense and permanent gap will be left for the period of the illness. In less severe examples the problem shows as uncertainty about events which occurred minutes, days or weeks before, some being vaguely recalled and others having made no lasting impression at all. The retelling of simple stories is marked by gross omissions, incorrect juxtapositions and condensations of material. More careful testing shows that the problem affects all types of material, both verbal and non-verbal, such as word associations, drawings and numbers.Page 31 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
to lesions of the hypothalamic-diencephalic structures, but seems to be rare in those which follow bilateral hippocampal destruction. Traditionally it seems to have been greatly overstressed. When present, it is commoner in the early stages than in the chronic phases of Korsakoff’s syndrome, but it is certainly not universal (Victor et al. 1971). It may appear as an evanescent phenomenon, or in rare cases may last for many years.
Typically, the patient gives a reasonably coherent but false account of some recent event or experience, usually in relation to his own activities and often in response to suggestion by the examiner. Berlyne (1972), who provided a useful review of the subject, denned confabulation as ’a falsification of memory occurring in clear consciousness in association with an organically derived amnesia’. He upheld Bonhoeffer’s early distinction between two varieties. The common ’momentary type’ is brief in content, has reference to the recent past and has to be provoked. The content can sometimes be traced to a true memory which has become displaced in time or context. Much rarer is the ’fantastic type’ in which a sustained and grandiose theme is elaborated, usually describing far-fetched adventures and experiences which clearly could not have taken place at any time. This form tends to occur spontaneously even without a provoking stimulus, and the content is often related to wish fulfilment and the seeking of prestige. Kopelman (1987a) prefers a classification simply into ’provoked’ and ’spontaneous’ confabulation, and has shown that the former appears in the context of efforts at recall by both Korsakoff and Alzheimer patients.
There is probably not a unitary mechanism underlying the appearance of confabulation. It occurs in a setting of amnesic difficulties, but the memory disorder itself is unlikely to be the cornplete explanation otherwise it would be seen a great deal more commonly. Often, as already stated, it appears to represent fragments of genuine past experience which are dislocated in time. As Barbizet (1963) pointed out, the patient who is unable to retain new material will tend to live on his stock of old memories, and will react to a new situation with what he has available.
Sometimes confabulation may represent the residue of abnormal and confused experiences, including misidentifications and misinterpretations which occurred in the delirium of the initial Wernicke’s encephalopathy. Thus it commonly sets in as clouding of consciousness is receding and persists thereafter while insight into the unreal nature of the delirious experiences is lacking. Others have sought to explain it in terms of unawareness or even motivated denial of the memory disorder, though this is likely to have only limited application.
Kopelman (1987a) was able to demonstrate examples of ’provoked’ confabulation in healthy subjects when asked to recall prose passages after a considerable interval of time; these were similar in nature to those sometimes observed in Korsakoff and Alzheimer patients when tested shortly after exposure, consisting mainly of additions of inaccurate or irrelevant material or changes in the sense of the passage. This type can thus be regarded as a ’normal’ response to a faulty memory.
In many well-established and persistent cases a strong iatrogenic component can often be discerned, and the symptoms may then reflect in considerable measure the patient’s suggestibility and desire to please Interesting evidence has also come forward to link confabulation to the presence of frontal lobe dysfunction in certain instances, particularly confabulation of the expansive or ’fantastic’ type. Stuss et al. (1978) reported five patients in whom frontal deficits, superadded to their memory problems, appeared to account for their persistent and extraordinary confabulation. Kapur and Coughlan (1980) were able to chart the change from fantastic to momentary confabulations in a patient with left frontal damage following subarachnoid haemorrhage, and to show that this change was paralleled by improvement in performance on frontal lobe tests. It seems possible, therefore, that a special combination of deficits may be the essential prerequisite for the more elaborate and striking instances of confabulation in association with memory disorder.
Other cognitive functions
In Korsakoff’s syndrome, however, the situation is less straightforward. Other cognitive functions are usually found to be disordered when carefully examined (Talland
1965; Zangwill 1966; Victor et al. 1971). There is often difficulty in sustaining mental activity, coupled with inflexibility of set and reduced capacity to shift attention from one task or train of thought to another. Thinking is usually stereotyped, perseverative and facile, with inadequate concept formation and defective ability to categorise. Butters and Cermak (1980) review the visuoperceptual impairments which are almost universally revealed when sought out by special tests, for example the digit-symbol substitution test, hidden figures test, or tests requiring the sorting and discrimination of complex visual stimuli. All of these deficiencies are nonetheless overshadowed by the prominence of the memory disorder. It is this disproportion between memory deficits and other cognitive deficits which is the hallmark of the condition. The likelihood that there may be transitional forms between the classic picture and patients with more global cognitive Impairment is discussed on p. 584.
Even superficial acquaintance with Korsakoff patients also reveals certain marked disturbances of personality.
are relatively well preserved, and the above amnesic deficits are out of all proportion to other disturbances of intellect or behaviour. In particular the patients are alert, responsive to their environments and without any evidence of clouding of consciousness. The amnesic states following temporal lobe resection are in all respects astonishingly pure, with no evidence of other cognitive deficits and with good preservation of insight into the memory difficulties. Where premorbid personality has been sound there is no disturbance of social behaviour, of motivation or of emotional control.Page 32 CHAPTER 2
There is often a pronounced degree of apathy and loss of initiative, a bland or even fatuous disposition, and a tendency towards self neglect. Left to himself the patient occupies himself poorly, makes few demands or enquiries from those around, and obeys instructions in a passive and indifferent manner. A virtual disinterest in alcohol may represent a particularly striking change. Lack of insight is also almost universal; few Korsakoff patients appreciate that they are ill, and in those who do the gravity of their defects is minimised or explained away by facile rationalisations.
Thus while surgical resection of the medial temporal lobe structures produces clear evidence of circumscribed memory disorder, the neuropathological picture seen in Korsakoff’s syndrome must account for a good deal more than the memory deficits alone. In the latter, the admixture of motivational and attitudinal deficits probably accounts for the somewhat capricious nature of the memory disorder and leads to difficulties in attempts to analyse it with the same degree of precision.
Amnesia in diffuse cerebral disorder
When associated with diffuse cerebral disorder, amnesia lacks the definitive structure described above. In addition it is often submerged among more widespread impairments of intellectual function, which make precise analysis of the memory deficits extremely difficult if not impossible. In acute organic reactions some of the memory difficulties can be traced directly to impairment of consciousness and to the problems with attention and perception that result. In chronic organic reactions amnesia often represents no more than the earliest manifestation to come to light of general cognitive failure, in the sense that memory difficulties tend to be more readily spotted than other aspects of intellectual loss.
The general picture of the memory difficulties in acute organic reactions has been discussed on pp. 11-12 and in chronic organic reactions on pp. 15-16. Certain distinctive features may, however, be summarised here for cornparison with the picture in focal amnesic states.
The amnesic defects of diffuse brain disease are cornmonly global, affecting both recent and remote events to an obvious degree. Only rarely is there a clear-cut disturbance of recent memory along with a retrograde gap beyond which remote events are found to be well preserved.
Recent events may be the most obviously affected, but in part at least this may be due to lack of interest and involvement in current experiences. Remote memories may appear to be relatively intact, but often prove in fact to be banal, stereotyped and lacking in detail. Using structured tests, Wilson et al (1981) were unable to demonstrate relative preservation of very remote memories in a group of patients with dementia. To a marked extent performance may be variable from one occasion to another, and capricious in that some events are easily recalled while others, apparently equally trivial or unimportant, are not. Indeed much of the difficulty can often be seen to lie in failure to sustain attention and concentration on the general task of directed recall.
It is on evidence such as this that the memory disorder in dementia is thought to reflect the diffuse pathology which exists throughout the cortex and elsewhere. Thus deficits are attributed to losses within the memory store, and to disruption of the mechanisms of association and of access to the store which must follow upon reduction of interconnections between one cortical region and another. It is also clear that primary as well as secondary memory functions (p. 28) are implicated in dementia. The immediate memory span is impaired (Miller 1973; Kaszniak et al. 1979), unlike the situation in patients with circumscribed amnesic syndromes, and losses occur more rapidly from the primary memory store (Corkin 1982; Kopelman 1985a). It is interesting, however, that once material is acquired into secondary memory, forgetting rates have emerged as essentially normal, as is also the case with Korsakoff’s syndrome (Corkin et al. 1984; Kopelman 1985a). Kopelman (1985b, 1986) and Kopelman and Corn (1988) review the evidence that depletion within the cholinergic system in dementia (pp.444 and 504) can account only partially for the memory disorder encountered in such patients.
The evidence with regard to implicit (procedural) memory in dementia has been conflicting, and proves to be closely tied to the specific test paradigms employed. The general picture that emerges in Alzheimer’s disease is of preserved motor skill learning, as on pursuit-rotor tasks (Eslinger & Damasio 1986), and relatively normal curves of improvement on perceptual tasks such as mirror reading (Deweer et al. 1993); by contrast a variety of priming tasks can be shown to be impaired, as revealed by word-stem completion or semantic association tests (Shimamurarta/ 1987; Brandtetal. 1988).
It would, however, be premature to conclude that diffuse brain damage is always the complete explanation for the amnesic symptoms in dementing illnesses. In Alzheimer’s disease there may be a relative intensity of pathological change in the hippocampal regions and mamillary bodies, and perhaps particularly when memory deficits have been severe (Brierley 1961; Corsellis 1970). Conversely in Pick’s disease the pathological process may spare in large degree the hippocampal ’ regions, and here striking memory problems are rarely an
Page 33 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
early manifestation. It is therefore probable that when amnesia is pronounced in relation to other disabilities, the pathological changes may have progressed especially far in the cerebral systems which are particularly concerned with memory functions.
The common memory deficits of old age may likewise depend in part on generalised and in part on focal degenerative changes. Huppert (1994) reviews the attempts made to specify those aspects of memory most vulnerable to the ageing process, and the difficulty in generalising about the pathological substrates which may be responsible. One of the firmer strands of evidence centres on the presence of retention deficits in healthy elderly subjects; in comparison with younger controls they show slightly but significantly faster forgetting of material even after careful matching for initial level of performance (Huppert & Kopelman 1989). This contrasts with the normal forgetting rates observed in Alzheimer’s dementia and Korsakoff’s syndrome when compared with age-matched controls (vide supra), and implies a distinct pathological basis.
There is also evidence that substantial deficits occur with ’working memory’ with age, i.e. the ability not merely to hold information in short-term storage, but concurrently to manipulate and combine it with further incoming information. Other problems highlighted in the elderly concern ’prospective memory’ (i.e. remembering to carry out a task some time later while engaged in other activities) and deficits in memory for context (Huppert 1994). Grady etal. (1995) have shown certain differences on PET scans during the performance of memory tasks in young and old people, indicative of impaired cortical and hippocampal activation during the encoding of material in the elderly.
Beyond this it is hard to draw firm conclusions. The pathological changes characteristic of ageing occur so frequently and so diffusely that clinicopathological correlations are again hard to obtain. The hippocampal regions have sometimes been found to be particularly affected (Gellerstedt 1933), and Busse (1962) reported a relatively high incidence of electroencephalographic abnormalities in the temporal lobes of elderly people, more markedly so when learning ability was deficient.
Similar uncertainty surrounds the pathogenesis of the amnesic phenomena which accompany closed head injury, as discussed on p. 162.
Psychogenic amnesia
Psychogenic amnesia is commonly either dense and global, or alternatively restricted to circumscribed themes or events. When global it may involve the blotting out of long periods of past life, or even loss of personal identity, in a manner which is inconsistent with the general preservation of intellect. Amnesias of this severity do not occur in organic states unless at the same time there is abundant evidence of disturbance of consciousness or of severe disruption of cognitive functions generally. Interestingly, even with dense psychogenic amnesias there may sometimes be ’islands’ of preserved memories which can be uncovered by careful questioning (Schacterefa/. 1982).
Inconsistencies in the account may also be noted. The subject with hysterical amnesia, for example, may insist that certain events could not have occurred during the period covered by the amnesic gap, while at the same time he is in no position to refute the proposition. More restricted psychogenic amnesias will usually be found to centre on a related constellation of events or circumscribed areas such as the patient’s work or marriage. Repeated episodes of psychogenic amnesia will frequently betray stereotyped themes or settings, as with the patient described on p. 416.
Psychogenic amnesia is suspected when from the outset profound difficulty with recall of past events is coupled with normal ability to retain new information, or alternatively when there is total inability to retain information even for the few seconds required for the immediate memory span. A delayed curve of forgetting, which during the course of some days or weeks leads to cornplete extinction of important and significant material, is likewise sometimes seen in psychogenic but not in organic amnesias.
Kopelman (1987b) discusses factors which appear to predispose to psychogenic amnesia, notably precipitating stress, depressed mood or the experience of an earlier organic amnesia due to head injury, epilepsy or alcoholism. In the medicolegal field amnesia for offending is commonest with homicide, occurring in 30-40% of cases, but may also be seen in connection with other violent and non-violent offences. The amnesic episodes are typically fairly brief and knowledge of personal identity usually remains intact.
Special difficulties, of course, arise when psychogenic and organic aspects of memory loss occur together. Psychogenic factors may sometimes be obtrusive in amnesias which are clearly due primarily to brain damage, or an organic memory defect may come to be selectively reinforced or perpetuated on a psychogenic basis. Such difficulties are well illustrated by the celebrated dispute, reviewed by Zangwill (1967), which surrounded the Grunthal-Storring case for more than 30 years. A more recent example, illustrating the need to search carefully for organic factors in patients who appear to manifest purely psychogenic amnesia, is described by Kopelman
page 34 CHAPTER 2
et al.
Memory disorder in the ’functional’ psychoses
While it is traditionally held that memory disorder is the hallmark of organic brain damage, there are indications that memory may sometimes be defective in the so-called ’functional’ psychoses. At an anecdotal level it is not infrequently noted that patients lack detailed knowledge of key features of their abnormal beliefs and experiences on recovery from schizophrenia or severe affective disorder. Depression, moreover, has been shown to have a marked effect upon the selective processes normally operative in memory, leading to readier recall and more accurate recognition of unpleasant compared to pleasant material (Lloyd & Lishman 1975; Dunbar & Lishman 1984). Among normal subjects such selectivity operates in the reverse direction.
However, until recently little attention had been given to overall memory efficiency in patients with depression or schizophrenia. Cutting’s (1979) survey was therefore of considerable interest. Groups of patients with acute schizophrenia, chronic schizophrenia and depressive illness were compared with normal subjects and patients with organic psychosyndromes. Verbal learning and pattern recognition memory were separately assessed. The most prominent finding was that patients with chronic schizophrenia were impaired on both types of task, being sometimes comparable in performance to patients with confusional states, dementia or Korsakoff’s syndrome. The depressives were also impaired on both tasks but to a less marked degree. Acute schizophrenic patients performed poorly on verbal memory alone. It seemed unlikely that coincidental brain damage could be the explanation, but the possible effects of medication were harder to discount.
McKenna etal. (1990) evaluated a large group of acute and chronic schizophrenic patients on the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test battery (p. 117), and found that poor performance was common and sometimes substantial. The level of memory impairment appeared occassionally to approach that of patients with overt brain damage. Tamlyn etal. (1992) confirmed such deficits in a more detailed neuropsychological study of the same sample, finding that the pattern of impairment was similar to that of the classic amnesic syndrome. However, virtually all of the patients were receiving neuroleptic medication and many were also taking anticholinergic drugs, which may have contributed substantially to their poor performance. Saykin et al. (1991) nevertheless demonstrated a disproportionate and apparently selective deficit on memory and learning tasks in 36 nonmedicated acute schizophrenic patients.
Duffy and O’Carroll (1994) have recently reported a detailed study of 40 schizophrenic patients, using the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test battery, paired associate learning and other memory tests. This was a heterogeneous sample of acute and chronic patients, all screened to exclude those with a history of alcohol or drug abuse, head injury or other brain disease. Poor performance was demonstrated on several tests; and on the Rivermead battery the group was as likely to show significant memory impairment as the brain-damaged sample upon which the battery was originally validated. The severity of impairment was related to age and chronicity of illness, but not to measures of motivation, severity of psychotic symptoms or amount of neuroleptic medication. Of particular interest were comparisons with a group of chronic Korsakoff patients. On the tests of episodic memory the schizophrenics were less impaired than the Korsakoff patients, but on a test of semantic memory (i.e. judgements of whether a series of factual sentences were true or false) they were significantly worse. Further work will be required to substantiate this possible double dissociation. McKenna etal. (1995) provide a comprehensive review of research into this and other aspects of memory in the disorder, including the apparent sparing of procedural memory. Rizzo et al. (1996) produce evidence that memory for temporal context may be especially disrupted.
Such findings dictate a measure of caution in placing too great a reliance on tests of memory alone in deciding whether a patient with schizophrenia may harbour a brain lesion. It is important to recognise, nonetheless, that Duffy and O’Carroll’s schizophrenic patients were less impaired to a very considerable degree than their Korsakoff sample on standard tests of memory, only 5% scoring within the severely impaired range.
(1994b). Difficult problems may equally surround attempts at distinguishing between psychogenic amnesia and simulated amnesia, as in the patient reported by Kopelman etal. (1994a).Unresolved problems in amnesic states
Consolidation defect, encoding deficit or failure of inhibition?
The amnesic syndrome was for many years regarded as reflecting a failure of consolidation of new experience. Thus while the immediate memory span is normal, and old memories may remain substantially intact, current experience cannot gain proper access to the long-term store.
Evidence has, however, come forward to challenge this straightforward view, despite the appeal that it holds on first acquaintance. A simple consolidation hypothesis is
Page 35 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
hard pressed to explain why some forms of cueing can improve performance, or why patients can achieve better results on recognition tests than when tested by free recall. More strikingly, it has been possible, using the Huppert-Piercy technique outlined on p. 38, to show that rates of forgetting from the memory store are not accelerated in Korsakoff’s syndrome or Alzheimer’s disease once material has been learned to a constant criterion (Huppert & Piercy 1978, 1979; Kopelman 1985a). Normal forgetting rates of this nature were observed for intervals as long as 7 days.
Butters and co-workers have stressed the role of deficient encoding of information in leading to the poor performance of amnesic subjects (Cermak & Butters 1972; Butters & Cermak 1980). This, it seems, may account in considerable degree for their failure to store material adequately. Thus Korsakoff patients were found to rely unduly on simple acoustic encoding cf the information they receive, rather than analysing it more deeply in terms of semantic meaning. Experiments have shown in addition that they use inappropriate strategies for the rehearsal and ’chunking’ of information, all rendering it more susceptible to interference and rapid decay. When specifically instructed to attend to semantic features of the words presented, for example when forced to analyse them in terms of categories, attributes or meaning, the Korsakoff patient is found to achieve a somewhat improved performance on memory tasks.
Other approaches have emphasised difficulties at the level of retrieval, occasioned perhaps by failure to inhibit the intrusion of irrelevant material. This ’retrieval-interference’ theory holds that amnesics encode and store with reasonable efficiency, though the items in memory are poorly insulated from one another; in consequence they are in constant competition when retrieval is attempted. Support for such a mechanism came from experiments using the ’technique of partial information’ (Warrington & Weiskrantz 1968, 1970; Warrington 1971):
A technique was elaborated for testing learning and retention by the presentation of graded clues. A word or picture may, for example, be prepared in several forms, ranging from a very indistinct image through progressively clearer forms until the word or picture emerges with full clarity. When such a graded series is presented to the subject, the point at which recognition occurs can be established; on subsequent presentations of the same material recognition occurs earlier in the course of the series if learning has occurred. With this technique it was shown that severely amnesic subjects, both with hippocampal damage and with Korsakoff deficits, displayed learning and retention over considerable periods of time, when such was not the case with conventional test material. Moreover there was evidence that it was in the processes of retrieval that the technique of partial information allowed the amnesic subject to demonstrate that learning had occurred. Thus conventional tasks of rote
learning could also emerge as unimpaired when recall was tested by this special means.
This evidence suggests that the amnesic patient is continuing to store information, but in such a manner that the usual processes of retrieval cannot demonstrate that this is so. Stored material is perhaps not inhibited or dissipated in the normal manner, and as a result intrudes disruptively into the processes of recall. Such a view would be consistent with other anomalous findings in amnesic patients, such as the tendency in verbal learning experiments for items learned in one list to re-occur as intrusion errors in subsequent lists (’proactive interference’). Retrieval by the technique of partial information could thus produce superior results because it restricts the choice of possible responses available to the subject, and helps him to eliminate incorrect false-positive responses. In essence, far from storing too little, the amnesic patient may store or retrieve too much.
This fascinating suggestion has come under criticism, as reviewed by Piercy (1977) and Butters and Cermak (1980). Warrington and Weiskrantz (1978) have themselves reported experiments which necessitate a recasting of the theory in considerable degree. In particular it now seems difficult to uphold response competition as accounting directly for the amnesic patients’ retrieval difficulties. And it can be shown that partial information techniques enhance recall in normal as well as in amnesic subjects, so the demonstration may be of a general effect, not of a special problem arising with amnesia (Woods & Piercy 1974). Furthermore, it is difficult to account for the temporal gradient seen in retrograde amnesias on such a basis. The observations of Warrington and Weizkrantz have, nonetheless, emphasised yet another aspect of the memory apparatus which must be taken into account. The naive view of a consolidation defect alone obviously requires extensive qualification.
It has emerged, indeed, that any theory concerning the underlying deficits in amnesia can only provide a partial explanation of the phenomena encountered. Some observations emphasise the encoding aspect, some the storage difficulties, and others the problems with retrieval processes. All of these stages, however, are highly interactive and interdependent, one upon the other. It is clear that they are not neatly separable in normal memory, so it would be unreasonable to expect to pinpoint the source of the difficulties in amnesic patients with great precision.
The long retrograde amnesia
The short retrograde amnesia (RA) of several minutes’ duration, such as commonly occurs after head injury, can be plausibly explained on the view that new learning
page 36 CHAPTER
requires a period of consolidation for stable long-term memory to be established. It is difficult, in contrast, to provide an explanation for the very long RAs which may extend for months or years prior to the onset of an amnesic syndrome.
If regarded as a failure of the mechanisms of retrieval, this cannot be a general defect of the recall apparatus. RAs are often patchy, and in any case the patient continues to retrieve well for events prior to the retrograde gap. Furthermore, recovered cases after head injury or tuberculous meningitis may be left with long RAs when current memorising ability has returned virtually to normal, so that here retrieval can be observed to operate well on both sides of the retrograde gap.
An explanation in terms of loss of retention for events within the retrograde gap is equally unsatisfactory. To explain very long RAs on this basis it would be necessary to suppose that full consolidation takes months or even years before the memory trace becomes resistant to extinction. Moreover, RAs may sometimes shrink with the passage of time, showing that the memory trace must have been intact all along.
It is probably a fault in principle to try to partition the blame too rigidly between primary faults in recall or in consolidation. Symonds (1966) put forward a hypothesis which may help towards resolving the dilemma of the long RA. He suggested that certain amnesic syndromes should be viewed in terms of excess, or acceleration, of the natural process of forgetting. This might normally be opposed by an activating system situated mainly in the hippocampal system. When the operation of the activating system ceases from any cause decay will prevail, affecting most severely the memory units most recently established, and progressively less those which have existed, perhaps with structural modification within the central nervous system, over a period of time. Decay, or forgetting, is thus seen as a graded process: some of the more recent memories will decay to zero potential and will then be included in the dense RA that persists, even in those cases where current memorising ability is again restored; beyond this will be a zone in which memory units have decayed to a non-functional level but can gradually recover their function if activation is restored. On such a basis the long RA which ultimately shrinks becomes more readily explainable.
An alternative escape from the dilemma is to discount the long RA as an artefact of clinical examination. It is hard to assess the preservation, or loss, of memories for personal events far back in time, and most impressions of long, temporally graded RAs are based on anecdotal or unsystematic observations. Sanders and Warrington (1971), in a pioneering experiment, appeared to obtain support for the view that retrograde memory difficulties extended over virtually the whole of past experience, and affected all time periods equivalently. Using a standardised questionnaire concerning distant public events, and a recognition test of well-known public figures, they found that recall ability was steadily lowered in amnesic subjects for periods of up to 40 years. No clear onset to the retrograde gap could be discerned. More recent studies, however, have reinstated the temporal gradient and shown that the RA in circumscribed amnesic syndromes is truly a time-linked phenomenon:
Albert et al. (1979) developed tests concerning previous public events and recognition tests of famous faces. Patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome showed retrograde memory deficits extending over several decades, but with clear-cut temporal gradients and relative preservation for the remote past. More events and pictures, for example, were recognised from the 1930s and 1940s than from the 1960s. An especially interesting feature was the inclusion in the tests of pictures of well-known individuals both early and late in their careers, for example of Marlon Brando from the 1950s and the 1970s; whereas normal subjects were more accurate at identifying the later pictures, Korsakoff patients showed precisely the reverse.
Squire and Slater (1975) produced a test based on titles of television programmes which had been broadcast for one season or less and were equivalently matched for public exposure. These showed that the transient RA following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was limited to several years, with normal performance beyond such a gap. Other tests derived from the procedures of Albert et al have also confirmed temporal gradients in Korsakoff patients (Cohen & Squire 1981; Squire & Cohen
1982).
Meudell et al (1980) used voices of famous people recorded over the past 50 years. Again this demonstrated poor recognition extending over several decades in Korsakoff subjects, but with relative preservation of memories for the more remote past. Other tests suited to British subjects include the News Events Test covering the period from 1935 to 1984 (Kopelman 1989), the Famous Personality Test (Stevens 1979), and the Personal Semantic Memory Schedule and Autobiographical Incidents Schedule which cover past aspects of the individual’s life (Kopelman et al. 1989).
Carefully conducted and controlled studies have shown therefore that RAs, however long, tend to spare memories dating from childhood and early adulthood. Moreover they have emphasised that the RA in patients with alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome is remarkably severe and extensive, in contrast to that seen with other amnesic syndromes. In Squire’s studies, for example, Korsakoff patients showed deficits extending over several decades, whereas patients tested very shortly after ECT showed gaps limited to 4 years or less (Cohen & Squire 1981; Squire & Cohen 1982) Milner’s patient ’H.M.’ who had suffered hippocampal resection, and Squire’s patient
Page 37 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
’N.A.’ who had sustained a focal lesion in the thalamus, also showed retrograde gaps covering no more than a few years or months.
Butters and Albert (1982) discuss the possibility that the very extensive RAs in alcoholic Korsakoff patients may derive, in part at least, from their poor acquisition of material into long-term memory throughout their alcoholic careers. The anterograde memory difficulties of the typical alcoholic will have led to tenuous storage of material even before the Korsakoff syndrome supervenes; and the progressive increase in severity of such difficulties over the years might account for the temporally graded nature of the RA once the Korsakoff syndrome is established. Alternatively, it may be that earlier memories are relatively well preserved simply because these are particularly salient and well rehearsed (Kopelman 1989).
Meudell (1992) discusses the further possibility that much may depend on ’contextual isolation’. Both the anterograde and retrograde memory deficits may stem from a failure to employ contextual features in a normal manner during the process of remembering. And it is likely that as memories age ,they become less dependent on context for their recall, thus contributing to the tendency for distant memories to be spared.
In a series of exceptionally careful studies, Kopelman (1989, 1991) has shown that in both Korsakoff and Alzheimer patients the retrograde memory loss improves significantly when cues are provided, for example in cornparisons between free recall and recognition in the News Events Test. This was observed across all time intervals sampled, confirming that a retrieval deficit contributes to the difficulties encountered. Moreover the severity of the RA in both patient groups was related to defective performance on tests of frontal lobe funaion. It is therefore possible that frontal dysfunction, when added to hippocampal or other pathology, may produce the disorganisation of retrieval processes which has issue in the temporally extensive RA.
Finally, it is noteworthy that the temporal gradient characteristic of the RA in patients with amnesic syndromes is not so evident in patients with dementia. When the remote memory tests of Albert et al. were applied to patients with presumed Alzheimer’s disease, uniformly poor performance was observed for items throughout the whole 40-year span of the tests (Wilson et al. 1981). There was no discernible trend towards relative preservation of memories from the earliest decades. A similarly ’flat’ curve has been observed in patients with Huntington’s chorea (Albert et al. 1981). Kopelman (1989), however, found evidence of a temporal gradient in both Alzheimer and Korsakoff patients, though the slope was significantly more gentle in the dements. Thus it would seem that with diffuse cerebral pathology retrieval is more evenly impaired for all parts of past experience, albeit with some indications of a gradient with particularly careful testing. Other ways in which the memory disorder seen with diffuse brain dysfunction differs from that of the classic amnesic syndrome have already been discussed (p. 32).
Certain rare patients have been described in whom there is an extensive RA coupled with only minimal impairment on tests of anterograde memory (’isolated retrograde amnesia’). Such a dissociation is commonplace in the context of psychogenic amnesia, but a number of reasonably convincing cases have now been reported in whom the pattern appears to have an organic basis. Kapur et al’s (1986, 1989) patient experienced numerous episodes of transient global amnesia, during the course of which he developed an extensive retrograde loss covering significant material extending over the past two or three decades. He performed very badly on tests of retrograde memory, but by contrast performed well on the Wechsler Memory Scale with only mild impairment on certain subtests.
A second patient (Kapur et al. 1992) was injured during a riding accident, suffering contusions in both frontal lobes and the anterior portions of the temporal lobes. Eighteen months later she showed only mild and patchy anterograde impairment; but tests of retrograde memory for both public and autobiographical events showed extremely poor performance extending back to childhood. Hodges (1995) describes further examples, concluding that there is evidence to implicate damage to the anterior temporal structures (the pole, entorhinal and parahippocampal cortices) in most cases. Such patients suggest that one must be cautious in attributing extensive RAs to psychogenic mechanisms solely because new learning is relatively intact, and underline the importance of full investigation including neuroimaging when the situation is unclear.
Interesting dissociations have also been described between RA for personal and impersonal information. De Renzi et al. (1987), for example, reported a patient who was severely impaired after herpes encephalitis on a wide range of general informationknowledge about World War n. Hitler or Mussolini and other historical and geographical facts. She also performed poorly on formal tests of semantic memory such as classifying animal names or detecting incorrect sentences. Yet she remembered personal events well from both before and after her illness, was correctly informed about current family matters, and performed adequately on a questionnaire concerning autobiographical events from her schooldays onwards. Conversely, Dalla Barba et al. (1990) have described a patient with Korsakoff’s syndrome whose RA was severe and selective for autobiographical matters, while knowledge about famous people and events appeared to be reasonably intact. These examples serve as a reminder of the complexity underlying the organisation of memory, and the anomalies likely to be encountered when it is dissected in an ever more detailed manner.
Amnesic syndrome or syndromes?
It is commonly assumed that amnesic syndromes of varying aetiology are fundamentally similar. The alco-
Page 38 CHAPTER 2
holic Korsakoff syndrome may have superadded deficits, in subtle aspects of cognitive function and personality, as mentioned on pp. 31-2, and the RA in such cases tends to be exceptionally long as described above. Nevertheless the ’core’ structure of the amnesic deficits themselves has been viewed as identical whatever the causative process.
This assumption has now been challenged in certain respects. There is evidence, for example, that the amnesias seen with hippocampal and diencephalic pathology may not be entirely congruous.
A first pointer in this direction was provided by Lhermitte and Signoret (1972), who compared three postencephalitic patients (with presumed hippocampal damage) with a group of Korsakoff patients. The former performed at a lower level on a test of memory for spatial position, whereas the latter were worse on tests of temporal sequence. This was interpreted as indicating that the postencephalitic patients had a more profound failure of retention, whereas the Korsakoff patients were more impaired with regard to the organisation of material and with recall.
Firmer evidence has come from studies of speed of forgetting. Huppert and Piercy (1978, 1979) designed an ingenious method for examining forgetting rates over long time spans after ensuring that material had been learned to a constant criterion. A large number of pictures were exposed to the subjects, then recognition rates were tested at 10 minutes, 1 day and 7 days. By ’titrating’ the time of initial exposure, recognition performance at the 10-minute interval was brought to a constant level in different groups. Using this technique it was possible to show that forgetting over the subsequent week was indistinguishable between Korsakoff patients and normal controls; in other words, provided the Korsakoff patients had been given enough time to analyse the stimuli thoroughly they were able to display normal recognition memory over an extended period of time. Milner’s patient ’H.M.’, by contrast, showed abnormally rapid forgetting when tested similarly. His amnesic syndrome had resulted from bilateral hippocampal resection.
Squire (1981) reinforced this distinction by applying the technique to Korsakoff patients, to patient ’N.A.’ who had sustained focal damage to the thalamus, and to patients tested shortly after electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). The diencephalic amnesics (Korsakoff patients and ’N.A.’) showed normal rates of forgetting, whereas the ECT patients forgot at an accelerated rate. The amnesia following ECT is presumed to derive from dysfunction in the medial temporal regions.
Taken together these studies provide support for the view that the underlying amnesic difficulties may be qualitatively different, depending on the brain regions affected. The normal rate of forgetting in patients with diencephalic lesions suggests that their deficit must lie at the stage of registration or encoding, or in acquiring information into the long-term store. Rapid forgetting in patients with hippocampal damage implies a deficit in the consolidation occurring after initial learning has been achieved.
Other distinctions have also been claimed on tests of proactive interference and in terms of rates of forgetting from the primary memory store. These are reviewed by Butters and Cermak (1980), Squire (1982) and Parkin (1987). When taken in conjunction with differences between groups in the duration of RA (see above), the unitary character of the amnesic syndrome can be seen to be under question. There is not, however, a firm consensus on the issue, and further detailed studies will be necessary to clarify the situation.
Possible mechanisms in psychogenic amnesia
Traditionally a rather rigid distinction is maintained between, psychogenic and organic disturbances of memory, with indeed quite separate systems of explanation for the one and the other. This may be convenient in the present state of knowledge, but is perhaps a somewhat artificial dichotomy. It may fairly be presumed that a pathophysiology of some kind accompanies psychogenic amnesia, just as there must be a physiological basis for the influence of emotional and motivational factors on the normal processes of remembering and forgetting.
The mechanisms may vary somewhat from case to case. Faulty encoding of information may explain some examples as discussed below, while others may represent ’motivated forgetting’ or ’repression’. A third possibility, discussed by Kopelman (1987b), is of a primary retrieval deficit reflecting mood-dependent phenomena. Sometimes there may indeed be a substrate in transient organic memory dysfunction which dictates the form the psychogenic reaction takes, as in the alcoholic patient reported by Gudj onsson and Taylor (1985).
It may be asked whether the study of organic amnesic states and their neuropathology leads us any nearer to understanding the physiological basis of these psychologically induced phenomena. Certainly the neurological structures important in committing new experience to memory turn out to be strategically situated for allowing an integration between affective and cognitive aspects of experience. The hippocampal system forms part of the neural substrate proposed by Papez (1937) for the experiencing and expression of emotion; and the mamillary bodies, as Krai (1959) pointed out, lie at the intersection of Papez’s emotional circuit and the reticular formation
Page 39 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
upon which arousal depends. Such observations suggest possible mechanisms which may account for the emotional determinants of what is committed to memory and what is not. In states of profound emotional disturbance, perhaps also in dissociative states, it is possible that the total apparatus fails to function harmoniously, so that a durable memory trace cannot be established in the usual way. A simple explanation will not, however, suffice, and very often it appears that in psychogenic amnesias the principal fault lies with mechanisms for subsequent voluntary recall. Thus, behaviour during dissociative states often indicates that memorising, at least in the short term, must still be taking place, and much may later be accessible to recall under hypnosis or drug abreaction.
It is possible, furthermore, that certain cases of psychogenic amnesia may depend, at least in part, on failure in the initial processing of experience, rather than on a process of forgetting or repression (Kopelman 1985b, 1987b). Thus Taylor and Kopelman (1984) found that inability to recall a criminal offence was frequent when this had been committed in a state of very high emotional arousal, in the context of florid psychotic delusions, or under heavy alcoholic intoxication. All such factors would be liable to impair normal registration of what was happening at the time.
The mechanisms which may underlie psychogenic disturbances of recall receive little clarification from the study of organic memory syndromes. Organically determined RAs are to a large extent time related and tend to cover all experiences, whether significant emotionally or not. Psychogenic amnesia, on the other hand, may cover a circumscribed period in the distant past, and classically affects a system of related ideas or experiences. However, certain observations by Zangwill (1961) on the shrinkage of RAs after head injury are very interesting. Careful anamnesis in such cases sometimes shows that vulnerability during the retrograde gap is not wholly a function of recency, but that what is disturbed above all is the temporal coherence of the memory train. Shrinkage later occurs by the emergence in sporadic fashion of islands of memory, at first without firm context, which are later amplified and linked by rearousal of associative links. Zangwill suggested that this is not so very dissimilar from what is seen in psychogenic amnesia. Here again there is functional isolation of memory systems, with failures of associative linkage.
Lucchelli et al. (1995) further illustrate the blurring of the distinction between organic and psychogenic RAs, describing two patients who experienced a sudden resolution of their extensive RAs. Both had sustained brain insults at onset, and one had an accompanying anterograde memory impairment which persisted after the RA had recovered. In both patients there was an abrupt flooding back of the lost memories while they were engaged in a situation closely similar to one experienced before. Once a single autobiographical past experience had emerged the whole framework of past memories resurfaced into consciousness, in a manner suggesting the ’unblocking’ of a retrieval deficit. Lucchelli et al. favour an interaction of organic and psychogenic factors in their patients, with recovery dependent on the resetting of distorted ’patterned matrices’ subserving memory.
Our understanding of the mechanisms which underlie retrieval is, however, too fragmentary to allow more detailed speculation regarding possible distinctions, or analogies, between psychogenic and organic disturbances of recall in examples such as these.
Disorder of language functions
Disturbance of language is an important source of evidence of focal brain disorder and, indeed, historically provided the chief impetus for attempts at correlating focal psychological deficits with regional brain pathology. Dysphasic symptoms probably remain more useful clinically than any other cognitive defect in indicating the approximate site of brain pathology. Yet despite 100 years of careful enquiry and observation the analysis of dysphasia remains a controversial area, and beyond certain broad limits its relationship to regional cerebral disorder remains in many respects uncertain. This should not be surprising in view of the complex interrelationships that exist between different aspects of language processes, and the intimate way in which language must enter into many other cognitive functions. The parts of the brain concerned with language are extensive, and necessarily diffused over a considerable territory so that auditory, visual and motor mechanisms can be subserved. Consequently cerebral lesions which produce dysphasia can lead to many forms of deficit, and at the same time to other defects which render the appraisal of clinicopathological correlations difficult. It is moreover likely that individual variation is considerable where the anatomical substrate for language is concerned.
Cerebral dominance for language
The earliest observation of a relationship between anatomy and psychology to gain universal acceptance was that dysphasia was overwhelmingly more common after lesions of the left hemisphere than the right. Later right hemisphere lesions were reported to produce dysphasia in left-handed subjects, and the general rule was proposed that the hemisphere contralateral to handed-
Page 40 CHAPTER
ness governed speech. This has been upheld in large measure where right-handed subjects are concerned; Piercy (1964) reviews the evidence that the incidence of dysphasia in right-handed subjects is 67% when the lesion is in the left hemisphere and only 1% when the lesion is right sided. But it is now known from large unselected series of patients with brain lesions that lefthanders also suffer dysphasia more often from left than from right hemisphere lesions, in fact in a ratio of approximately 2:1. Bilateral speech representation appears to be more common in left-handers than righthanders, though remaining rare in both.
The most direct confirmation of these relationships has come from observing the transient effect on speech of injecting sodium amytal into the carotid arteries of the left and right sides separately by the Wada technique (Wada &• Rasmussen 1960; Rasmussen &• Milner 1977). Sodium amytal, 175mg as a 10% solution, is injected over 2-3 seconds into the internal carotid artery. This results in a contralateral flaccid paralysis lasting for several minutes during which the preservation or disruption of language can be briefly assessed. Rasmussen and Milner (1977) have reported 396 epileptic patients examined under such conditions. Among the right-handers 92% were found to have left hemisphere speech, 6% to have right hemisphere speech and in 2% there was bilateral representation. Among left-handers and ambidextrous patients (without early brain damage) 70% had left hemisphere speech, 15% right hemisphere speech and 15% had bilateral speech representation. In subjects with evidence of bilateral speech representation the speech defects were mild, from both the right- and left-sided injections.
An alternative method for assessing language laterality involves the use of dichotic listening. Verbal information in the form of groups of spoken digits or monosyllabic words is fed through earphones to the two ears, but in such a way that different information arrives at each ear simultaneously. The subject must report whatever he hears, and is found to report more accurately and cornprehensively from the ear contralateral to the hemisphere subserving language. The results are less clear-cut than with the Wada technique, but dichotic listening has the advantage that it can readily be applied to a non-selected sample of subjects, including those in whom there is no reason to suspect the presence of brain damage. Satz et al. (1967) used this method to explore the relationship between handedness and language laterality in 123 healthy volunteers.
First it was shown that the situation in left-handed subjects becomes more complicated the more carefully left-handedness is evaluated. Handedness in fact proves to be a relative term, many ’left-handed’ subjects showing d uivision ot nana preferences and skills for different operations between the right and left hands. Thus a significant proportion of subjects who are lefthanded in the ordinary sense of the term prove to prefer the right hand for certain tasks, and sometimes even for a greater number of activities than the left. With objective tests of manual dexterity, Satz et al found that almost half showed better performance with the right hand than the left. On a composite score derived from all such evidence 17% of left-handed subjects emerged with strong right hand superiority, 22% as ambidextrous, and only 61%, could be judged as strongly left-handed in practice. All of this was in contrast to right-handed subjects who showed more consistency across preferences and tasks, 97% being confirmed in right hand superiority.
Interesting findings emerged when a dichotic listening technique was used to assess the hemisphere subserving language in these subjects. The self-reported right-handers showed strong evidence of left hemisphere dominance for language; so also did the 17% of left-handers who had proved to have right-handed superiority and the 22% who were ambidextrous. The 61 % who were truly strongly left-handed were divided approximately equally, half showing left hemisphere dominance and half right hemisphere dominance.
In a similar though smaller study, Lishman and McMeekan (1977) found evidence of a progressively decreasing incidence of left hemisphere dominance for language in right-handed, mixed-handed and left-handed individuals (100, 67 and 60%, respectively). Moreover, among strong left-handers a family history of sinistrality appeared to be another significant variable; the ear difference scores on dichotic testing were then smaller, indicating reduced lateralization or bilateral representation of language in such individuals.
Electroconvulsive therapy has also been used as a means of determining language laterality, again in subjects who are free from any evidence of cerebral disease (Pratt & Warrington 1972; Warrington & Pratt 1973,1981). By testing for dysphasia shortly after unilateral ECT to each side of the head, hi patients undergoing treatment for depressive illness, it was shown that right hemisphere speech existed in only one of 55 right-handed subjects and in about 25% of 24 left-handed subjects.
Some two-thirds of normal adults are strongly righthanded and approximately 90% use the right hand for writing (Subirana 1969; Annett 1970). For this there appear to be strong genetic determinants. Even so, environmental pressures seem to be capable of altering the genetically determined preference, likewise damage to the upper limb or to the brain in childhood. The age of
10-12 years is generally accepted as the upper limit beyond which brain damage will not alter handedness and beyond which the second hemisphere will not develop fully adequate language skills by way of compensation. But that shifts in cerebral dominance do occur in relation to early left hemisphere damage is strongly upheld by Rasmussen and Milner’s (1977) results of
Page 41 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
intracarotid amytal injection already mentioned above. Where left-handedness or ambidexterity was accompanied by a history of early left hemisphere damage there was, in contrast to all other groups, a large percentage of cases with language representation in the right hemisphere (28% left hemisphere speech, 53% right hemisphere speech, 19% bilateral speech representation).
Anatomical evidence has now come forward to cornplement the frequency with which language is represented in the left hemisphere. Yakovlev and Rakic (1966) reported that in foetal and newborn brains the corticospinal tract from the left hemisphere usually begins to decussate higher in the medulla than that coming from the right, and the corticospinal tract is usually larger on the right side of the cord than the left. Right hand preference, therefore, probably develops on the basis of the increased motor innervation available to the right side of the body. More directly Geschwind and Levitsky (1968), examining 100 adult human brains at postmortem, reported marked differences between the two hemispheres in the size of the planum temporale which lies on the superior surface of the temporal lobe immediately behind Heschl’s gyrus. This is the region which contains the auditory association cortex, and represents the classic Wemicke’s area known to be important for language. This area was found to be larger on the left in 65 brains, larger on the right in 11, and equal on the left and right in 24. These findings have been confirmed by others, as reviewed by Le May and Geschwind (1978).
Further interesting evidence has come from neuroradiological studies which have displayed a number of differences between right- and left-handers. Le May, for example, showed that in right-handers the occipital lobe was usually wider on the left than the right, whereas the frontal lobe was wider on the right than the left; these asymmetries were less striking in left-handers who, moreover, quite commonly show a reversal of the normal situation (Le May 1976, 1977; Galaburda et al. 1978). Such differences were readily detectable on the CT scan, also differences in the degree of forward or backward extension of the left and right hemispheres of the brain. The configuration of the lateral ventricles is likewise revealing, with a tendency for the occipital horns to be longer on the left in right-handers but less regularly so in left-handers (McRae et al. 1968). Arteriography has given indications of further differences, for example in the relative levels of the posterior ends of the Sylvian fissures and of the disposition of the transverse sinuses (Le May & Geschwind 1978). Witelson and Kigar (1988) review numerous other anatomical studies of this nature and discuss their possible relevance to hemispheric asymmetries of function. Kertesz and Naeser (1994) describe further indices of asymmetry which can be derived from MRI images, including assessment of asymmetries in the region of the planum temporale.
Certain differences in brain configuration, with possible relevance to language, are also evident in postmortem compansons between male and female brains (Witelson 1991) Thus the posterior part of the Sylvian fissure turns upwards more posteriorly on the left than the right side of the brain, and this asymmetry is more marked in men than women. Greater asymmetry in this regard is found in right-handed than non-right-handed men. Secondly, the isthmus of the corpus callosum, representing the part that contains fibres connecting the posterior parietal and superior temporal regions of the left and right hemispheres, is significantly smaller by some 20% in nght-handed men than in women, and smaller in right-handed than non-right-handed men.
Such anatomical differences are consistent with evidence from numerous sources that language is more strongly lateralised to the left hemisphere in males than females, and more so in righthanded than non-right-handed subjects. Greater bilaterahty of language representation may require less marked anatomical asymmetry but a greater degree of cross hemispheric communication between language-related brain areas. It remains puzzling, however, that the anatomical differences discerned between right- and non-right-handers have so far been observed in males alone.
Evidence with regard to cerebral dominance for language has also come from observations after section of the corpus callosum for the relief of intractable epilepsy (Sperry 1966; Sperry & Gazzaniga 1967; Gazzaniga &• Sperry 1967). As a result of the operation the two hemispheres are virtually isolated from each other and information can be fed tachistoscopically to either hemisphere alone by brief exposures in the opposite half-field of vision. When a picture of an object is exposed to the dominant hemisphere it can be named promptly or recorded in writing; but similar exposures to the nondominant hemisphere meet with no such response. If pressed to answer after information has been fed to the non-dominant hemisphere, the patient may deny seeing anything, or alternatively the speaking hemisphere may resort to pure guesswork and produce a random response. Nonetheless the patient can select the appropriate matching object, by means of palpation with the left hand, from among a group of objects concealed behind a screen, indicating that the non-dominant hemisphere has correctly perceived the picture despite the patient’s inability to name it. In a similar way an object concealed from view can be named when palpated by the right hand but not when palpated by the left hand. The non-dominant hemisphere is therefore mute as would have been expected.
In some of these patients, however, it seems certain that limited comprehension of language can take place in the
Page 42 CHAPTER 2
non-dominant hemisphere. The left hand can correctly select or point to an object which corresponds to a name exposed briefly to the non-dominant hemisphere alone. That the dominant hemisphere can have played no part is shown by the failure of the right hand to perform accurately in this situation; moreover the subject cannot name the matching object if this has been selected by the left hand but remains concealed from view. Auditory comprehension can be demonstrated by flashing a picture to the non-dominant hemisphere then asking the patient to signal when the matching word is read aloud to him; this he can do by signalling with the left hand but not with the right. Alternatively a word can be spoken out loud, and the patient asked to signal when the corresponding printed word is exposed visually to the non-dominant hemisphere. In such experiments it appears that even short phrases can be comprehended, the word ’clock’ being selected in response to the spoken phrase ’used to tell time’.
Ingenious research techniques have allowed further exploration of the language capacities of the non-dominant hemisphere as described by Zaidel (1977, 1978) and Gazzaniga (1983). It has become apparent that such capacities are present hi only a small proportion of patients, and that these usually have a history of early left hemisphere brain damage. The degree of sophistication varies widely from primitive levels of comprehension to the ability to detect semantic incongruities in sentences and to understand syntactic rules. In exceptional instances, patients have developed a limited degree of expressive speech controlled by the right hemisphere some months or years after callosal section, for example being capable of producing verbal descriptions of stunuli presented to the left visual field. Nevertheless even in such patients it seems clear that the right hemisphere remains severely limited in general cognitive skills, and does not compare with the left in its capacity for inferential reasoning or simple mathematical computations (Gazzaniga & Smylie 1984; Gazzaniga 1985).
It is not known how far these fascinating results have general application. It is possible that the patients reported to date have been unusual in the extent to which language was already represented bilaterally within the brain, and definite conclusions on the issue still cannot be drawn.
Some exceedingly rare observations have been made on patients after total surgical removal of the dominant hemisphere. One such patient was investigated by Smith (1966a) after left hemispherectomy for recurrence of a glioblastoma. The patient had previously been strongly right-handed. In the immediate postoperative period there was, as expected, a severe sensory and motor dysphasia along with right hemiplegia and hemianopia. Even then, however, he could follow some simple commands, indicating some preservation of comprehension of speech. He could also utter emotional expletives such as ’Goddamit’ with good articulation, at a time when single words could not be repeated and when there was no ability at all to communicate in propositional speech. Suddenly in the 10th postoperative week he asked his nurse ’What does “B.M.” mean?’ in response to her enquiry about his bowel movements. Thereafter the occasional use of fragments of propositional speech increased, along with ability to repeat progressively longer sentences on command, though most of the time the patient remained incapable of speaking voluntarily. Comprehension of speech, by contrast, appeared to reach approximately normal levels at 1 year postoperatively before the tumour recurred (Smith 1972). Of particular interest in view of the evidence linking musical functions with the minor hemisphere (p. 64), was the patient’s eventual ability to sing familiar songs and hymns with little hesitation and few errors of articulation, even though speaking remained very severely impaired. A remarkably similar postoperative course has been documented in a second patient (Burklund & Smith 1977). Other scattered examples in the literature are reviewed by Searleman (1977).
The rarity of such cases again makes it difficult to estimate how far the results may have been due to an unusual degree of bilaterality of language already present before operation, or how far new capacities to organise language were developed in the non-dominant hemisphere. The complex effects of hemispherectomy on language development following brain damage in childhood are described by Vargha-Khadem et al. (1991).
Finally, there is now considerable evidence that the affective components of language, including prosody and emotional gesturing, are the special prerogative of the right hemisphere (Ross & Mesulam 1979; Ross 1981). Thus patients with right hemisphere strokes may lose the ability to express emotion by voice or gesture, or to perceive the affective colouring in the speech or gestures of others, while formal propositional aspects of language remain intact. Ross (1981) suggests, indeed, that the functional organisation of the affective components of language in the right hemisphere may closely mirror that of propositional language in the left, and has produced evidence of a similar range of ’aprosodic’ subsyndromes to that encountered among the dysphasias (’motor aprosodia’, ’sensory aprosodia’, etc.).
The concept of ’auditory affective agnosia’ in relation to language is considered on p. 65.
Language functions within the dominant hemisphere
We have little direct knowledge about the physiological
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mechanisms which underlie language functions in the healthy intact brain. Since language is unique to man there is no paradigm which can be studied in animals, and evidence has had to accumulate slowly from the study of the damaged human brain. Inferences about normal from abnormal function are notoriously dangerous, and not surprisingly numerous theories abound on psychological, physiological and anatomical levels. Many of the most eminent neurologists have struggled to provide a functional conception of language organisation, against which to arrive at a rational classification of the dysphasias. But even recent authorities can offer little more than speculations which serve to guide future enquiry. It is, however, useful to have a framework against which to view the phenomena of dysphasia, and the theoretical background will therefore be briefly reviewed before the clinical data are considered.
The detailed history of past endeavours was outlined by Brain (1965). Early and primitive localisationist views postulated ’speech centres’ for speaking, reading and writing, which contained the repositories for word images and could be disturbed either directly by lesions or by damage to various connecting pathways. Such views became discredited by more careful neuropathology and by more detailed clinical appraisal of the range of deficits shown by dysphasic patients. The need was seen for a more dynamic explanation in terms of impairment of symbolic functions as a whole. Freud was one of the first to attack the ’diagram makers’ and propose a more holistic view of the functions of the speech territory in the dominant hemisphere. Head further developed the dynamic concepts of Hughlings Jackson and proposed a classification of dysphasia which depended primarily on symptoms of deficit rather than locus of lesion.
In recent years linguists and psychologists have joined increasingly in the debate and have produced objective evidence to countermand or support the impressions of clinicians. Linguistic aspects of dysphasia are discussed by Lesser and Reich (1982) and summarised concisely by Benson and Ardila (1996). The psycholinguistic classification of the dyslexias is discussed by Newcombe and Marshall (1981) and Shallice and Warrington (1987). Intriguing forms of dyslexic error have been highlighted, for example in ’deep dyslexia’ in which words are misread yet in a manner that betrays understanding at some level of their meaning (Marshall 6- Newcombe 1973). For example, dinner may be read as ’food’, close as ’shut’, or dog as ’animal’. Observations such as these have led to speculation and experimentation in attempts to clarify the various ’routes’ whereby the written word image is translated into meaning (Coltheart etal. 1987).
Psychologists have used batteries of tests and factor analysis of the results to refine major categories of language disorder. From this and other evidence, Piercy (1964) was led to conclude: ’The language areas of the brain are not mutually undifferentiated, nor can they be envisaged as a collection of discrete centres. Rather one discerns gradients of specialisation in the neural substrata of language; gradients which are steeper in some areas and for some functions than others, and perhaps steepest for verbal articulation and for reading.
Two major contributions attempt to reach beyond the objective evidence and present a partial theory of language function from which the phenomena of dysphasia can be derived. The first, by Brain, is largely psychological and physiological in emphasis, the second, by Geschwind, is slanted towards an anatomical explanation. Both start with ’naming’ as the essential function upon which language comes to be built.
Brain (1965) suggested that the physiological basis for the recognition of words must rest with the acquisition of ’schemas’, which operate as enduring physiological standards of comparison but do not enter consciousness. The development of naming during childhood implies increasing accuracy in the recognition and abstraction of the precise elements of the concept for which the name stands; furthermore the elements which constitute ’the name’ must come to be recognised without conscious effort despite variations in the pitch, speed and intonation with which the name is pronounced. Simple ’phoneme schemas’ must be built into ’word schemas’ at a higher level of organisation, since the second phoneme of a word may influence the recognition accorded to the first. Word schemas are linked to the physiological bases of perception and thought connected with that which the word symbolises, and so enable the word to be endowed with meaning. At the same time ’word-meaning schemas’ must be capable of modification when the grammar or syntax of the sentence containing the word is altered. At a higher level of organisation still there must therefore be ’sentence schemas’. Similarly on the efferent side there must be schemas for the motor production of speech. And to serve the purposes of reading and writing there must be visual and graphic schemas superimposed upon the fundamental schemas of speech. This complex physiological organisation may be damaged in whole or in part; to the extent that each type of schema is organised anatomically in relative isolation from others, it may be possible to move towards an explanation of some of the varieties of dysphasia.
Thus word schemas are regarded in Brain’s formulation as the basic element both in the comprehension and expression of words, and their disorganisation will result in defective understanding and expression in both spoken
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and written modalities. Word-meaning schemas, when disorganised, may leave words freely available but their power to evoke or express meaning will be impaired. Disorganisation of sentence schemas will impair meaning derived from syntactical relationships while leaving the meaning of individual words relatively intact.
Pure word-deafness may be regarded as a disorder restricted to auditory phoneme schemas, pure worddumbness as a disorder of motor phoneme schemas. Disturbances of higher order schemas are more difficult to illustrate from clinical material, since all appear to depend on a comparatively limited area of the temporal and parietal lobes in the dominant hemisphere. However, word schemas appear to be principally disturbed in ’central’ dysphasias, in which both comprehension and expression are impaired, and word-meaning schemas in nominal dysphasia. The predominantly motor dysphasias may represent a breakdown in the relationship between the word schemas and the motor schemas for the production of articulated speech. In pure alexia the perception of words fails to arousev the visual word schemas which serve to evoke their meaning, whereas in agraphia the graphic schemas fail to arouse the motor schemas organised in relation to the pans of the motor cortex which control the hand in writing.
This suggested organisation, while necessarily at a theoretical level, serves to emphasise the complexities inherent in conceptualising the anatomical-physiological basis for language functions. It has the virtue of attempting to bring together a psychological and a physiological interpretation of the processes which underlie speech, and of insisting on a dynamic approach towards the understanding of dysphasic disturbances. In clinical practice, however, it clearly suffers from attempting to impose a philosophical theory upon the facts, instead of allowing observed phenomena to generate the explanatory theory.
Geschwind (1967) provided a model based upon the learning and arousal of associative links. He pointed out that the distinctive element in human language, which is not present in animal communication, derives from man’s ability to form higher-order associations between one sensory stimulus and another. In subhuman primates the principal outflow from sensory association areas is to the limbic system, enabling the animal to learn which stimuli have importance with regard to drives for food, sex or aggression; interconnections between the sensory association regions for different sensory modalities are meagre by comparison. The impressive advance in the human brain lies in the expansion of the zone in the region of the angular gyrus at the junction of the temporal, parietal and occipital lobes, which is an area strategically situated with respect to the association cortices for hearing, touch and vision. This may constitute the neural substrate which allows the human being readily to form linkages between two or more ’non-limbic’ stimuli, and achieve the higherorder associations which underlie the acquisition of language skills. It is noteworthy that inputs to this part of the brain are almost exclusively from other cortical regions, and furthermore that it is one of the last brain regions to myelinate during development.
In Geschwind’s model for naming, an object which is seen stimulates the visual association cortex, and thereafter connections via the angular gyrus arouse associations with regard to the ’heard name’ in the auditory association cortex of the first temporal convolution (Wernicke’s area). This in turn is transmitted via the arcuate fasciculus to the motor association cortex in the posterior part of the frontal lobe (Broca’s area), where the ’rules’ are contained for turning the output from Wernicke’s area into the motor acts of speech. At each way-station there is not only transmission of the ’message’, but certain operations are carried out on it so that coding is reorganised in distinctive ways. The two crucial processes therefore consist first of comprehension, then of repetition by which we learn to reproduce the auditory stimulus. Each has a different anatomical location. Thus the type of disturbance of speech produced by circumscribed lesions will change as we move from one region to another.
A lesion in Wernicke’s area will impair verbal comprehension. Comprehension is developmentally a process by which we learn to associate the auditory stimulus of a word with a visual or other sensory stimulus. A lesion here will prevent the incoming auditory signals from being classified into patterns as a prelude to recognition, and from being conveyed elsewhere in the brain to arouse meaningful associations. Reading will likewise be impaired since this is learned by the child in association with the spoken language, the essence of which has already been mastered; when visual language can no longer excite auditory associations it will fail to be cornprehended. Writing will also be impaired because the first step in writing consists of the reverse act of arousing visual associations from the auditory forms of the word. Speaking is impaired because this depends first upon the arousal of auditory associations which are then transmuted into motor speech by Broca’s area. Since Broca’s area remains intact, however, it may ’run on’ to some extent autonomously and produce a fluent flow of faulty speech; overlearning has occurred there for many of the sequences of language, and when deprived of the control of higher functional levels the output of speech may even be excessive while faulty.
Lesions of the arcuate fasciculus also allow a fluent dysphasia, since Broca’s area remains intact, and comprehension
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is relatively preserved because Wernicke’s area is intact. But the speech is abnormal and repetition markedly defective because Broca’s area normally ’repeats’ the messages which arrive from the temporal lobe.
Lesions in Broca’s area itself leave comprehension relatively well preserved because Wernicke’s area remains intact. The output of speech is sparse, laboured and with poor articulation, because the rules for translating the message into motor speech are damaged.
Geschwind’s scheme does not attempt to explain how meaning can be derived from the relationships between words in their syntactical context. It adheres remarkably closely, though with more persuasive evidence, to the essence of the theory, put forward by Wernicke in 1874.
Neuroimaging and language
The various syndromes of language impairment have been derived from the noting of clusters of clinical symptoms and relating these where possible to neuroanatomical information. In general, structural neuroimaging has tended to support the traditional syndrome localisations for the main subvarieties-Broca’s, Wernicke’s and conduction dysphasia-likewise for the principal subdivisions of alexia and agraphia (Benson & Ardila 1996). However, functional imaging techniques have shown additional complexities, revealing areas of hypometabolism extending beyond or even distant from the areas of known structural damage. Sometimes they have seemed to argue for a return towards holistic views of language representation in the brain.
Metier and Hanson (1994), for example, report PET scan studies which show that hypometabolism in the left temporoparietal cortex appears to be critical for the development of dysphasia, being present in all the dysphasics they studied irrespective of the location of structural damage. The severity, and many of the characteristics of the dysphasia, appeared to depend on the combined effects of the focal lesion and its functional consequences in the temporoparietal region. Rather more than half of the subjects examined also showed hypometabolism in the left prefrontal regions, anterior and superior to the classic Broca’s area, often with damage extending subcortically. In this there was some correlation with the type of dysphasia displayed-the frontal regions were more markedly hypometabolic in Broca’s than in Wernicke’s dysphasia or conduction dysphasia, and Wernicke patients showed the most severe temporoparietal hypometabolism.
Activation studies, coupled with neuroimaging, have so far contributed little to the understanding of dysphasia, but by contrast are illuminating the brain regions involved in language processing in the intact brain:
Petersen et al (1988) used PET scanning to explore linguistic functions in an interesting experimental paradigm. Seventeen right-handed normal volunteers were given repeated brief PET scans, using 15O-labelled water, under a succession of experimental conditions arranged hierarchically. By subtraction, the effects of each extra task demand on regional cerebral blood flow could be discerned. In the first comparison nouns were presented (visually or auditorily) without task demands, and cornpared with a control state of simple visual fixation. Involuntary word-form processing was targeted by this subtraction. Next the subject was required to speak each word, revealing areas involved in output coding and motor control. Finally the subject was asked to give a use for each presented word, revealing the cerebral substrate for noun-verb associations (semantic processing).
The passive processing of words activated regions bilaterally in the sensory association regions appropriate to the modality in which the words were presented-striate and peristriate cortex with visual presentations and superior temporal cortex, more extensively on the left, for auditory presentations. Speaking the words activated similar regions whether the presentations had been visual or auditory-the mouth region of the Rolandic cortex on the left, Rolandic cortex superior to this bilaterally, Sylvian regions close to Broca’s area (but also bilaterally), and supplementary motor cortex. The semantic word generation task activated inferior frontal cortex, only on the left, and anterior cingulate cortex known to be implicated in ’attention for action’ (p. 146). It is noteworthy that Wernicke’s area and the region of the left angular gyrus were unaffected during the process of reading words, implying that written stimuli do not require phonological receding prior to semantic access. The results thus supported multiple route models for language processing, in which visual and auditory inputs pursue separate pathways of access to articulatory and semantic centres.
The complexities inherent in attempting to dissect language mechanisms in this fashion are, however, shown by an analogous PET scan study by Wise et al. (1991). They imaged brain activity by the inhalation of 15O-labelled carbon dioxide during a series of language tasks, comparing each with images obtained during a rest condition. Listening to non-words activated precisely the same brain areas as comparisons between words, namely neural networks along both superior temporal gyri in primary and association auditory cortex, suggesting that the loci for acoustic processing and semantic processing of heard material are congruous with one another. It is hard to be certain, however, that an element of semantic processing is not involved when listening to non-words.
When the subjects were asked to think, without vocalisation, of as many verbs as possible in relation to a given noun, activation was confined to the left hemisphere and involved frontal as well as temporal brain regions. These included the superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke’s area), posterior parts of the middle and inferior frontal gyri (including Broca’s area), and the supplementary motor cortex. The implication of Wernicke’s area during word generation differed from Petersen et al.’s (1988) finding, which the authors attempt to explain in terms of the differing
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2experimental paradigms employed. The involvement of the supplementary motor cortex during word generation without vocalisation suggests that the act of retrieving words from memory results automatically in ’inner speech’, and that the supplementary motor area contains neural pathways concerned in this process.
A surprising result of PET activation studies has been the demonstration that the cerebellum is activated not only during word repetition and spontaneous speech, but also during the generation of word associations and the making of semantic decisions (Chertkow & Bub 1994). The posterior lobule of the cerebellum appears to be especially involved in such cognitive activities as verbal encoding and decision making.
Finally Binder and Rao (1994) discuss the possible value of functional MRI in studies of language processing. The technique has already demonstrated that the perception of speech activates larger areas of the superior temporal gyrus bilaterally than the perception of white noise; and that the performance of a semantic task (detecting particular classes of animals in a list) then activates additional areas in the left hemisphere alone – in lateral frontal, parieto-occipital and temporo-occipital regions.
Dysphasia and other aspects of intelligence
Opinion has differed about the extent to which dysphasia can be regarded merely as ’loss of a linguistic tool’ while other aspects of intellect remain intact. Language is, of course, an integral part of conceptual thinking and of problem solving in many areas; but it may be that some dysphasic patients retain in large degree the automatic and subconscious use of words in thinking processes. The question of the preservation or loss of internal speech is very hard to assess.
Quite apart from this it is likely that the cerebral structures subserving language also subserve other functions, so that lesions will almost always impair more than language alone. Some aspects of dysphasia can be seen as reflecting the general difficulties of brain-injured patients as stressed by Goldstein (1936): a difficulty in differentiating ’figure from background’ may contribute to inability to pronounce a word in isolation while it can still be produced as part of a series, or general difficulties in categorisation may contribute to problems in naming objects. Impairment of the ordered perception of space or time may worsen dysphasic difficulties, since a proper conception of such matters is essential for symbolic thought.
Psychological testing has helped to some extent to clarify the subject, and is discussed by Piercy (1964), Newcombe (1969) and Zangwill (1969). Dysphasic patients are certainly impaired on language-based intelligence tests to a greater degree than brain-injured patients without dysphasia. Performance is also inferior on certain non-verbal tests when compared to normals, and sometimes even when compared to non-dysphasic braininjured subjects. In particular Weinstein et al. (1955) reported difficulty with a test of conditional reactions to combinations of visual shapes and backgrounds, and Teuber and Weinstein (1956) with a test of perceiving hidden figures. In both of these it is hard to blame any hypothetical difficulty with internal speech or impaired comprehension of instructions. The often difficult question of assessing legal competency in dysphasic patients is discussed by Benson and Ardila (1996).
Subcortical dysphasia
The possibility that subcortical pathology might contribute to, or even be responsible for, certain dysphasic syndromes has a considerable history. Renewed attention has been directed to the issue now that neuroimaging is capable of revealing discrete subcortical infarcts, and certain syndromes such as ’thalamic’ and ’striatal’ dysphasia have been proposed. Benson and Ardila (1996) review the still uncertain status of such syndromes, and the difficulty in deciding whether the language disturbance reflects the direct effects of the subcortical lesion or derives from distant effects induced elsewhere in the brain. Functional imaging techniques have shown that secondary involvement of cortical language areas is common, presumably in consequence of ’diaschisis’ subsequent upon disruption of subcortical-cortical mechanisms (Perani et al. 1987). Instances of ’subcortical neglect’ may similarly owe much to secondary effects on right hemisphere cortical activity.
The picture usually described is of mutism following an acute intracerebral haemorrhage, followed by hypophonia and slow, amelodic output. This may evolve to a cornbination of severely paraphasic speech with relatively well-preserved capacity for repetition, which appears to be the characteristic pattern. The subcortical structures involved are virtually always situated in the hemisphere dominant for language.
Thalamic dysphasia begins with mutism but generally changes to a fluent, paraphasic, jargon output. Difficulty with naming is often dramatically severe, but comprehension and repetition are comparatively well preserved. In most cases the language disorder is transient, showing improvement over the course of weeks or months. The puzzling feature is the rarity of such a development among the considerable number of persons who develop thalamic lesions.
Striatal (striatocapsular) dysphasia appears to derive chiefly from lesions of the putamen and internal capsule. The patients reported by Damasio et al (1982a) had
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prominent involvement of the anterior limb of the capsule and also the head of the caudate nucleus. Speech remains sparse, fluent but hesitant, dysarthric and paraphasic, though again comprehension and repetition are usually good. The ability to name is better preserved than with thalamic dysphasia. Naeser et al (1982) have pointed to subdivisions within the syndrome according to the precise site of the lesion and its extension into neighbouring territories.
Developmental dyslexia (specific reading retardation)
Some children experience unusual difficulty in learning to read and to spell, despite normal or even superior intelligence and equivalent educational opportunities to their peers. The proportion so affected has varied in different surveys and according to the criteria employed, but has been judged to involve just under 4% of 10-year-olds on the Isle of Wight compared with almost 10% in inner London boroughs (Rutter et al. 1970; Berger et al. 1975; Rutter & Yule 1975). Such disorder has been labelled as ’developmental dyslexia’, or alternatively as ’specific reading retardation’ to distinguish it from the reading difficulties associated with generally poor intellectual endowment.
Important distinctions from the latter have emerged in group comparisons, including a 3-4-fold preponderance in boys, an association with speech and language impairment as opposed to a wider range of developmental delays, and less frequent evidence of brain damage as judged from birth history, neurological examination or electroencephalography (Rutter 1978; Maugham & Yule 1994). Rather strikingly, the Isle of Wight study showed that children with specific reading retardation made significantly less progress with reading or spelling than children with ’general reading backwardness’, between the ages of 10 and 14, despite their superior intelligence, whereas their progress with mathematics was superior as expected (Yule 1973; Rutter et al 1976). Distinctions between the two groups have traditionally relied on identifying the size of the discrepancy between reading attainment as predicted on the basis of age and IQ scores and the actual level of attainment observed. Though criticised because of the doubtful predictive value of IQ for literacy attainment, such a formula permits the identification of children with disproportionate reading difficulty across a wide range of levels of intelligence, including those whose intelligence is below the average.
The disorder is now increasingly recognised among those engaged in education, and specialist courses designed to upgrade the knowledge and expertise of teachers are slowly being established. However, the problems not uncommonly persist into adult life as a continuing source of handicap and social embarrassment. With effort and specialist teaching some affected individuals appear to overcome their reading problems, proceeding successfully to higher education, though poor spelling usually persists as an aftermath.
Different theories abound as to the basis of the condition. Genetic influences are quite strongly apparent from twin studies, and in the frequent occurrence of reading difficulties in family members from one generation to another, as reviewed by Maugham and Yule (1994). Environmental influences such as poor family circumstances or inadequate schooling clearly also make a contribution, at least to the extent of rendering difficulties of this nature more readily overt. But increasing attention has focused on the possible pathophysiological mechanisms that may underlie the special difficulties in learning to decode the written word or sentence into articulated speech and meaning. It has been noted, inter alia, that such children often show sequencing difficulties, right-left confusions, and in some cases varying degrees of motor clumsiness and incoordination. In a small proportion there seem to be problems with aspects of visual perception, but more commonly the difficulties are essentially linguistic and appear to lie with problems in phonological decoding and syntactical processes. It remains uncertain whether the condition can be regarded as a homogeneous syndrome or whether different subvarieties exist.
Traditionally the disorder has been viewed by neurologists as ’maturational’ in nature, perhaps resulting from delayed myelination or other problems in crucial neural systems. Recent studies have, however, given support to the proposition that definable abnormalities of cerebral structure or function may sometimes persist even in adults who have largely compensated for their early deficits. Three such areas of investigation will be briefly outlined.
Galaburda and colleagues have reported certain unusual features in the brains of dyslexic subjects examined at autopsy (Galaburda & Kemper 1979; Galaburda et al. 1985; Humphreys etal. 1990; Galaburda 1992). In the four male and three female brains examined there was a consistent and notable lack of asymmetry in the size of the planum temporale of the two hemispheres. Moreover, all showed areas of architectonic dysplasia by way of disruption of the normal laminar organisation of the cortex, along with neuronal ’ectopias’ consisting of abnormal nests of cells in the cortex and subjacent white matter. These were often closely associated with the dysplasic
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areas, resulting in the appearance of small nodules (’brain warts’). It is perhaps noteworthy, however, that at least some of these subjects had suffered from epilepsy (see p. 244).
Such changes were most common in the inferior frontal and superior temporal cortex, clustering particularly in the peri-Sylvian region and affecting the left hemisphere predominantly. These probably derived from the mid gestational period, at the time of peak migration of neurones from the germinal matrix to the cortical plate. Polymicrogyria was observed in two of the male cases, in the left planum temporale and the left temporal lobe. Additionally two of the females and one ,of the males showed multiple foci of cortical glial scarring; and since most such scars were myelinated they had probably arisen later during gestation or in the early postnatal period.
The tentative view was proposed that a familial predisposition to dyslexia could be manifest as the lack of asymmetry with respect to the planum temporale, with the ectopias, dysplasias and glial scars then leading to further disruption of cerebral organisation. Both sets of factors could thus be necessary before the dyslexia became overt.
MRI studies have confirmed that an unusual degree of symmetry of the planum is significantly more common in dyslexic subjects than controls (Hynd et al. 1990; Larsen et al. 1990). Moreover in Larsen et al.’s study of 19 adolescent dyslexics, there was a close relationship between abnormal symmetry of the planum and measures of phonological dysfunction. Hynd and Hiemenz (1997) summarise more recent interesting findings concerning posterior peri-Sylvian morphology in dyslexia. Duara et al. (1991) have further demonstrated with MRI that the splenium of the corpus callosum, which connects the regions of the angular gyri of the two hemispheres, is larger in dyslexic subjects than in normal controls, this being particularly marked in female dyslexics.
Along different lines, Livingstone et al. (1991) have pursued the hypothesis that there are problems with the perception of visual material in developmental dyslexia, perhaps attributable to deficits in the ’magnocellular’ component of the visual pathways. This subdivision of the perceptual system is concerned with the detection of fast, low-contrast visual information, and also carries information about motion, stereopsis and perhaps figure-ground separation. The magnocellular and parvocellular subdivisions of the visual pathways are largely segregated from the retinal level onwards, the distinction being most apparent in the lateral geniculate bodies. Several studies have shown that subjects with developmental dyslexia do poorly on tasks requiring rapid visual processing, for example on flicker-fusion tests.
In five dyslexic subjects Livingstone et al. demonstrated impairment of visual evoked potentials to rapid lowcontrast stimuli, but normal responses to slow or highcontrast stimuli, in a manner consistent with defects in the magnocellular pathway. Furthermore, in a study of the structure of the lateral geniculate bodies in dyslexic subjects they found abnormalities in the magnocellular but not the parvocellular layers. Livingstone et al. hypothesise that other cortical systems may similarly be divided into fast and slow subdivisions, including the auditory system; if so, this could be relevant to the linguistic problems of dyslexia, since phonemic discriminations involve the processing of rapid auditory transitions.
Finally, Uta Frith and her colleagues have devised elegant strategies for exploring the role of defective phonological decoding in dyslexia, using PET scanning to detect the brain regions involved (Paulesu et al. 1996). Problems in the domain of phonology are currently strongly favoured as a core problem in developmental dyslexia (Stanovich 1991; Snowling et al. 1994; Snowling 1996), and phonological strategies appear to be especially effective with many dyslexics in attempts at remediation. Moreover among those dyslexics who attain academic success, this is often largely achieved through acquiring a large ’sight vocabulary’, and underlying deficits in phonology may persist throughout adulthood.
2Paulesu et al. used a rhyming task for examining phonological similarity judgements, also a phonological short-term memory task, both presented visually. PET scans using 15O-labelled water were carried out during performance on the tasks to detect the brain regions activated. These paradigms had previously been used to explore the cerebral correlates of subvocal rehearsal and short-term storage of verbal material in normal volunteers (Paulesu etal. 1993). The subjects were five adults with a clear past history of developmental dyslexia but who had ultimately succeeded academically, and in this sense were ’compensated’ dyslexics. On a variety of demanding tasks involving phonological processing they were nonetheless still considerably impaired. Control subjects without a history of reading difficulties were matched in terms of educational level.
In the rhyming task the subject had to judge whether pairs of letters presented on a screen rhymed with each other or not (e.g. BG vs. BL). This requires segmentation of each letter name into its consonant and vowel (viz. ’buh-ee’ vs. ’buh-el’) by a process of subvocal rehearsal (’segmented phonology’). A control task of shape similarity judgements (with letters from the Korean alphabet) was used, subtraction of PET images between the two allowing the regions activated by rhyme judgements to be discerned.
The phonological short-term memory task involved testing for the recall of consonants presented visually (’whole word phonology’), the control task then being short-term memory for visual shapes. The simplicity of the tasks was such that the dyslexics could perform them virtually as well as the control subjects.
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During the phonological similarity judgement (rhyming) task the controls activated the peri-Sylvian structures of the left hemisphere widely, including Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas and much of the insula, also the left caudate nucleus and other left hemisphere structures. By contrast the dyslexics activated a much more restricted domain, involving Broca’s area and the left caudate alone (Plate 1). During the phonological short-term memory task the controls showed a similar pattern of activation to that of the rhyming task, with additional activations in the left supramarginal gyrus and certain regions of the right hemisphere. Again the dyslexics showed more restricted activation, including Wernicke’s area and the left supramarginal gyrus, but Broca’s area only weakly. Right hemisphere activations were scarcely seen (Plate 2). Thus the dyslexics could activate Broca’s area (segmented phonology), Wernicke’s area (whole word phonology) and the supramarginal gyrus, but unlike the controls did not activate these regions in concert. Moreover, in noteworthy fashion activations of the insula region were not apparent.
Paulesu etal. (1996) interpret their findings as revealing something of the difficulties dyslexics experience in associating between the different ’codings’ involved in acquiring reading skills. Thus the sound of the heard word, the sight of the written word and the articulatory sequences of the spoken word must be mapped one upon another, including the mapping of both segmented phonological codes and whole word codes. The insula appears to constitute a bridge between posterior and anterior language areas, and Paulesu et al. speculate that it may perform the function of converting between such dissimilar codes. In effect there appeared to be a ’disconnection’ in their dyslexic subjects, with problems in translating directly from the written word to its associated phonology in segmented form. This would result in a lack of support for receding, and difficulty in holding both segmented and unsegmented codes simultaneously in working memory.
Clinical syndromes of language impairment
For purposes of clinical evaluation it is useful to consider a broad division into defective understanding of speech or written material, and defective production of speech or writing. However, the great majority of patients with language disturbance show a complicated mixture of deficits. This was well illustrated by Brown and Simonson’s (1957) review of 100 dysphasic patients who were examined without reference to conventional categories and simply scored in terms of disorder of speaking, listening, reading and writing. Only nine had a deficit limited to one function and this was always slight in degree. Sixteen had deficits in two components, 14 in three, and the remaining 61 had deficits in all components of language. Many of the patients with disordered appreciation of spoken speech had severe impairment of all four components and appeared most commonly to represent the cases of ’global dysphasia’.
The syndromes considered below represent no more than approximations which may be regarded as clinically useful. The first four syndromes, pure word-deafness, word-blindness, word-dumbness and pure agraphia, though all rare, are outlined first because they represent the purest forms of defect. All are produced by lesions near the areas of association cortex for vision, hearing or motor function. Lesions in suchlocations will more cornmonly be sufficiently extensive to produce widespread dysphasic difficulties, resulting for example in combinations of primary motor dysphasia with pure worddumbness. The next three syndromes, ’primary sensory dysphasia’, ’primary motor dysphasia’ and ’nominal dysphasia’, represent the more commonly occurring clinical pictures and show deficits in more than one component of language. The terms ’sensory’ and ’motor’ are used as a guide to the source of primary breakdown of language function, since this has implications for site of pathology. The terms must not be taken to indicate the nature of functional impairment, for of course primary sensory dysphasia has itself a marked defect in motor expression. Finally, certain other clinical syndromes are briefly outlined.
Table 1 on p. 103 summarises the rather bewildering array of disturbances of function found in these different syndromes. For an extended presentation and discussion of the various disorders Benson and Ardila (1996) should be consulted. At least partial support for the principal subvarieties and their anatomical localisation has come from neuroimaging studies as described on p. 45, though many authorities argue against the neatness with which language disturbance can be subdivided (Smith 1978). Critchley (1987) in reviewing the subject presents a balanced position between over-holistic and overlocalisationist points of view. The syndromes outlined below are clearly to a considerable extent abstractions from a very complex whole.
Pure word-deafness (subcortical auditory dysphasia, verbal auditory agnosia)
The patient can speak fluently and virtually without error, and similarly can write normally. He can also read and comprehend what he reads. The defect is restricted to the understanding of spoken speech, even though other aspects of hearing are intact. In fact the patient hears words as sounds but fails to recognise these sounds as words. Hemphill and Stengel’s (1940) patient said: ’Voice comes but no words. I can hear, sounds come, but words don’t separate. There is no trouble at all with the sound.
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Sounds come. I can hear, but I cannot understand it.’ As a result the patient cannot repeat words spoken to him and cannot write to dictation.
Such a defect can equally be regarded as an agnosia for spoken words. It is extremely rare, but there is general agreement that the lesion is in the dominant temporal lobe, closely adjacent to the primary receptive area for hearing-Heschl’s gyrus of the first temporal convolution. Geschwind suggests that it is caused by interruption of the auditory pathway to the dominant temporal lobe together with a lesion of the corpus callosum. The patient can still hear because the auditory pathway to the non-dominant cortex is intact, but incoming auditory information cannot gain access to the speech-receiving mechanisms of the dominant lobe. The disorder is rare because a lesion in this situation will usually extend far enough to the surface to damage the speech-receiving mechanisms themselves, resulting in the more widespread disabilities of a primary sensory dysphasia.
Pure word-blindness
The patient can speak normally and has no difficulty with comprehension of the spoken word. His difficulties with language are entirely restricted to his understanding of what he reads. In the most severe examples even letters cannot be comprehended, while in less severe cases occasional words are understood. The patient can still describe or copy letters even though he cannot recognise them, showing that the defect is not due to loss of the visual images of the letters. Some patients manage better with written script than printed material, presumably because they can more readily reproduce the letters in imagination with the right hand and thereby obtain kinaesthetic cues. Occasionally, numbers continue to be recognised when letters are not, perhaps again via kinaesthetic cues derived from early associations between counting and manual activities.
The patient can write spontaneously and to dictation, though subsequently he cannot read what he has written. The writing is usually entirely normal, though it may contain minor errors of reduplication or misalignment of letters. He may be able to copy written material slowly and laboriously.
An almost invariable accompaniment is a right homonymous hemianopia. Colours cannot be named, even though colour perception can be shown to be intact by sorting tests. Here it is probably significant that colour naming represents a purely visual-verbal association process and cannot derive support from other cues.
Essentially, word-blindness is a failure to recognise the language values of the visual patterns which make up letters and words, although there is no disturbance of the symbolic function of the words themselves. This is confirmed when the patient can spell out loud and recognise words that are spelled out loud. The lesion is of the left visual cortex together with the splenium of the corpus callosum; thus visual input is possible only to the right hemisphere, and cannot gain access to the language systems of the left. The situation is therefore analogous to that of the lesion causing pure word-deafness. Pure wordblindness is commoner, however, because the lesion does not so readily impinge on the language areas themselves. The usual cause is occlusion of the left posterior cerebral artery.
Pure word-dumbness
The patient can comprehend both spoken speech and written material without difficulty, and shows this by his ability to respond to complex commands. He can express himself normally in writing, which also serves to demonstrate that inner speech is perfectly preserved. The defect is restricted to the production of spoken speech, which is marked by slurring and dysarthria. The patient cannot speak normally at will, cannot repeat words heard and cannot read aloud. In severe cases he may be totally unable to articulate. Yet for other purposes the muscles of the tongue and lips function without impairment.
The condition may thus be regarded as an apraxia restricted to the movements required for speech. The exact site of pathology is uncertain, but the lesion is probably beneath the region of the insula, interrupting the pathway from the cortical centres responsible for motor schemas for words to the motor systems used in articulated speech. It is extremely rare because the lesion usually also involves the former at the same time, resulting in a primary motor dysphasia.
Pure agraphia
Agraphia may accompany almost any form of generalised dysphasia, or be a component of generalised apraxia. As an isolated defect, however, it may be seen as the graphic equivalent of pure word-dumbness. Comprehension of written and spoken material is normal, and the patient’s own speech is unimpaired. However, he is unable to write either spontaneously or to dictation, though he may fare rather better at the copying of written material.
Brain (1965) pointed out that writing is a considerably more complex process than articulated speech, since after
(agraphia without alexia)(apraxic anarthria, subcortical motor dysphasia, aphemia)(alexia without agraphia, agnosic alexia, subcortical visual aphasia, occipital alexia)Page 51 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
the processes leading up to speech there must then be evocation of visual graphic schemas in the posterior parts of the brain, and of motor schemas in close relation to the motor cortex. The lesion in pure motor agraphia is thought to interrupt the pathway from the left angular gyrus to the hand area of the left motor cortex, and to lie usually in the second frontal gyrus anterior to the hand area, or sometimes in the parietal lobe.
Primary sensory dysphasia
The primary deficit is in the comprehension of spoken speech. There is defective appreciation of the meaning of words, and in particular of meaning conveyed by grammatical relations. The patient has corresponding difficulty in repeating what is said to him and in responding to cornmands. In less severe examples the difficulty in responding to commands can be observed to increase with the complexity of instructions, though interestingly quite complex ’whole-body’ commands can prove to be surprisingly well performed (Benson &• Geschwind 1971). Other aspects of hearing are intact, as with pure worddeafness, but unlike the latter there are also impairments of spontaneous speech, writing and reading. These added difficulties are attributable to the fact that the cortical mechanisms for analysing incoming speech are directly implicated by the lesion, not merely cut off from input as in pure word-deafness.
Thus ability to speak is also impaired, presumably because auditory associations or schemas must first be aroused before the efferent speech mechanisms can produce speech in a normal manner. Words are used wrongly, paraphasic errors and neologisms are frequent, and sentences tend to be poorly constructed with errors of grammar and syntax. However, the faulty speech is produced fluently and without effort. Normal rhythm and inflexion are preserved and there are no articulatory defects. The speech may even be excessive in flow or under pressure, perhaps because the effector mechanisms ’run on’ to a large degree autonomously when freed from the control of higher functional levels.
(receptive dysphasia, Wernicke’s dysphasia)A patient reported by Brain (1965) responded as follows: When asked ’Do you have headaches?’ he replied ’No. I’ve been fort in that way. I haven’t been headache troubled not for a long time’. When shown a picture of an elephant he was unable to name it, but pointed to the mouth and said ’That’s his sound, he is making his sound-seems to have got his voice opened there’. When shown a picture of a penguin he said ’A kind of little ver (bird)- machinery-a kind of animal do for making a sound’. When shown a tape measure he called it ’A kind of machinery’, and when immediately afterwards shown a bunch of keys and asked to name it he said ’Indication of measurement of piece of apparatus or intimating the cost of apparatus in various forms’.
Reiterative errors are obvious in the above example, in that the speech is contaminated by words which the patient has once used but then cannot easily discard. The patient is usually unaware of his mistakes and makes no attempt to correct them. Unlike the patient with nominal dysphasia (see below) he is often unable to recognise the correct name for an object when this is told to him.
Reading and writing are also impaired since these are presumably also dependent on the cortical areas involved in comprehending spoken speech (and developmentally they are learned in association with spoken language). Single words may be read aloud correctly, but reading out of sentences becomes jumbled and contaminated by paraphasic errors. Written instructions, even if correctly read, may not be carried out, indicating that the patient has failed to understand what he has read. Generally the degrees of disability in understanding spoken and written language parallel each other closely. The disturbances of writing also closely mirror those of spoken speech, except that a copious fluent flow is much less common in writing than in speaking.
The lesion is in the auditory association cortex of the superior and middle temporal gyri of the dominant hemisphere (Wernicke’s area), presumably preventing the receding of auditory messages for recognition, and debarring the arousal of auditory associations as a necessary step for reading, writing and the production of spoken speech. According to Brain’s conception outlined above, the complex deficit is due to impaired utilisation of word schemas, which constitute the physiological link between the various neural processes connecting the sensory stimuli of words to their meaning.
Primary motor dysphasia
The primary defect is on the effector side of speech, thus involving the mechanisms by which words are chosen and articulated and sentences constructed. Unlike pure word-dumbness, however, writing is affected in parallel with speaking, and while comprehension is relatively intact there may be difficulty in carrying out complex instructions. This may be on account of apraxia or because the instructions require complex internal verbalisation for their efficient execution.
Speech is characteristically sparse, slow and hesitant, with marked disturbances of rhythm, inflexion and articulation, unlike the fluent expressive speech of primary
(cortical motor dysphasia, expressive dysphasia, Broca’s dysphasia)page 52 CHAPTER 2
sensory dysphasia. Moreover the patient is clearly under stress while trying to speak. Word finding provides obvious difficulty, wrong words are often chosen and the words that are chosen are often mispronounced. Marked reiteration and perseveration are common. However, the patient usually recognises his mistakes, attempts to correct them and becomes impatient about them. Moreover, he can select the correct word when this is offered to him. There is a marked impairment of syntax (’agrammatism’), with a relative decrease in syntactical structural words and grammatical word endings. This further impairs the patient’s ability to transmit meaning. He often tries to compensate for his speech defects by means of pantomime and gesture, all again in contrast to the patient with primary sensory dysphasia.
The phrase length is short, and the style may be abbreviated and ’telegraphic’ with omissions of words, but the speech that does emerge is meaningful. Ability to repeat what the examiner says to him may be an improvement on what the patient can produce spontaneously, but nevertheless is always profoundly impaired. In the most severe examples the patient may have only one or two words at his command, or there may be stereotyped repetition of some word or phrase (’reiteration’, ’recurring utterance’). Total loss of ability to speak is not seen, however, and an occasional speech sound can usually be discerned.
Among these marked expressive difficulties it may be noted that the automatic repetition of serials, such as numbers or days of the week, is relatively well preserved even though they are not well articulated. Also, in severe cases, emotional ejaculations may be surprisingly intact when voluntary utterance is reduced to the minimum. Sometimes an object exposed to view can be named when the same name cannot be found in spontaneous speech. Similarly an habitual situation may call forth a word such as ’goodbye’ when the patient is quite unable to produce it on request.
Comprehension of written and spoken instructions may be relatively intact but is rarely normal. Particular difficulty is encountered over the comprehension of grammatically significant structures. Quite often the patient may be well aware of the meaning of a word which he reads even though he cannot pronounce it aloud. Reading out loud will show a halting, jerky flow, with slurring and occasional mispronunciations. In a high proportion of cases the features of ’anterior alexia’ will also be present (p. 54), often in severe degree. Disturbances of writing may be closely similar to those of speaking.
The lesion is in the posterior two-thirds of the third frontal convolution, i.e. the pars triangularis and operculum of the premotor cortex, the classic Broca’s area. Sometimes this extends also onto the lower part of the precentral convolution.
Nominal dysphasia (amnesic aphasia, anomic aphasia)
Though this is one of the commonest forms of aphasia it is the least understood in terms of pathophysiology. The principal difficulty lies in evoking names at will. This may vary from total inability to name any object on confrontation to a mild disorder demonstrable only where uncommon words are concerned. Rochford and Williams (1962,1965) showed that there was a close parallel between the difficulty presented by a name and the frequency with which the word appears in language. The patient can describe the object and give its use, even when the name eludes him, and like the patient with primary motor dysphasia can usually recognise the correct name when this is offered to him. He can often use the same word without difficulty a moment later in spontaneous connected speech.
Conversational speech is fluent, with no difficulty in articulation and little or no paraphasic interference, but circumlocutions are used and word-finding pauses may be evident. ’Empty words’ such as thing or these may be frequently employed, and there is a notable lack of substantive words. Otherwise, the grammatical structure of sentences is usually well preserved. The patient can repeat fluently what is said to him, and he usually performs relatively well on well-learned serials such as numbers or days of the week.
Comprehension is relatively preserved in most instances, but internal speech is often affected so there may be difficulty in understanding or executing some oral or written commands.
It is not generally agreed whether nominal dysphasia represents a distinct form of defect. Some view it merely as a mild form of primary sensory dysphasia, since with expanding lesions one may merge progressively into the other. Brain considers the essential fault to lie in the use of words in their capacity as symbols, resulting from a break in the link between word schemas and meaning schemas. Geschwind views it as the consequence of difficulty in evoking intermodal associations, which normally allow the auditory associations of a word to be found from some of its other attributes. This explains the good preservation of grammatical structure, since grammar develops entirely within the linguistic system and does not, like naming, depend on intermodal associations.
This is the type of dysphasia which in mild degree has most often been attributed to diffuse rather than focal
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brain damage. Certainly it may occur with diffuse brain dysfunction due to toxic or degenerative conditions. However, it may also be found with focal brain lesions, perhaps particularly (though not exclusively) with dominant temporoparietal lesions in the neighbourhood of the angular gyrus. Acalculia and other components of Gerstmann’s syndrome often occur as associated deficits.
Conduction dysphasia
Under the above headings many authorities separate a further category of dysphasia, while others regard it merely as a further variant of primary sensory dysphasia. Essentially, conduction dysphasia consists of a grave disturbance of language function in which speech and writing are impaired in the manner described above for primary sensory dysphasia, but in which comprehension of spoken and written material is nonetheless relatively well preserved, as shown for example by simple yes/no responses. Repetition of speech is very severely impaired. Errors of grammar and syntax are a marked feature in cases designated ’syntactical dysphasia’.
According to Geschwind it results from a lesion which spares both Wemicke’s and Broca’s areas but disrupts the major connections between them. Thus Wemicke’s area can function relatively well in analysing incoming information, though it can no longer act to guide the patient’s own productions. There are contending views about the site of the responsible lesion (see Benson & Ardila 1996). One view, which accounts for the essential features of the disorder, blames a lesion of the arcuate fasciculus as it passes from the temporal to the frontal lobe by way of the parietal lobe. The more the lesion comes to implicate Wernicke’s area itself the more will comprehension be impaired, and the closer will the picture approximate to that of primary sensory dysphasia.
The repetition defect in conduction dysphasia has come under closer scrutiny as a result of the work by Warrington and Shallice (1969) and Warrington etal. (1971), who consider that in a subgroup of these patients there is a highly specific impairment of immediate verbal memory. Three patients were reported who showed a marked repetition defect for verbal material presented in the auditory modality. This appeared on analysis to be a selective impairment of the immediate memory span for auditory verbal material which was directly related to the ’memory’ load of the task. There was much less difficulty when comparable material was presented visually. Moreover, auditory verbal learning and verbal long-term memory were relatively intact, indicating that material could nonetheless gain access to the long-term memory store.
(central dysphasia, syntactical dysphasia)Syndromes of the isolated speech area
Under this title Goldstein (1948) and Geschwind et al (1968) describe further variants of dysphasia, which though rare demand an alternative explanation in terms of mechanism. Comprehension is profoundly disturbed, but in contrast to primary sensory dysphasia the patient can easily repeat what is said to him, and the ability to learn new verbal material is retained. Moreover, spontaneous speech is slow and laboured and lacks the fluency of primary sensory dysphasia. It is postulated that both Wemicke’s and Broca’s areas, and the connections between them, remain intact but the whole system is cut off from other parts of the cortex. It is the lack of these widespread connections which leads to impaired comprehension and defects of prepositional speech.
Though in pure form the syndrome is extremely rare, two variants are well recognised. ’Transcortical (or extrasylvian) motor dysphasia’ differs in that the patient can cornprehend spoken speech, and is ascribed to a lesion anterior and/or superior to Broca’s area, or in some cases in the supplementary area of the medial frontal cortex. ’Transcortical (or extrasylvian) sensory dysphasia’ differs in that the fluency of output is preserved. Echolalia is often prominent. The facility with which the patient repeats the examiner’s statements, and the fluent jumbled output of speech, stand in contrast to the patient’s lack of comprehension. This may lead to misinterpretation of the syndrome as an acute psychotic disturbance, especially since obvious neurological deficits can be lacking (Benson & Ardila 1996). The lesion usually involves either the parieto-occipital or temporo-occipital border zone areas.
Alexia with agraphia
The patient is unable to read as with pure word-blindness, but in addition he is unable to write. However, the execution and comprehension of spoken speech are substantially unimpaired.
The difficulty in reading is similar to that described for pure word-blindness. The difficulty in writing varies from complete inability to form letters to preservation of partial attempts at writing words. Copying is better than spontaneous writing, which is the converse of the situation in pure word-blindness. Moreover the patient cannot understand words that are spelled out loud, revealing that he is truly illiterate, unlike the patient with pure wordblindness.
(visual asymbolia, parietotemporal alexia)Page 54 CHAPTER 2
The condition may be the predominant symptom from the outset but this is rare. Usually it is found as the residual disturbance when a more global dysphasia clears up. It is usually accompanied by some degree of nominal dysphasia, dyscalculia, spatial disorganisation or visual object agnosia.
The defect results from disturbance of those parts of the brain which deal with the visual symbolic components of language, in Brain’s terminology with ’visual word schemas’. The lesion is usually extensive within the parietal or parietotemporal region of the dominant hemisphere, but the angular and supramarginal gyri are always involved.
Anterior alexia
Benson (1977) and Benson and Ardila (1996) draw attention to a third form of alexia, differing from those seen with occipital or parietotemporal lesions. This occurs in association with Broca’s dysphasia and presumably depends on analogous frontal pathology. Hitherto such a combination had sometimes been used to argue in favour of holistic views of language organisation within the brain, but Benson was able to highlight features that distinguished this form of alexia from the others. It therefore seems probable that the anterior lesion producing Broca’s dysphasia also interferes with certain aspects of reading ability.
Distinctive features include the ability to read occasional words, characteristically nouns or action verbs, but not to grasp the meaning of whole sentences. If a word can be read aloud it is understood, but the ability to interpret grammatical structures is severely undermined. Moreover the patient cannot name the individual letters that make up a word even though he may manage to read the word by ’gestalt’ (’literal alexia’), and he usually fails to recognise words that are spelled out to him. Severe agraphia is usually present, including impairment in copying written material.
Such alexia occurred in severe degree in more than half of the Broca aphasics reported by Benson, and appeared to be the rule rather than the exception in some degree. It is usually associated with right hemiparesis and sometimes with disordered control of ocular movements, but visual field defects are comparatively rare. The reading difficulties tend to remain severe, often persisting as the most disabling symptom following good recovery from the dysphasia itself.
Jargon aphasia
Jargon aphasia is the term used when speech is produced freely, volubly and clearly, but with such semantic jumble and misuse of words that meaning cannot be discerned. Typically there are phonetic distortions, neologisms, words put together in meaningless sequence, and sequences which are entirely irrelevant. The intonation and rhythm of formal speech are nevertheless preserved. Jargon aphasia is conventionally regarded as representing a severe example of primary sensory dysphasia, perhaps with superadded difficulties due to pure word-deafness, or perhaps with a marked degree of generalised intellectual impairment. Kertesz and Benson (1970) have reported typical severe neologistic jargon in patients both with Wernicke’s dysphasia and conduction dysphasia.
Weinstein et al. (1966) were led to conclude quite differently that jargon aphasia represents dysphasia in conjunction with anosognosia, rather than a distinctive pattern of breakdown in the intrinsic speech structure. In their patients receptive difficulties were rarely severe, and the distinctive accompanying feature was disturbance of consciousness sufficient to produce confabulation, disorientation and reduplicative delusions. In conformity with their observations on anosognosia generally (p. 70), the jargon often appeared selectively when the patient was questioned about his disabilities, and more coherent speech was produced in relation to neutral topics. The pathological basis was a lesion of the dominant hemisphere along with additional brain damage elsewhere, and all patients had bilateral cerebral involvement. However, in favour of the conventional view that jargon represents a primary receptive defect, with failure to monitor speech productions, is the finding that patients who display it are not disturbed in the normal fashion when made to listen to delayed auditory feedback of their own speech productions.
Psychiatric disturbance and dysphasia
Benson and Geschwind (1971) and Benson (1973) summarise the common forms of reaction which may be seen in dysphasic patients. These differ considerably in the different forms of language defect.
In primary motor dysphasia (Broca’s dysphasia), frustration and depression are frequently seen, or more rarely the ’catastrophic reaction’ in which tension and embarrassment culminate in a sudden outburst of weeping or anger with the patient’s realisation of his failings. Indeed the absence of distress among such patients is usually indicative of widespread cerebral damage and consequent impairment of general intellectual ability. Both frustration and depression are considered to indicate a more favourable prognosis for recovery with therapy, representing as they do an awareness of the speech difficulties. On the other hand, angry negativism with hostile responses and refusal to participate in treatment can
page 55 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
sometimes emerge and seriously complicate rehabilitation.
By contrast, the patient with primary sensory dysphasia (Wernicke’s dysphasia) typically shows a lack of interest in, or even unawareness of, his language problems. Such patients often act as though they believe their own speech to be normal and as though they feel that people around them fail to speak normally. Agitation and sometimes severe paranoid reactions may ensue, with suspicions that others are talking about them, plotting against them or deliberately using unintelligible jargon to prevent them from understanding. Outbursts of impulsive, aggressive behaviour may be seen. In Benson’s experience almost every patient who had needed custodial care during recovery from dysphasia had suffered a paranoid reaction secondary to severe comprehension disability.
Over and above specific problems of this nature, Benson and Ardila (1996) stress the psychosocial difficulties encountered by dysphasic patients generally. Dysphasia is frequently followed by calamitous alterations in life-style and economic status, along with disruption of simple pleasures such as conversation, reading or watching television. Social and family status are often undermined, irrespective of the presence of other handicaps such as hemiparesis, likewise confidence in sexual functioning.
From the diagnostic point of view the disordered language productions of certain schizophrenic patients, and the phenomena of dysphasia due to brain damage, need to be very carefully distinguished from one another. This can only be done by careful attention to the form of language output and by comprehensive tests of language function. The ’word salad’ of the chronically deteriorated schizophrenic may sometimes closely resemble dysphasic speech; conversely some patients with dysphasia are mistakenly diagnosed as psychotic for long periods of time, especially those with primary sensory dysphasia or transcortical sensory dysphasia who produce a wealth of paraphasic neologisms. The neurological examination is often negative in such patients, their output is vague and apparently ’confused’, and they may react negatively to the examiner’s speech in a manner suggestive of psychosis. Any sudden onset of speech disorder must therefore always dictate caution, even in the established chronic schizophrenic patient.
Gerson et al. (1977) have analysed tape-recorded interviews with groups of posterior aphasic and schizophrenic patients in order to determine the features most useful in making the clinical distinction. Paraphasic substitutions of incorrect words and perseverative responses at some point in the interview were common among the dysphasics but absent among the schizophrenics. The length of verbal responses to open-ended questions was considerably shorter among the dysphasics, and these did not show the bizarre reiterative themes frequently encountered among the schizophrenics. The dysphasic patients showed at least some awareness of their language difficulties, and used gestures or pauses to enlist the examiner’s aid, whereas the schizophrenic patients were impervious to the adequacy or otherwise of their communication. Vagueness of response arose from word-finding difficulties in the dysphasic patients but was apparently attributable to shifts of attention in the schizophrenics. The ’circumlocution’ of dysphasia could thus often be contrasted with the ’circumstantiality’ of schizophrenic speech.
It is only on rare occasions that difficulty arises in distinguishing between psychogenic and organic disturbances of language function. The most common hysterical speech disorder consists of complete aphonia or mutism; or if sounds are produced there are usually no recognisable words at all. A very rare example of dyslexia and dysgraphia of psychogenic origin has been described by Master and Lishman (1984).
Apraxia (dyspraxia) and related executive disorders
Apraxia is notoriously difficult to define. In essence it refers to an inability to carry out learned voluntary movements, or movement complexes, when this cannot be accounted for in terms of paresis, incoordination, sensory loss or involuntary movements. The patient cannot at will set the movement in train or guide a series of consecutive movements in their correct spatial and temporal sequence, even though the same muscles can be used and analogous movements performed in other contexts.
Geschwind and Damasio (1985) point out that apraxia is often overlooked on clinical examination since it is unlikely to be complained of by the patient or his family. The patient who is apraxic on testing will usually perform learned movements normally in a natural setting, and especially when he can see and manipulate objects in their proper environment. In consequence the disorder is probably a good deal commoner than is usually appreciated.
The essential nature of apraxic disturbances is incompletely understood. Dysphasia is an accompanying defect in the great majority of cases and deficient comprehension of commands may sometimes play a part. Agnosia for an object may hinder the patient from carrying out purposive movements appropriate to its use, while agnosia for spatial relationships will similarly interfere with the copying of a movement by imitation. Over and above such complications, however, one must in many cases postulate some higher-order difficulty with aspects of
Page 56 CHAPTER 2
cerebral organisation which have a specific bearing on motor functions.
The difficulties for any explanatory system include the observation that movements which cannot be performed to command can sometimes be performed in imitation of the examiner, or a movement which cannot be initiated is performed a moment later when the patient’s attention is not directed towards it. Sometimes simple discrete movements are affected, and sometimes complex coordinated sequences as in the lighting of a candle or the use of a tool. Frequently, performance is much better in the actual presence of the tool than when the patient is asked to demonstrate its use in imagination. Finally, and to a surprising extent, whole body movements to command are often found to be perfectly preserved, while limb and facial movements are defective. Simple hierarchies of difficulty do not provide an explanation for these anomalies, and systems which attempt to classify the pictures meet with many exceptions. The precise details of the test situation can obviously have a considerable influence on the assumptions that are drawn.
Brain (1965) suggested that purposive movements are organised by ’schemas’ which may or may not enter consciousness depending on the context of the movement. The more practised the act, and the more automatic it has become, the more it will be carried out without conscious awareness and conscious volition. Apraxia may be regarded as the result of disorganisation of such schemas and as taking place at various levels of complexity. At the highest level will be found disturbance where the schemas are involved in the formulation of the idea of a movement, and at the lowest where the schema consists of a motor pattern which regulates the selection of the appropriate muscles.
Geschwind (1965) put forward a simpler model which viewed the apraxias as failures of connection between certain cortical regions. Lesions which disrupt connections between the auditory association cortex and motor association cortex of the dominant hemisphere will result in inability to carry out motor commands with the limbs of either side of the body, since this depends on impulses carried forward to the left motor cortex and thence across the corpus callosum to equivalent regions on the right. A lesion of the left motor cortex itself may produce a right hemiplegia together with apraxia limited to the left arm, when the origin of the transcallosal pathway has been destroyed. The dysphasia accompanying both of these lesions is of a type which leaves comprehension perfectly adequate for the understanding of the commands. Lesions of the corpus callosum itself result in apraxia to command without dysphasia, and limited to the left limbs, since the motor cortex of the right hemisphere is now isolated from the speech mechanisms of the left. When imitation of movements is also disrupted this is presumed to depend on loss of essential connections between the visual and the motor association cortices. Geschwind made the further interesting point that the patient’s own explanations for his defects are often quite inadequate, because he cannot introspect in the usual way and produce verbal reports about the failures of right hemisphere function.
Ajuriaguerra and Tissot (1969) reviewed these and other theories of apraxia and found them to be inadequate. They presented instead a view of apraxia derived from the developmental psychology of Piaget, with apraxia closely linked to the processes involved in the mastery of space. The child begins with understanding the space involved in the manipulation of objects, then proceeds to master space centred on his body, and finally external and ’objective’ space. This process is intimately bound with extensions outwards of the developing body schema. Experience in manipulating objects leads to progressive dissociation of the concept of time from that of space, and finally the spatial schema of ’action’ becomes conceivable independently of time. Disintegration of this process may result variably in different classic syndromes, namely disordered appreciation of spatial relationships (constructional apraxia), disturbance of body gestures, disturbance of spatial and temporal relationships in movement, or inability to utilise tools and objects. The forms of apraxia may thus depend upon the type of space in which the movements are realised, whether external space, space centred on the body, or the ’concrete space of manipulation’.
The relationship of apraxia to intellectual impairment must also be considered. Apraxia is perhaps more often seen with diffuse than with strictly focal brain lesions, so that other intellectual processes are frequently also impaired. With focal lesions, however, other cognitive processes may prove to be largely intact, even though at first sight the severely apraxic patient is sometimes misdiagnosed as demented. Nonetheless such patients are severely handicapped in many tasks requiring the demonstration of intelligence, and it is likely that schemas for purposive movement are so interwoven in cognitive processes that their disruption is bound to have an adverse effect.
The chief varieties of apraxia that are recognised in clinical practice are outlined below.
Limb kinetic apraxia
In this type of apraxia the skill and delicacy of movements is disturbed, both for complex and simple actions. Thus
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the patient may have difficulty in doing up buttons or opening a safety pin. The difficulty that the patient experiences is a function of the muscular complexity rather than the psychomotor complexity involved. It mav be confined to particular muscle groups, and even to certain fingers of a hand. This form has characteristics intermediate between paresis and apraxia and is therefore often excluded from the apraxias proper. It results from a relatively small lesion of the contralateral premotor cortex.
Also of frontal origin is the ’magnetic syndrome’, in which a grasp reflex is coupled with an irrepressible tendency to follow objects with the hands when they are touched or when they enter the field of vision. This fixation interferes with the execution of other movements, since the hand adheres to the paper when the patient wishes to write, or the foot to the ground when he wishes to walk. Once the foot is lifted a complete step follows immediately. The ’utilisation behaviour’ which may also accompany a frontal lesion is described on p. 106.
Ideomotor apraxia
In essence ideomotor (or ’ideokinetic’) apraxia refers to the inability to carry out a requested movement properly (Geschwind &• Damasio 1985). It maybe regarded as a disturbance of voluntary movement at a fairly low level of motor organisation, or alternatively as a disturbance in the use of space centred on the body. The patient can often formulate to himself the idea of the movement that he wishes to perform, but finds that he cannot execute it. Thus the voluntary impulse does not evoke the appropriate organisation of the movement in space and time. For example, the patient cannot raise his hand or wave it to command, even though the instructions are understood. In some cases he can copy equivalent movements, but this too may fail. Yet essentially the same movements can be performed automatically, as in signalling goodbye, or in the course of other aaivities to which his attention is not directed. In general the greater the volitional nature of the act, and the less it has become automatic, the more it is disrupted.
The disorder is usually bilateral and most commonly involves the upper limbs. Unilateral apraxia almost always involves the left upper limb, and is then typically seen with right hemiplegia and aphasia. In facial apraxia the patient cannot smile or produce tongue movements to order, and this too may be bilateral or unilateral. In truncal apraxia the patient cannot organise at will the movements required for sitting or lying. This, however, is relatively rare and whole body movements are usually well preserved in the other forms.
There is general agreement that lesions of the dominant left hemisphere are much commoner than non-dominant lesions in apraxia. The parietal lobe has been chiefly incriminated, especially lesions involving the angular and supramarginal gyri (Geschwind & Damasio 1985). With apraxia of the face and tongue the lesion is usually situated at the base of the precentral motor cortex. In cases of left unilateral apraxia, a lesion of the corpus callosum or of its lateral extension into the left motor association cortex is likely to be responsible.
Ideational apraxia
The patient is unable to carry out coordinated sequences of actions, such as taking a match from a box and striking it, or to perform the complex movements involved in using such tools as a comb or a pair of scissors. Ideomotor apraxia may coexist, or by contrast the patient may be capable of straightforward imitation of simple movements. Sometimes performance is clearly better when the tool is held by the patient than when he attempts to demonstrate the action in the abstract. Variability may be seen from one task to another and on different occasions.
In ideational apraxia the concepts of the required movements appear to be disturbed, together with the planning of the act to be accomplished. This may represent a disturbance of the ’schemas’ at a high level of their organisation, while lower levels remain cornparatively intact. The conception of the movements as a whole can be seen to be faulty, with disruption of the relationships between their spatial and temporal components. It may be regarded as a ’programming’ apraxia, whereas ideomotor apraxia is a more basic executory defect.
Others, however, discount such a distinction based on functional levels, and base it rather on the nature of the task. In ideomotor apraxia the essential disorder lies in the formation of gestures in space, while tools are used normally. In ideational apraxia the problem lies not with the complexity of the task but in the requirement that tools should be used to a purpose; it is thus an ’agnosia of utilisation’. Still others doubt the validity of any distinction between the two forms when patients are investigated with due attention to detail, and view ideational apraxia merely as a more severe form of ideomotor apraxia.
Ideational apraxia is always bilateral. If based on circumscribed pathology the lesion usually involves the dominant hemisphere, and again usually the parietal or temporal lobes. It is in fact mostly seen with bilateral or diffuse brain lesions, and ’is usually accompanied by severe dysphasia or a considerable degree of generalised intellectual impairment.
Page 58 CHAPTER
Apraxia for dressing
The patient has obvious difficulty in putting on clothes. He cannot relate the spatial form of garments to that of his body, puts the jacket on back to front or the arm into the wrong sleeve. Buttons and laces present particular difficulty and are often left undone.
Clinically, the concept of dressing apraxia is useful in drawing attention to a dramatic symptom when more refined tests of apraxia and agnosia have yet to be performed. It is improbable, however, that it represents a distinct form of apraxia, and the symptoms probably depend on a variety of deficits which differ from case to case. There is often a mixture of apraxia and agnosia, the latter with visuospatial components. In many cases, right-left disorientation, unilateral inattention, neglect of the left limbs and other disturbances of the body image are likely to contribute to the picture. Generalised cognitive impairment can also often be detected.
The disorder is seen more commonly with right-sided or bilateral lesions than with left-sided lesions. The parieto-occipital regions are usually involved.
2Constructional apraxia
Constructional apraxia is identified when the spatial disposition of actions is altered without any apraxia for individual movements. It thus becomes apparent in tasks which involve the use, and more particularly the representation, of space, for example in the construction or copying of patterns under visual control. It is obvious that such disorders will have a profound effect on many conventional tests of non-verbal intelligence, and this is how they sometimes come to light. Raven’s matrices and Kohs’ block test will be particularly affected along with the assembly items of the Wechsler performance scale.
The defect is clearly not purely motor in nature, but involves perceptual functions as well. This may be immediately apparent in the patient’s satisfaction with a grossly imperfect copy of presented test material. For many authorities constructional apraxia is broadly synonymous with visuospatial agnosia, and this form of defect is therefore further considered on pp. 61-2.
Other forms of executive defect
Executive deficits of a more minor degree, and not amounting to formal apraxias, were investigated by Wyke (1968). Detailed measurements were made of motor skills which required timing and precision of movement in patients with a variety of focal brain lesions. Patients with right hemisphere lesions showed unilateral deficits with the opposite hand only, whereas patients with left hemisphere lesions showed bilateral deficits, albeit more severe in the contralateral limb. These interesting findings support the view that left hemisphere lesions result in some higher order executive defect which cannot be explained in terms of paresis or incoordination alone.
Agnosia and related defects of perception
The term ’agnosia’ was introduced by Freud (1891), although the condition had been described much earlier than this. It may be defined as ’an impaired recognition of an object which is sensorially presented while at the same time the impairment cannot be reduced to sensory defects, mental deterioration, disorders of consciousness and attention, or to a non-familiarity with the object’ (Frederiks 1969). Agnosia thus implies a disorder of perceptual recognition which takes place at a higher level than the processing of primary sensory information. Even though elementary sensory processes are themselves unimpaired there is an inability to interpret sensory information, to recognise its significance and endow it with meaning on the basis of past experience. Lissauer (1890), on the basis of his early case, divided the process of recognition into two stages-first a stage of processing whereby elementary physical stimuli are integrated to form a conscious percept (’apperception’), then the stage of associating the percept with other notions such as memory traces which endow it with meaning (’association’). Thus distinct forms of apperceptive and associative agnosia have come to be recognised.
Clinically, the situation is identified when there is a failure of recognition which cannot be attributed to a primary sensory defect or to generalised intellectual impairment. A patient may, for example, fail to recognise an object by sight and be unable to name it, demonstrate its use or relate it to a matching picture, even though vision is intact for other purposes. Nevertheless the same object is readily recognised by means of touch, showing that the patient is suffering from a modality-specific defect of higher cerebral function, and not from aphasia or apraxia. The several types of agnosia related to vision have received most attention, but agnosias are also described in relation to hearing and to touch.
Brain (1965) pointed out that the underlying disorder of function must have something in common with both aphasia and apraxia, since a patient can only demonstrate that he recognises an object by using speech or action; in effect agnosia represents an isolated aphasia and apraxia related to a particular object when it is perceived through
Page 59 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
a particular sensory channel. During development an object is presented to more than one sense and thereby conies to be perceived as an entity. Thereafter, perception via one channel alone is able to evoke a large number of sensorimotor experiences in relation to the object, and, moreover, to allow its identification whether seen from one aspect or another or even when represented in twodimensional form. Brain therefore postulated physiological sensory ’schemas’ which represent the bases of patterns common to manifold presentations, and which allow recognition. Separate schemas for vision, touch and hearing must be to some extent anatomically distinct, since we do not lose recognition through all sensory channels by any focal brain lesion but only in dementia due to diffuse brain disease. Equally this means that the actual process of recognition to which the schema gives access is a function of the brain as a whole.
The whole concept of agnosia has, however, come under increasingly critical discussion. Lesions producing so restricted a form of defect are rare (with the exception of visuospatial agnosia), and the examples reported in the literature have often been open to argument. A formidable amount of controversy has surrounded such questions as the independence of agnosic defects from subtle aspects of primary sensory defects, and the rarity of cases without some degree of dementia has made such questions hard to resolve. Geschwind (1965) suggested that most agnosias are, in fact, no more than modality-specific defects resulting from the isolation of the primary sensory cortex from the areas subserving language. Benson and Greenberg (1969) pointed out, in the case of the visual agnosias, that the number of suggested mechanisms very nearly equals the number of recorded cases. This confusion is often paralleled by conflicting claims about the site of the responsible pathology. For detailed discussion of these points Fredericks’ (1969) comprehensive review should be consulted.
Neuropsychology has therefore come to concern itself less with the search for examples of pure agnosic defects and arguments over their significance, but to concentrate instead on an operational analysis, in large numbers of subjects, of the correlations between site of lesion and the form of the deficits that follow. Such deficits may be absolute or relative in degree, sometimes involving simple perceptual processes and sometimes implicating other higher mental mechanisms. Their precise nature is thus amenable to dissection by means of standardised examination techniques.
In the sections which follow the classic agnosic syndromes will be described, and also the more common forms of related perceptual defect.
Visual agnosias and visual perceptual defects
Visual object agnosia
In visual object agnosia an object cannot be named by sight but is readily identified by other means such as touch or hearing. There is equally failure to select a matching picture from a group, or to indicate the appropriate use of the object, showing that this is not a naming defect alone. Sometimes the patient may describe a use appropriate to an incorrect recognition. The difficulty may vary from day to day, and sometimes an object may be recognised from other cues in its familiar surroundings but not elsewhere. Usually the problem is restricted to small objects, but in severe examples it may extend to larger objects, with consequent difficulty in finding the way about.
In general, the more complex the visual information the more difficulty the patient experiences. Greater problems may be encountered with two-dimensional representations, such as line drawings or photographs, than with the actual objects themselves. Commonly, though not invariably, faces continue to be recognised. In many reported examples there has been difficulty in describing objects from memory and in drawing them (i.e. loss of visual images of objects), also difficulty with colour recognition, dyslexia and dysgraphia.
In keeping with the distinction between apperceptive and associative forms of agnosia described on p. 58, subdivisions have been attempted in the field of visual object agnosia (Warrington 1985; Warrington & James 1988). Patients with visual apperceptive agnosia are particularly sensitive to difficulties surrounding perceptual aspects of identification and fail when these are increased-for example when the perceptual characteristics of an object are partially obscured, or distorted by photographing it from unusual angles. By contrast, visual associative agnosics fail on tests where objects must be matched according to common functions as opposed to physical identity (e.g. a watch and a clock), or when asked to pick out clear pictures of objects which belong to a particular class (e.g. objects found in a kitchen). In this they betray a lack of recognition of the essential meaning of the objects. Interestingly, associative agnosia can sometimes appear to be category specific, with particular difficulty centring on animate or inanimate objects, pictorial representations of concrete or abstract items, or even categories as specific as animals or foods.
Apperceptive agnosics cannot copy objects or drawings, whereas associative agnosics can perhaps make reasonable drawings of objects they cannot identify. A double
Page 60 CHAPTER 2
dissociation can sometimes be shown between these two forms of deficit-failure to organise a coherent percept on the one hand, and failure to endow an adequately organised percept with meaning. In many patients, however, the features of both apperceptive and associative agnosia occur together, suggesting that the two may form a continuum (Jankowiak & Albert 1994).
Bay (1953, 1965) and others were sceptical of gnostic activity generally, and suggested that visual forms of agnosia were attributable to impaired primary perception combined in most cases with generalised impairment of intellect. They drew attention not only to the visual field defects which were commonly present, but also to other subtle deficits of primary visual perception in the intact pans of the field. Ettlinger (1956), however, argued against such an interpretation, and pointed to the frequency of patients with severe sensory disorders cornpared to the rarity of agnosia.
Nevertheless, all agree that clear-cut cases of visual object agnosia are rare. Lesions in the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres, involving the occipital, parietal and posterior temporal regions are almost invariably responsible. Warrington (1985) suggests that following basic sensory analysis, input to the right hemisphere achieves perceptual categorisation and input to the left hemisphere semantic (meaning) categorisation. Accordingly apperceptive agnosic deficits can occasionally be seen in unusually clear form with right hemisphere lesions and associative agnosia with left hemisphere lesions. Jankowiak and Albert’s (1994) careful review makes it dear, however, that bilateral pathology can be detected in the great majority of cases, even though PET activation studies suggest that object identification takes place predominantly in the left posterior hemisphere. Apperceptive agnosia tends to be associated with diffuse or multifocal lesions, whereas associative agnosia may occur with more focal pathology within the territories of the posterior cerebral arteries. It is noteworthy that the three cases of apperceptive agnosia studied by Grossman et al. (1996) showed bilateral occipitotemporal hypoperfusion on PET scanning, even though the MRI appearances had been unremarkable in two.
Prosopagnosia
Inability to recognise familiar faces has been described as a distinct and separate defect, which may or may not be combined with visual object agnosia and is certainly much commoner than the latter (Hecaen &• Angelergues
1962). In extreme form the patient cannot recognise his own face in a mirror. The defect has been reported to be commoner with right than with left hemisphere lesions
but in most cases there is probably bilateral involvement (Walsh 1994). This was strongly supported by Damasio et al. (1982b) in their analysis of postmortem and CT scan data; bilateral lesions of the central visual system, situated specifically in the medial occipitotemporal regions, proved to be crucial for the development of prosopagnosia.
The precise nature of the defect remains uncertain, and it seems likely that prosopagnosia is not a unitary disorder. Warrington and James (1967a) showed a distinction between impaired recognition of a previously wellknown face, which depends on long-term storage of visual information, and impaired recognition of a previously unknown face from short-term memory. The former tended to be associated with right temporal lesions, and the latter with right parietal lesions. De Renzi et al. (1991) propose a division into ’apperceptive’ forms, in which a disorder in processing shape information prevents a sufficiently clear representation of the face to activate memory for it, and ’associative’ forms in which the memory itself is defective. McNeil and Warrington (1991) discuss the continuing controversies in this area.
Damasio et al. (1982b) have argued that a primary factor in the development of the condition may be the requirement to evoke the specific context of a given visual stimulus. They suggest, indeed, that the defect may not be specific to human faces, but may be prone to emerge in relation to any visual stimulus provided that it is sufficiently ambiguous and that its recognition depends on recall of the specific context in which it has previously been perceived. In some instances, however, the condition must be regarded as a ’face-specific disorder’, as in the interesting example reported by McNeil and Warrington (1993); here a patient with severe and persistent prosopagnosia for human faces was still able to identify individual members of his flock of sheep from pictures of their faces alone! Neurophysiological recording from the human right temporal lobe has confirmed that there are discrete populations of neurones which are related to the perception and comparison of faces (Ojemann et al. 1992). Recent PET scan studies have also indicated foci of activation which are specifically associated with the processing efface identity (Sergent 1994).
The processing of facial expression, as opposed to facial identity, has also been studied by PET with interesting results. Morris etal. (1996) carried out PET scans while subjects viewed photographs of happy or fearful faces, which varied systematically in the intensity of the emotional expressions. The neuronal response in the left amygdala was significantly greater to fearful as opposed to happy expressions; and it increased with increasing intensity of tearfulness and decreased with increasing intensity of hap, piness. This emerged, moreover, without a requirement for
Page 61 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATION
explicit processing of the facial expressions; the subjects were merely asked to judge whether each face was male or female.
Colour agnosia
Patients with colour agnosia show defective appreciation of the differences between colours, and fail to relate colours to objects correctly, even though their primary colour vision is intact as shown by normal performance on the Ishihara chart. Thus they have difficulty in sorting objects according to colour, ordering them in series or matching colours one with another. A dominant occipital lobe lesion is usually responsible and a right homonymous hemianopia is frequently present.
A closely associated though separable defect consists of ’colour anomia’, in which the subject is unable to name colours or to point appropriately to named colours, in the absence of any impairment of colour sense. Thus he may use the word ’blue’ when shown a picture of a banana, yet be capable of placing the correctly coloured chip next to it. Such problems may be unaccompanied by any other form of language difficulty, representing an unusually clear example of disruption of neural systems which mediate between specific concepts and their corresponding word forms (Damasio & Damasio 1992). The lesion in such cases appears to lie in the temporal segment of the left lingual gyrus.
In ’achromatopsia’ there is a more profound loss of colour sense, extending even to an inability to imagine colours. The concept of colour itself is abolished and the world around, though perceived normally in form and depth, is seen in shades of grey. Damage in such cases is situated in the occipital and subcalcarine portions of the lingual gyri bilaterally (Damasio & Damasio 1992).
Simultanagnosia
Classically the patient fails to recognise the meaning of a complex picture while details are correctly appreciated. However, this is not attributable to difficulty in forming meaningful concepts, since with auditory information there is prompt understanding. Moreover, if plenty of time is given, or every individual feature of the picture is pointed out, the patient ultimately comprehends the meaning. In a similar way, words cannot be read except by spelling out individual letters.
The key problem appears to be with the perception of more than a limited number of units or configurations at a time. Thus tachistoscopic studies have shown that such patients have normal thresholds for the perception of single shapes and letters, but greatly elevated thresholds when more than one stimulus is presented at a time
(Kinsbourne & Warrington 1962a, 1963). Luria et al. (1963) described an impairment of the eye movements involved in visual scanning in Simultanagnosia, but this is probably a secondary effect resulting from restriction of visual attention.
Coslett and Saffran (1991), in a detailed analysis of a case, suggest that the fundamental difficulty lay in the integration between object identity and information concerning spatial location when multiple items of visual information needed to be processed. They point out that the processing of multiple targets in an array must be carried out serially beyond a certain level, with storage both of the products of identification and their positions as the ’spotlight on visual attention’ moves from one location to another. The inability to maintain appropriate linkages during the process of visual search appeared to account for their patient’s failure.
Posterior lesions of the dominant lobe have been implicated in patients who display the complete syndrome.
Visuospatial defect
The abstract conception of space is derived from the spatial relations which are observed to exist between objects. As Brain (1965) pointed out this must be learned primarily in relation to the position of our own bodies, with compensation for the apparent movement of objects when it is our own eyes or body which move. After cerebral lesions a number of defects of visuospatial perception may be demonstrated. It has proved difficult, however, to reach agreement about their classification and the precise nature of the defects involved, since many tests require at the same time perception, construction and even visual memory. It remains, for example, uncertain whether failure to reproduce simple models and drawings depends on dyspraxic difficulties or failure of visuospatial analysis, likewise how far inability to draw from memory may further depend on defective visual imagery. Classic visuospatial agnosia is indeed widely regarded as broadly synonymous with constructional apraxia, as will be discussed below. Nevertheless, certain syndromes of localising value can be recognised as follows.
Visuospatial agnosia
Usually the patient has no difficulty in finding his way about, though an itinerary on a map cannot be indicated
is identified by failure on tasks which demand explicit analysis of the spatial properties of a visual display. This is most readily tested by asking the patient to reproduce simple designs under visual controlthe copying of drawings or the construction of patterns with bricks or sticks. The Block Design and Object Assembly subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale will most readily indicate minor degrees of such a defect.page 62 CHAPTER 2
and towns cannot be correctly located. In the most severe examples a loss of topographical memory (p. 63) may be present as well. An interesting fact, often noted, is that patients with marked visuospatial defects rarely make specific complaints about them. Thus visuospatial agnosia easily eludes routine examination and special tests are needed for its detection.
Visuospatial agnosia results from lesions in the parietal lobe, and appears to be considerably more common and severe with lesions of the right lobe than the left. Piercy (1964), De Renzi and Faglioni (1967) and Warrington (1970) discuss this evidence, also the indications that the defects may be qualitatively different when produced by left- or right-sided lesions.
The former appear to depend more on executive difficulties and the latter on perceptual components in the task. Thus drawings made by patients with left parietal lesions tend to be coherent but simplified versions of the model, with omission of details but with relative preservation of spatial relationships. Performance is notably improved when the patient is provided with a model to copy. Frequent associated defects are aphasia, apraxia or components of the Gerstmann syndrome such as right-left disorientation. Patients with right parietal lesions produce more elaborate drawings, but made hastily and without care, and the result is typically scattered and fragmented. Disorientation on the page is marked, the left side of the page is relatively neglected, and the drawings are often asymmetrical and show gross disorganisation of spatial relationships. The presence of a model is of little extra help.
Some therefore prefer to retain the term constructional apraxia when the disorder results from dominant hemi’ sphere lesions, and visuospatial agnosia when it is due to non-dominant lesions, though the distinctions between the two are by no means universally acknowledged.
Strong evidence has come from studies of patients after section of the corpus callosum to uphold the greater importance of the non-dominant hemisphere in tasks demanding visuospatial analysis. After the operation, which effectively disconnects the hemispheres from each other, patients show better ability to copy geometrical figures with the left hand than the right, even though the right hand had been superior before the commissure section. The ability to assemble complex object puzzles, or to reconstruct from a model standard geometrical patterns of the Kohs’ block design test, are also better performed with the left hand than the right (Bogen & Gaz/aniga 1965).
Evidence from LeDoux etal. (1977) suggests, however, that these findings in split-brain patients may owe more to difficulties on the part of the right hemisphere in carrying out ’manipulospatial tasks’ than in perceiving spatial relationships per se. Thus when no manual construction was required, and the patient was merely asked to match or select drawings exposed to the right hemisphere, their patient performed well. Specifically, LeDoux et al suggest that the right hemisphere is specially equipped for mapping spatial context onto the perceptual and motor activities of the hands.
Visual disorientation.
Visual disorientation is usually seen in conjunction with impairment on more complex visuospatial tasks, and the lesions are situated posteriorly within the hemispheres. Warrington and James (1967b) suggest that there may be areas within the occipital lobes which contribute to the absolute localisation in space of a single object, whereas the integration of several spatial stimuli necessary for the appreciation of spatial relations between two or more objects is impaired by unilateral lesions within the right parietal area. De Renzi et al. (1971) reported a test of spatial judgement which appeared to demonstrate complete dominance for the post-Rolandic region of the right hemisphere. This involved the moving of a hinged rod into the same position as a model; patients with right posterior lesions were found to perform much more poorly than patients with lesions in any other location, and this applied whether visual or tactile forms of the test were used. De Renzi et al. suggest that the test measures spatial perception at a very basic and simple level, thus accounting for the more complete right hemisphere dominance than is found with more complex tasks such as the copying of drawings.
Visual neglect.
In an interesting report Halligan and Marshall (1991) have described a patient who showed severe visuospatial neglect for near (’peripersonal’) space but not for extrapersonal space. Following a right middle cerebral infarction he showed left visuo-
Unilateral visual neglect (or unilateral spatial agnosia) may be seen in spontaneous drawings, copies, description of pictures, or use of paper when writing. When eating the patient may ignore food on the left side of the plate. It may also lead the patient to fail to take turnings to the left and consequently he may lose his way on familiar routes. A hemianopia may or may not be present. This is an agnosia for space as such, not merely an agnosia for spatial relations between visual objects. It may be seen in many degrees of severity. It is well confirmed that neglect of the left half of space is very much more common than right, and depends upon a right temporoparietal lesion (Heilmanefa/. 1985).A further defect of visuospatial ability consists of difficulty in localising objects in space by vision alone. As a result the patient cannot point accurately to an object or estimate its distance. Such difficulty can occur in either half-field of vision alone, contralateral to the side of a lesion, or involve the whole visual field with bilateral lesions. When involving the whole field of vision the patient has difficulty in finding his way around objects or in learning the topography of a room.Page 63 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
spatial neglect, a left hemiparesis and an inferior homonymous quadrantanopia. On standard line bisection tests, performed with the paper immediately before him, he showed marked displacements to the right, but was able accurately to indicate the midpoint of lines and to direct dans accordingly when these were some 2.5m auay. There is evidence from animal experimental work that visual inattention and neglect can be differentially affected for far and near space by lesions in different pans of the frontal cortex.
Loss of topographical memory.
Hecaen (1962) studied the clinical evidence of loss of topographical memory for a previously familiar environment, and found that in most cases the parietal lesions were bilateral, though more of the unilateral cases involved the right than the left hemisphere.
Topographical disorientation.
Ratcliff and Newcombe (1973) produced especially interesting findings from a study of men with penetrating missile wounds of the brain. Two tests were employed-a visually guided stylus maze task, and a locomotor mapreading task in which the subject was required to trace out a designated route on foot. These were designed to tap visuospatial agnosia and topographical disorientation, respectively. Patients with lesions in the posterior part of the right hemisphere were significantly worse than those with left posterior lesions on the maze-learning test, but a significant deficit on the map-reading test emerged only in those with bilateral posterior lesions. A clear dissociation between the two tasks could sometimes be observed. Ratcliff and Newcombe were led to conclude that while the right hemisphere has a special role in the perception of space, it does not bear an exclusive responsibility for the maintenance of spatial orientation. Bilateral lesions appeared to be necessary before route finding was impaired, perhaps because this involves a constant reorientation to stimuli as the subject moves around and alters his frames of reference. Further experiments on the topic are described by De Renzi (1982), along with a detailed discussion of the various deficits which may contribute to topographical disorientation.
Semmes et al. (1955) showed that on tasks of following routes from maps, patients with parietal lesions did worse than patients with lesions elsewhere. Neither parietal lobe emerged as especially important in this regard. The difficulties occurred irrespective of whether visual or tactile maps were employed, suggesting a defect of appreciation of extrapersonal space which was not modality specific.Patients with visual object agnosia or visuospatial agnosia may sometimes still be able to visualise familiar scenes or describe familiar routes. Loss of topographical memory may, however, occur, again in conjunction with lesions in the parietal lobes.Other visual perceptual defects
Other disorders of visual perception and of visuospatial analysis, which fall short of complete agnosia by any definition, have also proved to show interesting associations with the site of brain pathology. In particular, they are more frequent and more marked with right hemisphere lesions than left.
Patients with right temporal lesions have been shown to do worse than other groups with focal brain damage on tasks of rapid visual identification, picture comprehension and picture arrangement. These deficits are reflected for example in their scores on the Picture Completion and Picture Arrangement subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or on the McGill Picture Anomalies test in which the patient is required to identify incongruous features in a series of sketchily drawn pictures (Milner 1958; Ettlinger 1960; McFie 1960). Right temporal lobectomy has been found to lead to greater difficulty than left in the learning and recall of material such as nonsense figures which are not susceptible to verbal mediation (Kimura
1963). Warrington and James (1967c) similarly found that patients with right hemisphere lesions are specially impaired on the recognition of incomplete drawings, but in this a parietal rather than a temporal lesion was found to be crucial, suggesting that difficulties with spatial perception may have made a decisive contribution.
Thus it appears from these various findings that the non-dominant hemisphere plays some special part in the processing of visual sensory data, and is to a considerable extent specialised in visual matters. In this it complements the dominant hemisphere’s specialisation for language. Within the non-dominant hemisphere it is probable that the temporal lobe is especially important for pattern recognition, and more posterior regions in the parietal lobe for the appreciation of spatial relationships. Such a distinction was in general upheld by Newcombe’s (1969) analysis of the long-term effects of missile wounds of the brain.
Auditory agnosia and auditory perceptual defects
In auditory agnosia hearing is unimpaired, as tested by pure tone thresholds, but the patient fails to recognise or distinguish the sounds that he hears. Thus in everyday life he may give the appearance of being ’deaf. Typically the onset is with severe dysphasia, which then clears substantially to leave the auditory problem in evidence. The patient is unable tc recognise speech, as in pure worddeafness (p. 49), but in addition cannot recognise nonspeech sounds such as the pouring of water, crumpling of
Page 64 CHAPTER 2
paper or jingling of keys. Usually there is also failure to recognise musical sounds. These three defeas-worddeafness, auditory agnosia and ’sensory amusia’-can occur together with varying degrees of severity.
The disorder is extremely rare and few convincing examples have been reported. Vignolo (1969) provides a detailed review, both of the phenomena observed and of their relationships to dysphasia. Most examples have been associated with bilateral lesions of the posterior pans of the temporal lobes.
Less complete difficulty with the processing of auditory information may be demonstrated in some patients with brain lesions. Vignolo (1969) showed that patients with right hemisphere lesions fail relatively on tests of discriminating meaningless sounds, whereas patients with leftsided lesions have greater difficulty in identifying sounds to which meaning can be attached. This indicates that the auditory-receiving areas of the two hemispheres are to some extent specialised, that of the right being specifically concerned with grasping the acoustic structure of the auditory input (i.e. subtle perceptual discrimination) and that of the left with endowing the input with meaning by virtue of semantic associative links (i.e. semantic decoding). A double dissociation was demonstrated in the patients with right and left hemisphere lesions between these two aspects of the ’understanding’ of the auditory inputs. Thus where non-verbal sounds are concerned, it appears likely that there are two types of ’agnosia’ depending on the hemisphere involved; the left hemisphere defect is essentially one of semantic identification of the perceived sound and is closely linked with dysphasic defects, whereas the right hemisphere defect is qualitatively different and essentially of a perceptual discriminative nature. Analogous differences between the hemispheres have more recently been shown for tactile recognition as well (p. 65).
With regard to music, the right temporal lobe appears overall to be more important than the left. Right temporal lobectomy has been found to impair performance on tests of musical aptitude, whereas left temporal lobectomy does not (Kimura 1961; Miner 1962). Shankweiler (1966) played extracts of familiar songs to patients who had had temporal lobectomies, and found that the left lesion group had greater difficulty in recalling the titles or words, whereas the right lesion group had greater difficulty in reproducing or recognising the melody. Dichotic listening tasks, in which different information is fed simultaneously to the two ears, have supported these findings in normal subjects; words fed to the right ear (and proceeding thence by crossed pathways predominantly to the left hemisphere) are reported better than words fed to the left ear, whereas with fragments of melodies the situation is reversed (Kimura 1961, 1964). Moreover, when dichotic tests are given to lobectomised patients it is found that left temporal lobectomy produces a more severe decrement in the contralateral ear where words are concerned, and right temporal lobectomy for the recognition of musical passages (Shankweiler 1966).
Gordon and Bogen (1974) also reported interesting effects when patients were asked to sing familiar songs during the course of unilateral intracarotid amytal injections. When the left hemisphere was sedated with the drug the words of the song were severely affected while the melody continued well; by contrast when the right hemisphere was sedated the words remained relatively intact whereas the pitch and melodic line were severely disrupted.
It seems clear therefore that the right hemisphere is superior to the left in most people for the perception of ’structured’ musical passages, i.e. of sounds built up into tuneful, melodic and harmonious combinations (Wyke 1977). The right temporal lobe is particularly important in this regard, though right frontal lesions may also disrupt the perception of pitch, rhythm and phrasing (Shapiro et al. 1981). Measurements of changes in cerebral blood flow using PET scans have confirmed activation of the right temporal cortex during the perceptual analysis of melodies, and of the right frontal cortex during pitch comparisons (Zatorre etal. 1994).
However, detailed analysis of various components of musical perception-pitch, timbre, discrimination and rhythm-have often given conflicting results, suggesting that neither hemisphere alone is specialised for all aspects of-musical cognition. Lezak (1995) reviews the more recent clinical and experimental evidence, indicating that while the right hemisphere is in general the more important in melodic recognition and chord analysis, the left tends to predominate in the processing of sequential and discrete tonal components of music.
Interesting differences have emerged, moreover, between musically naive and musically trained subjects. Thus in trained musicians the left hemisphere may be found to predominate for melodic recognition, as well as for tone discrimination which tends to be less lateralised in untrained persons. It is unclear how far this may reflect the effects of learning processes on cerebral organisation, or pre-existing differences which have conferred musical ability. A recent study using MRI has shown that musicians with ’perfect pitch’ have greater asymmetry of the planum temporale than non-musicians, with stronger anatomical biases towards the left (Schlaug etal. 1995).
Amusia
may be defined as an impairment or loss of musical function deriving from acquired disease of the brain (Henson 1985). Amusia without aphasia has proved to be rare, but examples have been described followingpage 65 SYMPTOMS AN SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
right temporal or right frontal lesions. In such examples the deficit usually involves loss of capacity to sing or hum a tune (’oral-expressive amusia’). Henson (1985) reviews the scattered literature on other amusia syndromesmusical agraphia, musical alexia and musical amnesia, and ’receptive amusia’ in which there is failure to discriminate pitch, intensity, timbre and rhythm. This latter disturbance is usually seen only as part of a more widespread auditory agnosia.
Finally, under the heading of ’auditory affective agnosia’, Heilman et al. (1975) have drawn attention to deficits in the appreciation of the affective tone of speech in patients with right hemisphere lesions. After listening to tape-recorded sentences patients were asked to judge either the content or the emotional tone in which each sentence had been spoken (happy, sad, angry or indifferent). Six patients had right temporoparietal lesions (with left unilateral neglect) and six had left temporoparietal lesions (with fluent aphasia). The responses were made by selection from a series of line-drawn pictures appropriate to the sentences and emotions concerned. All subjects achieved perfect scores with respect to content, but those with right hemisphere lesions were significantly impaired in judging affective tone.
Tactile perceptual defects
In tactile agnosia the patient is unable to recognise an object by touch, even though the sensory functions of the hand being tested are normal. The same object is immediately recognised by other means, for example by touching it with the opposite hand or by vision.
There is uncertainty surrounding the distinction between tactile agnosia and the ’astereognosis’ of cortical sensory loss, in which there is equally failure of tactile recognition. Some, however, claim that in tactile agnosia the patient can still distinguish the size, shape and texture of the object even though the object cannot be recognised, whereas in astereognosis the appreciation of these sensory elements is impaired as well.
Commonly tactile agnosia is restricted to one hand, and results from a lesion in the opposite parietal lobe. The supramarginal gyrus has been especially incriminated. Bilateral tactile agnosia is said to follow damage in this region in the dominant hemisphere, and it is possible that in such cases callosal fibres to the opposite lobe have also been destroyed by the lesion.
In an interesting experiment Bottini etal. (1995) have shown a double dissociation between the nature of the tactile recognition disorders produced by right and left hemisphere lesions. Tasks were devised for examining tactile recognition either of meaningless shapes or of meaningful objects. In each case a stimulus object was first explored manually, then a matching object had to be selected by palpation from a choice of four. Patients with right hemisphere damage were impaired on the first task (’apperceptive recognition’) but not the second (’associative recognition’). Patients with left hemisphere damage showed the reverse. The results thus provide an analogy in the tactile domain for those previously described for the processing of auditory information (p. 64).
’Gerstmann’s syndrome’
The concept of a ’Gerstmann syndrome’ resulting from dominant parietal lobe lesions has become firmly entrenched in the neurological and psychological literature. It consists of finger agnosia, right-left disorientation, dyscalculia and dysgraphia. As such it remains a useful venue for the discussion of these disorders, and yields a useful group of simple clinical tests when one is looking for subtle signs of a lesion in the dominant hemisphere. The essential clustering together of the defects has, however, been seriously questioned, and it is now clear that they barely constitute a ’syndrome’ in the accepted sense of the word.
It is known that the four components are not always found together, one or more being often absent when the others can be demonstrated clearly. Similarly, one or more components can occur along with other disorders of cognitive function-dysphasia, dyslexia, constructional apraxia, visual disorientation or generalised intellectual impairment. Benton (1961) examined the intercorrelations on tests of the four Gerstmann symptoms and of three other functions related to the parietal lobes (constructional ability, reading and visual memory) in a large unselected series of brain-damaged subjects; it emerged that the correlations of the Gerstmann abilities with each other was no higher than with the three abilities not included in the syndrome. In a separate analysis of patients with damage restricted to the left parietal lobe, the Gerstmann defects again failed to cluster together. Heimburger etal. (1964) in a similar study found that as the number of Gerstmann components increased the lesions tended to be larger in size. When all four defects did appear together they were usually accompanied by severe impairment of many other functions.
Nevertheless Roeltgen et al. (1983) have been able to report a patient with the ’pure’ Gerstmann syndrome, all four defects occurring together and without other symptoms or signs. This followed a discrete area of infarction in the left parietal lobe, including the superior part of the angular gyrus and the adjacent part of the supramarginal gyrus. Undoubtedly, however, such cases are very rare.
It has not seemed possible to establish a common fundamental
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disturbance underlying each of the four defects, which can indeed result individually from more than one kind of functional loss. For example, finger agnosia and right-left disorientation may be due to limited forms of body image disturbance or result from comprehension defects, dyscalculia may exist in many forms as described below, and dysgraphia may represent a disturbance of language function or result primarily from dyspraxia. Warrington (1970) has suggested, however, that if the concept were re-examined, taking into account a more restricted definition of each of the elements, the status of the syndrome might be further clarified.
Dysgraphia has already been dealt with briefly on pp.50 and 53, and the remaining three components are considered below.
Finger agnosia
Finger agnosia is shown by loss of ability to recognise, name, identify, indicate or select individual fingers, either on the patient’s own body or on that of another person. Traditionally the patient is asked to point to named fingers or to name an individual finger, but the presence of dysphasia may confound this simple procedure. Kinsbourne and Warrington (1962b) advocated a test in which two fingers are simultaneously touched by the examiner and the patient is asked to state the number of fingers between those touched, first in practice sessions with the eyes open and then with the eyes closed.
The disorder appears bilaterally. The patient does not report it spontaneously, and thus like constructional apraxia it is a defect usually only revealed by specific testing. A lesion in the left parieto-occipital area appears to be critical for its appearance, but it is possible that it can occur very occasionally with right hemisphere lesions. The angular gyrus and the second occipital convolution have been especially incriminated.
Gerstmann (1958) himself proposed that finger agnosia may represent a minimal form of whole body autotopagnosia, in other words a defect of recognition of the body or appreciation of the interrelations of body parts (see p. 71). He suggested that complete autotopagnosia is very rarely seen because those lesions sufficient to produce it also result in concomitant defects which obscure the picture, whereas in the restricted form of finger agnosia it can be recognised as a clear-cut entity. Kinsbourne and Warrington (1964) viewed it instead as a difficulty in classifying fingers in terms of their relative positions, and saw this as part of an underlying disorder in the processing of information in terms of a spatiotemporal sequence. Thus they found a particular type of spelling error in association with finger agnosia, namely errors relating to the ordering of the letters in a word. Frederiks (1969, 1985) considers the defect to be polymorphous in origin, though usually closely bound to language disorder as the fundamental disturbance of function. He points out that no other part of the body is verbally differentiated to so great a degree as the hand, and that despite its extensive cerebral representation we habitually disregard the hand when in use. Thus the physiological representation of the hand is in many ways different from that of other body parts, which may account, whatever the exact pathogenesis, for the special vulnerability which emerges in finger agnosia.
Right-left disorientation
This defect shows as inability to carry out instructions which involve an appreciation of right and left. The patient fails to point on command to objects on his right and his left, to indicate pans of his body on the right and the left, or to perform more complex instructions in which these directions form an integral part of the task. It undoubtedly can reflect several complex disorders of function. Gerstmann (1958) suggested that like finger agnosia it represented a restricted form of body image disturbance. Benton (1959) on the other hand stressed that language is likely to be intrinsically concerned with many forms of the disorder. Sauget etal. (1971) investigated the relationship between sensory dysphasia and various forms of disturbance including right-left disorientation and finger agnosia, using both verbal and non-verbal tests. They concluded that these disturbances are closely linked to impairment of language comprehension, but that in addition impairment of somatosensory functions is necessary for their appearance. Frederiks (1985) suggests that visual aspects of the body schema, and the relation between corporeal and extracorporeal space, are likely to be fundamentally involved.
Right-left disorientation can in general be accepted as a sign of left hemisphere dysfunction, but is of little value for more precise localisation within the hemisphere. Occasionally, moreover, it may emerge with right hemisphere dysfunction (Benton & Sivan 1993).
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is an impairment of the capacity for calculation in persons who have hitherto shown no disorder of their arithmetical faculties. The complex problems in this field are reviewed by Grewel (1969), Boiler and Grafman (1985) and Grafman (1988). It is clear that detailed analysis of the nature of the calculation defect is necessary if the symptom is to have any localising value since there are many possible sources of failure. Arithmetical ability can
page 67 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
be disturbed independently of language functions and general intelligence, but pure cases of this nature are rare. Secondary dyscalculia can result from defects of shortterm memory, perseveration or simple impairment of concentration.
Boiler and Grafman (1985) subdivide primary dyscalculia into four varieties. First, there may be loss of ability to appreciate the names and significance of numbers or to combine them syntactically to produce a meaningful digit notation. Second, there may be problems with the spatial organisation required in numerical operations. Third, there may be difficulties in carrying out the basic computational aspects of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (’anarithmetica’). This last may be subdivided into two sources of failure -inability to retrieve mathematical facts which are normally stored in memory (such as 5 +4=9), or inability to engage in mathematical thinking and reasoning and to understand the procedural rules that underlie mathematical operations.
Such a distinction was clarified by Warrington (1982) in a study of a physician with a left parietal subdural haematoma. Simple calculations were performed laboriously and inaccurately, and on introspection he found that the processes of addition and subtraction could no longer be performed ’automatically’. He could define the concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division quite well and his understanding of such operations was unimpaired. What he lacked was direct access to the semantic memories of arithmetical facts so that he had to revert to the slow counting processes observed in children. Other anarithmetic patients differ from this in that they lack all concept of the mathematical operations, or are unable to comprehend the significance of individual numbers or number facts (e.g. that there arelOOpenceinapound,orthatl2isgreaterthanll).
Dyscalculia has been found in one form or another with lesions of the frontal, temporal, parietal or occipital lobes of the brain, but the parietal lobes have been most frequently involved and the left lobe more often than the right. Hecaen (1969) suggested that dyscalculia due to alexia or anarithmetica was commoner with left-sided lesions than right, whereas dyscalculia due to problems with visuospatial organisation was commoner with rightsided lesions than left. It appears, however, that even this last form of difficulty is also more prone to emerge with left-sided lesions (Grafman etal. 1982).
Warrington (1970) concluded that in general, when a patient is unable to do simple mechanical additions and subtractions, without sufficient dysphasia or generalised intellectual impairment to explain it, a focal lesion may be suspected in the left parietal cortex. This was supported by Grafman etal.’s (1982) study, in which patients with focal damage to either hemisphere performed significantly worse than controls, but the left posterior brain-damaged group was particularly impaired; and this was largely
independent of such additional factors as dysphasia or visuoconstructive difficulties.
Disorders of body image
The body image, or ’body schema’ may be regarded as a subjective model of the body against which changes in its posture, in the disposition of its parts, and in its soundness or integrity can be appreciated. As such the body image is not static, but changes constantly under the influence of internal and external sensory impressions. Moreover, it invariably includes important unconscious as well as conscious components, so cannot be viewed as a mere picture in the mind. Normally it exists on the fringe of awareness, but aspects can be brought into consciousness when subjective attention is focused upon them.
The body image is thus an abstract conception, acquired during development and compounded of physiological and psychological elements. Schilder (1935) extended the concept and in particular stressed that data from a wide range of sources must be incorporated into any notion of the body image, including aspects of personality, emotion and social interaction. For him the postural model proposed by Head (1920) represented only a low level of body image organisation, whilst higher levels are built out of instinctual needs and personal interactions.
Clearly, therefore, the body image occupies a central place among the problems of brain-mind relationships, and not unnaturally its disorders must often be considered in relation to both cerebral pathology and individual psychopathology. Disorders of the body image are implicit in a wide range of puzzling and often bizarre clinical states, around which a good deal of controversy exists. Some disturbances represent the influence of structural or physiological changes in the brain, as seen for example in the presence of cerebral disease or in the effects of drugs such as cannabis or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Other disturbances may accompany severe sensory deprivation or psychiatric illnesses such as depression or schizophrenia, and then may appear to be mainly psychological in origin. In some particularly puzzling disorders, such as anosognosia, it is probably necessary to invoke both organic and psychogenic factors in an attempt at a complete explanation. The concept of body image disturbance is thus involved in many different areas of study. Frederiks (1969) suggests that we must strive at least to keep clear whether we use it in a neurological or a psychopathological sense. In the former the aim is to find data which can contribute to topographical diagnosis of brain disease, whereas in the latter the interest is in relationships which are understandable in psychological terms.
Page 68 CHAPTER 2
The body image disturbances which follow brain lesions are themselves very incompletely understood. Sometimes they have been regarded as based on primary perceptual disturbances of kinaesthetic or proprioceptive inflow and sometimes as purely agnosic defects. At least a partial contribution may result from deficits in language comprehension, -spatial analysis or ability to analyse a whole in terms of its parts, as will be discussed in connection with individual disturbances below. In some manifestations of body image disturbance hallucinatory experiences appear also to be directly involved. Precise analysis is often hampered by some degree of impairment of consciousness or generalised intellectual impairment which frequently accompany the more severe disorders.
Here the body image disorders most closely tied to brain pathology will be considered first and in most detail, then those encountered in non-organic psychiatric illness will be briefly reviewed. It must be appreciated, however, that the dividing line where pathogenesis is concerned is sometimes far from clear-cut.
Body image disturbances associated with brain lesions can be broadly divided into those affecting half of the body only, and those which involve bilateral disturbances. Unilateral body image disturbances are commoner with right hemisphere lesions than left, and the left side of the body is therefore most often affected. They include unilateral inattention, neglect, feelings and beliefs that the left limbs are missing (hemisomatognosia), and lack of awareness or denial of disability (anosognosia). Bilateral body image disturbances are commoner with left cerebral lesions than right. They are usually restricted to finger agnosia (p. 66) or right-left disorientation (p. 66), but very occasionally there is difficulty in naming or pointing to any body part (autotopagnosia). Complex illusions of bodily transformation or displacement are less closely tied to lesions in known locations and seem to be more intimately involved with non-organic psychopathology.
Unilateral unavvareness and neglect
This represents perhaps the best known and most frequently encountered change hi the body image. For reasons incompletely understood the disorder affects the left limbs in the great majority of cases, and appears to derive particularly from lesions in the neighbourhood of the supramarginal and angular gyri of the right parietal lobe. A spectrum of disturbances is seen, ranging from inattention and unawareness to neglect.
The range and interrelationships of these phenomena were excellently described by Critchley (1953). A minor degree of inattention to the left limbs may require special techniques of examination to reveal it, such as double simultaneous stimulation of both sides of the body together (p. 18). In unawareness the disorder is more obtrusive, the patient failing to utilise the left hand in bimanual activities, or overlooking the left foot when putting on his slippers. When attention is specifically drawn to the left limbs, however, they are used with normal efficiency, or if a degree of paresis exists the patient admits his difficulties. It is as though the limbs of this side were ’occupying a lower level in a hierarchy of personal awareness’ (Critchley 1953).
The disorder may involve no more than this, or may include the more elaborate symptoms of neglect. The limbs may be ignored in washing or dressing, one half of the face may be left unshaven or the hair uncombed. This is more likely in the presence of confusion or other impairment of intellect. Sometimes unawareness or neglect accompany the development of a hemiparesis, and when this is present the more florid features of anosognosia may be added (p. 69).
Such disorders are seen more commonly after acute brain lesions, and particularly after cerebrovascular accidents. The degree of unawareness or neglect appears to be related to the abruptness of the lesion, the clarity of consciousness and whether or not motor weakness is present. Usually these are transient phenomena, and changeable from time to time during clinical examination, but occasionally the disability persists in some form as an enduring defect.
While a special association has been noted with parietal, and especially right parietal, lesions, typical syndromes of neglect have been reported following damage in other locations. Damasio et al. (1980) reported five examples of contralateral inattention and neglect, coupled with limb akinesia, after lesions in the frontal lobes or basal ganglia. Surprisingly the frontal lesions were in the left hemisphere, leading to neglect on the right side of the body. Damasio et al. suggest that the various structures involved may belong to an anatomically interconnected system subserving selective attention. Right thalamic infarcts have also been noted to lead to contralateral neglect of hemiparetic or akinetic limbs, along with anosognosia, marked emotional flattening and visuospatial difficulties (Watson & Heilman 1979; Watson etal. 1981).
Hemisomatognosia (hemiasomatognosia, hemidepersonalisation)
In this much rarer phenomenon the patient feels as though the limbs on one side are missing, sometimes episodically but sometimes as a continuous subjective state. It may feature as part of an aura in a focal epileptic attack.
The disorder is accompanied by various degrees of loss of insight. The limbs may feel absent though the patient
Page 69 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
knows this is not so, or he may say they are absent but can be corrected in his belief, or he may have a fixed delusion that they are absent which cannot be corrected. When consciousness is clear the patient usually retains insight into the illusory nature of the condition, even though it may feel very vivid, and can reassure himself as to the presence of the limbs by feeling or looking at them. In the presence of confusion, however, he may proclaim that the limbs are missing, look for them under the bed, or accuse others of taking them away.
Frederiks (1985) distinguishes conscious and non-conscious forms of the disorder. In the former the patient spontaneously reports the experience of having lost the perception of one half of the body. This is usually a transient or a paroxysmal phenomenon, may affect either half of the body, and is possibly based on subcortical blocking of somaesthetic input from one body half. Non-conscious hemisomatognosia, by contrast, is manifest only as a disorder of behaviour-the patient has no conscious awareness of the loss but behaves as though the body half were missing. He ignores and neglects it and fails to move it on command. This may be an enduring state, lasting for days or even weeks. It affects the left limbs much more cornmonly than the right, and tends to be associated with hemiplegia, anosognosia and unilateral spatial agnosia. The condition is typically due to a parietal lobe lesion of the minor hemisphere, and essentially corresponds to the syndrome of unilateral unawareness and neglect described just above.
Anosognosia
Anosognosia implies lack of awareness of disease, and is most commonly shown for left hemiplegic limbs. It may occur along with unilateral neglect, hemisomatognosia or with the illusions of transformation and displacement which are considered below.
In its mildest form the patient merely shows a lack of normal concern for his disability, attaching little importance to it and not grasping its implications. Or when confronted by the disability and obliged to admit it, he belittles the problem and shows an inappropriately flat or facetious reaction (’anosodiaphoria’). In true anosognosia, however, the patient appears to be completely unaware of the hemiplegia, makes no complaints about it and ignores the inconvenience it causes.
Commonly, anosognosia is merely a transient state in the early days after acute hemiplegia has developed, and recedes along with the initial clouding of consciousness. It may, however, persist and become more floridly developed with obstinate denial or bizarre elaboration on a delusional basis. When attention is firmly drawn to the hemiplegia, the patient makes some shallow rationalisation for not performing the task, perhaps explaining that he has been ill recently or that he is too tired. In more bizarre cases he insists that the paralysed limbs do not belong to him or attributes them to some neighbouring person (’somatoparaphrenia’). He may claim that the limbs are some mechanical object, or talk to them and fondle them as though they had an existence of their own (’personification’). Feelings of anger or hatred may be expressed towards them (’misoplegia’).
A woman of 39 with left hemiplegia, hemianaesthesia and hemianopia, was garrulous and confused. She denied that she was paralysed and insisted that her left arm and leg belonged to her daughter Ann, who she said had been sharing her bed for the past week. When the patient’s wedding ring was pointed out to her she said that Ann had borrowed it to wear. The patient was encouraged to talk to Ann and to tell her to move her arm-she then became confused and talked vaguely about Ann being asleep and not to be disturbed. When asked to indicate her own left limbs she turned her head and searched in a bemused way over her left shoulder.
The left arm of a patient with a right parietal lesion kept wandering about in the blind homonymous half-field of vision. When the patient wrote, the left hand would wander across and butt in and rest on the right hand. Not recognising this as his own he would exclaim: ’Let go my hand!’ He would swear at it in exasperation: ’You bloody bastardl It’s lost its soul, this bloody thing. It follows me around and gets in the way when I read’.
(Critchley 1964)
Such highly colourful reactions are rare, and it is doubtful whether they occur in the absence of clouding of consciousness or generalised intellectual impairment. They can usually be understood most readily in terms of psychogenic elaboration of some partially perceived defect, sometimes illustrating in unusually clear form the common psychological mechanisms of defence.
Anosognosia is also used as a generic term for imperception of deficits other than hemiplegia. Here again it may range in degree from lack of concern and attention to explicit verbal denial, and again it is often uncertain how far the disturbance is intrinsically related to cerebral disorder alone or how far it reflects superadded psychogenic mechanisms. It is perhaps most commonly seen in relation to dysphasic symptoms, classically with primary sensory dysphasia when the patient seems not to appreciate his mistakes. Unawareness or denial of amnesic defects is common as part of Korsakoff’s syndrome. Blindness, especially when due to lesions of the optic radiations or striate cortices may be denied, the patient attempting to behave as though he can see and describing purely imaginary visual experiences when tested (’Anton’s syndrome’). Deafness due to cerebral lesions may more rarely be denied. Unawareness of painful stimuli (’pain asymbolia’)
Page 70 CHAPTER
is another incompletely understood example, in which the patient may perceive a painful stimulus but fails to recognise it as unpleasant, so that little or no defensive reaction is produced. This rare disorder can result from an acquired cerebral lesion, usually in the dominant hemisphere, while other aspects of sensation are unaffected (Frederiks 1985). It has been regarded as a failure to integrate the awareness of pain with awareness of the body image, or alternatively as a gross denial in the psychogenic sense of painful experience.
Anosognosia for hemiplegia has been more closely studied than these other forms of the disorder. Nevertheless the mechanisms involved remain unclear and are the subject of controversy. In the majority of cases there are sensory as well as motor deficits in the limbs concerned, but the condition is not explainable in terms of perceptual deficit alone, since occasionally hemiplegia is denied while the patient remains fully aware of the existence of the limbs. Frederiks (1969, 1985) puts forward the interesting suggestion that sometimes kinaesthetic hallucinations of movement may occur hi the paralysed limbs, explaining at least those cases where verbal denial of paralysis is the main feature rather than neglect. The role of general intellectual disturbance is also disputed. Sbme claim that anosognosia can occur in the presence of strictly focal brain damage and when the patient is mentally clear, while others deny its localising significance and find it only with evidence of some degree of clouding of consciousness. Still others emphasise the psychogenic component, and see anosognosia essentially as a motivated desire to repress the unpleasant facts of a disability. Such primitive defensive behaviour may admittedly be brought to the fore by the presence of cerebral disease.
Weinstein and Kahn (1950, 1955) stressed this last point of view in their survey of a large population of brain-injured patients. In addition to denial of the defects already mentioned they noted denial of incontinence and impotence, and patients totally confined to bed might occasionally insist that they had recently returned from a walk. Some degree of mental confusion could always be detected in their patients when specially sought out, though it was often of a subtle nature. Moreover when the signs of anosognosia disappeared, intravenous sodium amytal could cause them to return by lowering the level of consciousness. Generalised brain damage appeared to be the cause in the great majority of cases.
Weinstein and Cole (1963) continued these observations in a later study restricted to anosognosia for hemiplegia. Half of their patients showed explicit verbal denial of paralysis while the others showed neglect. Those with denial disclaimed other aspects of the illness such as vomiting, incontinence or recent craniotomy, and all showed
either disorientation for time and place, reduplicative delusions, other delusions and confabulations, or paraphasic misnaming. Frequently some degree of awareness of the defect was betrayed, and medication or operation was accepted without demur. Those with neglect alone showed less evidence of mental confusion but some degree could still be detected in every case. Mood changes were more striking in this second group, with depression, euphoria or paranoid developments.
Common mental mechanisms for defence against anxiety could be seen to operate. The premorbid personalities of the patients had often shown strong perfectionistic traits, tendencies to deny illness, and to view health as important for their self-esteem. Where verbal anosognosia was concerned this often appeared to be an artefact of the interview situation, and the attitudes of observers and of the patient’s relatives were important in determining the degree and duration of the denial.
Such observations have led some authorities to argue against the implication of focal brain damage in anosognosia, or indeed against any special relationship to body image disorder. However, there remains the rather obstinate fact that anosognosia, like uncomplicated unilateral neglect, has usually been found to be very much cornmoner for the left than for the right side of the body. In Starkstein et al.’s (1992) series of stroke patients, 38% with left-sided signs showed anosognosia compared with
11 % of those with right-sided signs. Moreover the lesion, when focal, appears to implicate the temporoparietal region rather than the pre-Rolandic cortex or lower levels of motor organisation. Those upholding strict localisation point even to the supramarginal and angular gyri of the parietal lobe. Hence it is often suggested that anosognosia represents a special example of focal derangement of the body schema, dependent on subtle deficits of sensory experience and higher order defects of conceptualisation. In this view any concurrent diffuse cerebral disorder acts only to actualise the defect or allow its elaboration by lowering the patient’s overall grasp and alertness.
Ullman et al. (1960) in an unusually clear review, attempted a synthesis of both physiological and psychodynamic factors leading to anosognosia. In the more florid examples of denial they suggest that the patient’s initial subjective experiences have come to mesh and synchronise with his defensive mechanisms. Thus, for example, his first experience may be of an arm without feeling lying across his chest. This is not experienced as his own, and the feeling of separateness may be heightened when spontaneous movements are noted in it as on yawning. The initial fright and puzzlement can then be immediately relieved by disowning the limb or even identifying it as belonging to someone else. Early ’potential’ anosognosic responses could be identified in a high proportion of patients with hemiplegia (’I didn’t feel like I had an arm’; ’It seemed like something attached to me that
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wasn’t mine’), but this did not progress to further elaboration in the absence of diffuse brain damage with accompanying mental changes. With a shift to concrete modes of thinking, however, and when the total social context could not be grasped, the patient might begin to utilise cues in a selective fashion to support and substantiate delusional beliefs.
The elaboration of explicit verbal denial could thus reflect the operation of various sets of factors. It could sometimes be primarily related to motivational factors embedded in the personality as Weinstein and Kahn suggest, but in others one might be witnessing a degree of sensory change or functional loss great enough to prevent the patient from making the necessary cornpensatory judgements. Social and interpersonal aspects of the immediate situation could then be closely implicated, in addition to the role of brain damage itself.
The rarity of anosognosia and related defects in the right limbs is very hard to explain by any theory. It has been suggested that since the left limbs are normally subordinate to the right, cerebral lesions merely exaggerate this tendency, or alternatively that with lesions of the dominant hemisphere intellectual deficits and dysphasia readily swamp these more subtle manifestations. Others have attempted to resolve the dilemma by proposing that the non-dominant hemisphere is prepotent wherej the body image is concerned, or at least that it contains special mechanisms for the recognition of unilateral inequalities. More complex formulations include the suggestion that the dominant hemisphere is principally concerned with the body image proper, but the non-dominant with the adequate recording of bodily alteration or disablement upon the body schema (Gerstmann 1958). Cutting’s (1978a) study renders many of these arguments less necessary, in that a high incidence of anosognosia and associated ’anosognosic phenomena’ was detectable in patients with right as well as with left hemiplegia:
Cutting took care to interview patients within a few days of onset of the hemiplegia, and to divide the right hemiplegics into those who were adequately testable (i.e. free from dysphasia) and those who were not. Fifty-eight per cent of the left hemiplegics showed explicit verbal denial in this early stage, and another
29% showed phenomena such as minimising the defect, adopting unusual attitudes to the limbs, or feeling that the limbs did not belong. Of the testable right hemiplegics 14% showed explicit denial and 41% showed the related phenomena. Clear examples of non-belonging and of ’misoplegia’ could be detected among the latter. If the presumption was made that the dysphasic right hemiplegics might also harbour unusual attitudes to their disability, then the incidence of anosognosia from left and right brain lesions might not be very dissimilar. Some findings, nevertheless, lent support to the idea that different factors might be responsible in each hemisphere; left hemiplegics, for instance, could develop anosognosia or the related phenomena in the absence of disorientation or impairment of memory, whereas virtually all right hemiplegics with abnormal attitudes showed obvious cognitive impairment.
Autotopagnosia
Autotopagnosia refers to an inability to recognise, name or point on command to various parts of the body both on the right and on the left. The defect may apply to other people’s bodies as well as to the subject’s own, yet other external objects are dealt with normally.
Autotopagnosia in any extensive sense is extremely rare. However, restricted forms are seen in conjunction with many other types of body image disorder, in that a tendency may occur to misidentify certain body parts. Such a defect confined to one body half is seen in patients with unilateral neglect or anosognosia. Finger agnosia (p.
66) is sometimes regarded as a minimal degree of whole body autotopagnosia, and to represent the only clear-cut example which cannot be better explained in terms of other defects.
Most examples which implicate the body bilaterally are explainable in terms of apraxia, agnosia, dysphasia or disorder of spatial perception. De Renzi and Scotti (1970) described a case which perhaps illustrates essential mechanisms of another type. The patient, who had a tumour of the left parietal lobe, failed to point to body parts, but by contrast could promptly name all parts pointed to by the examiner. He could also correctly monitor the accuracy or otherwise of another person’s pointing. The same dissociation between pointing himself and naming could be seen for parts of objects other than the human body, for example for pans of a bicycle. The defect thus appeared to be a part of a more general disturbance of failure to analyse a whole into parts, in other words a difficulty in conjuring up clear mental images of how individual parts were related to one another and to the whole. The patient’s errors were noted to be concentrated on body parts which lacked definite boundaries, such as the wrists, cheeks, ankles and chin.
Autotopagnosia is usually seen in conjunction with diffuse bilateral lesions of the brain. Lesions of the left hemisphere alone can produce it, but must always involve the parieto-occipitotemporal region (Frederiks
1985).
Illusions of transformation displacement or reduplication
A great variety of body image disturbances may be loosely grouped together under this heading. They are relatively uncommon, and little is understood about the mechanisms underlying their appearance. It seems, however, that both physiogenic and psychogenic factors can be responsible. They are seen in many clinical settings. Some of the less dramatic, such as feelings of heaviness or enlargement
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of a limb, may occur in healthy subjects in states of extreme exhaustion, sensory deprivation or in the course of falling asleep. Others, like feelings of distortion or free floating of the body, occur with generalised cerebral disorder as in delirium or under the influence of drugs such as LSD. Many unilateral examples are seen with focal brain disturbance, particularly as part of an epileptic aura, and some of the most bizarre instances, including autoscopy, can occur in the course of migrainous attacks. A further group appear in association with static lesions, particularly those which have led to left hemiplegia and anosognosia, but here again the phenomena are usually short lived even if recurrent. Psychiatric illness without evidence of brain damage also contributes to such disorders as discussed in the section on p. 74.
This group therefore depends sometimes on neuropathological and sometimes on psychopathological mechanisms, and probably often on an inextricable mixture of the two. Strictly focal brain damage can sometimes be incriminated in the more basic examples, but in the more elaborate such an origin remains hypothetical.
Macrosomatognosia and microsomatognosia
consist of feelings of abnormal largeness or smallness of parts, or of half or even the whole of the body. Most commonly a single limb or a hand is affected alone. Such changes may be accompanied by sensations of heaviness, distortion or displacement of the part concerned, or features such as these may constitute the sole abnormality. Feelings of swelling, elongation, shortening or twisting may be experienced, rather than a change which preserves the normal proportions of the part. Rarely the experience may be of physical separation of the part from the rest of the body. The following examples are reported by Lukianowicz (1967):An epileptic girl sometimes had a somatic sensory aura during which she felt that ’… my whole body grows very rapidly almost to the point of bursting. After a few seconds it collapses, like a deflated balloon, and then I lose consciousness and have a turn.’
A lorry driver discovered to have epilepsy had attacks ’when everything seems to run away from me, and then I get the feeling in my eyes that they tear out of their sockets, and rush out from the cabin, till they touch the people and the houses and the lampposts along the road … Then everything rushes towards me again and my eyeballs hurry back into their sockets. At other times I might feel that my hands and arms grow long very rapidly, till they seem to reach miles ahead. A moment later they begin to shrink until they come back to their normal size. I may have such a feeling several times in a minute or two.’
A woman with migraine complained: ’Before the ache I see coloured zig-zag stripes appearing always from the left side. After a while I begin to feel that my head shrinks until it becomes not bigger than a small orange. At that time it always occurs to me that my head must look like the small dried up heads of the head-hunters in Borneo, which I had once seen on TV. This sensation lasts about 1 minute and then my head at once comes back to its normal size. This feeling of my head shrinking and expanding goes on for some time, until I get my splitting headache.’
An epileptic girl had attacks ushered in by the feeling of spinning round on her own axis: ’This speed is so terrific that my body can’t stand its centrifugal force: at first my head falls to pieces, and then the rest of my body, its parts flying apart like sparks. In a second or two my whole body falls apart, disintegrates, ceases to exist, is reduced to a formless splash on the spot where I was standing just a minute ago. And then I lose consciousness and fall down.’
The patient almost always retains insight into the alien nature of the experiences, describing the abnormality in ’as if terms. A truly delusional or hallucinatory experience is rare in the absence of marked impairment of consciousness or psychotic illness. It is of course hard to discern, in cases such as those just quoted, how far the abnormal experience is due to a primary disturbance of the body schema, or how far it represents an imaginative elaboration of simple kinaesthetic and vestibular sensory changes. Derangements of either right or left hemisphere function may lead to such phenomena, and when a focal lesion is responsible the parietotemporo-occipital region is said to be usually involved.
Reduplicative phenomena
usually involve the limbs, and most often the hand or fingers alone. Such phantoms are usually transient, appearing with darkness and drowsiness. Many cases occur with anosognosia for left hemiplegia, and may lead to illusions of movement in the paralysed limbs. Insight is again usually preserved in large degree, and when the patient looks at the actual limbs the phantom promptly disappears. Occasional cases are reported, however, in which enduring phantoms prove an embarrassment and inconvenience, and the patient feels obliged to make the real limb coincide in position with the phantom. More dramatic instances of reduplication may involve the whole body image, as in the following case:A student with migraine had severe splitting headache ’and after a while I suddenly would have the feeling that I have two bodies and two heads. It is like this: for a second or two I sort of “lose* myself and then it’s there: I feel all doubled, I have two heads, two right hands and two left hands, I have four legs instead of two. Often I wonder how I am going to walk and to move about. I feel like a centipede, but her movements are perfectly synchronised and coordinated, while I feel awkward, like a dismembered doll or a rubber toy. I don’t know which of my two right hands or legs to use-the “real” one, or so to say, the “imaginary” one. After a while I become confused and again “lose” myself. And then it is all over: my headache at once disappears and I feel my old “single” self again.’ (Lukianowicz 1967)
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Weinstein et al. (1954) have reported a few patients with reduplicative phenomena all with cerebral lesions of rapid onset and producing some degree of generalised confusion. One patient with a left hemiplegia claimed to have an extra left hand, one with a left hemiparesis and a fracture of the right leg stated that he had four legs, and one with a severe head injury who had previously had an eye removed claimed to have several eyes. Another patient with a cerebellar astrocytoma and meningitis said that he had three heads and four bodies, one of each with him and the remainder upstairs in a closet. In all four cases the reduplications were accompanied by other forms of reduplication for time, place or person. The ’body image’ disturbance therefore appeared to be but one manifestation of a general pattern of reduplicative delusions. As in the case of anosognosia these authors viewed the reduplication of body pans as symbolic mechanisms to express some personal motivation, particularly denial of illness.
In autoscopy
Usually the experience is visual, as the name implies, but sometimes the body image is experienced as projected into outside space by senses other than vision.
(the Doppelganger phenomenon) there is a complex psychosensorial hallucinatory perception of one’s own body image projected into external visual space’ (Lukianowicz 1958). Usually the image is in front of the patient at a certain distance, mostly fleetingly but very occasionally lasting for days at a time. It may be transparent, or coloured and definite, or show expressive movements. It may consist of the whole or a part only of the body, but the face is usually included. Cases have been described in which the image occurs to one side of the midline in a hemianopic field of vision. The experience may be extremely realistic but is almost always recognised by the subject to be a pathological event. The emotional reaction may be of anxiety or quiet surprise, depending on the patient’s mental state.A draughtsman of 34 reported: ’Often during an attack of migraine, or towards the end of it, I feel as if my head would split into two pans, right in the middle. Then a miniature image of myself emerges from the fissure. It rapidly expands to the size of my real body, and then for a moment I have two separate bodies. They are both “me” or T. They are about 1 foot apart, the “new” body being always on the right side. It seems that I could touch him, i.e. “the other me”. Yet, I have never seen him with my eyes, though I feel his presence very intensely. He mostly appears towards the end of a splitting headache and soon after he emerges from my head the headache ceases. Then this “other me” also disappears.’ (Lukianowicz 1967)
A number of subdivisions of this striking phenomenon are recognised as discussed by Brugger etal. (1996):
With ’autoscopic hallucinations’ only the visual pan of the body image is split off, usually being perceived as a lifeless though multicoloured image of the patient’s own person. In ’heautoscopy’ somaesthetic elements are additionally projected into peripersonal space so that the subject both sees and feels awareness of the presence of his double. The image is then experienced as a living being. The patient may indeed have difficulty in deciding whether he should refer to the phenomenon as ’seeing’ or ’being’ his double. In an ’out-of-the-body experience’ the core subjective experience is the illusion of being separated from one’s body, and visual elements may play a minor role. ’Feeling of presence’ occurs without visual elements, the person having the illusion of being accompanied by an invisible being. Typical features include a distinct localisation for the ’presence’, as a rule at a specific distance from the subject’s own body, also a conviction that the invisible being is real. It is endowed with an intense sense of familiarity and affinity, and sometimes it dawns on the subject that the presence is in fact a replica of himself. Heautoscopy and ’feeling of presence’ can occur in close temporal conjunction with one another in certain organic states.
The distinctions between these various phenomena can be hard to discern, as in the patient cited above, and are not always clearly observed in the literature. They may occur episodically with attacks of epilepsy or migraine, or in association with a variety of organic psychoses and intoxications. Classic examples are sometimes encountered in the course of depressive or schizophrenic psychoses. In addition ’feeling of presence’ is not uncommonly reported by healthy persons under conditions of isolation and exhaustion, as with mountaineers, lone sailors and explorers. Autoscopic hallucinations are sometimes experienced habitually by persons without cerebral disease, especially while falling asleep. Nevertheless Frederiks (1985) makes the important practical point that autoscopy can very occasionally be the first manifestation of brain disorder and always warrants careful neurological examination.
Brugger etal. (1996) suggest that autoscopic hallucinations owe most to occipitotemporal lesions and heautoscopy proper to temporoparietal lesions. ’Feeling of presence’ may be closely associated with parietal lobe impairment and is often seen along with a sensory hemisyndrome or hemispatial neglect. Commonly, however, the associated cerebral pathology is diffuse. With regard to laterality, Brugger et al. suggest that the visual Doppelgangers (autoscopic hallucinations and heautoscopy) occur more often with right hemisphere lesions than left, whereas out-of-the-body experiences are projected more often towards the right and presumably reflect left hemisphere dysfunction. In their analysis of 31 cases of ’feeling of presence’, Brugger et al. found that the presence was typically confined to one hemispace and was rather more often lateralised to the right than the
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left; of 12 cases with unilateral brain lesions eight were in the left hemisphere and four in the right.
The phantom limb
Frederiks (1969) provides a comprehensive review, and distinguishes between the perception of the missing limb itself, including its spatial characteristics, and the perception of phantom limb sensations such as paraesthesiae, heaviness, cold, cramp and pain. If the phantom is to develop it usually does so immediately after the operation, persisting sometimes for several months and sometimes for the rest of the patient’s life. It has a markedly realistic character, can usually be ’moved’ at will, and may assume a relaxed or a cramped position. In the course of time it may appear only sporadically, or it may gradually telescope, the distal portion ultimately approaching the stump and disappearing into it.
Pain in the phantom limb can be distressing and intractable. It is typically paroxysmal, burning or shooting in character, sometimes occurring alone and sometimes with paraesthesiae. As with other phantom limb sensations the pain may be markedly affected by influences such as a change in the weather, use of a prosthesis, use of the contralateral limb, pain elsewhere in the body or firm efforts at mental concentration. Morganstern (1964) has shown the efficacy of frequently repeating a task of sensory distraction in diminishing awareness of the phantom and lessening pain. The current emotional state may likewise have a profound effect, depression contributing to such an extent that ECT has sometimes been found to abolish phantom limb pain. Stengel (1965) mentions a man whose phantom limb pain was markedly increased whenever he watched scenes of violence on television.
A psychogenic component thus undoubtedly exists, and has been interpreted in terms of loss of bodily integrity and reaction to disablement. Psychotherapy and hypnosis have accordingly sometimes met with success in treatment. However, a physiological component is also indicated by the efficacy, short lived though it may be, of surgical procedures. Relief may follow the excision of a stump neuroma, chordotomy, or lesions in the thalamic radiation or sensory cortex. Both peripheral and central nervous mechanisms thus appear to contribute to its genesis, in addition to psychological factors in certain cases. It has been suggested that unpatterned somaesthetic sensory input acts in some way to stimulate and sensitise the central structures involved with the body image for the missing part.
Body image disturbances in non-organic psychiatric illness
The majority of the body image disturbances so far considered have been associated with cerebral pathology or pathophysiology. With some forms, however, psychogenic mechanisms also have to be taken into account, and seem to be strongly implicated for example with anosognosia, phantom limb phenomena and some of the more bizarre illusions of transformation and reduplication.
It is therefore interesting to view the range of body image disturbances that may accompany psychiatric illnesses devoid of known brain pathology. It is, of course, often hard to clarify the phenomenology when other mental disturbances are present as well. Many examples appear on close acquaintance not to represent true disturbance of the body schema, but rather to be based primarily on pathological changes in bodily experience. In neuroses, for example, minor bodily sensations may become exaggerated by anxiety or hypochondriacal concern, and in psychoses kinaesthetic hallucinations may become the subject of delusional elaboration. The area has rarely been examined systematically, and Lukianowicz’s (1967) survey provides a valuable set of observations.
Among 200 consecutive admissions to a mental hospital, 31 patients complained spontaneously of unusual sensations and experiences in various parts of their bodies, and a further 21 answered affirmatively when questioned about such phenomena. Excluding the patients with epilepsy or migraine, 38 patients (19% of the total) were considered to show some body image disturbance, 23 in the presence of schizophrenia, 12 with depressive illness and three with anxiety neurosis. In the latter the disturbances were manifest only in the drowsy hypnagogic state.
Experiences of depersonalisation were not included in the survey. The remainder were classified entirely on phenomenological grounds in order to avoid the aetiological implications of the terms which are usually employed. Experience of change of shape was the commonest abnormality, followed by change of position in space, reduplication or splitting, change of size and change of mass. The schizophrenic patients tended more often than the others to experience changes of shape, and the depressed patients change of mass.
which occurs after amputation or peripheral lesions of the nervous system has a basis quite distinct from the supernumerary phantom that occurs with cerebral disease. It is nonetheless in some ways the most decisive proof of the existence of the body schema. Phantom limbs are seen most commonly after amputation, but similar phenomena may follow severe nerve plexus lesions or lesions of the brain stem and thalamus. Equivalent phantom phenomena have also been reported after removal of the breast, the genitalia or the eye. 2Paqge 75 SYMPTOMS AND SYNDROMES WITH REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS
Disturbances of the shape of the body image took many forms. In schizophrenic patients there were examples of feelings of change of shape to that of another animal, the hands feeling shrunken like crab’s claws or the whole body feeling as though transformed into a dog. Such changes appeared to be based essentially on misinterpreted bodily sensations, combined often with hallucinations of the sense of smell. Insight into the unreality of the experiences was commonly retained, though sometimes incompletely expressed. In some cases complex sensory experiences appeared to underlie feelings that the body was changing into that of the opposite sex, likewise in some examples of transformation into Christ or other figures. Care was taken to distinguish as far as possible between mechanisms such as these, in which there was a discernible relationship to corresponding bodily sensations and hallucinations, and the more usual situation in which a delusional belief in a new identity or sex was purely ideational.
Feelings of change of position in space included levitation, floating and falling, sometimes as hypnagogic phenomena but sometimes occurring in the full waking state. In epileptic patients equivalent sensations were sometimes observed as a kinaesthetic aura preceding an epileptic attack.
Feelings of reduplication and splitting occurred in schizophrenia and in depression.
A schizophrenic student had the feeling of ’two bodies, one outside the other, only a bit larger than my actual body. I feel that the “inner” body is the real one, and the “outer” is more like something artificial, a sort of shell over a hermit crab although it has the shape and the appearance of my “real” body.’
A woman when depressed had a feeling ’as if my body was split into two halves, like a stem of a tree struck by lightning. They both feel a few inches apart and there is nothing between them, but a black, empty hole; black and empty and dead.’
Again, in epileptic patients such experiences could herald an attack. Experiences of autoscopic doubling were also seen in patients with schizophrenia and depression.
Feelings of additional body parts occurred in several bizarre forms, sometimes inviting a psychodynamic formulation which would see them as symbolically representing displaced sexual organs:
A man whose potency was dwindling as a result of spinal injury developed recurrent depressive episodes. In one there were visual and haptic hallucinations of spurs and horns growing from his ankles, in another of a ball sticking out of his thigh, and in another of big screws growing from his abdomen and thighs. He retained insight into their unreal nature, and ECT was effective in banishing the phenomena along with the depression.
Change of size sometimes affected the whole body, and sometimes parts only, such as the ears, nose or limbs. Again, displaced sexual symbolism sometimes provided the most ready explanation, though analogous examples occurring in the course of epileptic and migrainous attacks may have rested primarily on disturbed cortical function. Lilliputian experiences were rare in comparison to feelings of enlargement, but one depressed woman had distressing hypnagogic experiences in which she felt her body shrink rapidly to the size of her little finger.
Changes in mass were usually manifest as feelings of emptiness and hollowness of body parts, particularly of the head. They were confined to patients with depressive illness or neurotic disorder, and often came close to nihilistic delusions. The following case illustrates the possible distinction.
A man with anxiety neurosis described a recurrent hypnopompic experience as follows: ’Just after I wake up, but before I move, I have a terrifying feeling that my whole body consists of skin with nothing inside, like an empty blown up balloon, or an empty shell, only pretending to be a human body. It is a very frightening feeling, which lasts only a few seconds and disappears immediately when I move any part of my body.
In general these various disturbances in psychiatric patients seemed to be an integral part of their mental illnesses, along with the more common hallucinations and related psychotic symptoms. Misinterpretation of normal bodily sensations, or of hallucinations, appeared to be mainly responsible, rather than changes originating in the body schema itself. The initial sensations seemed often to be complex, mainly of visceral, kinaesthetic or labyrinthine origin, and then to become secondarily elaborated in terms of change in shape, position, size or mass. In schizophrenic patients the end result was frequently bizarre, in keeping with their tendencies towards bodily preoccupation, weakening of ego functions and autistic modes of thinking. In depressive illness the body image disturbances were often consonant with hypochondriacal and nihilistic developments. Successful treatment of the psychiatric illness invariably resulted in resolution of the body image disturbances.
Cutting (1989) has more recently analysed body image disturbances in a series of 100 schizophrenic patients. Rather surprisingly almost half had experienced some form of disorder, the predominant subjective change being alterations in structure, weight or shape. Other abnormalities included tactile hallucinations, feelings of additions to the body, or belief in the presence of localised devices within the body. As expected many of these changes were highly bizarre. Consonant with Cutting’s (1985, 1990) view that right hemisphere dysfunction is Important in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, 13 of the
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14 instances in which the disorder was lateralised concerned the left side of the body.
Non-cognitive disturbances and regional brain dysfunction
The forms of disability discussed above have all been more or less closely tied to cognitive or perceptual deficits, even though these have sometimes been of a rather subtle nature. There remain, however, certain abnormalities of emotion, behaviour and ’personality’ which appear to be related to regional brain dysfunction yet do not necessarily have cognitive disturbance at the core. These are clearly of special interest to the psychiatrist. Certain examples will be selected for discussion.
The ’frontal lobe syndrome’ will be considered first because of its classic position in the psychiatric literature. Aggressive behaviour will then be examined in relation to focal brain disturbances. Finally, the evidence linking schizophrenia-like illnesses to regional brain dysfunction and brain pathology will be outlined.
With all of these examples the task of elucidating the nature of the ties between clinical symptoms and brain dysfunction has been considerable. Abnormalities of emotion and personality cannot be assessed with anything like the precision that is usually possible for cognitive defects. It has already been seen how much uncertainty surrounds our understanding of such measurable disorders as memory impairment, and such testable defects as dysphasia or apraxia. With the body image disturbances there was an uncertain admixture of physiogenic and psychogenic mechanisms to be considered. Such problems are greatly extended in any analysis of disordered emotion or abnormalities of personality and social behaviour. A large element of subjectivity is involved in attempts at classifying or quantifying the phenomena concerned, and in trying to separate the abnormal from what must be judged as normal variation; the abnormalities are more variable from one situation to another than are cognitive defects and more protean in their manifestations; and their determinants will include factors which have nothing to do with damage to the brain – matters of genetic constitution, interpersonal relationships and current environmental circumstances. It is inherently likely, moreover, that the ’higher order’ the function concerned the more complex will be the interplay between the different cerebral systems subserving it.
Despite such difficulties important leads have been obtained, and interesting clinicopathological correlations have emerged in the examples discussed below.
Frontal lobe syndrome
Certain clinical features emerge with especial frequency after damage to the frontal lobes. They are not unique to frontal lobe pathology, but are seen more regularly and perhaps more strikingly than after damage to other cerebral regions. A good deal of debate has surrounded this issue of localisation, likewise the question of the range of symptoms to be included and the means by which they come about. Detailed reviews are provided by Teuber (1964), Hecaen and Albert (1975) and Benson and Stuss (1989).
Clinical picture
In the typical case, the personality of the patient is more profoundly and obviously affected than his cognitive functions. The striking changes in well-marked examples are in the areas of volitional and psychomotor activity, habitual mood and social awareness and behaviour.
Lack of initiative and spontaneity is usually coupled with a general diminution of motor activity. Responses are sluggish, tasks are left unfinished and new initiatives rarely undertaken. In consequence the capacity to function independently in daily life can be profoundly affected. Yet when vigorously urged, or constrained by a structured situation, the patient may function quite well. He may achieve virtually normal performance in situations where the examiner provides the impetus, and thus show little or no difficulty over formal tests of intelligence. How far the impairment of initiative represents a true loss of interest, or an apparent loss due to impaired volition, is often hard to discern. Occasional patients tend to be restless and hyperactive rather than sluggish, but again are likely to display a lack of purposive goal-directed behaviour.
The mood is often mildly euphoric and out of keeping with the patient’s situation. Rather empty high spirits may be accompanied by a boisterous over-familiarity of manner. Such changes are rarely sustained, however, and when left to himself the patient becomes inert and apathetic. Outbursts of irritability are also common and a child-like petulance may be seen. True depression is rare though the picture of asthenia and inertia may mimic it closely. The euphoria is sometimes elaborated into a tendency to joke or pun, to make facetious remarks or indulge in pranks (’Witzelsiicht’). Very occasionally it extends to a state of excitement approaching hypomania (’moria’).
Serious changes are observed in social awareness and behaviour. Typically the patient is less concerned with the
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consequences of his acts than formerly. Loss of ’finer feelings’ and social graces form part of a general coarsening of the personality. In interpersonal relationships there is a lack of the normal adult tact and restraints, and a diminished appreciation of the impact of his behaviour upon others. Disinhibition is sometimes apparent in the sexual sphere with lewd remarks, promiscuity or the emergence of perverse tendencies.
Judgement may be markedly impaired in the conduct of affairs. The patient shows little concern about his personal future, and fails to plan ahead or carry through ideas. Inability to forejudge the consequences of actions can lead to foolish or irresponsible behaviour. Social and ethical controls may be weakened and have issue in antisocial conduct.
Psychometry, as already stressed, may show little by way of impairment on formal tests of intellectual ability, even when behaviour is markedly abnormal. Special test procedures, however, may show loss of abstracting ability and incapacity to shift between different frames of reference as discussed below. Inattention may also be marked, and memory may appear to be faulty. The latter, in panic-, ular, can be very hard to evaluate; it may sometimes seem that failures over recall represent a lack of initiative in memory rather than a true forgetting of material, in that given time and encouragement the answers are ultimately forthcoming.
Such changes are seen in varying degree, sometimes merely as a blunting of a previously sophisticated personality, but sometimes as a radical change of personality which is grossly disabling. The patient himself usually has little insight into the changes that have occurred. The component symptoms may be seen in different combinations, but with sufficient similarity from one patient to another to convey a definitive stamp to the picture.
The evidence concerning the ’frontal lobe syndrome’ has come from studies of patients with various forms of brain pathology. That derived from head-injured patients is described in Chapter 5 (p. 180) and observations on patients with frontal lobe tumours in Chapter 6 (p. 223). Evidence has also accumulated from studies of patients after surgical excisions of frontal lobe lesions (Rylander
1939, 1943) and of patients who were exposed to the earlier extensive frontal leucotomies (Partridge 1950; Tow
1955; Greenblatt &• Solomon 1958). The consensus of evidence suggests that lesions of the convex lateral surface are especially prone to produce aspontaneity and slowing, while lesions of the orbital undersurface are liable to have adverse effects on personality and social behaviour (Blumer &• Benson 1975). Bifrontal lesions are especially hazardous in this regard.
Possible mechanisms
A number of intriguing suggestions have been put forward in attempts at explaining why such symptoms should arise. Detailed neuropsychological studies have produced a wealth of information both in animals and man, but it remains difficult to draw these strands together to form a satisfactory theory. This is scarcely surprising in view of the elusive nature of frontal lobe function in the intact brain
Nevertheless, detailed analysis of failure on problemsolving and perceptual tasks has allowed tentative explanatory hypotheses to be put forward. The obvious deficits in man are in matters of personality and social behaviour rather than in cognitive and perceptual processes, yet experiments dealing with these more basic functions have sometimes seemed to illuminate the behavioural deficits observed.
Goldman-Rakic (1987) traces the development of experimental work on primates from the classic studies of Jacobsen onwards. Jacobsen (1935) showed that monkeys with frontal lobe lesions were selectively impaired on a delayed choice reaction task, in which they had to select which of two cups contained a food reward after witnessing the baiting of the cups some time before. Subsequent experiments have shown that this is not simply due to failure of memory or spatial perception, but rather to disturbance of complex aspects of the monkey’s attention and response at the time of baiting one or other cup. Further work has shown that monkeys with frontal lesions have severe difficulty in learning to reverse a discrimination problem, despite normal ability to master the problem initially. Similar difficulty is seen in shifting back and forth between other related problems due to perseverative interference from previous responses. Yet paradoxically they also are unduly ready to select novel cues when these are progressively introduced into the experimental situation. The perseveration of set is thus cornbined with an enhancement of the normal tendency to be attracted to what is novel in the environment. In other words the monkeys show unusual difficulty in overcoming a preferred mode of response, whether spontaneous or experimentally induced, and despite the lack of reward for errors. They cannot suppress responses that naturally prevail in a given situation, and they appear to be little affected by the immediate consequences of their actions. Even in monkeys, therefore, detailed analysis of problemsolving behaviour turns out to reveal complex abnormalities of motivation and behavioural control.
Milner (1963, 1964) examined performance on certain psychometric tests which are particularly susceptible to
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frontal lobe damage in man. Again, careful analysis of sources of failure produced interesting results. On the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (described in Chapter 3, p.
118), patients with frontal lesions show difficulty in shifting from one mode of response to another, which reveals itself as a strong perseverative tendency. In particular they fail to abandon a particular sorting strategy after being repeatedly told that it is wrong. This appears not to be due to lack of motivation, since the patients often work carefully and are manifestly distressed by their poor performance. They also seem capable of grasping the principle of the test in prior discussion. Yet they may continue to sort erroneously while themselves saying ’right’ or ’wrong’ as they place the cards. Thus the essential deficit emerges as persistence of inappropriate sets in the face of mounting errors, coupled perhaps with inability to modify behaviour in accordance with verbal signals. The failure to suppress an on-going tendency, despite growing proof of its inadequacy, has similarities with the concept of disinhibition invoked to account for the behavioural changes observed clinically.
Similarly on a stylus maze test, Milner (1964) reported a special type of frontal deficit-the patients fail to heed instructions, break rules and make repetitive errors much more than other groups. They seem unable to restrain themselves from impulsive mistakes which impair their learning curves. Milner points out that these tests, and others, demonstrate that patients with frontal lesions cannot maintain a constantly shifting response to meet changing environmental demands. Normal behaviour depends on simultaneous functioning of many complex ’sets’, one of which can become prepotent when appropriate signals arise from the environment. Frontal lobe damage appears to disturb this modulating function, which may explain the coexistence in such patients of inadequate social behaviour and lack of initiative in many everyday situations, despite good achievement on standard tests of intelligence.
Teuber’s (1964) contribution was more far reaching. He and his co-workers showed specific frontal deficits on several tasks which at first sight seem unrelated. Patients with frontal lesions were able to set a vertical midline correctly under normal conditions, but not when their bodies were tilted to one or other side. They failed in visual searching tasks and in certain aspects of the perception of reversible figures. And they had special difficulty with orienting tasks in relation to their own bodies when asked to transpose from front to back view. Teuber proffered a unitary interpretation hi terms of a defect of ’corollary discharges’ which allow the subject to predict, and thereby prepare for, incoming sensory stimuli. Such a defect would stand to impair the proper maintenance of the perceived upright during changes of posture, and the proper direction of voluntary gaze; it could alter the facility of ’assumptive shifts’ of the viewer’s position on inspecting ambiguous figures, or the required reversals of standpoint when dealing with mirror images of the body.
Arguing further, Teuber pointed out that ’will’ involves anticipation of the future course of events coupled with an awareness of the role of the self in bringing these events about. The patient with frontal lobe pathology is not altogether devoid of capacity to anticipate a course of events, but lacks the ability to picture himself as a potential agent in relation to those events. From such changes could follow lack of initiative, fixity of set, oscillation of action and impulsiveness. Thus the seemingly lower-level sensorimotor defects revealed in the experiments might be the conditions that give rise, in more severe forms of frontal lobe dysfunction, to pervasive changes of behaviour.
Luria’s conclusions were not so very dissimilar to the above, involving a consideration of feedback processes arid self-regulating systems in the control of behaviour (Luria & Homskaya 1964; Luria 1966; Luria etal. 1966). Luria pointed out that the organism not only reacts to stimuli, but can anticipate future events and prepare for them by constructing appropriate series of actions. In man such programmes become enormously complex as a result of social development, and are formed with the assistance of language which achieves an important role in the regulation of behaviour. During on-going activity there are not only ’action plans’, but also a complex process of matching the effects achieved against the initial intentions. Frontal lobe damage has a disruptive effect on the programming of complicated activities and on this ’psychological control of action’. Behaviour in consequence loses its selective character and easily falls under the influence of outside associations.
Using a simple bulb-pressing task, Luria and Homskaya (1964) showed that patients with large frontal lesions were unable to translate verbal instructions accurately into motor behaviour. The instructions were understood and remembered but appeared to have lost their signalling function. With less severe frontal lesions similar deficits could be shown on more complex bulb-pressing tasks-when told to press twice for a single stimulus and once for a double, for example, behaviour soon gave way to a simple mirroring of the properties of the stimuli. The disturbed verbal regulation of function was shown in that errors persisted even when the patient was asked to repeat the instructions every time the signal appeared, and despite his running commentary which showed he knew what was required.
Disordered programming and feedback control have
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also been shown in the domain of complex perceptual processes, especially those requiring a preliminary planned approach (Luria et al. 1966). Eye movements were monitored while patients with frontal lesions were invited to study a picture and answer questions about it. The eye movements were found to be disorganised and random, with failure to concentrate on important and significant details. Instead of singling out and correlating the most informative features, the patients would perceive a single detail and come up with an immediate impulsive idea of what the picture represented. Moreover eye movement records showed a stereotyped form of scanning no matter what question was asked about the picture, in sharp contrast to the situation in normal subjects. Thus patients with frontal damage lack the organised visual scanning needed to seek out cues relevant to solving a task, to compare them and to match them with several hypotheses.
Both of Luria’s experiments reveal disturbed regulation of activity and disordered feedback and correction of errors. In everyday life such deficits would stand to impair many aspects of behaviour. Disordered regulation of activity, i.e. the loss of the controlling function of intentions upon behaviour, may underlie the apathy and aspontaneity of patients with frontal lesions and their lack of goal-orientated behaviour. Impaired feedback may account for their lack of critical attitudes towards the results of their own behaviour, their failure to modify it and their satisfaction with actions regardless of whether or not they are effective.
Further ambitious attempts at theoretical formulations of frontal lobe function have been put forward by Stuss and Benson (1986) and Fuster (1989). Both stress the superordinate control of the prefrontal cortex over the activities of more posterior brain functional systems. Stuss and Benson distinguish frontal systems concerned with sequencing, i.e. the ability to order multiple items of information into proper serial order, and those concerned with drive, i.e. the capacity to activate and actualise behaviours. Hierarchically superior to these are a number of ’executive’ functions dealing with such matters as anticipation, goal selection, planning and the initiation and monitoring of novel responses.
Fuster (1989) places central emphasis on the critical role of the prefrontal cortex in the temporal organisation of behaviour, i.e. with the integration of sensory information and motor acts into novel and purposive behavioural sequences. He points out that the tasks most consistently disrupted by frontal lesions in primates are those which contain temporal or spatial discontinuities in the information used to guide behaviour. In man the most typical manifestation is inability to organise cognitive and behavioural acts in the time domain, i.e. a failure to organise new and deliberate sequential activities. This in turn can be traced to problems with the short-term storage of information, planning and the control of interference. The temporal structuring of behaviour achieved by the prefrontal cortex enables behaviour to be adaptive to changing demands, and allows the proper ordering of events in temporal sequence towards a goal.
Finally, two sets of ’experimental’ observations on patients with frontal lobe lesions have also been informative in revealing something of the mechanisms that may be at fault. Lhermitte’s demonstration of imitation and utilisation behaviour (described on p. 106) was extended in remarkable fashion when he observed patients in complex everyday life situations, i.e. without the constraints normally imposed during clinical assessment (Lhermitte 1986):
Thus when taken into a room containing a buffet, his patient laid out the glasses and offered him food, spontaneously behaving like a hostess. Confronted with make up she used it immediately, and seeing wool and knitting needles began to knit. Another patient, when taken into a bedroom with the sheet turned back, got undressed, went to bed and prepared to go to sleep. On hearing the word ’museum’ while in an apartment he began methodically to examine the paintings on the wall, and walked from room to room inspecting various objects.
In commenting on these behaviours Lhermitte (1986) proposes that they reflect a lack of personal autonomy, coupled with an excessive dependence on the social and physical environment (’environmental dependency syndrome’). The decisions concerning the patients’ actions were not made for themselves, but the behaviours were called forth by surrounding external stimuli: ’for the patient, the social and physical environments issue the order to use them, even though the patient “himself or “herself” has neither the idea nor the intention to do so’. Lhermitte suggests that the shift in the balance between personal autonomy and environmental influences reflects decreased control by frontal systems over the parietal sensorimotor systems which link the individual to the world around. From this may follow such classic features as disinhibited behaviour, distractibility, loss of flexibility of action and loss of self criticism. Similar environmental dependency has been described following the disinhibition of frontal systems secondary to focal thalamic infarction (Eslingereffl/. 1991).
Damasio etal.’s (1990) investigation was more directly aimed at exploring the possible origin of sociopathic behaviour after orbitofrontal lesions. Specifically they studied autonomic responses to socially meaningful stimuli. Electrodermal skin conductance responses (SCRs) were measured while subjects viewed neutral
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or ’target’ pictures exposed upon a screen. The latter depicted such matters as social disaster, mutilation or nudity, of a nature expected to elicit strong SCRs. Patients with orbitofrontal lesions and severe defects in social conduct were compared with non-frontal brain-damaged controls and normal subjects.
While viewing the pictures the frontally damaged patients failed to show the marked increase in SCRs which were elicited by the target pictures in the control groups. Moreover, on subsequent debriefing it was clear that the emotionally powerful stimuli had not provoked the appropriate feeling responses.
Damasio et al. interpret such results as support for their theory that patients with orbitofrontal damage fail to activate autonomic ’somatic states’ linked to punishment and reward, which normally serve as a guide to the anticipated outcomes of behaviour. Such ’markers’ have previously been learned in association with numerous social situations, signalling deleterious or advantageous outcomes of alternative forms of response and helping to defer immediate gratification for longer-term reward. Without such markers the frontally damaged patient cannot automatically and instantaneously distinguish advantageous from disadvantageous actions in the context of social rules and contingencies, despite the preservation of formal aspects of intelligence. The orbitomedial frontal cortex is the only known source of projections from frontal regions towards the central structures involved in autonomic control. Damage to such regions therefore stands to disable the immediate autonomic response which signals appropriate social behaviour in a variety of situations.
Disordered control of aggression
The emotional disturbances classically associated with brain damage include emotional lability and loss of control over emotional expression. In the former the prevailing mood shifts rapidly on little provocation and is ill sustained. In the latter, which in severe form is termed ’emotional incontinence’, there are outbursts of crying or laughing in response to minimal stimuli and sometimes with little or no affective change subjectively.
Increasingly, however, attention has been focused on the specific question of impaired control of aggressive behaviour and its possible cerebral correlates. In extreme form this may be manifest as outbursts of uncontrollable violence. In some instances such disturbance is clearly attributable to focal cerebral pathology-in relation to epilepsy, certain cerebral tumours and other forms of brain disease. But the argument has been extended to suggest that in some habitually aggressive individuals, not showing overt signs of cerebral disorder, there may be abnormalities of the neural apparatus subserving aggressive responses. Attention has been directed particularly at possible dysfunction of the ’limbic brain’, and especially of the amygdaloid nuclei within the temporal lobes. This remains a contentious area, not least because of the frequent difficulty in apportioning blame between pathophysiological and psychosocial influences in clinical situations, as discussed below (p. 83).
In seeking correlates between aggressive behaviour and brain pathology one is handicapped by the difficulty of defining in what circumstances and to what degree aggression must be displayed before it is regarded as ’abnormal’. A variety of motivations may be involved, and many aspects of aggression are biologically valuable in man as in other animals. Its determinants include environmental, social, cultural and intrapsychic factors, also learned components, any of which can emerge as crucial in individual instances. But there appear to be persons who are subject to recurring and harmful outbursts of aggressive behaviour, sometimes on little or no provocation, and certain aggressive offenders whose episodes remain inexplicable in terms of personality, social adjustment and the situation at the time. Here it would seem that there may be important cerebral determinants of this pattern of behaviour-an abnormal triggering of aggressive responses based in disturbed cerebral functioning.
Neural substrate for aggressive responses
A neural substrate for the elaboration and display of aggression has been amply demonstrated both in animals and man. A large literature exists to show that in animals aggressive behaviour can be facilitated, decreased or abolished by cerebral lesions, mostly situated in or near the limbic system and hypothalamus. Bard (1928), for example, showed the importance of the caudal half of the hypothalamus for the elaboration of ’sham rage’ in decorticate cats, and Klviver and Bucy (1939) demonstrated an abnormal absence of anger and fear after bitemporal lesions in monkeys. Downer (1962) elegantly showed how removal of the amygdaloid nucleus from a single temporal lobe would, after section of the cerebral cornmissures, allow the monkey to display normally aggressive behaviour when stimuli were fed to the sound hemisphere but unnatural tameness when fed to the lesioned side.
Delgado’s work was particularly impressive in illustrating the need to take into account both intracerebral mechanisms and socioenvironmental factors in the understanding of aggressive behaviour in animals (Delgado 1969). Radio-stimulation via implanted elec-
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trodes in the amygdala, hypothalamus, septum and reticular formation, allowed discrete areas of the brain to be stimulated while monkeys and chimpanzees were freeranging and interacting with their fellows. Certain areas when stimulated produced a threatening display or social conflict, but this depended on the hierarchical position of the animal in the group; such responses could be observed when a submissive monkey was at hand as a target, but were inhibited in the presence of a dominant animal. Moreover, elicited behaviour which might be interpreted as aggressive by the experimenter was apparently not always perceived as such by the other animals in the colony.
In different species of animals similar brain regions have emerged repeatedly as important in connection with ’aggressive’ behaviour. Nonetheless considerable interspecies differences exist, and applicability of the results to man is a far from straightforward matter. Observations in man are necessarily limited in scope, and rely principally on indirect methods of study in a variety of pathological situations.
Clinical evidence
Some of the principal evidence has come from studies of patients with epilepsy. This is set out in Chapter 7, where the question of a special association between temporal lobe epilepsy and aggressive behaviour is discussed (p.
266 et seq.). A proportion of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy appear to show explosive aggressive tendencies, not only in relation to attacks but as an enduring trait of their personalities. Temporal lobectomy carried out for the relief of epilepsy may be followed by pronounced improvement in the control of such disorder (p. 270). The lesions in these patients commonly consist of sclerosis in the limbic structures on the medial aspects of the temporal lobes.
Patients with cerebral tumours have occasionally been observed to show abnormal outbursts of rage and destructive behaviour. Poeck (1969) reviews the literature, showing the frequent involvement in such cases of the hypothalamus, septal regions and medial temporal structures including the hippocampus and amygdaloid nucleus. Some patients have described their condition as a feeling of rage building up in spite of themselves, others as waiting tensely for the first opportunity to release their accumulated aggression. Poeck stresses, however, that the relation between symptoms and lesions is by no means strict and constant. Important additional factors derive from the premorbid emotional make up, and the presence or absence of diffuse brain damage.
A patient reported by Sweet et al. (1969) showed in very striking fashion the possible relationship between a circumscribed tumour and the wildly aggressive behaviour that ultimately ensued. The case also illustrates the complex nature of ’aggressive’ behaviour in man, and the hazards of attempting a simplistic formulation of the nature of the link between such behaviour and cerebral pathology:
In August 1966 a young man murdered his mother and wife in their apartments, then ascended the University of Texas tower, stepped on to the parapet and killed by gunfire 14 people, wounding 24 others. In his personal diaries he had recorded over several months that something peculiar was happening to him, which he did not understand but which he was noting down in the hope that its mention would help others to do so. Five months before the mass murder he had consulted a psychiatrist, stating early in the interview that sometimes he became so mad he could ’go up to the top of that University tower and start shooting at people’. Autopsy disclosed a glioblastoma multiforme; the damage to the brain from the gunshot wounds which terminated his barrage led to uncertainty about the precise location of the walnut-sized tumour, but it was considered to be probably in the medial part of one of the temporal lobes.
Other examples of an association between a lowered threshold for aggression and brain pathology include patients who become seriously disturbed as a result of birth trauma, head injury and intracerebral infections. However, in such situations clinicopathological correlations are rarely exact enough to allow firm conclusions to be drawn about the role of circumscribed as opposed to diffuse brain damage. Moreover there will often be intervening variables by way of affective disorder or paranoid psychosis, especially when serious violence is involved (Gunn 1993). Tonkonogy (1991) performed CT and MRI scans in a mixed group of patients with organic psychosyndromes who had shown repetitive violent behaviour; in five of the 14 patients, focal lesions were observed in the anterior temporal lobe structures close to the amygdala, most often attributable to head injury. The question of unpaired control of aggression after head Injury is further discussed in Chapter 5 (p. 188), and of antisocial conduct after encephalitis lethargica in Chapter 8 (p. 353).
Opportunities for assessing the effects of stimulating discrete brain structures in man have occasionally appeared to yield direct evidence for the role of limbic structures in elaborating emotional responses, including short-lived feelings of rage. Heath et al. (1955) stimulated the amygdaloid nucleus via implanted electrodes in a chronic schizophrenic patient, resulting hi a sudden rage response when the current reached a certain intensity. She was perfectly aware of her feelings and was able to discuss them objectively between stimulations. The result was unstable, however, and later stimulation of the same point produced feelings of fear in place of rage. Delgado et
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al
(1968) found that stimulation of the amygdala and hippocampus in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy produced a variety of effects including pleasant sensations, elation, deep thoughtful concentration, relaxation and colour visions. However, in one patient with postencephalitic brain damage and epilepsy, stimulation of the right amygdala led to episodes of assaultive behaviour reminiscent of her spontaneous outbursts of anger. Seven seconds after the stimulation she interrupted her activities, threw herself against the wall in a fit of rage, then paced around the room for several minutes before resuming her normal behaviour. During the elicited rage attack no seizure activity was evident on depth recording. The observation proved to be of crucial importance for selecting the appropriate site for a destructive lesion within the temporal lobe. Fenwick (1986) reviews other early studies of this nature.Psychosurgery for aggression
It thus seems fair to conclude that pathological derangements affecting the limbic areas, and perhaps especially the amygdaloid nuclei, are capable of leading to abnormal tendencies towards aggressive behaviour in man. The conclusion has led to attempts at modifying such behaviour by a variety of psychosurgical procedures. Unilateral temporal lobectomy can meet with success in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, as already mentioned, but bilateral operations are contraindicated by the severe memory deficits that follow. Turner (1969, 1972), however, reported success with bilateral division of tracts within the temporal lobes and with posterior cingulectomy, mostly in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy but also in some abnormally aggressive patients who had never had seizures.
Attention has also been directed at stereotactic operations on the amygdaloid nuclei in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and violent behaviour (Hitchcock et al. 1972; Mark et al. 1972). The results were reported as often markedly successful, and without disabling side effects. Narabayashi performed amygdalectomies on one or both sides in a large population of patients, some with epilepsy and some with ’severe behaviour disorders and hyperexcitability’ (Narabayashi et al. 1963; Narabayashi & Uno
1966). Nearly all were mentally subnormal. Of 60 patients aged 5-35 years, 51 were said to show marked reduction in emotional excitability and ’normalisation of social behaviour’. The improvements were described in terms of increased obedience, calmness, a diminution of labile mood and a decreased tendency to attack persons and destroy objects. Of 40 patients followed 3-6 years later, 27 continued to show a satisfactory outcome though older patients who had been markedly aggressive fared less well than younger patients who had shown hyperactivity and ’unsteady moods’.
It is hard in these reports to discern how specific were the effects on aggressive behaviour, and how far the improvements may have been related to improved control of epilepsy. Sweet et al (1969) reviewed the discrepant results obtained by different workers. In a patient of their own they found that stimulation of the medial part of the amygdala led to feelings of imminent loss of control, whereas stimulation just 4mm lateral to the same point produced feelings of relaxation. The variable results of operation may thus be attributable to subdivisions of function within the relatively large complex of nuclei that constitute the amygdala.
Other reports have shown improvement in aggressive psychotic patients after amygdalectomy and basofrontal tractotomy (Vaernet & Madsen 1970), and in aggressive epileptic children and young adults after surgical lesions in the posteromedial hypothalamus (Sano et al. 1966,1972). All such operations, needless to say, soon became the focus of considerable social controversy, especially when applied to minors and to persons held in custody on account of offences.
Habitually aggressive offenders
It remains to consider the situation in individuals who display persistently aggressive behaviour yet who lack overt evidence of brain pathology. These are the persons traditionally labelled as ’aggressive psychopaths’ or as having an ’explosive personality disorder’. Their outbursts of violence are usually merely a part of wideranging personality and social maladjustments. They are notoriously resistant to efforts at therapeutic intervention, yet many seem to outgrow their aggressive propensities in middle years. It is obviously a matter of importance to attempt to clarify whether in some such persons there are definable abnormalities of the neural apparatus subserving aggressive responses, and to what degree such abnormalities are inherited or acquired.
A high proportion of persons with disturbed personalities are known to have abnormal EEGs, especially those who show aggressive antisocial behaviour. The evidence is discussed in Chapter 3 (p. 128). Such EEG abnormalities involve the temporal lobes particularly, are often of a type suggesting cerebral immaturity, and tend to decrease with age in parallel with improvements in behaviour. Hill (1944) found that the abnormalities in aggressive psychopaths were often bilateral, synchronous, and postcentral in location, suggesting dysfunction in subcortical centres or the deep temporal grey matter.
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An important study by Williams (1969) reinforced the importance of earlier findings:
In a review of EEGs carried out on 333 men conviaed of violent crimes he divided the population into two groups-206 who had a history of habitual aggression or explosive rage, and 127 who had committed an isolated aa of aggression. In the first group the aggression appeared to be largely endogenous and related to personality factors, and in the second to be provoked by unusually stressful environmental situations. Sixty-five per cent of the habitually aggressive offenders had abnormal EEGs compared with only 24% of the remainder. Eighty per cent of both groups showed dysrhythmias known to be associated with temporal lobe dysfunction.
When persons with disabilities suggesting structural brain damage were excluded (i.e. those who were mentally subnormal, had epilepsy, or with a history of major head injury) 57% of the remaining habitual aggressives showed EEG abnormalities, whereas the figure for solitary aggressives had fallen to 12% (which was equivalent to the general population). It thus seemed reasonable to conclude that in the former, the EEG abnormalities were directly related to the disturbed behaviour and were not attributable to otherwise unrelated struaural brain disease. Williams considered the disturbed behaviour and the EEG findings in the habitually aggressive men to be ’constitutional’ in origin and to reflea a disturbance of cerebral physiology. They appeared to derive from dysfunction of diencephalic and limbic mechanisms, as judged by the features and distribution of the EEG abnormalities.
A study by Krynicki (1978) in repetitively assaultative adolescents, though based on very small numbers, produced essentially similar findings. Volkow et al. (1995) have recently produced preliminary evidence of cerebral dysfunction by FDG-PET (p. 144) in a group of eight psychiatric patients with a history of repetitive violent behaviour. Three had a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, the remainder meeting DSM-3 R criteria for intermittent explosive disorder or antisocial personality disorder. In comparison with controls they showed significantly lower metabolism in the medial temporal and prefrontal cortices bilaterally.
The question has been argued further by certain observers who have elaborated the concept of a syndrome of ’episodic dyscontrol’ (Mark & Ervin 1970; Bach-y-Rita et al. 1971; Maletzky 1973). The term ’intermittent explosive disorder’ is currently more widely used in the USA. The suggestion is that after excluding patients who have demonstrable epilepsy, brain damage or psychotic illness as a basis for their aggressive acts (also those pursuing a motivated career of premeditated crime for gain), one is left with a large number of persons who are victims of their disturbed cerebral physiology. The essence of the claim is that violent behaviour can, in effect, be the only overt symptom of brain disorder.
The great majority of such persons are male, from seriously disturbed family backgrounds, and with a history of repeated outbursts of violent behaviour dating back to adolescence or even childhood. Provocation for such outbursts has often been minimal. Evidence of minor neurological dysfunction is not uncommon, and there is a high frequency of abnormal EEGs, often involving the temporal lobes and sometimes quasi-epileptic in nature. Many have symptoms reminiscent of epileptic phenomena, even when not suffering from seizures; in particular the outbursts may be preceded or followed by features akin to those seen with temporal lobe epilepsy. The clinical picture is further described in Chapter 7 (pp. 297-8).
The implication is that such persons have functional abnormalities of the neural systems subserving aggressive responses, which set the threshold for the elicitation of outbursts at an unusually low level. There is then a complex interaction between such brain dysfunction, social disorganisation and significant psychopathological experiences in the individual concerned.
Such a ’syndrome’ appears to stand at the borderland between what is conventionally regarded as psychopathic personality, and what with more definite clinical evidence might be included as temporal lobe epilepsy. Clear definition of the syndrome, and estimates of its frequency, are rendered difficult by the elusive nature of the ancillary evidence of cerebral dysfunction, and the ever-present confounding evidence of social and interpersonal stresses in the group.
The status, and indeed the existence, of the syndrome remains a matter of controversy. Some regard the concept as useful in clinical practice while recognising that it cuts across traditional diagnostic boundaries (Elliott 1992). Others regard it as serving no useful purpose. Lucas (1994) presents a detailed review of the evolution of the concept and concludes that its nosological status is invalid. He stresses that it lacks clear demarcation from allied forms of disordered behaviour, and suggests that it represents one extreme of a continuum rather than a distinct nosological category. Lucas advocates a multiaxial classification of patients who show repeated outbursts of anger or violence, encompassing the presence or absence of general psychiatric syndromes, developmental disorders, concomitant physical conditions and psychosocial difficulties.
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia has gradually proved to be a fruitful arena for neuropsychiatric research. An organic contribution to the disorder has been suspected from Kraepelin’s time onwards, but until recent decades has remained remarkably elusive. Now, however, there is evidence that ’symptomatic
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schizophrenias’ associated with known brain lesions show affinities with certain brain locations; neuroimaging and autopsy studies show that aspects of brain structure and function are not uncommonly abnormal in the condition; and unusual patterns of cerebral lateralisation and interhemispheric organisation have been increasingly documented. Attention has therefore turned towards the possibility that definable aspects of brain malfunction may render genetic propensities to the disorder overt, or perhaps reflect abnormal neurodevelopmental processes which have conferred vulnerability to the disorder. It is possible, furthermore, that such neurodevelopmental anomalies may themselves be genetically determined.
In working toward such formulations there have been many false starts, not least because of the problems of defining schizophrenia and separating it from its surrounding territories. Improved diagnostic criteria, presented for example by Feighner et al. (1972) and Spitzer et al (1975), and objective methods for rating key aspects of symptomatology such as the Present State Examination (Wing etal. 1967, 1974) have been important in allowing groups of well-defined patients to be assembled and studied with confidence. It has also become evident that the schizophrenias associated with obvious brain pathology or toxic influences can often be identical phenomenologically with ’idiopathic’ forms. Valid attempts are therefore increasingly underway to seek a cerebral substrate for this common and extraordinarily puzzling illness.
Associations with regional brain pathology
Evidence has accumulated to suggest that schizophrenia, when associated with brain lesions, is commoner with pathology in certain brain areas. The subject is comprehensively reviewed in detailed analyses of the literature by Davison and Bagley (1969) andDavison (1983). There are clearly difficulties in resolving the nosological problems inherent in such an exercise, and particularly when dealing with data reported by others. Moreover, having identified a reasonably acceptable group of cases the problem remains how far any association with brain damage is fortuitous, or due to the unmasking of a genetic liability to the disorder, or more directly related by way of a causal influence of the brain lesion upon the development of the schizophrenia. These questions too were tackled by Davison and Bagley and their views are presented at many points in the chapters that follow.
The conclusion which emerges repeatedly is that lesions, particularly of the temporal lobes and diencephalon, appear to carry a small but definite risk of increasing the likelihood that a schizophrenia-like illness will develop. This hazard appears to exceed what would be expected in view of the known genetic propensities in the populations concerned. Thus, at least where some forms of brain lesion are concerned, there appears to be a causal link between the disturbance of cerebral function engendered by the lesion and the appearance of the psychosis. The nature of such a link remains uncertain, but if the observations are accepted as valid a pathophysiology of some sort must be postulated. Certain speculations with regard to the mechanisms underlying the psychoses seen with epilepsy are described on pp. 282-4.
It has not yet been clarified whether such schizophrenias are identical in every respect with the naturally occurring idiopathic disorder, in particular with regard to the course that is followed. Phenomenologically, however, they appear to be indistinguishable from schizophrenias occurring in the absence of brain disease. The current impression is that paranoid forms are very much commoner than catatonic or hebephrenic varieties, as applies with schizophrenia generally, but the relative frequency of positive and negative symptoms remains to be properly explored.
Irrespective of such nosological refinements, the striking fact appears to be that psychotic illnesses with the major features of schizophrenia may coexist with cerebral lesions and may be generated in some fashion by them. The acute and chronic organic reactions described in Chapter 1 are by no means the exclusive hallmarks of mental disorder occasioned by cerebral dysfunction. The corollary implication is that, while in the great majority of schizophrenias no clear-cut brain lesion will be revealed by routine investigation, in some patients there may be identifiable pathology which warrants careful appraisal.
The evidence incriminating the temporal lobes and diencephalon has come from diverse forms of cerebral pathology. That concerning head injuries is described in Chapter 5 (p. 191), cerebral tumours are discussed in Chapter 6 (p. 225) and epilepsy in Chapter 7 (pp. 281-2). While far from satisfactory or entirely conclusive, for the reasons discussed above, the sum total of evidence begins to look impressive.
Other clinical evidence has pointed to disease of the basal ganglia as having a special relationship with schizophrenia-like illnesses, for example in Huntington’s disease (p. 470), Wilson’s disease (p. 665) and the rare syndrome of idiopathic calcification of the basal ganglia (p. 756). Bowman and Lewis (1980) reinforced this association in their analysis of the site of major pathology in a large variety of cerebral disorders liable to show aspects of schizophrenic symptomatology.
It remains puzzling that frontal lesions have rarely been
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incriminated, with the exception of occasional disorders such as metachromatic leucodystrophy (p. 758). However, functional brain imaging in the naturally occurring illness strongly suggests that frontal systems may be specially at fault, as described on p. 87. Occasional anecdotal reports of schizophrenia following frontal damage are therefore of interest, as in the patient described by Pang and Lewis (1996):
A young man with a family history of depression suffered several episodes of bipolar affective illness over a 2-year period. He then sustained a head injury leading to a left frontal haematoma which necessitated a left frontal lobectomy. Nine months later he developed a classic schizophrenic illness which pursued a chronic course during 6 years’ follow-up. A spike-discharging focus was detected 3 years after the injury when he developed epileptic seizures. The authors suggest that the transformation from bipolar affective disorder to schizophrenia, in a patient genetically predisposed to the former, was due to the unusual combination of damage to the left frontal lobe and an excitatory lesion in the left temporal lobe.
Structural brain imaging
Interest was renewed in the possibility of structural brain changes in schizophrenia by the demonstration of ventricular enlargement on CT scans, sometimes with sulcal widening, as described on p. 140. This has emerged repeatedly in controlled comparisons, though not in all studies to date. Particularly compelling were early reports that among sibships and monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia the affected member virtually always had the larger ventricles (Weinberger et al. 1981; Reveley <tf a/. 1982).
The implications of such findings have been the subject of numerous reviews (Lishman 1983a; Weinberger et al.
1983; Reveley 1985; Lewis 1990). The CT changes show a number of associations – with poor performance on neuropsychological tests, with the presence of tardive dyskinesia, and possibly with a preponderance of negative symptoms, poor response to neuroleptics and poor premorbid adjustment. More controversial are claims that they are commoner in patients who lack a family history of major psychiatric illness (Reveley et al. 1984; Jones et al.1993) or in those with a history of obstetric complications at birth (Schulsinger et al. 1984; Owen et al. 1988). It seems clear that the changes are unrelated to the duration of illness or length of hospitalisation, and they have been detected in patients soon after the schizophrenia is declared (Weinberger et al. 1982; Turner et al. 1986). Several studies have confirmed that they do not progress during follow-up (Nasrallah 1990; Jaskiw etal. 1994). The consensus is therefore that such CT findings represent static brain changes, possibly reflecting early neurodevelopmental anomalies. Consistent with this is Lewis’s (1990) report of unexpected focal abnormalities in a small percentage of scans-areas of low attenuation and calcification-also occasional anomalies of brain development such as septal cysts, aqueduct stenosis, agenesis of the corpus callosum and cavum septum pellucidum.
Magnetic resonance imaging has in the main confirmed the CT findings and added a good deal more. Andreasen et al (1986) found evidence of smaller frontal lobe size in schizophrenic patients, not replicated in a better-controlled study (Andreasen et al. 1990) but emerging again with three-dimensional reconstructions (Andreasen et al. 1994b). Andreasen etal. (1994a) have also reported decreased thalamic size in the disorder. Others have reported smaller temporal lobes, most markedly on the left (Johnstone et al. 1989; DeLisi et al.1991). Suddath etal. (1989) found a 67% enlargement of the ventricles in chronic patients, and reductions in temporal lobe grey matter by 20%, most markedly in areas corresponding to the amygdala and anterior hippocampus. Bogerts etal. (1990a) confirmed reductions in hippocampal tissue in first-episode schizophrenic patients, apparently restricted to the left side and to males. In a comparison of 15 monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia, Suddath et al (1990) reported enlargement of the lateral and third ventricles and virtually consistent bilateral reductions in hippocampal volume in the affected co-twins.
Several studies have attempted to explore the clinical associations of the reduction in temporal lobe structures in small groups of schizophrenic patients. Nestor et al. (1993) found modest but significant relationships between the volume of the parahippocampal and posterior superior temporal gyri and impairment on tests of verbal memory, abstraction and categorisation. More strikingly, associations have been found between reduced volume in the left superior temporal gyrus and the severity of auditory hallucinations (Barta et al. 1990), and between reductions in its posterior part and the severity of thought disorder (Shenton et al. 1992; Menon et al. 1995). Menon et al. (1995) found a significant positive correlation between the volume of the left posterior superior temporal gyrus and scores reflecting the presence of delusions.
In contrast to regional effects of this nature, Zipursky et al. (1992) have reported significant reductions in grey matter volumes in most parts of the cerebral cortex, including the prefrontal, frontal, temporoparietal and parieto-occipital regions, a result broadly confirmed by Harvey et al. (1993). This was not apparent in manicdepressive patients examined by similar procedures (Harvey et al. 1994). Such widespread cortical involvement could perhaps account for the pleomorphic features
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of the disease and its variability of expression in different patients. Significant reductions in subcortical grey matter volumes were also apparent in Zipursky etal.’s patients.
Other findings of interest include significant reductions in corpus callosum size on MRI, particularly of the anterior and central parts which connect the frontal and temporal regions (Woodruff et al 1993, 1995). A number of preliminary findings from magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia are mentioned on p. 143.
It appears, therefore, that the more closely one looks with Modern neuroimaging methods, the more evidence one obtains of widespread neurodevelopmental anomalies in schizophrenia. Some, but not all, of these findings are mirrored in the autopsy investigations discussed immediately below.
Neuropathology
Neuropathological studies of schizophrenia appeared until recently to have run into an impasse. The Vogts, for example, had seemingly spent a life-time examining the brains of schizophrenics (Vogt & Vogt 1952), with results that failed to gain wide acceptance. Plum (1972) was led to make the memorable remark that ’schizophrenia is the graveyard of neuropathologists’. Now there has been an upsurge of interest again, fuelled in part by the findings from neuroimaging but also by advances in techniques such as quantitative morphometry and histochemistry. Important reviews are presented by Lantos (1988) and Roberts and Bruton (1990). Lantos cautions particularly that many of the more recent findings have yet to be shown convincingly to be specific for schizophrenia.
Stevens (1982), in a thorough investigation, found evidence of periventricular and periaqueductal gliosis, with appearances suggestive of previous low-grade inflammation. Not dissimilar observations had previously been made by Nieto and Escobar (1972) and Fisman (1975). Most others, however, have stressed that gliosis is rare, and ascribe the observed abnormalities to early embryonic insult or early prenatal developmental anomalies, since foetal brain tissues show a glial response only in the last trimester of gestation. (Roberts et al. 1987; Roberts & Crow 1987). In Bruton etal.’s (1990) carefully controlled investigation the excess gliosis disappeared after excluding patients with Alzheimer changes, cerebrovascular disease and focal pathologies.
Bogerts et al. (198 5) found no evidence of gliosis in a reexamination of the Vogts’ collection of brains, gathered before the era of neuroleptics and insulin treatment, but showed reductions in size of the globus pallidus and several limbic structures. Shrinkage of the hippocampal formation was sometimes obvious macroscopically. Such findings were confirmed in a separate series, particularly among the males (Bogerts et al. 1990b). Corsellis’s group measured a large sample from Runwell Hospital, showing pronounced enlargement of the temporal horns and thinning of the parahippocampal cortex (particularly on the left) in comparison with patients with affective disorder (Brown et al. 1986). Crow et al. (1989) showed enlargement principally restricted to the left temporal horn, i.e. to that part of the brain in which anatomical asymmetries are normally present. Jakob and Beckmann (1989) described abnormalities in the gyral pattern over the temporal lobe, most markedly on the left, again suggestive of early developmental disturbance. Falkai et al. (1992) noted reductions in the length of the left Sylvian fissure, perhaps indicative of early impairment of cerebral lateralisation.
Bruton et al. (1990) compared a series of 56 carefully diagnosed and prospectively gathered schizophrenic patients with normal controls matched for age and sex. Fixed brain weights were significantly reduced by 4.5%, with concomitant increases in ventricular size. Similar reductions were found in mean brain length, both measures being related to indices of poor premorbid adjustment. Arnold etal. (1991) concentrated attention on the entorhinal cortex, which forms the anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus and contains important communications between the neocortex and the hippocampus. All six brains examined by Arnold et al. showed abnormalities by way of aberrant invaginations of the surface, disruption of cortical layers and heterotopic displacement of neurones indicative of disturbed neurodevelopment.
Benes and co-workers have made detailed neuronal counts in various brain regions with the help of sophisticated morphometrictechniques (Benes etal. 1986,199la,
1991b; Benes & Bird 1987). The numbers of small interneurones were reduced in cingulate and prefrontal areas, without increased gliosis, likewise pyramidal neuronal counts in some parts of the hippocampus. The latter has been confirmed in some studies (Falkai & Bogerts 1986; Jeste & Lohr 1989) but not in others (Heckers etal.
1991). It is, however, supported by magnetic resonance spectroscopy (Maier et al. 1995). Scheibel’s group noted alterations in pyramidal cell orientation in the hippocampus, with disorderly alignments and corresponding disorganisation of their dendritic arrays (Kovelman & Scheibel 1984; Conrad & Scheibel 1987; Conrad et al. 1991). In some areas the proportion of cells rotated by 30 degrees or more was increased seven or eightfold in comparison with controls, and the severity of the effect seemed to be related to the severity of the antemortem clinical picture.
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Such changes appeared to be the product of disturbed migration of neurones into the primordial hippocampus during the second trimester of pregnancy. Again, however, there has not been universal agreement on the finding (Christison etal. 1989; Benes etal. 1991b).
Finally, recent studies by Akbarian and co-workers are interesting in providing more definitive evidence of disturbed migration of neurones during foetal development (Akbarian et al. 1993a, 1993b). Neurochemical techniques were used to identify a particular population of neurones in the grey matter and subjacent white matter (’NADPH-d neurones’). Having migrated towards the cortex these are normally found in greatest numbers immediately deep to layer VI of the cortex. In schizophrenic brains, however, their distribution was shifted significantly inwards and they were found in deeper layers of the white matter. Such findings applied to the medial and lateral temporal lobe structures, also to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex which has emerged as dysfunctional in cerebral blood flow studies (see below).
In brief, therefore, neuropathological investigations have pointed most clearly to temporal lobe abnormalities, possibly because this region of the brain has been examined most carefully. Structural brain imaging, by contrast, has indicated more widespread cortical involvement (e.g. Zipursky etal. 1992; vide supra) and it is therefore interesting that pathological changes at a histological level are now reported in frontal regions as well. An important consensus from the more recent pathological studies is that the abnormalities observed are likely to be neurodevelopmental in origin.
Functional brain imaging
Functional imaging studies effectively took origin from Ingvar and Franzen’s (1974) demonstration of diminished cerebral blood flow to frontal regions in older chronic schizophrenic patients. Such ’hypofrontality’ was supported by Buchsbaum et al. (1982) who showed lowered uptake of glucose in frontal regions by FDG-PET, and particularly in the central grey matter of the left side of the brain. Subsequent PET studies have given variable results, as reviewed by Bench et al. (1990) and Buchsbaum (1990), seemingly due to variations in technique and differences in the populations investigated. Nevertheless, most reports have shown lower metabolism in the frontal and temporal regions and basal ganglia than in posterior brain areas. With further experience, however, such hypometabolism appears to lack specificity in that it may also be seen in some degree in patients with depressive illness (p. 145).
Single photon emission computerised tomography (SPECT) has given variable findings when carried out in schizophrenic patients at rest (Ebmeier et al. 1995). More consistent results are obtained when ’activation’ techniques are employed. Thus Weinberger et al. (1986,1988b) measured cerebral blood flow by xenon inhalation, first while the patient performed a simple numbermatching task, then while engaged in a sorting task of the type normally expected to activate the prefrontal cortex (Plate 3). Activation of blood flow was found to be strikingly reduced over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the patients’ performance on the task being correlated with the degree of prefrontal activation. In a study of 10 pairs of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia, the affected co-twin invariably showed less prefrontal activation than the healthy member of the pair (Berman et al. 1992). The phenomenon has appeared to be specific to schizophrenia, to the extent that patients with Huntington’s disease, who also performed badly on the task, increased their frontal blood flows normally (Weinberger etal. 1988a). Patients with severe depression and with Down’s syndrome also activated the DLPFC normally (Weinberger etal. 199la). By contrast, during performance on an automated version of Raven’s matrices schizophrenic patients were found to activate posterior parieto-occipital areas in a normal fashion (Berman etal.1988).
Not dissimilarly, Warkentin et al. (1989) showed with xenon inhalation and a verbal fluency task that schizophrenic patients produced considerably less prefrontal activation in the left hemisphere than normal controls. Daniel et al. (1990) used SPECT to show that dextroamphetamine could restore left frontal activation in response to card sorting in a group of chronic schizophrenics, along with improvement hi performance. Weinberger et al. (1991a) conclude that in all studies which have used cognitive tasks demanding prefrontal activation, schizophrenic patients have tended to show a ’hypofrontal’ pattern as measured by cerebral blood flow or glucose utilisation. This provides a tempting explanation for such common symptoms as affective blunting and impaired volition.
In a more ambitious development, Liddle et al. (1992) have explored 15 O-PET indices of resting regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in cohorts of chronic schizophrenic patients with contrasting patterns of symptomatology. Patients classified as having the ’psychomotor poverty syndrome’ (i.e. poverty of speech, flattened affect and decreased spontaneous movement) showed decreased rCBF in the left prefrontal and parietal cortex, along with increases in the caudate nuclei. The area of left prefrontal hypoperfusion coincided with that shown by Frith etal. (1991) to
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2be activated by the internal generation of willed as compared with routine actions. Patients with the ’disorganisation syndrome’ (disordered thought and inappropriate affect) showed increased resting rCBF most markedly in the anterior cingulate region. This coincides with the area maximally activated during performance of the Stroop test in which competing responses must be suppressed (p. 118); hence it may reflect a struggle in such patients to suppress inappropriate mental activity.-Patients with the ’reality distortion syndrome’ (delusions and hallucinations) showed increases in rCBF most prominently in the left parahippocampal gyrus and contiguous areas. In each syndrome the detailed patterns of blood flow indicated that distributed neuronal networks rather than specific loci were implicated in the underlying abnormalities of brain function.
Kaplan et al. (1993) have broadly confirmed Liddle’s clinical groupings and the associated sites of brain abnormality, using ,Xr FDG-PET in untreated acute schizophrenic patients. An interesting difference lay, however, in the finding of hypermetabolism rather than hypometabolism in left prefrontal and parietal cortex in acute patients with the psychomotor poverty syndrome; this may conceivably reflect different stages of a compensatory or degenerative process which had proceeded further in Liddle’s chronic patients.
Frith (1995) reviews further associations emerging from PET studies. He points out, for example, that ’self monitoring depends on a tight correspondence between anterior brain a regions concerned with voluntary motor output and posterior regions concerned with the relevant sensory inputs. When normal subjects generate words there is an increase in blood flow to the DLPFC and an associated decrease in the superior temporal cortex. In schizophrenic patients performing the same task the DLPFC increase was not associated with decreases in the left superior temporal cortex, implying a lack of connectivity between these two brain areas.
Interesting attempts have also been made to explore differences on neuroimaging between schizophrenic patients with and without persistent auditory hallucinations. Cleghom et al. (1990) compared such groups using FDG-PET. No one region showed significant differences, but there were patterns of correlation between Broca’s area and other brain areas (e.g. anterior cingulate and left superior temporal) in those who hallucinated but not in the others. McGuire etal. (1993) obtained more clear-cut results by arranging for each patient to serve as his own control, carrying out HMPAO-SPECT scans (p. 148) first in the presence of on-going auditory verbal hallucinations then again some weeks later when these had largely resolved. On each occasion the patient was asked to signal the presence or absence of hallucinations immediately prior to the injection of HMPAO. Increased blood flow was demonstrated in Broca’s area during the occurrence of hallucinations, i.e. the area that has been implicated in the subvocal rehearsal of inner speech (Paulesu et al.1993). Such a finding supports the idea that hallucinations arise from the patient’s failure to monitor his own thoughts and ’inner speech’, which is therefore regarded as alien and perceived as emanating from others.
In a further study, schizophrenic patients liable to auditory verbal hallucinations were compared with those who were not, even though hallucinations were not occurring at the time of testing (McGuireefa/ 1995b). 15O-PET scans were carried out while the subject imagined sentences being spoken in another person’s voice. In normal subjects this task is associated with increased activity in such areas as the left inferior frontal gyrus, the supplementary motor area and the left temporal cortex (McGuire et al.1996). Patients prone to hallucinations showed the expected increase in frontal activity, but reductions rather than increases in the supplementary motor area and left temporal regions. Thus it appeared that a predisposition to auditory verbal hallucinations was reflected in aberrant connectivity between the areas concerned with the generation and monitoring of inner speech.
Functional MRI (p. 143) has also been used to explore the cerebral correlates of auditory verbal hallucinations (David et al. 1996). Images were obtained during periods of auditory stimulation (speech) and visual stimulation (flashing lights), both when the patient was hallucinating and when he was not. As can be seen from Plate 4, activation to visual stimulation occurred in the visual cortex irrespective of the presence or absence of auditory hallucinations, whereas temporal lobe activation to auditory stimulation was almost completely suppressed while hallucinations were in progress. David et al. interpret this as reflecting physiological competition for a common neural substrate, normally activated by speech, by the on-going verbal hallucinations.
Functional brain imaging has additionally made use of radiolabelled ligands, in particular to explore possibilities of dopamine overactivity in the striatum in drug-nai’ve schizophrenic patients. Early attempts using PET gave contradictory results, Wong et al. (1986) reporting a marked elevation in striatal D2 receptor density but others finding no difference from controls (Farde et al. 1987; Martinot etal. 1990). Crawley etal. (1986) using SPECT found an increase, but Pilowsky etal. (1994) did not. The latter study, however, produced evidence of significant asymmetry in D2 binding among male schizophrenics, the levels being higher in the left striatum than the right. Farde et al. (1995) have reported a similar asymmetry with PET. Martinot etal. (1994) further showed a significant correlation between PET indices of reduced striatal D2 receptor density and certain negative symptoms such as poverty of speech and blunted affect.
Further clarification may need to await studies using ligands capable of identifying specific subtypes of dopamine receptors. Advances in PET technology may also permit the monitoring of dopamine receptors in relevant extrastriatal brain structures such as the hippocampus.
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nucleus accumbens and frontal limbic cortex (Farde et al.1995). To date this has scarcely been possible because of limits on scanner resolution and the low concentrations of dopamine in brain areas other than the striatum.
Hemispheric differences
A separate but perhaps complementary strand to the picture concerns evidence that aspects of cerebral dominance may bear a special relationship to schizophrenia. As described on p. 282, the schizophrenia-like psychoses seen with epilepsy tend to be associated with foci in the left hemisphere. Furthermore, neuropathological investigations have drawn particular attention to changes in the left temporal lobe in the generality of schizophrenias (p.86).
Other observations can be marshalled in support of left hemisphere dysfunction in the disease. For comprehensive reviews of cerebral laterality in relation to various forms of psychopathology Flor-Henry (1983) should be consulted, also the compilations of reports by Gruzelier and Flor-Henry (1979) and Flor-Henry and Gruzelier (1983). Brief reviews are presented by Merrin (1981), Gruzelier (1981) and Taylor (1987).
Dominant lobe dysfunction in schizophrenia has been inferred from asymmetries in skin conductance responses (Gruzelier & Venables 1974), patterns of functioning on dichotic and tachistoscopic tests (Colbourn &• Lishman1979; Gruzelier 1979; Connolly et al. 1983; Bruder et al.1995), psychometric testing (Flor-Henry & Yeudall 1979; Flor-Henry et al. 1983; Taylor &• Abrams 1987), electroencephalographic data (Abrams & Taylor 1979, 1980), and data from visual and auditory evoked responses (Buchsbaum et al. 1979; Shagass et al. 1979, 1983). In many of these respects depressive illness can be shown to be associated, on similar evidence, with dysfunction of the right side of the brain (Kronfol et al. 1978; Yozawitz etal. 1979; Von Knorring 1983, Taylor & Abrams 1987). In a direct comparison between patients with schizophrenia and affective disorder, David and Cutting (1992) found that the schizophrenic group failed to show the expected left hemisphere advantage on a tachistoscopic test of visual semantic judgements; however, both patient groups showed a normal right hemisphere advantage on an equivalent task involving visual imagery.
As might be expected, however, different avenues of investigation are not always in agreement with one another, all being indirect indices of hemispheric dysfunction. Such is the fragility of much of the evidence, that Cutting (1985, 1990, 1992, 1994) has been able to amass arguments in favour of quite the reverse, namely of right hemisphere dysfunction in schizophrenia. More specifically he suggests that diminution in the activity of the right hemisphere results in hemispheric imbalance, the left coming to be unusually prepotent over the right.
In reaching this conclusion Cutting draws both on clinical observations and certain test procedures. He points out, for example, that certain phenomena exhibited by patients with damage to the right hemisphere come close to resembling those seen in schizophrenia. Delusional misidentification, for example, is commoner with right hemisphere lesions than left, and feelings of dissolution of body boundaries may be observed following acute right hemisphere strokes. Flattening of affect is reminiscent of the aprosody seen with right hemisphere damage, similarly loss of figurative/metaphorical meaning in language and impaired proverb interpretation.
Certain neuropsychological tests with high specificity for right hemisphere dysfunction have emerged as impaired in schizophrenic subjects, for example judgements of facial expression (Gessler et al. 1989) and tests of ability to comprehend and express emotional prosody in speech (Murphy & Cutting 1990). Cutting and Murphy (1990) found that schizophrenic patients tended to select non-figurative rather than metaphorical pairings of words, as occurs with right but not left hemisphere lesions. David and Cutting (1990) demonstrated loss of the normal left hemifacial bias for judgements of facial expression on a chimeric faces test. Left-sided tactual extinction has been found to be common, particularly in chronic forms of schizophrenia (Scarone et al. 1987); and a tendency to exhibit an excess of right-directed eye movements during mental activity has been interpreted as a consequence of increased left hemisphere activity in compensation for a primary right hemisphere deficit (Schweitzer 1982).
Again, however, much of the evidence pointing to right rather than left hemisphere dysfunction is inferential.
Patterns of hand preference have been extensively studied in schizophrenia but with results that have varied markedly (Taylor et al. 1982a, 1982b; Manoachefa/. 1988; Green et al. 1989; Nelson et al. 1993). Claims have included an excess of left-handedness, mixed handedness or even pure right-handedness, often with male patients diverging more than females from controls. Despite attempts to refine the subgroupings of patients according to chronicity or different forms of illness the conclusions to be drawn remain ambiguous.
Nevertheless, interest in left- and right-handedness has paved the way to important findings concerning cerebral anatomical asymmetry. As described on p. 41, Le May (1976,1977) showed that the brain is normally asymmetrical, the frontal lobe being wider on the right and the occipital lobe on the left. Such asymmetries, evident on CT scans, were sometimes reversed in left-handers. Luchins etal. (1979, 1982) then showed that a subgroup of right-handed schizophrenics displayed the reversed left-handed pattern, a finding variably confirmed or refuted in subsequent studies.
Bullmore etal. (1995) have recently produced impressive evidence that this is a valid finding, by analysis of a
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large group of schizophrenics and controls. The strength of their study, derived from MRI images, relies on the measurement of a large number of brain slices obtained in the coronal plane from the frontal and temporal lobes. The reversed asymmetry was found, however, to apply only to male schizophrenics:
Bullmore et al used sophisticated image analysis to delineate the boundaries between the cortex and subcortex in up to 19 coronal slices per subject. The ’radius of gyration’ (Rg) was then measured on each slice, representing the mean dispersion of points organised radially about the centre of gravity of the residual images obtained. In right-handed controls the Rg for right brain boundaries was significantly greater than that for left brain boundaries, indicating larger anterior brain volumes on the right than the left. In left-handed controls the reverse obtained, with larger Rg on the left than the right. Right-handed male schizophrenics, however, were distinguished by reversal of the righthanded control pattern, due to a highly significant global reduction of Rg measures for right brain boundaries. This showed nearly significant associations with ratings of negative symptoms, and with categorisations according to outcome.
Biochemical observations on postmortem brain tissue have sometimes revealed unusual asymmetries in schizophrenic patients, for example increased dopamine in the left amygdaloid nucleus (Reynolds 1983, 1988). Decreased binding to kainate and quisqualate glutamate receptors has been demonstrated in the left hippocampus (Kerwin etal. 1988; Kerwin 1990), likewise a predominantly left-sided reduction in gamma arninobutyric acid (GABA) uptake in certain temporal lobe structures (Deakin etal. 1990; Reynolds & Czudek 1990). Biochemical studies thus tend to confirm a predominantly leftsided pathology, though it remains uncertain how far such findings may be the consequence of drug effects.
A particularly intriguing finding was reported by Bracha (1987) in seven unmedicated and three never-medicated schizophrenic patients who were observed during 8-hour periods while wearing a ’rotameter’. This portable device records the turns made to the left or the right while subjects pursue their daily activities. Normal controls registered an equivalent number of left and right turns (% right turns 49.9), whereas the schizophrenic patients made significantly more left turns than right (% right turns 30.7). All 10 patients turned more often to the left than the right. The possible relevance of the finding to dopamine asymmetry in the brain is suggested by analogous animal experiments; animals with unilateral striatal dopamine deficiency rotate more often towards the side which is depleted.
A further set of observations suggests a disturbance of functional interrelationships between the two hemispheres in the disease. Green (1978) and Carr (1980) showed impairment of transfer of information from one hand to the other in schizophrenic patients, and Dimond etal. (1980) found impairments in pointing with one hand to areas
touched lightly on the other. In a test of naming objects by palpation, significantly more errors were made with the left hand than the right (Dimond etal. 1979). Such early studies combined to suggest inefficient transfer across channels of communication between the hemispheres.
Further striking evidence pointing to callosal dysfunction has come from David’s (1987) tachistoscopic tests of colour naming and matching. Schizophrenic patients were found to make significantly more errors than controls in naming colours presented to the left visual field (i.e. to the right hemisphere), whereas performance to right visual field exposures was normal. Matching of colours exposed simultaneously across the two half-fields was also significantly impaired, whereas matching within a given half-field was unaffected.
In a second experiment, David (1993) examined the Stroop effect (p. 118), in which subjects were asked to name the colour of a vertical strip alongside which was printed a vertical colour word:
Presentations were made tachistoscopically and all responses were timed. In ’congruent’ pairings the colour and the word were the same, in ’incongruent’ pairings they differed from one another. The difference in reaction times between the two, reflecting the combined effects of interference and facilitation, was labelled the ’combined Stroop effect’. Schizophrenic patients, compared to controls, showed a larger combined Stroop effect when the colour patch and the colour word were separated across the midline and thus fed to different hemispheres. Pairings presented within the same half-field showed results no different from controls. There was in fact a double dissociation, schizophrenics showing greater combined Stroop effects in the interhemispheric than the intrahemispheric condition, and controls showing the reverse.
Such results could be interpreted either as evidence for increased interference between the hemispheres for incongruent stimuli, or increased facilitation for congruent stimuli-in both cases implying unusual callosal function in schizophrenia. A particular strength of David’s two experiments is that patients with affective disorder as well as normal subjects served as controls.
Other interesting observations have been reported by Green and associates (Green & Kotenko 1980; Green etal. 1983). In normal subjects the monaural comprehension of short prose passages can be shown to be equivalent whether the input is to the left or right ear; however, simultaneous input to the two ears yields slightly improved scores. Schizophrenics, by contrast, tend to perform better through one ear than the other, the right usually being superior. And, rather strikingly, binaural inputs yield poorer scores than monaural input to the better of the two ears. The suggested explanation is that the right-left monaural differences reflect abnormal callosal transfer; and the impairment in binaural scores may also result from abnormal callosal function which prevents the smooth processing and integration of infer-
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mation when this is fed simultaneously to the two hemispheres. Abnormal information transfer across the corpus callosum may in effect lead to competition between the hemispheres, with consequent impairment of comprehension.
It is tempting to speculate that certain schizophrenic symptoms could arise on such a basis. Thought disorder, for example, might be the product, at least in part, of inefficient callosal transfer and complex interactions between rival systems in the two cerebral hemispheres.
Thus in addition to a role for focal brain pathology in relation to schizophrenia, it appears that dominance relationships between the hemispheres, and certain aspects of imerhemispheric collaboration, may have a bearing on the disorder. Many of these findings must be regarded as provisional, but nevertheless they emerge, in sum, as impressive.
Neurodevelopmental and virogene models
Any attempt to unite these various strands of evidence to form a coherent theory meets with very considerable difficulties, especially since several are as yet insubstantial in themselves. Moreover, a convincing account of a cerebral basis to schizophrenia must try to encompass a number of clinical observations-genetic liability to the disorder, a tendency to appear in adolescence or early adult life, response to certain medications, and distinct associations in certain cases with pathology affecting the temporal lobes and limbic areas. Other findings almost as firm need also to be taken into account (Lishman 1995) -’season of birth effects’ with an excess during the late winter and early spring months (Bradbury & Miller 1985; Hare 1987,1988), vulnerability to life events and to ’expressed emotion’ (Brown &• Birley 1968; Vaughn & Leff 1976), the presence of antecedent impairments from childhood onwards (Jones et al. 1994), and a host of tantalising relationships with aspects of cerebral laterality.
Neurodevelopmental theory
The neurodevelopmental theory of schizophrenia has gained prominence in the field and is argued persuasively by a number of authorities (Weinberger 1987, 1995; Murray et al. 1988; Murray 1994). It encompasses both genetic and environmental factors as having a causal relationship to the disease. Though not applicable in every case the theory claims to account for a sizeable proportion of patients, particularly those with early onset of the illness and prominent negative symptoms.
It is suggested that many schizophrenic subjects harbour ’brain lesions’, especially in the limbic system and frontal cortex, which have originated very early in life extending back even to the intrauterine period. Such lesions, which are of a subtle nature, predispose the affected person to develop schizophrenia later. They may be the product of genetic influences controlling early brain growth, of infection, immune disorder, complications of pregnancy or, the now favoured view, of abnormal patterns of neuronal migration. These last may be occasioned by damage to the foetus during pregnancy or may themselves be inherited directly. Important variables with respect to the risk of developing schizophrenia are likely to include the site and timing of the disturbances, and the presence or absence of a genetic predisposition to the disorder.
The environmental influences concerned are likely to be heterogeneous, varying from one individual to another. The question of maternal infection during pregnancy has been explored in some detail, as a possible explanation for the observation that schizophrenic patients are more likely to be born in the late winter or early spring months as mentioned above. The issue has become closely focused on influenza, with a number of studies showing an excess of schizophrenic births during the months following epidemics. The detailed evidence is reviewed by Murray (1994) and Sham (1995) and contested by Crow and Done (1992) and Cooper (1992). Among studies supporting the association the timing of the increase has been fairly consistent, following some 3-5 months after epidemics. It is clear, however, that influenza could be the causative agent in only a minority of schizophrenic births.
Lewis (1989) reviews the increasing evidence of a link with obstetric complications. Moreover, a recent analysis of a large cohort of patients from Scotland, compared with closely matched controls, has shown a significant excess of complications both of pregnancy and delivery as antecedents to schizophrenia, in particular an excess of pre-eclampsia and of infants detained in hospital for neonatal care (Kendell et al. 1996). In some surveys a history of obstetric complications has been found to be predictive of increased ventricular size once the illness is declared (e.g. Owen etal. 1988).
An additional study has highlighted the possible role of malnutrition during the first trimester of pregnancy. Susser and Lin (1992) investigated the risk of schizophrenia in cohorts of persons born to mothers who had endured severe starvation during the Nazi blockade of western Holland in the winter of 1944-45. In comparison with controls such persons showed a substantial increase in hospitalisations for schizophrenia during
1978-89, though applying only to females.
The brain abnormalities, however engendered, may have issue in a variety of impairments from childhood onwards. The child at risk for developing schizophrenia in adult life has been found to have a lower IQ than his sibs and peers (Aylward et al. 1984), and to show early social, cognitive and motor impairments (Fish 1977; Fish et al.1992; Walker 1993; Jones et al. 1994). But it is suggested that the lesions declare themselves fully only 15-20 years
Page 92 CHAPTER
later, because they need to interact with normal brain maturational processes before their true impact is revealed. This is the distinctive aspect of the ’schizophrenic brain lesion’-that it involves systems that have yet to mature functionally. Or putting it another way, the lesion remains largely dormant until further brain maturation calls the damaged neuronal systems into operation.
There are precedents for such a situation both in animal experimental work and in man (Weinberger 1987). Thus a lesion of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex does not markedly affect the infant monkey’s behaviour, but disrupts performance on delayed response tasks in adulthood. Similarly, perinatal hypoxia may lead to cerebral palsy in infancy but to athetosis and epilepsy some years later.
A good deal of theorising has centred on the mechanisms whereby the early lesion may come to be ’actualised’ in later years. Murray et al. (1988) and Lewis (1989) discuss the possibility that immature circuitry is laid bare by synaptic pruning, a process which in some brain areas continues until after puberty. The developing brain has a large excess of neurones and axons which thin out during early development, serving to eliminate early errors of connection and to strengthen those that are useful. Early injury can prevent such processes from occurring, resulting in the perpetuation of anomalous patterns. These will eventually become operational, resulting, it is suggested, in the appearance of the disease.
Brain myelination is also known to continue well into postnatal life, particularly in areas such as the corpus callosum and the prefrontal cortex. Weinberger (1987) stresses that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is one of the last brain areas to myelinate, this continuing well into the second and third decades of life. In his model the declaration of symptoms may depend on the maturing of cortical-subcortical relationships:
In animals lesions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex can disturb the relationship between cortical and subcortical dopamine metabolism. In the rat a lesion of the dopamine afferents within the medial prefrontal cortex results in dopamine overactivity in subcortical sites, apparently through the operation of feedback control (Pycock et al 1980). Thus a lesion in such a situation could account both for the negative symptoms of schizophrenia (low dopamine prefrontally) and for the positive symptoms (high dopamine subcortically). Evidence for such feedback control is, however, lacking to date in man.
Brain dopamine is known to be important in relation to stress, rising in frontal and subcortical sites in response to limb shock in rats, but in the frontal cortex alone when the rat is re-exposed to the environment where the shocks had occurred (’experiential stress’) (Herman et al. 1982). This aspect could be relevant to schizophrenia in that stress could tax a faulty system. Adolescence is notably a time of stress, i.e. precisely when augmentation of prefrontal dopamine levels may be needed. The failure to increase prefrontal dopamine, and the failure of a feedback loop to come into operation, would cause subcortical dopamine levels to rise higher still, with issue in schizophrenic symptomatology.
Sex differences with regard to schizophrenia can be accommodated within the neurodevelopmental model. There is evidence that the onset of the illness is earlier in males than females, and that males show poorer premorbid adjustment and tend to have a poorer outcome (Castle & Murray 1991). This accords with the evidence from neuroimaging and neuropathology that the male schizophrenic brain is more often abnormal than the female (videsupra). Moreover, neurodevelopmental disorders are in general commoner in boys than girls, as with developmental dyslexia and autism, perhaps as a result of slower maturation or greater lateralisation of function which renders compensation for damage less successful.
Virogene theory
The viral theory of schizophrenia has been argued in similar detail and can account for certain observations. It originated from the finding of Tyrrell et al. (1979) and Crow et al. (1979) that the cerebrospinal fluid from a proportion of acute schizophrenic patients exerted cytopathic effects on fibroblast tissue cultures, similar to those induced by viruses. The responsible agent could not be identified, nor could it be propagated satisfactorily. Nevertheless the observation led to the hypothesis that viral infection might sometimes be localised to systems of the brain concerned with higher mental functions, resulting in mental disorder without accompanying neurological features. The idea was supported by the occasional development of schizophrenia-like pictures in the course of encephalitis due to conventional viruses (p. 347), also the finding of raised gamma globulin In the cerebrospinal fluid of certain acute psychotic patients (p. 355).
Crow (1983a) suggested that the putative virus might set in train the neurochemical disturbances underlying schizophrenia by its affinity for certain receptors, thus rendering the patient’s genetic predisposition overt. Indirect evidence in support of an infective aetiology included the seasonal incidence of birth and presentations, and certain family data that could not be explained on a genetic basis alone (Crow 1983b). For example, concordance for schizophrenia is higher between same sex than opposite sex dizygotic twins and siblings, and higher in same sex dizygotic twins than same sex sibs, all suggesting that physical proximity, and thereby infection, may bring additional hazards to genetically predisposed persons.
As evidence of neurodevelopmental and hemispheric abnormalities in the condition accumulated. Crow (1984,
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1986, 1987a) modified the hypothesis to suggest that a retrovirus (or ’retrotransposon’) might be responsible, sometimes inherited from a parent or sometimes acquired at a critical stage of embryonic development. By integration into the host’s genetic complement it would also contribute in part to vertical transmission of the disorder. The ingenious additional suggestion was made that the retrovirus might be integrated at a site close to the genes responsible for cerebral dominance and/or growth factors determining differential hemisphere development. In this way it would be possible to account for disturbed cerebral laterality in the disease and the special accent of pathology in the left temporal lobe. The anomalous cerebral development would often be manifest in behavioural abnormalities from childhood onwards, the gene then remaining latent until adolescence or adulthood. It might then be expressed as viral particles during episodes of illness. Models exist with certain animal diseases to support such a possibility.
In further papers Crow (1987b, 1987c, 1990) discusses how a retrovirus of this nature could account for the survival of the gene and the persistence of psychosis in the
community despite lowered fertility among affected individuals. An interaction of the virus with the cerebral dominance gene could be advantageous to survival by promoting brain areas involved with the lateralisation of language. And since lateralisation is typically more pronounced in males than in females, an anomaly in the genes which determine it might explain the earlier onset of schizophrenia and the more pronounced brain morphological changes in the male. High rates of mutation, as a function of environmental temperature, could help to account for season of birth effects.
The models discussed above are undoubtedly premature given the present state of knowledge and may need substantial revision as new findings emerge. Nevertheless they already account for a surprising amount of what has quite recently been discovered about schizophrenia, and they provide an important framework for further research. Most importantly they have synthesised a great deal of disparate information into views about aetiology. The challenge remains to unravel the detailed pathophysiological processes which may account for the curious manifestations of the disorder.
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Muscovite, used in electrical capacitors, is a processed form of what geological mineral?
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FuturePundit: Brain Development Archives
FuturePundit: Brain Development Archives
Future technological trends and their likely effects on human society, politics and evolution.
2012 January 23 Monday
Why not a higher autism correlation between twins? birth weight is a key factor in determining autism risk.
EVANSTON --- Although the genetic basis of autism is now well established, a growing body of research also suggests that environmental factors may play a role in this serious developmental disorder affecting nearly one in 100 children. Using a unique study design, a new study suggests that low birth weight is an important environmental factor contributing to the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
�Our study of discordant twins -- twin pairs in which only one twin was affected by ASD -- found birth weight to be a very strong predictor of autism spectrum disorder,� said Northwestern University researcher Molly Losh . Losh, who teaches and conducts research in Northwestern�s School of Communication , is lead author of the study that will be published in the journal �Psychological Medicine� and is now available online.
But let me quibble about terminology: For millions of people on the autistic spectrum their autistic minds are not a disorder. Many are quite high functioning and happy to be on the autistic spectrum with the intellectual advantages they gain from their modes of thought. I think the problem is that too much cognitive variation has gotten subsumed under the autism label.
Still, this finding on birth weight is important.
The researchers found that lower birth weight more than tripled the risk for autism spectrum disorder in identical twin pairs in which one twin had ASD and the other did not.
My guess (and I expect this to become crystal clear in under 10 years due to cheap DNA sequencing technology) is that many genes that cause some aspects of autism were selected for. There was an adaptive advantage to a sort of specialization of cognitive labor. Genetic influences on a phenomenon that occurs a fairly high rate of incidence usually point to something that was selected for rather than developmental error or relatively rarer purely harmful genetic mutations. Highly maladaptive traits rarely get selected for.
There's some overlap between autism as a result of genes selected due to their reproductive advantages versus events that go wrong in brain development. That overlap has made clear thinking about autism harder to do. Given that clear thinking about the mind is hard to do in general that's not too surprising. But on the bright side, advances in psychometrics, neuroscience, and genetics are going to usher in a new age of understanding of the human mind and along with it will come a much more nuanced view of autism.
By Randall Parker 2012 January 23 10:39 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (6)
2011 November 07 Monday
Less quiet sleep and more brain activity when a baby is separated from its mother right after birth.
New York, November 2, 2011 -- A woman goes into labor, and gives birth. The newborn is swaddled and placed to sleep in a nearby bassinet, or taken to the hospital nursery so that the mother can rest. Despite this common practice, new research published in Biological Psychiatry provides new evidence that separating infants from their mothers is stressful to the baby.
It is standard practice in a hospital setting, particularly among Western cultures, to separate mothers and their newborns. Separation is also common for babies under medical distress or premature babies, who may be placed in an incubator. In addition, the American Academy of Pediatrics specifically recommends against co-sleeping with an infant, due to its association with Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, or SIDS.
Humans are the only mammals who practice such maternal-neonate separation, but its physiological impact on the baby has been unknown until now. Researchers measured heart rate variability in 2-day-old sleeping babies for one hour each during skin-to-skin contact with mother and alone in a cot next to mother's bed. Neonatal autonomic activity was 176% higher and quiet sleep 86% lower during maternal separation compared to skin-to-skin contact.
How many easily avoidable ways have we changed our environments that have increased our stress and made us less healthy?
By Randall Parker 2011 November 07 06:35 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (7)
2010 November 30 Tuesday
For better or worse oxytocin will intensify your feelings about Mom.
Researchers have found that the naturally-occurring hormone and neurotransmitter oxytocin intensifies men's memories of their mother's affections during childhood. The study was published today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Researchers at the Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment at Mount Sinai School of Medicine wanted to determine whether oxytocin, a hormone and neurotransmitter that is known to regulate attachment and social memory in animals, is also involved in human attachment memories. They conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial, giving 31 healthy adult men oxytocin or a placebo delivered nasally on two occasions. Prior to administering the drug/placebo, the researchers measured the men's attachment style. About 90 minutes after administering the oxytocin or the placebo the researchers assessed participants' recollection of their mother's care and closeness in childhood.
Either more caring or less caring memories were dredged up.
They found that men who were less anxious and more securely attached remembered their mothers as more caring and remembered being closer to their mothers in childhood when they received oxytocin, compared to when they received placebo. However, men who were more anxiously attached remembered their mothers as less caring and remembered being less close to their mothers in childhood when they received oxytocin, compared to when they received placebo. These results were not due to more general effects of oxytocin on mood or well-being.
So then is there a drug or hormone that'll intensify your feelings about high school? If so, any takers? I'd just as soon forget about it myself. But if I live long enough to get rejuvenation therapies then I'm looking forward to forming memories of my second childhood.
By Randall Parker 2010 November 30 09:51 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2010 October 23 Saturday
The gush of hormones in a new mother causes a spurt of brain growth.
WASHINGTON � Motherhood may actually cause the brain to grow, not turn it into mush, as some have claimed. Exploratory research published by the American Psychological Association found that the brains of new mothers bulked up in areas linked to motivation and behavior, and that mothers who gushed the most about their babies showed the greatest growth in key parts of the mid-brain.
Contra the press release, I do not think these results address the question of whether women perform at a lower intellectual level while pregnant. All the blood flowing to the fetus or hormones released during pregnancy might cause expectant mom to think fewer complex thoughts. I know women who feel like they got dumber during pregnancy and husbands who agree.
The scientists expected the hormones released after birth to cause brain changes.
Led by neuroscientist Pilyoung Kim, PhD, now with the National Institute of Mental Health, the authors speculated that hormonal changes right after birth, including increases in estrogen, oxytocin and prolactin, may help make mothers� brains susceptible to reshaping in response to the baby. Their findings were published in the October issue of Behavioral Neuroscience.
The motivation to take care of a baby, and the hallmark traits of motherhood, might be less of an instinctive response and more of a result of active brain building, neuroscientists Craig Kinsley, PhD, and Elizabeth Meyer, PhD, wrote in a special commentary in the same journal issue.
Given the existing research literature these speculations were no great leap. For example, prolactin increases nerve myelin sheath production and repair. Prolactin also rises during pregnancy. So prolactin probably alters brain development during pregnancy as well. In rodents neuronal production increases during pregnancy and while raising pups. So these results from humans are not surprising.
Gray matter volume increased in new mothers in several areas of the brain.
The researchers performed baseline and follow-up high-resolution magnetic-resonance imaging on the brains of 19 women who gave birth at Yale-New Haven Hospital, 10 to boys and nine to girls. A comparison of images taken two to four weeks and three to four months after the women gave birth showed that gray matter volume increased by a small but significant amount in various parts of the brain. In adults, gray matter volume doesn�t ordinarily change over a few months without significant learning, brain injury or illness, or major environmental change.
The areas affected support maternal motivation (hypothalamus), reward and emotion processing (substantia nigra and amygdala), sensory integration (parietal lobe), and reasoning and judgment (prefrontal cortex).
Women most thrilled by their babies underwent the greatest brain remodeling.
In particular, the mothers who most enthusiastically rated their babies as special, beautiful, ideal, perfect and so on were significantly more likely to develop bigger mid-brains than the less awestruck mothers in key areas linked to maternal motivation, rewards and the regulation of emotions.
The emotional reactions and stimuli women receive from looking at, holding, and smelling their babies probably also contribute to the brain changes these researchers find. There could be a positive feedback loop between the hormone surges, sensory stimuli, emotional reactions, and brain changes.
These changes caused by becoming mothers likely cause permanent changes in brains. Longitudinal studies of women before any have children and then followed for decades could demonstrate whether this is the case. The change should be measurable using pictures and the sounds of babies combined with either MRI scans or to measure emotional responses.
Update: Another study finds oxytocin levels rise in both mom and dad after a baby shows up.
A fascinating new paper by Gordon and colleagues reports the first longitudinal data on oxytocin levels during the initiation of parenting in humans. They evaluated 160 first-time parents (80 couples) twice after the birth of their first child, at 6 weeks and 6 months, by measuring each parents' oxytocin levels and monitoring and coding their parenting behavior.
Three important findings emerged. At both time-points, fathers' oxytocin levels were not different from levels observed in mothers. Thus, although oxytocin release is stimulated by birth and lactation in mothers, it appears that other aspects of parenthood serve to stimulate oxytocin release in fathers.
Higher oxytocin is associated with more parenting behavior.
Finally, the findings revealed that oxytocin levels were associated with parent-specific styles of interaction. Oxytocin was higher in mothers who provided more affectionate parenting, such as more gazing at the infant, expression of positive affect, and affectionate touch. In fathers, oxytocin was increased with more stimulatory contact, encouragement of exploration, and direction of infant attention to objects.
"It is very interesting that elevations in the same hormone were associated with different types of parenting behaviors in mothers and fathers even though the levels of oxytocin within couples were somewhat correlated. These differences may reflect the impact of culture-specific role expectations, but they also may be indicative of distinct circuit effects of oxytocin in the male and female brain," commented Dr. John Krystal, Editor of Biological Psychiatry.
Yet another study found that oxytocin nasal spray increased trust . Oxytocin reduces fear . Parenting probably affects how parents emotionally react the rest of the world. Infant suckling boosts oxytocin release by nerve dendrites . So women who breast feed probably undergo more mental changes than women who bottle feed and therefore it seems reasonable to expect different parenting behavior between breast feeding and bottle feeding parents.
By Randall Parker 2010 October 23 05:51 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (8)
2010 June 20 Sunday
At the risk of stating the obvious: technology isn't an unalloyed blessing. Technology sometimes creates problems while solving other problems. People sometimes respond to new technologies in ways that are harmful to self and others. With all that in mind: A big survey of kids in North Carolina found that home computers and high speed internet cut student test scores, especially among lower class kids.
DURHAM, N.C. -- Around the country and throughout the world, politicians and education activists have sought to eliminate the "digital divide" by guaranteeing universal access to home computers, and in some cases to high-speed Internet service.
However, according to a new study by scholars at Duke University's Sanford School of Public Policy, these efforts would actually widen the achievement gap in math and reading scores. Students in grades five through eight, particularly those from disadvantaged families, tend to post lower scores once these technologies arrive in their home.
Politicians and professional educators desperately want silver bullets that'll raise test scores, especially for lower scoring minorities. So they look for technologies that'll help. But the problem is that the streets find their own uses for technology. With access to the internet most people do not go searching for lectures on math and physics. Rather, porno, games, movies, music videos, chat, and other diversions are much more eagerly sought.
To make computers useful learning tools for kids the computers would need to have a really controlled set of learning applications and electronic books. The kids using these computers should have to earn access to fun diversions by doing productive learning work first. The learning applications might work better if some of them appeared as learning games. But even ideal computer software isn't going to do a lot to boost the performance of dumber kids or of kids that just don't have much natural curiosity.
What I'd like to know: If the kids were tested for IQ and exposure to computers is there an IQ level at which computer exposure raises performance? Or do computers distract kids of all IQ levels away from school work?
They collected data on 150,000 individuals. They stopped at 2005 in order to avoid the Facebook effect. You can bet that Facebook,Twitter, and the like are pulling kids even further away from books and school work.
"We cut off the study in 2005, so we weren't getting into the Facebook and Twitter generation," Vigdor said. "The technology was much more primitive than that. IM (instant messaging) software was popular then, and it's been one thing after the other since then. Adults may think of computer technology as a productivity tool first and foremost, but the average kid doesn't share that perception." Kids in the middle grades are mostly using computers to socialize and play games, Vigdor added, with clear gender divisions between those activities.
Computers are enabling both children and adults to create environments more closely suited to their desires and not always necessarily to the needs of their intellectual development.
Some evidence points to benefit from home libraries of plain old style books . Though the big collections of books in homes are also a proxy for smarter and more curious parents. Some of that smarts and curiosity is getting passed down to the kids thru genes. Again, studies are needed that control for IQ to measure whether the books in a home really make a big difference. Speaking as a child reading addict the benefit seems likely to be real. If I could go back in a time machine and change my childhood I'd give myself a much bigger and better collection of books to read.
By Randall Parker 2010 June 20 10:59 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (16)
2010 June 02 Wednesday
Getting started into manhood too early or too late seems to cause more aggressive behavior.
Puberty that arrives earlier or later in adolescent boys relative to their peers can trigger chemicals that are related to antisocial behavior, according to researchers, whose findings have key implications for parents with aggressive boys.
"Aggressive behavior can begin very early, even in pre-school, and might be related to poor impulse control, difficulties in the family or just overall general problem behavior," said Elizabeth J. Susman, the Jean Phillips Shibley professor of biobehavioral health, Penn State. "We wanted to find out if earlier or later timing of puberty in adolescents has any biological factors related to it."
Susman and her colleagues looked at how the timing of puberty affects cortisol, a stress hormone, and salivary alpha amylase, an enzyme in saliva used as indicator of stress. Their findings appear in the May issue of Psychoneuroendocrinology.
But girls do not get turned into antisocial monsters by early or late puberty. (they've got other ways to become monsters)
The researchers found that lower levels of the alpha amylase in boys who experienced earlier maturity and higher levels of cortisol in boys who experienced later maturity are related to antisocial behavior. They found no similar correlation in girls.
I am not surprised by the results of early puberty. All pumped up with testosterone but with less than fully developed brains I'm not surprised they become more dangerous. But the older the kid the more developed the medial temporal lobe and other parts of the brain that help to exert control over beastly impulses. But the results from late puberty are surprising to me. Does a kid who enters puberty late also enter it more stressed to begin with? Or is the late arrival of hormones also too late to cause development of parts of the brain that control impulses?
By Randall Parker 2010 June 02 10:48 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2010 March 16 Tuesday
No surprise here. Methamphetamine use during pregnancy harms fetal brains.
Washington, DC � Children whose mothers abused methamphetamine (meth) during pregnancy show brain abnormalities that may be more severe than that of children exposed to alcohol prenatally, according to a study in the March 17 issue of The Journal of Neuroscience. While researchers have long known that drug abuse during pregnancy can alter fetal brain development, this finding shows the potential impact of meth. Identifying vulnerable brain structures may help predict particular learning and behavioral problems in meth-exposed children.
"We know that alcohol exposure is toxic to the developing fetus and can result in lifelong brain, cognitive, and behavioral problems," said Elizabeth Sowell, PhD, of the University of California, Los Angeles, who led the research team. "In this study, we show that the effects of prenatal meth exposure, or the combination of meth and alcohol exposure, may actually be worse. Our findings stress the importance of drug abuse treatment for pregnant women," Sowell said. A structure called the caudate nucleus, which is important for learning and memory, motor control, and motivation, was one of the regions more reduced by meth than alcohol exposure.
Of the more than 16 million Americans over the age of 12 who have used meth, about 19,000 are pregnant women, according to data from the National Surveys on Drug Use and Health. About half of women who say they used meth during pregnancy also used alcohol, so isolating the effects of meth on the developing brain is difficult.
My advice: put alcoholic and meth using pregnant women in institutions where they get isolated from sources of alcohol and meth with frequent blood tests for drug and alcohol abuse. Women should not be allowed to damage the brains of their future babies.
By Randall Parker 2010 March 16 11:11 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (5)
2009 October 10 Saturday
Robin Marantz Henig has a lengthy article in New York Times Magazine about how some babies are born anxious and remain that way even as adults.
The tenuousness of modern life can make anyone feel overwrought. And in societal moments like the one we are in � thousands losing jobs and homes, our futures threatened by everything from diminishing retirement funds to global warming � it often feels as if ours is the Age of Anxiety. But some people, no matter how robust their stock portfolios or how healthy their children, are always mentally preparing for doom. They are just born worriers, their brains forever anticipating the dropping of some dreaded other shoe. For the past 20 years, Kagan and his colleagues have been following hundreds of such people, beginning in infancy, to see what happens to those who start out primed to fret. Now that these infants are young adults, the studies are yielding new information about the anxious brain.
These psychologists have put the assumptions about innate temperament on firmer footing, and they have also demonstrated that some of us, like Baby 19, are born anxious � or, more accurately, born predisposed to be anxious. Four significant long-term longitudinal studies are now under way: two at Harvard that Kagan initiated, two more at the University of Maryland under the direction of Nathan Fox, a former graduate student of Kagan�s. With slight variations, they all have reached similar conclusions: that babies differ according to inborn temperament; that 15 to 20 percent of them will react strongly to novel people or situations; and that strongly reactive babies are more likely to grow up to be anxious.
I'd love to see a political poll done where people are measured for their anxiety and then measured for their views on an assortment of political issues. Are anxious people more likely to support, say, socialized health care or measures against global warming or aggressive policies to stop terrorists or other measures that tend to reduce various risks? Which types of risks do they want to see action taken about at the political level?
I also wonder whether anxious people are more or less likely to become police, military officers, or politicians. Does the worry about threats cause them to seek power to take measures to reduce threats? Or do they try to avoid those sorts of jobs so that they can spend less time worrying?
The article reports that anxiety is the most common mental illness in America with 40 million suffers. Well, when state of mind that probably is genetically caused afflicts 13% of the population I have a hard time calling it an illness. It seems more like an evolutionary maladaptation in modern society. We evolved in niches where that higher level of hypervigilance and fear had selective value that enhanced survival. Now with TV news and web sites reporting all manner of dangers and bad outcomes people who have these anxiety-causing genes are suffering too much in response to the environment around them. Natural selection is obviously cruel.
The article reports that some people channel their reactive temperaments into conscientious and productive behavior. Not all suffer or live in constant worry. Higher IQ people are more likely to channel their higher reactivity into productive pursuits. I wonder whether it will be possible to make our innate traits more often useful and less often crippling.
I've argued with people who insist that Steven Pinker's book The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature attacks a straw man. Yet here's Harvard child psychologist Jerome Kagan explaining that it took him 20 years to take seriously the idea that he was seeing anxiety in children that was due to innate differences in temperaments.
Among these prose summaries, which ultimately Kagan and a colleague, Howard Moss, turned into the book �Birth to Maturity,� were descriptions indicating that babies had different innate temperaments. Kagan studiously ignored this finding; it didn�t fit with his left-leaning politics, which saw all individuals as born inherently the same � blank slates, to use the old terminology � and capable of achieving anything if afforded the right social, economic and educational opportunities. �I was so resistant to awarding biology much influence, I didn�t follow up on the inhibited temperaments I was seeing,� he told me. It took another 20 years of listening to arguments about nature versus nurture for Kagan finally to entertain the possibility that some behavior might be attributed to genes.
We live in the era when the genetic causes of all these innate differences are about to be discovered. The costs of DNA sequencing have fallen so far so fast that the flood gates of DNA sequencing data have opened and the rate of DNA sequenc is going to increase by a few more orders of magnitude. So neuroscientists are going to be able to run down and identify the many genetic influences on temperament and intelligence.
The genetic sequencing results aren't even needed to identify anxious children under the age of 1. The article reports that Jerome Kagan figured out that the amygdala plays a big role in anxiety in ways that also change heart beat, respiration, blood pressure and other externally measurable signs. So babies can be classified for anxious temperament pretty easily.
The whole article is worth reading in full.
Flu Infection During Pregnancy Harmful To Fetal Brains
Pregnant women should seriously ponder whether to get to a doctor and get vaccinated for H1N1 flu and regular seasonal flu. Babies in the womb during the great 1918 flu pandemic suffered more brain development and other development problems.
Flu poses still more risks for the unborn. In April, it was reported that men who were in the womb in early 1970, when a mild flu pandemic hit Norway, had lower scores in army intelligence tests than normal. A 2006 study showed that babies in the womb in September 1918 went on to have lower incomes and education levels, and higher rates of disability. And babies whose mothers have ordinary flu in early pregnancy are 7 times as likely to develop schizophrenia.
That's not good.
A New York Times flu vaccine Q&A includes an item that perhaps suggests at least one reason why flu during pregnancy is especially problematic: pregnancy temporarily reduces lung capacity and so oxygen supply would be especially impacted by flu-caused lung congestion. That'd have harmful effects on fetal development.
A woman�s immune system is compromised during pregnancy. Late in the pregnancy, the fetus pushes up against the thoracic cage and decreases a woman�s lung capacity, putting her at risk for respiratory complications if she contracts flu. A New England Journal study found that pregnant women with swine flu were nine times more likely to be in intensive care.
Think you might get pregnant this winter or already pregnant? Think about flu shots.
By Randall Parker 2009 October 10 07:13 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (5)
2009 October 08 Thursday
Hey expectant mom, cut out the licorice.
Expectant mothers who eat excessive quantities of liquorice during pregnancy could adversely affect their child's intelligence and behaviour, a study has shown.
A study of eight year old children whose mothers ate large amounts of liquorice when pregnant found they did not perform as well as other youngsters in cognitive tests.
They were also more likely to have poor attention spans and show disruptive behaviour such as ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder).
It is thought that a component in liquorice called glycyrrhizin may impair the placenta, allowing stress hormones to cross from the mother to the baby.
We need to know all the food constituents that cause harm to developing fetuses. Surely more are waiting to be discovered. The one I'm curious to know more about: high fructose. Our ancestors consumed about an order of magnitude less fructose. Could it be messing up fetal development?
By Randall Parker 2009 October 08 06:23 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (7)
2009 August 25 Tuesday
Teenagers who take more risks have more adult-like brains as measured by white matter.
A new study using brain imaging to study teen behavior indicates that adolescents who engage in dangerous activities have frontal white matter tracts that are more adult in form than their more conservative peers.
The brain goes through a course of maturation during adolescence and does not reach its adult form until the mid-twenties. A long-standing theory of adolescent behavior has assumed that this delayed brain maturation is the cause of impulsive and dangerous decisions in adolescence. The new study, using a new form of brain imaging, calls into question this theory.
In order to better understand the relationship between high risk-taking and the brain's development, Emory University and Emory School of Medicine neuroscientists used a form of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) called diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to measure structural changes in white matter in the brain. The study's findings are published in the Aug. 26, 2009 PLoS ONE.
Why do you suppose that is? I'd like to know whether the teens whose white matter develops more quickly have more testosterone. Does testosterone speed brain development while also increasing risk-taking behavior?
By Randall Parker 2009 August 25 11:18 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2009 July 21 Tuesday
Pollution is bad.
A mother's exposure to urban air pollutants known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can adversely affect a child's intelligence quotient or IQ, a study reports. PAHs are chemicals released into the air from the burning of coal, diesel, oil and gas, or other organic substances such as tobacco. In urban areas motor vehicles are a major source of PAHs.
The study, funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), a component of the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and several private foundations, found that children exposed to high levels of PAHs in New York City had full scale and verbal IQ scores that were 4.31 and 4.67 points lower than those of less exposed children. High PAH levels were defined as above the median of 2.26 nanograms per cubic meter (ng/m3). A difference of four points, which was the average seen in this study, could be educationally meaningful in terms of school success, as reflected, for example, in standardized testing and other measures of academic performance. However, the researchers point out that the effects may vary among individual children.
But one can easily imagine smarter parents figuring out how to reduce their family's exposure to air pollutants. So this could be a selection effect.
But the subjects had common backgrounds and might not have differed all that much in other characteristics. Hard to tell.
The study was conducted by scientists from the Columbia University Center for Children's Environmental Health. It included children who were born to non-smoking black and Dominican-American women age 18 to 35 who resided in Washington Heights, Harlem or the South Bronx in New York. The children were followed from utero to 5 years of age. The mothers wore personal air monitors during pregnancy to measure exposure to PAHs and they responded to questionnaires.
Live in the country and breath cleaner air. If you have to live in a city or near a highway consider getting a HEPA filter in your residence.
By Randall Parker 2009 July 21 11:24 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2009 July 15 Wednesday
By age 6 brain areas for modeling others have shown up and begun functioning.
Social cognition�the ability to think about the minds and mental states of others�is essential for human beings. In the last decade, a group of regions has been discovered in the human brain that are specifically used for social cognition. A new study in the July/August 2009 issue of the journal Child Development investigates these brain regions for the first time in human children. The study has implications for children with autism.
Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Yale University scanned the brains of 13 children ages 6 to 11 as they listened to children's stories. At the moment the plot of the stories revealed what a character wanted, believed, or knew, or presented the mental state of the character, the researchers observed increased activity in these specific brain regions. When the story turned to other topics�such as the physical world or the visual appearance of the characters�activity in these brain regions went back down.
Do people on the autistic spectrum have smaller brain areas dedicated to social cognition? Do adult Aspies have less brain area dedicated to reading others and modeling others? If so, do they have more brain area dedicated to path and reasoning?
Here's a big non-shocker: science shows once again that in adolescence girls become different than boys in how they think.
The study, by researchers at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and Georgia State University, appears in the July/August 2009 issue of the journal Child Development.
The researchers looked at mostly White psychiatrically healthy Americans ages 9 to 17 to determine what happens in the brains of preteens and teens at a time of significant change in social behavior. The youths looked at photos of peers and rated their interest in interacting with each one. Then they underwent a brain scan while reviewing the pictures and rated how much each young person in the picture might want to interact with them in return. The youths were told they would be matched with a peer for a chat after the scan.
The study found that in older girls (as compared to younger girls), brain regions (the nucleus accumbens, insula, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala) associated with social rewards and motivation, processing emotions, hormonal changes, and social memory responded differently when they thought about being judged by their peers, especially peers with whom they wanted to interact. These differences were not evident between younger and older boys.
What type of cognitive ability changes more in male adolescents? I would expect spatial reasoning to take a big leap in developing males.
The mind areas for thinking about other people are developing in preschoolers.
The study, in the July/August 2009 issue of the journal Child Development, was conducted by researchers at Queen's University at Kingston in Ontario, Canada.
In the preschool years, children develop social skills by learning how to understand others' thoughts and feelings, or their theory of mind. In most children, theory of mind changes over time so they come to understand that others' thoughts are representations of the world that may or may not match the way the world actually is. In their study of EEGs of 29 4-year-olds, the researchers found that these changes are related to the functional development of two parts of the brain�the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and the temporal-parietal juncture�that govern similar understanding in adults.
"For a while now, we have known that specific brain areas are used when adults think about others' thoughts," according to Mark A. Sabbagh, associate professor of psychology at Queen's University at Kingston and the study's lead author. "Our findings are the first to show that these specialized neural circuits may be there as early as the preschool years, and that maturational changes in these areas are associated with preschoolers' abilities to think about their social world in increasingly sophisticated ways.
I wonder whether brain scans of 5 year olds can show which ones will grow up by be highly skilled at handling other people and which will do poorly at relating to others.
By Randall Parker 2009 July 15 10:33 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2009 April 15 Wednesday
Pregnant women using meth are messing up their babies. How about locking them up until the babies are born?
ST. PAUL, Minn. � A first of its kind study examining the effects of methamphetamine use during pregnancy has found the drug appears to cause abnormal brain development in children. The research is published in the April 15, 2009, online issue of Neurology�, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.
"Methamphetamine use is an increasing problem among women of childbearing age, leading to an increasing number of children with prenatal meth exposure," said study author Linda Chang, MD, with the John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at Manoa in Honolulu. "But until now, the effects of prenatal meth exposure on the developing brain of a child were little known."
For the study, brain scans were performed on 29 three and four-year-old children whose mothers used meth while pregnant and 37 unexposed children of the same ages. The MRI scans used diffusion tensor imaging to help measure the diffusion of molecules in a child's brain, which can indicate abnormal microscopic brain structures that might reflect abnormal brain development.
The scans showed that children with prenatal meth exposure had differences in the white matter structure and maturation of their brains compared to unexposed children. The children with prenatal meth exposure had up to four percent lower diffusion of molecules in the white matter of their brains.
The brain damage probably lasts for life. We shouldn't let women do this to their babies. We all pay for it for decades to come.
The antiepilepsy drug valproate also messes up prenatal brain development.
Three-year-olds whose mothers took the antiepileptic drug valproate during pregnancy had average IQs six to nine points lower than children exposed to three other antiepileptic drugs, a landmark multi-center study has found.
The study's authors say that women of childbearing age should avoid valproate as a first choice drug for the treatment of epilepsy. The results are published in the April 16, 2009, issue of the New England Journal of Medicine.
By Randall Parker 2009 April 15 09:55 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (8)
2008 November 20 Thursday
Boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have brain shapes that differ from those kids who aren't hyperactive.
November 17, 2008 (Baltimore, MD)�A study published today in the online advance edition of The American Journal of Psychiatry for the first time reveals shape differences in the brains of children with ADHD, which could help pinpoint the specific neural circuits involved in the disorder. Researchers from the Kennedy Krieger Institute in Baltimore, Md. and the Johns Hopkins Center for Imaging Science used a new analysis tool, large deformation diffeomorphic mapping (LDDMM), which allowed them to examine the precise shape of the basal ganglia. The study found boys with ADHD had significant shape differences and decreases in overall volume of the basal ganglia compared to their typically developing peers. Girls with ADHD did not have volume or shape differences, suggesting sex strongly influences the disorder's expression.
Once again another discovery is made possible by a new measurement technique. The ability to more accurately scan and measure brain volumes allows scientists to discern differences in brain shapes that are correlated with behavioral differences.
Previous studies examining the basal ganglia in children with ADHD were limited to volume analysis and had conflicting results, with some reporting a smaller volume and some reporting no difference in volume. LDDMM provides detailed analysis of the shape of specific brain regions, allowing for precise examination of brain structures well beyond what has been examined in previous MRI studies of ADHD. In this study, LDDMM was used to map the brains of typically developing children in order to generate a basal ganglia template. This is the first reported template of the basal ganglia. After creating LDDMM mappings of the basal ganglia of each child with ADHD, statistical analysis was conducted to compare them to the template.
In this study, the initial volume analysis revealed boys with ADHD had significantly smaller basal ganglia volumes compared with typically-developing boys. Moving beyond the standard volume analysis, the LDDMM revealed shape abnormalities in several regions of the basal ganglia. Comparison of the standard volume and LDDMM analysis of girls with ADHD and their typically developing peers failed to reveal any significant volume or shape differences.
The multiple shape differences found in boys with ADHD suggests that the disorder may not be associated with abnormalities in one specific neural circuit. Rather, it appears the disorder involves abnormalities in parallel circuits, including circuits important for the control of complex behavior and more basic motor responses, such as hitting the brake pedal when a traffic light turns yellow. Findings revealing abnormalities in circuits important for basic motor response control may be crucial to understanding why children with ADHD have difficulty suppressing impulsive actions.
If this finding holds up it suggests that permanent reduction in ADHD behavior might require large scale changes in brain shape.
By Randall Parker 2008 November 20 11:50 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (0)
2008 September 25 Thursday
By age of 12 children show adult patterns of brain response to negative feedback.
Eight-year-old children have a radically different learning strategy from twelve-year-olds and adults. Eight-year-olds learn primarily from positive feedback ('Well done!'), whereas negative feedback ('Got it wrong this time') scarcely causes any alarm bells to ring. Twelve-year-olds are better able to process negative feedback, and use it to learn from their mistakes. Adults do the same, but more efficiently.
The switch in learning strategy has been demonstrated in behavioural research, which shows that eight-year-olds respond disproportionately inaccurately to negative feedback. But the switch can also be seen in the brain, as developmental psychologist Dr Eveline Crone and her colleagues from the Leiden Brain and Cognition Lab discovered using fMRI research. The difference can be observed particularly in the areas of the brain responsible for cognitive control. These areas are located in the cerebral cortex.
In children of eight and nine, these areas of the brain react strongly to positive feedback and scarcely respond at all to negative feedback. But in children of 12 and 13, and also in adults, the opposite is the case. Their 'control centres' in the brain are more strongly activated by negative feedback and much less by positive feedback.
What I wonder: Do some people fail to make the transition toward reacting more to negative feedback? Are some adults neurologically not wired up to learn from negative feedback? Likely the extent of the shift differs from person to person as they grow up and the timing of the shift differs as well.
By Randall Parker 2008 September 25 11:20 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2008 September 09 Tuesday
Eating fish during pregnancy and longer periods of breast feeding boost brain development.
BOSTON, Mass. (Sept. 9, 2008) � Both higher fish consumption and longer breastfeeding are linked to better physical and cognitive development in infants, according to a study of mothers and infants from Denmark. Maternal fish consumption and longer breastfeeding were independently beneficial.
"These results, together with findings from other studies of women in the U.S. and the United Kingdom, provide additional evidence that moderate maternal fish intake during pregnancy does not harm child development and may on balance be beneficial," said Assistant Professor Emily Oken, lead author of the study.
The study, which appeared in the September issue of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, was conducted by researchers from the Department of Ambulatory Care and Prevention of Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care and the Maternal Nutrition Group from the Department of Epidemiology at Statens Serum Institut in Copenhagen, Denmark. These findings provide further evidence that the omega-3 fatty acids found in fish and compounds in breast milk are beneficial to infant development.
The study team looked at 25,446 children born to mothers participating in the Danish Birth Cohort, a study that includes pregnant women enrolled from 1997-2002. Mothers were interviewed about child development markers at 6 and 18 months postpartum and asked about their breastfeeding at 6 months postpartum. Prenatal diet, including amounts and types of fish consumed weekly, was assessed by a detailed food frequency questionnaire administered when they were six months pregnant.
During the interviews mothers were asked about specific physical and cognitive developmental milestones such as whether the child at six months could hold up his/her head, sit with a straight back, sit unsupported, respond to sound or voices, imitate sounds, or crawl. At 18 months, they were asked about more advanced milestones such as whether the child could climb stairs, remove his/her socks, drink from a cup, write or draw, use word-like sounds and put words together, and whether they could walk unassisted.
The children whose mothers ate the most fish during pregnancy were more likely to have better motor and cognitive skills. For example, among mothers who ate the least fish, 5.7% of their children had the lowest developmental scores at 18 months, compared with only 3.7% of children whose mothers had the highest fish intake. Compared with women who ate the least fish, women with the highest fish intake (about 60 grams - 2 ounces - per day on average) had children 25% more likely to have higher developmental scores at 6 months and almost 30% more likely to have higher scores at 18 months.
Longer duration of breastfeeding was also associated with better infant development, especially at 18 months. Breastmilk also contains omega-3 fatty acids. The benefit of fish consumption was similar among infants breastfed for shorter or longer durations.
Ladies, select fish that are low in mercury. Or take fish oil pills.
So then if fish consumption causes greater development of the anterior prefrontal cortex will the kids raised with more omega 3 fatty acids exercise more self control ? Do fish boost free will?
Other ways to optimize brain development exist. Higher calcium consumption during pregnancy might reduce fetal lead exposure.
ANN ARBOR, Mich.---Pregnant women who take high levels of daily calcium supplements show a marked reduction in lead levels in their blood, suggesting calcium could play a critical role in reducing fetal and infant exposure.
A new study at the University of Michigan shows that women who take 1,200 milligrams of calcium daily have up to a 31 percent reduction in lead levels.
Women who used lead-glazed ceramics and those with high bone lead levels showed the largest reductions; the average reduction was about 11 percent, said Howard Hu, chair of the Department of Environmental Health Sciences at the School of Public Health.
By Randall Parker 2008 September 09 11:14 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2008 August 18 Monday
Somewhere around 6 months of age babies suddenly start paying much more attention to fearful faces.
Scientists working in the Academy-funded Research Programme on Neuroscience (NEURO) have discovered important changes in the way that infants react to another person�s face at age 5�7 months.
Infants aged 5 months react very differently to a fearful face than those aged 7 months. �At the age of 7 months babies will watch a fearful face for longer than a happy face, and their attentiveness level as measured by EEG is higher after seeing a fearful than a happy face. By contrast, infants aged 5 months watch both faces, when they are shown side by side, for just as long, and there is no difference in the intensity of attention in favour of the fearful face,� said Mikko Peltola, researcher at the University of Tampere, at the Academy�s Science Breakfast this week.
It seems that at age 6 months, important developmental changes take place in the way that infants process significant emotional expressions. A fearful face attracts intense attention by the age of 7 months. In addition, it takes longer for infants to shift their attention away from fearful than from happy and neutral faces.
I wonder how much variability there is in when this transition happens. Also, do babies with Asperger's Syndrome or autism go through this same transition in how they react to fearful faces and do they do this at the same point in time as normal children?
Also, is the intense attention to fearful faces a defense mechanism? Or is it a pointless reaction at age 6 months but a capability that needs to come sooner or later which just happens to occur at 6 months?
By Randall Parker 2008 August 18 09:56 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (0)
2008 May 28 Wednesday
The neurotoxin lead appears to have long term negative effects on behavior.
Childhood exposure to lead is associated with adult criminal behaviour, including violent crime, finds a new study in this week�s PLoS Medicine. Dr Kim Dietrich and colleagues (University of Cincinnati, USA) studied the association between exposure to lead in the uterus and during early childhood and criminal arrests in adulthood, in poor areas of Cincinnati.
Lead is known to be toxic to the nervous system. Childhood exposure has been identified as a potential risk factor for antisocial behaviour in adulthood. But this link has relied on indirect measurement of childhood lead exposure in adults or has measured childhood lead exposure directly but has not followed lead-exposed children into adulthood. The new study overcomes both of these limitations.
Between 1979 and 1984, the researchers recruited pregnant women living in poor areas of Cincinnati, which had a high concentration of older lead-contaminated housing. Out of the 376 newborns recruited into the study, 250 were included in the final analysis. Blood lead levels were measured during pregnancy and then regularly until the children were six and a half years old, as an indication of their lead exposure. This exposure was then correlated with local criminal justice records on how many times each of the 250 offspring had been arrested between becoming 18 years old and the end of October 2005.
The researchers found that increased blood lead levels before birth and during early childhood were associated with higher rates of arrest for any reason and for violent crimes. For example, for every 5ug/dl increase in blood lead levels at six years of age, the risk of being arrested for a violent crime as a young adult increased by almost 50% (the �relative risk� was 1.48).
Here is the full research paper.
Testing 5 year olds or maybe 3 year olds for blood lead levels followed by measures to lower lead levels could pay rich dividends in lower crime rates. Note that a lot of evidence points toward the idea that vitamin B1 (thiamin) seems to increase excretion of lead. A few other nutrients might do so as well.
By Randall Parker 2008 May 28 07:11 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (13)
2008 April 23 Wednesday
Teens can be so messed up because their brains are getting restructured.
Philadelphia, March 28, 2008 � Many parents are convinced that the brains of their teenage offspring are different than those of children and adults. New data confirms that this is the case. An article by Jay N. Giedd, MD, of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), published in the April 2008 issue of the Journal of Adolescent Health describes how brain changes in the adolescent brain impact cognition, emotion and behavior.
Dr. Giedd reviews the results from the NIMH Longitudinal Brain Imaging Project. This study and others indicate that gray matter increases in volume until approximately the early teens and then decreases until old age. Pinning down these differences in a rigorous way had been elusive until MRI was developed, offering the capacity to provide extremely accurate quantifications of brain anatomy and physiology without the use of ionizing radiation.
Our brains go through big changes during adolescence. The brain gets a lot of executive function enhancements.
The NIMH Longitudinal Brain Imaging Project began in 1989. Participants visit the NIMH at approximately two-year intervals for brain imaging, neuropsychological and behavioral assessment and collection of DNA. As of September 2007, approximately 5000 scans from 2000 subjects have been acquired. Of these, 387 subjects, aged 3 to 27 years, have remained free of any psychopathology and serve as the models for typical brain development.
Three themes have emerged from this and other studies in this new era of adolescent neuroscience. The first is functional and structural increases in connectivity and integrative processing as distributed brain modules become more and more integrated. Using a literary metaphor, maturation would not be the addition of new letters but rather of combining earlier formed letters into words, and then words into sentences and then sentences into paragraphs.
The second is a general pattern of childhood peaks of gray matter (frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe) followed by adolescent declines. As parts of the brain are overdeveloped and then discarded, the structure of the brain becomes more refined.
The third theme is a changing balance between limbic/subcortical and frontal lobe functions that extends well into young adulthood as different cognitive and emotional systems mature at different rates. The cognitive and behavioral changes taking place during adolescence may be understood from the perspective of increased �executive� functioning, a term encompassing a broad array of abilities, including attention, response inhibition, regulation of emotion, organization and long-range planning.
What would be helpful: ways to identify when a kid's brain development has entered a stage which makes them more dangerous to self or other due. Detect a deficiency of functions that make them better able to understand themselves and others and more able to restraint their actions.
I can imagine some day drivers license requirements will include brain scans to show that one is not obviously prone to rash and dangerous actions. Also, I can imagine the development of drugs that will speed a teenager more quickly through stages since moms would just as soon have kids with more mature personalities once the kids hit adolescence.
By Randall Parker 2008 April 23 10:50 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (6)
2008 April 10 Thursday
The omega 3 fatty acid is suspected of boosting infant brain development.
Quebec City, April 9, 2008�A study supervised by Universit� Laval researchers Gina Muckle and �ric Dewailly reveals that omega-3 intake during the last months of pregnancy boosts an infant�s sensory, cognitive, and motor development. The details of this finding are published in a recent edition of the Journal of Pediatrics.
To come to this conclusion, researchers first measured docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) concentration�a type of omega-3 fatty acid involved in the development of neurons and retinas�in the umbilical cord blood of 109 infants. �DHA concentration in the umbilical cord is a good indicator of intra-uterine exposure to omega-3s during the last trimester of pregnancy, a crucial period for the development of retinal photoreceptors and neurons,� explains Dr. Dewailly.
Tests conducted on these infants at 6 and 11 months revealed that their visual acuity as well as their cognitive and motor development were closely linked to DHA concentration in the umbilical cord blood at the time of their birth. However, there was very little relation between test results and DHA concentration in a mother�s milk among infants who were breast-fed. �These results highlight the crucial importance of prenatal exposure to omega-3s in a child�s development,� points out Dr. Muckle.
This is not the first study to make that claim. But a lot of factors influence intellectual development including genetics. It is hard to prove the influence of this one factor. Still, given DHA's role in nerve cell membranes this claim seems highly plausible.
By Randall Parker 2008 April 10 11:01 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2008 March 23 Sunday
These results deal with averages of course. But personality types identifiable in preschool children have lasting effects.
Participants consisted of 230 children who were studied every year from their first or second year in preschool until age 12. After age 12, the sample was reassessed twice, at ages 17 and 23. Researchers led by Jaap Denissen of Humboldt-University Berlin assessed degrees of shyness and aggressiveness through parental scales and teacher reports.
Denissen tested the hypotheses on the predictive validity of three major preschool personality types. Resilient personality is characterized by above average emotional stability, IQ, and academic achievement. Overcontrol is characterized by low scores on extraversion, emotional stability, and self-esteem. Undercontrol is characterized by low scores on emotional stability and agreeableness and high scores on aggressive behavior.
The 19-year longitudinal study illustrated that childhood personality types were meaningfully associated with the timing of the transitions. Resilient males were found to leave their parents� house approximately one year earlier than overcontrolled or undercontrolled children. Overcontrolled boys took more than a year longer than others in finding a romantic partner. Resilient boys and girls were faster in getting a part-time job than their overcontrolled and undercontrolled peers.
Okay, when offspring genetic engineering becomes possible will prospective parents opt to give their kids genetic variations that make them resilient personalities or maybe undercontrolled or overcontrolled? I'm expecting parents to boost the IQ of their kids. But will they go too far in giving the kids extraversion or perhaps make them too emotionally controlled?
By Randall Parker 2008 March 23 10:23 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2008 March 09 Sunday
Some kids have genes that make them better able to handle abuse with fewer long term repercussions.
Some forms of a gene that controls the body's response to stress hormones appear to protect adults who were abused in childhood from depression, psychiatrists have found.
People who had been abused as children and who carried the most protective forms of the gene, called corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor one (CRHR1), had markedly lower measures of depression, compared with people with less protective forms, the researchers found in a recent study.
The findings could guide doctors in finding new ways to treat depression in people who were abused as children, says senior author Kerry Ressler, MD, PhD, assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Emory University School of Medicine.
This is not the first report of genetic variations of brain genes that affect how well developing children handle abuse and adversity. Previous research found that children who carry the low MAOA activity allele (MAOA-L) and who are abused demonstrate more aggressive and violent behavior as adults.
Some kids have genes that let them shrug off all sorts of abuse and basically keep trucking. Other kids aren't so lucky. Those latter kids become problems for the rest of us too. Violence prone adults pose a danger to whoever they come into contact with.
Early identification of kids with genetic vulnerabilities might some day get used to guide more aggressive state intervention into bad families. You can imagine social workers arguing to take a kid out of an abusive home more quickly if the has genes that make him or her vulnerable to permanent and problematic behavioral and personality alterations.
Once offspring genetic engineering becomes possible we can't assume parents should avoid giving offspring these genetic variations that make kids more vulnerable to abuse. There might be benefits to these alleles in more benign environments. Though I see a more compelling argument for discouraging the passing along of these alleles if either prospective parent has a genetic profile and brain scans that suggests he or she is likely to abuse kids.
By Randall Parker 2008 March 09 10:30 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (0)
2008 February 25 Monday
Bratty Adolescents Have Bigger Amygdalas
A team of scientists at the University of Melbourne in Australia watched some 11 to 14 year old early adolescent children discuss points of disagreement with their parents and measured their reactions. Then the scientists measured the size of brain areas in each of the children. Well, the children more prone to tantrums and sulking had different sizes of various brain areas as compared to the more agreeable children. Is anyone surprised by this result?
Next the team scanned the children�s brains, focusing on three regions: the amygdala, which triggers impulsive reactions to emotional situations, and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) � pre-frontal parts of the brain involved in more thoughtful and reflective responses.
Children of both sexes who behaved more aggressively during the problem-solving tasks had bigger amygdalas, while boys who had smaller ACCs on the left side of the brain, compared with the right, stayed aggressive for longer. Also, boys with smaller OFCs on the left side were more likely to respond to a parent�s sulky behaviour with a sulk of their own.
Picture our genetically engineered future. I expect many prospective parents to opt to give their offspring genetic variations that will make their brains develop bigger anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) brain regions and to develop those regions sooner during adolescence. Just genetically engineer surliness and brattiness right out of kids. Why not?
From the abstract of the PNAS paper:
In a sample of 137 early adolescents, we investigated the relationship between aspects of the adolescents' brain structure and their affective behavior as assessed during observation of parent�child interactions. We found a significant positive association between volume of the amygdala and the duration of adolescent aggressive behavior during these interactions. We also found male-specific associations between the volume of prefrontal structures and affective behavior, with decreased leftward anterior paralimbic cortex volume asymmetry associated with increased duration of aggressive behavior, and decreased leftward orbitofrontal cortex volume asymmetry associated with increased reciprocity of dysphoric behavior. These findings suggest that adolescent brain structure is associated with affective behavior and its regulation in the context of family interactions, and that there may be gender differences in the neural mechanisms underlying affective and behavioral regulation during early adolescence. Particularly as adolescence marks a period of rapid brain maturation, our findings have implications for mental health outcomes that may be revealed later along the developmental trajectory.
For most kids the bratty punk surly rude inconsiderate phase won't last. But the behavior of some adults suggests that not all escape from this phase. These who get stuck in adolescence probably need brain gene therapy to push their brains along a sorely needed development path.
Team leader Nicholas Allen, a clinical psychologist with the University of Melbourne and the Orygen Research Centre, said: "The good news is that to a certain extent it's a phase. Parents do find it helpful to understand that some of the inexplicable behaviours teenagers come up with is part of a brain developmental phase."
What were you thinking?
Professor Allen said that the research also cast light on why teenagers who one day approached tasks with a maturity beyond their years could act with immaturity the next. �Your 6ft 2 son can manage some very complicated work yet still do these dumb things. �What were you thinking?� has been asked by every parent of teenagers,� he said.
By Randall Parker 2008 February 25 10:36 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2007 November 23 Friday
Lead toxicity to the brain appears to kick in at pretty low blood levels of lead.
Even very small amounts of lead in children's blood -- amounts well below the current federal standard -- are associated with reduced IQ scores, finds a new six-year Cornell study.
The study examined the effect of lead exposure on cognitive function in children whose blood-lead levels (BLLs) were below the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) standard of 10 micrograms per deciliter (mcg/dl) -- about 100 parts per billion. The researchers compared children whose BLLs were between 0 and 5 mcg/dl with children in the 5-10 mcg/dl range.
"Even after taking into consideration family and environmental factors known to affect a child's cognitive performance, blood lead played a significant role in predicting nonverbal IQ scores," says Richard Canfield, a senior researcher in Cornell's Division of Nutritional Sciences and senior author of the study in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives. "We found that the average IQ scores of children with BLLs of only 5 to 10 mcg/dl were about 5 points lower than the IQ scores of children with BLLs less than 5 mcg/dl. This indicates an adverse effect on children who have a BLL substantially below the CDC standard, suggesting the need for more stringent regulations," he said.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and B1 (thiamine) enhance lead excretion . Screening of children in high risk neighborhoods might identify neighborhoods where children should take a multivitamin that will raise their IQs by reducing lead toxicity. A 5 point IQ jump would pay back the cost of the screening and vitamins many times over.
By Randall Parker 2007 November 23 11:26 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (11)
2007 November 15 Thursday
Kids with attention deficit experience brain growth in some areas their brains 3 years later than non-ADHD kids.
In youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the brain matures in a normal pattern but is delayed three years in some regions, on average, compared to youth without the disorder, an imaging study by researchers at the National Institutes of Health�s (NIH) National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has revealed. The delay in ADHD was most prominent in regions at the front of the brain�s outer mantle (cortex), important for the ability to control thinking, attention and planning. Otherwise, both groups showed a similar back-to-front wave of brain maturation with different areas peaking in thickness at different times (see movie below).
�Finding a normal pattern of cortex maturation, albeit delayed, in children with ADHD should be reassuring to families and could help to explain why many youth eventually seem to grow out of the disorder,� explained Philip Shaw, M.D., NIMH Child Psychiatry Branch, who led research team.
So then maybe all those ADHD boys shouldn't be on Ritalin. Maybe we should let restless boys be restless and not expect them to act like calm girls.
Do ADHD kids who took Ritalin for years demonstrate higher or lower cognitive performance as adults than ADHD kids who do not take Ritalin?
Also, while I'm asking: Do the brains of ADHD kids develop more slowly because of genes, nutrition, or some other reason? I'm guessing it is at least partly genetic.
By Randall Parker 2007 November 15 11:33 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2007 November 10 Saturday
Children whose mothers have lower waist-hip ratio (WHR) are smarter.
Upper-body fat has negative effects and lower-body fat has positive effects on the supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids that are essential for neurodevelopment. Thus, waist-hip ratio (WHR), a useful proxy for the ratio of upper-body fat to lower-body fat, should predict cognitive ability in women and their offspring. Moreover, because teenage mothers and their children compete for these resources, their cognitive development should be compromised, but less so for mothers with lower WHRs. These predictions are supported by data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Controlling for other correlates of cognitive ability, women with lower WHRs and their children have significantly higher cognitive test scores, and teenage mothers with lower WHRs and their children are protected from cognitive decrements associated with teen births. These findings support the idea that WHR reflects the availability of neurodevelopmental resources and thus offer a new explanation for men's preference for low WHR.
They suspect the omega-3 fatty acids in particular as beneficial. So women should eat salmon while pregnant and while nursing.
The answer could be encountered in omega-3 fatty acids, stored in the hips and thighs and which make a large percentage of the human brain. This type of fatty acids is stored by the female body below the waist with the installation of the puberty.
The male obsession with curviness shows how responsible we are to want smarter kids.
"Men respond because it's reproductively important," Lassek says.
This is not the only evolutionary reason why men prefer curvier women. Women With Hourglass Bodies Have More Reproductive Hormones .
What I wonder: Does the draining of omega 3 fatty acids from a woman in the last trimester of pregnancy contribute to post-partum depression? Check out some of the evidence on omega 3 fatty acids and depression here and here and here .
Higher fish consumption looks highly beneficial as protection against postpartum depression.
The new study is an analysis of 11,721 British women. Researchers found that the more omega-3 fatty acids a woman consumed in seafood during the third trimester, the less likely she was to show signs of major depression at that time and for up to eight months after the birth.
In fact, the rate of depression in the women with the highest intakes was only about half that of women with the lowest intakes, says senior author and psychiatrist Dr. Joseph R. Hibbeln.
Omega 3 fatty acids is one of the two nutrients most people should try to get more of. Vitamin D is the other one. Go for salmon and sardines to get more omega 3 fatty acids. It'll even reduce the chances you'll commit a crime .
By Randall Parker 2007 November 10 09:40 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (5)
2007 November 06 Tuesday
Here is news some new moms can use. Whether breast feeding will boost offspring IQ comes down to which genetic variations the babies carry.
DURHAM, N.C. � The known association between breast feeding and slightly higher IQ in children has been shown to relate to a particular gene in the babies, according to a report this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
In two studies of breast-fed infants involving more than 3,000 children in Britain and New Zealand, breastfeeding was found to raise intelligence an average of nearly 7 IQ points if the children had a particular version of a gene called FADS2.
The distribution of FADS2 genetic variants probably varies around the world. Anyone know of a source of data for FADS2 genetic variant distributions in human races and local ethnic groups? That information would probably indicate whether results would hold up in all human populations.
"There has been some criticism of earlier studies about breastfeeding and IQ that they didn't control for socioeconomic status, or the mother's IQ or other factors, but our findings take an end-run around those arguments by showing the physiological mechanism that accounts for the difference," said Terrie Moffitt, a professor of psychological and brain sciences in Duke University's Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy.
Moffitt, who performed the research with her husband and co-author Avshalom Caspi at King's College in London, found that the baby's intellectual development is influenced by both genes and environment or, more specifically, by the interaction of its genes with its environment.
"The argument about intelligence has been about nature versus nurture for at least a century," Moffitt said. "We're finding that nature and nurture work together."
These results suggest that most women should breast feed. Only 10% of the women in the study groups had babies with genetic profiles which prevented a benefit from breast feeding.
Ninety percent of the children in the two study groups had at least one copy of the "C" version of FADS2, which yielded higher IQ if they were breast-fed. The other 10 percent, with only the "G" versions of the gene, showed no IQ advantage or disadvantage from breastfeeding.
A cheap test for FADS2 variants could help millions of women weigh the costs and benefits of breast feeding. Find out from a genetic test whether newly born junior will turn out smarter if you structure your life so that breast feeding is practical.
The benefit of the "C" version of FADS2 might come from its ability to convert other fatty acids to DHA.
The gene was singled out for the researchers' attention because it produces an enzyme that helps convert dietary fatty acids into the polyunsaturated fatty acids DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and AA (arachidonic acid) that have been shown to accumulate in the human brain during the first months after birth.
A baby formula high in DHA might deliver the same benefit as breast feeding and deliver that benefit regardless of genetic variations carried by a baby. Mom eating salmon every day and then breast feeding might similarly deliver that benefit regardless of genetic variation.
A 7 point IQ boost is a really big deal. A country that boosted its average IQ by 7 points would experience a huge boost in economic growth and a rise in per capita GDP as the smarter kids made their way into the labor market.
By Randall Parker 2007 November 06 08:25 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (5)
2007 October 09 Tuesday
Special videos not magic mental development tool for babies.
The Seattle team surveyed more than 1,000 families in February 2006 and found that infants between 8 and 16 months who regularly watched Baby Einstein and Brainy Baby videos knew substantially fewer words -- six to eight out of 90 -- than infants who did not watch them, according to parental reports. The deficit, which increased with each hour of video viewing, was not seen among babies who watched other programming, such as "Sesame Street" or "SpongeBob SquarePants" or adult shows such as "Oprah."
The study, published in the Journal of Pediatrics, is the first to examine the impact of videos that have been heavily promoted as educational, according to lead author Frederick J. Zimmerman, a University of Washington associate professor of public health and pediatrics. Zimmerman called the negative effect "large and significant" but said the study stopped short of establishing a causal connection.
I would expect babies to learn more from interacting with humans since interactions provide feedbacks on what they do.
What is striking to me about a story like this one is the lengths that some people will go to try to boost the mental development of little Johnnie and Jill. Imagine what parents will do once real mental boosting biotechnologies become available. A drug that boosts IQ by 10 points if taken for several years during childhood would be a big seller. But at least in some of the Western industrialized countries getting such drugs approved will be very difficult. The problem of how to prove safety is enormous. This leads me to expect bigger IQ boosts will happen in less developed countries which lack big drug regulatory agencies.
Much bigger IQ boosts will become available via genetic tinkering at the time of conception. The use of multiple embryos with pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (aka PIGD or PGD) to choose the potentially smartest embryo will a face fewer regulatory obstacles than the use of gene therapy to modify embryo genes. But the latter will offer far greater potential for intellectual boosting once scientists identify all the genetic variations that influence intelligence and once embryo genetic engineering techniques become fairly mature and safe.
By Randall Parker 2007 October 09 05:21 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2007 October 06 Saturday
More fish for developing fetuses?
Washington, D.C. ---- Today a Maternal Nutrition Group comprised of top professors of obstetrics and doctors of nutrition from across the country, in partnership with the National Healthy Mothers, Healthy Babies Coalition (HMHB), unveiled recommendations for seafood consumption during pregnancy. The recommendations come at a time when the debate about mercury in fish and an FDA/EPA advisory have created confusion for pregnant women, causing a reduction in their fish consumption. This leads to inadequate intake of omega-3 fatty acids resulting in risks to their health and the health of their children. This inadequate intake of fish is confirmed by data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), which shows that 90 percent of women are consuming less than the FDA-recommended amount of fish.
The Group recommended that women who want to become pregnant, are pregnant or are breastfeeding should eat a minimum of 12 ounces per week of fish like salmon, tuna, sardines and mackerel, and can do so safely. The Group found that eating fish is the optimal way to gain the benefits of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Seafood is the richest dietary source of DHA and EPA in Americans� diets. The Group also recognized that selenium, an essential mineral found in certain ocean fish, accumulates and appears to protect against the toxicity from trace amounts of mercury.
By Randall Parker 2007 October 06 04:52 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (9)
2007 August 18 Saturday
Two brain control networks found in adults exist as a single merged control network in children.
Two recently discovered control networks that govern voluntary brain activity in adults start life as a single network in children, report neuroscientists at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis.
Researchers previously showed the networks supervise most goal-oriented brain activity, enlisting the specialized talents of multiple brain regions for goal-oriented tasks as diverse as reading a word, listening to music or searching for a star. They were surprised to find the two networks merged together in children.
Kids don't just know a lot less. They think differently. Okay, you already knew that. But it is still great when science confirms our observations about human nature. Also, this sort of research is a useful lesson for those who try to force kids to act like adults.
A new brain scanning method made this discovery possible.
Scientists used a new brain scanning technique called resting state functional connectivity MRI to identify the control networks. Instead of analyzing mental activity when a volunteer works on a cognitive task, the new technique scans their brains while they do nothing. The scans reveal changes in the levels of oxygen in blood flowing to different areas of the brain. Researchers interpret correlations in the rise and fall of blood oxygen to different brain areas during inactivity as a sign that those areas likely work together. In neuroscientist's terms, this means the regions have functional connectivity.
A team of researchers led by Petersen and M.D./Ph.D. student Nico Dosenbach analyzed scans of volunteers with an approach called graph theory. They represented various brain regions of interest as shapes, and when two regions met a threshold for functional connectivity, they drew a line between them. The two control networks were distinctly separate even when the connectivity threshold was set to a low level.
For the new study, scientists used the same techniques to analyze the brains of 210 children, adolescents and adults. They found the two control networks are merged in children but begin pulling apart in adolescents, establishing themselves as separate entities and becoming more complex.
Some people complain that adolescents are so weird. To those people I ask: How would you act if your brain was undergoing a major reorganization of how it controls itself?
The brain continues to change as we get older.
Fair notes that an interesting pattern emerged as scientists looked at their data from a big picture perspective.
"As we get older, connections that are getting weaker tend to be between brain regions located close to each other, while the connections that are getting stronger tend be those between regions that are far apart," he says.
I'm skeptical of claims that there's a single best standard for aesthetic issues. Given that humans differ so much in how their brains are wired up we should expect people to differ in their tastes in music, architecture, annoyance at noise, desire to drive fast, and in countless other ways. This isn't to argue that every state of mind is equally morally justifiable. Murderers aren't justified in murdering just because some might be wired up to strongly want to murder.
Brain research will eventually present challenges when some differences in values are found to derive from innate differences in brain architectures. Hard to argue that a disagreement is due to misunderstandings when the disagreement is the result of innate differences in how brains reason and form emotions.
Brain development research will probably change how we grant rights. Children have fewer rights (e.g. a very limited right to contract) in most societies. That's a recognition of the lower capacity of children to judge and to fulfill responsibilities. Well, once research can show that some fast developing 16 year olds have a greater capacity to evaluate and fulfill obligations in contracts than some 25 year olds why should all 25 year olds have more rights than all 16 year olds?
Instead of an all-or-little granting of rights might it make more sense to grant levels of rights and even categories of rights incrementally based on extent of cognitive capabilities? We lack the capability to measure small gradations in ability to respect rights or honor contracts. But that won't always be the case. I expect results of brain scans and other measurements of cognitive capability to some day get used by governments to determine when a person can get a driver's license, enlist in the military, or become an emancipated minor.
By Randall Parker 2007 August 18 11:00 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (0)
2007 July 27 Friday
Is susceptibility to peer pressure identifiable in adolescents using brain scans? ("but mom, my weak brain connections made it impossible for me to say no")
WASHINGTON, DC July 26, 2007 � Brain regions that regulate different aspects of behavior are more interconnected in children with high resistance to peer influence than those with low resistance, according to a new study published in the July 25 issue of The Journal of Neuroscience.
"These findings may help develop more effective strategies to prevent the development of lifestyles of violence and crime,� says John Sweeney, PhD, Director of the Center for Cognitive Medicine at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Sweeney was not involved in this study.
In the new study, Tomas Paus, MD, PhD, at the University of Nottingham, and his colleagues used functional neuroimaging to scan adolescents while they watched video clips of neutral or angry hand and face movements. Previous research has shown that anger is the most easily recognized emotion.
Paus and his team observed 35 10-year-olds with high and low resistance to peer influence, as determined by a questionnaire. The researchers then showed the children video clips of angry hand movements and angry faces and measured their brain activity. They found that the brains of all children showed activity in regions important for planning and extracting information about social cues from movement, but the connectivity between these regions was stronger in children who were marked as less vulnerable to peer influence. These children were also found to have more activity in the prefrontal cortex, an area important for decision making and inhibition of socially inappropriate behavior.
Do stronger connections between these brain regions form as these children with weaker connections get older? Or perhaps do they remain more susceptible to peer pressure?
By Randall Parker 2007 July 27 12:03 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2007 May 09 Wednesday
Do babies conceived during summer perform worse at cognitive tasks?
INDIANAPOLIS � Does the time of year in which a child is conceived influence future academic achievement? Yes, according to research by neonatologist Paul Winchester, M.D., Indiana University School of Medicine professor of clinical pediatrics. Dr. Winchester, who studied 1,667,391 Indiana students, presents his finding on May 7 at the Pediatric Academic Societies' annual meeting.
Dr. Winchester and colleagues linked the scores of the students in grades 3 through 10 who took the Indiana Statewide Testing for Educational Progress (ISTEP) examination with the month in which each student had been conceived. The researchers found that ISTEP scores for math and language were distinctly seasonal with the lowest scores received by children who had been conceived in June through August.
Why might children conceived in June through August have the lowest ISTEP scores? "The fetal brain begins developing soon after conception. The pesticides we use to control pests in fields and our homes and the nitrates we use to fertilize crops and even our lawns are at their highest level in the summer," said Dr. Winchester, who also directs Newborn Intensive Care Services at St. Francis Hospital in Indianapolis.
"Exposure to pesticides and nitrates can alter the hormonal milieu of the pregnant mother and the developing fetal brain," said Dr. Winchester. "While our findings do not represent absolute proof that pesticides and nitrates contribute to lower ISTEP scores, they strongly support such a hypothesis."
I can think of many other potential explanations. For example, maybe the babies conceived in the summer do not get enough vitamin D in the winter and this lack of vitamin D causes their brains to develop poorly when their brains are developing most rapidly. Maybe nutritional status matters more during later months of pregnancy.
Pesticides might also be upping the rate of premature births.
INDIANAPOLIS � The growing premature birth rate in the United States appears to be strongly associated with increased use of pesticides and nitrates, according to work conducted by Paul Winchester, M.D., professor of clinical pediatrics at the Indiana University School of Medicine. He reports his findings May 7 at the Pediatric Academic Societies' annual meeting, a combined gathering of the American Pediatric Society, the Society for Pediatric Research, the Ambulatory Pediatric Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics.
Dr. Winchester and colleagues found that preterm birth rates peaked when pesticides and nitrates measurements in surface water were highest (April-July) and were lowest when nitrates and pesticides were lowest (Aug.-Sept.).
A repeat of this experiment in other regions could control for the pesticide effect since not all areas of the United States have much agriculture. Also, growing season start dates and lengths differ by region. The effect of pesticides would start later and end earlier in Maine than in Missouri for example. We could also see a difference depending on the source of water supply. Water supplies probably vary considerably in their pesticide concentrations.
By Randall Parker 2007 May 09 12:26 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (9)
2007 March 18 Sunday
A professor at the University of Maryland Child Development Laboratory claims the short version of a gene involved in metabolism of neurotransmitter serotonin combined with stress creates a shy kid.
In a study published in the February issue of Current Directions in Psychological Science, Nathan Fox, professor and director of the Child Development Laboratory, and his team found that kids who are consistently shy while growing up are particularly likely to be raised by stressed-out parents, and to possess a genetic variant associated with stress sensitivity.
...
Like all genes, the particular serotonin-related gene examined in this study has 2 alleles, which can be long or short. The protein produced by the short form of the gene is known to predispose towards some forms of stress sensitivity.
Fox's research found that among children exposed to a mother's stress, it was only those who also inherited the short forms of the gene who showed consistently shy behavior.
"If you have two short alleles of this serotonin gene, but your mom is not stressed, you will be no more shy than your peers as a school age child," says Fox. "But we found that when stress enters the picture, the gene starts to show a strong relationship to the child's behavior," says Fox. "If you are raised in a stressful environment, and you inherit the short form of the gene, there is a higher likelihood that you will be fearful, anxious or depressed."
From this press release we do not know the sample size of his study. But his result is at least plausible.
Suppose this gene's short version works as advertised. When offspring genetic engineering becomes possible will prospective parents choose to make shyness a thing of the past? Will some future generation be anywhere between extroverted and extremely extroverted? If so, what will we lose? My guess is that governments will become more corrupt as people with genetically engineered lack of shyness feel less fear of getting held up to public condemnation.
By Randall Parker 2007 March 18 10:17 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2007 February 18 Sunday
Higher Fish Diet Seems To Make Babies Smarter
As part of the University of Bristol Children Of The 90s project dietary information and child cognitive performance was checked for children in thousands of families (the news reports speak of 9000 families or 11,875 pregnant women - maybe the higher number includes multiple pregnancies from some of the women?) . Children whose mothers ate fish more than 3 times a week did better in tests of cognitive function.
Mothers who ate more seafood than the US guidelines (340 grams, or three portions a week) had children who were more advanced in development tests measuring fine motor, communication and social skills as toddlers, had more positive social behaviours and were less likely to have low verbal IQ scores at the age of eight. Those children whose mothers had eaten no fish were 28 per cent more likely to have poor communication skills at 18 months, 35 per cent more likely to have poor fine motor coordination at age three and a half, 44 per cent more likely to have poor social behaviour at age seven and 48 per cent more likely to have a relatively low verbal IQ at age eight, when compared with children of women who ate more than the US guidelines advised.
But did they test parental IQ? Or did they control for socio-economic status of the parents? (which would be a rough proxy for genetic differences)
Main study author Joseph Hibbeln thinks these results suggest US government advice on fish eating in pregnancy is wrong.
The new findings suggest that, for developing brains, the risks of limiting seafood consumption outweigh the benefits of such a limit, the NIH's Joseph R. Hibbeln, MD, tells WebMD.
"Regrettably, these data indicate that the [FDA-EPA] advisory apparently causes the harm that it was intended to prevent, especially with regard to verbal development," Hibbeln says.
The FDA-EPA advisory is aimed at reducing mercury exposure. But you can avoid the mercury while still getting lots of omega 3 fatty acids by either eating low mercury fish or by taking fish oil capsules.
Avoid higher mercury fish from the top of the food chain.
The study supports the contrary advice, given by the Food Standards Agency in the UK, which backs fish as a healthy food. The FSA simply advises mothers to avoid shark, swordfish and marlin, and restrict their intake of tuna.
The new research into children�s behaviour and intelligence suggests that women who follow the US �advisory� issued in 2004 to limit consumption, or cut fish out of their diet altogether, may miss nutrients that the developing brain needs � and so harm their children.
The women filled out a seafood consumption questionnaire while pregnant.
At 32 weeks into their pregnancy, the women were asked to fill in a seafood consumption questionnaire. They were subsequently sent questionnaires four times during their pregnancy, and then up to eight years after the birth of their child. Researchers examined issues including the children's social and communication skills, their hand-eye coordination, and their IQ levels. As with any study based on self-reporting methods, however, the results cannot be considered entirely definitive.
What I want to know: Did the mothers who ate less fish have lower IQs than the mothers who ate more fish? In other words, did these researchers measure an effect of nutritional differences or of genetic differences?
We still do not know with certainty that omega 3 fatty acids help make babies smarter. But since there's a chance they might it seems prudent for women to eat very low mercury fish.
By Randall Parker 2007 February 18 02:20 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (4)
2007 January 15 Monday
Children who were physically or sexually abused show higher levels of inflammation indicators in blood as adults.
Researchers at King's College London followed 1,000 people in New Zealand from birth to the age of 32.
A third of those who were maltreated had high levels of inflammation - an early indicator of conditions such as heart disease and diabetes.
...
They took blood samples to measure levels of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen and white blood cells - substances which are known to be associated with inflammation in the body.
Adult survivors of childhood maltreatment who appeared to be healthy were twice as likely to show clinically relevant levels of inflammation compared to those who had not been maltreated.
So you get abused as a kid. Bad enough. But then you go on to suffer more diseases when you get older. The suffering lasts a lifetime. How incredibly cruel.
Twenty years hence will cheap in-school testing of kids for elevated inflammation response get used to spot kids who might be getting abused at home?
Abused kids are already known to get more heart disease and other illnesses which could be caused by sustained inflammation response.
The findings could explain why children who are abused show a higher incidence of conditions such as heart disease and diabetes as adults, the researchers say. Until now, it has not been clear exactly how early stress could cause these future health problems, says Andrea Danese, a psychiatrist at King's College London in the UK.
What is the mechanism? Do the various endocrine organs become more prone to turn on the inflammatory responses? Or does brain development in the abused alter in a way that makes the brain send out stress chemicals in potentially stressful situations? I'm going to guess that the latter mechanism is at least partially responsible because abuse of children makes them more prone to violence when they get older - especially if they have the right version of the gene for the mono-amine oxidase A enzyme.
This brings up another thought: Could people who have higher levels of stress-related inflammation indicators get trained by biofeedback or other means to reduce their inflammatory response? It might not be that easy. During childhood development cells throughout the body might have gotten their epigenetic state altered to make them more prone to inflammation response.
More generally: We need better ways to dampen down inflammation responses. We have lots of responses that have ceased to be adaptive in the modern environment. Ever been in an argument at work where you felt the "fight or flight" urge? That response is a maladaptive vestige of our evolutionary history. You might some day find youself in a situation where the adrenaline rush could help you survive. But in most cases the response just makes you age more rapidly.
By Randall Parker 2007 January 15 09:54 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2006 December 21 Thursday
More evidence that omega 3 fatty acids found in fish help with the development of baby brains:
Fish oil supplements given to pregnant mums boost the hand-eye coordination of their babies as toddlers, reveals a small study published ahead of print in the Archives of Disease in Childhood (Fetal and Neonatal Edition).
The researchers base their findings on 98 pregnant women, who were either given 4g of fish oil supplements or 4g of olive oil supplements daily from 20 weeks of pregnancy until the birth of their babies.
Only non-smokers and those who did not routinely eat more than two weekly portions of fish were included in the study. Eighty three mothers completed the study.
Once the children had reached two and a half years of age, they were assessed using validated tests to measure growth and development.
These included tests of language, behaviour, practical reasoning and hand-eye coordination. In all, 72 children were assessed (33 in the fish oil group and 39 in the olive oil group).
There were no significant overall differences in language skills and growth between the two groups of children
But those whose mothers had taken fish oil supplements scored more highly on measures of receptive language (comprehension), average phrase length, and vocabulary.
And children whose mothers had taken fish oil supplements scored significantly higher in hand-eye coordination than those whose mothers had taken the olive oil supplements.
The effect might be even stronger if the mothers on the fish oil supplements breast feed. Though some baby formula contains omega 3 fatty acid DHA.
You can read the full paper as a PDF document:
Our finding of enhanced eye and hand coordination with fish oil supplementation is plausible and consistent with previously reported benefits on visual function after postnatal n-3 PUFA supplementation in both preterm14 24 and term15 25 infants. Although the underlying mechanism is not understood, DHA is known to facilitate rapid phototransduction in the retinal membrane,26 and deficiencies are associated with reduced retinal function in infant primates.2 Furthermore, effects on visual evoked potential could indicate that DHA may also have an effect on the development of the visual cortex.27 Finally, improved stereoacuity in infants has been associated with LC PUFA formula supplementation28 and fish intake of lactating mothers.29
To our knowledge, only one other study has assessed the effects of supplementation with high-dose fish oil in pregnancy on cognitive development of the offspring. A randomised clinical trial by Helland et al9 involved 590 pregnant women who received fish oil at half the dose we used in this study, from 18 weeks� gestation until 3 months post partum. No differences in development were observed in the 269 infants tested at 6 and 9 months; however, fish oil supplementation was associated with increased mental processing in children at age 4 years. Additionally, mental processing scores were significantly correlated with maternal intake of DHA in pregnancy after adjusting for potential confounding factors10; this is consistent with observed correlations of DHA (and EPA) intake with eye and hand coordination in this study.
Other studies have found positive relationships between n- 3 PUFAs at birth (principally DHA) and aspects of visual and neurological development, in either observational studies30�32 or intervention studies using much lower levels of supplementation. 11 12 33 Our findings suggest that detection of the potentially beneficial effects of DHA in pregnancy may require larger doses. Further, although it is difficult to directly extrapolate the pregnancy dosage to supplementation of the preterm infant, the doses in our study resulted in similar increases in cord blood levels of DHA to those achieved with the higher doses trialled in preterm infants.34
The researchers acknowledge that their study was too small to prove their conclusions. But they think their conclusions are consistent with other studies of the effects of omega 3 fatty acid DHA on brain development.
Women who want to give their offspring every advantage should consider regular salmon meals or high quality omega 3 fatty acid supplements while pregnant and while lactating and breast feeding. Also, if you use baby formula and if DHA fortification is optional in your legal jurisdiction look for the formula brands that have DHA added.
By Randall Parker 2006 December 21 09:56 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (0)
2006 September 10 Sunday
Dr Sarah-Jayne Blakemore of the University College London Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience has found from brain scans that when compared to adults kids from age 8 through the teen years use less of an area of the brain involved in empathy and emotional evaluation when making decisions about the reactions of themselves and others to future hypothetical situations.
Teenagers take less account than adults of people's feelings and, often, even fail to think about their own, according to a UCL neuroscientist. The results, presented at the BA Festival of Science today, show that teenagers hardly use the area of the brain that is involved in thinking about other people's emotions and thoughts, when considering a course of action.
Many areas of the brain alter dramatically during adolescence. One area in development well beyond the teenage years is the medial prefrontal cortex, a large region at the front of the brain associated with higher-level thinking, empathy, guilt and understanding other people's motivations. Scientists have now found that, when making decisions about what action to take, the medial prefrontal cortex is under-used by teenagers. Instead, a posterior area of the brain, involved in perceiving and imagining actions, takes over.
Kids are deficient in empathy and guilt because they haven't yet developed the brain areas needed to fully consider the effects of their actions on others.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) brain scans done while adults and teenagers were asked the same questions showed a different pattern of brain activation in teenagers versus adults.
In the study, teenagers and adults were asked questions about the actions they would take in a given situation while their brains were being scanned using fMRI. For example, 'You are at the cinema and have trouble seeing the screen. Do you move to another seat?' A second set of questions asked what they would expect to happen as a result of a natural event eg. 'A huge tree comes crashing down in a forest. Does it make a loud noise?'
Although teenagers and adults chose similar responses, the medial pre-frontal cortex was significantly more active in adults than in teenagers when questioned about their intended actions. Teenagers, on the other hand, activated the posterior area of the brain known as the superior temporal sulcus � an area that's involved in predicting future actions based on past actions.
Adults can imagine emotional reactions more rapidly than teenagers can.
Participants aged eight to 36 years were asked how they would feel and how they would expect someone else to feel in a series of situations. Adults were far quicker than teenagers at judging emotional reactions � both how they would feel and how a third party might feel in a given situation. For example, "How would you feel if you were not allowed to go to your best friend's party?" or 'A girl has just had an argument with her best friend. How does she feel?"
Brains of kids undergo sharp growth spurts. Therefore the brain undergoes distinct stages of development.
"Whatever the reasons, it is clear that teenagers are dealing with, not only massive hormonal shifts, but also substantial neural changes. These changes do not happen gradually and steadily between the ages of 0�18. They come on in great spurts and puberty is one of the most dramatic developmental stages."
I'd like to see various types of criminals compared to a general adult population. Do some criminals lack fully developed medial prefrontal cortexes? Could neural growth hormones delivered in adolescence to juvenile delinquents steer them away from a life of crime?
Lack of brain maturity basically forces kids to use an area of the brain that makes simpler decisions based on a smaller number of considerations.
"The superior temporal sulcus is usually used in making simple actions, or watching other people make actions," said Dr Blakemore. "We think adolescents are performing this task by simply thinking about the action they're going to take.
"The part of the brain that the adults are using more is involved in much higher level thinking, such as thinking about the consequences of your actions in terms of other peoples' emotions and feelings."
Basically, adults run more complex models of the world that take into account more factors. They also experience feelings resulting from their internal mental simulations of the world and those feelings temper their actions.
Blakemore thinks the law should take into account differences in stages of brain development (and FuturePundit agrees).
The work has implications for the types of responsibility given to adolescents, Blakemore says: �Teenager�s brains are a work in progress and profoundly different from adults. If you�re making decisions about how to treat teenagers in terms of the law, you need to take this new research into account.�
Brains go through quite a transformation in the adolescent years. Kids are not just surly, sullen, rude, cruel, unhappy, and insensitive because they are sexually frustrated or resentful of their low status. Their ability to read the emotions in the faces of others even dips sharply starting around the age of 11. See my post Adolescence Is Tough On The Brain .
By Randall Parker 2006 September 10 01:40 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2006 March 30 Thursday
My immediate reaction is what genetic variations cause this trajectory that leads to higher intelligence?
Youth with superior IQ are distinguished by how fast the thinking part of their brains thickens and thins as they grow up, researchers at the National Institutes of Health's (NIH) National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) have discovered. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans showed that their brain's outer mantle, or cortex, thickens more rapidly during childhood, reaching its peak later than in their peers � perhaps reflecting a longer developmental window for high-level thinking circuitry. It also thins faster during the late teens, likely due to the withering of unused neural connections as the brain streamlines its operations. Drs. Philip Shaw, Judith Rapoport, Jay Giedd and colleagues at NIMH and McGill University report on their findings in the March 30, 2006 issue of Nature.
"Studies of brains have taught us that people with higher IQs do not have larger brains. Thanks to brain imaging technology, we can now see that the difference may be in the way the brain develops," said NIH Director Elias A. Zerhouni, M.D.
Here is where political correctness enters in. Zerhouni holds a highly visible position as head of a large government research agency. So in today's intellectual environment we can't expect much from him on the topic of intelligence. There is a positive correlation between IQ and brain size. There's an even higher positive correlation between IQ and brain gray matter size. But when it comes to differences in intelligence the taboos kick in with a vengeance. See links below for the truth of the matter.
While most previous MRI studies of brain development compared data from different children at different ages, the NIMH study sought to control for individual variation in brain structure by following the same 307 children and teens, ages 5-19, as they grew up. Most were scanned two or more times, at two-year intervals. The resulting scans were divided into three equal groups and analyzed based on IQ test scores: superior (121-145), high (109-120), and average (83-108).
The researchers found that the relationship between cortex thickness and IQ varied with age, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, seat of abstract reasoning, planning, and other "executive" functions. The smartest 7-year-olds tended to start out with a relatively thinner cortex that thickened rapidly, peaking by age 11 or 12 before thinning. In their peers with average IQ, an initially thicker cortex peaked by age 8, with gradual thinning thereafter. Those in the high range showed an intermediate trajectory (see below). While the cortex was thinning in all groups by the teen years, the superior group showed the highest rates of change.
"Brainy children are not cleverer solely by virtue of having more or less gray matter at any one age," explained Rapoport. "Rather, IQ is related to the dynamics of cortex maturation."
The observed differences are consistent with findings from functional magnetic resonance imaging, showing that levels of activation in prefrontal areas correlates with IQ, note the researchers. They suggest that the prolonged thickening of prefrontal cortex in children with superior IQs might reflect an "extended critical period for development of high-level cognitive circuits." Although it's not known for certain what underlies the thinning phase, evidence suggests it likely reflects "use-it-or-lose-it" pruning of brain cells, neurons, and their connections as the brain matures and becomes more efficient during the teen years.
The development of higher intellectual abilities required longer childhoods for humans than for other primates. Therefore it is not surprising that those who are smartest have longer periods of brain development.
"People with very agile minds tend to have a very agile cortex," said Shaw. The NIMH researchers are following-up with a search for gene variants that might be linked to the newly discovered trajectories. However, Shaw notes mounting evidence suggesting that the effects of genes often depends on interactions with environmental events, so the determinants of intelligence will likely prove to be a very complex mix of nature and nurture.
I'd really like to see a massive search for the genetic variations that boost intelligence. Identification of those genetic variations will lead to identification of targets for drug development and other means for boosting IQ in children whose brains are still developing.
As for the claim above that IQ does not correlate with brain size: Studies of brain size and intelligence have found correlations around r = 0.4. One study found that after controlling for body size the correlation with brain size was 0.65. Wikipedia has a short survey of brain size and IQ research results.
Modern studies using MRI imaging shows a weak to moderate correlation between brain size and IQ (Harvey, Persaud, Ron, Baker, & Murray, 1994) and have shown that brain size correlates with IQ by a factor of approximately .40 among adults (McDaniel, 2005). In 1991, Willerman et al. used data from 40 White American university students and reported a correlation coefficient of .35. Other studies done on samples of Caucasians show similar results, with Andreasen et al (1993) determining a correlation of .38 [1] , while Raz et al (1993) obtained a figure of .43 and Wickett et al. (1994) obtained a figure of .40. The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen & Johnson 1994). However, one study found no within family correlation (Schoenemann et al. 2000).
The brain is a metabolically expensive organ, and consumes about 25% of the body's metabolic energy. Because of this fact, although larger brains are associated with higher intelligence, smaller brains might be advantageous from an evolutionary point of view if they are equal in intelligence to larger brains. Skull size correlates with brain size, but is not necessarily indicative.
The metabolic expense of the brain is the reason why brain size positively correlates with intelligence. Calorie malnutrition has been one of the biggest causes of death of humans since humans came into existence. The cost of a larger brain is such that it will get selected against unless it provides a selective advantage. Therefore it seems unreasonable to expect no correlation between brain size and intelligence.
P. Tom Schoenemann, an anthropologist at UC Berkeley, had this to say about brain size and IQ:
More interestingly, 4 recent studies of this question for the first time derived estimates of brain size from high quality magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), instead of using external cranial dimensions. All 4 studies show much higher correlations: Willerman et al. (1991) report an estimated correlation of r = .35 (N = 40); Andreasen et al. (1993) found a correlation of r= .38 (N = 67); Raz et al (in press) found a correlation of r = .43 (N = 29); and Wickett et al. (in press) report a correlation of r = .395 (N = 40, all females). These are all statistically significant. It is quite simply a myth that brain size and IQ are empirically unrelated in modern populations.
But it is a popular myth among public intellectuals.
Update: The New York Times coverage by Nicholas Wade notes that Dr. Paul Thompson of UCLA also found in 2001 that frontal lobes gray matter volume correlates with IQ.
In 2001, Dr. Thompson reported that based on imaging twins' brains the volume of gray matter in the frontal lobes and other areas correlated with I.Q. and was heavily influenced by genetics.
Wade also reports that the team around Shaw is doing many genetic studies on intelligence and have taken genetic samples from the Bethesda children used in this study.
By Randall Parker 2006 March 30 09:14 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (20)
2006 March 29 Wednesday
But the researchers do not explain what goes wrong later. Kids start out on the road to science and enlightenment.
Even preschoolers approach the world much like scientists: They are convinced that perplexing and unpredictable events can be explained, according to an MIT brain researcher's study in the April issue of Child Development.
The way kids play and explore suggests that children believe cause-and-effect relationships in the world are governed by fundamental laws rather than by mysterious forces, said Laura E. Schulz, assistant professor of cognitive science and co-author of the study "God Does Not Play Dice: Causal Determinism and Preschoolers' Causal Inferences."
"It's important to understand that kids are approaching the world with deep assumptions that affect their actions and their explanations and shape what they're able to learn next," Schulz said. "Kids' fundamental beliefs affect their learning. Their theoretical framework affects their understanding of evidence, just as it does for scientists."
Kids believe in cause and effect.
Schulz and colleague Jessica Sommerville of the University of Washington tested 144 preschoolers to look at whether children believe that causes always produce effects. If a child believes causes produce effects deterministically, then whenever causes appear to work only some of the time, children should think some necessary cause is missing or an inhibitory cause is present.
In one study, the experimenters showed children that a switch made a toy with a metal ring light up. Half the children saw the switch work all the time; half saw that the switch only lit the ring toy some of the time. The experimenters also showed the children that removing the ring stopped the toy from lighting up. The experimenters kept the switch, gave the toy to the children and asked the children to stop the toy from lighting up.
If the switch always worked, children removed the ring. If the switch only worked some of the time, children could have removed the ring but they didn't--they assumed that the experimenter had some additional sneaky way of stopping the effect. Children did something completely new: They picked up an object that had been hidden in the experimenter's hand (a squeezable keychain flashlight) and used that to try to stop the toy. That is, the children didn't just accept that the switch might work only some of the time. They looked for an explanation.
They also figured out that adults are crafty and tricky. I wonder how old they were when they figured that out.
By Randall Parker 2006 March 29 09:49 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (9)
2006 January 23 Monday
Yet another study provides evidence for the hypothesis that higher omega 3 fatty acid consumption raises IQs in babies.
Perhaps the most startling finding was that the children of those women who had consumed the smallest amounts of omega-3 fatty acids during their pregnancies had verbal IQs six points lower than average. That may not sound much, but it would have a serious effect on a country's brainpower if it were widespread. And the finding is particularly pertinent because existing dietary advice to pregnant women, at least in America, is that they should limit their consumption of seafood in order to avoid exposing their fetuses to trace amounts of brain-damaging methyl mercury. Ironically, that means they avoid one of the richest sources of omega-3s.
Dr Hibbeln, however, says his work shows that the benefits of eating such fish vastly outweigh the risks from the mercury in them. Indeed, in the Avon study, it was those children exposed to the lowest levels of methyl mercury who were at greatest risk of having low verbal IQ.
Higher omega 3 fatty acid consumption was positively correlated with better fine motor performance and negatively correlated with pathological social behavior.
One obvious question: Are smarter women more atune to popular dietary advice and hence more likely to eat fish? That could explain at least part of the results in this study. Maybe the fish eating is just a proxy for having higher IQ genes to pass on to one's children. However, other studies support the argument that omega 3 fatty acid consumption improves brain development and brain performance.
Read the whole article.
Aside: I use a margarine substitute that contains a decent amount of omega 3 fatty acids and no trans fatty acids. Keep an eye out for such products if you want to boost your omega 3 fatty acid consumption but don't want to eat fish all that often.
By Randall Parker 2006 January 23 10:07 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (25)
2005 November 29 Tuesday
Twins pay a cognitive price.
Social and economic circumstances do not explain why twins have significantly lower IQ in childhood than single-born children, according to a study in this week's BMJ.
Researchers studied 9,832 single-born children and 236 twins born in Aberdeen, Scotland between 1950 and 1956, using a previous child development survey as a base. They also gathered further information on mother's age at delivery, birth weight, at what stage of the child's gestation they were born, their father's occupational social class, and information on other siblings.
They found that at age seven, the average IQ score for twins was 5.3 points lower than that for single-born children of the same family, and 6.0 points lower at age nine.
The study also showed that taking into account factors such as the child's sex, mother's age, and number of older siblings made little difference to the IQ gap.
Despite advances in recent years in obstetric practice and neonatal care, the authors argue that the likely explanation is because some twins have a shorter length of time in the womb than other children and are prone to impaired fetal growth.
I've been expecting this finding for years. It makes perfect sense. Mom can't feed two fetuses as well as she can feed one. I wonder if diet and perhaps exercise could at least partially compensate for this effect.
I also wonder if the use of drugs to prolong pregnancy could raise average IQ. If pregnancies could be stretched out a few extra weeks would the resulting babies grow up to be smarter? Anything that could raise average IQ a few points would do more to boost economic growth and lower social pathologies than increased educational spending or the other typical liberal or free market libertarian nostrums.
Another point: IVF therapies ought to be aimed to reduce the odds of multiple fetus pregnancies. Each baby is going to pay a steep cognitive cost from not being the sole pregnancy.
By Randall Parker 2005 November 29 10:41 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (6)
2005 November 25 Friday
While decay of myelin due to auto-immune damage is suspected as a cause of multiple sclerosis some UCLA researchers see a much wider role for insufficient myelination as a cause of a large assortment of mental and behavioral disorders.
New evidence points to production of myelin, a fatty insulation coating the brain's internal wiring, as a neural Achilles' heel early in life.
An upcoming application of a novel model of human brain development and degeneration pioneered by a UCLA neuroscientist identifies disruption of myelination as a key neurobiological component behind childhood developmental disorders and addictive behaviors.
Detailed in an article in press with the upcoming annual peer-reviewed publication Adolescent Psychiatry (Hillsdale, N.J.; The Analytic Press Inc.; 2005) the analysis suggests that many factors can disrupt myelination and contribute to or worsen disorders such as autism, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia.
Note above that problems with myelination may contribute to addictive behaviors and ADHD.
There's a vicious cycle aspect to this report. Due to insufficient myelination a kid could be more prone to use of addictive drugs. But then the use of the drugs could prevent the myelination process from proceeding. This reminds me of people I know who used a lot of drugs while teenagers who never seem to have grown up since then. Did their drug and alcohol use block their own brain's maturation?
In addition, the analysis suggests that alcohol and other drugs of abuse have toxic effects on the myelination process in some adolescents, contributing to poor treatment outcomes and exacerbating co-existing psychiatric disorders.
Author Dr. George Bartzokis, a professor of neurology at UCLA's David Geffen School of Medicine, concludes that the high incidence of impulsive behaviors that characterize the teen years as well as many psychiatric disorders that occur in the teens and 20s are related to incomplete myelination of inhibitory "stop" brain circuits, while the "go" circuits become fully functional earlier in development. These inhibitory circuits are not on line to quickly interrupt high-risk behaviors that are so prevalent in teens and young adults.
If memory serves the development of the inhibitory circuits does not complete until about age 25. As a consequence of blocked myelin formation are heavy adolescent drug users more prone to impulsive, self-destructive, and violent behaviors even as adults?
There's an aging angle to myelination and demyelination.
"Myelination, a process uniquely elaborated in humans, arguably is the most important and most vulnerable process of brain development as we mature and age," said Bartzokis, who directs the UCLA Memory Disorders and Alzheimer's Disease Clinic and the Clinical Core of the UCLA Alzheimer's Disease Research Center.
"Environmental toxins, genetic predispositions and even diet appear to influence and sometimes disrupt this process," he added. "By shifting our research focus to medications that act on brain metabolism and development, as opposed to brain neurotransmitter chemistry, neuroscientists will likely find a wealth of novel opportunities for addressing the cause of brain disease rather than simply the symptoms."
Myelin is a sheet of lipid, or fat, with very high cholesterol content � the highest of any brain tissue. The high cholesterol content allows myelin to wrap tightly around axons, speeding messages through the brain by insulating these neural "wire" connections.
Bartzokis' analysis of magnetic resonance images and post-mortem tissue data suggests that the production of myelin is a key component of brain development through childhood and well into middle age, when development peaks and deterioration begins (Neurobiology of Aging, January 2004). He also identifies the midlife breakdown of myelin as a key to onset of Alzheimer's disease later in life (Archives of Neurology, March 2003; Neurobiology of Aging, August 2004).
We need rejuvenation therapies that will repair and replace aging myelin sheaths in the brain. Sign me up. I want rejuvenated myelin. Myelin rejuvenation no doubt will be part of the Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence (SENS) treatments.
Imagine a future two or three decades hence where parents take their kids in for cell therapies and gene therapies to make their myelin sheaths grow over their inhibitory circuitry more rapidly. Such therapies would reduce adolescent deaths from car accidents and from murder. Plus, the therapies would also reduce adolescent use of destructive drugs.
Adolescent rashness might have been selected for so that males in particular would compete more aggressively for mates. The slow myelination of inhibitory brain circuits might be an obsolete and maladaptive left-over consequence of evolution by natural selection.
Trained musicians are better at detecting differences in syllable sounds.
In two Stanford studies, researchers demonstrated that people with musical experience found it easier than non-musicians to detect small differences in word syllables. They also discovered that musical training helps the brain work more efficiently in distinguishing split-second differences between rapidly changing sounds that are essential to processing language.
Nadine Gaab, a former Stanford postdoctoral fellow, will present the findings at 9:30 a.m. Nov. 16 at the Society for Neuroscience's annual meeting in Washington, D.C. "These results have important potential implications for improving speech processing in children struggling with language and reading skills," she said. They also could help "seniors experiencing a decline in their ability to pick up rapid changes in the pitch and timing of sounds, as well as speech perception and verbal memory skills, and even for people learning a second language."
But does musical training really help language skills development all that much? The problem with this study (and with most social science for that matter) is that it compares people at a snapshot point. All sorts of selection effects could be responsible for this result.
Adults with and without musical training were compared in their ability to recognize syllable sequences.
In the first study, researchers took 28 adults, divided into musicians and non-musicians, who were matched for age, gender, intelligence and general language ability. Musicians in the study were required to have started playing an instrument before the age of 7, to have never stopped playing and to have continued to play several hours a week. When musicians play, Gaab said, they must actively distinguish between sounds and their order, and adjust as necessary.
Suppose a large cohort of 7 year olds were tested for general intelligence and language skills and then some proceeded to learn music an others did not. Would the music learners be better at understanding and speaking language 20 years later? I'm skeptical.
Non-musicians in the study had to be native English speakers with minimal experience studying non-tonal foreign languages such as Spanish. People who had studied a tonal language such as Mandarin were not included.
During the experiment, participants listened to pairs of syllables such as ba-da, ba-wa and ga-ka, and noted if each syllable in the pair sounded the same or different. Depending on how they performed, the scientists made the task increasingly difficult by using syllables that sounded more and more alike. Musicians outperformed their non-musician peers in how quickly and accurately they perceived these rapid changes, Gaab said.
In the second experiment, researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to find out whether musical training changes the way the brain processes sound. The fMRI scanning machines, which look like beds that slide into tubes, normally are used to check for brain injuries or tumors. With slightly different software they can be used to measure which regions of the brain are active by looking for changes in blood oxygenation, a process that occurs in parts of the brain where the neurons are active.
Forty people, evenly divided into musicians and non-musicians, listened to three-tone sequences made from different combinations of low and high pitches. Participants had to reproduce the order of the tones they heard by manually pressing buttons on a panel.
Musicians once again beat the non-musicians with this task. "We were surprised that musicians could do it almost perfectly," Gaab said. Musicians got the fastest tone sequences right at least 85 percent of the time, compared to non-musicians who hit a 50-percent average. They also could replicate the sequences a lot faster. "Non-musicians needed to make a lot more effort�their brains were not as finely attuned."
According to Gaab, musical training appears to alter the ability of the brain's language areas to process pitch and timing changes that are common to perceiving both words and music. "The brain becomes more efficient and can process more subtle auditory cues that occur simultaneously," she said.
I see these results as analogous to how a doctor or nurse has a fingertip that is very good at measuring a pulse. The ability measured is fairly narrow. A person who learns music might be better able to distinguish syllables and words which are mumbled or spoken quietly or spoken with an acccent or under noisy conditions. The effect would be equivalent to simply having better hearing. But the benefit might be limited to just an enhanced ability to signal process sounds and may not carry over at all into enhanced ability to parse sentences and understand, say, written language.
I've long wondered how much the learning of particular skills enhance or interfere with the ability to learn other skills. For example, learning math enables the learning of physics, engineering, andd sciences because it provides a conceptual toolbox needed to understand many other subjects. But does, say, learning foreign languages use up neuons that then are unavailable for learning other subjects? Or if a person is born blind does that person have more mental resources available to learn, say, spoken languages because their mind is not cluttered by visual image information? Do parts of their brain which otherwise would have been recruited for processing images instead get recruited for better processing of sounds?
By Randall Parker 2005 November 25 10:56 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (6)
2005 November 21 Monday
Kids from Russian and Romanian orphanages have lower levels of hormones involved in bonding.
Crucial to making the link between social behavior and hormones was the work of co-author Toni Ziegler, an endocrinologist at the UW-Madison National Primate Research Center, who developed a technique that enables researchers to track vasopressin and oxytocin levels through the analysis of urine. The procedure is far less invasive than the existing method of analyzing blood or cerebrospinal fluid, and may one day find applications in several areas of child research such as the field of autism, Ziegler says.
The UW-Madison scientists worked with 18 four-year-old children who had lived in Russian and Romanian orphanages before being adopted into homes in the Milwaukee area. Despite the fact that the children now live in stable homes - for over three years, in some cases - they might still display some of the telltale behaviors that researchers have come to associate with early neglect. The abnormal willingness of a child to seek comfort from unfamiliar adults, even in the presence of the adopted parent, is one common instance of such behavior, says Wismer Fries.
Before starting her experiment, Wismer Fries collected urine samples from the young subjects to track baseline levels of vasopressin and oxytocin. Immediately, the scientists noticed that the children who experienced early neglect had markedly lower levels of vasopressin than the control group of non-adopted children. Researchers believe that vasopressin is essential for recognizing individuals in a familiar social environment. Lower levels of the hormone, Pollak says, may point to the social deprivation these children endured early on.
During the experiment, study subjects sat on the laps of either their mother or an unfamiliar woman and participated in an animated interactive computer game. The 30-minute game directed the children to engage in various types of physical contact with the adult they were sitting with, such as whispering or tickling each other, and patting each other on the head. When the game ended, Wismer Fries collected another urine sample from each child.
The UW-Madison researchers expected to see a hormonal response in the children following the physical contact with their mothers. And predictably, oxytocin levels rose in family-reared subjects. Yet, levels stayed the same among the previously neglected group. That result may help explain the difficulties many of these children have in forming secure relationships, the UW-Madison scientists say.
An obvious long term question needs answering: Do oxytocin and vasopressin levels of neglected kids eventually converge with levels found in normal kids of the neglected kids are adopted into stable homes? What happens after 10 or 15 years? Are these kids permanently tweaked?
By Randall Parker 2005 November 21 10:16 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (8)
2005 November 20 Sunday
The New York Times has an interesting article on the appropriateness of sleep aid drugs for adolescents.
Because teenagers are more likely to have trouble falling asleep than staying asleep all night, shorter-acting drugs, like Sonata and Ambien, may be more appropriate for them than Lunesta, which is longer-lasting, the specialists say.
Rozerem, an insomnia medication just approved by the F.D.A. in July for use in adults, may have an even more selective effect on the brain.
It is directed at receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which sets the body's internal clock.
And because this clock is thought to shift adolescents' sleep patterns, some doctors suspect that Rozerem may be useful in treating their sleep problems.
Since adolescents tend to stay up later and get up later why not just shift schools to later hours to make school hours fit the natural body rhythms of adolescents? To say that adolescents have sleep problems implies a medical condition like an illness. But we do not know why so many adolescents operate on later sleep cycles. Their behavior might be the result of Darwinian natural selection for effective mating strategies. Or their minds might respond more to light stimuli and artificial lighting might be shifting their melatonin production to make them stay out later. Or perhaps adolescent brains develop better if they can spend part of their days in lower light conditions and hence natural selection produced this behavior to improve brain development.
I'm speculating. But my point is that we do not know what causes adolescent sleeping patterns. Therefore efforts to pharmaceutically interfere with natural sleep cycles in order to make adolescents fit in better in institutions shaped for adult convenience seem ill advised. Such interference might produce unforeseeable and harmful consequences on brain development or other aspects of the body's growth.
Perhaps the use of high intensity lights to shift adolescent sleep patterns would be a less risky alternative. If the adolescent brain's sleep regulating mechanism can be fooled into thinking the day starts earlier and ends earlier then it might be able to function just fine on earlier real clock times.
But, again, why not just shift school schedules a couple of hours? Start schools at 10 AM or 11 AM. The kids sitting like zombies in classes at 8 AM aren't learning as much as they could learn at later hours in the day. Teachers could handle teaching till 5 PM rather than 3 PM in the afternoon. Institutions should be molded around human biology rather than the other way around. Or instead of listening to so many hours of live lectures in the morning when so many kids are half asleep the kids could watch more high resolution recorded lectures in the evenings when their minds are sharp. We can use technology to adjust institutions to humans. Why not do it?
By Randall Parker 2005 November 20 12:42 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (15)
2005 October 06 Thursday
Taller women are more ambitious.
Scots academics questioned 1,220 women from the UK, United States, Canada and Australia and found the taller ones were less broody, had fewer children and were more ambitious. They were also likely to have their first child at a later age.
Shorter women tended to be more maternal and homely, according to research carried out by psychologists Denis Deady, of Stirling University, and Miriam Law Smith, from St Andrews University.
The researchers theorize that higher testosterone made the women taller while simultaneously causing their brains to develop to have more masculine features.
They conclude, rather, that taller women have more of the male sex hormone testosterone, which could give them more �male� traits, such as being assertive, competitive and ambitious.
This is a plausible hypothesis. But note they have not done any biological testing. Such studies are orders of magnitude more expensive. Also, testosterone might be higher in taller women only during development and testing adult women might not catch the higher testosterone.
It would be interesting to know whether homosexual women are taller than heterosexual women on average.
Also, adjusted for IQ are taller women more likely to commit crimes than shorter women? One would expect greater masculinity to correlate with higher crime rates, all else equal.
Also, do taller women have a higher ratio of mathematical and spatial reasoning aptitudes to verbal aptitudes as compared to shorter women?
Taller women are driven less by the desire to have children and more by the desire to succeed in a career.
Ms Law Smith, 27, who is 5ft 7in and has no children, said: "We related the height of every woman with their scores. It wasn't so much that women above a certain height were less maternal . . . more that the taller she was the less maternally driven she was likely to be.
I also wonder whether particular types of diets during development cause changes in the relative ratios of sex hormones. For example, would a high protein versus high fat versus high carbohydrates diet cause small but significant differences in the absolute levels and relative ratios of androgen hormones during development? Or would higher saturated fat versus less saturated fat cause differences in absolute and relative androgen levels? Or how about omega 3 versus omega 6 ratios?
In the longer run will society become more masculine? Will people use offspring genetic engineering techniques to make their daughters slightly more masculine in order to make them more ambitious to pursue careers? Will they make sure all their sons are not wimps? Will most countries become societies of alpha personalities and much higher levels of competition?
By Randall Parker 2005 October 06 11:17 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (28)
2005 August 15 Monday
Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure too low to cause recognizable Fetal Alcohol Syndrome makes the brains of the resulting children less able to carry out complex tasks.
Prenatal alcohol exposure is often linked to slower cognitive reaction times and poorer attention.
A new study investigates cognitive function and speed as tasks become more complex.
Findings indicate that alcohol-exposed children can perform as well as other children on simple tasks, but as tasks become more demanding and challenging, processing speed slows down significantly.
As the kids grow up they are unable to advance to learning the increasingly complex tasks necessary for advanced education and intellectually complex occupations.
Decades of research have left little doubt that prenatal alcohol exposure has adverse effects on intellectual and neurobehavioral development. A recent study of the effects of moderate to heavy prenatal alcohol exposure on cognitive function confirms earlier findings of slower processing speed and efficiency, particularly when cognitive tasks involve working memory. Results are published in the August issue of Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research.
"Prenatal alcohol exposure is often associated with slower reaction times and poorer attention in infancy, and some of these deficits may be at the core of poorer academic performance and behavior problems often seen later in childhood," said Matthew J. Burden, postdoctoral research fellow at Wayne State University School of Medicine and corresponding author for the study. "In cases of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) � lower IQ scores are common, often reaching the level of mental retardation. This is because alcohol consumed by the mother has a direct impact on the brain of the fetus. However, full FAS is not required to see this impact; it is just less obvious to detect across the array of exposures found in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), which include effects of prenatal alcohol at lower drinking levels."
Julie Croxford, graduate research assistant at Wayne State University, says there is a need for researchers to look at the damage caused by prenatal alcohol exposure at lower-than-heavy levels of drinking. "In the past, much focus was placed on studying the full-blown FAS," she said. "More recent research has considered those individuals damaged by lower levels of exposure. This is an important focus."
For this study, researchers assessed 337 African-American children (197 males, 140 females) at 7.5 years of age; selected from the Detroit Prenatal Alcohol Longitudinal Cohort, the children were known to have been prenatally exposed to moderate-to-heavy levels of alcohol. Their mothers were originally recruited between September 1986 and April 1989 during their first prenatal visit to a maternity hospital clinic. The children were assessed on processing speed and efficiency in four domains of cognitive function � short-term memory scanning, mental rotation, number comparison, and arrow-discrimination processing � using a Sternberg paradigm, which examines speed of completion as problems become increasingly more difficult.
"We chose these four domains because they allow us to study distinct aspects of cognition within the same cognitive framework," said Burden. "This helps to distinguish potentially specific deficits from those that are more global in nature; that way we get a better understanding of how prenatal alcohol exposure affects cognitive functioning many years later in childhood. We used the Sternberg paradigm because it indicates how fast an individual generates the correct response to a number of problems, providing an overall measure of speed; and it examines the rate at which response times increase as problem difficulty increases, providing a processing efficiency measure."
Although the alcohol-exposed children were able to perform as well as the other children when tasks were simple � such as naming colors within a timed period � when pressed to respond quickly while having to think about the response, their processing speed slowed down significantly.
"This suggests that processing speed deficits are more likely to occur within the context of some cognitive demand," said Burden. "We also found that prenatal alcohol exposure was associated with poorer efficiency on number processing, a finding consistent with past research showing more specific adverse effects in the arithmetic domain. Arithmetic performance may be relatively more compromised with prenatal alcohol exposure than other types of intellectual performance, such as verbal abilities. We also looked at how processing speed related to other aspects of cognition, working memory in particular. Prenatal alcohol exposure had some impact on both speed and working memory, but the effect on working memory was partly accounted for by the deficits in speed � in other words, slower performance contributes in part to poorer working memory."
"The conclusion drawn here is that the reaction-time deficits associated with prenatal alcohol exposure are seen more in demanding/challenging cognitive tasks that involve the integration of working memory," said Croxford. "The real-world implications of this are that children exposed prenatally to alcohol may be able to perform simple tasks, but may struggle with tasks that are more challenging and require complex cognition and the use of working memory. This is likely to mean that these children may be more and more challenged the older they get by the demands placed on them within the school system and within their day-to-day social interactions."
Researchers controlled for many other variables and still found the effect.
Both Burden and Croxford noted that this study also examined the impact of "confounding" factors such as home environment, socioeconomic status, and current maternal drinking levels, which researchers believe may contribute to the poor outcomes seen in children exposed to prenatal alcohol.
"In this study, we accounted for more than 20 of these potentially confounding influences in the analyses," said Burden. "The effect of alcohol exposure in utero persisted above and beyond any other influences present."
What this means, said Croxford, is that alcohol itself causes specific, identifiable and permanent deficits in brain development and physiology. "This reinforces the current public health message that women should not drink alcohol during pregnancy," she said.
Burden said that he and his colleagues will continue to examine the long-term effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on the same children. "In addition to neuropsychological and behavioral measures, we will also be using electrophysiological techniques such as event-related potentials and neuroimaging (fMRI) to more directly connect cognitive performance with brain function," he said.
Look ahead 20 years. Imagine that implantable nanosensors can detect and record a pregnant mother's alcohol consumption. She could be checked periodically by passing a reading device over her body to read the records of her embedded nanosensors. If she has consumed alcohol or taken harmful drugs or smoked cigarettes or eaten food that contains toxins all this could be detected.
Well, assuming that becomes possible do you suppose some governments in more industrialized countries might require all pregnant women to have nanosensors implanted in them? The argument for why this would beneift society is easy to make. Why should pregnant women have a legal right to harm the cognitive development of their fetuses? The rest of us suffer the consequences (lower academic achievement, lower earnings, lower taxes paid, more state aid received, more behavioral problems, and probably more crime) if women do harm to their developing fetuses. So why shouldn't the fetuses be protected from avoidable harm by use of state powers?
As I see it the more we can measure ways that people harm each other (e.g. pollution or drug abuse while pregnant or while nursing or by child abuse) the more ways we should intervene to stop that harm. Now, an obvious argument to make is that fetuses are not yet legal humans and therefore do not have rights to protect. Even if one accepts the moral argument (and many don't) I still see a utilitarian argument for protecting fetuses from damage since we all benefit. I also see a rights-based argument: Fetuses that are not cognitively impaired by drug and alcohol exposure are less likely to develop into adults who have behavioral problems that cause them to violate the rights of others.
Update: Before anyone tells me that they can't imagine their government imposing fetal nanosensor monitors on women keep in mind that there are nearly 200 national governments in the world and most of them are not Western and not liberal. China has the biggest population in the world (though India will likely eventually surpass it by mid 21st century) and China imposes a One Child policy on its entire population. China is on course to become the largest economy in the world. Other East Asian countries similarly do not share Western conceptions of the proper role of government.
By Randall Parker 2005 August 15 05:08 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (26)
2005 June 23 Thursday
A study of 135 Boston area babies has found that mercury from fish lowers baby IQ but low mercury fish consumption raises baby IQ dramatically. (same article here and here and here )
The women in the study ate fish on average once a week during the second trimester of their pregnancy. The highest intelligence scores were among the babies whose mothers had consumed more than two helpings of fish per week but whose mercury levels remained under 1.2 parts per million, according to the report published online last month in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives .
For each additional weekly serving of fish, the babies' intelligence scores increased by 4 points, or an average of almost 7%. But for every increase of 1 part per million of mercury, the babies' intelligence scores dropped by 7.5 points, or 12.5%. A woman could raise her mercury level by 1 ppm if she ate an average-sized serving of swordfish once a week, said Dr. Emily Oken of Harvard Medical School, the study's lead researcher.
"The range of fish intake in our study was from zero to 5.5 servings per week, so these were not women who were eating fish daily or multiple times a day," said Oken, who specializes in pregnancy and nutrition.
The beneficial effects of the fish consumption is almost certainly coming from the omega 3 fatty acids in the fish. A reduction in mercury exposure combined with an increased consumption of omega 3 fatty acids could produce a large increase in average intelligence in future generations. The resulting increase in the smart fraction of the population would lead to a large increase in economic output and living standards.
While poking around trying to find the previous paper I came across another recent research paper on the Environmental Health Perspectives web site about the economic costs of mercury due to lowered IQs.
Methyl mercury is a developmental neurotoxicant. Exposure results principally from consumption by pregnant women of seafood contaminated by mercury from anthropogenic (70%) and natural (30%) sources. Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) made steady progress in reducing mercury emissions from anthropogenic sources, especially from power plants, which account for 41% of anthropogenic emissions. However, the U.S. EPA recently proposed to slow this progress, citing high costs of pollution abatement. To put into perspective the costs of controlling emissions from American power plants, we have estimated the economic costs of methyl mercury toxicity attributable to mercury from these plants. We used an environmentally attributable fraction model and limited our analysis to the neurodevelopmental impacts--specifically loss of intelligence. Using national blood mercury prevalence data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, we found that between 316,588 and 637,233 children each year have cord blood mercury levels > 5.8 �g/L, a level associated with loss of IQ. The resulting loss of intelligence causes diminished economic productivity that persists over the entire lifetime of these children. This lost productivity is the major cost of methyl mercury toxicity, and it amounts to $8.7 billion annually (range, $2.2-43.8 billion; all costs are in 2000 US$). Of this total, $1.3 billion (range, $0.1-6.5 billion) each year is attributable to mercury emissions from American power plants. This significant toll threatens the economic health and security of the United States and should be considered in the debate on mercury pollution controls.
If the new Boston babies study is correct then the economic costs of mercury pollution might be even higher than this latter paper assumes. Therefore the lax and slow approach of the Bush Administration (and, to be fair, the Clinton Administration and other Administrations before it) toward reduction of mercury emissions is even more short-sighted and stupid than I already thought it was. FuturePundit gets angry thinking about the coal burning electric plants emitting mercury and the less noticed (and possibly worse - see below) chlorine plants that do the same.
Marla Cone of the LA Times who wrote the first article I linked to above also wrote a previous article on mercury emissions from coal burning electric plants and chlorine plants and how chlorine plants might be worse than coal plants for mercury emissions.. (same article here and here )
In 2000, 11 chlorine plants reported releasing 14 tons of mercury into the air through smokestacks and unmonitored leaks called "fugitive" emissions. But according to the EPA, another 65 tons of mercury were used there and unaccounted for.
EPA officials, in a 2003 report, said "that the fate of all the mercury consumed" at the chlorine plants "remains somewhat of an enigma."
If even half of that "lost" mercury were released into the air, the plants would have polluted the air with nearly the same volume as the 49 tons released by the nation's 497 mercury-releasing power plants that year, said Oceana's pollution campaign director, Jackie Savitz.
By 2002, two of the 11 plants had closed, and the reported mercury emissions dropped almost in half, to a total of 7.6 tons. The plants, however, had 28 tons of mercury that were unaccounted for, which amounted to about 1% of their total mercury used and stored, according to a 20
An enigma? Are they serious?
Where is all the chlorine plant mercury going? Probably into the atmosphere.
In a lawsuit filed today by NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council) and Sierra Club, represented by Earthjustice, the groups charge that the rule, issued in December, does not address "lost" mercury pollution from the plants and eliminates prior pollution control requirements. In a parallel legal document, the NRDC today petitioned EPA to reconsider its December rule, and set standards that will guarantee reductions in toxic mercury emissions.
Just nine mercury cell chlorine plants are still in operation in the United States. This handful of plants purchases dozens of tons of mercury each year, to replace mercury that evaporates from the giant vats they use to make chlorine. Each plant has more than 50 of these mercury vats (called "cells" in the industry) measuring approximately 50 feet long by more than five feet wide, and each cell holds some 8,000 pounds of mercury each. In 2000 these plants purchased 65 tons of replacement mercury; in 2002, 130 tons.
"The amount of mercury that these plants are losing' dwarfs the estimated 43 tons of mercury emitted by coal-fired power plants, and it's all disappearing from nine outdated factories," said Earthjustice attorney Jim Pew, who is representing the groups in their lawsuit.
The EPA publicly acknowledges that it has not accounted for the tons of mercury that each plant must replace every year. The agency concluded in its December rule that "the fate of all the mercury consumed at mercury cell chlor-alkali plants remains somewhat of an enigma."
"It's outrageous that the EPA has no apparent interest in discovering what happens to 65 tons of mercury, which these plants likely emit into the air, and plans to do nothing about it," said Jon Devine, an NRDC attorney. "The agency apparently has forgotten what its name stands for."
The EPA and FDA advise pregnant women against consumption of high mercury fish.
Do not eat Shark, Swordfish, King Mackerel, or Tilefish because they contain high levels of mercury.
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have a table of mercury levels in fish in parts per million (PPM) which you all ought to go take a look at. Look for the ones which are really low in mercury and eat them. Parenthetically, another study provides evidence that mercury might be even higher in some fish than the previous table shows. This study sampled fish purchased in New Jersey (which was not all from New Jersey) and found higher mercury levels than the older FDA/EPA table shows.
To compare actual mercury measures against data reported by the FDA, the team purchased and assayed samples of six additional types of fish (Chilean sea bass, porgy, red snapper, croaker, cod, and whiting) and two types of shellfish (shrimp and scallops) from central New Jersey markets. These species were chosen because of their wide availability in the state.
Mean levels of mercury were higher in the sea bass, croaker, whiting, and shrimp available in New Jersey--as well as the tuna sampled in the first tier of the study--than predicted by the FDA's data; the actual mean for one fish, croaker, was nearly three times the FDA estimate. The authors say these discrepancies show that the FDA should update its database (the data provided were collected mainly from 1990 to 1992). They also suggest that the agency consider providing regional breakdowns of aggregate mercury levels so state agencies can evaluate possible risks for their citizens.
What I'd like to see: A table that takes the amount of omega 3 fatty acids in fish and the amount of mercury and then ranks fish according to the ratio of omega 3 fatty acids to mercury. In other words, how to get the most amount of omega 3 fatty acids to mercury? Not all fish have as much omega 3 fatty acids. Salmon is one of the better fish for omega 3's. It also happens to be very low in mercury. So salmon is my preferred fish.
Higher consumption of low mercury fish will also lead to fewer heart attacks and less heart failure.
(BETHESDA, MD)�Older people who ate fish once or twice a week had a 20 percent lower risk of developing congestive heart failure during 12 years of follow-up, according to a new study in the June 21, 2005, issue of the Journal of the American College of Cardiology.
This is the first study to look at fish intake and the development of heart failure.
�Prior studies have shown fish intake to be associated with lower risk of fatal heart attacks. The results of the present study suggest that intake of fatty fish � high in omega-3 fatty acids � may reduce the risk of developing heart failure as well,� Dr. Mozaffarian added.
From 1989 to 1990, the researchers gave diet questionnaires to 4,738 adults in four cities who were 65 or older and free of congestive heart failure. During 12 years of follow-up, 955 participants developed congestive heart failure. After adjusting the results for other risk factors, those who had reported that they ate tuna or other fish once or twice a week were 20 percent less likely to develop congestive heart failure than those who said they ate such fish less than once a month. Eating fish three or four times a week was linked to a 31 percent lower risk of developing congestive heart failure over the next 12 years. However, fried fish consumption was linked to a higher risk of congestive heart failure.
Update: Since the world's fisheries are becoming depleted and many fish have problems with either mercury or organic toxins or both what we really need is genetic engineering of food crops such as soy, corn, and wheat to make them synthesize large amounts of the omega 3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA). We need large cheap terrestrial sources of the omega 3 fatty acids. The alpha linolenic fatty acid (ALA) in flax seed is less than ideal and we'd be better off with a food crop that directly produced DHA and EPA.
By Randall Parker 2005 June 23 12:37 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (42)
2005 May 19 Thursday
With support from the Foundation for Child Development the Yale Child Study Center has released a study on the high expulsion rates of poorly behaved 3 and 4 year olds from preschool programs.
New Haven, Conn. � Pre-K students are expelled at a rate more than three times that children in grades K-12, according to a primary study by researchers at Yale on the rate of expulsion in prekindergarten programs serving three- and four-year-olds.
Led by Yale Child Study Center researcher Walter S. Gilliam, the study, titled �Prekindergartners Left Behind: Expulsion Rates in State Prekindergarten Systems,� is based on data gathered in the National Prekindergarten Study (NPS). The paper reports on expulsion rates by program setting (public school, Head Start, private providers), gender, and race/ethnicity. The pre-K report also presents expulsion data from all 40 states that fund prekindergarten programs.
The study found that although rates of expulsion vary widely among the 40 states funding prekindergarten, state expulsion rates for prekindergartners exceed those in K-12 classes in all but three states. Prekindergarten expulsion rates vary by classroom setting. Expulsion rates are lowest in classrooms located in public schools and Head Start, and highest in faith-affiliated centers, for-profit childcare and other community-based settings. In classrooms where the teacher had no access to a psychologist or psychiatrist, students were expelled about twice as frequently. The likelihood of expulsion decreases significantly with access to classroom-based behavioral consultants that provide teachers with assistance in behavior management.
�No one wants to hear about three- and four-year-olds being expelled from preschool, but it happens rather frequently,� said Gilliam. �Pre-K teachers need access to the support staff they need to help manage classroom behavior problems. Without this support, we are setting up for failure both our children and their teachers.�
The study found that four-year-olds were expelled at a rate about 1.5 times greater than three-year-olds. Boys were expelled at a rate over 4.5 times that of girls. African-Americans attending state- funded prekindergarten were about twice as likely to be expelled as Latino and Caucasian children, and over five times as likely to be expelled as Asian-American children.
�Classroom-based behavioral consultation appears to be a promising method for reducing prekindergarten expulsion,� said Gilliam. �When teachers reported having access to a behavioral consultant who was able to provide classroom-based strategies for dealing with challenging student behaviors, the likelihood of expulsion was nearly cut in half.�
This is yet another extension of stereotypical liberal-left politically correct whining about inequality. Even preschoolers are not free from the forces of politically correctness. Bad boys are relabelled "challenging". We are all collectively turning our backs on yet another source of horrible inequity ("No one wants to hear about..."). The implication here is that boisterous out-of-control preschoolers are somehow getting discriminated against. Little boys are victimized by expulsions (never mind that they beat each other up more than little girls do). Some racial minorities are victimized while others (Asians) get even better treatment than whites. What's next? Calls for a "No Preschoolers Left Behind" legislation to complement the ridiculous No Child Left Behind law? Plus, there is the predictable claim that more experts are needed to handle the problem. Picture me rolling my eyes.
But let me stop ranting and tell you what is interesting and unsurprising about this result. Toddlers are known to be violent and uninhibited. In case you missed it go read my previous post "Humans Most Violent When Only 2 Years Old" . We should expect 3 and 4 year olds to get into more trouble with "the law" than, say, 7 or 10 year olds. Why? Toddler brains are less well developed and their inhibitions against violence in particular are just not wired up yet. They try to dole out lots of physical violence. We tend not to notice this so much because most interactions that 3 year olds have are with adults and a 3 year old can't inflict much in the way of physical damage on adults. So their attempts to punch just seem cute and lame. But expect trouble if you put a bunch of them together where they can pick on someone their own size.
Fortunately toddlers are too uncoordinated and weak to do serious damage. But some of them will cause enough disruptions to make keeping them in groups with lots of others highly problematic. Attempts by "experts" to keep the more disruptive ones in groups with the better behaved seem misguided.
Also see my post "Adolescence Is Tough On The Brain" . Note that the part of the brain that inhibits risky behavior does not fully develop until age 25.
Thanks to Raj for the tip.
By Randall Parker 2005 May 19 10:44 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (16)
2005 May 18 Wednesday
Qualities of a baby's cry can point to a number of neurological problems.
In a research review in the current issue of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, Linda LaGasse, PhD , and Barry Lester, PhD , with the Bradley Hasbro Children's Research Center (BHCRC) and Brown Medical School looked at previous studies that analyzed the acoustics of a baby's cry. The authors cite the characteristics of a cry that can indicate problems in a baby's nervous system, as well as sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Changes in frequency, amplitude, length of cries, and resonance provide useful information for detecting diseases and disorders.
Overall, studies have repeatedly shown that infants at medical risk (like premature babies), and infants who have been exposed to lead or drugs, cry at a higher and more variable frequency than normal, but at lower amplitude, and with short utterances. These types of cry signals point toward a capacity problem in the respiratory system as well as an increased tension and instability of neural control of the vocal tract.
High resonance combined with mode changes indicate greater risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.
These results cry out for practical application. Some sound analysis software developed for a personal computer combined with a microphone plugged into a computer port would let mom check out her baby's cries for risk factors.
If the sound of a baby's cry has diagnostic value then might the same be true for the sound of an adult's conversational voice or an adult's singing voice or perhaps for a scream made to check voice quality?
This result reminds me of recent reports on the uses of saliva and breath for disease diagnosis . The development of less invasive means of testing for diseases will allow humans to be continually monitored for disease indicators without the risk of x-ray exposure, trips to doctors' offices to get blood samples, or other more invasive, time consuming, expensive, and risky methods of testing.
By Randall Parker 2005 May 18 05:57 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (4)
2004 December 12 Sunday
Professor Lee Ellis and colleages at Minot State University N.D. have found that mothers of homosexual daughters used thyroxine and amphetamine in pregnancy at higher frequencies than mothers of heterosexual daughters.
The researchers found that the mothers of homosexual women were at least five times more likely to have taken synthetic thyroid medications during pregnancy than mothers of heterosexual women, and eight times more likely to have used amphetamine-based diet pills such as Dexedrine and diethylpropion.
They also found evidence that some drugs have the opposite effect during pregnancy, reducing the probability of homosexual offspring. Mothers of heterosexual males were 70 per cent more likely to have taken drugs to combat nausea than those of male homosexuals.
The effect of the drug use is most pronounced in the first trimester of pregnancy. Since it is generally believed that sexual orientation of the brain is set during the first trimester this aspect of the result is not surprising and it can even be seen as strengthening the likelihood that this result will hold up when a follow-up study is conducted on a larger number of subjects.
I predict that in the future as the influence of various drugs on sexual orientation become known women will intentionally use drugs to increase the odds that their children will be born with the sexual orientation that they prefer. Will lesbian women use sexual selection techniques to ensure that their offspring will be daughters? Also, will they choose to have lesbian or heterosexual daughters?
Since women are the one that carry babies in pregnancy and hence (at least in Western societies) women have a bigger say on what goes on in their bodies during pregnancy my guess is that female homosexuality will be selected for more often than male homosexuality will be selected for. I expect male homosexuality to become more rare once means to decrease its likelihood are identified. I am not sure whether female homosexuality will become more or less common. My guess is it will become less common as well.
For other work by Lee Ellis see my post Obesity Being Selected For In Modern Society?
Update: Given that amphetamines and synthetic thyroid hormone are products of mid 20th century industrial civilization this result strongly suggests that industrial civilization has caused a higher incidence of lesbianism.
What else has industrial civilization done to alter, on average, human biological development? Certainly drug abuse and alcohol abuse cause an increase in the incidence of an assortment of defects. Medicine is allowing more defective babies to survive pregnancy and early childhood. Medicine, public health measures (e.g. sterile water) and higher living standards (more food, better shelter) are also reducing the selective pressure caused by infectious diseases. What is that causing to be selected for instead? Chemical pollutants might be causing other changes that influence fertility, cognitive ability, behavior, and degree of masculinity and femininity.
There are two issues that need to be separated here: First, how are elements of modern environments (e.g. specific drugs, quantity and quality of food) altering development of individuals as reported above? Second, what changes in natural selective pressure are happening as a result of these changes and what genetic variations are being selected for or against? Both of those questions will get many more answers in the years ahead.
One point can be made about the above case: If being a lesbian reduces fertility (anyone know?) then any genetic variant that increases the likelihood that one will take amphetamines or thyroid hormone is (probably very slowly) being selected against. Also, any genetic variant which makes it more likely that a female fetus will become homsexual in response to amphetamine exposure or thyroid hormone exposure is also (again, probably very slowly) being selected against.
By Randall Parker 2004 December 12 02:21 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (7)
2004 November 11 Thursday
A study on nutrition and behavior in the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius has implications for more developed countries.
Malnutrition in the first few years of life leads to antisocial and aggressive behavior throughout childhood and late adolescence, according to a new University of Southern California study.
"These are the first findings to show that malnutrition in the early postnatal years is associated with behavior problems through age 17," said Jianghong Liu, a postdoctoral fellow with USC's Social Science Research Institute and the lead author of the study published in the American Journal of Psychiatry's November issue.
"Identifying the early risk factors for this behavior in childhood and adolescence is an important first step for developing successful prevention programs for adult violence," she said.
For 14 years, researchers followed the nutritional, behavioral and cognitive development of more than 1,000 children who lived on Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa.
The sample of boys and girls included children with Indian, Creole, Chinese, English and French ethnicities.
Researchers assessed their nutrition at age 3, looking for four indicators in particular:
angular stomatitis, or cracking in the lips and corners of the mouth that is caused by a deficiency of the B vitamin riboflavin;
hair dyspigmentation, a condition � found primarily in tropical regions � where children's hair takes on a reddish-orange color due to protein deficiency;
sparse, thin hair created by a deficiency in protein, zinc and iron; and
anemia, which reflects iron deficiency.
The children's intelligence level and cognitive ability were also tested, and social workers visited their homes to come up with a so-called adversity score that summarized factors such as the income, occupation, health, age and education levels of their parents and their overall living conditions.
At ages 8, 11 and 17 years, the researchers looked at how the children were behaving in school and at home.
At age 8, teachers gave feedback about whether the subjects were acting out in school with behavior ranging from irritability to picking fights with other children.
At age 11, the feedback came from parents who told researchers about whether their children lied, cheated, got into fights, bullied others, destroyed property or used obscene language.
At age 17, both parents and teachers reported on antisocial behavior such as stealing, drug use, destroying property or being deliberately cruel to others.
Over time, a link became evident between malnourishment and antisocial or aggressive behavior, said Adrian Raine, a co-author of the study and holder of the Robert Grandford Wright Professorship in Psychology in USC's College of Letters, Arts and Sciences.
Compared to those in the control group � the group that did not suffer from nutritional deficiencies � malnourished children showed a 41 percent increase in aggression at age 8, a 10 percent increase in aggression and delinquency at age 11 and a 51 percent increase in violent and antisocial behavior at age 17.
While social class did not play a significant factor in behavior, intelligence level did, Raine said.
"Poor nutrition, characterized by zinc, iron, vitamin B and protein deficiencies, leads to low IQ, which leads to later antisocial behavior," he said. "These are all nutrients linked to brain development."
Researchers also found that the more indicators of malnutrition there were, the greater the antisocial behavior.
The findings have implications for the United States, Raine said, where 7 percent of toddlers suffer from iron deficiency, a number that jumps to between 9 percent and 16 percent in adolescent and female groups.
Iron deficiency is between 19 percent and 22 percent in black and Mexican American females, he said.
"This is a problem in America. It's not just a problem in the far-away Indian Ocean," Raine said. "If it's causal, there's an intervention implication there. At a societal level, should parents be thinking more about what kids are eating?"
Of course to make use of this information in America we'd have to at least implicitly acknowledge that there are group differences in behavior that have biological causes rather than social causes. Whether biological origins or genetic or nutritional or some other factor (e.g. pathogens, pollutants) that sort of thinking is taboo among most academics, reporters, and political activists.
By Randall Parker 2004 November 11 03:16 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2004 November 05 Friday
A team at the US National Institues of Health working with researchers in Norway has found that babies who cry for a long time turned out at age 5 to have much lower IQs than the control group.
BACKGROUND: Long term studies of cognitive development and colic have not differentiated between typical colic and prolonged crying. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether colic and excessive crying that persists beyond 3 months is associated with adverse cognitive development. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. A sample of 561 women was enrolled in the second trimester of pregnancy. Colic and prolonged crying were based on crying behaviour assessed at 6 and 13 weeks. Children's intelligence, motor abilities, and behaviour were measured at 5 years (n = 327). Known risk factors for cognitive impairment were ascertained prenatally, after birth, at 6 and 13 weeks, at 6, 9, and 13 months, and at 5 years of age. RESULTS: Children with prolonged crying (but not those with colic only) had an adjusted mean IQ that was 9 points lower than the control group. Their performance and verbal IQ scores were 9.2 and 6.7 points lower than the control group, respectively. The prolonged crying group also had significantly poorer fine motor abilities compared with the control group. Colic had no effect on cognitive development. CONCLUSIONS: Excessive, uncontrolled crying that persists beyond 3 months of age in infants without other signs of neurological damage may be a marker for cognitive deficits during childhood. Such infants need to be examined and followed up more intensively.
This work confirms the work of Professor Dieter Wolke in the UK and Professor Wolke thinks the crying is a symptom rather than a cause of the underyling problem.
In 2002, a team of UK researchers, led by Professor Dieter Wolke at Bristol University, found children who had cried excessively as babies, beyond three months, were 14 times more likely to develop attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and do worse at school as eight year olds.
Professor Wolke said: "This confirms what we found.
"Now there really is more certainty there is really something going on."
He believes the core of the problem is one of under-regulation.
"With ADHD you can't regulate your attention. You can't concentrate, for example. The same thing is happening with crying.
One of the NIH scientists say that parents of babies who do uncontrollable crying should tell their pediatricians.
Such persistent, uncontrollable crying "seems to be a very good indicator of potential risk," Dr. Malla Rao of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, told Reuters Health.
As such, Rao said, parents should not simply "dismiss" their child's crying as being due to gastrointestinal problems such as heartburn or colic, but should notify their child's pediatrician.
But it is unlikely the pediatricians will be able to deliver any sort of treatment that will prevent the eventual cognitive deficits. However, researchers probably ought to deliver a wide range of tests to a group of persistently crying babies to see if any toxin or pathogen might be causing neurological damage. If that was the case then an effective treatment could probably be devised. But if the cause of the neurological deficits is genetic or some event that happened at an earlier point in development then all the pediatrician is going to be able to say to parents is to plan on eventually giving you kid Ritalin when ADHD becomes a problem.
In the longer run this sort of discovery points to why biotech therapies for altering brain development will become acceptable. Imagine politicians trying to explain to young mothers that gene therapy or cell therapy for their continuously crying babies would constitute too much of an unnatural intervention. Mom is going to be thinking the crying means her baby is in pain and the fact that it will grow up dumb and hyperactive. She's going to demand that her Congressman votes to allow treatments that will make her kid happier, smarter, and calmer.
By Randall Parker 2004 November 05 02:31 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (5)
2004 November 04 Thursday
Matthew Newman and colleagues at UT Austin found that bullying leaves more lasting effects if it is first encountered in late adolescence.
People who were bullied all revealed slightly higher levels of stress. But while those bullied earlier in life seemed to respond normally to provocation, people bullied for the first time late in puberty are more withdrawn and sensitive to violence.
There are also sex differences between those bullied for the first time during puberty, with females more likely to react aggressively when provoked and males are much more likely to turn to alcohol to escape bad situations.
The stage of neuroendocrine system development in late adolescence may predispose toward a more lasting change in response to stress.
Newman admits that the results may seem counterintuitive, as older children might be expected to cope better with being bullied. But he points out that previous studies in animals and humans have shown that the reaction to bullying becomes more pronounced as puberty progresses. He suggests that children who are bullied earlier in puberty may be better prepared to cope with the more stressful experience of later victimization and so suffer fewer consequences in adulthood.
What is this an argument for? Vaccination from a lifetime of avoidance of conflict by use of early puberty bullying. Yes, you heard me. Kids need to get bullied early and often so that their first experiences with bullying will not come in late puberty. They need to build up emotional defenses that can only come from early bullying.
This result is consistent with the idea that people who grow up in tough neighborhoods are tougher emotionally. But the comparison here is between people who are bullied early versus people who are first bulled in late adolescence. Neither article linked to above mentions reactions of a control group of adults who were never bullied. Surely such people exist. Some kids grow up in really rural areas with few peers to bully them and some grow up so big for their age that their peers are afraid to bully them. So do bully-free kids grow up to handle stress well? Or do they lash out or slink away when provoked?
There is also the genetic angle to consider. The New Zealand Longitudinal Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study found that a variation in the gene monoamine oxidase-A (MAOA or MAO-A) strongly predisposes abused children to become violent and criminal. It is possible that early childhood abuse is such a different experience for children than bullying during adolescence that abuse a different response than early or late adolescent bullying. Children may move through a series of stages where violence has different effects on their longer term development.
That there are children who carry an MAO-A variant that predisposes to greater violence in response to abuse argues for a reduction in the total amount of abuse children receive. But it becomes possible to genetically test each child for genetic variations that impact how children response to various types of mistreatment and rough treatment we may even find that it is beneficial for some children to get some bullying done to them at some stages whereas other children may be at risk of a worse outcome regardless of when they are abused or bullied.
By Randall Parker 2004 November 04 02:50 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (9)
2004 November 01 Monday
Kids are out of control because their medial temporal lobes have little say in what they do.
SAN DIEGO, Oct. 27 � A person's ability to have voluntary control over behavior improves with age because with development, additional brain processes are used, according to scientists at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.
The research, presented today at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, helps to resolve questions about how working memory � a function that allows people to perform tasks as diverse as making toast to solving complex math problems � develops and changes from childhood to adulthood.
"This study gives us a good picture of how our ability to have voluntary control over our behavior using working memory changes and improves with maturity," said Beatriz Luna, Ph.D. , associate professor of psychiatry at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.
"Anyone with kids or teenagers knows that they can make irrational decisions when they are under stress," said Dr. Luna . "That is not just because they are trying to be difficult � kids simply are not yet able to access the brain regions that allow adults to react in a more controlled way. What this may mean is that adolescents may be able to act like adults under normal conditions, but under stress they may go back to a more instinctual, less thought-out response."
Note that stress increases memory recall but decreases problem-solving ability. Do middle-aged adults retain more problem-solving ability under stressful conditions than do young adults, adolescents, and children? Also, do criminals lose more problem-solving ability under stress than do non-criminal members of populations? Anyone know of there is any research literature on this question? It would be interesting to see whether the degree of decay of problem-solving ability under stressful conditions in adolescence correlates with future criminal behavior.
Working memory is where the brain stores information used to make immediate calculations, similar to the random access memory (RAM) in a computer. Like RAM, the information stored in working memory is dumped when it is no longer needed. Working memory allows the brain to take in information and create planned responses using abstract thought. Without it, human behavior would consist mostly of reflexive actions, and humans would not have been able to develop higher mental abilities.
In a group of 20 healthy 8- to 30-year-olds, Dr. Luna and her colleagues used a test called an oculomotor delayed response task to track memory-guided saccades (eye movements) while imaging their brains using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Study participants briefly were shown a pinpoint of light and asked to remember where the light appeared. Ten seconds later, they were asked to look at the location where the light had been using just their memory. The 10-second time lapse was chosen because it would force the subjects to use their working memory � and not short- or long-term memory.
Results of the imaging study showed that pre-adolescent children relied most heavily on the prefrontal and parietal regions of the brain during the task; adolescents used those regions plus the anterior cingulate; and in adults, a third area of the brain, the medial temporal lobe, was brought in to support the functions of the other areas.
Adults did best with the saccade test probably because the medial temporal lobe helps refine encoding of information into working memory. In practical situations, introduction of the medial temporal lobe into the working memory process likely provides the kick needed to keep information around long enough and clearly enough for the brain to mull it over and make a rational, informed decision rather than an impulsive, reflexive action.
"Understanding working memory will inform us about how thinking occurs and how it is linked to other brain processes � and because working memory also is one of the major brain systems impaired in many psychiatric illnesses, understanding these links could inform the development of new treatments," said Dr. Luna.
This brings up an obvious question for those of us who expect medical treatments will be devised to change the speed and direction of brain development: Will it become possible to accelerate the growth of neurons and the development of connections in the brain to allow the medial temporal lobe to gain more influence on behavior at younger ages of child development? Will parents take their juvenile delinquents to get hormonal or gene therapies to enhance the connections the medial temporal lobe and the rest of the brain? Or will parole boards make the development such connections (verified by fMRI scans) as requirements for granting of parole to convicts?
This report is reason to be optimistic about one potential problem that may result from future rejuvenation therapies. A population made more youthful by rejuvenation may become more violent and criminal. While that is certainly going to happen to some extent this report suggests that when middle aged and old aged people can some day regain the use of fully rejuvenated and youthful bodies their rates of crime probably will not increase back up to the average level of criminal activity that their population cohorts engaged in when they were young. If the brain develops lasting neural wiring patterns into adulthood that give the rational brain a stronger ability to restrain impulses then my guess is that rejuvenation therapies will not reduce the strength of those neural connections.
By Randall Parker 2004 November 01 07:51 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2004 October 27 Wednesday
Somewhere between the age of 5 and the age of 11 human minds shift from associating words primarily by similarity of sounds to similarity of meaning.
The study found evidence of an age-related, developmental shift in language, suggesting that younger children process words primarily on the basis of phonology, or sound, while older children and adults process words primarily on the basis of semantics, or meaning. The findings are presented in the article "False Memories in Children: Evidence for a Shift from Phonological to Semantic Associations," by Steve Dewhurst and Claire Robinson of Lancaster University, United Kingdom. The article will be published in the November issue of Psychological Science, a journal of the American Psychological Society.
...
To test whether children would make similiar memory errors based on sound rather than semantics, the researchers used a version of this earlier experiment. They developed a list of words in which each word had at least one possible rhyme, then presented the list to children aged five, eight, or 11, who were asked to recall the words after hearing them. The results suggested a developmental correlation between age and language processes: The 11-year-olds performed in the same way as adults and falsely recalled words that were semantically related to the lists; the 8-year-olds were equally likely to falsely recall rhymes and semantic associates; and the 5-year-olds falsely recalled words that rhymed with those presented in the lists.
I think adults tend to forget and underestimate the intellectual difficulty of being a child because adults do not realize just how much contextual information they have built up and rely upon. For a child so much more of daily experience is novel and has no framework through which it can be sorted and organized.
For another demonstration of how minds develop better ways of classifying information as they age see my recent post Ferret Visual Cortex 80% Active Even In The Dark .
By Randall Parker 2004 October 27 04:11 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2004 October 10 Sunday
While a popular myth holds that only about 10% of the neurons in our brains actually do anything Michael Weliky, associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences at the University of Rochester, investigated ferrets and found that young ferret brains may be less able to organize and make sense of visual stimuli, that young ferret brains are less busy in the dark than adult ferret brains, and that even in the dark 80% of adult ferret brain visual cortexes are still busy.
The test was then to see if there was any relationship between the statistical motion of the movie and the way visual neurons in the ferrets fired. Each visual neuron is keyed to respond to certain visual elements, such as a vertical line, that appears in a specific area of the ferret�s vision. A great number of these cells combine to process an image of many lines, colors, etc. By watching the patterns of how these cells fired while watching The Matrix, Weliky could describe the pattern statistically, and match those statistics of how the ferret responded to the film with the statistics of the actual visual aspects of the film.
Weliky found two surprises. First, while the neurons of adult ferrets statistically seemed to respond similarly to the statistics of the film itself, younger ferrets had almost no relationship. This suggests that though the young ferrets are taking in and processing visual stimuli, they�re not processing the stimuli in a way that reflects reality.
�You might think of this as a sort of dyslexia,� explains Weliky. �It may be that in very young brains, the processing takes place in a way that�s not necessarily disordered, but not analogous to how we understand reality to be. It�s thought that dyslexia works somewhat like this�that some parts of the brain process written words in an unusual way and seem to make beginnings of words appear at their ends and vice versa. Infant brains may see the entire world the same way, as a mass of disparate scenes and sounds.� Weliky is quick to point out that whatever way infant brains may interpret the world, just because they�re different from an adult pattern of perception does not mean the infants have the wrong perception. After all, an adult interpreted the visual aspects of the film with our adult brains, so it shouldn�t be such a surprise that other adult brains simply interpret the visual aspects the same way. If an infant drew up the statistics, it might very well match the neural patterns of other infants.
The second, and more surprising, result of the study came directly from the fact that Weliky�s research is one of the first to test these visual neurons while the subject is awake and watching something. In the past, researchers would perhaps shine a light at an unconscious ferret and note which areas of the brain responded, but while that method narrowed the focus to how a single cell responds, it eliminated the chance to understand how the neural network of a conscious animal would respond. Accepting all the neural traffic of a conscious brain as part of the equation let Weliky get a better idea of the actual processing going on. As it turned out, one of his control tests yielded insight into neural activity no one expected.
When the ferrets were in a darkened room, Weliky expected their visual neurons to lack any kind of activity that correlated with visual reality. Neurologists have long known that there is substantial activity in the brain, even in darkness, but the pattern of that activity had never been investigated. Weliky discovered that while young ferrets displayed almost no patterns that correlated with visual reality, the adult ferrets� brains were humming along, producing the patterns even though there was nothing to see. When watching the film, the adult ferrets� neurons increased their patterned activity by about 20 percent.
�This means that in adults, there is a tremendous amount of real-world processing going on�80 percent�when there is nothing to process,� says Weliky. �We think that if you�ve got your eyes closed, your visual processing is pretty much at zero, and that when you open them, you�re running at 100 percent. This suggests that with your eyes closed, your visual processing is already running at 80 percent, and that opening your eyes only adds the last 20 percent. The big question here is what is the brain doing when it�s idling, because it�s obviously doing something important.�
Since the young ferrets do not display similar patterns, the �idling� isn�t necessary for life or consciousness, but since it�s present in the adults even without stimulus, Weliky suggests it may be in a sense what gives the ferret its understanding of reality. The eye takes in an image and the brain processes the image, but 80 percent of the activity may be a representation of the world replicated inside the ferret�s brain.
There's an obvious math error in how this press release is written. If the brain is operating at 80% of capacity in the dark and then increases to 100% capacity then from the reference point of the brain's activity level in the dark the amount of increase going into a richer visual environment is actually 25%. But that is just a quibble.
A more basic problem is with the 100% figure for what is implied to be some sort of maximum activity level. Is that supposed to be the absolute maximum level of activity of a ferret brain's visual cortext? Isn't it possible that there are conditions under which a ferret visual cortex might become twice as active as the highest level of activity that this researcher ever measured? There has to be some absolute maximum level of activity because there is a limit to how much oxygen the bloodstream can deliver to neurons. Also, some neurons are going to be less active because the suppression of some neurons combines with the excitation of other neurons to form a representation of any one image.
All of these results are from ferrets and it is possible that human brains do not exhibit similar behavior. But my guess is that while the absolute percentages may differ from the numbers reported above human brains probably do have similar differences between babies and adults. The ability of adult brain visual cortexes to stay so active in the dark likely is the result of the development of a fairly complex model of the visual world. That model is always running and mulling over older images even when no new images are being presented to it.
What this suggests about babies and children is especially interesting. They can't make as much sense of the world. They do not know as many logical relationships between objects in an image field and therefore can't create as many higher level meanings from what they are seeing. So the visual world must seem far more random and unpredictable to them. They may not even have as great an ability to track temporal order of changes in elements in a visual field.
By Randall Parker 2004 October 10 01:07 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2004 August 10 Tuesday
Permanently smaller brain sizes in premature babies are an especially serious problem with premature boys.
STANFORD, Calif. � Kids on a playground can be hard to tell apart. But those who were born significantly preterm may be struggling with a hidden handicap that sets them apart from their peers: specific areas of the brain that are smaller than normal, even years later.
A collaborative study between the Stanford, Yale and Brown medical schools compared the brain volumes of two types of 8 year olds: those born prematurely and those born full-term. The researchers found significant, lingering reductions in the areas of the cerebral cortex responsible for reading, language, emotion and behavior. Even more surprising, the researchers discovered that the brains of preterm boys were more severely affected than were girls.
Boys born preterm do more poorly in school, have a harder time speaking, and are socially less able.
Doctors have known that preterm newborn boys fare more poorly than girls, but it�s not been clear why. The differences persist even after the early medical hurdles have been cleared: preterm boys struggle more than preterm girls with speech and language and have a harder time in academic and social situations as they grow older. Although it stands to reason that newborns making an unreasonably early appearance have smaller brain volumes than full-term babies, it wasn�t known that boys� brains are more severely affected or that the disparity persists for so long.
By the description here among those born premature both males and females suffer from lower brain grey matter area. But only premature boys suffer from reduced white matter.
Reiss and Stanford co-investigator Shelli Kesler, PhD, collaborated with Laura Ment, MD, Betty Vohr, MD, and colleagues at Yale and Brown to compare brain-imaging data of 65 preterm children to 31 healthy, full-term children. Preterm babies were born at around 28 weeks of gestation and weighed about 2 pounds at birth. The study is published in the August issue of the Journal of Pediatrics.
�In the preterm group as a whole, we found the volumes of both grey matter and white matter were reduced,� said Reiss. �When we divided the preterm group by gender we found, bingo, the females had normal or preserved white matter volume, but the males� volumes were reduced compared to their full-term peers.�
White matter is primarily made up of the axon connections and cells that facilitate communication between parts of the brain over distances, whereas grey matter consists of the cell bodies of the brain�s nerve cells, where signal processing and thinking happen. White matter lesions are responsible for the symptoms of multiple sclerosis, which compromise both mobility and cognitive functions.
�The adverse effects of preterm birth, such as hypoxia, expose the premature brain to an environment it�s not yet supposed to be in,� said Reiss. �Researchers have hypothesized that white matter might be preferentially affected, but sex-based differences have never been clearly shown until now.� Reiss speculates that girls may gain a measure of protection either through genetics or hormones.
The reduction in brain gray matter size that results from premature birth is also quite important because of the role that gray matter plays in determining intelligence. See my previous post Brain Gray Matter Size Correlated To Intelligence . Since intelligence is inversely correlated with criminality the increase in the number and survival rate of premature births may be boosting the crime rate.
The ability to save babies in troubled pregnancies using sophisticated medical technology is coming at a cost that includes not just the large sums of money spent on initial medical care but also the survival of babies that will grow up to be less intelligent, less socially adept, and economically less successful. At least some of the taxpayers money spent on funding the medical care that saves premature babies seems misplaced. The same number of dollars spent on isolating pregnant women who are cigarette smokers abusing drugs, and consuming alcohol would reduce the number of premature births and reduce the number of babies who will grow up with permanent mental and physical disabilities.
Premature births are now 12 percent of all births in the United States and cost $58,000 on average each as compared to $4,300 on average for normal births.
The five-year, $75 million awareness campaign was launched because premature births have risen 27 percent since 1981, resulting in tremendous cost to families, the medical system and society.
"Many of these babies come into the world with serious health problems. Those who survive may suffer lifelong consequences, from cerebral palsy and mental retardation to blindness," said Dr. Jennifer House, president of the March of Dimes.
Another factor contributing to the rising number of babies suffering from improperly developed brains is In Vitro Fertilization (IVF). Whether due to the age of the mother, other complications that prevented normal means of starting a pregnancy, or the IVF procedure itself, IVF pregnancies have at least double the rate of premature births.
There was limited evidence of a three times increased risk of having a very premature baby born prior to 32 weeks gestation.
In addition, there was just over a doubling of the risk of a "mildly" premature baby, born between 32 and 36 weeks.
What we need are technologies and practices that reduce the rate of premature births. So far most reproductive technologies appear to be making the problem worse. Technological advances are also making this problem worse by lowering the costs and increasing the availability of recreational drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes. My guess is that the reduction of exertion needed in daily life might also be contibuting to the problem. Technologies do not automatically make the human condition better. We need to develop technologies that adapt us better to those technologies that have caused many humans to behave in ways that are maladaptive and destructive.
By Randall Parker 2004 August 10 02:10 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (55)
2004 June 28 Monday
"But Mom, I have to stay up late watching TV so I can grow up."
Scientists at the University of Florence in Italy found that when youngsters were deprived of their TV sets, computers and video games, their melatonin production increased by an average 30 per cent.
�Girls are reaching puberty much earlier than in the 1950s. One reason is due to their average increase in weight; but another may be due to reduced levels of melatonin,� suggests Roberto Salti, who led the study. �Animal studies have shown that low melatonin levels have an important role in promoting an early onset of puberty.�
Don't be too surprised if boys embarrassed by a lack of pubic hairs and girls wanting to grow breasts start watching more TV.
Turn off the TV to prevent teen pregnancy.
Alessandra Graziottin, director of the Centre for Gynaecology and Medical Sexology in Milan and a former president of the International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health, said the results were "very interesting and plausible".
She told the newspaper La Repubblica: "Studies in the US have shown that the greater the exposure to television the greater the number of early sexual experiences, including teen pregnancies."
I've previously argued for the delay of puberty in order to help kids be less distracted by sexual desires and more capable of learning. But the question hanging over this proposal is whether the delay of puberty will also delay brain changes that increase cognitive ability. We literally become smarter in our teen years and in recognition of this fact IQ tests are routinely normalized for age. We need psychometric research that tracks IQ changes as a function of the onset of puberty.
To get a sense of just how much the brain changes during adolesence see my post Adolescence Is Tough On The Brain .
By Randall Parker 2004 June 28 02:31 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (4)
2004 May 17 Monday
The brain develops in childhood and adolescence from back to front with the higher order brain centers developing last.
The brain's center of reasoning and problem solving is among the last to mature, a new study graphically reveals. The decade-long magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study of normal brain development, from ages 4 to 21, by researchers at NIH's National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) shows that such "higher-order" brain centers, such as the prefrontal cortex, don't fully develop until young adulthood.
A time-lapse 3-D movie that compresses 15 years of human brain maturation, ages 5 to 20, into seconds shows gray matter - the working tissue of the brain's cortex - diminishing in a back-to-front wave, likely reflecting the pruning of unused neuronal connections during the teen years. Cortex areas can be seen maturing at ages in which relevant cognitive and functional developmental milestones occur. The sequence of maturation also roughly parallels the evolution of the mammalian brain, suggest Drs. Nitin Gogtay, Judith Rapoport, NIMH, and Paul Thompson, Arthur Toga, UCLA, and colleagues, whose study is published online during the week of May 17, 2004 in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
"To interpret brain changes we were seeing in neurodevelopmental disorders like schizophrenia , we needed a better picture of how the brain normally develops," explained Rapoport.
The researchers scanned the same 13 healthy children and teens every two years as they grew up, for 10 years. After co-registering the scans with each other, using an intricate set brain anatomical landmarks, they visualized the ebb and flow of gray matter - neurons and their branch-like extensions - in maps that, together, form the movie showing brain maturation from ages 5 to 20.
It was long believed that a spurt of overproduction of gray matter during the first 18 months of life was followed by a steady decline as unused circuitry is discarded. Then, in the late l990s, NIMH's Dr. Jay Giedd, a co-author of the current study, and colleagues, discovered a second wave of overproduction of gray matter just prior to puberty, followed by a second bout of "use-it-or-lose-it" pruning during the teen years.
The new study found that the first areas to mature (e.g., extreme front and back of the brain) are those with the most basic functions, such as processing the senses and movement. Areas involved in spatial orientation and language (parietal lobes) follow. Areas with more advanced functions -- integrating information from the senses, reasoning and other "executive" functions (prefrontal cortex) - mature last.
In a related study published a few years ago, Rapoport and colleagues discovered an exaggerated wave of gray matter loss in teens with early onset schizophrenia. These teens, who became psychotic prior to puberty, lost four times the normal amount of gray matter in their frontal lobes, suggesting that childhood onset schizophrenia "may be an exaggeration of a normal maturation process, perhaps related to excessive synaptic pruning," note the researchers. By contrast, children with autism show an abnormal back-to-front wave of gray matter increases, rather than decreases, suggesting "a specific faulty step in early development."
Also participating in the new study were: Leslie Lusk, Cathy Vaituzis, Tom Nugent, David Herman, Drs. Deanna Greenstein, Liv Clasen, NIMH; Kiralee Hayashi, UCLA.
This next article reviews a number of recent studies on brain development and includes quotes from scientists arguing over whether the brain scan studies and other advances in neurobiology are evidence for reducing the legal responsibility of adolescents for criminal actions.
The ambiguities of science don't mix with social and political causes, contends neuroscientist Bradley S. Peterson of the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City. For instance, it's impossible to say at what age teenagers become biologically mature because the brain continues to develop in crucial ways well into adulthood, he argues.
A team led by Sowell and Peterson used an MRI scanner to probe the volume of white and gray matter throughout the brains of 176 healthy volunteers, ages 7 to 87. The researchers reported in the March 2003 Nature Neuroscience that myelin formation�measured by the total volume of white matter in the entire brain�doesn't reach its peak until around age 45.
Although gray matter volume generally declines beginning around age 7, it steadily increases until age 30 in a temporal-lobe region associated with language comprehension.
That previous article opens up with arguments by David Fassler and Ruben Gur against the application of the death penalty to adolescents. Fassler and Gur believe the brains of adolescents are not yet fully enough formed to allow them to understand the intentions of others or to control themselves. Surely there is lots of evidence for on-going changes in the brain in adolescence and beyond. Some of the results are a bit surprising. For instance, while language processing starts out on one side of the brain language processing becomes more evenly distributed across both sides of the brain in one's mid-20s.
It has been known for some time that children have sharp growth spurts in brain connections among regions specialized for language and spatial relationships between ages 6 and 12. That language capacity tends to reside mostly in a person's nondominant side - the left hemisphere of the brain in right-handers, for instance. But a recent imaging study by researchers at the University of Cincinnati Medical Center found that this distinction ends in the mid-20s when the brain shifts to use both sides in language processing.
One particularly important (yet still preliminary) finding about adolescents by Deborah Yurgelun-Todd and colleagues at Harvard and McLean Hospital is that adolescents tend to misinterpret fearful expressions on faces as anger or other emotions.
What does your work tell you about young teenagers?
One of the implications of this work is that the brain is responding differently to the outside world in teenagers compared to adults. And in particular, with emotional information, the teenager's brain may be responding with more of a gut reaction than an executive or more thinking kind of response. And if that's the case, then one of the things that you expect is that you'll have more of an impulsive behavioral response, instead of a necessarily thoughtful or measured kind of response.
Does this research go part of the way to explaining the miscues between adult and teenagers?
Yes, I do think this research goes to helping understand differences between adults and teenagers in terms of communications. And I think that it does for two reasons. One, we saw that adults can actually look at fearful faces and perceive them as fearful faces, and they label them as such, whereas teenagers ... don't label them the same way. So it means that they're reading external visual cues [differently], or they're looking at affect differently.
The second aspect of the findings are that the frontal region, or this executive region, is activating differentially in the teenagers compared to adults. And I think that has important implications in terms of modulating their own responses, or trying to inhibit their own gut responses.
But even if all the evidence does point to problems with adolescent brains that is not necessarily an argument for less severe punishment for adolescents. One reason for that is the lower levels of punishment can be ruthlessly exploited by adolescents aware of the fact that they face less severe consequences for their actions. Also, if adolescents really are more prone to violent behavior then perhaps more severe punishment is needed to deter them than is needed deter adults.
My more fundamental objection to the argument for reduced legal liability is that it can not be enacted unilaterally without other compensatory changes. A free society is built on the assumption that its members are competent moral agents. While this is obviously not always true and scientific advances are likely going to chip away at that assumption even more in the future it really is a necessary assumption for a free society. People are given a great deal of latitude on what they can do and what legal protections they have because most are considered to be morally competent.
A reduction in assumed moral competence would need to be accompanied with a reduction in latitude of actions and autonomy which is allowed. For example, of kids can't be punished as severely as adults for, say, killing someone on the streets at night then it doesn't make sense to allow kids to be out on the streets at night in the first place. Or once it becomes possible to measure individual tendencies to violence perhaps a biotechnologically more advanced response might be to require teens to be tested for indicators of violent tendencies. Then those who are most at risk of lashing out could be given the choice of either drugs to reduce violent urges or exile to a remote special community designed to handle dangerous adolescents until their brains develop enough to allow their prefrontal cortexes to reign in their more primitive urges.
While some may quibble with these specific suggestions the larger point here is that regardless of the particular methods chosen to respond society needs to be protected from brains that are not operating as fully responsible moral agents.
By Randall Parker 2004 May 17 09:48 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (6)
2004 February 25 Wednesday
The proverbial listless and directionless adolescents are wired up to be less motivated than adults.
In the MRI study, James Bjork, Ph.D., and others in the laboratory of Daniel Hommer, M.D., scanned the brains of twelve adolescents aged 12 to 17 years and twelve young adults aged 22 to 28 years. While being scanned, the subjects participated in a game-like scenario risking monetary gain or loss. The participants responded to targets on a screen by pressing a button to win or avoid losing 20 cents, $1, or $5.
For both age groups, the researchers found that the anticipation of potential gain activated portions of the ventral striatum, right insula, dorsal thalamus, and dorsal midbrain, with the magnitude of ventral striatum activation sensitive to gain amount. In adolescents, however, the researchers found lower activation of the right ventral striatum centered in the nucleus accumbens, a region at the base of the brain shown by earlier research (see Alcohol Researchers Localize Brain Region That Anticipates Reward August 3, 2001 at News Releases- http://www.niaaa.nih.gov ) to be crucial for motivating behavior toward the prospect of rewards.
"Our observations help to resolve a longstanding debate among researchers about whether adolescents experience enhanced reward from risky behaviors--or seek out alcohol and other stimuli because they require enhanced stimulation. They also may help to explain why so many young people have difficulty achieving long-term goals," according to James Bjork, Ph.D., first author on the study.
When the researchers examined brain activity following gain outcomes, they saw that in both adolescents and young adults monetary gain similarly activated a region of the mesial frontal cortex. "These results suggest that adolescents selectively show reduced recruitment of motivational but not consummatory components of reward-directed behavior," state the authors.
In a nutshell: adolescents want stuff but they are too lazy to work to get as much as they want. Worse yet, they have few skills with which to work to get what they want. No wonder they frustrated, depressed, and angry.
The mentioned earlier research is here: Alcohol Researchers Localize Brain Region That Anticipates Reward
Researchers in the laboratory of Daniel Hommer, M.D., measured changes in blood oxygen level dependent contrast in a functional magnetic resonance (FMRI) scanner in order to track changes in brain activity that occurred while eight volunteers participated in a videogame task involving real money. In this monetary incentive delay (MID) task, participants saw cues that indicated that they might win or lose money, waited for a variable anticipatory delay period, then tried to either win or avoid losing money by pressing a button in response to a rapidly presented target. The researchers examined the response of the nucleus accumbens during anticipation of different amounts of potential rewards (i.e., gains of $0.20, $1.00, and $5.00) or punishments (i.e., losses of $0.20, $1.00, and $5.00). They found that nucleus accumbens activity increased as volunteers anticipated increasing monetary rewards but not punishments. Another nearby brain region, the medial caudate, showed increased activity not only during anticipation of increasing rewards but also during anticipation of increasing punishments.
Imagine a drug or gene therapy that stimulates the growth or activity of the nucleus accumbens. It might make adolescents and even adults more motivated. The educational and economic effects of such therapies could be enormous.
By contrast, stimulation of growth of the appropriate portion of the medial caudate might be more useful for treating criminals. If criminals could be made to have a greater fear of punishment they might become less likely to violate the law. I'm betting that most criminals will eventually be found by brain scan studies to have a lower fear of punishment than the population as a whole.
By Randall Parker 2004 February 25 11:06 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (4)
2003 November 21 Friday
Anabolic steroid use may cause permanent changes in personality and behavior .
(11-20-03) BOSTON, Mass. � With the recent revelations about steroid use in Major League Baseball and the bust last week of several Oakland Raiders players for drug abuse, Northeastern University psychology professor Richard Melloni , who studies the link between steroid use and aggression, has recently found evidence that use of anabolic steroids may have long-term effects on players� behavior and aggression levels well after they stop abusing these performance enhancing drugs.
With funding from the NIH (recently extended through 2008), Melloni and doctoral student Jill Grimes have been studying how steroids used during adolescence may permanently alter the brain's ability to produce serotonin. In their experiments, adolescent Syrian hamsters - given their similar brain circuitry to human adolescents � were administered doses of anabolic steroids and then measured for aggressiveness over certain periods of time.
The researchers initially hypothesized that steroid use during adolescence might permanently alter the brain's chemistry and a person's tendency toward aggression long after use has stopped. Their most recent findings, published this week in Hormones and Behavior, enabled them to confirm this hypothesis and conclude that there is indeed a lengthy price � namely long-term aggression � to pay for drug abuse even after the ingestion of steroids ceases. �We know testosterone or steroids affect the development of serotonin nerve cells, which, in turn, decreases serotonin availability in the brain,� Melloni says. �The serotonin neural system is still developing during adolescence and the use of anabolic steroids during this critical period appears to have immediate and longer-term neural and behavioral consequences. What we know at this point is that aggressiveness doesn�t simply cease after the ingestion of steroids does.�
Based on this research, Melloni also believes that athletes who abuse steroids may also be inclined toward aggressive behavior long after their drug abuse � and musculature � have waned.
The press release doesn't detail their findings unfortunately. But the claims here are at least plausible. See my previous posts on reports about drugs and environmental influences causing changes to brain development: Drugs And Stress Have Variety Of Effects On Brain Development and Adolescence Is Tough On The Brain .
By Randall Parker 2003 November 21 01:20 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2003 October 20 Monday
Halfway into a mouse pregnancy, before the testes have even formed, the activity of 51 genes is different in males and females, says Eric Vilain of the University of California, Los Angeles. His team analysed 12,000 brain genes.
Note that other news accounts report 54 genes are involved.
These gene expression differences are found before genital hormone manufacture could possibly begin to play a role in influencing sexual development of the brain.
It rebuts 30 years of scientific dogma that the hormones, estrogen and testosterone, alone were responsible for differences between the male and female brain. So the researchers were surprised then they found 54 genes produced in different amounts in male and female brains prior to hormonal influence. Eighteen of the genes were produced at higher levels in the male brains and 34 were produced at higher levels in the female brains.
This opens up some interesting possibilities. If a large set of genes all express one way in females and in a different way in males then it may become possible to manipulate subsets of the genes involved in making male and female brains to create people who are in some ways female and in other ways male. Also, by pushing the expression of the genes more in one direction or the other it may eventually be possible to make even more masculine and more feminine minds.
I have a basic rule: the more we learn about the genetic basis of human nature the more we will be able to manipulate it. Abuses are inevitable. Also, the culture wars about abortion rights will seem like the little leagues as compared to the future battles about ethics when it becomes possible to change human nature by manipulating the development of the mind. Real physical wars may end up being fought over different visions of what is allowable to do in creating offspring.
This report also brings up the question of whether any of those who want to undergo a sex change operation experienced during fetal development genetic expression patterns that are more like those the opposite sex. Also, the same question can be asked about homosexuals. The difficulty of answering these questions is that getting neurons out of a brain to test would pose ethical and practical problems and it would take years to wait to see if the fetal stage gene expression patterns have gene expression patterns that are, at least in some respects, more like the opposite sex? My guess is that the homosexuals will turn out to have various mixes of male and female brain gene expression patterns.
Sexuality is looking more and more to be biologically based.
"Our findings may help answer an important question -- why do we feel male or female?" Dr. Eric Vilain, a genetics professor at the University of California, Los Angeles School of Medicine, said in a statement. "Sexual identity is rooted in every person's biology before birth and springs from a variation in our individual genome."
This is another nail in the coffin of the tabula rasa view of human nature.
This result may eventually be useful for more accurately identifying and treating those born with sexually ambiguous genitalia.
"If physicians could predict the gender of newborns with ambiguous genitalia at birth, we would make less mistakes in gender assignment," said Vilain.
This report follows and certainly builds on work by a team headed by Vilain reported a year ago that showed that the brain started getting sexual orientation before the SRY gene starts genital development. See the post Brain Gets Sex Orientation Before Genitals for more details.
Update: It would be interesting to compare liver gene expression patterns in homosexuals to heterosexuals to see if liver gene expression differs from male and female expression patterns in homosexuals.
In the November 1 issue of Genes & Development, Dr. Diane Robins and colleagues report on their discovery of two neighboring genes, Rsl1 and Rsl2, that repress male-specific liver gene expression in female mice. They found that female mice harboring mutations in Rsl genes aberrantly turn on male-specific liver genes, causing the female livers to adopt characteristically male patterns of gene expression.
If liver gene expression patterns were to turn out in some cases to be reliable proxies for brain gene expression patterns for genes that are sex-specific then that might make it easier to test for sex-specific gene expression patterns.
Update II: The UCLA press release contains more details on the Vilain study.
"We didn't expect to find genetic differences between the sexes' brains," Vilain said. "But we discovered that the male and female brains differed in many measurable ways, including anatomy and function."
In one intriguing example, the two hemispheres of the brain appeared more symmetrical in females than in males. According to Vilain, the symmetry may improve communication between both sides of the brain, leading to enhanced verbal expressiveness in females.
"This anatomical difference may explain why women can sometimes articulate their feelings more easily than men," he said.
Overall, the UCLA team's findings counter the theory that only hormones are responsible for organizing the brain.
"Our research implies that genes account for some of the differences between male and female brains," Vilain said. "We believe that one's genes, hormones and environment exert a combined influence on sexual brain development."
The scientists will pursue further studies to distinguish specific roles in the brain's sexual maturation for each of the 54 different genes they identified. What their research reveals may provide insight into how the brain determines gender identity.
Men and women really do think differently.
By Randall Parker 2003 October 20 08:22 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (5)
2003 July 21 Monday
Smaller than average baby brains that grow very rapidly in the first year of life are seen as key to the development of autism.
Small head circumference at birth, followed by a sudden and excessive increase in head circumference during the first year of life, has been linked to development of autism by researchers at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) School of Medicine and Children�s Hospital and Health Center, San Diego. Autism spectrum disorder occurs in one out of every 160 children and is among the more common and serious of neurological disorders of early childhood.
...
It was found that the head size of the autistic children at birth was, on average, in the 25th percentile, meaning that the circumference measurement for these children was smaller than 75 percent of other newborns. During the first year of life, however, these same children experienced sudden, rapid and excessive brain growth, that put them in the 85th percentile at about 12- to 14-months of age. From then on, the brain growth slowed.
�This burst of overgrowth takes place in a brief period of time, between about two months and six to 14 months of age,� Courchesne said. �So, we know it cannot be caused by events that occur later, such as vaccinations for mumps, measles and rubella or exposure to toxins during childhood.�
Although no one has yet determined the biological cause of autism, the new findings �give us information about the timing of abnormal brain development,� said study co-author Ruth Carper, Ph.D., a post-doctoral researcher in the UCSD Department of Neurosciences and a research associate at Children�s. �This provides a timeframe for further research, to determine the exact brain abnormalities and the biological mechanisms which produce them.�
Is the rapid rate of brain growth a consequence of a brain growth regulatory system's sensing and responding to the fact that the brain is smaller than it ought to be?
This result will enable the detection of risk for autism at a much younger age. But what is needed is the ability to intervene in the regulatory systems that control brain growth. If research on autism leads to knowledge about how to control brain growth it may become possible to also use that knowledge to boost intelligence by intervening in baby brain development.
By Randall Parker 2003 July 21 11:22 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (2)
2003 June 20 Friday
Functional Magnetic Resonance (fMRI) brain scans done on adults show patterns in adult brain activity that correlate with shyness of those same people as toddlers.
A key area in the brains of people who displayed an inhibited temperament as toddlers shows a greater response to new faces than does the same brain area in adults who were uninhibited early in life, according to a study by researchers from Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH). The imaging studies of the amygdala � a part of the brain that responds to events requiring extra vigilance � appear in the June 20 issue of Science.
"Our findings both support the theory that differences in temperament are related to differences in amygdala function, something earlier technology could not prove, and show that the footprint of temperamental differences observed when people are younger persist and can be measured when they get older," says Carl Schwartz, MD, director of the developmental psychopathology lab in the MGH Psychiatric Neuroscience Program, the paper's first author. "In a way, this research is the neuroscientist's version of the 'Seven-Up' movies," he adds, referring to a well-known series of British documentaries that have revisited a group of people every seven years for more than 40 years.
In psychological terms, temperament refers to a stable emotional and behavioral profile that is observed in infancy and partially controlled by genetic factors. One of the most carefully studied temperamental measures relates to a child's typical response to unfamiliar people, objects and situations. It usually is described with terms such as shyness versus sociability, caution versus boldness, or withdrawal versus approach. The two extremes of this measurement define types of children called inhibited and uninhibited by Jerome Kagan, PhD, professor of Psychology at Harvard University, a co-author of the current study.
The study participants were 22 young adults who, as children, had participated in Kagan's earlier research. Thirteen of the participants had been determined to be inhibited as infants, and nine were categorized as uninhibited. In the first phase of the current study, functional MR images (fMRI) were taken while participants viewed a random series of six faces that were presented several times. In the test phase, participants viewed a larger number of faces, some of which were totally new and some that were repeated from the first phase. All of the faces that the participants viewed had expressions that were neutral and not characterized by any emotion.
While some increase in amygdala response to strange faces is normal, the inhibited participants showed a significantly greater response to the unfamiliar faces than did the uninhibited participants. Two of the inhibited participants previously had been diagnosed with the anxiety disorder social phobia, but even when their results were removed from analysis, the inhibited groups showed much greater amygdala response.
"It's been theorized that the behavioral differences that characterize inhibited and uninhibited children may relate to the amygdala's response to novelty, and our study supports that concept," says Schwartz, who is assistant professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. "This was a modest study that needs to be confirmed in a larger population, something we are hoping to receive the resources to carry out."
The researchers also note that the current findings could complicate the interpretation of psychiatric imaging studies. Schwartz notes, "There are many imaging studies that have compared people with anxiety disorders such as panic disorder and social phobia to normal controls and found increased amygdalar activity.
While the conventional interpretation of such studies is to regard these differences as markers of the illness, our results suggest that this brain activity may in fact be a marker for the continued influence of temperamental risk factors persisting from infancy."
"These findings may reflect a difference in vulnerability that can be compensated for or exacerbated by environment and experience," says Scott Rauch, MD, MGH director of psychiatric neuroimaging, another co-author of the Science paper.
"Inhibited children in the second year of life don't like novelty, don't like unknown situations," Schwartz said in a telephone interview. "It is broader than shyness ... It is about being more vigilant about things that are new
The differences in the temperament of babies are easily observable.
"A grad student made a little R2D2 robot," Schwartz said. "The uninhibited toddlers would walk up and poke the robot in the eye and say 'duh.' The inhibited child would freeze or even run to his mother."
Anxiety is more common among inhibited people.
The findings may help to start sorting out the nature-versus-nurture debate. About one-third of "inhibited" children end up with social anxiety disorder, versus only 9 percent of "uninhibited" ones.
If these differences in temperament which are evident from such an early age are at least partially genetically based then eventually it will become possible to do genetic engineering to create babies with different temperaments.
Early amygdala differences persist for decades.
Dr Schwartz said: "It's been theorised that the behavioural differences that characterise inhibited and uninhibited children may relate to the amygdala's response to novelty, and our study supports that concept. Now we're suggesting that the same link continues through life. We found that individual differences in temperament are associated with persistent differences in the response of the amygdala after more than 20 years of development and life experience."
By Randall Parker 2003 June 20 11:31 AM Entry Permalink | Comments (1)
2002 November 13 Wednesday
Higher maternal testosterone levels in pregnant women correlate with tomboy behavior in young femal children:
"Because hormones influence basic processes of brain development, they also exert permanent influences on behavior," says lead author Melissa Hines, Ph.D., of City University in London "In both rats and rhesus monkeys, genetic female animals treated with testosterone during critical periods of prenatal or early postnatal life show increased levels of � male-typical play behavior as juveniles."
Hines and her co-authors note that girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetic disorder involving prenatal exposure to high levels of male hormones, tend to prefer masculine-typical toys and activities.
The study results appear in the November-December issue of Child Development.
Participants were part of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a long-term study of biological, environmental and social factors associated with pregnancy outcomes and child health. A total of 13,998 pregnant women -- who represented 90 percent of all pregnancies occurring in the Avon, England, area during an 18-month period in the early 1990s -- enrolled in the study. Data from 679 offspring of the 14,138 children born during the study were analyzed.
The researchers obtained blood samples from the pregnant women during routine prenatal medical care; 55 percent of the women had blood taken between weeks 8 and 24 of the pregnancy; a quarter of the women had the samples taken between weeks 5 and 7, and the remainder after week 25. The samples were analyzed for levels of testosterone and a hormone that limits the ability of testosterone to act, called sex hormone binding globulin.
Once each child reached age 3 1/2, a primary caregiver completed the Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI), which assesses the child's engagement in various sex-typed behaviors, such as play with certain toys, games and activities. Higher scores indicate more masculine-typical behavior. The questionnaire was completed again when the child was 3 1/2.
The authors found a link between testosterone level in mothers and girls' scores on the PSAI, with high testosterone levels related to high "masculine" scores. No relationship was found between testosterone levels and boys' gender-role behavior, however.
In case it seems odd that I post alot on research about neurobiology and behavior on a blog dedicated to the future I'd like to explain why I do this. These studies demonstrate jut how much of human nature is determined by genes and by hormones and other biochemical factors that regulate genetic expression. In the future we are going to be able to make choices about the genetic sequences of genes for our offspring and we therefore will be able to change the mental aspects of human nature. It is important to appreciate just how many ways biological variations can cause variations human minds and human behavior because all of those variations and many more will be manipulated intentionally. When we acquire the ability to control gene that determine personality characteristics in offspring this it will simultaneously provide a great benefit and pose a great threat. It is important that we start thinking about this topic now.
By Randall Parker 2002 November 13 02:21 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (3)
2002 November 12 Tuesday
Adolescence Is Tough On The Brain
First off, kids enterting puberty experience a big drop in their ability to read the emotions of others. So suddenly the likelihood for misunderstandings shoots way up:
Robert McGivern and his team of neuroscientists at San Diego State University found that as children enter puberty, their ability to quickly recognise other people's emotions nosedives. What's more, this ability does not return to normal until they are around 18 years old. McGivern reckons this goes some way towards explaining why teenagers tend to find life so unfair, because they cannot read social situations as efficiently as others.
Previous studies have shown that puberty is marked by sudden increases in the connectivity of nerves in parts of the brain. In particular, there is a lot of nerve activity in the prefrontal cortex. "This plays an important role in the assessment of social relationships, as well as planning and control of our social behaviour," says McGivern.
He and his team devised a study specifically to see whether the prefrontal cortex's ability to function altered with age. Nearly 300 people aged between 10 and 22 were shown images containing faces or words, or a combination of the two. The researchers asked them to describe the emotion expressed, such as angry, happy, sad or neutral.
The team found the speed at which people could identify emotions dropped by up to 20 per cent at the age of 11. Reaction time gradually improved for each subsequent year, but only returned to normal at 18 (Brain and Cognition, vol 50, p 173).
During adolescence, social interactions become the dominant influence on our behaviour, says McGivern. But at just the time teenagers are being exposed to a greater variety of social situations, their brains are going through a temporary "remodelling", he says. As a result, they can find emotional situations more confusing, leading to the petulant, huffy behaviour adolescents are notorious for.
This study may not have used subjects with an early enough starting age to detect the initial decline in ability detected in the previous study:
Another series of MRI studies is shedding light on how teens may process emotions differently than adults. Using functional MRI (fMRI), a team led by Dr. Deborah Yurgelun-Todd at Harvard's McLean Hospital scanned subjects' brain activity while they identified emotions on pictures of faces displayed on a computer screen.5 Young teens, who characteristically perform poorly on the task, activated the amygdala, a brain center that mediates fear and other "gut" reactions, more than the frontal lobe. As teens grow older, their brain activity during this task tends to shift to the frontal lobe, leading to more reasoned perceptions and improved performance. Similarly, the researchers saw a shift in activation from the temporal lobe to the frontal lobe during a language skills task, as teens got older. These functional changes paralleled structural changes in temporal lobe white matter.
During a time period when teens are already having a hard enough time sorting thru their own emotions they become far more sensitive to emotion-altering recreational drugs:
Researchers at Jefferson Medical College have evidence in animals that the young, adolescent brain may be more sensitive to addictive drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines than either the adult or newborn. The work may help someday lead to a better understanding of how the adolescent human brain adapts to such drugs, and provide clues into changes in the brain that occur during drug addiction.
Scientists led by Michelle Ehrlich, M.D., professor of neurology at Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia and a member of the Farber Institute for Neurosciences at Jefferson, and Ellen Unterwald, Ph.D., associate professor of pharmacology at the Temple University School of Medicine in Philadelphia, found a greater increase in a certain protein in the part of the adolescent mouse brain called the striatum following chronic exposure to drugs such as amphetamine or cocaine than they did in either very young mice or adults.
Such psychostimulant drugs affect the brain's striatum in different ways, potentially affecting both movement and locomotion, or the "reward" system. This "molecular adaptation," says Dr. Ehrlich, could be significant. "An increase in this protein may be important because it could also affect other molecules that could lead to long-lasting changes in the brain in response to psychostimulant drugs." The protein, called Delta FosB, is a transcription factor and plays a role in regulating gene expression. Earlier research by other scientists had shown increased amounts of Delta FosB in adult brains following chronic exposure to psychostimulants.
The team, which includes scientists at the Nathan Kline Institute in Orangeburg, New York, reports its findings November 1 in the Journal of Neuroscience.
Teens are at risk of developing life long harmful habits and their brains change in a way to puts them at greater risk of developing addiction to the demon weed:
When they did, researchers at Duke University found that adolescent brains respond more intensely to nicotine. The scientists injected rats with nicotine every day for more than two weeks, a dose comparable to what a typical smoker receives. In all of the rats the number of chemical receptors dedicated to nicotine increased -- a sign of addiction. But in adolescents, the number of nicotine receptors increased twice as much compared to adults.
"What we found is that the adolescent brain gets a lot more bang for the buck," says Theodore Slotkin, one of the scientists who performed the research.
A follow-up study published in the October issue of Brain Research showed that adolescent nicotine exposure caused permanent behavioral problems as well, especially for females. Even after two weeks with no nicotine, female rats were less interested in moving around and raising their young than counterparts who had never been exposed.
That may be because nicotine retards cell division in the hippocampus, a brain region that continues growing into adulthood in females, but not males.
The larger society is forcing teenagers to wake up earlier than their teen biological clocks are telling them to:
When teenagers insist that they are not tired at 9 or 10 p.m., they are very likely telling the truth. For reasons that are not fully understood, Dr. Carskadon said, their body clocks shift, so that their natural tendency is to stay up later at night and wake up later in the morning than when they were younger. But that inner clock often clashes with the outer world: early starting times in high school and demanding schedules of sports, clubs, music lessons, homework and part-time jobs.
There are consequences. For one thing, lack of sleep can interfere with learning: tired students have a hard time paying attention, and even if they do somehow manage to focus, they may forget what they were taught because memory formation takes place partly during sleep.
In "Adolescent Sleep Patterns," a book published in August and edited by Dr. Carskadon, she wrote, "The students may be in school, but their brains are at home on their pillows."
What's worse, the types of brain activities engaged in during adolescence probably have a significant impact on what cognitive abilities people will have the rest of their lives:
Even though it may seem that having a lot of synapses is a particularly good thing, the brain actually consolidates learning by pruning away synapses and wrapping white matter (myelin) around other connections to stabilize and strengthen them. The period of pruning, in which the brain actually loses gray matter, is as important for brain development as is the period of growth. For instance, even though the brain of a teenager between 13 and 18 is maturing, they are losing 1 percent of their gray matter every year.
Giedd hypothesizes that the growth in gray matter followed by the pruning of connections is a particularly important stage of brain development in which what teens do or do not do can affect them for the rest of their lives. He calls this the "use it or lose it principle," and tells FRONTLINE, "If a teen is doing music or sports or academics, those are the cells and connections that will be hardwired. If they're lying on the couch or playing video games or MTV, those are the cells and connections that are going to survive."
On the bright side, the spurts in cell growth in various parts of the brain during adolescence open up the possibility of therapies to boost intelligence by developing hormonal and/or gene therapies that would make the burst of nerve growth more intense. Also, with better understanding it may become possible to structure the institutions that deal with adolescents to better accommodate the developmental stages of their brains. Obviously, just moving starting times forward for schools is a fairly easy accommodation.
Update: These results provide a sense of just how much the mind changes during adolescence:
Researchers at studied the post-mortem cerebral cortexes of six 12- to 17-year-olds and five 17- to 24-year-olds. All of the individuals had been of normal health and intelligence. They studied 43 different areas in each brain hemisphere, measuring for cortical thickness, neuronal density and pyramidal neuronal size. Corrections were made for gender differences in the size of the brain.
The average pyramidal soma size was 15.5 percent smaller in the older age group than in the younger one. This suggests that these nerve cells undergo �pruning� or �streamlining� of their processing during adolescence, said de Courten-Myers.
Other measures of the brain were slightly larger in the older age group, including cortical thickness (1.9 percent), neural density (1.8 percent), the number of neurons/standard cortical columns (3.8 percent), neuropil volume/standard cortical column (3.1 percent), and neuropil volume/neuron (1.3 percent).
Update II The part of the brain that inhibits risky behavior does not fully develop until age 25.
A National Institutes of Health study suggests that the region of the brain that inhibits risky behavior is not fully formed until age 25, a finding with implications for a host of policies, including the nation's driving laws.
"We'd thought the highest levels of physical and brain maturity were reached by age 18, maybe earlier -- so this threw us," said Jay Giedd, a pediatric psychiatrist leading the study, which released its first results in April. That makes adolescence "a dangerous time, when it should be the best."
So that is why teenagers are so reckless. Hardly comforting news. You can know this and they will still be reckless after all.
By Randall Parker 2002 November 12 12:20 PM Entry Permalink | Comments (21)
2002 October 19 Saturday
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i don't know
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Which nation's 'national anthem' is known as 'Qaumi Tarana' and alternatively 'Pak Sarzamin' (sacred land)?
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Qaumi - Meaning And Origin Of The Name Qaumi | NAMEANING.NET
Qaumi
Name Number: 7 Meaning: Inner, Thought, Mind, Psychology, Secret, Mystic, Strange, Study, Knowledge, Loneliness, Rest
Songs about Qaumi:
Hamara Parcham Qaumi Parcham by Nahid Akhtar from the Album Hits By Nahid Akhtar
Pakistan [Qaumi Tarana (National Anthem), "Blessed be the sacred land?"] by Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra from the Album The Complete National Anthems of the World (2013 Edition)
Pakistan [Qaumi Tarana (National Anthem), "Blessed be the sacred land?"] by Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra from the Album The Complete National Anthems of the World (2013 Edition), Vol. 7
Pakistan [Qaumi Tarana (National Anthem), "Blessed be the sacred land?"] by Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra from the Album National Anthems of the Commonwealth (Melbourne 2006 Edition)
Qaumi Tarana by Naghaman Jafri from the Album I Love You Pakistan
Qaumi Tarana - Pak Sarzamin (The Pure Land) (The Pakistani Football / Soccer Anthem - Pakistan) by The One World Ensemble from the Album 60 Football Anthems - National Songs from Soccer Nations
Qaumi Tarana - Pak Sarzamin (The Pure Land) (The Pakistani National Anthem - Pakistan) by The One World Ensemble from the Album National Anthems of the World - Vol. 3
Wiki information Qaumi:
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Pakistan
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What popular Australian bird is named after an ancient stringed instrument?
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The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency
Background:
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world and dating back at least 5,000 years, spread over much of what is presently Pakistan. During the second millennium B.C., remnants of this culture fused with the migrating Indo-Aryan peoples. The area underwent successive invasions in subsequent centuries from the Persians, Greeks, Scythians, Arabs (who brought Islam), Afghans, and Turks. The Mughal Empire flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries; the British came to dominate the region in the 18th century. The separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim state of Pakistan (with West and East sections) and largely Hindu India was never satisfactorily resolved, and India and Pakistan fought two wars and a limited conflict - in 1947-48, 1965, and 1999 respectively - over the disputed Kashmir territory. A third war between these countries in 1971 - in which India capitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalis in Pakistani politics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weapons testing, Pakistan conducted its own tests in mid-1998. India-Pakistan relations improved in the mid-2000s but have been rocky since the November 2008 Mumbai attacks and have been further strained by attacks in India by militants suspected of being backed by Pakistan. Nawaz SHARIF took office as prime minister in 2013, marking the first time in Pakistani history that a democratically elected government completed a full term and transitioned to a successive democratically elected government. Following a series of bomb and suicide attacks by the Tehrik-e Pakistan Taliban (TTP) begun in 2007, the Pakistan Government and TTP representatives agreed to a cease-fire in early 2014. However, by mid-year 2014 the talks collapsed and the TTP resumed attack plotting against Pakistani targets.
Geography :: PAKISTAN
chief of state: President Mamnoon HUSSAIN (since 9 September 2013)
head of government: Prime Minister Mohammad Nawaz SHARIF (since 5 June 2013)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president upon the advice of the prime minister
elections/appointments: president indirectly elected by the Electoral College consisting of members of the Senate, National Assembly, and provincial assemblies for a 5-year term (eligible for reelection); election last held on 9 September 2013 (next to be held in 2018); prime minister selected by the National Assembly
election results: Mamnoon HUSSAIN elected president; Mamnoon HUSSAIN (PML-N) 432 votes, Wajihuddin AHMED (PTI) 77 votes
Legislative branch:
description: bicameral Parliament or Majlis-e-Shoora consists of the Senate (104 seats; members indirectly elected by the 4 provincial assemblies and the territories' representatives by proportional representation vote; members serve 6-year terms with one-half of the membership renewed every 3 years) and the National Assembly (342 seats; 272 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 70 members - 60 women and 10 non-Muslims - directly elected by proportional representation vote; all members serve 5-year terms)
elections: Senate - last held on 5 March 2015 (next to be held in March 2018); National Assembly - last held on 11 May 2013 (next to be held by 2018)
election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PPPP 27, PML-N 26, MQM 8, ANP 6, PTI 7, JUI-F 5, PML-Q 4, BNP-A 2, NP 1, PML-F 1, other 7, independent 10; National Assembly - percent of votes by party - NA; seats by party - PML-N 126, PPPP 31, PTI 28, MQM 18, JUI-F 10, PML-F 5, other 22, independent 25, unfilled seats 7; 60 seats reserved for women, 10 seats reserved for non-Muslims; seats by party as of July 2016 (includes women and non-Muslim seats) - PML-N 188, PPPP 46, PTI 33, MQM 24, JUI-F 13, PML-F 5, other 21, independent 12
Judicial branch:
highest court(s): Supreme Court of Pakistan (consists of the chief justice and 16 judges)
judge selection and term of office: justices nominated by an 8-member parliamentary committee upon the recommendation of the Judicial Commission (a 9-member body of judges and other judicial professionals), and appointed by the president of Pakistan; justices can serve until age 65
subordinate courts: High Courts; Federal Shariat Court; provincial and district civil and criminal courts; specialized courts for issues such as taxation, banking, customs, etc.
Awami National Party or ANP [Mian Iftikhar HUSSAIN]
Balochistan National Party-Awami or BNP-A [Mir Israr Ullah ZEHRI]
Balochistan National Party-Mengal or BNP-M [Sardar Akhtar Jan MENGAL]
Jamaat-i Islami or JI [Sirajul HAQ]
Jamiat-i Ulema-i Islam Fazl-ur Rehman or JUI-F [Fazlur REHMAN]
Muttahida Qaumi Movement or MQM [Farooq SATTAR]
Pakhtun khwa Milli Awami Party or PkMAP [Mahmood Khan ACHAKZAI]
Pakistan Muslim League-Functional or PML-F [Pir PAGARO or Syed Shah Mardan SHAH-II]
Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz or PML-N [Nawaz SHARIF]
Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians or PPPP [Bilawal Bhutto ZARDARI and Asif Ali ZARDARI]
Pakistan Tehrik-e Insaaf or PTI [Imran KHAN]
Pak Sarzameen Party or PSP [Mustafa KAMAL]
Quami Watan Party or QWP [Aftab Ahmed Khan SHERPAO]
note: political alliances in Pakistan shift frequently
International organization participation:
ADB, ARF, ASEAN (dialogue partner), C, CICA, CP, D-8, ECO, FAO, G-11, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, MINURSO, MONUSCO, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, PCA, SAARC, SACEP, SCO (observer), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIL, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
chief of mission: Ambassador Jalil Abbas JILANI (since 10 March 2014)
chancery: 3517 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 243-6500
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York
consulate(s): Louisville (KY), San Francisco
chief of mission: Ambassador David M. HALE (since 3 December 2015)
embassy: Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna 5, Islamabad
mailing address: 8100 Islamabad Place, Washington, DC 20521-8100
telephone: [92] (51) 208-0000/[92] (51) 201-4000
FAX: [92] (51) 233-8071
name: "Qaumi Tarana" (National Anthem)
lyrics/music: Abu-Al-Asar Hafeez JULLANDHURI/Ahmed Ghulamali CHAGLA
note: adopted 1954; also known as "Pak sarzamin shad bad" (Blessed Be the Sacred Land)
Economy :: PAKISTAN
Economy - overview:
Decades of internal political disputes and low levels of foreign investment have led to slow growth and underdevelopment in Pakistan. Pakistan has a large English-speaking population. Nevertheless, a challenging security environment, electricity shortages, and a burdensome investment climate have deterred investors. Agriculture accounts for more than one-fourth of output and two-fifths of employment. Textiles and apparel account for most of Pakistan's export earnings, and Pakistan's failure to diversify its exports has left the country vulnerable to shifts in world demand. Pakistan’s GDP growth has gradually increased since 2012. Official unemployment was 6.5% in 2015, but this fails to capture the true picture, because much of the economy is informal and underemployment remains high. Human development continues to lag behind most of the region.
In coordination with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Pakistan embarked on an economic reform program in 2013. While the reform process has been mixed, and issues like privatization of state-owned enterprises remain unresolved, Pakistan has restored macroeconomic stability, improved its credit rating, and boosted growth. The Pakistani rupee, after heavy depreciation, remained relatively stable against the US dollar in 2014-15. Remittances from overseas workers, averaging more than $1.5 billion a month, are a key revenue source for Pakistan, partly compensating for a lack of foreign investment and a slowdown in portfolio investment. Falling global oil prices in 2015 contributed to a narrowing current account deficit and lower inflation, despite weak export performance. Pakistan’s program with the IMF – a three-year, $6.7 billion Extended Fund Facility focusing on reducing energy shortages, stabilizing public finances, expanding revenue, and improving the external balance – is slated to conclude in September 2016. While passing most quantitative targets, Pakistan has missed targets on structural reforms and performance criteria throughout the program.
Pakistan remains stuck in a low-income, low-growth trap, with growth averaging about 3.5% per year from 2008 to 2013. Pakistan must address long-standing issues related to government revenues, with the tax base being narrow at 11% of GDP. Given demographic challenges, Pakistan’s leadership will be pressed to implement economic reforms, promote further development of the energy sector, and attract foreign investment to support sufficient economic growth necessary to employ its growing and rapidly urbanizing population, much of which is under the age of 25. Other long-term challenges include expanding investment in education and healthcare, adapting to the effects of climate change and natural disasters, improving the country’s business climate, and reducing dependence on foreign donors. Pakistan and China are implementing the “China-Pakistan Economic Corridor”, a $46 billion investment program targeted towards the energy sector and other infrastructure project that Islamabad and Beijing had agreed on in early 2014.
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 63 (July 2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 11
Telephone system:
general assessment: the telecommunications infrastructure is improving, with investments in mobile-cellular networks increasing, but fixed-line subscriptions declining; system consists of microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, cellular, and satellite networ
domestic: mobile-cellular subscribership has skyrocketed; more than 90% of Pakistanis live within areas that have cell phone coverage; fiber-optic networks are being constructed throughout the country to increase broadband access, though broadband penetration in Pa
international: country code - 92; landing point for the SEA-ME-WE-3 and SEA-ME-WE-4 submarine cable systems that provide links to Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean); 3 operational international (2015)
country comparison to the world: 21
Transnational Issues :: PAKISTAN
Disputes - international:
various talks and confidence-building measures cautiously have begun to defuse tensions over Kashmir, particularly since the October 2005 earthquake in the region; Kashmir nevertheless remains the site of the world's largest and most militarized territorial dispute with portions under the de facto administration of China (Aksai Chin), India (Jammu and Kashmir), and Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas); UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan has maintained a small group of peacekeepers since 1949; India does not recognize Pakistan's ceding historic Kashmir lands to China in 1964; India and Pakistan have maintained their 2004 cease-fire in Kashmir and initiated discussions on defusing the armed standoff in the Siachen glacier region; Pakistan protests India's fencing the highly militarized Line of Control and construction of the Baglihar Dam on the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir, which is part of the larger dispute on water sharing of the Indus River and its tributaries; to defuse tensions and prepare for discussions on a maritime boundary, India and Pakistan seek technical resolution of the disputed boundary in Sir Creek estuary at the mouth of the Rann of Kutch in the Arabian Sea; Pakistani maps continue to show the Junagadh claim in India's Gujarat State; since 2002, with UN assistance, Pakistan has repatriated 3.8 million Afghan refugees, leaving about 2.6 million; Pakistan has sent troops across and built fences along some remote tribal areas of its treaty-defined Durand Line border with Afghanistan, which serve as bases for foreign terrorists and other illegal activities; Afghan, Coalition, and Pakistan military meet periodically to clarify the alignment of the boundary on the ground and on maps
Refugees and internally displaced persons:
refugees (country of origin): 2.6 million (1.6 million registered, 1.0 million undocumented) (Afghanistan) (2015)
IDPs: 1.459 million (primarily those who remain displaced by counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations and violent conflict between armed non-state groups in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Khyber-Paktunkwa Province; more than 1 million displaced in Northern Waziristan in 2014; individuals also have been displaced by repeated monsoon floods) (2015)
Trafficking in persons:
current situation: Pakistan is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; the largest human trafficking problem is bonded labor in agriculture, brickmaking and, to a lesser extent, fishing, mining and carpet-making; children are bought, sold, rented, and placed in forced begging rings, domestic service, small shops, brick kilns, or prostitution; militant groups also force children to spy, fight, or die as suicide bombers, kidnapping the children or getting them from poor parents through sale or coercion; women and girls are forced into prostitution or marriages; Pakistani adults migrate to the Gulf States and African and European states for low-skilled jobs and sometimes become victims of forced labor, debt bondage, or prostitution; foreign adults and children, particularly from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, may be subject to forced labor, and foreign women may be sex trafficked in Pakistan, with refugees and ethnic minorities being most vulnerable
tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List – Pakistan does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; the government lacks political will and capacity to fully address human trafficking, as evidenced by ineffective law enforcement efforts, official complicity, penalization of victims, and the continued conflation of migrant smuggling and human trafficking by many officials; not all forms of trafficking are prohibited; an anti-trafficking bill drafted in 2013 to address gaps in existing legislation remains pending, and a national action plan drafted in 2014 is not finalized; feudal landlords and brick kiln owners use their political influence to protect their involvement in bonded labor, while some police personnel have taken bribes to ignore prostitution that may have included sex trafficking; authorities began to use standard procedures for the identification and referral of trafficking victims, but it is not clear how widely these methods were practiced; in other instances, police were reluctant to assist NGOs with rescues and even punished victims for crimes committed as a direct result of being trafficked (2015)
Illicit drugs:
significant transit area for Afghan drugs, including heroin, opium, morphine, and hashish, bound for Iran, Western markets, the Gulf States, Africa, and Asia; financial crimes related to drug trafficking, terrorism, corruption, and smuggling remain problems; opium poppy cultivation estimated to be 2,300 hectares in 2007 with 600 of those hectares eradicated; federal and provincial authorities continue to conduct anti-poppy campaigns that utilizes forced eradication, fines, and arrests
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i don't know
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The common vocal sound produced by blocking exhaled airflow (when voicing a vowel) by suddenly closing the vocal tract is called a '(what?) stop'?
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Linguistics 201: Articulatory Phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics
����� We will spend the next few days studying articulatory phonetic: what is involved in the actual movement of various parts of the vocal tract during speech.� (Use transparancy to discuss organs of speech; oral, pharyngeal and nasal cavities; articulators, lungs and diaphragm).
����� All speech sounds are made in this area.� None are made outside of it (such as by stomping, hand clapping, snapping of fingers, farting, etc.)
����� Theoretically, any sound could be used as a speech sound provided the human vocal tract is capable of producing it and the human ear capable of hearing it.� Actually only a few hundred different sounds or types of sounds occur in languages known to exist today, considerably fewer than the vocal tract is capable of producing.�
����� Thus, all speech sounds result from air being somehow obstructed or modified within the vocal tract. This involves 3 processes working together:
a) the airstream process--the source of air used in making the sound.
b) the phonation process--the behavior of the vocal cords in the glottis during the production of the sound.
c) the oro-nasal process--the modification of that flow of air in the vocal track (from the glottis to the lips and nose).
����� Let's discuss the airstream process first.
The airstream process
����� The first major way to categorize sounds according to phonetic features is by the source of air.� Where does the air come from that is modified by the vocal organs? Languages can use any of three airstream mechanisms to produce sounds.��
����� One airstream mechanism is by far the most important for producing sounds in the world's languages.� Most sounds in the world's languages are produced by manipulating air coming into the vocal tract as it is being exhaled by the lungs, a method referred to as the pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism.� Sounds made by manipulating air as it is exhaled from the lungs are called pulmonic egressive sounds.� Virtually all sounds in English and other European languages are produced by manipulating exhaled air.� And most sounds in other languages are also pulmonic egressive.�
����� There is another variety of this pulmonic airstream mechanism. Inhaled air can also be modified to produce speech sounds.� This actually occurs in a few rare and special cases, such as in Tsou, an aboriginal language of Taiwan, which has inhaled [f] and [h] ([h5/˝ps˝] ashes; [f5/tsuju], egg).� Such sounds are called pulmonic ingressive sounds, and the airstream mechanism for making such sounds is called the ingressive rather than the egressive version of the pulmonic airstream mechanism.� Perhaps because it is physiologically harder to slow down an inhalation than an exhalation, pulmonic ingressive sounds are extremely rare.
����� The majority of the sounds in all languages of the world are pulmonic egressive sounds.� However, in addition to using air being actively exhaled (or inhaled), two other airstream mechanisms are used to produce some of the sounds in some of the world's languages.�
����� 1) To understand the second airstream mechanism, the glottalic airstream mechanism, let's first look at a special pulmonic egressive sound, the glottal stop. Air being exhaled from the lungs may be stopped in the throat by a closure of the glottis.� This trapping of air by the glottis is called a glottal stop.� English actually has a glottal stop in certain exclamations:� [u?ow], u?u], [a?a], and in certain dialectical pronunciations: [bottle].� The IPA renders the glottal stop as a question mark without the period.�
����� The glottal stop itself is an example of a pulmonic egressive sound, since air from the lungs is being stopped.� However, the glottis can be closed immediately before the production of certain other sounds, trapping a pocket of air in the vocal tract.� If this reservoir of stationary air is then manipulated in the production of a sound it yields another type of airstream mechanism, the glottalic airstream mechanism.� Here's how it works. First, the vocal cords completely close so that for a brief moment no air escapes from the lungs and air is compressed in the throat (pharynx).��
����� If the closed glottis is raised to push the air up and outward, an ejective consonant is produced.� The air is forced into the vocal tract and there manipulated by the organs of speech.� Compare glottalized vs. non-glottalized [k] in Georgian.� Ejectives are found in the languages of the Caucasus mountains, among many Native American languages, and among the Afroasiatic languages of north Africa (Hausa, Amharic).
����� If the closed glottis is lowered to create a small vacuum in the mouth, an implosive consonant is produced.� The lowering glottis acts like the downward movement of a piston to create a brief rarification of the air in the vocal tract.� When the stricture in the mouth is released air moves into the mouth.� Swahili has three implosives:� [b], [d], [g].� Implosives occur mostly in languages of east Africa, in several Amerindian languages and in some IE languages of northern India.� (Compare the difference between implosives, using the glottalic airstream mechanism, and ingressives, which use inhaled air.)���
����� The third and final airstream mechanism used by human language is confined to certain languages of southwest Africa.� It is called the velaric airstream mechanism.� There is regular oral articulation, while the back of tongue seals off air from the lungs and creates a relative vacuum.� Air in the mouth is rarified by backward and downward movement of the tongue.�� When the stricture is released the air rushes in, creating a click.� Although we think of such sounds as exotic, English uses a few of them for quasi-linguistic sound gestures:� 'grandmother's kiss' (bilabial click), encouraging a horse (lateral click), tisk-tisk (actually a dental or alveolar click).� Some Khoisan languages have over a dozen clicks. (release of click can be supplemented by additional features: aspirated,� nasal/ non-nasal). One Khoisan language �!Xung has 48 different click sounds. A few of the Bantu languages of South Africa, such as Zulu, have clicks; presumably, these sounds were borrowed from the San (Bushmen) and Khoikhoi (Hottentot) peoples who originally lived throughout all southern Africa.�� Zulu and the other Bantu languages that use clicks spell them with the letters c, x, q. (cf. the name of the tribe Xhosa).� Notice that clicks stop up the air only in the oral cavity; pulmonic air continues through the nose (one can produce a nasal hum while producing clicks). �
����� For the sake of completeness, it should be said that at least one other airstream mechanism could possibly be used for producing sounds in human language.� A puff of air could be trapped in either cheek, then released to be manipulated by the speech organs.� This is the airstream mechanism employed by the Walt Disney character Donand Duck and could be called the buccal airstream mechanism.� So far as we know, Donald Duck is unique in using it. And no language uses a gastric airstream mechanism, which would be modifying air burped up from the stomach.
The phonation process
����� The vocal cords can be in one of several positions during the production of a sound.� The muscles of the vocal cords in the glottis can behave in various ways that affect the sound.� The effect of this series of vocal cord states is called the phonation process.�
����� Voicing.� Vocal cords can be narrowed along their entire length so that they vibrate as the air passes through them.� All English vowels are voiced.� Voiceless vowels also occur but are far rarer than voiceless consonants are much more common than voiceless vowels.� Voiceless vowels usually occur between voiceless consonants, as in Japanese. No language has only voiceless vowels; a language has either only voiced vowels or voiced and a few voiceless vowels.
������� There are also several other vocal cord states that are used to modify sound in the world's languages.� None is used as a regular feature of English.
����� Laryngealization.� The posterior (artenoid) portion of the vocal cords can be closed to produce a laryngealized or creaky sound.� This doesn't play a meaningful role in English phonology, althoght we might use a creaky voice to imitate an old witch when reading fairy tales.� Some languages of Southeast Asia and Africa have creaky vowels and consonants, as in Margi, a Nigerian language:� ja to give birth/ laryngealized ja thigh; or in Lango a Nilotic language:� man this/ laryngealized man testicles.
����� Murmur.� The anterior (ligamental) portion of the vocal cords can be closed, with the vocal cords vibrating.� This produces murmured or breathy sounds.� Murmured or breathy vowels occur in some languages of Southeast Asia.� We make murmured sounds to imitate the Darth Vader voice.� In many Indo-European languages of India the stop consonants have a murmured release;� in other words the anterior portion of the vocal cords remain closed after the stop has been produced during part of the time the vowel is pronounced:� bh, dh, gh, Buddha.��
����� Whisper.� A similar vocal cord state is used to produce the whisper.� The vocal chords are narrowed but not vibrated, narrowing is more complete at the anterior end, less so at the posterior end.� Whispered sounds do not contrast with non-whispered sounds to produce differences of meaning in any known language, but the whispered voice is common as a speech variant across languages.� There is no IPA symbol for a whispered sound.
The oro-nasal process
����� Regardless of which airstream mechanism is used, speech sounds are produced when the moving air is somehow obstructed within the vocal tract.� The vocal tract consists of three joined cavities:� the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the pharyngeal cavity. The surfaces and boundaries of these cavities are known as the organs of speech.� What happens to the air within these cavities is known as the oro-nasal process.�
����� Let's talk first about the oro-nasal process in the articulation, or production, of consonants.
����� There are two major ways to classify the activity of the speech organs in the production of consonants:� place of articulation and manner of articulation.
Consonantal place of articulation
����� The place of articulation is defined in terms of two articulators These may be: lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, tongue tip (apex), tongue blade (laminus), or back of the tongue (dorsum), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, glottis, pharynx, glottis (the "voice box," or cartilaginous structure where the vocal cords are housed).
bilabial [b, p, m, w]
labiodental, [f, v]
interdental, [T, D]
(apico)-dental the tip (or apex) of the tongue and the back teeth:� Spanish [t, d, s, z].
alveolar (apico-or lamino-) tongue and alveolar ridge (compare 'ten' vs. 'tenth'). Examples:� English [t, d, s, z]
postalveolar or palatoalveolar (apico- or lamino-) (English [S]/[Z]),
retroflex (apico-palatal) bottom of the tongue tip and palate, or alveolar ridge:� Midwest English word-initial [�] and [t, d, n] in many Dravidian languages and many languages of Australia.
palatal (apico- or lamino-) (English [j]),� [S]/[Z] in many languages
velar or dorso-velar Eng. [k, g, N]� German [x]� Greek [V]
uvular French [R], also found in many German dialects.��
pharyngeal (constriction of the sides of the throat),�
glottal (glottal stop, the vocal chords are the two articulators. cf. A-ha, bottle, Cockney English 'ave).� [h] is a glottalic fricative sound.
Manner of articulation
����� Now let's look at the ways that moving air can be blocked and modified by various speech organs.� There are several methods of modifying air when producing a consonant, and these methods are called manners of articulation. We have already examined where the air is blocked.� Now let's look at how the air can be blocked.
1) Sounds that completely stop the stream of exhaled air are called plosives:� [d], [t], [b], [p], and [g], [k], glottal stop.� Another word for plosive is stop (nasals are also stops, however, since the air is stopped in the oral cavity during their production).
2) Sound produced by a near complete stoppage of air are called fricatives: [s], [z], [f], [v], [T], [D], [x], [V], [h], pharyngeals.
3) Sometimes a plosive and a fricative will occur together as a single, composite sound called an affricate:� [tS], [ts], [dz], [dZ], [pf].�
4) All other types of continuant are produced by relatively slight constriction of the oral cavity and are called approximants.� Approximants are those sounds that do not show the same high degree of constriction as fricatives but are more constricted than are vowels. During the production of an approximant, the air flow is smooth rather than turbulent. There are four types of approximants.
a) The glottis is slightly constricted to produce [h], a glottalic approximant.
b) If slight stricture occurs between the roof of the mouth and the tongue a palatal glide is produced [j].� If the constriction is between the two lips, a labiovelar glide is produced.� The glides [j] and [w] are also called semivowels, since they are close to vowels in degree of blockage.
c) If the stricture is in the middle of the mouth, and the air flows out around the sides of the tongue, a lateral is produced.� Laterals, or lateral approximants, are the various l-sounds that occur in language.� In terms of phonetic features, l-sounds are + lateral, while all other sounds are + central.
d) The third type of approximant includes any of the various R-sounds that are not characterized by a flapping or trilling: alveolar and retroflex approximants.� This includes the American English r (symbolized in the IPA by an upside down [�], but we will use the symbol [r]).�
����� It the air flow is obstructed only for a brief moment by the touch of the tongue tip against the teeth or alveolar ridge, a tap, or tapped [|] is produced:� cf. Am Engl ladder; British Engl. very.�
����� If the tongue tip is actually set in motion by the flow of air so that is vibrates once, a flap or flapped r is produced:� this is the sound of the Spanish single r.� Flaps can even be labio-dental, as in one African language, Margi, spoken in Northern Nigeria.
����� If the air flow is set into turbulence several times in quick succession, a trill is produced.� Trills may be alveolar, produced by the apex of the tongue: the Spanish double rr perro; the French uvular [R]: de rien; Bilabial trills [B] have been found to occur in two languages of New Guinea: mBulei = rat in Titan.����
Degree of blockage
����� In discussing manner of articulation, it is also relevant to classify consonants according to the total degree of blockage. Remember that all sounds that involve significant stoppage of air in the vocal tract are known as consonants (this distinguishes them from vowel, which are produced by very little blockage of the airstream).� Consonants differ in the manner as well as the degree to which the airstream is blocked. While we are discussing the manner in which air is blocked, we can also classify sounds as to the degree of blockage.
����� Plosives, fricatives, and affricates are all sounds made by nearly complete or complete blockage of the airstream.� For this reason they are known collectively as obstruents.
����� Consonants produced by less blockage of the airstream are called sonorants.� With little blockage the airstream flows out smoothly, with relatively little turbulence.� There are several types of sonorants, depending upon where the airstream is blocked in the vocal tract and how air flows around the impediment.
����� Sonorants are produced using the following manners of articulation:
����� 1) Sounds produced by stoppage at the vocal tract and release through the nose are called nasals.� The nasals [m], [n], and [ng] have the same point of articulation as the plosives [d], [b], and [g], except that the velum rises and air passes freely through the nose during their production; the oral stoppage is not released.� Plosives are also known as oral stops, to distinguish them from the nasal stops.� All known languages have at least one nasal except for several Salishan languages spoken around the Puget Sound (including Snohomish)�
����� The division of consonants into obstruents and sonorants is not absolute.� In some languages, such as Russian, the glide [j] is produced by much more blockage and could almost as easily be called a fricative.�
Also, some l- and r- sounds are definitely fricatives rather than approximants.� Some types of l- and r-sounds are characterized by a highly turbulent flow of air over the tongue, even more than for the trilled [r].
In Czech, besides the regular flapped r, there is a strident trilled and tensed [r] which is much more like an obstruent than a sonorant. Navaho has a fricative [tl] which is definitely more fricative than approximant.
����������� Because all l- and r- sounds (whether approximant and non-approximant) are produced in the same way--with the the air flowing around or over the tongue like water moving around a solid object--there is a collective term for these sounds:� liquids. Liquids and nasals are sometimes able to carry a syllable.� Syllabic r and l occur in Czech and Slovak:� StrC prst skrz krk. The IPA uses a dot beneath them to signify syllabicity.
Review of some articulatory terminology
Stops (air completely blocked in the oral cavity)-nasal and oral (plosives).
Obstruents (high degree of blockage) include: plosives, fricatives, and affricates.
Sonorants (low degree of blockage)include: nasals and approximants.�
Approximants (the lowest degree of blockage) include: the glottal approximant [h], the glides [j] and [w], and most l- and r-sounds.
Liquid:� all l- and r- sounds, whether fricative or approximant.
Go over the handout on the English sound system (up to the vowel questions)
Secondary articulation features in consonants
�� Lack of release.� Plosives may not be released fully when pronounced at the end of words.� This occurs with English [p} b}, t}, d}, k}, g}]
� Length.� Consonants may be relatively long or short. �Long consonants and vowels are common throughout the world, cf. Finnish, Russian: zhech/szhech to burn;� Italian:� pizza, spaghetti.� Long or double consonants are also known as geminate consonants and are indicated in the IPA by the symbol [�].� Geminate plosives and affricates are also known as delayed release consonants.
�� Nasal release.� In certain African languages: [dn].
�� Palatalization. Concomitant raising of the blade of the tongue toward the palate:� cannon/canyon, do/dew; �common among the sounds of Russian and other East-European languages: �mat/mat'� luk/lyuk.� There are thousands of such doublets in Russian.
�� Labialization. Concomitant lip rounding cf. sh in shoe vs. she (IPA uses a superscript w to transcribe labialization) In some languages of Africa the constrast between labialized and non-labialized sounds signal differences in meaning, as in Twi:� ofa� he finds/ ofwa� snail.
�� Velarization.�� The dorsum of the tongue is raised slightly.� Compare the l in wall, all� (velarized or dark l) vs. like, land (continental or light l).� The glide [w] is also slightly velarized. In Russian all non-palatalized consonants are velarized.�
�� Pharyngealization.� Concomitant constriction of throat. Afroasiatic languages of north Africa, such as Berber: zurn they are fat/ zghurn they made a pilgrimage.
�� Tensing.� The muscles of the articulators can be or lax when pronouncing a sound.� Cf. Korean stops:� Lax unvoiced p, lax voiced b, tense unvoiced pp.� Tensing also occurs in the vocal cords during the production of tensed stops, so tenseness could also have been listed under phonation processes.
The oro-nasal process in vowels
Go over part D on the handout now; go over part E during the lecture on vowels.
����� Sounds produced by no blockage other than a slight raising of the tongue or a narrowing of the lips are called vowels.� Vowels differ in several phonetic features.� Three are most important.
1) which part of the tongue is raised:� front/central/back (mention the difference between the [a] of father in English dialects.)
2) how high the tongue is raised:� high, middle, low
3) whether or not the lips are rounded.
Several other features distinguish vowels on a more limited basis across the world's languages.
4) whether or not the tongue is tense (bunched up; in English, diphthongalized) or lax (relaxed and slightly shorter, closer to the center of the oral cavity).�� In English, stressed lax vowels only occur in closed syllables, tense vowels occur in either open or closed syllables:
Tense= by, too, way, so, ma
Lax= bit, but, full, get, oil/or, and, (also, hard, in New England pronunciation), as well as schwa:� sofa
5) nasal vs. non-nasal (describe the velum and oro-nasal process)
6) long vs. short.� Many languages have a distinction between short and long vowels:� Hawaiian, Navajo, etc.� Estonian has three vowel lengths;� in English vowels are slightly longer before voiced consonants and slightly shorter before voiceless.
7) Different phonation processes involving the vocal cords produce several featural contrasts in vowels as in consonants: ��voiced/voiceless (whispered) laryngealized (creaky), murmured (breathy).
There are three diphthongs in General American English
�� [aU] house� ���� ����[aI] like,�� ����� [OI] oil, boy, toy
Diphthongs in other American dialects.
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Glottal stop
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The base of Pimm's No1 Cup liqueur is?
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Speaking |authorSTREAM
English Phonology The Sound System English
Key Terms:
Key Terms What is Phonetics and Phonology? Both phonetics and phonology can be generally described as the study of speech sounds. As we have learned, phonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they are interpreted . On the other hand, phonology investigates the organization of speech sounds in a particular language . While we might find the same sounds in two or more languages, no two languages organize their sound inventories in the same way.
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Phonology - Phonology is the study of language sounds. Phonology is divided into two separate studies, phonetics and phonemics . As we have learned, phonetics is the study of all human speech sounds and how they are produced. Phonology is the study of the sound system of a particular language. This includes the sounds ("phones") and rules for their combination and pronunciation.
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Phonetics - science of speech sounds, it is the study of sounds in human languages Phonetics is what depicts the sounds we hear. It calls attention to the smallest details in language sounds. There are three kinds of phonetics: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics. Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of sound, what sounds exactly are coming from the person speaking. Auditory phonetics deals with how the sounds are perceived, exactly what the person hearing the sounds is perceiving. Finally, articulatory phonetics studies how the speech sounds are produced. This is what describes the actual sounds in detail. It is also known as descriptive phonetics.
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Acoustic phonetics- Acoustic phonetics is a subfield of phonetics which deals with acoustic aspects of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics investigates properties like the mean squared amplitude of a waveform, its duration, its fundamental frequency , or other properties of its frequency spectrum, and the relationship of these properties to other branches of phonetics (e.g. articulatory or auditory phonetics), Acoustic phonetics - Speech sounds consist of small variations in air pressure that can be sensed by the ear. Like other sounds, speech sounds can be divided into two major classes—those that have periodic wave forms ( i.e., regular fluctuations in air pressure) and those that do not.
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Auditory phonetics- Auditory phonetics is a branch of phonetics concerned with the hearing, acquisition and comprehension of phonetic sounds of words of a language. As articulatory phonetics explores the methods of sound production, auditory phonetics explores the methods of reception—the ear to the brain, and those processes. Articulatory phonetics- The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation , phoneticians attempt to document how humans produce speech sounds (vowels and consonants). That is, articulatory phoneticians are interested in how the different structures of the vocal tract, called the articulators (tongue, lips, jaw, palate, teeth etc.), interact to create the specific sounds.
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Phonemics- studies how the sounds are used. It analyzes the way sounds are arranged in languages and helps you to hear what sounds are important in a language. The unit of analysis for phonemics is called phonemes. "A phoneme is a sound that functions to distinguish one word from another in a language.“ For example, how we distinguish the English word tie from the word die. The sounds that differentiate the two words are [t] and [d ]
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Phoneme - a unit of sound significant in a specific language (E.g., /s/ is a phoneme in English ) Phonetic transcription - Methods for phonetic transcription such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) aim to describe pronunciation in a standard form. Systems like IPA can be used for phonemic representation or for showing more detailed phonetic information.
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Grapheme - A grapheme is the smallest semantically distinguishing unit in a written language , analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages. A grapheme may or may not carry meaning by itself, and may or may not correspond to a single phoneme. Graphemes include alphabetic letters , Chinese characters , numerical digits , punctuation marks, and other individual symbols of any of the world's writing systems . The word grapheme is derived from Greek γράφω gráphō ("write"), and the suffix -eme , by analogy with phoneme and other names of emic units . The study of graphemes is called, graphemics' . The symbols (letters) used in a writing system such as our alphabet A,P,U
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Glyphs and allographs- In the same way that the surface forms of phonemes are speech sounds or phones (and different phones representing the same phoneme are called allophones ), e.g, s p in, ‘ p in, b ook ca b le the surface forms of graphemes are glyphs (sometimes "graphs"), namely concrete written representations of symbols "a", and different glyphs representing the same grapheme are called allographs . For example, in written English there are many different physical representations of the lowercase letter "a", such as a, ɑ, etc.
More terms :
More terms Digraph - A single sound represented by two letters (e.g., th, sh,ch ) Phonetic Alphabet - a collection of symbols used for writing words phonetically Horseshoes [hors ʃ uuz] Accent - The ways in which the words in a language are pronounced is accent Dialect - di·a·lect (d -l kt ) a. A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists: Cockney is a dialect of English. The grammar and vocabulary of a particular class or region is a dialect .
"Dialect" or "language“ : A language is a dialect with an army and navy:
"Dialect" or " language“ : A language is a dialect with an army and navy There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing a language from a dialect . A number of rough measures exist, Language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages : - if they have no standard or codified form, - if the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, - if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside reported speech), - if they lack prestige with respect to some other, often standardised , variety.
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Creole -A language that developed historically from a pidgin and came into existence at a fairly precise point in time. "A creole has its ancestry; it is spoken natively by an entire speech community , often one whose ancestors were displaced geographically so that their ties with their original language and sociocultural identity were partly broken. Such social conditions were often the result of slavery." "The English variety spoken by descendants of Africans on the coast of South Carolina is known as Gullah and has been identified as a creole .
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Idiolect : The language variety unique to a single speaker of a language is called an idiolect . Your idiolect includes the vocabulary appropriate to your various interests and activities, pronunciations reflective of the region in which you live or have lived, and variable styles of speaking that shift subtly depending on whom you are addressing." (Thomas P. Klammer, Muriel R. Schulz, and Angela Della Volpe, Analyzing English Grammar . Longman, 2007) "Almost all speakers make use of several idiolects , depending on the circumstances of communication. For example, when family members talk to each other, their speech habits typically differ from those any one of them would use in, say, an interview with a prospective employer.
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The Lighter Side of Idiolects "' Zerts are what I call desserts. Tray-trays are entrees. I call sandwiches sammies, sandoozles , or Adam Sandlers . Air conditioners are cool blasterz , with a z . I don't know where that came from. I call cakes big ol' cookies . I call noodles long-ass rice . Fried chicken is fri-fri chicky-chick . Chicken parm is chicky chicky parm parm . Chicken cacciatore? Chicky catch . I call eggs pre-birds or future birds . Root beer is super water . Tortillas are bean blankies . And I call forks . . . food rakes ."
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Acrolect - In sociolinguistics , a creole variety that tends to command respect because its grammatical structures do not deviate significantly from those of the standard variety of the language . Adjective: acrolectal . an acrolect refers to the variety of a creole that has no significant difference from Standard English , often spoken by the most educated speakers; Mesolect ( linguistics ) A variety of speech that is midway between the acrolect and the basilect the mesolect has unique grammatical features that distinguish it from Standard English; (relative to the acrolect and the basilect) an intermediate dialect or variety of a particular language (used especially in the study of Creoles).
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Basilect- bas·i·lect -The variety of speech that is most remote from the prestige variety, especially in an area where a creole is spoken. For example, in Jamaica, Jamaican Creole is the basilect whereas Standard Jamaican English is the acrolect or prestige language. local accent is termed as basilects ie accent of less privileged class, the basilect, often spoken by the least educated people of the society, has very significant grammatical difference. acrolect , that is, the socially prestigious lect , or language variant, at the top of social hierarchy. At the bottom socially is the basilect --
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Morpheme- The smallest meaningful part into which a word can be divided e.g. : the word “books” contains two morphemes book+ s he English word unkind is made up of two smaller units: un and kind . These are minimal units that cannot be further sub-divided into meaningful units. Such minimal, meaningful units of grammatical description are generally referred to as morphemes. A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria: the word carpet is a single morpheme. The words car and pet are independent morphemes in themselves. The word carpet has nothing to do with the meaning of car and pet . 1. It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning. 2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders. 3. It recurs in differing verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.
Morphology-:
Morphology- Morphology is the study of morphemes, which are the smallest significant units of grammar. Morphology is the grammar of words; syntax is the grammar of sentences. One accounts for the internal structure or form of words; the other describes how these words are put together in sentences.. For example, in the sentences The dog runs and The dogs run, the word forms runs and dogs have an affix -s added, distinguishing them from the base forms dog and run. Adding this suffix to a nominal stem gives plural forms, adding it to verbal stems restricts the subject to third person singular.
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. Morphophonology (also morphophonemics , morphonology ) is a branch of linguistics which studies the interaction between morphological and phonological or phonetic processes. Its chief focus is the sound changes that take place in morphemes (minimal meaningful units) when they combine to form words. Allophone - a variant of a phoneme; often not noticed by native speakers ( e.g , s p in, ‘ p in ) A class of speech sounds that are identified by a native speaker as the same sound is called a phoneme . The different phonetic realizations of a phoneme are called allophones.
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What are phonemes? What are allophones? One of the goals of this lesson is to understand more clearly the distinction between "same" and "different" sounds. To do this, we will discuss the terms allophone and phoneme. Since these concepts are the crux of phonological analysis, it is important that they be clearly understood. Perhaps the best way to explain these terms is through examples. On a separate piece of paper, transcribe the following five words:
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top stop little kitten hunter [tap] [stap] [litl] [kitn] [ h^nte :] It is likely that you transcribed all of these words with a [t], something like the following: This is good, since it reflects something that is psychologically real to you. But, in fact, the physical reality is that the "t" you transcribed in those five examples is pronounced slightly differently from one example to the next. To illustrate this, pronounce the five words again. Concentrate on what the "t" sounds like in each example, but be sure to say them as you normally would if you were talking to a friend.
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What differences did you notice? Compare, for example, the "t" of top to that of stop. You should be able to detect a short burst or puff of air after the "t" in top that is absent in stop. That puff of air is called aspiration, which we will transcribe with a superscripted [ h ]. So while a native speaker would consider the "t" sound in top and stop to be the same sound, the 't' is actually pronounced differently in each word. This difference can be captured in the transcription, as in [ t h ap ] and [ stap ], respectively
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Hindi: [kap h i] "meaningful" [kapi] "copy" [p h al] "knife edge" [pal] "take care of" [p h ] and [p] are allophones of the same phoneme in English. Whereas in Hindi, [p h ] and [p] are different phonemes. Minimal Pair - A simple way to find out whether two sounds are phonemes or allophones is to make minimal pairs . Minimal pairs are words that are identical except for one sound. For example: pit [ pit ] Now replace [p] with [b]: bit [ bit ] A whole new word results: pit and bit are two different words. Therefore, in English [p] and [b] are contrastive and are separate phonemes because a whole new word results. Using the technique of minimal pairs, we can find out which sound substitutions cause differences in meaning.
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Two words that are pronounced the same except for one sound (e.g., Sue , zoo ) Using the technique of minimal pairs, we can find out which sound substitutions cause differences in meaning. Do these words have different meanings, or are they variations of a word: [p] and [b] Example: pit - bit [l] and [r] Example: late - rate sue - zoo pay - bay belief - believe toy - boy
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“If we define a vowel as a sound resulting from the unrestricted passage of the air stream via mouth or nasal cavity with audible friction, we define consonants as the opposite” We can show the place and manner of consonant articulation through the chart. According to Place of Articulation, Consonants are divided as follows:
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Articulation- The movement of lips and other speech organs while speaking. Semantics - Semantics is the study of intension , that is, the intrinsic meanings of words and phrases. Syntax- Syntax is the study of language structure and phrasal hierarchies, depicted in parse tree format. It is concerned with the relationship between units at the level of words or morphology. Syntax seeks to describe formally exactly how structural relations between elements (lexical items/words and operators) in a sentence contribute to its interpretation.
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Place of articulation - refers to which articulators are involved in the production of a particular sound. In articulatory phonetics , the place of articulation (also point of articulation ) of a consonant is the point of contact where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an articulatory gesture , an active articulator (typically some part of the tongue), and a passive location (typically some part of the roof of the mouth).
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Places of articulation (passive & active): Exo -labial (outer part of lip) Endo-labial (inner part of lip) Dental (teeth) Alveolar (front part of alveolar ridge) Post-alveolar (rear part of alveolar ridge & slightly behind it) Pre-palatal (front part of hard palate that arches upward) Palatal (hard palate) Velar (soft palate) Uvular (a.k.a. Post-velar ; uvula) Pharyngeal (pharyngeal wall) Glottal (a.k.a. Laryngeal ; vocal folds) Epiglottal (epiglottis) Radical (tongue root) Postero -dorsal (back of tongue body) Antero-dorsal (front of tongue body) Laminal (tongue blade) Apical (apex or tongue tip) Sub- laminal (a.k.a. Sub-apical ; underside of tongue)
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Place of articulation (active) The articulatory gesture of the active place of articulation involves the more mobile part of the vocal tract. This is typically some part of the tongue or lips. The following areas are known to be contrastive: The lower lip ( labial ) Various parts of the front of the tongue: The tip of the tongue ( apical ) The upper front surface of the tongue just behind the tip, called the blade of the tongue ( laminal ) The surface of the tongue under the tip ( subapical ) The body of the tongue ( dorsal ) The base AKA root of the tongue in the throat ( radical ) The epiglottis , the flap at the base of the tongue ( epiglottal ) The aryepiglottic folds at the entrance to the larynx (also epiglottal ) The glottis ( laryngeal )
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Place of articulation (passive) The passive place of articulation is the place on the more stationary part of the vocal tract where the articulation occurs. It can be anywhere from the lips, upper teeth, gums, or roof of the mouth to the back of the throat. The upper lip ( labial ) The upper teeth, either on the edge of the teeth or inner surface ( dental ) The alveolar ridge , the gum line just behind the teeth ( alveolar ) The back of the alveolar ridge ( post-alveolar ) The hard palate on the roof of the mouth ( palatal ) The soft palate further back on the roof of the mouth ( velar ) The uvula hanging down at the entrance to the throat ( uvular ) The throat itself, AKA the pharynx ( pharyngeal ) The epiglottis at the entrance to the windpipe, above the voice box ( epiglottal )
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Here's what consonant sounds look like (the place of articulation) as they are produced in the vocal tract . Bilabial = two lips . Bilabial consonants are produced by creating a closure with both lips. where lips come together as in /p-b/. examples are: /bat/, /pat/ It refers to a speech sound produced by the contact of upper and lower lip . ‘p’, ‘b’ , ‘m’, ‘w’.
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Labiodental = lower lip and upper teeth . Labiodental consonants are produced by raising the lower lip to the upper teeth. English has only fricative labiodentals, and no stops . where lower lip and the upper teeth come together as in /f-v/ examples are: /fan/, /van/ It is one that is produced by the lower lip contacting the upper front teeth ‘f ’ ,’v’.
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Interdental = tongue between the teeth , or just behind the upper teeth (also called "dental"). In English, the interdental consonants are also all fricatives. In the ASCII phonetic alphabet, these sounds are the voiced [ th ] and the voiceless [TH]. where tip of the tongue meets the upper teeth as in / θ - ‘ ð’ / it is produced with the tongue contacting the teeth. ‘ θ ‘ ð ’
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unvoiced th t sound bath both three Play Play Play bat boat tree Play Play Play voiced th d sound their/there/they're then breathe Play Play Play dare den breed Play Play Play
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Alveolar = tongue tip at the alveolar ridge, behind the top teeth. English alveolar consonants are formed by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge, which lies right behind the teeth. There are both fricatives and stops. where tip touches alveolar ridge as in /t-d,s-z,n,l,r/ examples are: /tap/, /dip/ and /zip/ etc. It refers to a consonant produced with the tongue contacting the upper alveolar ridge. ‘t’, ‘d’, ‘s’, ’z’
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Palatal = the front or body of the tongue raised to the palatal region or the domed area at the roof of your mouth . In our ASCII phonetic alphabet, these are the voiceless [S] and the voiced [Z] .front of the tongue approximates to the hard palate. It is possible to have palatal plosives, fricatives, laterals and nasals but in English only palatal sound is voiced, semi-vowel /j/. as in /yes/ It produced with the tongue contacting the hard palate ‘ʃ ’, ‘ ʒ’ , ‘ tʃ ‘, ‘dʒ’, ‘y’.
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Palato-Alveolar: requires two points of contact: tip close to the alveolar ridge which front of the tongue is concave to the roof of the mouth as Examples : /ship/, /chip/ and /jug/ palato-alveolar (or post-alveolar)
Palato-alveolar consonants in the IPA :
Palato -alveolar consonants in the IPA IPA Description Example Language Orthography IPA Meaning ʃ Voiceless palato -alveolar fricative English sh in [ ʃ ɪn ] shin ʒ Voiced palato -alveolar fricative English vi s ion [ vɪ ʒ ən ] vision tʃ Voiceless palato -alveolar affricate English ch in [ tʃ ɪn ] chin dʒ Voiced palato -alveolar affricate English g in [ dʒ ɪn ] gin Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative shin [ʃɪn] shin Voiced palato-alveolar fricative vision [vɪʒən] vision Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate chin [tʃɪn] chin Voiced palato-alveolar affricate gin [dʒɪn] gin
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Velar = the back of the tongue raised to the soft palate ("velum"), the area right behind the palate . As with bilabials, English has a limited range of velar consonants. But these are sometimes pronounced in words borrowed into English from languages which do have velar fricatives, e.g. from German, Ba ch . The last sound below (looks like a long tail on the letter "n") is the [N] in our ASCII phonetic alphabet. where back of the tongue meets the soft palate. In English, we have four velars as / k,g , ,w/. Examples are: /kick/, /whip/ etc. It refers to a consonant produced with the tongue contacting the velum ‘k’ ,’g’, ŋ
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Glottal = at the larynx (the glottis is the space between the vocal folds) . Locate the glottis (the vocal folds) in the diagram, below. A glottal stop is a speech sound articulated by a momentary, complete closing of the glottis in the back of the throat. It exists in many languages, as in English and Hawaiian uh-oh, O'ahu , and ka'aina . It is the place of articulation referring to a consonant that is produced by completely or partially connecting the glottis. ‘ h’ - The glottal fricative /h/ is produced with sufficient friction in the glottis to be classified as a glottal sound. It is never voiced, and is best explained ...
Manner of Articulation-:
Manner of Articulation-
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Manner of Articulation- refers to how the sound is produced and the way in which the air stream is modified as it passes through the vocal folds. The human voice produces sounds in the following manner: Air pressure from the lungs creates a steady flow of air through the trachea (windpipe), larynx (voice box) and pharynx (back of the throat). The vocal folds in the larynx vibrate, creating fluctuations in air pressure that are known as sound waves . Resonances in the vocal tract modify these waves according to the position and shape of the lips, jaw, tongue, soft palate , and other speech organs, creating formant regions and thus different qualities of sonorant ( voiced ) sound. Mouth and nose openings radiate the sound waves into the environment.
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Stop/Plosives: are the consonants which are produced by stopping the air passage and releasing the air to escape suddenly from the mouth
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Consonant Manner of Articulation There is considerable variation in the names applied to manners of articulation in the literature. In some cases different names are applied to the same manner of articulation, whilst in other cases labels divided up consonants in different ways. In the present course we will mostly use the following labels for place or articulation:-
1) Oral Stops /Plosives:(p - b,t - d,k - g) :
1) Oral Stops /Plosives :( p - b,t - d,k - g ) Oral stops have stop stricture and have a closed velum (ie. no nasal airflow). Oral stops are sometimes referred to as " plosives " or simply as "stops". Stop , an oral occlusive, where there is occlusion (blocking) of the oral vocal tract , and no nasal air flow, so the air flow stops completely. Examples include English /p t k/ ( voiceless ) and /b d ɡ/ ( voiced ). If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the preceding vowel, as well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel.
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these involve the complete closure in the mouth. Pressure builds up behind the closure in the mouth and when the air is suddenly released a plosive is made. All languages have stops. stops are the consonants which are produced by stopping the air passage and releasing the air to escape suddenly from the mouth In the articulation of the stop, three phases can be distinguished: Catch : The airway closes so that no air can escape (hence the name stop ). Hold or occlusion : The airway stays closed, causing a slight pressure difference to build up (hence the name occlusive ). Release or burst : The closure is opened. The released airflow produces a sudden impulse causing an audible sound, or burst (hence the name plosive ).
2) Nasal Stops((n-m,) :
2) Nasal Stops( ( n - m , ) Nasal stops have stop stricture and have an open velum (ie. nasal airflow and nasal resonance). Nasal stops are very often referred to simply as "nasals". Nasal, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds. Examples include English /m, n/. Nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island.
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3) Fricatives: /ð/ / θ/ f - v [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ] these involve incomplete closure at some point in the mouth. The air escapes through a narrowed channel with audible friction. Fricatives are consonants with fricative stricture. Many systems include central and lateral fricatives in the same manner category (but the IPA Pulmonic Consonant chart and the chart below separates them). In most of the course notes for this subject the central and lateral fricatives are included in a single manner category. Fricatives are sometimes referred to as " spirants " but this term is now considered obsolete. English [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ] are examples of this.
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Fricative Key Words voiced th unvoiced th /ð/ / θ/ th em th in Play Play air is constricted between the tip of the tongue and the backside of the top front teeth v sound f sound /v/ /f/ v ote f ace Play Play air is constricted between the bottom lip and the frontside of the top teeth zh sound sh sound /ʒ/ /ʃ/ vi s ion sh e Play Play air is constricted between the front of the blade of the tongue and the back of the tooth ridge z sound s sound /z/ /s/ z oo s o Play Play air is constricted between the top of the tip of the tongue and the front of the tooth ridge h sound /h/ h e Play air is constricted deep in back of the tongue
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The strong fricatives [s ʃ z ʒ] are often termed "sibilant" fricatives. Fricative, sometimes called spirant, where there is continuous frication (turbulent and noisy airflow) at the place of articulation. Examples include English /f, s/ (voiceless), /v, z/ (voiced), etc. Most languages have fricatives, though many have only an /s/. However, the Indigenous Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind.
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Sibilants are a type of fricative where the airflow is guided by a groove in the tongue toward the teeth, creating a high-pitched and very distinctive sound. These are by far the most common fricatives. Fricatives at coronal (front of tongue) places of articulation are usually, though not always, sibilants. English sibilants include /s/ and /z/. Lateral fricatives are a rare type of fricative, where the frication occurs on one or both sides of the edge of the tongue. The "ll" of Welsh and the "hl" of Zulu are lateral fricatives.
Notice the difference in vowel duration in the following:
Notice the difference in vowel duration in the following Vowel length comparison Unvoiced fricative Voiced fricative word IPA word IPA fa c e /feɪs/ Play pha s e /feɪːz/ Play bu s /bʌs/ Play bu zz /bʌːz/ Play sa f e /seɪf/ Play sa v e /seɪːv/ Play lea f /lif/ Play lea v e /liːv/ Play
4) Affricates :
4 ) Affricates affricate : Affricates can be seen as a sequence of a stop and a fricative which have the same or similar places of articulation. They are transcribed using the symbols for the stop and the fricative. If one wants to emphasize the affricate as a "single" sound, a tie symbol can be used to join the stop and the fricative. Affricates are commonly described as a complex combination of stop plus fricative. Affricate, which begins like a stop, but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own. The English letters "ch" [tʃ] and "j" [dʒ] represent affricates. Affricates are quite common around the world, though less common than fricatives
5) Approximants( r-w-j) :
5 ) Approximants( r-w- j ) Approximants are consonants with approximant stricture, although some approximants also commonly display resonant stricture. It is very easy to become confused about the terminology used in the literature when referring to this class of consonants. Very often approximants are divided into the following two sub-classes:- lateral approximants (e.g. English, [r] r est and [l] less ) semi-vowels (e.g. English, [w] west and [j] yes ) - also known as " glides "
6. Lateral (l) :
6 . Lateral (l) Laterals : these involve partial closure in the mouth. The air stream is blocked by the tip of the tongue but allowed to escape around the sides of the tongue. The words, ‘light’ and ‘full’ have the lateral sound. The sound is voiced. - An articulation in which the airstream flows over the sides of the tongue, as in English [l] in "leaf." Tap - A rapid movement of the tongue tip upwards to contact the roof of the mouth, then returning to the floor of the mouth along the same path. This sound occurs in English in the middle of words like "ladder" or "writer.“
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Semi-Vowels or Consonants: (j -w) the sounds that begin the words ‘you’ and ‘wet’ are made without closure in the mouth. To this extent, they are vowels. They normally occur at the beginning of a word or syllable, however, and thus behave functionally like consonants.
The Consonants of English:
The Consonants of English
More Terms:
More Terms Voiced Sound - A speech sound produced with the vocal folds (cords) vibrating (e.g. voiced /z/ as opposed to voiceless /s/) Voiceless Sound- A speech sound produced without any vibration ( movt .) Of vocal cords e.g. ‘p’, ‘t’ &’k’ are voiceless consonants If a word in the singular ends in a voiced sound, the plural form of that word is the voiced [z]. Yes, these words follow the rule: that if a word in the singular ends in a voiced sound, then the plural is the voiced [z]. Singular Plural ca r car s gan g gang s jo b job s roo m room s z oo zoo s
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Sounds with vocal chord vibration are voiced and sounds without vocal chord vibration are voiceless. Contrast the sounds of the letters v and f. Place your fingers on your throat and make the sounds. You should feel a vibration when you make the v sound and no vibration when you make the f sound. V is voiced and f is voiceless. The Voiced Sounds in English b d g j l m n ŋ( ng ) r v z ð( th in the) and all vowels The Voiceless Sounds in English ch f h k p s sh t θ( th in think)
Voicing contrast in English fricatives:
Voicing contrast in English fricatives Articulation Voiceless Voiced Pronounced with the lower lip against the teeth: [f] ( f an ) [v] ( v an ) Pronounced with the tongue against the teeth: [θ] ( th in, th igh) [ð] ( th en, th y) Pronounced with the tongue near the gums: [s] ( s ip ) [z] ( z ip ) Pronounced with the tongue bunched up: [ʃ] (pre ss ure) [ʒ] (plea s ure)
Voicing contrast in English stops:
Voicing contrast in English stops Articulation Unvoiced Voiced Pronounced with the lips closed: [p] ( p in ) [b] ( b in ) Pronounced with the tongue near the gums: [t] ( t en ) [d] ( d en ) Pronounced with the tongue bunched up: [tʃ] ( ch in ) [dʒ] ( g in ) Pronounced with the back of the tongue against the palate: [k] ( c on ) [ɡ] ( g one )
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> If a word ends in a voiceless sound, the plural "s" is the voiceless [ s] Yes , these words follow our second rule: that if a word in the singular ends in a voiceless sound, then the plural is the voiceless [s]. Singular Plural boo k book s cli ff cliff s ti p tip s
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A B [ bi:t ] beat [ bi:d ] bead [ ha:k ] hawk [ ha:g ] hog [ k@p ] cap [ k@b ] cab Vowel Length Let's look now at vowel length. Vowels are often lengthened in words. Notice that the vowel sounds in column A are short whereas the vowel sounds in column B are pronounced for a slightly longer duration. From the data, we can see that vowel length is non-contrastive in English. That means the length of the vowel in a word doesn't change meaning.
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Aspiration is the puff of air that you often hear at the beginnings of some words. If you've ever heard someone speak into a microphone, you've probably heard the explosion of air in words like "pat", "please" and other words that begin with [ p ]. In English, words that begin with stops are usually aspirated. [p h ] pit [p h ] pop [p h ] pat [p h ] pup [ t h ] tab [ t h ] to
The vowels are: :
The vowels are : A vowel is a sound where air coming from the lungs is not blocked by the mouth or throat. All normal English words contain at least one vowel. A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y. 'Y ' can also behave as a consonant when it is at the beginning of a word . The consonants are: A consonant is a sound formed by stopping the air flowing through the mouth. B , C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z
The Vowels of English:
The Vowels of English
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All vowels in English are voiced. Some of the consonant sounds are voiced and some are voiceless. Some of the consonant sounds produced in English are very similar. Many times the difference between them is because one is voiced and the other is voiceless. Two examples are 'z', which is voiced and 's', which is voiceless. See the chart below for a listing of the voiced and voiceless consonants.
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semivowel , sometimes called a glide , is a type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence. In English, /w/ is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /u/, and /j/ (spelled "y") is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /i/ in this usage. Other descriptions use semivowel for vowel-like sounds that are not syllabic,
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Voiced consonants Voiceless consonant Sounds Sounds b p d t g k v f z s th th sz sh j ch l h m n ng r w y
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Voicing contrast in English fricatives Articulation Voiceless Voiced Pronounced with the lower lip against the teeth: [f] (fan) [v] (van) Pronounced with the tongue against the teeth: [θ] (thin, thigh) [ð] (then, thy) Pronounced with the tongue near the gums: [s] (sip) [z] (zip) Pronounced with the tongue bunched up: [ʃ] (pressure) [ʒ] (pleasure)
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Diphthong - “a double vowel sound” - two vowels appearing together as the nucleus of a syllable, are two-part vowel sounds consisting of a vowel and a glide in the same syllable. Syllable - Syllables are chunks or beats of sound, Or sounds produced in a single breathe stroke, a cluster of speech sounds together to make a syllable, - help - hel lo - Li ver pool
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syllables thus formed come together to form a word , Each syllable obligatorily has a vowel in it, called nucleus. care ful ly com pu ter Thus a syllable may be defined as a unit potentially larger than the phoneme (unit of sound)but smaller than a word.
Phonetic Transcription:
Phonetic Transcription Horseshoes [hors ʃ uz] Matches [mæc ʃ \z] Book [buk] Is [ˆz] Pain medicine [pen m´d\sˆn] Thorns [ θ ornz] Breathe [bri: ð ]
Allomorphs Based on Phonology:
Allomorphs Based on Phonology The plural morpheme – [s] after a voiceless consonant cats(s), books(s) [z] after a voiced consonant dogs(z) [\z] after a sibilant matches(\z) The past tense morpheme [d] after a voiced sound, (stood) [t] after a voiceless sound (sat)
Allomorphs Based on Phonology:
Allomorphs Based on Phonology The negative prefix [m] before a labial (e.g., i m possible, i m movable, i m balance) [ ˜ ] before a velar (e.g., in c orrect, in g ratitude)k & G [r] before /r/ (e.g., ir r eversible) [l] before /l/ (e.g., il l ogical) Other examples of assimilation Conduct, compel, colleague, corrode Synergy, symmetry, syllogism Admit, abbreviate, account, annul, appeal, arrive, assign, attend, alleviate Submit, succeed, sufficient, suggest, support, surreptitious
Vowel Deletion:
Vowel Deletion Delete the last vowel of a morpheme if the following morpheme begins with a vowel Works with some roots and suffixes: Not if prefix is only one syllable: re + act; bi + ennial
E/O Deletion:
E/O Deletion Delete the e or o of a morpheme ending in er or or of a morpheme if the following morpheme begins with a vowel
S Deletion:
S Deletion Delete an s after the prefix ex- Delete the n of the prefix an- before a consonant: Examples: a + theist, a + pathy, a + symmetry, a + trophy But not: an + emic, an + archy, an + orexic, an + hydrous N Deletion
Vowel Alternations:
Vowel Alternations /a/ changes to /e/ in other than first syllable E.,g, ann -ual/bi- enn -ial; apt /in- ept ; damn -ation/con- demn /e/ changes to /i/ in other than first syllable E.g., reg-ular; incor-rig-ible; spec -ulate/con- spic -uous
Common Reductions :
Common Reductions Common Reductions Another item that can be a source of confusion and frustration for beginning learners of English are reductions. Reductions occur when sounds are reduced or completely eliminated in words when spoken. Reductions are very common in speech and some of the more common reductions are described below.
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Reductions of 'of' - There are three changes the can occur with the word 'of‘ A. The 'o' in of is often pronounced using the schwa sound- uh. (see section on vowels ) some of becomes some uh ' He likes some of the books' becomes He likes some uh the books.
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B. If a vowel follows 'of' it is often pronounced with a schwa + v ( uhv ) most of becomes most uhv 'Most of all, you can't drink' becomes Most uhv all, you can't drink C. If the sound of the letter before 'of' is a 't' there is a flap in addition to the reduction . out of becomes oud dah 'He's out of money' becomes He's ou d d ah money
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Reductions of 'and' And is often reduced to 'n'. movies and books becomes movies n books 'I like movies and books' becomes I like movies n books. Reductions of 'or' Or is often reduced to 'r'. pencil or pen becomes a pencil r pen. 'Either a pencil or pen' becomes Either a pencil r a pen will do. Reductions of 'for' For is often reduced and changed to fer for lunch becomes what's fer lunch. What's for lunch' becomes What's fer lunch.
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Pales, Fesses, Canton, and Saltire are types of designs of what?
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Vexillology
Vexillology
See the Pen India by Sudarshan ( @Sud_ ) on CodePen
India flag is of 2:3 ratio with three horizontal bands of Saffron, white and green colors. Ashok chakra is placed at center of flag.The saffron color represents courage and sacrifice; white – truth, peace and purity; green – prosperity; and the Ashok Chakra represents the Laws of Dharma.
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Tuvaluan flag is a blue ensign based on the Union Flag, which is shown in the upper left canton of the flag; but has a sky blue field rather than the conventional blue.The stars represent the nine islands which comprise Tuvalu; the arrangement is geographically correct.
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The State flag of the Republic of Uzbekistan is of 1:2 ratio and color blue on the flag is a symbol of the eternal sky and life-giving water, which reflect the essence of life. In symbolic language it represents goodness, wisdom, honesty, glory and loyalty. The color white on the flag, symbolizing holy peace, harmonizes with the illumination of the day and the sources of light in the universe. The color white is a symbol of purity, transparency, innocence, the cleanliness of desires and dreams, and a striving for inner beauty. The color green is a symbol of the renewal of nature. The red stripes are tributaries of the power of life that flows in bodies. The depiction of a youthful crescent moon is a symbol of the independence obtained by Uzbekistan. Stars are considered a spiritual, divine symbol for all nations. The 12 stars depicted on the state flag of the Republic of Uzbekistan are also directly connected with Uzbek historical traditions, with the ancient calendar-cycle of the sun. The symbol of the 12 stars is also related to the development of astronomy in the scientific thought of the ancient states within the borders of Uzbekistan. The depiction of 12 stars on the Uzbek state flag can be understood as a symbol of the antiquity of the culture of the Uzbek people, its maturity and the striving for happiness in its land.
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A GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN HERALDRY by JAMES PARKER
WENTWORTH.
Caboshed , Cabossed, or Caboched, otherwise Trunked(old fr. caboche): terms applied to the heads of beasts , when borne full-faced and with no part of the neck being visible, so that it appears like the marks of a head. An example will be seen above, under bull , also under leopard : in the case of leopards' heads , however, as the word is not found used, it does not appear to be necessary. The term rencontre supplies the nearest equivalent in French heraldry; thus arms here figured would be blazoned in French rencontre de cerf.
Argent, a buck's head caboshed gules, attired or--TRYE, Glouc.
Sable, a chevron between three leopard's heads or--WENTWORTH.
Argent, in chief, sable three leopard's heads or--NORMAN.
Cabré (fr.) is applied by French heralds to a horse which, brought to a check, is rearing(but not so much as acculé).
Cadency , marks of, otherwise called Distinctions, or Differences(fr. brisures): variations of the original arms of a family, or marks attached to them for the purpose of pointing out the several branches, and the relation in which they stand to each other and to their common ancestor.
In ancient heraldry "a plain Label" (as Sir N. H. Nicolas remarks), "most frequently azure, appear to have been the distinction of the eldest son and heir apparent;" as, for instance, at the Siege of Caerlaverock, Maurice de BERKELEY, who joined in the expedition, is described as having over his arms ( gules , crusilly with a white chevron ) a label azure, because his father was still alive:
"E. Morices de Berkelée, Croissillie o un chievron blanc, Ki compaigns fu de cele alée, Ou un label de asur avoit, Banier ot vermeille cum sanc, Por ce que ses peres vivoit."
And again, one bore his arms in no manner different from his father[the Earl of Lennox] except the azure label:
"Cele au Conte de Laonois .... Ne la portoit par nul aconte Patrik de Dunbar, fiz le Conte Fors de une label de inde diverse."
It also appears "that younger sons bore the label variously charged, sometimes with the whole or part of their mother's arms , or the arms of a distinguished family from which they were descended; that more distant branches changed the colours, or charges, of the coat; placed a bend over it; surrounded it with a bordure , or assumed a canton, plain or charged."
Although the charge of tinctures, and the addition, removal, or alteration of charges are very frequently marks of cadency, it must not be supposed that all families of the same name, and between whose arms there is some resemblance, are descended from the same ancestors, for the arms of ancient families have often been very unjustly granted with slight alteration to persons whose relation to such families consisted only in similarity of name.
The differences now in use may be divided into two classes; those used by the royal family, and those which should be borne by all others. The sons and daughters of the sovereign all bear labels of three points argent. That of the Prince of Wales is plain, but those of the other princes and princesses are charged with crosses , fleur-de-lis , hearts , or other figures for the sake of distinction. Princes and princesses, being the sons and daughters of the above, are distinguished by labels of five points charged in the same manner. All such differences should be borne on the arms, crest, and supporters.
The differences now in use for all families except that of the sovereign may be partially traced to the time of Edward III. They are as follows:--
FIRST HOUSE. First son. A label of 3 points. Fourth son. A martlet. Second son. A crescent. Fifth son. An annulet. Third son. A mullet. Sixth son. A fleur-de-lis.
Some heralds pretend that the seventh son was marked by a rose, the eighth by a cross moline, and ninth by eightfoil; but this theory does not seem to be borne out in practice.
This first son of the first son of the first house bears a label upon a label(or more agreeably to ancient custom a label of five points). The second a label charged with a crescent , and so on for all other sons of this branch.
SECOND HOUSE. First son. A crescent charged with label of three points. Second son. A crescent charged with a crescent.
And so on for the rest, but it is not usual to bear more than double differences. There are no differences for sisters(except in the royal family), as they are all equal, but they should bear the differences which pertain to their fathers.
Crescents , mullets , &c., used as differences , should be drawn smaller than usual, to distinguish them from ordinary charges . They may be placed upon any part of the arms which is most convenient. There does not appear to be any rule respecting their tinctures.
Sire Johan FILOL, de veer a un quarter de goules. Sire Johan son filz meisme les armes en le quarter un molet de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Caduceus , (fr. caducée): the rod of Mercury, with wings attached, and two snakes round it. Used chiefly as a crest .
Per saltire or and erminois, on a saltire azure between a caduceus in chief and a pine-apple in base proper, two swords in saltire argent, pomels and hilts gold--BARROW, Bath.
Azure, a cross moline or--MOLINEUX, Hawkley, Lanc.
Gules, a fesse between four dexter hands couped argent--QUATREMAYNE, Oxfordsh.
Azure, even acorns, 2, 3, 2, or--SEVENOKE(Lord Mayor of London, 1418).
Argent, a stork sable, beaked and membered gules--STARKEY, Chesh.
Azure, two trumpets pileways, between eight cross crosslets, 3, 3, 2, or--TRUMPINGTON, Cambr. (Sir Roger de Trumpington, ob. 1289).
Many even of early coats of arms allude, in some way or other, to the names of their bearer, and perhaps more than is commonly suspected would be found to be so, if we could always recover the early chance names given to the charges of which they are composed.
Geoffrey de LUCY, de goules a trois lucies d'or--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Nicholas de MOELES, d'argent a deux barres de goules, a trois molets en le chief de goules--Ibid.
Thomas CORBETT, d'or deux carbeaux noir--Ibid.
Roger de MERLEY, barree d'argent et de goulz, a la bordur d'azure, et merlots d'or en la bordur--Ibid.
Odinel HERON d'azur a trois herons d'argent--Ibid.
Arms parlantes do not often occur of later date than King James I., about which time they began to grow into disrepute from ignorance and misapplication, and were nick-named canting or punning arms. They were numerous at all preceding periods, not only in England, but throughout Christendom.
Canton , (fr. canton, but also franc quartier appears to be often used in this sense): resembles a first quarter of the shield in form, but of smaller dimensions; its size does not appear to be fixed, but is generally about one-third of the chief. In old French cauntel, (i.e.) canton, is used for Quarter , q.v.
When the word is used alone, a dexter canton is intended; it may, however, be placed upon the sinister side, if so blazoned, and when with a bend . Cantons in base occur upon foreign arms, but it is believed are never used in English armory.
SUTTON.
The canton is sometimes the only charge in a coat; but generally it is supposed to be an augmentation of the original arms, or a difference.
Argent, a canton sable--Oliver SUTTON, Bp. of Lincoln, 1280-99; Charles SUTTON, Bp. of Norwich, 1792, and Abp. of Canterbury, 1805-28; [also SUTTON, Baron Lexington, 1645, and other families of that name].
Argent, fretty gules, a canton gules--IREBY, Cumberland.
Gul. LONGESPE, dazur, a sis liuncels dor--Soun frer au tel a une cauntel dermine--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Where there is a bordure the canton always surmounts it, and when borne upon a coat consisting of there charges(2 and 1) it generally covers the whole or greater part of the first. If more than three it generally covers the whole of one, if not of more. In very exceptional cases, however(and then the arrangement must be duly described), the canton itself is partially covered by some ordinary(e.g. a bend ).
It is often charged with another bearing, though generally plain , and the most frequent tincture is ermine, which rather tends to bear out a theory that its origin was suggested by some badge of honour placed upon the shoulder of the warrior.
PYPARD.
A canton and fesse of the same tincture , as in the arms of WOODVILLE, should join, without even a line to part them. The same remark will apply to the uppermost of two or more bars, when occurring with a canton ; but this is not so with a bend . When a canton and chief occur on the same coat the canton overlies it.
Argent, a fesse and canton gules--WOODVILLE.
Argent, two bars azure on a canton of the second a cinquefoil or--PYPARD. [From glass formerly at Haseley.]
Ernaud de BOYS, argent, deux barres et ung canton goulez--Roll of Arms, temp. HEN. III.
Barry of six argent and azure, a chief ermine and a canton of the first--HOTHAM. [In some branches of the family a canton or.]
Barry wavy of six argent and sable, a chief gules and a canton ermine--BARLOW, Derby.
Barry of six argent and sable; a canton quarterly or and argent--BELSTED, Norfolk.
Barry of five argent and gules, a canton as the last; over all a bend sable--Sire Johan du BOYS, Roll of Arms, 1308-14; M. Roger le BOYS, Roll of Arms, 1392-97.
Cantoned . A cross or saltire between four charges is sometimes said to be cantonnée, or cantoned with such charges. A fesse joined to a canton is also sometimes called a fesse cantoned .
Cap : the principal caps in use as charges , parts of crests, or accessories to coats of arms, are the following:
The caps borne by MAUNDEFELD are of a peculiar form, similar to that of the 'Doge's' cap . Those borne by DROKENSFORD, and called pilia pastoralia (if caps at all), were possibly similar.
Quarterly, azure and or four caps counterchanged--DROKENSFORD.
The family of CAPPER bear caps, like the figure annexed.
Argent, three caps sable bended or--CAPPER, Cheshire.
Cardinal's Cap.
A Cardinal's cap or hat is always red, and has tassels pendent from its labels in five rows, instituted by Innocent IV., at the Council of Lyons, 1245. The continental archbishops and bishops(especially those of France) bear green hats of the same form over their mitres, the former with five rows of tassels, and the latter with four. A black caps of the same shape, with three rows of tassels, belongs to abbats. Prothonotaries use a similar hat with two rows of tassels. A black hat or cap, with one tassel on each side, belongs to all other clergymen.
Cap of Maintenance.
Cap of Dignity or maintenance, called also Chapeau , is a cap generally of red velvet turned up with ermine , formerly peculiar to dukes(whence it is sometimes called a duciper ), but now often used to place crests upon instead of a wreath .
Argent, three chapeaus sable(or cap of maintenance)--HALWORTH.
The cap of maintenance occurs as a charge in the insignia of the city of GLOUCESTER, and on the seals of Towns of WALLINGFORD and STAINES.
The term chapeau , however, is variously used for a cap or hat of any kind. In the arms of COPE it is probably a cap of maintenance; it that of KINGESTON it is probably a hat of some kind.
Quarterly ermine and azure, a chapeau gules turned up of the first between two greyhounds courant in pale or--COPE, Osbaston, Leicester.
Argent, a chapeau azure[elsewhere a steel cap proper], with a plume of ostrich feathers in front gules--John KINGESTON, 1390.
The doctor's cap in the arms of SUGAR refers probably to the University degree.
Sable, three sugar-loaves argent, in chief a doctor's cap proper--SUGAR, Somerset.
The long Cap , of a peculiar shape, which occurs in the crests of WALPOLE and BRYDGES, is shewn in the margin, and a cap somewhat similar is termed an Albanian bonnet , probably that worn by the peasantry.
Azure, trois bonnets Albanois d'or--VAUX, France.
The Abacot , a mere corruption of bycocket, is said in Spelman's Glossary to have been given to a cap worn by ancient kings of England, and is so copied into heraldic books.
The Infula is used in one case in the sense of a cap.
Argent, an infula embowed at the end gules, turned up in form of a hat, and engrailed with a button and tassel at the top or--BRUNT.
Burgonet.
Caps of Steel: of these there are various kinds, and they cannot properly be included under the term helmet . The first in the Basinet(fr.), or Basnet, properly a plain circular helmet resembling a basin, though sometimes they are drawn(improperly) like squires' helmets . The Burgonet is a steel cap, worn chiefly by foot-soldiers, and of the shape shewn in the margin.
Morion.
There is also the Morion (fr. chapeau de fer), which was worn by foot-soldiers, and is usually of the plain shape annexed, but it may be ornamented. In many ancient examples the points of these morions are turned to the dexter.
A somewhat different morion is given on the crest of CECIL, Marquis of Salisbury.
Argent, a chevron gules between three basnets proper--BASNET.
Argent, a fesse azure between three burgonettes[elsewhere morions] of the second garnished and nailed or--EVINGTON, Enfield, 1614.
Argent, a chevron gules between three morions proper--BRUDENEL, Earl of Cardigan.
Caps (fr. chaperons) are also used for Falcons , q.v.
Caparison , or housing(old fr. barde): the embroidered covering of a horse, which was often charged with the arms of the knight to whom the horse belonged, as on the seal of Edward CROUCHBACK, Earl of Lancaster. The horse represented upon his monument, and that of Aymer DE VALENCE, both in Westminster Abbey, are examples of the practice. The horses upon the great seals of King Edward I. and many of his successors are caparisoned with the royal arms.
All animals embroidered upon the housing of a horse should face his head . The same they be said of all charges which are different on each side; thus a bend upon the right side of the caparison of a horse would appear as a bend sinister .
CASTILE.
Castle , (fr. chateau): the word castle used alone generally signifies either a single Tower, q.v. or two towers with a gate between them. A castle triple-towered is represented in the ensign of the kingdom of CASTILE, and is frequently found quartered in the arms of Queen Eleanor. The illustration is from glass still existing in Dorchester Church, Oxon.
Argent, a lion rampant sable, quartering gules, a castle triple-towered or--CASTILE and LEON.
Gules, three castles triple-towered within the royal tressure argent--Burgh of ABERDEEN.
Sable, a castle triple-towered or--TOWERS, Bp. of Peterborough, 1639-49.
Amongst other varieties which occur, are triangular and quadrangular castles; castles seen in perspective, and castles extending quite across the field. Castles are also described as domed , turreted (fr. donjonné ), embattled, breached, &c., and it is not uncommon to describe in detail towers, gates, loopholes, windows, vanes, portcullises, and the like. Where the masonry is shewn by the addition of lines the term masoned is used. The windows and doors are sometimes represented as of a different tincture, and then are supposed to be closed; and the same if they are of that of the castle itself; but if of the tincture of the field they are supposed to be open, and the term ajouré might be used. Coulissé signifies that the portcullis is down.
Sable, two bars between three castles masoned or--CLEAVER, Bp. of Chester, 1788; of Bangor, 1800; and S.Asaph, 1806-15.
Gules, a castle towered and domed argent, masoned sable; on the dome a flag--Town of BARNSTAPLE, Devon.
Sable, a castle with towers turreted in perspective argent standing in water wavy azure and argent--CASTLEFORD.
Per fesse azure and argent; in base on a rock a castle breached, the Indian colours struck and flag-staff proper; in chief two eagles rising or--STIBBERT, London(1768).
Argent, a castle(or tower) triple-towered sable, chained transverse the port or--OLDCASTLE, Kent.
Per fesse vert and gules, in base a lion passant guardant on; in chief a quadrangle of castles walled argent--Town of LANCASTER.
Argent, on a rock proper a castle triple-towered and embattled sable, masoned of the first, and topped with three vanes gules, windows and portcullis shut of the last--City of EDINBURGH.
Sometimes the terms Fort , Fortress, Citadel, &c., are used. The Castle , too, may be surrounded with a fortification.
Argent, on a fesse azure, between two Cornish Choughs proper in chief, and in base a lion passant gules crowned or, a fort of the field--GARSTON.
Vert, on a chevron embattled ... &c.; a chief charged with the gates and fortress of Seringapatam proper--HARRIS, Baron Harris, 1815.
Per chevron azure and argent .... and on a chief silver the fortress of Khelat; a canton charged with the Dooranee badge--WILTSHIRE, 1840.
Per chevron vert and argent; on a chevron or between, in chief two castles of the second, in base another surrounded by a fortification proper, three torteaux--GREEN, Kent, Baronetcy, 1786.
In connection with the Castle the Barbican (that is to say the advanced work) is described in some insignia, and the projecting turrets overhanging the embattled wall, called Bartizans , in others. Other additions are occasionally named, e.g. a trench , or the castle , may be standing in water or surrounded by a wall.
Gules, two barbican of a castle having loopholes, gate, and portcullis, with two pointed side tower; on each of the latter a pennon waving argent, and ensigned on the centre of the battlement by a royal coronet or--Town of DONCASTER.
Gules, out of water in base, on embattled wall enclosing a castle with three gables from the embattled parapet, a piece of tapestry hung along the front between the bartizans and displaying three shields[shields described] ... Town of NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYNE.
JANE SEYMOUR.
The badge of Jane Seymour, third queen of Henry VIII., blazoned upon a grant of lands made to her in 1536, presents a good example of a castle. The tincture are as follows:--
The walls argent, the ground vert, the tree of the same fructed gules, the phœnix or, in flames proper, and the roses alternately white and red.
Castles occur rarely in the old rolls of arms.
Monsire de GRANSON pale d'argent et d'azure de vi. piéces, a chastelez d'or en une bend gules--Roll, temp. ED. III.
The Castle is borne very frequently in the insignia of cities and towns, with other charges; of these insignia, however, the evidence is often only derived from the seal. The following may be named, but the list might probably be extended.
ABERDEEN; BARNSTAPLE; BEDFORD; BERKHAMSTEAD, (Hertford); BISHOPS CASTLE, (Salop); BOSNEY, (Cornwall); BRIDPORT; BRIDGEWATER, (Somerset), BRIDGENORTH, (Salop); BRISTOL; CARDIGAN; CARLISLE; CARMARTHEN; CLITHERO, (Lancashire); CORFE, (Dorset); DENBIGH; DEVIZES; DONCASTER; DORCHESTER, (Dorset); DUBLIN; DUNBAR; EDINBURGH; EXETER; FORFAR, (Scotland); GUILDFORD, (Surrey); HAVERFORDWEST; KINGHORN, (Scotland); KNARESBOROUGH; LANCASTER; LAUNCESTON, (Cornwall), LINCOLN, LUDGERSHALL; MALMESBURY; NEWBURY; NEWCASTLE under Lyne; NEWCASTLE under Tyne, (three); NORTHAMPTON; NORWICH; ORFORD; PEMBROKE; PLYMOUTH; PONTEFRACT; QUEENBORO'; SAFFRON WALDEN; STAFFORD; TAUNTON; TEWKESBURY; THETFORD; TIVERTON; WARWICK; WINCHESTER(five); WORCESTER; YARMOUTH, (Hants).
KEATE.
Cat , (fr. chat): occurs not infrequently. Probably the wild-cat is generally intended, thought the special reference to the Cat-a-mountain in several arms seems to imply a distinction. A spotted cat is also referred to.
Cats are found blazoned most frequently passant, but also rampant , salient , statant , and couchant . With French heralds the term effarouché is used to signify the cat when rampant (as if scared), and herissonée with 'the back up.' The wild-cat is supposed always to be represented guardant , although it be not stated in the blazoning. Musion, a fanciful name for a cat , is used by BOSSEWELL.
A cat's head is also found on one coat.
Argent, two cats passant gules--CATT.
Gules, two cats passant guardant argent--CATTON.
Per fesse azure and vert, in chief a cat argent couchant, coward; in base a pierced cinquefoil of the last--CATHARNE, Pembroke.
Vert, a cat statant, tail erect argent, within an orle of eight trefoils slipped or--VAGHAN.
Argent, three mountain-cats passant in pale sable--KEATE, Herts.
Per pale sable and gules, a mountain-cat between three roses argent--LIMPENIE.
Sable, on a fesse argent, between three mountain-cats or, a cross formy of the field--HILL, Berks.
Sable, a chevron ermine, between three spotted cats passant argent--HARTHORP, London.
Cat-a-mountain.
Cats are also borne by the families of CHIVAS, Aberdeen; DUANE, London; ADAMS, Northampton; TIBBETT; LIPPINGCOTE, Devon, GIBBS, Dorset; and KEATS, Dover.
Azure, a cat's head erased argent, between eight crosses crosslet of the second, 3, 2, 2, and 1--TOLDERREY, Kent.
The crest of the Duke of Sutherland is a cat-a-mountain sejant guardant proper: and two wild-cats are the supporters to the arms of FARQUHARSON of Invercauld; while the lezard, a beast somewhat resembling the wild-cat, is the dexter supporter of the SKINNERS' and MUSCOVY Merchants' Companies, as well as the crest of the former.
Chaffinch . See Finch .
Chain , (fr. chaine): (1) a series of annulets(q.v.) when interlaced are commonly called a chain , and are borne as distinct charges, as in the insignia of the kingdom of NAVARRE.
Gules, a cross and saltire of chains, affixed to an annulet in the fesse-point, and to a double orle of the same, all or--NAVARRE, taken after the battle of Tolosa, 1212.
Argent, three circles of chains sable--Hoo.
Argent, a chain of nine links in saltire, five gules and four azure--HATCHET.
Azure, a chain couped in chevron between three mitres all argent; at the dexter end of the chain a padlock of the last--EVESHAM Benedictine Abbey.
Gules, a chain of seven links in pale argent--KENDALL.
Sable, three chains each of four links palewise argent--ANDERTON, co. Lancaster.
(2) Chains are also often fixed to the collars of animals and to other charges, e.g. to a portcullis , an anchor , &c., and are frequently of a different tincture from the charge, and the term chained is used either when two animals are chained together, or when a chain is attached to the collar of a single animal.
Argent, two barbels haurient, respecting each other, sable, collared and chained together or; the chain pendent and ringed at the end--COLSTON, Essex.
Gules, a stag statant argent collared and chained or--BOIS, co. Brecknock.
DE BRESSY.
Chapé : a partition of the shield used by French heralds, and found by two lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge of the shield, diverging towards the flanks, and leaving the field resembling somewhat a wide pile reversed; the tincture is applied to the two portions thus parted off.
Chaussé is similar to Chapé, but with the lines diverging from the base towards the two corners, and leaving the field resembling an expanded pile . The line may be curved, and the partition is then blazoned chaussé arrondi, &c.
De gueules, chapé d'argent--BOUTREN de Franqueville, Normandie.
Ecartelé d'argent, et de gueules, chapé de l'un en l'autre--DE MONTBAR, Bourgogne.
De gueules, chaussé d'hermines--DE BRESSY de Sablous, Normandie.
Crown Triumphal.
Chaplet , (old fr. chapelet, pl. chapeus): is, when not otherwise described, a garland of leaves with four flowers amongst them, at equal distances. It is to be distinguished from the wreath(q.v.), and though usually composed of leaves will be found blazoned of various tinctures.
Sire Rauf LE FITZ WILLIAM, burele de argent e de azure, a iij chapels[in Falkirk roll 'chapeus'] de goules--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Party per fesse, argent and azure, three chaplets counterchanged--DUKE.
Sable, three chaplets argent--JODRELL, Stafford.
Sable, three chaplets gyronny argent and gules--DYRWARD.
It is more usual, however, to designate the material of which the chaplet is composed. It may be of roses (and this, perhaps, is the most frequent) or of flowers generally, or it may be of leaves , and often of laurel leaves. In the latter case it is termed a crown triumphal.
Monsire William PLAICE, port d'asur, au chief d'argent deux chapeaux des roses vermals--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Monsire de HILTON de Haderness, port d'argent, a trois chepeletts de roses vermaux--Ibid.
[Chaplets of roses are also borne by the families of SAXTON; DEAN; FAULDER; GREYSTOCK; FITZRALPH; LASCELLES, and others.]
Argent, on a chevron sable, between three chaplets of flowers gules, another chevron ermine--BOROUGH.
Argent, a lion rampant azure, holding in his dexter paw a chaplet of laurel vert, in chief a scroll sable, thereon the word "Emmanuel" or--EMMANUEL COLL., Cambridge.
Or, two bars azure, on a canton argent a chaplet of laurel proper--HOLME.
Argent, a garland of laurel vert, between three pheons gules--CONQUEROR, Frierton.
[Chaplets of laurels are also borne by the families of PELLEW; KEATS, Dover; NIGHTINGALL, Norfolk.]
Rarer instances occur of chaplets of holly, or of hazel, or of brambles, while the single instance of the chaplet of rue is a name sometimes given to the crown of rue(q.v.) which occurs in the arms given by Frederick of Barbarossa to the Duke of SAXONY.
Argent, a fesse engrailed humetty sable, between three chaplets of holly leaves proper--Nicholas BUBBEWYTH, Bp. of Salisbury, Bath and Wells, 1408-24.
Gules, on a chevron argent, between, in chief three chaplets of hazel or, and in base a plough proper, three shakeforks sable--PEER, Hazelwood, Devon.
Argent, a lion rampant gules encircled by a wreath of brambles proper--DUSILVA, Portugal.
Civic Crown.
When the material is oak the device is often blazoned as a wreath , and there is especially a 'wreath of oak acorned' which bears the name of the 'Civic wreath,' or the Civic Crown. It is supposed to represent the Roman crown conferred upon public benefactors, especially upon those who had saved the life of a citizen. The leaves should be represented tied together by a ribbon. The Ducal Coronet(q.v. under Crown ) had originally oak leaves, but strawberry-leaves have been substituted.
Argent, a chevron gules; in base an oak wreath vert, tied azure; on a chief of the second, three mascles of the first--PELLEW, Cornwall, [1796].
Azure, on a fesse, between three garbs or, a wreath of oak vert between two estoiles gules--SANDBACH, Lancaster.
[Chaplets of oak also borne by the families of STUDD, Ipswich; DICKSON, Norfolk; LLOYD, Sussex; MURRAY, Mexico, and others.]
Gules, a lion passant guardant, and in chief two civic wreaths or, a chief wavy, charged with a ship of war before Algiers proper--PELLEW.
Argent, a civic crown or wreath of oak acorned proper, on a chief azure a serpent nowed or, and a dove of the field respecting each other--SUTTON, Norfolk.
The Crown obsidional is also mentioned in old works on heraldry, which is a chaplet graminy, i.e. composed of twisted grass, and is fancifully said to have been bestowed upon any general who had held a city against a besieging force.
Gules, an eagle displayed argent armed or; on a canton of the second a chaplet graminy vert--GOODALL, Suffolk[granted Mar. 1, 1612].
The term garland as well as wreath , it will be observed, is used sometimes instead of chaplet .
Charboucle . See Escarboucle .
Charge , (fr. meuble, but more accurately meuble d'armoirie, or meuble de l'ecu): anything borne on a coat of arms, whether upon the field, as was more usually the case in ancient arms, or upon on ordinary, or indeed upon another charge. The position of a charge, unless occupying the centre of the field, i.e. the fesse-point, has to be stated. (See under the article blazon.) The great variety of the charges which have been adopted in Coats of arms, will be seen by the Synoptical view given in the Appendix, and this by no means contains all the minor varieties, nor all the extraordinary objects chosen in more recent times. The contrast between recent arms and the more simple bearings of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries is very marked.
Charged with, (fr. chargé), signifies having a charge thereon.
Charity : the representation of charity is thus blazoned from a seal.
A figure of Charity with one child in her arms, and three others standing near her naked; on the dexter side a shield hung on a tree, with the cross of S.Andrew on it, to which the figure is pointing; on the sinister side of the escutcheon a thistle issuing from the ground in base, stalked and leaved; over it a regal crown--The SCOTS CORPORATION[Incorporated 1665].
Chart : This device seems to be used in a solitary instance.
Per chevron wavy, azure and erminois, a chart of Chesterfield's Inlet, between in chief two estoiles argent and in base on a mount vert a beaver passant proper--CHRISTOPHER, London.
WARREN.
Chequy , Checky, Checquer-bearing, (fr. échiqueté, old fr. eschequeré): terms applied to a field or charge divided by perpendicular and horizontal lines, into small squares of metal and colour alternately. There should be at least twenty squares in the shield. If less, the number is named(as in the shield of TOLEDO, where there are 15). When only 9, with the French heralds the terms equipollé is applied.
This pattern is said by some to be derived from the game of chess, which if not originally introduced into Europe by the Crusaders was certainly revived by them. Others, however, with greater probably derived it from the Steward's or 'chequer' board. In the Exchequer of the kingdom, and the Chancellor of that department, the word is still retained; and the 'Checkers,' a frequent sign of small inns, with the board painted in squares on the outside, still hands down the tradition of the account board. It is not, however, impossible that this board gave the name to the game of chess played upon it.
While the number of pieces in the field must be, as already said, as least twenty, a fesse or other ordinary when blazoned chequy must contain three rows of squares, for if there be but one, the ordinary will be compony, and if but two, counter-compony. At the same time the field may have but two rows in chief of a fesse, for so the arms of Lord Clifford are represented in the glass windows at Dorchester, Hasely, &c.
When a bend , chevron , or saltire is checquy, the square are not placed perpendicularly, but slanting in the direction of the ordinary.
Roger de CLIFFORD escheque d'or et d'azur ove ung fesse de goulz--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Le Conte de GARENNE[i.e. Warren] escheque d'or et d'azur--Ibid.
Rauf le BOTELLIER de goules a ung fesse escheque d'argent et de sable et croiseletts d'or--Ibid.
Or, a fesse chequy argent and azure--STEWARD, Scotland.
Chequy of nine pieces or and azure--GENEVA.
Chequy of twelve, sable and argent--ST.BARBE, Somerset.
At the same time there are some peculiar forms which may be noted.
Chequy in perspective argent and sable--PROSPECT.
Chequy of lines palewise and chevronwise gules and or--SPOTWORTH.
Cherry : both the tree and the fruit of the tree are found in armorial bearings. The fr. crequier(q.v.) also is sometimes referred to as the wild cherry-tree. The griotte also occurs.
Argent, a cherry-tree fructed proper--ESTOWER.
Argent, three cherry-trees, 2 and 1 vert fructed gules, each on a mount of the second--SHRUBSOLE, Canterbury.
Argent, a saltire sable between four cherries gules slipped vert--SERGEAUX.
... on a chevron between three martlets ... as many cherries stalked; in chief three annulets ... --CHERITON, Bp. of Bangor, 1436-47.
The charge is also borne by the families of MESSARNEY and THORNTON.
FITZWALTER.
Chevron , (fr. chevron, old fr. cheveron): an ordinary occupying one-fifth of the field. The origin and meaning of this term has afforded ground for many guesses, but in diversifying the forms which bars across the shield may take, that of the chevron is a very natural one. The name itself is derived directly from the fr. chevron, i.e. rafter of a roof.
It is found in the earliest of the Rolls of Arms, and is one of the most frequently employed of the Ordinaries. At the siege of Caerlaverock, for instance(A.D. 1300), Henry le TYES had a banner argent, or, as the poet writes, 'whiter than a brightened lily,' with a chevron gules in the midst. And at the same siege, Robert FITZWALTER, "who well knew of arms the business," on a yellow banner had a fesse between two red chevrons. Both of these arms are to be seen in stained glass in Dorchester Church, Oxon, in a window which was probably nearly contemporary with the siege, and perhaps recording the benefactors to the Church.
Baniere ot Henris li TYOIS Plus blanche de un poli lyois O un chievron vermeil en mi. O lui Robert le FIZ WATER Ke ben sout des armes le mester ... En la baner jaune avoit Fesse entre deus cheverons vermaus.
It has two diminutives, the chevronel, which is half its width(more or less), and the couple-close, which is half the chevronel.
Moris de BARKELE,--goules ung cheveron d'argent--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Le Conte de WARREWIK,--chequy d'or et d'azur, a ung cheveron d'ermyn--Ibid.
A chevron is subjected to the same kind of variation in respect of outline as the bend , that is, it may be engrailed , indented , embattled , counter-embattled , dauncetty, wavy, raguly, fimbriated, &c.
Azure, a chevron embattled ermine--REYNOLDS, co. Leicester.
Azure, a chevron dauncetty or--HAMELL, co. Buckingham, and HAMILTON, co. Gloucester.
Argent, a chevron ermine fimbriated sable, between annulets gules--CLUTTON.
In one early roll two chevrons appear to be blazoned as a chevron gemel .
Sire William de HOTOT,--de azure, a iij cressanz de argent e un cheveron de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Johan de HOTOT,--meisme les armes, le cheveron gymile--Ibid.
It may be party as to tincture , compony or even quarterly, and, on the other hand, it may be voided , that is, the field may be made visible through it, leaving merely a narrow outline.
Argent, a chevron per pale or and gules--WESTON.
Argent, a chevron quarterly sable and gules--HONYWOOD, Kent.
Ermine, a chevron compony gules and argent--HILL.
DUDLEY.
Further, the chevron may be charged with other devices of various kinds, and amongst these is especially to be noted the surmounting of one chevron by another. In the arms of STEER it will be observed that we have two different blazonings for the same arms , one describing the chevron as voided , the other as one chevron on another. And in the case of the arms of STALEY we have a further complication, since this chevron may be blazoned in two different ways, either as a chevron engrailed surmounted by a chevron plain , or as a plain chevron fimbriated . Precisely similar arms, as regards outline, are those of DUDLEY, which are blazoned as voided . It seems to be a case where authority can be found for either system of blazon, and it is difficult to say which is best.
Argent, a chevron voided gules--STEER, Ireland.
Argent, on a chevron gules another of the first--STEER.
Azure, a chevron engrailed, voided or--DUDLEY, Berks and Bucks.
Argent, on a chevron engrailed azure another plain sable--STALEY.
[Or as it is elsewhere blazoned--Argent, a plain chevron sable, fimbriated and engrailed azure--STALEY.]
Gules, on a chevron argent three bars gemells sable--THROCKMORTON.
Gules, on a chevron argent .... bars nebuly sable--HANKFORD.
Or, on a chevron engrailed azure bars wavy argent--BROWNE.
Or, on a chevron gules bars sable--Lewis PROUDE, Charterhouse, 1619.
A chevron may be enhanced , that is, borne higher up on the escutcheon(no instance has been observed in which it is abased), and it may be reversed , that is, it may have its point downwards, like a pile , or it may be combined with a pile , but such variations are of rare occurrence. It is also sometimes found couped , that is, not extending to the edge of the escutcheon, or with the apex terminated by some other charge, when it may be said to be ensigned of such a charge.
Gules, a chevron enhanced argent--CARLYON.
Argent, a chevron reversed gules--GRENDON.
Ermine, a chevron couped sable--HUNTLEY; also JONES, 1730.
Ermine, a chevron couped gules--AMOCK.
Argent, a chevron embattled and ensigned on the top with a banner between in chief two estoiles, and in base a sun gules--EUENE.
Argent, a chevron supporting on its point a cross patty sable--TRENEREEK.
Sable, a chevron ending in the middle point with a plain de lis argent--KEY.
Argent, a chevron, the top ending with a cross patty sable--FINDON; Harl. MS. 1386.
Argent, a chevron sable and pile counterchanged--ATWELL, co. York; Harl. MS. 1465.
Chevron couched : one which springs from one of the sides of the escutcheon. It should be mentioned whether it is dexter or sinister.
Or, a chevron couched dexter gules--TOURNEY.
Or, a chevron couched dexter azure--DOUBLET.
Argent, two chevrons, couched(and counterpointed?) vert--COUCHMASTER.
Purpure, a chevron couched sinister or--BIGHTINE.
Chevron inarched. Of this form there are two varieties, as shewn in the margin, found in modern heraldic designs, but probably no ancient authority for the form exists.
Argent, a chevron inarched sable--HOLBEAME, Lincoln.
Purpure, a chevron inarched argent--ARCHEVER, Scotland.
A Chevron arched (fr. courbé), resembles a semi-circular arch across the field. It only occurs in foreign arms, and is to be distinguished from the arched fesse by the curve being somewhat more decided.
For Chevrons interlaced, see Angles .
Besides the above there are various forms of broken chevrons. But the terms do not appear very distinctly defined by heralds, and the actual examples are but few. We find the terms fracted , disjoint, bruised, or debruised(fr. brisé), and rompu or downset, the last term, to all appearance, being a barbarism derived from the French dauncet, which would be equivalent to dancetty.
Argent, a chevron debruised between three crosses botonny fitchy sable--BARDOLPH, Stafford.
Argent, a chevron debruised sable, between three cross-crosslets fitchée of the last--GREENWAY[Glover's Ordinary].
Per pale argent and sable, a chevron bruised at the top, and in base a crescent counterchanged--ALEXANDER, Kinlassie.
.... a chevron debruised by a fesse charged with a crescent, all between three annulets .... HEDLEY, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Azure, a chevron disjoint or broken in the head or--BROKMALE.
Per fesse gules and sable, a chevron rompu counterchanged--ALLEN, Sheriff of London, 18��deg; Jac. I.
Or, a chevron rompu between three mullets sable--SALT, Yorks.
In the margin are given illustrations of one or two forms found in books, but no ancient examples have been observed. With the French engravers the chevron brisé is generally drawn in a similar manner to fig. 1, though the two portions are often still further apart, so as not to touch at all. Rompu and failli seem to be used by them when the sides of the chevron are broken into one or more pieces.
In chevron would be applied to charges arranged chevronwise.
Per chevron. See Party .
Chevronelly , i.q. Chevronny . See at end of Chevron.
Chevronny , (fr. chevronné): is used when the field is divided into an even number of equal portions chevronwise. Chevronelly appears to be used more correctly.
Chevronelly of four, argent and gules--WHITHORSE.
Chevronelly of five, argent and gules, over all a lion rampant sable--WINTHORP, Suffolk.
Chevronelly of six, gules and argent--CHALKHILL, Middlesex.
Chevronelly of seven, or and gules, over all a lion rampant of the last--HASARD, Essex.
Other ordinaries may be charged with the chevronel , while it in its turn is subjected to the same varieties as the chevron ; though, of course, but rarely such varieties occur.
Argent, on a fesse sable, three chevronels couched sinister of the field.--TRENOWITH, Corn.
Chevronels are sometimes interlaced , or braced , and under the latter term an illustration will be found. See also Couple-close .
LUMLEY.
Chief , (fr. chef): the first of the Ordinaries, and occupying about one-third one the shield from the top downward.
The fillet is by some considered its diminutive, while others hold that it can have none. Some English heraldic books, and most foreign, speak of instances of two chiefs, one abased below the other in the same coat, but no English examples are ever adduced.
A chief is frequently charged with other bearings, and it may be nebuly , wavy , indented , dancetty , engrailed , embattled , bevilly , &c., but it is only the lower side which is subjected to these variations.
Robert de MORTEYN BRETON, d'ermyn a la cheif de goules. Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Rauf le FITZ RANDOLF d'or ung cheif endente d'azur.--Ibid.
Sire William DABETOOT, de ermyne od le chef bende de or e de sable. Roll, temp. ED. II.
Or, a chief gules--LUMLEY, Essex.
Paly of six, argent and sable; a chief wavy azure--BURMAN.
Argent, gouty de poix; a chief nebuly gules--ROYDENHALL.
Argent, a chief dancetty azure--GLANVILE, Earl of Suffolk.
A chief may also be party per pale, per bend, &c., or even quarterly. When divided by a horizontal line the expression per chief is more accurate than per fesse.
CAREY.
The chief does not, as a rule, surmount other charges, and consequently such have often to be abased. The bend , for instance, starts from the dexter corner just beneath the chief. When associated with a bordure (unless there is direct statement to the contrary) the bordure would be turned and continued beneath the base line of the chief .
Gules, a chief dancetty argent within a bordure azure--BARET[or BARRATT, Sheriff of London, 1379.]
Argent, on a bend sable, three roses of the first; on chief gules three crosses patty or--CAREY, Bp. of Exeter, 1820, afterwards Bp. of S.Asaph, 1830-46.
Fillet.
It is contended by some writers that the chief has a diminutive, and to a figure as shewn in the margin is given the name of fillet . French heralds, however, blazon this as chef retrait, the word filet being used for a diminutive of the cotice. The word combel is also given by some English heraldic writers as meaning the same thing. It is said that the fillet does not occur at all in English arms, but perhaps the following example may be cited--
Argent, two bars and a canton gules; over all a fillet sable--BOIS or DEBOYS, 1315, Ingham Church, Norfolk.
In Chief is a term frequently used when the charges are to be placed upon the upper part of the escutcheon, and differently from their ordinary position, There are also three points(q.v.) in the escutcheon connected with the chief , viz. the dexter chief point , middle chief point, and sinister chief point.
Chieftain . See Head .
Child : Children, bays and infants are represented on armorial bearings as early as the sixteenth century, and in a great variety of ways. Perhaps some of the oldest are those where the eagle snatches away the child from its cradle, which occurs in different families, and is variously depicted in the arms of the branches of the same family. Of course such arms are readily associated with tradition, but it is scarcely within the scope of a 'glossary' to discuss them. More frequently, however, the children's heads (q.v.) alone occur.
Argent, an eagle sable, crined gules, standing on a child proper, swathed or lying in a cradle vert--COULCHIEFE.
Azure, an eagle preyant sable upon a child swaddled gules--CULCHETH, Lancaster.
Argent, a tree eradicated sable; on it a nest of the first, in which is a child proper, swaddled gules, seized on by an eagle volant of the second.--RISLEY.
The three children in a tub or vessel are generally referred to the miracle of S.Nicolas, who restored them after they had been murdered and salted down for food; and in the insignia of the SEE OF ABERDEEN the Bishop is represented as praying over them. (See under Bishop .) Some curious legend must account for the origin of the following.
Sable, a goat argent, attired or, standing on a child proper, swaddled gules, and feeding on a tree vert--DAVIES, Hope, Co. Montgomery.
To another, (probably that of W. de ALBINI) is due the arms of Richard BARNES, Bishop of Carlisle, in which a naked child, front faced, is represented in one instance as holding in both hands the tongue of a bear . The following is one blazon.
BARNES.
Azure, on a bend argent, between two estoiles or, a bear passant sable, semie des estoiles of the third, ready to devour a naked child of the fourth; on a chief of the second, three roses gules radiated with rays of the sun proper--Richard BARNES, Bp. of Carlisle, 1570; Bp. of Durham, 1577-87.
Other blazoning of these arms is found.
Azure, a bend argent between two estoiles or, a bear passant sable estoiled or, seizing a man proper; on a chief azure three roses gules radiated or--BARNES.
Azure, on a bend argent, between two estoiles or, a naked boy, front faced, holding in both hands proper sable the tongue of a bear statant of the last estoiled gold, a chief as the second charged with three roses gules radiated like the third.--BARNES[the arms confirmed 1571, Harl. MS. 5847].
The FOUNDLING HOSPITAL in London has for its insignia:
Per fesse azure and vert; in chief a crescent argent between two mullets of six points or; in base an infant exposed and stretching out its arms for help proper. Motto, 'Help.'
Seal of Lord DE LA ROCHE.
Together with the above must be classed the roach(leuciscus rutilus, fr. rosse). The most authentic instance of a delineation of this charge is perhaps found on Lord de la Roche's seal .
Gules, three roach naiant in pale argent--Seal of Thomas Lord DE LA ROCHE affixed to the Barons' letter to Pope Boniface VIII., 1301.
Again it is represented on the seal to Thomas Arundel, Abp. of Canterbury, 1397-1414, where the shield bearing the fish(which are supposed to be roach) is represented as borne by one of the four murderers of Thomas à Becket, though what connection they had with the Roche family is not known.
It may perhaps be noted that the application of this charge to the name of the family is a singular instance of the punning adopted in heraldic devices, for the remains of Roche Castle, founded by Adam de la Roche, still exist on an insulated rock(fr. roche) of great height, and it has been suggested that the proverb 'sound as a roach ' has its origin in the same confusion of the French and English language.
The roach is found borne differently by different descendants of the family, e.g.
Gules, three roach naiant or within a bordure engrailed argent--Sir David ROCHE of Carass, Limerick.
Sable, three roach naiant in pale argent--De La ROCHE, Herefordshire.
Azure, three roach naiant argent within a bordure or--Walter ROCHE of Bromham, Wilts.
Gules, three roach naiant in pale argent--Peter de RUPIBUS[or Sir Pierre des ROCHES], Bp. of Winchester, 1206-38,
Or, a bull passant gules between three roach haurient proper, a chief chequy or and azure--Sir William ROCHE, Lord Mayor of London, 1540.
Argent, on a bend sable three roach of the field--HUYSHE, Devonshire.
Gules, a chevron engrailed between three roach naiant argent; on a chief of the second three herons sable, billed and membered gules--HOBBS, Middlesex.
Church : this is not unfrequently represented in coats of arms of recent date, but there seem to be no special characteristics to be noted in the several examples, and the method of representing the church seems somewhat arbitrary. This is so in a very marked way on the insignia of the Burgh of CULROSS.
Azure, a fesse or, in base a church argent--TEMPLETON.
A church with a spire; on the dexter chief the sun in splendour, on the sinister a crescent; at the dexter end of the church three ears of corn on one stalk, at the sinister end of the church a saltire--Seal of town of ASHBURTON, Devon.
Azure, a perspective view of the church of S.Servanus, shewing the south side, in which there is a gate, with a window on each side; the top of the west end[!] of the church ensigned with a passion cross; in the west end another gate, and two windows over it and one window over the two last; a square steeple terminating the building towards the east[!], above the battlements of which is a cupola ensigned with a ball on the top of a rod, all argent masoned sable--Burgh of CULROSS, Scotland.
Together with the church will be conveniently grouped the cathedral and the chapel(fr. chapelle). These, like the church , are found only in one or two modern coats of arms.
Azure, on a cross argent, between four suns or, a Cathedral church gules--NICHOLSON, Virginia[granted 1693-4].
Per fesse argent and vert, a chapel of the first, roofed gules between four escallop shells counterchanged--CHAPPELL, Cambridgeshire.
Beneath the same heading will be conveniently noted the Porch, the Shrine, and the Alter-tomb.
Gules, three porches of churches with double doors expanded argent--LESINGTON.
.... A shrine of Gothic work; over it an angel holding an escutcheon gules; three lions passant guardant in pale or--Seal of borough of WILTON, Wiltshire.
Gules, on an alter-tomb a lamb passant guardant argent carrying a banner of the last charged with a cross of the first, resting the dexter forefoot on a mound or--Augustinian College of ASHRIDGE, co. Buckingham.
Clenched : of a hand when closed .
Cleyed : i.q. clawed , applied to boars , 'tusked and cleyed or.'
Clock : this charge is believed to be confined to the bearings of the company which have been thus blazoned.
Sable, a clock each of the four corner pillars of the case erected on a lion couchant, and on each capital a mound ensigned with a cross pattée, and on the dome of the case an imperial crown supposed by circular arches springing from the pillars, under which arches the bell appears, and on the centre of the dial-plate a double rose, all or--CLOCKMAKERS' Company, London.
The credit of this minute example of blazon(presenting a great contrast to the simple insignia of more ancient companies) is due to Sir Edw. Walker, Garter, who granted it in 1677.
Close : a term applied to wings of birds ; and to helmets.
Closet : this may be considered as the diminutive of the Bar , of which it is half the width, i.e. a tenth of the shield, so that only nine closets can be borne in one shield; the term closetty is sometimes used signifying barry of many pieces, though the term barry may be used of any even number of pieces.
Argent, a chevron between two closets gules--MALBISE.
Argent, three bars closetted gules[=9 barrulets]--BERNSTEAD.
Argent, three closets sable--ANCHILECK, Scotland.
Habick.
Clothiers' implements . The habick was a tool used for holding the cloth firm whilst it was operated on by the teazel or other instrument. The word is probably a corruption of the 'habiting hook,' and it is represented on the arms of the Company, as shewn in the margin.
The teazel is referred to elsewhere, under thistle . The shears for cropping the pile or nap for rendering the surface smooth will be found under the implements of Weavers.
PREENER.
The preen appears to be an instrument which was used for much the same purpose as the teazel . It does not, however, occur in the insignia of any of the companies, but it is found in the arms of a private person, where it seems to have been chosen for the sake of the name.
Azure, a preen or--PREENER.
Sable, a chevron ermine between two habicks in chief argent and a teazel in base slipped or--CLOTHWORKERS' Company, London[originally incorporated 1482, by the style of the Fraternity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin of the Sheermen of London; confirmed in 1528, but incorporated as Clothworkers' Company by Queen Elizabeth: arms granted 1530].
Clouds (fr. nuée) sometimes occur as bearings, as in the cases of the MERCERS' and DRAPERS' Companies, and a few families. Very frequently arms, &c., are represented issuing from the clouds; and in French arms still more so, since the dextrochere as it issues from the side of the shield is generally surrounded by clouds. The partition-line called nebuly (fr. nuagé), which may be considered as a conventional representation of clouds, is common in heraldry. See also examples under Ray and Tiara.
Azure, three clouds proper radiated in base or; each surmounted with a triple crown of the second, the cap gules--DRAPERS' Company[arms granted 1439].
Sable, a hand proper vested argent issuing out of the clouds in chief of the second rayonnée or, feeling the pulse of an arm also proper issuing from the sinister side of the shield, vested argent: in base ... &c.--College of PHYSICIANS, incorporated 1523.
Gules, a cloud as a chief nebuly azure and argent, with thirteen rays alternately plain and wavy descending palewise or--LESUNE, Harl. MS. 4199.
Gules, a battle-axe held by a dexter arms in fesse issuing from clouds on the sinister; in chief two mullets argent--PETTET.
Cloué , (fr.): nailed ; said of horse-shoes , dog-collars, &c., when the nails are of a different tincture.
Cob-fish . See Herring .
Cock (fr. coq), sometimes called barn-door cock or dunghill-cock, but as other species are always mentioned with some additional epithet, no such distinction is necessary. The game-cock is sometimes specially named, and so is the hen.
The Cock is found, though rarely, in ancient rolls of arms. And with the Cock should be grouped the Capon and the Cockerell(fr. coquerelle). It will be observed that in very many instances the charge is borne for the sake of the play upon the name of the bearer.
A cock with the comb of a different tincture may be blazoned crested or combed(fr. crêté) of such tincture; so also with the gills, or uncelles, when the term jellopped (written frequently jowlopped) or wattled(fr. barbé or barbelé) is used. Other terms are also found; armed (fr. armé or onglé); legged or membered(fr. membré); spurred(fr. éperonné); beaked (fr. becqué). With the French the term hardi is used when the right leg is raised; and in both English and French arms crowing(fr. chantant), when the beak is represented as open.
Azure, three cocks argent--CHANTICLEER, Cornwall.
Sable, three cocks or, membered gules--OVINGTON, Kent.
Argent, three cocks sable, armed, crested, and wattled or--POMFRET, 1730.
Argent, three game-cocks gules, crested and wattled sable--COCKMAN.
Argent, a fesse between three hens sable--AYLOFT.
Argent, three capons sable armed, crested, and jowllopped or--CAPONHURST.
Argent, on a chevron vert three cockerells of the first membered gules--CHICKERIN, Norwich.
Gules, a chevron between three cocks crowing argent--CROW, Suffolk.
D'argent, au coq hardi de sable, crêté becqué, barbé et membré de gueules--LE COCQ, Artois.
D'or, au coq chantant de gueules--LE COQ, de Bièville, Normandie.
The Cock's head is also frequently borne as a charge .
Argent, on a fesse between three cock's heads erased sable crested and jellopped gules a mitre or, all within a bordure of the third, charged with eight ducal coronets of the fourth--JESUS College, Cambridge.
Argent, on a fesse between three cock's heads erased sable, crested and jellopped gules, a mitre or--John ALCOCK, Bp. of Rochester, 1472; Bp. of Worcester, 1476; Bp. of Ely, 1486-1500.
Cockatrice : amongst the monsters with wings the Cockatrice and the Wyvern(Sax. wivere, a serpent) are frequently represented in heraldry. The differ from the groups of Griffins and Dragons, inasmuch as they have only two legs, and the hinder part of the body ends in a large and long tail. The Cockatrice is represented as having the head of a cock , but the tongue extended and barbed. Otherwise it is very similar to the wyvern, the essential difference being that the wyvern has the head of a serpent, but with the tongue extended and barbed. The frequency of such devices was due, no doubt, to the tales of travellers brought from the East, which had a special charm for many a designer of arms.
The Cockatrice , perhaps, when correctly drawn, should have the legs and feet of a cock-the Wyvern those of an eagle, but these details are seldom observed in representation.
Argent, a cockatrice azure, combed, beaked, wattled, and membered gules--DANCYE, Lancaster.
Argent, a cockatrice volant sable, crested, membered, and beaked--LANGLEY, Lancaster.
Or, a cockatrice, the tail nowed with a serpent's head sable, comb, wattles, and head gules; in the beak a trefoil vert--ASHENHURST, Derby.
Argent, a wyvern, wings endorsed, gules--DRAKE, of Ashe, Devon. (Bart., 1660.)
Argent, on a bend sable, between two lions rampant of the last, a wyvern volant, in bend of the field, langued gules--RUDINGS.
Argent, a wyvern passant azure--DAVET.
Argent, a wyvern with wings endorsed sable--TILLLEY, Devon.
Gules, a wyvern volant or--SOUTHWELL.
Gules, a wyvern or, on a chief azure three mullets or--Priory of S.Peter, HEREFORD, and also of HAVERFORDWEST.
Vert, a wyvern-dragon passant volant argent swallowing a child proper--WARRINGEHAM[from Harl. MS. 1404].
Sire Johan de FOLEBOURNE de or, a un chevron de sable e ij wyvres de sable--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sir Edmon de MAULEE, de or, a une bende de sable: en la bende iij wyvres de argent--Ibid.
Or, a wivern between three fleur-de-lys vert--HINCHLIFFE, Bp. of Peterborough, 1769-94.
Gules, a wivern or, on a chief azure, three mullets pierced of the second--HEREFORD Priory, Pembrokeshire.
[The figure of the Wyvern here given in the margin is from one of the supporters of the arms of KENNEDY, co. Ayr.]
Cockatrices also occur in the arms of the families of DRAKE; BRENT, Co. Kent; BOOTH; BOGAN, Devon; BROWN, Norfolk; JONES; Henry SEYNES, Newark.
Wyverns are borne by TAME, Oxford; DRAPER, Oxford, 1613; BRENT, Oxford, 1613; MACBEATH, Scotland; DE WINTON, Gloucester.
Similar to the Cockatrice is the Basilisk, and it is usually held to be synonymous with it, but it is said in books of heraldry to have an additional head, like that of a dragon, at the end of the tail, and hence the Basilisk is sometimes termed an Amphisian Cockatrice. Similar also is the Amphistere, which is found frequently in French coats of arms, and is described as a winged serpent with dragons' feet, of which the tail ends in another serpent, or in more than one serpent; in the latter case it is said to be gringolé of so many serpents. The Hydra (fr. hydre) also occurs in heraldic designs, but though compared with the dragon it is more like the wyvern , having only two legs, even if it has those. The peculiarity is that it partakes somewhat of its mythological prototype, inasmuch as it has seven heads-though in one case the blazoning especially reduces the number to five.
Argent, a cockatrice with wings endorsed and tail nowed; at the end thereof a dragon's head all sable--LANGLEY, Dalton, Yorkshire.
Argent, a basilisk, wings endorsed, tail nowed sable--LANGLEY, Hathorpe Hall, Yorkshire.
D'azure, a l'amphistere d'or--DU BOURG SAINTE-CROIX, Bresse.
Paly of six or and azure, on a chief gules, three five-headed hydras as the first--GRANDPRÉ.
A hydra, wings endorsed, vert, scaled or--Crest of BARRET of Avely.
The haddock (which is grouped by naturalists under the same division) does not occur in any coat of arms, but the crest of the family of HADDOCK, Lancashire, is--
A dexter hand holding a haddock.
A species of ling is called sometimes the burbot, but it lives in fresh water; and this is also called the coney fish , and supposed to be allusive in the following arms.
Argent, on a chevron azure, a coney courant between two burbot or coney fish hauriant of the field. On a chief chequy argent and azure a rose gules--Richard CHEYNEY, Bp. of Gloucester, 1562-79.
Cœur . See Heart . With French heralds 'en cœur' means in the fesse-point,
PHILIPPS.
Collar . A plain collar is not unfrequently found surrounding the necks of Dogs, Lions, &c. It is generally of gold , sometimes of silver , rarely of another tincture. The plain collar does not appear to be employed separately as a charge , but when an animal is said to be 'collared' or gorged(fr. accolé or colleté) a plain collar is implied; still animals are often gorged with ducal and other coronets.
When a beast is gorged and chained, the chain must be affixed to the collar and reflected over the back, as in the annexed example. Sometimes a double collar is named.
Argent, a lion rampant, gules, ducally gorged and chained or--PHILIPPS, Pembroke.
Sire Johan de HAVERINGE, de argent a un lion rampaund de goules od la couwe forchie e un coler de azur--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Argent, three annulets or, on a chief argent a greyhound courant gules collared of the second--RHODES.
Sable, a lion rampant ermine with a collar gemel azure; therefrom pendent on escutcheon of the last charged with a mullet argent--POWNALL, Lancaster.
SSS
Collar of SS . Collars studded with the letter S, or consisting of many of that latter linked together, either alone or alternately with other figures, have been at times much worn by persons holding great offices in the State, as well as by the gentry of various ranks from esquires upwards. They were worn by the Lords Chief Justices, the Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer, the Lord Mayor of London, the Kings of Arms, and Heralds, and the Serjeants at Arms, though frequently they are little more than ordinary chain collar with the links twisted so as to resemble the letter S.
The signification of the letter S in connection with the collar has been variously explained. Perhaps the best conjectures are, either that the device was invented to represent the word Souerayne, the favourite motto of Henry IV., which he bore when Earl of Derby, and retained when he succeeded to the throne; or else that that word was suggested by an after-thought of some courtier, or perhaps of the royal jeweller himself, as explanatory of the form which the workman had adopted, and which was so suitable to chain-work.
There is ample evidence that the collar of SS was originally a badge of the house of Lancaster, and that Henry IV. was the first sovereign who granted to the nobility as a mark of royal favour a licence to wear it; and, according to an old chronicle, Henry V., on the 25th day of October, 1415, gave to such of his followers as were not already noble permission to war "un collier semé de letters S de son ordre."
The right of knights to wear such a collar of gold was recognised by Act of Parliament, 24 Hen. VIII., but restricted to persons who were not below that grade.
Collar of Suns and Roses.
The collar of SS begins to appear upon monuments at the beginning of the fifteenth century, and upon distinguished persons of both sexes. It is represented as if worn by Sir Thomas Burton, in 1381, on the brass at Little Casterton Church(though the brass was not executed till circa 1410). It is also represented as worn by Sir Robert de Hattfield, who is attired as a civilian, and by his wife, on the brass in Oulton Church, Yorkshire, which is dated 1409. On a brass in Hereford Cathedral it is represented as worn by Lady Delamere(1435), but not by her husband. The monumental effigy in Little Dunmow Church, Essex, to Matilda, Countess of Huntingdon, who lived temp. King John, is of no value as evidence, as the effigy is of the fifteenth century. The example here given is from the brass of Sir John DRAYTON, 1411, which exists in Dorchester Church, Oxon.
The Collar of Suns and Roses also should be mentioned here, being one of the badges of Henry IV. It occurs on several brasses, and the right to bear this mark of favour was no doubt acquired direct from the sovereign. This collar was not so common as that of the SS. According to Haines, it occurs on brasses at Rougham, Norfolk, c. 1470; at Lillingston Lovell, Oxon, 1471; at Broxbourne, Herts, 1473; at Sardley, Derbyshire, 1478; at St.Albans, 1480; and at Little Easton, Essex, 1483.
Some kings of arms and heralds have also encircled their arms with the collars pertaining to their degrees.
College-pots . See Cups .
Collying : a term applied by writers on falconry to the bird with head erect when preparing to take flight, and may be found applied by some heralds to the eagle also.
Colours . Although, properly speaking, there are but the nine tinctures in Heraldry(q.v.), of which two are metals, yet in some coats of arms certain colours are incidentally and perhaps irregularly named. Such, for instance, as a lion party of an ash colour ; a horse , of a bay colour ; a horse's head and wild-ducks, brown; the mine , in the arms of the Miners' Company(q.v.), of earth colour, with the chief brown colour . The carnation is frequently used with the French heralds for pink or flesh colour, applied to human subjects, and especially the face; grey is applied to hair , russet is said of a parrot , and yellow of a pheasant's breast. With respect to white, it may be used instead of argent for the lining of mantles , which are not generally taken for cloth of silver , but a pure white fur, which some call the litvit's skin. It often happens, too, that certain charges are blazoned 'proper,' and these when rightly represented frequently require the used of other colours than the recognised tinctures of heraldry. Gold and silver, with heralds of the seventeenth century, are terms used for or and argent in complicated arms, where these tinctures have been already named, but solely for the purpose of avoiding repetition of the same word .
Argent, a lion rampant sable, the head, paws, and half of the tail ash colour--GWILT, South Wales.
Argent, a horse passant, bay colour, between two tilting-spears in fesse sable--SHEKEL, Pebworth.
Argent, a horse passant, bay colour, holding in his mouth a tulip slipped proper--ATHERTON. [Noted by Glover as a quartering.]
..... A chief or charged with three horse's heads erased brown--WRENNE.
Gules, a chevron argent between three wild ducks brown--WOLRICH.
D'argent, aux deux jumeaux accouplés de carnation posé sur une terrasse de sinople--Martin de BOUDARD.
Gules, three men's heads couped at the shoulders argent, crined grey--EDYE.
Per pale, argent and gules, in the dexter fesse point a parrot russe, beaked and legged or--Richard SENHOUSE, Bp. of Carlisle, 1624-26.
Argent, a chevron azure between three pheasant cocks vert, beaked and legged gulles, breast yellow--Richard CHOPIN, Alderman of London.
In poetical blazon, however, with old writers, other than technical terms are used. For instance, at the Siege of Caerlaverock, which tool place A.D. 1300, we learn from a contemporary poem of the siege that Robert FITZ-ROGER had his banner .
"De or e de rouge esquartelée, O un bende tainte en noir,"
which we should now blazon.
Quarterly or and gules, a bend sable.
And the Earl of Hereford had.
"Baniere out de Inde cendal fort De or fin, dont au dehors asis O une blanche bendelée Ot en rampant lyonceaus sis," De deus costices entrealée
which would be blazoned now as.
Azure, a bend argent cotised or, between six lioncels rampant of the second.
Other examples will be found, e.g. in an example given under cadency , where it will be seen that 'gules' is described as 'red as blood,' vermeille cum sanc; and under chaplet , 'deux chapeaux des roses vermals.'
Corbie , and Corbeau. See Raven .
Cord : cords by themselves are but seldom borne, but are very frequently attached to other charges, which are there described as corded (fr. cordé), and this is used of almost any charge bound with or having cords , when those cords are of a different tincture, e.g. a bale , woolpack , bag, bow, harp, &c., though some of these are described also as stringed . In one or two exceptional cases an ordinary is corded , e.g. a bar , Cross , &c., meaning that it is wreathed round with a cord , and not to be confused with cabled .
Or, a chevron ermine between three cords erased at each end and tied in knots vert--CLEAVER.
Azure, four hawk's bells or conjoined in saltire by a double and wreathed cord alternately argent and sable--Sir Ralph JOSSELYN, Alderman of London.
Sable, two bars argent, corded or wreathed gules--WAYE, Devonshire, confirmed 1574].
Although not borne by name, cords are frequently so in fact, under the name of knots , of which there are the following varieties, though they are chiefly employed as badges , and not as charges . It may be noted that theoretically the cords are of silk.
Bowen's Knot.
Bourchier's Knot . This device is many times repeated upon the tomb of Abp. Bourchier(1486) at Canterbury, hence the name. It appears also in the east window of the Dean's chapel in that cathedral, where it is tinctured or.
The Bowen's Knot is a name which is given to a knot known at the Tristram or true-lovers' knot , and which is figured as in the margin; but with the French the lacs d'amour, which sometimes occurs, is figured rather differently.
Gules, a chevron between three tristram or true-love knots argent--BOWEN. [Sir James ABOWEN,-also Abp. OWEN and BOWEN.]
Gules, a chevron between in chief two true-love knots, in base a lion rampant or--Sir Jamys ap OWAIN.
Or, on a chevron gules a true-lovers' knot of the first--Town of STAFFORD.
Azure, a lion rampant or, in a true-love knot argent between four fleurs de lys, their stalks bending towards the centre of the second--HOGHE.
D'azur, à un lacs-d'amour de sable, accompagné de trois molettes d'éperon du même--GUILBERT, Normandie.
Heneage's Knot.
The DACRE family are recorded to have a peculiar and distinctive knot on their badge or cognizance. The Arms of the family who were established in Westmoreland and Cumberland are as follows:--
Gules, three escallops or--DACRE. And it will be observed that the scallop shell is repeated in the badge.
The Lincolnshire branch of the HENEAGE family have, according to the visitation of the county, a peculiar badge or cognizance in the shape of a knot which is suggested by the motto "Fast though united." This knot does not appear to have been used as the crest , which is a greyhound couchant.
The three following knots is a similar manner are respectively the badges of the three families of LUCY, STAFFORD, and WAKE. The last is borne by the family as a crest .
Sable, a cormorant argent--POPELLER.
Azure, three cormorants or--SEVENS, or SEVANS, Kent.
Gules, on a bird wavy argent three cormorants sable, beaked and membered or--Sir Robert READE[Puisne Justice of the King's Bench, 1496].
Argent, a cormorant sable, beaked and legged gules, holding in the beak a branch of sea-weed called laver inverted vert--City of LIVERPOOL
Or, on a chevron azure between three cormorant's heads erased sable as many acorns slipped of the first--CHIDDERLEGH, Cornwall.
Argent, a cross sable between four sea aylets of the second, beaked and membered gules--John AYLMER[Bp. of London, 1577].
Quarterly; first and fourth, argent a chevron between three cormorants sable; second and third, a fret--WARBURTON[Bp. of Gloucester, 1760-79].
Probably allied in shape to the Cormorant, but not determinable to what species it belongs, in the Gannapie, which is found in some arms and referred to in heraldic works.
Argent, a chevron counter compony vert and azure between three gannapies of the last membered gules--WYKES[Glover's ordinary].
Argent, a chevron chequy azure and vert between three gannapies proper--WIKES, Devon.
Argent, a chevron sable between three gannapies[elsewhere drakes] azure--YEO, Colliton, Devon.
Argent, three Cornish choughs proper--PENESTON, Cornwall[and PENISTON, Oxfordshire].
Argent, a Cornish chough proper--TREVETHIN, Cornwall.
Argent, a fesse gules between six Cornish chough--ONSLOW, Shropshire.
Azure, a bend or, and on a chief argent two Cornish choughs proper--VYNER.
Azure, three Cornish choughs proper; on a chief gules a lion passant guardant or--Town of CANTERBURY.
Sable, guttee d'eau, on a fesse argent, three Cornish choughs--CORNWALLIS, Bp. of Lichfield, 1750; Abp. of Cant., 1768-83.
On, a cross engrailed gules, in the dexter chief a Cornish chough proper--MASSENDEN, co. Lincoln.
Argent, three arrows gules one and two between as many Cornish choughs proper two and one--CHASTEIN.
Azure, a lion passant or; on a chief argent three Cornish choughs proper--ROFFEY.
The Beckit supposed to resemble the Cornish chough, though the name does not appear in works by modern naturalists. But it is interesting as the canting arms ascribed(at what date is not clear) to S.Thomas A BECKET .
Argent, three Cornish choughs[beckits] proper two and one--BECKET, Abp. of Canterbury, 1162-70. [These, with the addition of a lion of England on a chief gules, were taken as the insignia of the city of CANTERBURY].
[Cornish choughs are also borne S.Thomas' Priory, Canterbury, S.George's Priory, Canterbury, and by NICHOLAS, Bp. of Bangor, 1408-17.]
GULFORD.
When a single 'cottice' is shewn, it is called a cost(lat. costa, a rib). The cottice may be considered as the diminution of a bend containing the one fourth part of the breadth of the ordinary.
Although the term cotticed is strictly applicable to the bend only, it is sometimes applied also to fesse , pales , chevrons , &c., and ordinaries are occasionally to be met with which are double and even treble cotticed. An instance of cottising with demi fleurs-de-lis may be seen under fleur-de-lis . Cottisé with French heralds is sometimes used for describing a field covered with ten or more bendlets of alternate colours, and for a diminution of the cotice they use the term filet .
Gules, a bend argent, cotticed or--COVE.
Argent, a bend between two cotices engrailed sable--WHITFIELD.
Argent, on a bend engrailed, cotised plain sable three mullets or--Lancelot ANDREWES, Bp. of Chichester, 1605; of Ely, 1609; afterwards of Winchester, 1619-1626.
Argent, a lion passant between two cotices gules--GAWLER.
Sable, a bend between two cottices dancetty or--CLOPTON.
Ermine, a fesse gules, cotised wavy sable--DODD.
Argent, a fesse double cotised sable--GULFORD, Staffordshire.
Gules, a fesse double cotised argent--PRAYERS, Essex.
Argent, a fesse ermine, double cotised sable--HARLESTON.
Coué . (old fr.), or cowé: i.q. coward . See Tail .
Coulissé , (fr.): a castle is so described when the herse or portcullis is down, and fills up the gateway.
Coulter of a Plough, q.v.
Counter , (fr. contre), simply means opposite; but with this general sense it is variously employed.
When applied to the position of two animals, it signifies that they are turned in contrary directions, i.e. back to back, as two foxes counter-salient in saltire. If but one animals is spoken of, it means that it faces the sinister, as a lion counter-rampant, that is in an opposite direction to that which is usual. Two lions accosted counter-couchant means that they lie side by side, with their heads in contrary directions. Again, two lions counter-couchant in pale denotes that one occupies the upper part of the shield, and the other the lower, one facing the dexter, the other the sinister. One line counter-couchant always faces the sinister. The term counter-passant(fr. contre passant) is used in the same way. A good example of counter-trippant will be found under Deer .
S.BARTHOLOMEW'S Hospital.
When applied to the tinctures the term counterchanged is of frequent occurrence, and signifies that the field consists of metal and colour separated by one of the lines of partition named from the ordinaries(per pale, per bend, &c.), and that the charges, or parts of charges, placed upon the metal are of the colour, and vice versa. Counter-coloured is sometimes, but erroneously, used. The annexed illustration affords a simple instance.
Per pale argent and sable, a chevron counterchanged--S.BARTHOLOMEW'S Hospital, London. [Indentical with those of LAWSON, Cumberland, (Bart., 1688.)]
Sometimes the counterchange is more complicated, as in the following.
Barry of six, argent and gules, per pale indented counterchanged--PETOE, Chesterton, Warwick.
Party per chevron or and azure, three mullets counterchanged--George DAY, Bp. of Chichester, 1543-51 and 1554-56.
Party per pale azure and purpure, three bars counterchanged--Adam HOUGHTON, Bp. of S. David's, 1361-89.
Or, a chevron paly of eight gules and argent, per chevron counterchanged--SURRIDGE.
When roundles occur in counterchanged arms(whether cut through by the line of partition or not) they are not called bezants , torteaux , &c., as in other cases, but retain the appellation of roundles.
In old French rolls the term de l'un en l'autre occurs, and is still used by French heralds: it is in most cases practically equivalent to the more recent term counterchanged. The following are examples, and another will be found previously given under bar gemel . See also under Party .
Sire Robert de FARNHAM quartile de argent e de azure, a iiij cressauz de lun en lautre--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Monsieur de METSED, quarterly, d'or et gules, a quatre escallops de l'une et l'autre--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Applied to various ordinaries and other charges, expressions like counter-embattled (fr. contre-bretesse), counter-fleury(fr. contre-fleuré), imply that both sides have alternate projections, while amongst the furs, counter-vair(fr. contre-vaire), counter-potent(fr. contre-potencé), &c., mean that the pieces are turned round contrary to their usual position. Examples are given under the several headings. Counter-camp is only a corruption of counter-compony. Counter-ermine is a term used by Nisbet for Ermines.
Applied to two chevrons the term counter-pointed would mean that the two chevrons are drawn in opposite directions, their points meeting in the centre of the shield.
Coupe , (fr.): Cup .
Couped , or Coupy, (fr. alaisé), cut off in a straight line, as in often the case with the heads and limbs of animals, and so distinguished form erased[see example under Boar ]. It is important to say where a head or limbs is couped; for instance, if couped close it would signify cut off close to the head. A hand is often said to be couped at the wrist.
The word couped is sometimes applied to the extremities of ordinaries, but they are more often said to be humetté or alesé.
Per fesse sable and or, a tree couped and eradicated counterchanged--BUCHER,
Azure, a dexter hand couped at the wrist argent--BROME, co. Salop.
Couped-fitchy is an expression used to signify that the cutting is not by a clean straight stroke, but that a point is left projecting.
Heraldic writers say that an ordinary when blazoned couped and voided would differ essentially from the same ordinary blazoned voided and couped; but as no examples are given shewing that the difference exists in fact, it is hardly necessary to lay it drawn as a rule.
The French coupé has a distinct meaning, and is frequently employed to signify the partition of the shield horizontally into two equal parts. English heralds would describe the same as party per fesse.
Couple-close : this is one of the diminutives of the chevron, of which it should be one-fourth the width. Couple-closes are always borne in pairs, from which circumstance they derive their name. They are often borne with the chevron , which is then said to be between couple-closes, a more exact expression perhaps than coticed.
Argent, on a chevron between two couple-closes indented sable three escallops or--GONVILL. [The arms of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, founded 1348.]
ROUS.
Crescent , (fr. croissant, old fr. cresaunt, pl. cressanz): a half-moon with the horns uppermost. The other positions of the half-moon, viz. increscent and decrescent, will be found mentioned under moon .
A crescent is the ancient ensign of the Turks, and was without doubt introduced into heraldry(properly so called) by the crusaders, and hence in arms dating from Henry III.'s reign onwards it is very frequently employed. It is also the mark of cadency assigned to the second house.
Azure, a crescent argent--LUCY. London.
Frank de BOUN, de goules ung croissant de hermyn, ung urle dez merlotts d'ermyn--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Sire William de RYTHE de azure a iij cressans de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Johan de HANLON de goules a iij cressanz de argent--Ibid.
Monsire de RITHERE port d'asur a trois cressants d'argent--Roll, temp, ED. III.
Monsire de WAUTLAND d'argent un fes gules a deux cressents gules en le chief--Ibid.
Sable, a fesse dancetty or, between three crescents argent--ROUS, Earl of Stradbroke.
Gules, five crescents or--William de KILKENNY, Bp. of Ely, 1254-56.
Argent, a lion rampant gules between five pierced mullets, the two in chief enclosing a pair of crescents sable, the others as the second--DYSON.
In some coats it is noted that the crescents are to be reversed, i.e. with the horns downwards, and they are then blazoned as pendent .
Gules, a bend argent between six crescents 'pendent' or--Esmond FOLLYOT.
Cresset . See Beacon .
Crest , (fr. cimier): a figure anciently affixed to the helmet(fr. casque) of every commander, for his distinction in the confusion of battle, and in used before the hereditary bearing of coat armour: it is not unfrequently confounded with the badge or cognizance, which is a different thing. The word timbre includes the crest, helmet, wreath, &c., in short every-thing which is above the shield.
Crests do not appear to have been considered as in any way connected with the family arms until the fourteenth century, when Edward III. conferred upon William of Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, the right to bear an eagle.
The earliest representations of a crest in mediæval times in this country upon any authentic record is perhaps that on the great seal of Richard the First, on which a lion appears figured on the helmet. It does not, however, seem to be a separate attachment, but to be a part of the helmet, and also appears in old illustrations to have been attached to the head of the horse as well as to that of the rider.
The royal crest of England--a lion upon a cap of estate--appears for the first time during the reign of King Edward III., upon one of his great seals. It continues the same to the present day, but is now generally placed upon the royal crown. The following are early instances of family crests:--
MORTIMER.
Quarterly; first and fourth barry of six or and azure, on a chief of the first, two pallets between as many esquires based of the second, over all an inescutcheon argent--MORTIMER. Second and third or, a cross gules--DE BURGH. Crest, out of a ducal coronet proper, a plume of feathers azure. Supporters, two lions guardant argent, their tails coward and reflected over their backs--Seal of Edmund MORTIMER, Earl of March[who died in 1424].
A plume of seven feathers in one height, ermine, placed upon a ducal coronet gules, is the Crest of Sir Simon de FELBRIGGE, K. G. [upon his stall-plate at Windsor].
Le timbre sur le heaulme ung teste morien, &c.--Grant of Arms to Alan TROWTE, 1376,
Ancient crests were, for the most part, the heads of men, or of birds, or of animals, of plumes of feathers. Such inappropriate figures as rocks , clouds , and rainbows , were never used for crests while heraldry was in its purity, The list of the varieties of crests found on arms at the present time would fill several pages, but it may be observed that heads and portions of men and animals are still found to be the most frequent.
Unless the contrary be expressly mentioned, a crest is always to be placed upon a wreath, and such was, in general, the most ancient practice, nor was it until the time of COOKE, Clarenceux, in Queen Elizabeth's reign, that the ducal coronet and the chapeau(which is also proper to a duke ) were indiscriminately granted. Mural and other crowns are occasionally used in the same way.
Though corporate bodies may bear the arms of their founders just as the founders themselves borne them, it is scarcely in accordance with principle for them to bear helmets and crests(as many of the mercantile companies of London do). The oldest mercantile crest, perhaps, is that of the TALLOW-CHANDLERS, with the Head of S.John the Baptist in the charger, q.v.
Crested , (fr. crêté): of a bird when of another tincture. See under Cock . (2) Of a helmet , q.v.
Crevice , (corrupted from écrevisse), but used for the crayfish. See Lobster .
Crosier.
The Archbishop, besides his Crosier , made use also of a Staff surmounted by a cross ; that of the Pope having a triple cross. That of the see of Canterbury is represented as surmounted by a cross formy . In actual examples, some few of which remain, the Archbishop's Staff is found to be of various patterns and highly ornamented. The annexed cut represents the Staff of Archbishop Warham(who died 1520), from his tomb at Canterbury. It is borne of this form, but not so highly ornamented, in the ensigns of the archiepiscopal sees of Canterbury, Armagh, and Dublin.
The Crosier of a bishop ends in a curve resembling that of a shepherd's crook , from which there is every reason to believe it was derived, notwithstanding the opinion of some, that its origin is to be traced to the lituus of the priesthood of pagan Rome. There are many existing specimens of episcopal staves, which, while they all retain the general form of a crook , differ very much in their enrichments. In heraldry the simple form shewn in the margin is generally adopted.
The Crosier and Staff surmounted by a cross are, however, often confounded under the general term Pastoral Staff , and the French term Crosse is used equally for the crosier as for the staff with the cross .
Azure, a crosier in pale or, ensigned with a cross formée argent, surmounted of a pall of the last, edged and fringed of the second, charged with four crosses formée fitchée sable--See of CANTERBURY.
Azure, on a chevron gules between three Cornish choughs as many pastoral staves erect or--Henry DEANE, Bp. of Bangor, 1496; Bp. of Salisbury 1500; afterwards Abp. Cant. 1501-30.
Azure, a bend or; over all a crosier in bend sinister, the staff argent, the crook or--Abbey of S.Agatha, RICHMOND, Yorkshire.
Argent, three bars gules, over all a crosier in bend, staff argent, head or--Gilbertine Priory at ALVINGHAM, co. Lincoln.
Azure, two crosiers endorsed in saltire or; in chief a mitre of the last--See of ARGYLL, Scotland.
Azure, two pastoral staves in saltire, and a mitre in chief or--SPOFFORD, Bp. of Hereford, 1522-48.
Gules, three lions passant guardant, over all a crosier, the staff gules, crook sable, all within a bordure of the last bezanty--Cistercian Abbey at VALE ROYAL, Cheshire.
Gules, a crosier reversed in bend sinister, surmounted by a sword in bend dexter proper; on a chief argent a thistle leaved also proper--CHURCH, Hampton.
Argent, a bishop's crook in pale sable--M'LAURIN, Dreghorn.
Staff with Sudarium.
The pastoral staves of Abbots resembled those of bishops, and were no doubt equally ornamented, especially when the Abbot was head of the Mitred Abbeys. However, it seems there was a custom to attach a small pallium, called also sudarium, or strip, to the crosier of Abbots to distinguish them from those of Bishops, though it was not generally adhered to; and this seems to be represented on the insignia of S.Benet's, HULME. Examples are also found of Abbesses represented with a pastoral staff , as on the brass of ISABEL HERVEY, Abbess of Elstow, Bedfordshire(ob. A.D. 1524).
Sable, a crosier in pale or, garnished with a pallium crossing the staff argent[otherwise, having two ribbons entwined about it] between two ducal coronets of the second[otherwise between four crosiers or]--Abbey of S.BENET'S, HELME, Norfolk.
The following Abbeys, Priories, &c., bear the crosier in their insignia--
ALVINGHAM, Lincoln; BARDNEY, Lincoln; BYLAND, Yorkshire; BOXLEY, Kent; BUCKFESTRE, Devon; BURSCOUGH, Lancashire; BUTLEY, Suffolk; CUMBERMERE, Cheshire; DELACRE, Stafford; DEREHAM, Norfolk; FEVERSHAM, Kent; FURNESS; HALES; LLANDAFF; LANGDON, Kent; MALMESBURY, Wilts; MISSENDEN, Bucks; RICHMOND, Yorkshire(S.Agatha); Ditto, (S.Martin's); SHREWSBURY; STRATFORD, Essex; THAME, Oxon; THORNEY, Cambridge; THORNTON, Lincoln; VALE ROYAL, Cheshire; WARSOP, Notts; WENDLING, Norfolk; WESTMINSTER; WIRKSOPP, Notts.
The following Sees also bear the crosier in their insignia:--
ARGYLL; BARBADOS; CALCUTTA; CLONFORT and KILMACDAUAGH; CORK and ROSS; ELPHIN; GALLOWAY; JAMAICA; KILLALA and ACHONRY; KILMORE; LLANDAFF; LEIGHLIN and FERNS; LIMERICK; QUEBEC, &c.
Cross of S.GEORGE.
Cross , (fr. Croix; old fr. crois, croyz, &c.): the term Cross without any addition signifies, §1, a Plain cross, which, it is said, should occupy one-fifth of the shield; but when charged it may be occupy one-third. Its use as an heraldic ensign may be considered to be as early as any, and to belong to the time of the first crusades, in which the principal nations of Christendom are said to have been distinguished by crosses of different colours: and it is naturally found to be most frequently employed in the insignia of religious foundations.
"And on his brest a bloodie crosse he bore, The deare remembrance of his dying Lord, For whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore, And dead, as living ever, his ador'd: Upon his shield the like was was scor'd." Spenser's "Faerie Quene," bk. i.
§1 . The primary idea of the plain heraldic cross is that the four arms are equal, and that they meet in the fesse-point of the shield; from the shape of the shield, however, the horizontal bar is generally shorter than the vertical. This even-armed cross is frequently termed the Greek cross, to distinguish it from the Latin cross, it which the lower member is always longer than the other three. The plain cross of gules on a field argent is termed the Cross of S.George, having been assigned to S.George of Cappadocia, or S.George of England. (See Union Jack under Flag .) The plain cross was the most frequent amongst the early arms.
Le Conte de NORFFOLK, d'or a ung crois de goulez--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Piers de SAUVOYE, goules ung crois d'argent--Ibid.
Robert de VEER d'argent a la crois de goulz--Ibid.
Argent, on a bull statant gules, armed or, upon a mount vert; a plain cross argent at the shoulder--RIDLEY.
As said above, the position of the cross is that the centre should occupy the fesse-point, but in those cases where there is a chief this ordinary must be abased, though it be not mentioned.
Argent, a cross gules, a chief chequy sable and of the first--SCOLYCORNE.
Argent, a cross and a chief sable--JOHN, Bishop of Exeter, 1185-91.
Or, a cross gules, a chief vert--VERE, Suffolk[granted 1584].
The cross admits of great varieties in outline and treatment, and the inventors of heraldic devices have not been slow to avail themselves of this, and heraldic writers have in their ingenuity multiplied the forms. In giving a summary of the chief forms only we are met with the difficulty of many synonyms occurring, for practically the same form is often much varied by incorrect drawing, and much confusion has arisen from blunders of heraldic writers in misreading or misunderstanding the terms employed. The French terms are more varied still than the English, and the correlation of the two series can only be attempted approximately. It is the plain cross which is most frequently made subject to the variations described, §1 to §7, but it will be noted that other forms of the cross are also at times subjected to the same treatment.
In the following classification the varieties have been, as far as possible, restricted to cases of which examples can be founded; and an index at the end(see p. 179) will, it is hoped, render reference easy.
YNGOLDTHORP.
§2 . First of all it will be well, perhaps, to note that the edges of the cross are subjected to the same variety of flection as other ordinaries, namely, they may be engrailed (fr. engreslée), embattled(fr. bretessée), indented(fr. denchée), invected(fr. cannelée), wavy, (fr. ondée) raguly, &c., and this treatment is found at tolerably dates.
Sire Thomas de YNGOLDTHORP, de goules a une crois engrele de argent--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Eustace de la HACCHE de or a une crois engrele de goules--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Argent, a cross embattled sable--BALMANNO.
Ermine, a cross pattée invected gules--GRANDALE, Harl. MS. 1407.
Vert, a cross invected argent--HAWLEY, Clarenceux King of Arms, ob. 1577.
Argent, a cross wavy gules--LORAND.
Or, a cross raguly vert--ANKETEL, Co. Monagham.
Sable, a cross flory raguly argent--BROTHERTON, Maidenhead.
Argent, a cross couped raguly and trunked sable--TYTHINGTON, Chester.
French works give a cross émanchée, but the application of this exaggerated form of dancetty to a cross must be somewhat difficult, and no figures of it have been observed. The écotée of French writers has the appearance of a coarse kind of raguly . In one case the term slipped is applied to a cross , which should probably have its edges adorned with leaves .
Argent, a cross slipped vert--RADELL, Harl. MS. 5866.
D'or, à la croix émanchée de trois pièces et deux demies d'argent sur gueules, cantonnée de quatre têtes de léopard d'azur--LE LYEUR DE LA VAL, Champagne.
§3 . Next the crosses besides being of various tinctures may be diversified, as the field is diversified. A cross may be e.g. chequy (fr. échiquetée ), compony or counter-compony, fretty, trellised(i.e. with a somewhat closer fret), vair maçonnée, &c.
Sire Johan de KOCFELD, de azure a une crois chekere de argent e de goules--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Azure, a cross counter-compony argent and gules--Eustace de WITENEYE.
Ermine, a cross counter-compony gules and or; in the dexter chief a lion rampant sable--Richard LAUNDE.
Sire Robert de VERDUN, de argent, a une crois de azure frette de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Or, a cross vair--EXMYLE.
Nicholas de VALERES.
§4 . A cross is frequently charged with other devices.
Sire Nicholas de VALERES, de argent, a une crois de goules e v escalops de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Johan de BADDEHAM, de argent a une crois de goules; en la crois v molez de or--Ibid.
Sire Wauter de CORNEWAILLE, de argent, a une crois de sable besaunte de or--Ibid.
Sire Gelem de DUREM, de argent a une crois de goules e v flures de or--Ibid.
§5 . The Cross may be of two tinctures, i.e. party per fesse, per pale, &c., or per cross, which is equivalent to quarterly(fr. écartelee), and in most cases it is so in connection with the partition of the field , and hence the tinctures are counter-changed. Though some heralds would use the term counter-quartered, the term counter-changed applied to the cross is all that is needed. The partition lines should meet in the centre in a cross and not in a saltire.
Gules, a cross per fesse or and argent--BROCKHALL.
Gules, a cross moline per pale argent and ermine--FRISKENEY, Lincoln.
Or, on a cross quarterly azure and gules five roses of the first--Thomas LANGTON, Bp. of S.David's, 1483; Salisbury, 1485; Winchester, 1493-1501.
Per bend azure and argent, a cross moline per bend or and of the first--HAWTRE, Bedford.
Per bend argent and sable, a cross potent counterchanged--ALMACK, Suffolk.
Argent, a cross pattée, per saltire, gules and azure--INGHAM ABBEY, Norfolk.
Per chevron, argent and gules, a cross counterchanged--CHAPMAN, York.
Quarterly azure and gules a cross patonce counterchanged; in first and fourth quarters a rose gules barbed and seeded or; in second and third quarters a sun glory proper--Thomas BENTHAM, Bp. of Lichfield and Coventry, A.D. 1560-79.
Quarterly argent and azure, a cross counterchanged--BEVERCOTT.
Quarterly argent and gules, a cross botonny counterchanged--CROSLAND.
Quarterly indented argent and sable, a cross counterchanged--GLENDINING.
When, however, the cross is composed as it were, of five pieces or divisions, the central being that of the field, the term quarter-pierced is used. Heraldic writers have, however, invented various terms, e.g. quarter-voided and square-pierced. And some have described the form(taking the field into account) as 'chequy of nine panes;' but it is to be noted that as a rule the pieces are charged with some device. With the French, however, the term équipollée describes the figure exactly.
Argent, a quarter-pierced cross moline sable between three crescents gules--MILWARD.
Sable, on a cross quarterly pierced argent, four eagles displayed of the first--BULLER, Bp. of Exeter, 1792-96.
Argent, five crosses croslet gules, over all on a quarter-pierced cross as the last, four crosses croslet like the second--BONNELL, London, 1691.
Ermine, on a quarter-pierced cross or four chevrons gules--City of LICHFIELD.
Cinq points d'argent équipollés à quatre de gueules--BOISY, Ile de France.
§6 . A cross is described as voided when the central portion of the four limbs is of the same tincture as the field , and only a narrow border is left, and this is found in ancient blazon described as 'une fausse croix.'
The term voide is used of a Cross in one or two ancient rolls in connection with recercelé , and it has been thought to imply that the voiding extends into the field, which may be described as voided throughout , and as is shewn in the illustration of the arms of KNOWLES. (See under §32.)
Hamon CREVECEUR, d'or ung faulx crois de goules--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Azure, crusily, a cross moline voided throughout[otherwise disjoined] or--KNOWLES, Barony, 1603.
Gules, a cross patty pointed voided argent; at each corner a bezant--Henry LE WALYS(Glover's Ordinary).
Argent, a cross flory voided gules--James PILKINGTON, Bp. of Durham, 1561-76.
Ermine, a cross voided sable--ARCHDEACON, Harl. MS. 5866.
Argent, a cross humetty voided azure--WASHBORNE.
Or, a cross humetty pointed, voided azure--BURR.
But as it is possible to superimpose one cross upon another(fr. croix chargée, or remplie), and the latter may be of the tincture of the field , the result would be the same as a cross voided . Modern heralds consider that the difference is to be shewn by the shading of the lines, as already noted in the case of the chevron, but such niceties were unknown is ancient heraldry.
De gueules, à la croix d'argent chargée d'une croix alaisée d'azur--NEUFVILLE, Limosin.
Further, there is a third way in which such arms might in some cases be blazoned, namely, as fimbriated , bordured , or edged (fr. bordé) of such a tincture.
And with this may be noted crosses which have cotices, though these are by no means common in English arms. One remarkable example, however, occurs, in which a fleur-de-lis serves as a cotice instead of a line.
XAINTRAILLES.
§7 . At with other ordinaries, a cross may be couped ; and then it is termed humetty (fr. alaisée, spelt sometimes alésée), though the term coupée seems to be occasionally used. Of course all the four arms are couped, unless there is any distinguishing note to the contrary. It would also appear that this cross should be always drawn with its arms equal. When more than one cross or crosslet occurs in the same shield it stands to reason they must be humetty, so that it is not necessary to mention it.
D'argent, à la croix alaisée de gueules--XAINTRAILLES, Ile de France.
A cross humetty between four plain crosslets--John de PONTISSARA, Bp. of Winchester, 1282-1304.
Azure, a bend wavy in the sinister chief a cross coupy argent--Arms assigned to William de CURBELLIO, Abp. of Canterbury, 1123-36.
The term humetty is sometimes used in connection with special terminations to the arms of the cross, but practically it is needless, for were the cross extended to the edges there would be no room for such terminations. See e.g. cross annuletty , §11, and fleuretty, §20; also gringolée and the like, §21. To these might be added anserated and ancetty(from the French anse, 'a handle'), though the terms have not been observed in any English blazon.
Azure, a cross humetty terminated with four leopard's heads or--PECKHAM.
Argent, a cross humetty gules, the point in chief terminating in a crescent of the last--WANLEY.
Sable, billetty argent, a cross humetty at top, and there flory of the last--Sir John MORIS, co. Gloucester[Harl. MS. 1465, fol. 53].
On the other hand a cross pattée(which is naturally humetty) must be blazoned as throughout or fixed, if it is intended that the four arms of the cross should reach to the edges of the shield. See §26.
See also passant , as meaning of throughout .
The French term tronçonné , signifying that the cross is broken up into small cubes, is given by Edmondson, and others, but no examples have been noticed either in French or English arms.
One example only of a demi-cross has been observed.
Argent, a chevron between three demi-crosses gules--TOKETT.
HURSTON.
§8 . Beyond the variations to which the cross is subjected there are certain devices which are made up of charges arranged in the form of the cross , and so in some cases are blazoned as such. A cross , for instance, of four ermine-spots, with the heads meeting(fr. abouttées or appointées) in the fesse-point, has been blazoned by some heralds as a Cross erminée. A cross composed of four escallop shells, or of four pheons, would only be blazoned as such.
Argent, a cross of four ermine-spots sable--HURSTON, Cheshire.
Vert, a cross of four escallops, the tops at the centre meeting, or--WENCELAUGH, co. York, 1584.
Quarterly, gules and azure, a cross of four pheons, the points to the centre argent--TRUBSHAWE.
With respect, however, to the formation of crosses from lozenges, fusils, and mascles, the device is so frequent that the terms cross lozengy , or cross fusilly(fr. fuselée), or cross masculy of such a tincture, are frequently adopted, though strict heralds consider these terms inadmissible, for lozengy, masculy, and fusilly require that two tinctures should be named, and that the cross or other ordinary be drawn entire, and treated just as if it was blazoned chequy , or compony , or any other form of diversification; they therefore contend, and with reason, that the proper expression for a cross of this description should be a cross of so many lozenges, fusils, &c.
But further than this, very strict heralds contend that a cross fusil, or of fusils(where no particular number is mentioned), should consist of nine, whereof five should be enire and four halved for the extremities, which touch the edge of the shield. If, however, the blazon runs, 'a cross of so many fusils,' especially of fusils conjoined, all the fusils should be entire , but need not necessarily touch the edge of the shield. If, however, they are intended to touch the edge of the shield, then the term throughout should be added. Practically, however, these rules are in ancient drawing never adhered to, and in modern drawing but seldom. What has been said of fusils applies of course also to lozenges and mascles.
Examples below will be found to illustrate sufficiently the variety of blazon, and it will be noted also that in some cases a cross composed of lozenges, of fusils, is terminated by some other device, e.g. fleuretty, or by a bezant.
Or, a cross of lozenges, and in the dexter chief an eagle displayed gules--FODRINGHEY.
Gules, a cross lozengy argent--STAWELL, Devon.
Gules, a cross of nine lozenges conjoined argent--STOWELL, Somerset.
Argent, a cross of five lozenges conjoined gules--Sr. de KESSELL.
Per pale or and azure, a cross lozengy counterchanged--HASLEFOOTE.
Quarterly or and sable, a cross lozengy counterchanged--HUNT.
Or, a cross of nine mascles gules--QUATERMAN, Leicester.
Gules, a cross masculy argent--BUTLER.
Azure, a cross of four mascles conjoined or--MILLER, Warwickshire.
Argent, a cross of nine mascles throughout gules--John de BREWES.
Argent, a cross of four fusils sable--Sir Thomas BANESTER, K.G.
Gules, a cross lozengy fleuretty or, a crescent for difference--FOTHERBY, Bp. of Salisbury, 1618-20.
Gules, a cross flory of nine fusils or--FOTHERBY, co. Lincoln, 1730.
Gules, a cross of four mascles argent, at each point a bezant--WALOIS.
In many cases, too, we find five or more charges arranged in cross, and in one case a cross is supposed to be formed of one lozenge with the fleury projections(see under mascle ); and in another case a cross is formed of bones. While to a cross composed of two strings of beads the name of cross pater-noster has been given, although no example is cited.
Argent, fretty of six sable, five crosses crosslet fitchy in cross as the first--Sr. de BUGG.
Gules, a cross flory of one lozenge or--CASSYLL.
Sable, a cross of a thigh bones, in dexter chief a bezant--RALPH BAYNE, Bp. of Lichfield and Coventry, 1554-59.
Triple termination.
Another way of composing a cross is by crossing bars, or rather barrulets or fillets, as some heralds term them, for the horizontal line, with endorses or batons for the vertical line. When two of these occur the term cross biparted or double parted is used, and when three occur it is called a cross triple parted. By the following examples it will be seen how loosely the various terms are used.
Gules a cross of one barrulet ermines, and an endorse ermine, both humetty--SPONNE.
Azure, a cross double parted argent--DOUBLER.
Argent, a cross triple parted and fretted sable--SKIRLAW, or SCYRLOW, Yorkshire.
Argent, a cross of six batunes interlaced sable--SKIRLAWE, Bp. of Lichfield, 1366; afterwards of Bath and Wells, 1386-88.
Argent, a cross humetty triple parted azure--HURST, Salop.
Azure, a cross of three barrulets, and as many endorses fretted argent, dovetailed or--PICKFORD.
If a Cross triparted should be also flory heralds say that the fillets, &c., should terminate in the manner shewn in the margin, but no example is given in the works which lay down this rule.
A cross cabled is given in English lists(in French lists cablée) and described as formed of a cable or twisted rope; but no arms bearing these devices, either English or French, have been noticed. And the fr. cr. vivrée probably consists of a fillet crossed by an endorse, both of them nebuly or dancetty.
§9 . The expression pierced is applied to crosses, and is variously used. The term pierced (more frequently applied to mullets than similar charges) implies that there is a circular opening, and the field shewn through, and such opening would be in the centre of the cross. But the opening may be of a lozenge form or of a square form. When the whole of the centre is of the tincture of the field it is, as has already been described, to be blazoned quarterly pierced ; but, farther, some heralds contend that if the aperture does not occupy the whole of the central portion where the arms meet, it is to be blazoned quarter-pierced .
Azure, a cross humetty pierced sable, a chief gules--KNOWLYS.
Azure, a cross moline, lozenge-pierced argent--GAILIE.
Azure, a cross moline square-pierced argent--MOLLYNS.
Argent, a cross moline quarter-pierced azure--SIBBALD, Scotland.
Argent, a cross moline quarter-pierced gules--CROKEYN, Ireland; DOWDALL, MILBORNE, SIBBALD, Balgony, Scotland.
Argent, a cross moline quarter-pierced sable--COLVIL, Ochiltry, Scotland; Robert COPLEY, called GROSSETESTE, Bp. of Lincoln, 1235-53; COPLEY, Batley, co. York; Sir Thos. MELBOURNE.
Gules, a cross moline rebated and lozenge-pierced or--FENEY.
Argent, a cross moline quatrefoil-pierced sable--MILBOURNE.
§10 . In some few cases, but rarely in English heraldry, from the angles formed by the meeting of the arms there project certain charges, e.g. rays , acorns , fleur-de-lis , &c.; with rays the term rayonnante would be used. The French term is anglé of such a charge, but there is no English equivalent. Edmondson uses the expression "adorned at angles," but gives no example.
We now come to crosses which have special names, derived either from their general outline or from their termination.
WESTLEY.
§11 . Cross annuletty : a cross which is couped and has rings at the four extremities is thus called, and not, as it might be supposed, a cross formed of annulets(q.v.), either conjunct or braced one with another. It is found blazoned also as 'humetty, ringed at the ends.'
Argent, a cross annuletty sable--WESTLEY, Harl. MS. 1405.
Argent, a cross flory voided and ringed gules--Monsire John MOLTON, Harl. MS. 1386.
§12 . Cross avellane : so called from its resemblance to four filberts(nuces avellanœ); there seems to be no French representative(but see otelles ); very few English instances have been observed.
Vert, a cross avellane argent--SYDENHAM, Somerset, granted 1757.
Argent, two bars gules, on a canton of the second a cross avellane or--KIRKBY, Cumberland.
Cross barby.
§13 . Cross barby (fr. barbée): much the some probably as the French croix tournée, or the croix cramponnée(the crampon being the hook shape described under that term); it does not seem to be a very definite term, but may be represented as in the margin.
Argent, a cross barby gules, in chief three griffin's heads sable--TILLIE, Cornwall.
BRERLEGH.
§14 . Cross bottonnée is derived from the French bouton, a bud or knob, though the name does not appear to be used by French heralds, who used the term tréfflée. It is a cross ending in three lobes like the trefoil leaf , and is of rather frequent occurrence.
Argent, a cross bottonnée gules--BRERLEGH; Harl. MS. 1407.
Argent, a cross bottonnée sable--WINWOOD, Bucks.
Argent, a cross bottonny azure--EGMON.
Gules, a cross botonny argent, on a chief azure a lion passant or--CHAWNCY, Harl. MS. 1465.
Argent, a cross botonny voided gules--PILKINGTON, Durham.
Argent, crusily and a cross botonny gules--RALEIGH, Warwickshire.
Monsire John de MELTON port d'argent a une crois patey et botone--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Monsire William de COLVILL port d'or a une fes de gules; trois crossiletts botones d'argent en la fes--Ibid.
Gules, a cross botonny and raguly argent--John le FROME, Harleian MS. 1465.
ANWICKE.
§15 . Cross Calvary , (fr. cr. de Calvaire): is a long cross or Latin cross(that is with the lower limb longer than the other three, and raised upon three steps). It has been poetically said that the three steps are symbolical of the three Christian graces, Faith, Hope, and Charity, and it is suggested by theoretical writers that the bearer took the arms in consequence of having erected such a cross at Rome. It is also sometimes called a Holy cross.
Ermine, on a canton vert a cross calvary on three grieces or--QUAILE.
Quarterly or and azure, over all a cross calvary on three grieces or steps sable fimbriated of the first--LENTON Priory, Notts.
Argent, a cross calvary gules; on a chief azure five bezants--Stephen WESTON, Bp. of Exeter, 1724-42.
Argent, a long cross gules on a grice of three steps, the upper one azure, the second as the cross, and the undermost sable--ALMEARS or ALMEERS.
Ermine, on a pale between two roses gules a cross calvary argent--MOYSE.
Azure, a passion cross standing on a Catherine wheel argent--Augustinian Nunnery at FLIXTON, Suffolk.
Argent, a holy cross sable--ANWICKE.
Borough of HEYTESBURY.
The Passion Cross , or Long Cross (fr. haute croix), resembles the true Latin cross in form, but seldom occurs except when it is raised on three steps, and it is then called a Cross Calvary . See also Crucifix .
Barry of five argent and gules, over all a long cross(sometimes called a crosier) in bend sinister or--Gilbertine Priory at SEMPRINGHAM, Lincoln.
A long cross mounted on three degrees ensigned on the top with a fleur-de-lis; on each side the cross as escutcheon; therein a chief and two chevrons--On seal of the Borough of HEYTESBURY, Wilts.
WYNTWORTH.
But the steps or degrees, or grieces(spelt also grices ), as they are variously termed, are sometimes referred to apart from the Cross of Calvary, and the term graded or degraded is employed. Consequently a cross degraded(fr. à degrés, and sometimes enserrée de degrés and peronnée) and conjoined signifies a plain cross, having its extremities placed upon steps joined to the sides of the shield. The number of the steps should be mentioned, as it is often four, and sometimes as many as eight.
Argent, a cross graded of three sable--WYNTWORTH.
Argent, a cross degraded and conjoined(or issuing from eight degrees), sable--WOODHOUSE.
BANASTER.
§16 . Cross clechée : this signifies a cross with the ends as shewn in the margin. Some heralds contend that the true cross clechée should have the ends voided, but there seems to be no good authority for this, at least not in English arms, and in French arms it will be seen that it is often blazoned vidée. It appears also, when voided and pommettée, to bear the title with French heralds of Cross of Toulouse, from it appearing in the insignia of that city, though as will be seen, as old blazon describes these arms as a cross paté voided.
Argent, a cross clechée sable--Sir Thomas BANASTER, K.G., ob. 2��deg; Ric. II. [as depicted upon his stall-plate at Windsor, elsewhere blazoned, Argent, a cross patty pointed sable].
Or, on a mount between two lesser ones vert a lamb sable, holding with the dexter foot a banner ermine charged with a cross clechée gules--GROSE, Surrey(1756).
Or, on a chevron between three crosses clechy sable a fleur-de-lis between two stag's heads cabossed of the first--CARVER.
D'azur, a la croix vidée, clechée et pommettée, d'or--Comtat VENAISSIN.
De gueules, à la croix de Toulouse d'or--ORADOUR, Auvergne.
De gueules, à la croix vidée, clechée, pommettée et alaisée d'or, dite Croix de Toulouse--P. LANGUEDOC.
Le Conte de TOLOSA, de goules a un croyz d'or pate et perse a une bordure d'or--Roll, temp. HEN. III; Harleian MS. 6589, circa 1256-66.
§17 . Crosslet , (fr. croissette or petit croix): two or more crosses are sometimes borne in the same coat, and are then termed crosslets . If only two or three are borne they may be termed crosses or crosslets. If more, they must be termed crosslets . They are drawn couped, but it is not necessary to mention that circumstance, because they could not be otherwise.
William de SARREN, d'azur a trois crois d'or--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Or, three crosses gules--DE LA MAYNE.
Cross crosslet crossed.
Distinct, however, from the crosslet is the cross crosslet, or, as it is sometimes, though rarely, termed a cross crossed (fr. croix croisée). By rights, however, a cross crossed is equivalent to a cross crosslet fixed, that is, the arms extend to the extremities of the escutcheon.
The Cross crosslet is often borne fitched ; it may also have each extremity formed like those of the cross pattée, and it is then called a Cross crosslet pattée .
But further, a Cross crosslet may be itself crossed(fr. recroissetée), though there have been differences of opinion as to its character. The true signification of this term seems to be a cross composed of four cross crosslets, but Gerard Leigh represents it as shewn in the margin.
Or, a cross crosslet fitchy azure--Gilbert IRONSIDE(Bp. of Bristol, 1689).
Argent, a cross crosslet pattée sable--WYKERSLEY.
Gules, a cross crosslet argent--CHRISTIAN, Ireland.
Or, a cross crosslet azure--CARROLL, Ireland.
Argent, a cross crosslet azure--BRITTON.
Gules, a cross crosslet crossed next the centre on the upper and lower limbs or--CHADERTON, Harl. MS. 1465.
Argent, a cross crosslet crossed(or, as Leigh expresses it, double-crossed) pattée[at all the extremities] sable--BARROW.
Cross entrailed.
§18 . Cross entrailed : is figured in the margin, and is borne by one family only, namely, that of CARVER. It appears to be only drawn in outline.
Or, on a chevron sable a fleur-de-lis accompanied by two stag's heads cabossed, between three crosses entrailed of the second--CARVER.
§19 . A Cross fitchy (fr. fichée) is a plain cross having the lower member pointed, but the term fitchy is very frequently applied to various kinds of crosses , and more especially to the crosslets, and sometimes to the cross crosslets .
Monsire John d'ARDERNE, port gules vi crois d'or fitche, le cheif d'or--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Monsire John D'ESTRIVELYN, sable a trois coupes d'argent croisele argent as peds agus--Ibid.
Argent, a cross crosslet fitched sable--SCOTT.
Sable, a bend between six crosslets fitchy--LAKE, Bp. of Bath and Wells, 1616-26.
Gules, a cross patty fitched at foot or--Sir Gilbert HEYTON, Harl. MS. 6589.
Argent, a cross fitchy at base gules--POTESFORD Church, Devon.
There is a cross of the peculiar shape is the margin which(for want of a better name) has been called a cross double fitched. It is not known to what family the representation found belongs.
Argent, a cross double fitched argent ..... [a coat existing at Quorndon, Leicestershire].
Cross fleuretty.
§20 . Of crosses with a floriated termination there are many varieties found in the actual emblazoning, but the nomenclature both of French and English heralds appears to be in a very unsatisfactory condition. The term most frequently employed is a cross fleury, and this is written also flory , floretty, and fleuronny, while the modern French heralds give us fleurée, fleuronnée, florencé (or fleuroncée), and fleur-de-lisée. It is not easy, however, to distinguish these from each other, or correlate them with the English terms, or with those used in ancient heraldry.
The commonly-accepted distinction by English heralds is that fleury signifies the cross itself terminating in the form of the upper portion of a fleur-de-lis, but that fleuretty(which is seldom used) signifies the cross to be couped, and the flower, as it were, protruding from the portion so couped; but it is a great question whether there is the slightest authority for such to be obtained from actual examples, or any such agreement to be found amongst the heralds of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As to the French terms, fleurée seems not to be applied so much to the cross as to other ordinaries, and signifies rather the edges ornamented with flowers or trefoils, while fleuri is applied only to plants in flower. The French fleur-de-lisée, on the other hand, seems to be the equivalent of the English fleuretty, and is represented with the flower protruding from the couped ends of the cross. The florencée and fleuronnée seem to be practically the same term, and both to be the equivalent of the English fleury. On the other hand, fleur-de-lisée seems in English blazon to be applied to the edges of the cross rather than to the ends, and consequently to be synonymous with the French fleurée.
We find also confusion in drawings between the cross fleury and the cross patonce, which latter, it will be seen, may be said to lie between a cross fleury and a cross patée, according to some authorities, though drawn differently by others.
It will be observed that in the old blazon, the ends(chefs or bouts) are sometimes described as fleuretty. "Richard SUWARD, who accompanied those[at Caerlaverock], had a black banner painted with a white cross with the ends fleuretty."
John LAMPLOWE, argent ung crois sable florettee--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Sire Johan de LAMPLOU, de or a un crois de sable les chefs flurettes--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Roger de SUYLVERTONE, de argent a une crois de sable, les chefs flurettes--Ibid.
Monsire William TRUSSELL, port d'argent une crois de gules les bouts floretes--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Monsire de PAVELEY, d'asure a une crois d'or en les bouts floretes--Ibid.
Monsire le Suard D'ESCOZE port sable a une crois d'argent les bouts floretes--Ibid.
Richart SUWART, Re o cus converse O crois blance o bouz flouretée. Noire baniere ot aprestée Roll of Caerlaverock, A.D. 1300.
Argent, a cross flory azure--BEVERCOURT and LEXINGTON.
Argent, a cross flory voided azure--MELTON, Lancaster.
Argent, on a cross flory sable four bezants--WHITGIFT, Bp. of Worcester, 1577, afterwards Abp. of Canterbury, 1583-1604. [Arms granted, 1577.]
Argent, a cross fleuretty sable--HOLMSHAW, Scotland.
Gules, a cross fleuronny argent--BROMFLET.
D'azure, à la crois d'argent, les extrémités fleur de lisées d'or--DUNOIS, Champagne.
Per pale azure and gules, over all a cross fleur-de-lis on the sides or--Gilbert IRONSIDE, Bp. of Bristol, 1661-71.
KAER.
§21 . Cross gringolée , is used only French heraldry, but it is typical of a cross of crosses which consist of a cross humetty, but with heads of animals or some such device issuing from the ends. (See under Cross , §7.) In the case of gringolée the heads of snakes are implied. Guivrée possibly has the same signification, i.e. with vipers' heads .
De gules, a la croix d'hermine gringolée d'or--KAER, Bretagne.
D'argent, a la croix de gueules gringolée d'or--MONTFORT, Bretagne.
§22 . A Cross hameçon is given in heraldic books, but appears to be borne only by one family in England, and that probably of foreign origin. The name implies that the ends should be represented like fish-hooks .
Azure, a cross hameçon argent--MAGENS, Sussex.
§23 . Cross Maltese , or of eight points. A cross of this form is the badge of the knights of Malta, and of some other religious orders. The points are imagined to symbolize the eight beatitudes.
A Maltese cross enamelled white and edged with gold--Badge of the Knights of MALTA.
Argent, a cross Maltese gules--Order of S. STEFANO, Pisa, 1561.
A cross of sixteen points is also found note in some heraldic works, but probably only used in modern French heraldry. The drawing appears as an ordinary cross humetty , with the extremities indented, each having four points.
§24 . We next come to a cross having a great variety of nomenclature as well as of form. The ordinary and correct term is the Cross moline , and like the fer-de-moline or mill-rind, from which it derives its name, the ends are bifurcated. But they are usually made to turn over like the two side lobes of the cross fleury, the central lobe being absent.
Neither the fer-de-moline nor the cross moline occurs in the rolls of Henry III. In those of Edward II. the fer-de-moline occurs as a charge , and also the cross recercelée (q.v.), which may perhaps represent the Cross moline; but by some heralds the term Cross recercelée , q.v., is supposed to be confined to a cr. moline voided .
Moreover, with the author of the poem which describes the siege of Caerlaverock, the term Fer-de-moline appears to mean the Cross moline , as there is no doubt the arms of Antony BECK, the warrior-bishop of Durham, 'who sent has banner of red, with a fer-de-moline of ermine ,' were somewhat as represented in the margin, since a Bishop would be sure to bear a cross.
Le noble evesque de Dureaume, Le plus vaillant clerk du roiaume ... Vermeille, o un fer de molyn De ermine, e envoia se ensegne. Roll of Caerlaverock, c. 1300.
The Cross recercelée too is found more frequently in the later rolls, e.g. in Edward III.'s reign, and then it will be seen that the cross moline occurs but in one instance.
Cross anchory.
The drawings very in the extent to which the bifurcated end is curved, and either of those shewn in the margin may be followed. It they are much more curved, the term 'anchory' may perhaps be given to the cross , a translation of the French term ancrée, which seems to represent the cross moline; but it is not a very happy description, as the ends are not drawn like the flukes of an anchor .
Monsire Symon de CHAMBERLAYNE, quarterly, d'or et gules a une crois molin argent en la quarter devant--Roll, temp. EDW. III.
Azure, a cross moline or--MOLYNEUX, of Hawkley, Lanc. [many other families of the same name bear crosses moline variously pierced and tinctured.]
Argent, a cross moline azure--MILLER, Scotland.
Azure, a cross moline or--Adam MOLEYNS, Bp. of Chichester, 1445-50.
Per fesse embattled gules and azure, in chief two pickaxes and in base a cross moline or--PICKWICK.
Argent, a cross moline pierced gules--MILBORNE.
Gules, a cross moline voided argent--BECKE.
Gules, a cross moline sarcelled argent--BEC.
Azure, a cross anchory or--BEAURAIN.
Sable, a cross anchory or--TATYNGTON, Suffolk, Harl. MS. 1449.
The cross called by French writers anillée, and varied in spelling by French and English writers into neslée, nyslée, nillée, &c., seems to be but another name for the cross moline , the French anille being exactly the same as the mill-rind. But because some French heralds have drawn the curved extremities more slender than is usual in English drawing, the cross anillée has been described as a very thin cross anchory.
D'azur, à trois anilles ou fers de moulin d'or--GERESME, Brie.
Cross miller rebated.
A severer form, and perhaps one more skin to the original notion of the fer-de-moline, is one with rectangular ends, which heralds have named cross mill-rind, abbreviated into cross miller). But so far as has been observed the title occurs only in heraldic works, and is not applied especially to any actual arms.
Under this head it may be well to include the Cross fourchée. It is found in ancient blazon, particularly in the roll of arms of the time of Henry III., and in one the term fourché au kanee occurs, which has been itself a crux to heraldic writers. The exact form of the cross fourché is not known, but it is supposed to be like that in the margin, for which later heralds have invented the term cross miller rebated. In French heraldic works a distinction seems to be made between fourchée and fourchetée, but it is not clear what that distinction is.
Gilbert de la VALE, de la MARCH, d'argent ung croix fourche de goules--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
John de LEXINGTON d'argent ung crois d'azure fourche au kanee.--Ibid.
Per pale or and vert, over all a cross fourchy gules--HINGHAM.
Argent, a cross moline rebated engrailed, sable--COTES, Harl. MS. 6829.
In connection with the cross fourché may be noted the erroneous blazon of the shake fork(q.v.) as a cross pall ; it is not, however, a cross at all; it is the forked character of the pall which has led to a combination of the two ideas.
A Cross moline is said to be sometimes used as a mark of cadency.
§25 . Cross nowy . When the term is used by itself it is supposed to signify that the arms of the cross, instead of meeting and forming right-angles, stop at the edge of a circle, which, so to speak, cuts off the angles; at least, it is represented thus in the drawing given in Edmondson. Thence varieties are imagined, viz. nowy lozengy , nowy masculy , &c., with each of the angles filled by a projection of half a lozenge, mascle, &c., but no examples are named. Nowy quadrate, however, is applied when the projections appear to form a square, and an example will be found figured in the Arms of LICHFIELD under cross §31.
There is a term also said to be used, namely, nowyed, which means that the projection need not be in the centre but in each of the arms of the cross. Both nowy and nowyed, however, are quite distinct from nowed(fr. noué), applied to serpents , &c.
Cross pattée.
§26 . The term Cross pattée (fr.), more often writen patty, primarily means that the arms of the cross become expanded, of opened out, as they approach the edge of the shield. Named by itself, it means that the extremities are bounded by a straight line, that is, they are couped before reaching the edge of the shield. If otherwise, that is if the arms are extended to the edge of the field, the word throughout must be added(or, as some prefer, fixed, ferme, or entire); or if they have any other termination, e.g. flory , pometty , &c., such termination must be named; but in this case they belong rather to the class of Cross patonce(q.v.). In one case the ends are indented by a hollow(see below, under DYMOCK), and Berry gives a figure of a cross patty notched, but gives no name of bearer.
As to the expanding sides of the cross there seems to be no rule, but they are generally drawn slightly curved outwards, and not straight, as in the Maltese cross. Amidst the various forms which appear in the works of different authors it is difficult to define the line of demarcation between it and its kindred, cross patonce, which is described in the next article.
The extremities in French arms are sometimes so much curved that the outline of the four arms represent so many segments of a circle. With the French, however, the rule is for the Cross pattée to reach to the edge, and when it does not the term alaisée is introduced. It is not at all unusual in English arms for the lower extremity of the cross patty to be terminated in a point, and then it is blazoned cross patty fitchy . Cross crosslets may also be patty , and the device is then a very striking one. A Cross patty is also said to be used as a mark of cadency.
Le Conte d'AUMARLE, le goules, ung croix pate de verre--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Sire William de LATIMER, de goules a un croys pattee de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Monsire Le LATIMER, port de gules a une crois patey or--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Sire Johan de BERKELEYE, de goules a iij crois patees de or, e un chevron de argent--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Moris de BERKELEYE, de goules a les crusules pates de argent, e un chevron de argent--Ibid.
Sire Johan de RESOUN, de goules a un lion de or, en la un quarter un crois patée de veer--Ibid.
Monsire de ROIOSBY, de gules a trois crois pateis de sable, eu une bend d'argent--Roll, temp. EDW. III.
Sable, a cross pattée, or--ALLEN.
Ermine, a cross patty invected gules--GRANDALE, Harl. MS. 1407.
Verte, a cross patee fitchy or--HARRIS, Bp. of Llandaff, 1729-38.
Sable, a cross patty throughout fitchy or--COLLIAR.
Argent, a cross patty throughout engrailed sable--PESHALL.
Argent, a cross patée fixed sable--WOODHOUSE.
Gules, a cross patty crenelly at the ends argent--BATNYMERSH.
Argent, a cross pattée gules, in each end a small semicircle(otherwise a cross patée with one engrail)--DYMOCK.
Sable, on a chevron between three estoiles or, three crosses pattee fitchy gules--William LAUD, Bp. of S.David's, 1621; Bp. of Bath and Wells, 1626; Bp. of London, 1628; Abp. of Cant., 1633-45.
Argent, a cross patty elongated at the foot and pierced gules--MOLTON.
As to the synonym formée or formy, which appears to be used with modern heralds as frequently as patty , it is difficult to explain its origin or meaning. One example is found in a roll as early Henry III., but no other till a roll of Edw. III., where certain small crosses are described as formé de lis, that is, made up of the four flowers united in the centre. This may therefore be the origin of the term, since it will be observed that the same arms are blazoned in the previous reign(see above) as bearing 'iij crois patées.' It will be noted also that, as read by NICOLAS, the word lis appears as lij, but there can scarcely be much room to doubt the true reading.
FLETCHER.
§27 . Cross patonce is certainly an ancient term, as it occurs in the Roll of Arms, temp. Hen. III. Its definite origin or exact meaning cannot be determined; but the primary idea seems to be that the arms should expand, as a cross pattée , and that they should be terminated more or less like a cross flory .
The cross figured in the margin is taken from the glass in Dorchester Church, which is not later than the early part of the fourteenth century, and may therefore be said to be contemporary with the man whose arms they represent, viz. William LATIMER, Lord of Corby, who sat in Parliament 1289-1305. But if we look at the blazon of the Latimer arms in the earlier rolls we find the cross described as a cross patée , though in later times as cross patonce .
William de VECEY, goules, a une croix patonce d'argent--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Sire William de LATIMER, de goules, a un croys patee de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
.... De Guilleme le LATIMIER. Portoit en rouge bien pourtraite. Ki la crois patée de or mier Roll of Siege of Caerlaverock, A.D. 1300.
Gules, a cross patonce or--LATIMER, Northamp.
Sable, a cross patonce argent, pierced plain of the field, between four escallops of the second--Richard FLETCHER, Bp. of Bristol, 1589; afterwards of Worcester, 1593; and then of London, 1595-96.
Azure, an eagle displayed ermine, on his breast a cross patonce of the field--HOWLEY, Bp. of London, 1813; Abp. of Cant. 1828-48.
Argent, a cross patonce voided and pomelled at the four ends gules--Monsire John MELTON Harl. MS. 1386, fo. 34.
Azure, two bars, and in chief a cross patonce or--HOLTE, Warwick.
Vert, a cross patonce or between four crosses pattee argent--Town of ABINGDON, Berks, granted 1623.
Argent, a cross patty flory sable; over all a bendlet gules--SWINNERTON, co. Salop.
Argent, two bars sable, over all a cross formy flory gules--BRERETON, co. Chester.
Or, a cross patty, and at each end flory gules--EVETT, co. Worcester.
Ralph de TURBINE.
§28 . Cross patriarchal (fr. cr. of patriarcale) is a cross which has two horizontal bars instead of one. It is said that the ancient Patriarchs of Jerusalem bore this kind of cross , and that afterwards it was borne by the Patriarch of Constantinople, while the cross adopted by the Pope of Rome had three horizontal bars; but the historical evidence as to this adoption is very obscure. The name does not appear, so far as has been observed, in any of the rolls of arms in the thirteenth, fourteenth, or fifteenth centuries.
Sometimes the arms in the first-cited example are represented with the extremity of the lower limb and the extremities of the chief horizontal limbs touching the edge of the shield, but the usual representation is as in the illustration, with all the limbs couped. It is often blazoned as a cross Lorraine , and in some cases it is termed as Archiepiscopal cross, though it may generally in that case be taken to mean instead of the Ordinary a charge drawn like a crosier (q.v.), and surmounted by a cross instead of crook .
Sable, a cross patriarchal argent--Arms ascribed to Ralph de TURBINE, Bp. of Rochester, 1108; Archbp. of Cant., 1114-22.
Argent, a cross patriarchal on a grice of three steps gules--Cluniac Priory, BROMHOLM, Norfolk.
Or, on a cross sable, a cross patriarchal of the field--VESEY, Visc. de Vesci.
A cross patriarchal gules fimbriated or--Badge of the KNIGHTS TEMPLARS.
Argent, on a bend gules, over all a cross patriarchal sable--RORKE, Ireland.
Gules, a buck trippant argent, in chief two bees volant or, on a chief nebuly of the third a Lorraine cross as the field between two eagles displayed sable--GOODHART, Kent.
An example is given by Palliot of a cross Patriarchal, viz. that of the bishopric of HERCHFELD, with the lower end terminating something like a cross patonce , to which he applies the term enhendée.
WASTERLY.
§29 . Cross pomel, or pommelly (fr. bourdonnée). A plain cross terminating in four round pomels, e.g. like the knob at the end of swordhilts, or in bourdons, that is, the knobs at the top of the pilgrims' staves. But there is much confusion arising from carelessness is writing the name in different ways. We find pomy, and very frequently pometty(fr. pommettée), and some heralds contend that the latter means something different, i.e. that there are two knobs terminating the arms of the cross; others say that it means a cross with a circular protuberance in the middle of each arm(like the escarbuncle). Again, in some French blazoning, the term pomettée signifies having knobs at several angles, as in the case of the Cross of Toulouse, given under cleche .
Argent, a cross pomel sable--WASSELEY, or WASTERLEY.
Argent, a bend between two cotises gules and six crosses pomelly fitchy sable--BOUDENELL.
Or, on a pale gules a cross pomy fitchy argent, on a chief azure three bezants--WRIGHT, London.
Argent, a fesse dancetty between three crosses pomel fitchy gules--SANDES, Bucks.
Gules, a fesse checquy or and sable between six crosses pomel argent--KYNYSMAN.
Gules, a cross pometty voided or--BRAUNSTON.
D'azure, à la crois d'argent, le pied bourdonné ou pommetté et fiché du même; aux cantons quatre étoiles d'or--BAZAS, Guyenne.
The French term Moussue, moussé, or émoussé, appears to mean a cross with the ends simply rounded at the extremities, from an obsolete word equivalent to blunted, and is given in some heraldic works, but without examples.
§30 . Cross portate or portante : an ambiguous term which Edmondson says is given by Randle Holmes to a long cross raguly. Other heraldic writers give it to a peculiar form, which is neither chevron, bend, nor cross, but an odd admixture of the three, and is so drawn by Berry, who says that double portant means a cross patriarcale . The idea seems to be a cross 'in bend,' as if being carried. Confusion has also, no doubt, arisen from had drawing, hasty writing, and careless reading. One coat of arms only has a cross so blazoned.
Barry of six gules and argent, over all a cross portate in bend sinister azure(?)--St.GILBERT.
Cross of Jerusalem.
§31 . Cross potent , written sometimes potence(fr. potencée): so called because its arms terminate in potents(q.v.), or like crutches . It is also called a Jerusalem cross, from its occurrence in the insignia of the kingdom of JERUSALEM, established by the Crusaders, the crosses being supposed by some writers to symbolize the five wounds of Christ.
Sable, a cross potent or--ALLEN, Finchley, Middlesex.
Sable, a cross potence argent--APRICE, Wales.
Argent, a cross potent between four plain crosslets or--Arms of JERUSALEM.
Cross of S.Chad.
It is observable that in this coat metal is placed, contrary to the general rule, upon metal, a peculiarity which in this case is said to bear allusion to Ps. lxviii. 15.
A singular variety of the cross potent is called sometimes the Cross of S.Chad, because it occurs in the insignia of the episcopal see of LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY, of which S.Chad was the first Bishop.
Per pale gules and argent, a cross potent quadrat in the centre(or nowy quadrat) per pale of the last and or, between four crosses pattée, those on the dexter side silver, those on the sinister side gold. (See of LICHFIELD and COVENTRY.)
The above arms are, however, sometimes blazoned as--
Per pale gules and argent, a cross potent quadrat between four crosses formy all counterchanged.
Some other curious varieties of the cross potent occur. When engrailed the term applies only to the inner edges, the outer edges remaining plain. When crossed , it is meant that each arm is crossed by another piece half-way between the potent and the centre, and seems to the equivalent of what is called by some writers a cross gemelle, though, as is so frequent, no examples are adduced of the use of the term. In one case the term batune is said by Papworth to be applied to a cross potent ; but we have little doubt the word is botoné, i.e. §14, where from another Harleian MS. gives BRERLEGH as bearing such a cross.
Azure, a cross fitchée or--Coat ascribed, in the sixteenth century, to King ETHELDRED.
Azure, a cross potent engrailed or--BRENCHESLEY.
Argent, a cross potent crossed sable--CROWCHER.
Gules, a cross potent crossed or--CHEDERTON.
Quarterly, first and fourth, gules, a crosslet potence or; second and third argent, a chevron between three crampirons gules--CHADDERTON, Bp. of Chester, 1579; Bp. of Lincoln, 1595-1608.
Argent, a cross batune(i.e. potent) gules--PRERLEY, Harl. MS. 1407.
The most remarkable, however, is what Palliot and others call a Cross potence repotencée, drawn with the potents starting off at different angles, and said to be borne by the family of SQUARCIAFICHI. The potent rebated of Edmondson appears to be the Fylfot(q.v.).
KNOWLES.
§32 . Cross recercelée : of all the crosses perhaps this has been the most disputed by heraldic writers. We find the term sarcelly more frequently used, but there are so many varieties of spelling adopted by different authors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, that it is a question whether there is one word or two; attempts, however, appear to have been made to distinguish different meanings attached to different modes of spelling. They are as follows, so far as printed works go(manuscript readings would add to the number):--cercelée, recercellé, recersile, resarcelée, resarcelled, sarcelée, sarcelly. One writer speaks of cerclée being spelt cercelée and recercelée, and so confused with the sarcelly.
The term as applied to the Cross occurs twice in one of the two rolls which are apparently of HENRY III.rd's reign. Also in a roll temp. EDWARD II. two examples occur with the term voided added and one without, though in the latter voided is, no doubt, implied; hence, as the general outline was similar to the cross moline, it may be considered as a cross moline voided , or disjoined, and drawn as in arms of KNOWLES opposite. See §6.
The appearance is just as if in order to strengthen his shield the smith had taken four pieces of iron and bent them round, as was done in the case of hinges and other ornamental iron-work found remaining on church doors, &c., of the 13th and 14th centuries, primarily to add strength to the woodwork, but at the same time ornamentation.
Modern heralds seem to use the term alike for the cross moline and for the cross moline voided , and employ usually in blazon the spelling sarcelly. But beyond this, in various books on heraldry, both English and foreign, an attempt is made to distinguish between recercelé, i.e. cerclé or circled, and sarcelly, defined by Berry as 'a cross voided, or as it were, sawed apart.' See more under Recercelé .
Hugh de BAUCOY, d'or a une croyz de goules recersele; a une labeu de sable--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Edwarde de PAVELEY, dazure a un croys dor recersele--Ibid.
Sire William de BASINGES, de azure, a une crois recercele e voide de or, e un baston de goules--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire ... de BASINGE, de azure, a un crois recercele et voide d'or--Ibid.
Sire Peres de TADINGTONE, de sable a un crois de or recersele--Ibid.
Monsire de WONNEDALE, port d'argent une crois recersele de gules--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Monsire de BEKE, port le revers--Ibid.
Monsire de BRENNE, port d'asure a un crois d'or recersele; une baston de gules--Ibid.
Monsire Oliver de INGHAM, port parte d'or et vert, a une crois recercele gules--Ibid.
Quarterly, gules and sable, a cross sarcelle quarterly or and ermines, on a chief of the third a rose en soleil between two pelicans of the first--Edmund BONNER, Bp. of Hereford, 1539, afterwards of London, 1539-49, and 1553-59.
Ermine, a cross sarcelly sable--GODARD, Chester.
Azure, crusilly a cross sarcelly disjoined or--KNOWLES, Earl of Banbury, ob. 1632.
Argent, crusily gules a cross sarcelly sable--RALEIGH.
Argent, a cross sarcelly engrailed sable--COTTER.
Per fesse argent and gules, a cross sarcelly counterchanged--COLUMBERS.
Quarterly, argent and azure, a cross sarcelly counterchanged--JAMES, Surrey.
Azure, a cross sarcelly pierced argent--MELTON, Aston, York.
Gules, a cross sarcelly ermine--BECK, Yorkshire.
Argent, a cross sarcelly disjoined or--BASINGES.
Argent, a cross patty fitchy disjoined or--BROKENCROSS.
§33 . Cross recoursy (fr. raccourcie): a very doubtful term, Modern French heraldic works distinctly consider it to be the same as couped , but Berry, who appears to have based his definition on Edmondson and other English heraldic works, implies that it means voided .
Argent, a cross crosslet recoursy argent--BASING.
Friary of S.ANTHONY.
§34 . Cross tau , or of S.Anthony, who is represented with such a cross embroidered upon the left side of his garment. It is called cross commisse by some heraldic writers, with a somewhat fanciful allusion to Ezekiel, chap. ix. ver. 4, or as representing the token of absolution with which malefactors are said to have been stamped on the hand. It should be drawn like a Greek Tau.
Or, a cross tau azure--Friary of S.ANTHONY, London.
Gules, a cross tau surmounted by a crescent or--WANLEY.
Per chevron or and vert, in base on a hind trippant, argent, a cross tau, and in chief a cross tau between two crosses patonce fitchy gules--CROSSLEY, Ireland, 1725.
Argent, on a bend sable three taus of the first--BERD.
Ermine, on a chief indented gules, three cross taus or--THURLAND.
Argent, a cross tau gules, in chief, three crowns of thorns proper--TAUKE.
Cross urdée.
§35 . Cross urdée (written sometimes verdy, fr. aiguisée), or cross champaine, should be represented as annexed. Sometimes it is drawn with the edges curved inwards, towards the centre, but it is then a cross cleché. It is also found blazoned simply as a cross pointed , and humetty pointed has also been used by some writers for the same.
Or, a bend vair between two crosses verdy voided sable--MANGLES, Surrey.
Argent, a cross pointed and voided sable--DUKENFIELD, Bart.
INDEX TO THE ARTICLE CROSS. Cr.abased, fr. abaissée § 1|Cr.clechée §16 aiguisée §35| commisse §34 alaisée or alesée § 7| compony, fr. componée § 3 ancettée § 7| conjoined §15 anchory, fr. ancrée §24| coticed § 6 of S.Andrew See Saltire| counter compony § 3 anglée §10| counter-quartered § 5 annuletty §11| coupy, fr. coupée § 7 anillée or nillée §24| cramponnée §13 anserated § 7| crossed, fr. croisée §17 of S.Anthony §34| crosslet §17 archiepiscopal §28| degraded, fr. à degrés §15 avellane §12| demi § 7 barrulets, of three § 8| disjoined §32 barby or barbée §13| ecartelée § 5 batune §31| echiquetée § 3 batons, of six § 8| ecotée § 2 biparted § 8| edged § 6 bordée § 6| emanchée § 2 bottonnée §14| endorses of § 8 bourdonnée §29| embattled § 2 bordured § 6| engrailed, fr. engrêlée §§2, 31 bretessée § 2| enhendée §28 cabled, fr. cablée § 8| equipollée § 5 Calvary, fr. de Calvaire §15| enserrée de degrés §15 cannelée § 2| entrailed §18 cercelée §32| ermines, of four § 8 of S.Chad §31| erminée § 8 champaine §35| escallops, of four § 8 charged §§1, 4, 6| fausse § 6 chequy, fr. echiquetée § 3| fimbriated § 6 chequy of nine panes § 5| fitchy, fr. fichée §19 Cr.fixed § 7|Cr.patty, fr. pattée §26 fleury §§8, 20| passant § 7 fleur-de-lisée §20| Passion §15 fleuronnée §20| paternoster § 8 florencée §20| patonce §27 flory §§8, 20| patriarchal, fr. patriarcale §28 formy §26| of S.Patrick See Saltire fourchée §24| peronnée §15 fourchetée §24| pierced § 9 fretty, fr. frettée § 3| plain § 1 fusilly, fr. fuselée § 8| pheons, of four § 8 Greek § 1| pointed §35 of S.George § 1| points, of sixteen §23 gemelle §31| pomelly §29 grady or graded §15| pometty, fr. pomettée §§16, 29 grieced §15| pomy §29 gringolée §21| portate §30 guivrée §§8, 21| potent, fr. potencée §31 hameçon §22| quarterly, fr. écartelée § 5 haute, fr. §15| quarter-pierced §§5, 9 a Holy §15| quarterly-pierced § 9 humetty § 7| quarter-voided § 5 humetty pointed §35| raguly § 2 indented § 2| rayonnante §10 invected §31| recercelée §§6, 24, 32 of Jerusalem §31| recoursy §33 of S.Julian See Saltire| recroisettée §17 Latin §§1, 15| remplie § 6 long §15| re-potencée §31 Lorraine §28| sarcelly §32 lozengy, fr. losangée § 8| slipped § 2 masculy § 8| square pierced § 5 maconnée § 3| tau §34 of Malta §23| throughout § 7 miller §24| of Toulouse §16 milrind §24| tournée §13 moline §24| triparted § 8 moussue §29| treflée §14 neslée, fr. §24| treillissée § 3 notched §26| tronçonnée § 7 nowy §25| urdy, fr. urdée §35 nyslée §24| vairée § 3 ondée § 2| verdy §35 pall See Pall| voided, fr. vidée §§6, 16 parted, fr. partie § 8| vivrée § 8 party per fesse, pale, &c. § 5| wavy, fr. ondée § 2
Royal Crown of England.
Crown royal of England, sometimes also called an Imperial crown. The forms of the crowns worn by the successive kings of England very considerably, and will be found in architectural illustrations of the sculptured heads of kings from monuments and other stone carvings in churches[see examples in Rickman's Gothic Architecture, sixth and seventh Editions]; but in this place they must be considered only in their connection with armorial bearings. The earliest instance of the royal arms being ensigned with a crown is in the case of those of Henry VI. At this time the crown had attained its present form, with the exception of the number of arches. The arms of Edward IV. are surmounted by the rim of the crown only, adorned with crosses pattée and fleur-de-lis. The crown of Richard III. shews five semi-arches, that of Henry VII. shews but four, and his successor's only three, although seldom met with until about the time of James II., before which five semi-arches were generally shewn. Several instances of Royal crowns are found on coats of arms.
Gules, a royal crown or--M'ALPIN, Scotland.
Gules, a regal crown, within a double tressure-flory counter-flory or--ERSKINE, co. Fife.
Azure, a royal crown of gold; in chief a quarter gironny of eight or and sable; on the sinister side three dexter hands couped fesswise, each holding a bunch of arrows proper--MACKONOCHIE.
Argent, an arrow fesswise piercing a heart surmounted with a royal crown proper, on a chief azure three mullets of the first--DOUGLAS, Kent.
Azure, a stag trippant argent, unguled, attired, and bearing between his horns an imperial crown or--OWAIN GETHIN.
Ermine, on a chief gules three imperial crowns proper--Company of FURRIERS, Edinburgh.
The crown of Spain, as used by King Philip II., consort of Queen Mary of England, was a circle of gold jewelled, supporting eight strawberry-leaves. Four ogee arches, pearled, were sometimes added, meeting under a mound and cross pattée. No cap.
The crown of Scotland , as borne by James VI. before his succession to the throne of England, exactly resembled the imperial crown of Great Britain. It is represented in the Crest of Scotland(q.v.). This differs essentially from the actual crown of Scotland, discovered in Edinburgh Castle in 1817.
Crown of Hanover.
The crown of Hanover. The electorate of Hanover having been constituted a kingdom, the bonnet which had hitherto been placed over the insignia of that state was exchanged for a crown, in pursuance of a royal proclamation dated June 8, 1816.
Crown of the King of Arms.
The crown of a king of arms in of silver gilt, and consists of a circle inscribed with the words 'miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam' (i.e. Ps. li. 1), supporting sixteen oak-leaves, each alternate leaf being somewhat higher than the rest. Nine only of these leaves are shewn in drawing, two of them being in profile. The cap is of crimson satin, turned up with ermine , and surmounted by a tassel of gold . The crowns of kings of arms formerly resembled that of the sovereign, or sometimes ducal coronets.
The other crowns used in British heraldry follow in alphabetical order.
Antique crown.
Antique crown , Eastern crown, as it is sometimes called, is supposed to represent the crown anciently worn by Oriental princes, as appears by their coins. The unicorn supporting the royal arms is gorged with this kind of crown , but it probably is here in fact only the rim of the crown royal.
Argent, a bar wavy and a demi-otter issuant sable, armed, langued, and crowned with an antique crown, gules--MELDRUM.
Argent, a lion rampant gules, crowned with an antique crown or--ROCHE, Ireland, also SLOAN.
Ermine, on a chief engrailed sable three antique crowns or--EARLE, Bp. of Worcester, 1662; afterwards of Salisbury, 1663-65.
Argent, a lion rampant, tail nowed gules, gorged with an Eastern coronet or, in chief three falcons proper--BEWES, Cornwall.
Gules, a demi-Virgin couped below the shoulders, issuing from clouds all proper vested or, crowned with an eastern crown of the last, her hair dishevelled and wreathed round the temples with roses of the second, all within an orle of clouds proper--MERCERS' Company[inc. 1394, arms confirmed 1634].
Celestial crown: a crown resembling the Eastern, with the addition of a radiant star in the form of a mullet upon each point. This is frequently used as an ornament upon the achievements of deceased ladies.
Argent, three pastoral staves, two and one, each ensigned on the top with a crown celestial--WORTHINGTON.
Civic crown : a wreath of oak acorned, has been already noted under Chaplet .
The Prince's crown should more properly be blazoned Prince's coronet (q.v.); still the term is found.
Ermine, on a chief gules three prince's crowns composed of crosses pattee and fleur-de-lis or, with caps of the first tasselled of the third--SKINNERS' Company[inc. 1327, arms granted 1551].
Ducal crown: see post, under Coronet , but the term is sometimes used.
Imperial crown: is properly the crown peculiar to the German emperor, which forms part of the crest of STOKES of Cambridgeshire, though, as already said, in English arms the crown royal of these realms is often so called.
Or, an imperial crown gules--ROBINSON, Hertford.
Gules, an imperial crown supported by a sword in pale proper hilted and pommelled within a double tressure-flory counter-flory--SETON, Earl of Winton, 1306-29.
Mural crown : formed of battlements masoned. Fancifully said to have been given by the Romans to the soldier who first ascended the walls of a besieged fortress.
Or, a mural crown gules, between two barrulets azure and three wolf's heads erased sable--SEALE.
Erminois, on a pile embattled azure a mural crown between two caltraps in pale or--WALKER, Herts.
Argent, three griffins passant in pale azure murally gorged of the first, within a bordure sable bezanty--WILLS.
Gules, three mural coronets argent masoned sable--JOURDAN.
Crown Vallary(b).
Crown palisado is a name given to a form of crown with, at it were, palisades upon it, and hence fancifully said to have been given by the Roman generals to him who first entered the enemies' camp by breaking through their outworks. It is called vallar, or vallary, from the Latin vallus, which practically means the palisade surmounting the vallum. It is sometimes(though less correctly) represented as the second figure, namely, with a champaine border.
Or, a crown vallery gules between three stags trippant proper--ROGERS, Denbigh.
Naval crown: a circle, having upon its upper edge four masts of galleys, each with a topsail, and as many sterns placed alternately. Imaginative heralds say it was invented by the Emperor Claudius as a reward for sea service.
Gules, six ancient naval crowns or--CLYTON, Scotland.
Azure, a lion rampant argent charged on the shoulder with an eagle displayed sable; on a chief wavy ermine, an anchor erect of the third, the shank surrounded with a naval crown, rim azure, sterns and sails proper--LOUIS, Devon.
Azure, a naval crown within an orle of twelve anchors or--LENDON[granted 1658].
Dukedom of SAXONY.
Crown of Rue, (fr. Crancelin, from germ. Kranslein): the ancient arms of the Dukedom of Saxony were barry of eight, or and sable. The story goes that the bend vert was added by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, when he confirmed the dukedom on Bernard of Anhalt(c. 1156), who desiring some mark to distinguish him from the dukes of the former house, the emperor took a chaplet of rue which he had upon his head , and threw it across the shield. These were the paternal arms of the late Prince ALBERT. The bearing is sometimes called a ducal coronet in bend, and sometimes a bend archy coronetty.
Papal or Triple crown: see Tiara . Crown of Thorns: see Thorns , Crown of. The Crown Obsidional, and Crown Triumphal(composed of grass and of laurel or bay-leaves) have been already noticed under Chaplet .
Under the article Crown it is convenient to include Coronet, as the two terms are in some cases interchangeable.
Helmet of EDWARD the Black Prince.
From the reign of Edward III. coronets of various forms were worn(as it seems indiscriminately) by princes, dukes, earls, and even knights, but apparently rather by way of ornament than distinction, or if for distinction, only(like the collar of SS) as a mark of gentility. The helmet of Edward the Black Prince, upon his effigy at Canterbury, is surrounded with a coronet totally different from that subsequently assigned to his rank.
The coronets at present in use in England are the following, but connected more frequently with the Crest .
1. The coronet of the PRINCE OF WALES only differs from the royal crown in the omission of one of the arches. Edward, the son of Richard III., is recorded to have worn a demy crown on the day of his father's coronation at York(June 26, 1483); and was that day created Prince of Wales. It was formerly only the rim of the crown; but the arch was added in pursuance of a warrant of King Charles II., February 9, 1661.
2. That of the PRINCESS ROYAL has a coronet composed of four fleur-de-lis, two crosses, and two strawberry leaves; one of the crosses appearing in the centre. Within the circle is a cap of crimson velvet turned up with ermine , and closed at the top with a golden tassel.
3. That of other PRINCES and PRINCESSES, sons and daughters of a sovereign, resembles the coronet of the Prince of Wales, but without the arch . The cap as before.
4. That of PRINCES and PRINCESSES, sons and daughters of the above, is similar, except that strawberry-leaves are substituted for the fleur-de-lis. The Princes' crowns , however, are usually drawn in heraldry after a somewhat conventional manner.
Azure, a prince's coronet .... between two ostrich feathers in chief, a garb in base, all within a bordure sable bezanté--Town of EVESHAM.
Ermine, on a chief gules three prince's crowns composed of crosses pattée and fleur-de-lys or, with caps of the first, tasselled of the third--SKINNERS' Company[incorporated 1327, confirmed 1395].
Duke.
5. That of DUKES is a circle of gold richly chased, and having upon its upper edge eight strawberry-leaves; only five are shewn in the drawing, two of them being in profile. The cap is of crimson velvet lined with white taffeta and turned up with ermine . At the top is a gold tassel. A coronet without the cap , and shewing but three leaves, is called a Ducal coronet, and frequently a Ducal crown.
Azure, three ducal crowns two and one or, each pierced with two arrows in saltire of the last--Abbey of BURY S.EDMUNDS.
Gules, two lions passant guardant in pale or; in chief two ducal coronets of the last--Priory of S.BARTHOLOMEW THE GREAT, London.
Gules, three ducal crowns or--See of ELY.
Baron.
9. A BARON'S Coronet is a plain circle of gold having six large pearls upon it, four which are seen in a drawing. The cap as before. This coronet was assigned to barons on their petition to King Charles II., soon after his restoration. Before that period they wore caps of crimson velvet turned up with ermine , and at a still earlier period, scarlet caps turned up with white fur .
HILTON.
Crowned , (fr. couronné) Many cases of beasts, especially the lion, and sometimes birds , especially the eagle, being crowned. A ducal coronet is implied unless some other be expressly mentioned, but birds and beasts are sometimes described as crowned with a diadem(fr. diademmé), i.e. a plain fillet of metal . Also lions , dogs , and other animals are frequently gorged with a crown .
Argent, a lion rampant gules, crowned or--HILTON, Lanc.
Or, a lion rampant azure, crowned gules--CLYVEDON, Essex.
Argent, a lion rampant azure, crowned with a coronet of four balls azure or--Ralph de MAIDSTONE, Bp. of Hereford, 1234, 1239[MS. Add. B. Mus. 12443].
Per pale argent and gules, three bars counterchanged, on a canton of the second a rose crowned or--BARRETT, co. Cork.
Crucifix , Such a charge occurs in one or two arms.
Azure, a saint standing on three degrees of steps vested in a loose robe, with rays of glory round his head, holding a crucifix before him in pale, his hands extended to the extremities of the cross, and the foot on the cross resting on the upper step, all or--Insignia of the See of WATERFORD.
Argent, on a cross Calvary with a griece of three steps gules, the Saviour or--BUTLER, Baron Caher, 1543.
Crusily , Crucilly, or Crusuly(old fr. Crusule), is used now to signify semé of cross crosslet , but whether or not in the older arms simply small crosses were used cannot be determined. Any ordinary of charge over a field crusily debruises portions of the crosses, which should be arranged diagonally as in the example given in the margin.
Gules, crusily or--ROHAN, Lord of Warwick.
Sire William de KYME, de goules crusule de or a un cheveron de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Sire Henri de LEKEBOURNE, de argent, crusule de sable a un cheveron de sable--Ibid.
Azure, crusily three bars or--BLACKENHAM, Suffolk.
Monsire de PARIS, sable, cheveron, entrecrusule argent--Roll, temp. ED. III.
Sire ... de DEN, de argent ij barres de sable; en les barres les crusules pattée de or--Roll, temp. ED. II.
At the same time the term is used when the crosses are of a different kind, and then they have to be named.
Azure, crusily bottony, a lion rampant argent--BRAYTOFT, co. Lincoln.
Gules, crusily fitchy or, a griffin segreant of the last--PAU.
Crusule , old fr. crosslet, §17.
Crutch , or Crutch-staff. See Pilgrim's-staff and Potent.
CLUER.
But many families, especially those of BUTLER and CLEAVER, bear covered cups(fr. coupes couvertes), which are frequently represented on their tombs, and which are similar in shape to that in the margin, which is taken from the tomb of Johan le BOTILER, c. 1290, in the church of S.Bride, Glamorganshire.
Argent, a standing cup covered sable--John CLUER, London, 1716.
Gules, a cross between four covered cups argent--Richard DE LA WYCH, Bp. of Chichester, 1245-53.
Argent, between two bendlets engrailed sable, three covered cups of the second--Joseph BUTLER, Bp. of Bristol, 1738; afterwards of Durham, 1750-52.
Gules, a bend between three covered cups or--John BUTLER, Bp. of Oxford, 1788-1802.
Quarterly, first and fourth, azure, a chevron between three covered cups or, second and third ermine, on a chief indented sable, three escallops argent--BUTLER, Bp. of Lichfield, 1836-1839.
Sable, three cups covered per fesse or and argent--SYMONDS.
Gules, three cups covered argent garnished or--M. Gilis D'ARGENTINE.
Quarterly, gules and azure; in the first and fourth a leopard's head or; in the second and third a covered cup; and in chief two round buckles, the tongued fessways, points to the dexter, all of the third--GOLDSMITHS' Company[incorporated 1327].
Besides these ordinary forms are some with descriptive details, as also others under the different names of drinking-pots, college-pots, &c.
Gules, three cups covered, with one handle to each, argent--Reginald AT CONDUIT, Lord Mayor of London, 1334-5.
Per pale azure and gules, a cup covered with handles argent between three catherine wheels or--STREET, Middlesex.
Argent, three cups sable coronetted or--BRANDISHFIELD.
Argent, three drinking-pots sable--GERIARE, co. Lincoln.
Gules, three college-pots argent--ARGENTON, Devon.
Sable, three covers for cups argent--KOVERDAW.
The small cup sometimes found, and as borne in the arms of ATHULL, is probably intended for an acorn-cup.
Argent, three cups azure--ATHULL.
Tassel.
Cushion : this charge is found in ancient arms under the name oreiller (old fr. horeler), or pillow, the latter term also sometimes occurring in modern blazon. It has, as a rule, four tassels, one at each of the corners, and it is not necessary to mention them unless of a different tincture. Cushions are sometimes fringed . They may also be charged with some device.
Maheu de REDMAIN, de goules a trois horielers d'or--Roll, temp. HEN. III.
Sire Mahteu de REDEMAN, de goulys a iij horilers de ermine--Roll, temp. ED. II.
Monsire John FLEMINGE, barre d'argent et d'asur a trois oreillers de gules en la sovereign barre--Roll, temp. Ed. III.
Monsire John de NORTON, port d'argent une cheveron entre trois oreilers de sable--Ibid.
Gules, on a fesse or, between three cushions ermine, tasselled of the second, three fleur-de-lys of the field--HUTTON, Bp. of Bangor, 1743; Abp. of York, 1747; Abp. of Cant. 1757-58.
Quarterly, first and fourth gules, three cushions tasselled ermine, second and third gules, a lion rampant argent--Richard REDMAN, Bp. of S.Asaph, 1491; afterwards Bp. of Exeter, 1496-1500.
Argent, three cushions lozengewise gules, tasselled or--BECARD.
Gules, three square cushions argent--GREYSTOCK.
Gules, a cross argent between four cushions lozengeways ermine, tasselled or--William REDMAN, Bp. of Norwich, 1595-1602.
Sable, on a cushion a dog couchant or--ALABAND.
Or, on each of three cushions within a bordure gules, a crescent of the first--MELVILLE, Scotland.
Vert, three pillows ermine--HOPKINSON, co. York.
When the tassels appear as a separate charge they are to be represented as in the margin.
Gules, three tassels or--WOOLER.
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i don't know
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Langlauf (literally 'long-term' in German) refers to an endurance form of which sport?
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Project MUSE - The Archive
The Archive
Peter Fritzsche (bio)
"No one," wrote Pascal, "dies so poor that he does not leave something behind." Setting the scene at the moment of a single individual's death and drawing attention to personal possessions, Pascal conjures up the material traces of a single lifetime. A lived life creates physical effects: a sheaf of letters, a lucky coin, or a small fortune, things that construct correspondences between experience and materiality. Putting the stress on the larger world reflected in small objects, Pascal ennobles even the most modest lives and places all individuals in the same passage from life to death. Nearly three hundred later, Walter Benjamin reflected on Pascal's assertion. To Pascal's things he added "memories too." He then went on to subtract from what he had just augmented: "although these do not always find an heir." 1 What Benjamin accents is not the material endurance of things but the variable operations of memory. There is no longer the unproblematic correspondence between a life lived and a life remembered, but the difficult endeavor of remembering and the more general prospect of forgetting. And for Benjamin it is not so much what the dead leave behind as it is what the living end up retrieving. He thereby poses the question of attentiveness, the historically situated presence or absence of the habit of cultivating memories. Moreover, these habits of cultivation operate across time: heirs are daughters and grandsons. At the remove of a generation or two, they are the ones who undertake the work of memory. Finally, in place of the sonorous universal by which Pascal affirmed the material existence of all men and women, Benjamin implies particular heirs who need to feel a connection to the past in order for memories to remain alive. In contrast to Pascal's materialism, Benjamin proposes a [End Page 15] cultural interpretation of remembering in which traces are not simply left behind and recollection is not assumed, in which mental habits across time rather than physical things in the present bring the past into view, and in which specific heirs undertake the work of memorialization. Although Pascal refers to things and thereby builds an implicit archive of past lives, it is Benjamin who imagines the space in which the historical archive was constructed in order to ward off oblivion, to make the particular case for a historical subject, to identify the responsibility of the heirs to cultivate specific stories in the past.
The three hundred years that separate Benjamin from Pascal dramatize the historicity of the uses of history. They suggest the specific historical circumstances under which the past does and does not find heirs, is and is not energetically recollected. Benjamin writes in reference to a "crisis of memory," 2 a historical moment in the modern age when there is both a surfeit of unusable pasts and a deficit of usable history, when individuals die in the face of general indifference while self-appointed heirs energetically look for particular memories. It is in the distinction between Pascal and Benjamin that a history of the archive can be conceived. Archives are not comprehensive collections of things, the effects left behind by the dead, nor are they arbitrary accumulations of remnants and leftovers. The archive is the production of the heirs, who must work to find connections from one generation to the next and thereby acknowledge the ongoing disintegration of the past. The heirs also distinguish themselves as such: a cultural group that knows itself by cultivating a particular historical trajectory. In the West, the nation has been the dominant form of this particularity, reinforcing a common past within its borders and emphasizing the difference of cultural origins across its borders. It is a specific, historically contingent configuration of time and space that produced what Jacques Derrida referred to in another context as "archive fever." 3 If most conceptions of the archive emphasize how the archive has shaped history, I want to examine how German history has shaped the archive.
At the most general level, archival production rests on the premise that the past is no longer the business of the present and must be handled carefully in order to recognize the difference of its periodicity and to facilitate the retrieval of the past in however fragmentary form. But the energy of archival activity is founded on the assumption that artifacts and [End Page 16] documents can be made to tell special stories about social identity. The arduous endeavor of provenience, the concern for getting right chronology and context, functions to establish particular trajectories of the past and thereby to create a common past (and a shared future) that is culturally distinct. The archive thus produces two effects: the boundedness of identity in time and space and the synchronization of time and space within those bounds. Precisely because they are the means to establish provenience and thus expose cultural distinctions, archives are crucial to the infrastructure of the modern nation-state. In Germany and elsewhere in Europe, the archive arrives at the nineteenth-century moment when the state feels a responsibility toward the particular heritage of the past encompassed by its territory. 4
The effort of the nation to distinguish itself from other nations or to resist the claims of supranational entities such as empires has important, if sometimes neglected, democratic ramifications. The stories of the archive persistently exceeded state-sanctioned histories. In the first place, ordinary people increasingly recognized themselves as inhabitants of cultural territories distinguished by language and custom. Indeed, it was domestic settings—the food at the table, the architecture of the farmhouse, the annual cycle of festivals—that served as the primary markers of national identity, which had the effect of enfranchising citizens into history and authorizing their own vernacular versions of national history. Moreover, the work of the heirs created intimacies among strangers who held in common a national past. As Germans came to regard each other as contemporaries, they took interest in the tribulations of fellow citizens, tied their own autobiographies to the national epic, and thereby intertwined personal with national history. Precisely because the ordinary could stand for the national, the story of the nation never existed in a single defining version. It was reworked into vernaculars, sub-versions that existed as potential subversions. 5 Thus collective disasters and particularly wars had the effect of both intensifying the personal experience of the national and legitimizing individual and even dissident versions. Put another way, the onerous requirements for fighting war in the modern era necessitated upholstering a common past, while the sheer violence of war worked to jeopardize that unity, with both motion and countermotion adding to the paperwork of history. [End Page 17]
The history of the archive is embedded in the recognition of loss. For archives to collect the past, the past has to come to mind as something imperiled and distinctive. This presumes a dramatization of historical movement that fashions temporal periods based on the radical difference between now and then, which, in turn, invites the recognition of radical difference between here and there. The feverish part of archival activity is to distinguish difference in order to create a bounded national subject characterized by a separate history that is held in common by contemporaries. The establishment of historical and cultural archives in Germany at the beginning of the nineteenth century illustrates the effort to create these particulars of national identity. This bounded identity was also the premise for the vernacular archival activity of ordinary citizens, who more and more came to see their lives in historical terms. Loss continued to facilitate the production of archives after the unification of the German empire. In the twentieth century, the world wars, especially, encouraged the state to revisualize its citizens in order to more effectively mobilize them, producing new inventories of popular sovereignty in the Weimar period and racial archives in the Third Reich. Yet the experience of mass death and the Holocaust ended up creating dramatically divergent life stories that made it ever more difficult to hold onto the idea of a common German past or find shared memories among victims and perpetrators. After 1945, Benjamin's heirs in East and West Germany, in Israel and the United States, picked up very different strands of German history. At the turn of the twentieth-first century, the German archive can no longer be premised on the national rehabilitation of loss. It can only provide testimony to the violence of the attempt to do so.
The Recognition of Difference
It was not memory as such, but the specter of oblivion that constituted the German archive and prepared for the reorganization of the German past at the turn of the nineteenth century. The menace of French empire, the initial "German catastrophe" two hundred years ago, serves as the point of origin for the German archive, the purpose of which was to identify a specifically German past, a genealogy called Vaterland. The French Revolution had the fundamental effect of dramatizing the movement of history [End Page 18] into distinct periods separated by epochal breaks—1806 will be followed by 1871, 1914/18, 1933, 1945 and 1989/90. With the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6, the continuities connecting past and present shattered and the past increasingly came into view as a vast field of ruins. This entailed a remarkable revision in the way history was understood. 6 While Napoleon endeavored to organize ruins in a way that would represent the historical inevitability and endurance of the French Empire, German statesmen and intellectuals recast medieval relics to signify the political defeat but also the historical existence of the German nation. This was a bold epistemological step because it took ruins out of natural time and resituated them in historical time so that the traces of the past could serve as the particular evidence for political and religious confrontations, defeats and occupations, and undeveloped national alternatives. Ruins thereby acquired a half-life. If properly preserved, provenienced and analyzed, they could be made to speak for the nation. In the early 1800s, the German art collector Sulpiz Boisserée made the most sustained case for the separate national development of Germany. He rejected Napoleon's assumption that the French empire represented the most complete development of universal history, a schema in which Germany's medieval ruins occupied the subordinate status of precursor. Instead he argued that the German masters and Gothic cathedrals represented Germany's historical particularity that was no less credible than France's. He thereby reanimated the broken-down past as a national alternative to empire. In contrast to the centrally deposited "exemplary specimens" in Paris, Boisserée made the case for the eloquence of "recovered relics" in context. 7 It was provenience that became the key to establishing separate national trajectories that resisted the logic of universal history.
Boisserée's journeys up and down the Rhine, in which he catalogued the ruins of medieval abbeys, cathedrals and castles, were the first steps toward the creation of a German archive. Medieval history—first in 1806 in the form of debris, then as archival material, and later as reworked narrative—became German history; old time was turned into new space that defined the nation and repudiated the center–periphery model of empire. With the defeat of Napoleon, the German states established the first official regional archives to house the huge numbers of papers that with the end of the many sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire had lost their practical value and could now be rearranged as the prehistory [End Page 19] of the German nation. The preservation and analysis of these and other religious and local documents were overseen by the state-sponsored historical agency established by Baron vom Stein in 1819, the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, which published dozens of multivolumed editions of medieval documents. 8 The attention to Germany's medieval heritage is striking and absorbed most of the energies of Germany's historians for the rest of the nineteenth century. One practical reason for this is that the persistence of the absolutist state meant that Prussian records even from the eighteenth century did not become properly historical until 1918 and remained scattered in ministries rather than collected in a central archive. 9 But the medieval past also functioned as the dominant metonym for the German nation as a whole because it provided the key marker for the difference on which German identity was based.
The establishment of Prussian state archives and Stein's Monumenta Germaniae Historica, as well as Boisserée's collection of early-modern German art, Karl Friedrich Schinkel's like-minded efforts to preserve German monuments, and even Jacob and Wilhem Grimm's fairy tales were all attempts to create a common, durable and specific German past. Of course, it would be senseless to argue that all the inhabitants of the German states suddenly regarded themselves in terms of an encompassing German identity and recognized as their own the medieval past that Boisserée and others put into view. Yet the extraordinary success of the Grimm fairy tales in the years after their first publication in 1812 indicates how well the German story resonated with German contemporaries. Despite their transnational appeal—the first English edition came out in 1823—the fairy tales are definitively the Grimms' fairy tales and consistently evoked a particular idea of the German landscape. Moreover, the brothers insisted on the specifically Germanic origins of the tales. Indeed, the characters in the fairy tales were very much like the readers the Grimms hoped to find: they comprised locals as well as cosmopolitans, commoners as well as aristocrats, women and children as well as men, perfect examples of the vernacular culture the books came to represent. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the Kleine Ausgabe's collection of fifty of the most popular tales had sold two million copies in the German-speaking realm of fifty million people. 10
The fact that the Grimms' collection of German tales stood on the shelves of so many readers suggests the ways in which ordinary households [End Page 20] established archives. Although the point should not be pressed too hard, the new historical context allowed Germans to see themselves quite literally as contemporaries (Zeitgenossen), Benjamin's heirs who shared national history and historicized national territory. As a result, the most ordinary people came to take an interest in each other and to read their lives against the ordeal of the nation. The nineteenth century "was swamped with unremarkable self-revelations," notes Peter Gay. Thousands wrote these up, even "men and women with no claim to fame of any kind. They left their memoirs moldering in attics or buried in local archives, or asked a job printer to make an unpretentious book." 11
Autobiographical supply flourished because it appealed to biograph-ical demand. What authorized the histories of ordinary people was not simply notions of enfranchisement which came with the French Revolution but the tissues of connectedness that corresponded to a historical worldview and national identity. The idea of the nation both sentimentalized and popularized ordinary stories. It served as a social and literary point of reconciliation, making the ordeal of the nation the vehicle for recognizing the fate of the individual. The immense paperwork of history in the nineteenth century struggled to bring the distress of the one into correspondence with the other.
The People's Archive
It is remarkable that the sound of Napoleon's cannons continued to echo throughout the nineteenth century. The French Revolution, the Wars of Liberation and the outsized figure of Napoleon dominated the production and consumption of popular German history; Napoleon lent his name to fictional antiheroes as late as 1918 in Heinrich Mann's Man of Straw. Nearly one hundred years after the event, Germans still drew attention to the imperial menace and the fragile nature of national relics. But it was the wars of the twentieth century that dramatically reconfigured the archive because total war posed the question of the survival and definition of the German people.
Almost immediately, World War I intruded into the lives of almost every German family. Between August 1914 and July 1918, more than 13 million men served in the German army. Nearly 20 percent of the total [End Page 21] population and 85 percent of all eligible men mobilized to fight. Since the rupture of war coincided with the unprecedented engagement of millions of actual individuals, the crisis had a remarkable autobiographical aspect. Germans from all walks of life knew relatives on the front and told tales about fighting the war, procuring food and laboring in wartime factories. The war thus vastly expanded the people's archive. Although the German government produced thousands of war-related texts and histories, these cannot compare to the millions of letters, poems and newspaper articles written and consumed in domestic settings.
All sorts of documents revealed this personal engagement. During the war, newspapers published hundreds of unsolicited poems every day; by one estimate fifty thousand German war poems were written on each day of August 1914. 12 Families pasted scrapbooks and ordinary soldiers kept diaries and sent millions of letters home every day. Some 29 billion pieces of mail were sent back and forth between the battlefront and the home front in the four years that followed mobilization: every day some ten million letters, postcards, telegrams and packages reached the front, and every day nearly seven million were sent back home. 13 Although the political valence of this correspondence is unclear, given ordinary literary conventions, the increasingly centralized management of news, and military censorship, it is clear that contemporaries prized their own vernacular knowledge of the war. By the end of the war, over 97 separate editions of war letters had been assembled, published and purchased, the most famous of which was Philipp Witkop's 1916 Kriegsbriefe deutscher Studenten. 14 The high command acknowledged the power of these completely ordinary, unauthoritative letters by incorporating them into the patriotic "enlightenment" the troops received in the last two years of the war. 15 What all this suggests is the degree to which the war was regarded as a distinctively people's war. It was legitimated in the name of the people rather than the state or the monarchy, and it dramatized as never before the involvement of individuals in the larger movements of history. Archivists themselves recognized the importance of documenting popular sovereignty and called on citizens to preserve and turn over letters and other reports on the war. 16 Total war thus prompted an expansion of what constituted compelling historical evidence and reoriented the history of the war into social-historical streams. [End Page 22]
It was on the basis of individual experience that Germans disputed among themselves the meaning of the war. Although the published editions of war letters retained a generally patriotic tone, private correspondence to pastors, mayors and Reichstag deputies told other stories about injustices on the front and urged alternative courses of action. 17 And after the war, citizens returned again and again to the archives they had assembled in order to support their claims about the course of the war, the reasons for military defeat, and the justice of the November Revolution. Partisan newspapers on the left and the right were filled with recollections of frontline service, and recriminations forth and back were played out again when the flood of semi-autobiographical war novels commenced in the late 1920s. 18 Indeed, one of the most compelling wartime diaries, written by seaman Richard Stumpf and documenting the harsh discipline of naval authorities, was submitted as evidence in 1926 to a Reichstag commission examining the origins of the revolution and later published in polemical form. 19 No other war had been depicted in this unmanaged, democratic way.
The great consequence of World War I was the emergence of popular sovereignty as the organizing principle of German politics and thus the basis for the reorganization of the German archive. While Germans certainly did not agree on political questions or on the origins or outcome of the war, they justified their actions and expectations in terms of the nation and the people's community that the war had brought into view. As a result, excerpts from the people's archive gained unprecedented political value: Witkop's edition of war letters is the primary example. At the same time, Germany's defeat and the convulsions of the revolution threw open questions of political liability. Did Germany's government mishandle foreign affairs before 1914? Did socialists at home betray the army in the field? And what burden of responsibility did the military bear for the outbreak of the revolution? It was the sorry fate of the postwar nation that authorized enormous historical projects in the form of parliamentary commissions and protracted libel cases around the "stab-in-the-back" legend. The result was a massive reconstitution of the official archive in the public sphere, which signaled the unresolved nature of Germany's historical itinerary even if massive editions such as the sixty-volume Die grosse Politik der Europäischen Kabinette 1871–1914, overseen by the "Central Office to Investigate the Causes of the War" in the Foreign Ministry, claimed to offer definitive statements about Germany's guiltlessness. [End Page 23]
The importance of making the case for Germany, for both domestic and international publics and by both critics and apologists of the Kaiserreich, prompted the establishment of a central archive, the Reichsarchiv, in 1919. As a central repository of German history, it was charged with documenting and preserving the national heritage of Germans in the wake of the nation's defeat. "Wars trigger archives"; they did so in 1806 and again in 1918. 20 Housed in a former military school on the Brauhausberg in Potsdam and largely staffed by decommissioned officers, the Reichs-archiv was central to the effort to justify Germany's national cause. That it opened its doors to the public and initiated the collection of war letters and other documents of the people's struggle in the war, however, indicated that sovereignty had shifted from state to nation, and it thus enabled the production of alternative histories. But for the most part the Reichsarchiv served as the point of verification for Germany's national ordeal and for its refurbished future. 21
As Bernd Faulenbach explains for the 1920s, "a flood of historical publications engaged contemporary themes. A significant part of the work capacity of modern historians was absorbed in writing the 'prehistory to the present,' whereby the experience of the war and its resolution was the primary motivation." 22 Most of this historiography was nationalist and conventional, but it was supported by exhaustive and unprecedented archival research. The same empiricial foundation characterized as well the few historians such as Veit Valentin and Eckart Kehr who struggled to expose the authoritarian structure of the prewar German state. Entangled as they had become in German history, historians in Great Britain, France and the United States vigorously joined the debate about the origins of World War I (Bernadotte Schmitt and Sidney Fay are the key figures). 23 This entanglement was, of course, far greater after World War II, by which time it was impossible to write German history without non-German historians. Ultimately, the huge inflation of archival sources and archival documentation corresponded to a deflation in archival authority and to the revival of historical hermeneutics.
The shift from an emphasis on state to one on nation was the consequence of Germany's total mobilization effort during the war. But military defeat left the German subject undefined. Weimar culture added to a relentless attempt to survey, inventory and describe in order to revisualize the nation as an active, even triumphant, political player in the future. This [End Page 24] required a dramatic expansion of the archive. Historians and sociologists initiated comprehensive ethnographic surveys to establish the durability of German ethnic identity. Historians focused less on the achievement of German unification, as they had in the years before 1914, and more on the long-term and continuing struggle of the German people in Europe. They operated in the subjunctive mode and put accent on what remained incomplete and broken. 24 Along the edges of the profession, younger historians pursued more energetically the attempt to write a deliberately new kind of history of the German people. In particular, they looked to the border regions, which were not only imperiled by the postwar settlement but had been neglected in the Second Reich. It was here that historians believed they had found the site of a pure, besieged Germandom. "The variety of German settlements in east-central Europe and even overseas," writes Willi Oberkrom about these social-historical studies, "seemed to hold the 'magical key' to the recognition of 'our' ethnic identity." A closer examination of "settlement patterns, house types ... traditions and customs, clothing and food" promised to inventory "common generalities and regional particularities" and thereby uncover a "genuine folk life." Increasingly, "Volk was perceived as the constituent element and subject of social-historical evolution." 25
In an almost obsessive practice of self-observation, Germans scanned the resources of the country and the make-up of the population, building a cultural archive of items and types adequate to mastering the "altered world" of international instability and technological innovation. It was almost a game to identify the nation's new resources. Germany's largest newsweekly, Ullstein's Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung, introduced to the nation its "New Age Types": "the traffic policeman," "the radio operator," "the soundman," "the woman doctor," "the sports announcer," "the race car driver," "the driving instructor" and "the Alpine skier," all new-fangled experts of one sort or another. 26 Weimar culture produced dozens of physiognomic surveys such as this one, each one surveying and taking measure of the new face (Antlitz, a characteristic Weimar-era word) of the postwar world. Photographers such as Erich Retzlaff, Erna Lendvai-Dircksen and August Sander scrutinized the faces and bodies of Germans to build galleries of strength, solidity and rootedness at the level of the ordinary existence. 27 [End Page 25]
Cultural activity in the Weimar years developed as an effort to identify the human types and biological and technological forces that would equip the regenerate nation. It constituted nothing less than an ever-expanding archive of German capacity. However, the instrumentalization of the archive in the first years after 1918 was not systematic and lacked political direction, despite its nationalist tendency and military accent. After 1933, with the National Socialist seizure of power, the archive assumed a much larger role in German political life.
The Racial Archive
For the Nazis to realize their aim of reconstituting the German public as a self-consciously biological body politic, they had to be able to distinguish Jews from Germans and unhealthy elements from healthy ones, and they had to discipline Germans to conduct their lives according to new biological standards. This required not only the mobilization of existing records for political ends but the creation of new records that would recognize the biological categories the Nazis held to be so consequential. As the definitions of the political became more biological so did the official archive. Josef Franz Knöpfler, director of the Bavarian archival administration, stated the enhanced function of the archive in the National Socialist state quite clearly in 1936: "There is no practice of racial politics without the mobilization of source documents, which indicate the origin and development of a race and people.… There is no racial politics without archives, without archivists." 28 The first major step in the process of racial documentation were directives that beginning in 1933 instructed local health offices to identify those citizens who were deemed to be biologically unhealthy. These became ever more detailed and intrusive and provided the basis for the sterilization campaign that identified as many as one million Germans as biologically degenerate—a fifth of these were actually sterilized. 29 The second step was taken with the Nuremberg Laws of September 1935, which redefined German citizenry and excluded Jews from public life. But a comprehensive archive of who was German and who was not was only established with the census of May 1939. [End Page 26]
Conducted on 17 May 1939, after having been postponed for one year to include Austria, the national census established a relatively accurate count of who was Aryan and who was Jewish. It counted a total of 233,973 so-called racial Jews within the borders of 1939. A much more detailed survey took place on 13 August 1939, and it was the data it produced that was stored on punch cards for subsequent retrieval. (IBM's German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft, produced as many as 1.5 billion punch cards a year to sort and resort Germany's population.) 30 Although the data was never reassembled on the national level, it was stored in local and regional card catalogs, or Volkskarteien, which allowed authorities to identify in the territory of their responsibility able-bodied workers, potential soldiers, and Jews. Handed out one week by thousands of volunteers and collected the next, the Volkskartei compiled data in fourteen fields that corresponded to fourteen punch holes at the top margin of each card; these were later tabbed with different colors to simplify the process of assessment. All legal residents—Jews as well as non-Jews—filled out the cards, providing information on trade (field 2), physical impairments (field 4), education (field 6); ability to speak foreign languages or travel experience in a foreign country (field 7), other skills and expertise (field 8), and the ability to drive, ride and fly (field 9). It was no secret that this information was assembled in order to more perfectly mobilize Germans and make efficient use of their specific skills in the event of war. The types the Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung had introduced to readers in its Weimar-era photo series, the Nazi census succeeded in identifying for political purposes across the entire population. Mobilization was also accompanied by exclusion, or purification as the Nazis saw it: in the last field, field 14, authorities marked whether residents were Jewish; a black tab over the fourteenth punch hole designated the cardholder as Jewish. It was on the basis of these catalogs that local authorities identified and gathered up German Jews for deportation after 1941; all they had to do was pull the cards with the black tab on the last field. 31 Although not accessible from a single point, the Volkskartei very nearly realized the goal of a systematic ethnographic and racial archive.
The Nazis also racialized vernacular archives since they obligated individual Germans to maintain extensive racial archives about their bodies, lives and families. The biological politics of the regime did not simply posit the applicability of new physiognomic categories of race and health [End Page 27] but demanded that citizens strive to match their lives to those categories. "It is not a party badge or a brown shirt that makes you a National Socialist, but rather your character and the conduct of your life," announced one leading National Socialist health official in July 1933. 32 A "spiritual revolution" had to follow the accomplishments of the political revolution, insisted Walter Gross, director of the Rassenpolitisches Amt of the Nazi Party, a year later: we will "fundamentally remodel and reform"—"even all those things that seem today completely solid," he added. 33 What was necessary was to "recognize yourself" (Erkenne dich selbst), which meant following the tenets of hereditary biology to find a suitable partner for marriage and marry only for love, to provide the Volk with healthy children, and to accept "the limits of empathy" as a revitalized Germany weeded out racial undesirables. 34 The task was to make Germans into Aryans. Not only would the Aryan body have to be protected through vigorous eugenic measures but the Aryan self had to be implemented by the individual's responsibility to the collective racial whole. This put the emphasis on the efforts of ordinary, racially desirable Germans to discipline themselves in order to conduct their lives in accordance with the precepts of the racial future.
The most important papers in the expanded archive of domestic life in the Third Reich were those that documented Aryan identity. With the publication of the Nuremberg Laws in September 1935, the racial distinction between German (or Aryan) and Jew governed the most important aspects of everyday life, particularly the permission to marry and the registration of births and deaths. Just how willingly the transformation of Germans into Aryans and Jews was accepted is not clear, but the categories worked their way into everyday life. Victor Klemperer, for example, was astonished to hear even non-Nazi acquaintances talk about Sippe or genealogical kin. 35 Since vigorous public interest in genealogy went hand-in-hand with legal requirements to prepare an Ahnenpass, or genealogical passport, there seems to have been broad legitimacy to the idea of kin and thus the idea of racial insiders and outsiders. Most contemporaries were familiar with a "family tree," in which relatives are organized from the oldest ancestors down several generations to the numerous family clusters of the living generation. But the table of ancestors that Germans had to include in their racial passports worked quite differently, from the contemporary individual backward to include all blood relatives in an inverted pyramid. [End Page 28] "If the family tree is colorful and many-sided, depending on the number of children and the structure of the family," one genealogical expert commented, the table of ancestors "has an architectonic layout characterized by strict discrimination and mathematical uniformity." Beginning with the individual in question, it "reveals the direction of maternal and paternal bloodlines" in order to serve as a certification of blood purity and thus the inclusion of the individual in the "Volksgemeinschaft." 36 The effort at certification was no easy task. Germans needed the "nose of an accomplished detective" in order to gather up all the data to track bloodlines into the past. "State archives and libraries have to be trawled ... and also ranking lists, muster roles, telephone books, bills of lading, guild records. We also have to make our way to old cemeteries where tumble-down graves might reveal yet another clue." 37 ("Tumble-down graves"—there is an uneasy resemblance between the effort to document Aryan identity before 1945 and the recovery of traces of Jewish life in Germany and Poland after 1945.)
Beginning in 1936, anyone getting married assumed an "Aryan" identity. Prospective husbands and wives needed to document their Aryan racial status with notarized citations of the registrations of the birth, marriage and death of each of their parents and grandparents. Moreover, prospective newlyweds had to certify their genetic health, which, if local authorities believed it necessary, meant a visit to the local public health office and the acquisition of additional documents. (The law requiring such visits was drawn up, but suspended in practice.) In addition to handing out Mein Kampf, the registrar's office provided couples with pamphlets on maintaining and reproducing good racial stock—Deutscher, denk an deine und deiner Kinder Gesundheit, Handbuch für die deutsche Familie and Ratgeber für Mütter—and instructions on how to maintain proper genealogical records. 38 This constituted a broad effort to push Germans to document and comport themselves as Aryans. Piece by piece, ordinary Germans assembled their own private archives, and as they did they invariably became more recognizable as Aryans in Hitler's eyes and in their own.
Like the pre-formatted albums in which contemporaries during World War I pasted letters and photographs under patriotic and other sentimental headings, the racial passport or Ahnenpass was the axis around which the people's archive proliferated in the 1940s. For individuals to acquire the [End Page 29] necessary passport entailed the reorganization and systemization of old family records that were lying around as well as the procurement of new documents, some going back to the early nineteenth century. A cardboard box in Berlin's Landesarchiv contains old Ahnenpässe. Many were in fact mass-produced by the Verlag für Stammbaumwesen and included in the back matter a handy "Reichsalphabet der Familie," a list of permissible names for children, divided into recommended Germanic names from Adalbert to Wulf, for men, and Ada to Wunhild, for women, and acceptable non-Germanic names (Achim to Vinzent for men, Agathe to Viktoria for women), as well as the ubiquitous "Law for the Protection of German Blood" of 15 September 1935. New papers gathered inside the pages of the Ahnenpass: the mandated Arbeitsbuch; a four-leaf clover; a restaurant bill; a marriage certificate; birth announcements of children; baptismal certificates; innoculation records; divorce papers; insurance cards; Winter Aid stamps; and also correspondence with a son serving on the front; official confirmation of a soldier missing in action; a letter from a fallen man's comrade describing the whereabouts of the dead man's grave "in Aleksandrowka (village center) ... some 16 km. south of Olenin which is some 60 km. west of Rshew"; a 1945 "welfare card for bomb victims" (on which was also handwritten "refugees from the East"). 39 Family archives, racial categories and individual identities became increasingly calibrated with one another.
For German Jews, however, the process of archiving ran in reverse. Jews and so-called "racial Jews," converts to Christianity, were required to register themselves as Jewish with local authorities and to carry identification papers which labeled them as such. But otherwise, the paperwork they filled out at the command of the National Socialist regime was a prelude to the destruction of their private property and ultimately to their murder. In Dresden, Victor Klemperer spent the morning of Wednesday, 29 June 1938, "filling out forms: Inventory of Assets of Jews." An inventory of "household assets" followed in December 1941. Since "a house search can be expected immediately after the inventory statement," Klemperer resolved to part with his manuscripts and his diary, which his wife stowed with friends; thereafter, the additional entries that Klemperer made had to be secreted out of his rooms in small packets. As it was, the ability to maintain a private archive was already severely hampered by the shortage of paper and the prohibition on Jews from possessing typewriters. Since [End Page 30] the concentration of Jews in "Jew houses" usually preceded the outright evacuation of German Jews, Klemperer, like so many others, was forced to move into drastically smaller quarters, which meant the disposal of books and papers. "[I] am virtually ravaging my past," he wrote in his diary on 21 May 1941. "The principal activity" of the next day was "burning, burning, burning for hours on end: heaps of letters, manuscripts." Letters were still received: "today," wrote Klemperer on 7 December 1941, "I saw a postcard with the postmark: 'Litzmanndstadt Ghetto'... The card bore yet another stamp: 'Litzmannstadt, biggest industrial city of the East," Klemperer added. 40 But soon that correspondence came to an end as well. Incidentally, Jews had been prohibited from using German archives since 1938.
The racial archive reflected the ambitious efforts of the Nazis to shape a new collective subject; it at once required substantial self-archiving and recontextualization on the part of racial insiders and rested on the step-by-step exclusion and decontextualization of racial outsiders. It came with extraordinary systemization of provenience in order to manufacture a collective, Aryan subject in such a way that the possession of the archive itself became the arbiter of historical existence.
Archives of Loss
The burning of his personal archive that Klemperer undertook in May 1941 indicates an entirely new dimension to modern archival practice. Even the vernacular archive had become dangerous, and its carefree maintenance impossible, in conditions in which the Nazis sought to revisualize, reclassify and reorder the world. Klemperer's activity on that spring day reproduced in miniature the immense reconfiguration of the German archive in the twentieth century. His arson followed the demolition of countless politically risky archives already in 1933, when left-wing politicians and intellectuals burnt or otherwise disposed of their papers, a conflagration which the Nazis themselves fueled in their own book-burnings that they sponsored across Germany beginning in May 1933 and the ransacking of the files of countless civic groups and trade unions. 41 The holdings of some libraries actually diminished over the course of the 1930s. The emigration of German Jews entailed as well the dispersion and loss of personal papers, [End Page 31] libraries, heirlooms, photographs and other family memorabilia. Hundreds of synagogues were burned down in November 1938 and with them the evidence of Jewish life in Germany over the course of many centuries, a prelude to the willful destruction of the life and property of Jewish communities across Europe after 1939. German history came to the rest of Europe in the form of terrifying annihilation.
Klemperer's arson of May 1941 also anticipated the destruction that came with the end of the war. Much of the material evidence of Nazism's domestic setting was deliberately destroyed. "When you have two military brothers and a like-minded brother-in-law, you can image what sort of stuff has collected around the house," wrote one woman in besieged Gleiwitz in late January 1945 as she tore up incriminating photographs before the arrival of the Russians. 42 The writer Günter Kunert remembers the same thing as a child in Prenzlauer Berg, his Berlin neighborhood. He recounted what happened when word spread that the Russians were about to arrive: "Turmoil ensued—papers are taken out, documents, passports, photographs, any indication of one's own complicity ... straight into the fires of purgatory with all that incriminating material." 43 These private acts of destruction, and the absence to this day of a cluttered domestic archive of the years 1933–45, provide an indication of the entanglement of individuals in the racial categories of Nazism. (In contrast to this destruction was the rapid production of new archives after the war—stories of communist relatives, assistance to Jewish colleagues, Persilscheine, and other anti-Nazi bonafides.) 44 The actions of getting rid of the evidence of collaboration were compounded by the furious end of the war in Germany, the expulsion of twelve million Germans from eastern Europe, the bombardment of German cities and thus the ruin of countless households. In his poem "Autumn 1944," Hans Magnus Enzenberger remembered watching Allied bombers fly toward his hometown of Nuremberg and imagining the remnants of what amounted to his family's archive in the attic catching fire:
to him lying in the grass they appeared magnificent, shimmering high up in the wide open October sky, these streams of bombers, and no great loss the souvenirs burning far away in the musty attic: [End Page 32] collector's teacups and angel's hair, grandfather's Parisian postcards (Oh là là!) and his belt buckle from another war, petticoats full of holes, medals, doll houses, a plaster model of Psyche and in a cigar box some forgotten tickets to a shrine— but in the basement the corpses are still there. 45
I do not cite Enzenberger's poem in order to dramatize the poignancy of the material losses of Germans in Nuremberg or elsewhere, but to indicate the radical discontinuity that past things came to stand for after the mobilizations of total war. Like the photographs, domestic artifacts and old-fashioned interiors in W. G. Sebald's fiction, the material remnants of the 1920s and 1930s came to signify the broken nature of historical connections across the divides of the twentieth century. 46
However, the destruction of sensible connections with the past was not primarily the function of the material devastation of the war or even of the physical homelessness of millions of Germans in 1945. It was the result of the total seizure of German history by the National Socialists. The jumble in the German attic had been ever more deliberately organized and classified during the Third Reich so that the German past was transformed more and more into the specific prehistory of National Socialism: the messy family tree made way for the uniform table of ancestors. What did not fit in was thrown away. Indeed it is telling that with the onset of air raids after 1942 the Nazis had ordered the "Entrumpelung" or uncluttering of attic spaces. This precautionary measure against incendiary bombs thus led to the disposal of the junk that people had kept around them. By 1945, the loose ends of history had been largely cut off. What remained were artifacts that all too unambiguously designated National Socialism as the embodiment of German history, and these were both dangerous and useless with the end of the Third Reich. For this reason, traces of the domestic interior of the years 1933–45 have almost completely disappeared. Much of the past was simply jettisoned. "One bucket, one lampshade, a blue enamel bowl, 1 tall glass vase, and a picture in a [End Page 33] gilded frame"—the artist Eva Richter-Fritzsche watched an old man haul a few possessions into the Berlin subway in January 1945: "It is hard to believe," she commented, "that we are still able to haul all things along with us. But actually one throws away too much ballast—anything not to endanger the momentum, the new start." 47 Getting rid of the debris of the past was politically expedient, but it was more than that; it was a recognition that the archive had lost its pell-mell or happenstance quality and its multivocal registers. It was the imbrication of Germany's historical continuity and its political catastrophe that made so dramatic the break represented by 1945, which separated a cluttered but difficult past from an empty, directionless present. For contemporaries, 1945 was most readily described as collapse ("Zusammenbruch") or catastrophe. 48
With the "catastrophe" of 1945 Germany's archival fever had come to an end. National archives were reestablished in Potsdam in 1946 and, with the division of Germany, in Bonn in 1952, but the effort to distinguish a common German past as the marker of German identity proved increasingly unpersuasive. Of course, the Federal Republic oversaw attempts to reconstitute the German archive as a record of German loss and German victimization. In the 1950s, the West German government sponsored a massive Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, which gathered up hundreds of eyewitness accounts and cited a growing memoir literature. A large vernacular literature also chronicled the destruction of German towns and cities and the suffering of German soldiers in the east. 49 But while these accounts more or less adequately fashioned a collective subject in the form of the German victim, they did not provide a usable history and ultimately sharpened the evidence of loss and temporal discontinuity. The increasingly energetic effort to come to terms with the Nazi past had the same effect. While postwar archives and scholarly institutes promoted an understanding of Nazism, and its origins in the sweep of German history, they also marked off the past from the present and thereby dramatized the new beginnings of 1945 and then of 1968 and 1989 rather than historical connections. The sense of a new beginning persistently overshadowed the work of historical resolution. What sense of historical rootedness West Germans did feel was either local and thus politically indistinct or European and thus not specifically German. Postwar history came to stress what Germans shared with other people rather than what made them distinct and therefore did not require [End Page 34] the provenience of the archive. A specifically German historical continuity meant less and less to a population that increasingly felt that the present was the best time in which to live. 50 Even as conservative intellectuals such as Hans Freyer and Helmut Schelsky in the 1950s or Botho Strauss in the 1990s mourned the diminished role of history in the formation of German subjectivity, they acknowledged that national identity in postwar Germany rested on accepting the incommensurate nature of prewar lives in postwar contexts.
It was in the German Democratic Republic (GDR) that the new start was promoted most relentlessly and most oppressively. The attempt to create a new socialist citizen came with all the regimentation of the dictatorship but also opened up new spaces, putting stress on the willingness to adapt in the name of the future rather than recollecting the specificities of political background. This disregard for the personal histories of East Germany's citizens is startling; it stood in dramatic contrast to Stalinist Russia, where allegedly bourgeois pasts had continued to implicate and mortally endanger individuals throughout the 1930s and 1940s. 51 To cut off the dead hand of the past after 1945 had two critical implications for the status of the archive.
On the one hand, the particular histories of collaboration, opportunism or, for that matter, resistance in the Third Reich were absorbed by the general momentum of forward movement toward socialism. "We do not require a negative certification for not having been compromised, for having been neutral," party officials insisted, "but rather positive evidence of cooperation" now. Most of the population in East Germany could thereby acquire vague antifascist attitudes without providing the evidence of specific antifascist activities. 52 The particulars of antifascist resistance were not cultivated by a regime interested in creating a new socialist unity. It is telling that the East German state literally divested its citizens of their history, expropriating the memorabilia of Wilhlemine and Weimar-era political struggles by encouraging individuals to donate historical artifacts to East Berlin's Museum for German History; prohibiting sport clubs from maintaining their pre-1933 flags, banners and traditions; and marginalizing the testimony of surviving "old fighters." 53 Socialist unity in the East, much like the emerging democratic consensus in the West, had little use for reworking the political differences in the past. The traces of political trajectories disappeared in order to produce a generalized [End Page 35] antifascist consensus. The result was the characteristic "eventlessness" (Ereignislosigkeit) of the GDR. 54
On the other hand, the GDR strenuously monitored the political education of its citizens, creating a massive archive in the form of internal state security or Stasi files. By the end of the 1980s over 100,000 official Stasi agents and nearly twice as many unofficial collaborators reported on the extent to which the East German population lived up to the standards of a new, postwar socialist citizenship. Set against internal government documents, which were saturated with the monotonal ideological language of the Socialist Unity Party and even at the highest levels could hardly be distinguished from published propaganda in the official newspaper, Neues Deutschland, the Stasi archives provide an extremely textured documentation of everyday life in East Germany. In order to report on dissent, on contacts with the West and contamination by nonsocialist media, the Stasi infiltrated the most intimate, domestic spheres. It thereby enforced political compliance but also left an extraordinary record of ordinary conversations, daily rhythms and household arrangements.
The reach of the Stasi was certainly oppressive; nowhere in the Eastern Bloc were internal security agents so densely settled as in the GDR in the 1980s. No wonder citizens felt their presence like "a scratchy undershirt." 55 But Stasi attention to private spaces was also an acknowledgment that homes were not only one of the few spaces where antigovernment opinion could congeal but the particular sites where the regime could gain legitimacy by providing adequate housing, consumer goods and the promise of relaxation. Party officials spent an inordinate amount of time trying to realize a socialist standard of living. The agenda of high-level meetings, comments Thomas Lindenberger, often resembled nothing so much as a "catalog to an exhibit on the history of everyday life. That is how thoroughly they up there cared about everything that happened down there." 56 So important was success on this domestic terrain that citizens themselves were encouraged by the Ulbricht regime after 1961 to inform authorities about substandard products and services. This information produced a huge archive from below as ordinary East Germans passed along Eingaben or complaints to local and party authorities, to shop-floor work brigades and to media outlets. 57 By the end of the 1980s over one million petitions were being written annually, mostly about the housing crisis and meager travel opportunities. One estimate concludes [End Page 36] that nearly one in every two adults in East Germany wrote at least one petition each year. 58 While this ventilation of ordinary problems ended by channeling and depoliticizing criticism of the regime, it also indicated the degree to which citizens actively participated in the common cause of making a more just society. The Eingaben revealed just how much East Germans argued in terms of an ideal socialist society and thereby insinuated themselves in the effort. In this regard, the regime's aims to create a new morality were largely realized. The archive of everyday complaint had a further effect: it demonstrated how important the social and cultural role of the home had become in the years before 1989 and set the stage for the widespread nostalgia for those niches and the consumer products that came with them once the GDR disappeared.
Both the racial archive in the Third Reich and the Stasi archive in the GDR were founded on the attempt to create new kinds of citizens and to undo the disunities of the past. And both projects of classification invited citizens to recast their own lives in politically appropriate ways. But the differences are also fundamental. The racial archive aimed at the destruction of non-Aryans, while the Stasi archive was at once less dangerous to and more intrusive for the majority population. The sheer scale of Stasi espionage is extraordinary: more than one in every five, mostly male adults in East Germany had links to the Stasi and many more were monitored so that by the end of 1996 more than one million Germans had asked to review their files. 59 Ultimately, Nazi Germany rested on broader popular support, circumstances which demanded less intense monitorship of the population but also invited more energetic archiving of the self.
What remains in the aftermath of both dictatorships is the messy evidence of the imbrication of individuals in larger political projects, a mix of opportunism, regret and idealism. The desire to make the personal realm political mingles with efforts of even true believers to shield themselves and their families from complete political subordination. The legitimacy of the new future, whether it was the Nazi future of 1933, or the West German democratic future of 1949, or its East German socialist counterpart, quite successfully wiped away much of the old future it had superseded. Monika Maron, for example, describes German history in the twentieth century as a series of conversions, which repeatedly displaced the evidence of former lives. She admits her astonishment at how quickly her family had forgotten about the Jewish origins of the family in Poland [End Page 37] at the turn of the century, the heartbreaking letters to deported grandparents in the years 1939–42 and, more generally, the grinding poverty of tenement life in pre-1933 Berlin. 60 One of the dramatic things about recent German history is that it has repeatedly offered individuals opportunities for reinvention: as racial insiders in 1933 and as new democrats or socialists after 1945. The accent always fell on discontinuity rather than continuity. That reinvention meant acquiring new identities had the effect of both plundering and refashioning archives so that only traces of the repressed past remained. But these traces spoke with greater eloquence as one turning point gave way to another and the process of remembering increasingly meant reconstructing the process of forgetting and accounting the record of loss.
A new archive has emerged in the last two decades. On the vernacular level, it is based on the knowledge that the successive lives that Germans have made in the twentieth century were based on the extraordinary selectivity of remembrance. Memoirs and other autobiographical texts endeavor to reconstruct what had not been told, what did not get remembered. Thus authors such as Monika Maron, Wibke Bruhns, Stefan Wackwitz and Uwe Timm reconstruct past family histories on the basis of traces, misplaced photographs, diaries and letters—Pawels Briefe. 61 The careful reconstructions of time and place in the recent memoir literature reveal not simply the objects stranded across the twentieth century but the selectivity of prior recollection that kept those objects out of view for so long. They plainly reveal the storiedness of autobiography and make use of the traces of other pasts that have survived to yield new evidence in the present. The story they tell is one of massive displacement. This sense of loss is also apparent at the national level. The German archive can no longer encompass the history of all the new Germanies. Its holdings cannot provide the answers to the questions about complicity, survival and murder or even provide a record of loss. The Bundesarchiv is hardly the only site where it is possible or necessary to research German history. German history no longer belongs to Germans alone: among the most moving Holocaust memoirs, for example, are those written by a Pole, an Italian and a Spaniard. Historians of Germany must move beyond Germany to begin to account for its history: to the places to which European Jews fled while it was still possible, including the Leo Baeck Institute in New York, Yad Vashem in Jerusalem and the National Archives in Washington, DC. [End Page 38] The forcible dispersion of European Jews and other refugees produced an archive of exile which encompasses semi-official papers of institutions such as the American Friends Service Committee, the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem, the American Jewish Archives and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee; private efforts at documentation from the autobiographies deposited already in the 1930s at Harvard University to the oral interviews of the Yale Holocaust project; and most impressively, thousands upon thousands of memoirs, autobiographies, and other recollections of displacement passed on from generation to generation. 62 The global displacements of the Holocaust have created a massive archive of survivor accounts that is without precedent.
The point of origin of this last archive is discontinuity, which makes special demands on its users. It is plural, rather than authoritative; manifestly incomplete, rather than comprehensive; global, rather than local. This archive of loss thereby subverts the state-centered authority of the conventional archive. To even begin to adequately understand the history of exile and mass death in twentieth-century Germany, and to write against the idea of a common past, the historian needs to write narratives from a variety of perspectives and adopt techniques of intertextuality. At the same time, the histories of Germany are marked with a lingering deficit: the final impossibility of completely understanding or fully accounting for the loss. The great burden of German history is to recognize that the archive in Germany is broken; to use it as if it were not would be to reproduce the excisions of the past. At the same time, the great opportunity of German history is to take the broken, dispersed archive of the twentieth century as a means to reflect on the storiedness of history, its exclusions and repressions, and its means of self-representation, and to reconsider the displacements of life and death in the past. In the end, the German archive provides evidence for both the absence of a common past and the enormous violence entailed in the attempts to produce it.
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Skiing
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Pavilion, girdle, table, and culet are aspects of a what?
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Project MUSE - The Archive
The Archive
Peter Fritzsche (bio)
"No one," wrote Pascal, "dies so poor that he does not leave something behind." Setting the scene at the moment of a single individual's death and drawing attention to personal possessions, Pascal conjures up the material traces of a single lifetime. A lived life creates physical effects: a sheaf of letters, a lucky coin, or a small fortune, things that construct correspondences between experience and materiality. Putting the stress on the larger world reflected in small objects, Pascal ennobles even the most modest lives and places all individuals in the same passage from life to death. Nearly three hundred later, Walter Benjamin reflected on Pascal's assertion. To Pascal's things he added "memories too." He then went on to subtract from what he had just augmented: "although these do not always find an heir." 1 What Benjamin accents is not the material endurance of things but the variable operations of memory. There is no longer the unproblematic correspondence between a life lived and a life remembered, but the difficult endeavor of remembering and the more general prospect of forgetting. And for Benjamin it is not so much what the dead leave behind as it is what the living end up retrieving. He thereby poses the question of attentiveness, the historically situated presence or absence of the habit of cultivating memories. Moreover, these habits of cultivation operate across time: heirs are daughters and grandsons. At the remove of a generation or two, they are the ones who undertake the work of memory. Finally, in place of the sonorous universal by which Pascal affirmed the material existence of all men and women, Benjamin implies particular heirs who need to feel a connection to the past in order for memories to remain alive. In contrast to Pascal's materialism, Benjamin proposes a [End Page 15] cultural interpretation of remembering in which traces are not simply left behind and recollection is not assumed, in which mental habits across time rather than physical things in the present bring the past into view, and in which specific heirs undertake the work of memorialization. Although Pascal refers to things and thereby builds an implicit archive of past lives, it is Benjamin who imagines the space in which the historical archive was constructed in order to ward off oblivion, to make the particular case for a historical subject, to identify the responsibility of the heirs to cultivate specific stories in the past.
The three hundred years that separate Benjamin from Pascal dramatize the historicity of the uses of history. They suggest the specific historical circumstances under which the past does and does not find heirs, is and is not energetically recollected. Benjamin writes in reference to a "crisis of memory," 2 a historical moment in the modern age when there is both a surfeit of unusable pasts and a deficit of usable history, when individuals die in the face of general indifference while self-appointed heirs energetically look for particular memories. It is in the distinction between Pascal and Benjamin that a history of the archive can be conceived. Archives are not comprehensive collections of things, the effects left behind by the dead, nor are they arbitrary accumulations of remnants and leftovers. The archive is the production of the heirs, who must work to find connections from one generation to the next and thereby acknowledge the ongoing disintegration of the past. The heirs also distinguish themselves as such: a cultural group that knows itself by cultivating a particular historical trajectory. In the West, the nation has been the dominant form of this particularity, reinforcing a common past within its borders and emphasizing the difference of cultural origins across its borders. It is a specific, historically contingent configuration of time and space that produced what Jacques Derrida referred to in another context as "archive fever." 3 If most conceptions of the archive emphasize how the archive has shaped history, I want to examine how German history has shaped the archive.
At the most general level, archival production rests on the premise that the past is no longer the business of the present and must be handled carefully in order to recognize the difference of its periodicity and to facilitate the retrieval of the past in however fragmentary form. But the energy of archival activity is founded on the assumption that artifacts and [End Page 16] documents can be made to tell special stories about social identity. The arduous endeavor of provenience, the concern for getting right chronology and context, functions to establish particular trajectories of the past and thereby to create a common past (and a shared future) that is culturally distinct. The archive thus produces two effects: the boundedness of identity in time and space and the synchronization of time and space within those bounds. Precisely because they are the means to establish provenience and thus expose cultural distinctions, archives are crucial to the infrastructure of the modern nation-state. In Germany and elsewhere in Europe, the archive arrives at the nineteenth-century moment when the state feels a responsibility toward the particular heritage of the past encompassed by its territory. 4
The effort of the nation to distinguish itself from other nations or to resist the claims of supranational entities such as empires has important, if sometimes neglected, democratic ramifications. The stories of the archive persistently exceeded state-sanctioned histories. In the first place, ordinary people increasingly recognized themselves as inhabitants of cultural territories distinguished by language and custom. Indeed, it was domestic settings—the food at the table, the architecture of the farmhouse, the annual cycle of festivals—that served as the primary markers of national identity, which had the effect of enfranchising citizens into history and authorizing their own vernacular versions of national history. Moreover, the work of the heirs created intimacies among strangers who held in common a national past. As Germans came to regard each other as contemporaries, they took interest in the tribulations of fellow citizens, tied their own autobiographies to the national epic, and thereby intertwined personal with national history. Precisely because the ordinary could stand for the national, the story of the nation never existed in a single defining version. It was reworked into vernaculars, sub-versions that existed as potential subversions. 5 Thus collective disasters and particularly wars had the effect of both intensifying the personal experience of the national and legitimizing individual and even dissident versions. Put another way, the onerous requirements for fighting war in the modern era necessitated upholstering a common past, while the sheer violence of war worked to jeopardize that unity, with both motion and countermotion adding to the paperwork of history. [End Page 17]
The history of the archive is embedded in the recognition of loss. For archives to collect the past, the past has to come to mind as something imperiled and distinctive. This presumes a dramatization of historical movement that fashions temporal periods based on the radical difference between now and then, which, in turn, invites the recognition of radical difference between here and there. The feverish part of archival activity is to distinguish difference in order to create a bounded national subject characterized by a separate history that is held in common by contemporaries. The establishment of historical and cultural archives in Germany at the beginning of the nineteenth century illustrates the effort to create these particulars of national identity. This bounded identity was also the premise for the vernacular archival activity of ordinary citizens, who more and more came to see their lives in historical terms. Loss continued to facilitate the production of archives after the unification of the German empire. In the twentieth century, the world wars, especially, encouraged the state to revisualize its citizens in order to more effectively mobilize them, producing new inventories of popular sovereignty in the Weimar period and racial archives in the Third Reich. Yet the experience of mass death and the Holocaust ended up creating dramatically divergent life stories that made it ever more difficult to hold onto the idea of a common German past or find shared memories among victims and perpetrators. After 1945, Benjamin's heirs in East and West Germany, in Israel and the United States, picked up very different strands of German history. At the turn of the twentieth-first century, the German archive can no longer be premised on the national rehabilitation of loss. It can only provide testimony to the violence of the attempt to do so.
The Recognition of Difference
It was not memory as such, but the specter of oblivion that constituted the German archive and prepared for the reorganization of the German past at the turn of the nineteenth century. The menace of French empire, the initial "German catastrophe" two hundred years ago, serves as the point of origin for the German archive, the purpose of which was to identify a specifically German past, a genealogy called Vaterland. The French Revolution had the fundamental effect of dramatizing the movement of history [End Page 18] into distinct periods separated by epochal breaks—1806 will be followed by 1871, 1914/18, 1933, 1945 and 1989/90. With the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6, the continuities connecting past and present shattered and the past increasingly came into view as a vast field of ruins. This entailed a remarkable revision in the way history was understood. 6 While Napoleon endeavored to organize ruins in a way that would represent the historical inevitability and endurance of the French Empire, German statesmen and intellectuals recast medieval relics to signify the political defeat but also the historical existence of the German nation. This was a bold epistemological step because it took ruins out of natural time and resituated them in historical time so that the traces of the past could serve as the particular evidence for political and religious confrontations, defeats and occupations, and undeveloped national alternatives. Ruins thereby acquired a half-life. If properly preserved, provenienced and analyzed, they could be made to speak for the nation. In the early 1800s, the German art collector Sulpiz Boisserée made the most sustained case for the separate national development of Germany. He rejected Napoleon's assumption that the French empire represented the most complete development of universal history, a schema in which Germany's medieval ruins occupied the subordinate status of precursor. Instead he argued that the German masters and Gothic cathedrals represented Germany's historical particularity that was no less credible than France's. He thereby reanimated the broken-down past as a national alternative to empire. In contrast to the centrally deposited "exemplary specimens" in Paris, Boisserée made the case for the eloquence of "recovered relics" in context. 7 It was provenience that became the key to establishing separate national trajectories that resisted the logic of universal history.
Boisserée's journeys up and down the Rhine, in which he catalogued the ruins of medieval abbeys, cathedrals and castles, were the first steps toward the creation of a German archive. Medieval history—first in 1806 in the form of debris, then as archival material, and later as reworked narrative—became German history; old time was turned into new space that defined the nation and repudiated the center–periphery model of empire. With the defeat of Napoleon, the German states established the first official regional archives to house the huge numbers of papers that with the end of the many sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire had lost their practical value and could now be rearranged as the prehistory [End Page 19] of the German nation. The preservation and analysis of these and other religious and local documents were overseen by the state-sponsored historical agency established by Baron vom Stein in 1819, the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, which published dozens of multivolumed editions of medieval documents. 8 The attention to Germany's medieval heritage is striking and absorbed most of the energies of Germany's historians for the rest of the nineteenth century. One practical reason for this is that the persistence of the absolutist state meant that Prussian records even from the eighteenth century did not become properly historical until 1918 and remained scattered in ministries rather than collected in a central archive. 9 But the medieval past also functioned as the dominant metonym for the German nation as a whole because it provided the key marker for the difference on which German identity was based.
The establishment of Prussian state archives and Stein's Monumenta Germaniae Historica, as well as Boisserée's collection of early-modern German art, Karl Friedrich Schinkel's like-minded efforts to preserve German monuments, and even Jacob and Wilhem Grimm's fairy tales were all attempts to create a common, durable and specific German past. Of course, it would be senseless to argue that all the inhabitants of the German states suddenly regarded themselves in terms of an encompassing German identity and recognized as their own the medieval past that Boisserée and others put into view. Yet the extraordinary success of the Grimm fairy tales in the years after their first publication in 1812 indicates how well the German story resonated with German contemporaries. Despite their transnational appeal—the first English edition came out in 1823—the fairy tales are definitively the Grimms' fairy tales and consistently evoked a particular idea of the German landscape. Moreover, the brothers insisted on the specifically Germanic origins of the tales. Indeed, the characters in the fairy tales were very much like the readers the Grimms hoped to find: they comprised locals as well as cosmopolitans, commoners as well as aristocrats, women and children as well as men, perfect examples of the vernacular culture the books came to represent. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the Kleine Ausgabe's collection of fifty of the most popular tales had sold two million copies in the German-speaking realm of fifty million people. 10
The fact that the Grimms' collection of German tales stood on the shelves of so many readers suggests the ways in which ordinary households [End Page 20] established archives. Although the point should not be pressed too hard, the new historical context allowed Germans to see themselves quite literally as contemporaries (Zeitgenossen), Benjamin's heirs who shared national history and historicized national territory. As a result, the most ordinary people came to take an interest in each other and to read their lives against the ordeal of the nation. The nineteenth century "was swamped with unremarkable self-revelations," notes Peter Gay. Thousands wrote these up, even "men and women with no claim to fame of any kind. They left their memoirs moldering in attics or buried in local archives, or asked a job printer to make an unpretentious book." 11
Autobiographical supply flourished because it appealed to biograph-ical demand. What authorized the histories of ordinary people was not simply notions of enfranchisement which came with the French Revolution but the tissues of connectedness that corresponded to a historical worldview and national identity. The idea of the nation both sentimentalized and popularized ordinary stories. It served as a social and literary point of reconciliation, making the ordeal of the nation the vehicle for recognizing the fate of the individual. The immense paperwork of history in the nineteenth century struggled to bring the distress of the one into correspondence with the other.
The People's Archive
It is remarkable that the sound of Napoleon's cannons continued to echo throughout the nineteenth century. The French Revolution, the Wars of Liberation and the outsized figure of Napoleon dominated the production and consumption of popular German history; Napoleon lent his name to fictional antiheroes as late as 1918 in Heinrich Mann's Man of Straw. Nearly one hundred years after the event, Germans still drew attention to the imperial menace and the fragile nature of national relics. But it was the wars of the twentieth century that dramatically reconfigured the archive because total war posed the question of the survival and definition of the German people.
Almost immediately, World War I intruded into the lives of almost every German family. Between August 1914 and July 1918, more than 13 million men served in the German army. Nearly 20 percent of the total [End Page 21] population and 85 percent of all eligible men mobilized to fight. Since the rupture of war coincided with the unprecedented engagement of millions of actual individuals, the crisis had a remarkable autobiographical aspect. Germans from all walks of life knew relatives on the front and told tales about fighting the war, procuring food and laboring in wartime factories. The war thus vastly expanded the people's archive. Although the German government produced thousands of war-related texts and histories, these cannot compare to the millions of letters, poems and newspaper articles written and consumed in domestic settings.
All sorts of documents revealed this personal engagement. During the war, newspapers published hundreds of unsolicited poems every day; by one estimate fifty thousand German war poems were written on each day of August 1914. 12 Families pasted scrapbooks and ordinary soldiers kept diaries and sent millions of letters home every day. Some 29 billion pieces of mail were sent back and forth between the battlefront and the home front in the four years that followed mobilization: every day some ten million letters, postcards, telegrams and packages reached the front, and every day nearly seven million were sent back home. 13 Although the political valence of this correspondence is unclear, given ordinary literary conventions, the increasingly centralized management of news, and military censorship, it is clear that contemporaries prized their own vernacular knowledge of the war. By the end of the war, over 97 separate editions of war letters had been assembled, published and purchased, the most famous of which was Philipp Witkop's 1916 Kriegsbriefe deutscher Studenten. 14 The high command acknowledged the power of these completely ordinary, unauthoritative letters by incorporating them into the patriotic "enlightenment" the troops received in the last two years of the war. 15 What all this suggests is the degree to which the war was regarded as a distinctively people's war. It was legitimated in the name of the people rather than the state or the monarchy, and it dramatized as never before the involvement of individuals in the larger movements of history. Archivists themselves recognized the importance of documenting popular sovereignty and called on citizens to preserve and turn over letters and other reports on the war. 16 Total war thus prompted an expansion of what constituted compelling historical evidence and reoriented the history of the war into social-historical streams. [End Page 22]
It was on the basis of individual experience that Germans disputed among themselves the meaning of the war. Although the published editions of war letters retained a generally patriotic tone, private correspondence to pastors, mayors and Reichstag deputies told other stories about injustices on the front and urged alternative courses of action. 17 And after the war, citizens returned again and again to the archives they had assembled in order to support their claims about the course of the war, the reasons for military defeat, and the justice of the November Revolution. Partisan newspapers on the left and the right were filled with recollections of frontline service, and recriminations forth and back were played out again when the flood of semi-autobiographical war novels commenced in the late 1920s. 18 Indeed, one of the most compelling wartime diaries, written by seaman Richard Stumpf and documenting the harsh discipline of naval authorities, was submitted as evidence in 1926 to a Reichstag commission examining the origins of the revolution and later published in polemical form. 19 No other war had been depicted in this unmanaged, democratic way.
The great consequence of World War I was the emergence of popular sovereignty as the organizing principle of German politics and thus the basis for the reorganization of the German archive. While Germans certainly did not agree on political questions or on the origins or outcome of the war, they justified their actions and expectations in terms of the nation and the people's community that the war had brought into view. As a result, excerpts from the people's archive gained unprecedented political value: Witkop's edition of war letters is the primary example. At the same time, Germany's defeat and the convulsions of the revolution threw open questions of political liability. Did Germany's government mishandle foreign affairs before 1914? Did socialists at home betray the army in the field? And what burden of responsibility did the military bear for the outbreak of the revolution? It was the sorry fate of the postwar nation that authorized enormous historical projects in the form of parliamentary commissions and protracted libel cases around the "stab-in-the-back" legend. The result was a massive reconstitution of the official archive in the public sphere, which signaled the unresolved nature of Germany's historical itinerary even if massive editions such as the sixty-volume Die grosse Politik der Europäischen Kabinette 1871–1914, overseen by the "Central Office to Investigate the Causes of the War" in the Foreign Ministry, claimed to offer definitive statements about Germany's guiltlessness. [End Page 23]
The importance of making the case for Germany, for both domestic and international publics and by both critics and apologists of the Kaiserreich, prompted the establishment of a central archive, the Reichsarchiv, in 1919. As a central repository of German history, it was charged with documenting and preserving the national heritage of Germans in the wake of the nation's defeat. "Wars trigger archives"; they did so in 1806 and again in 1918. 20 Housed in a former military school on the Brauhausberg in Potsdam and largely staffed by decommissioned officers, the Reichs-archiv was central to the effort to justify Germany's national cause. That it opened its doors to the public and initiated the collection of war letters and other documents of the people's struggle in the war, however, indicated that sovereignty had shifted from state to nation, and it thus enabled the production of alternative histories. But for the most part the Reichsarchiv served as the point of verification for Germany's national ordeal and for its refurbished future. 21
As Bernd Faulenbach explains for the 1920s, "a flood of historical publications engaged contemporary themes. A significant part of the work capacity of modern historians was absorbed in writing the 'prehistory to the present,' whereby the experience of the war and its resolution was the primary motivation." 22 Most of this historiography was nationalist and conventional, but it was supported by exhaustive and unprecedented archival research. The same empiricial foundation characterized as well the few historians such as Veit Valentin and Eckart Kehr who struggled to expose the authoritarian structure of the prewar German state. Entangled as they had become in German history, historians in Great Britain, France and the United States vigorously joined the debate about the origins of World War I (Bernadotte Schmitt and Sidney Fay are the key figures). 23 This entanglement was, of course, far greater after World War II, by which time it was impossible to write German history without non-German historians. Ultimately, the huge inflation of archival sources and archival documentation corresponded to a deflation in archival authority and to the revival of historical hermeneutics.
The shift from an emphasis on state to one on nation was the consequence of Germany's total mobilization effort during the war. But military defeat left the German subject undefined. Weimar culture added to a relentless attempt to survey, inventory and describe in order to revisualize the nation as an active, even triumphant, political player in the future. This [End Page 24] required a dramatic expansion of the archive. Historians and sociologists initiated comprehensive ethnographic surveys to establish the durability of German ethnic identity. Historians focused less on the achievement of German unification, as they had in the years before 1914, and more on the long-term and continuing struggle of the German people in Europe. They operated in the subjunctive mode and put accent on what remained incomplete and broken. 24 Along the edges of the profession, younger historians pursued more energetically the attempt to write a deliberately new kind of history of the German people. In particular, they looked to the border regions, which were not only imperiled by the postwar settlement but had been neglected in the Second Reich. It was here that historians believed they had found the site of a pure, besieged Germandom. "The variety of German settlements in east-central Europe and even overseas," writes Willi Oberkrom about these social-historical studies, "seemed to hold the 'magical key' to the recognition of 'our' ethnic identity." A closer examination of "settlement patterns, house types ... traditions and customs, clothing and food" promised to inventory "common generalities and regional particularities" and thereby uncover a "genuine folk life." Increasingly, "Volk was perceived as the constituent element and subject of social-historical evolution." 25
In an almost obsessive practice of self-observation, Germans scanned the resources of the country and the make-up of the population, building a cultural archive of items and types adequate to mastering the "altered world" of international instability and technological innovation. It was almost a game to identify the nation's new resources. Germany's largest newsweekly, Ullstein's Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung, introduced to the nation its "New Age Types": "the traffic policeman," "the radio operator," "the soundman," "the woman doctor," "the sports announcer," "the race car driver," "the driving instructor" and "the Alpine skier," all new-fangled experts of one sort or another. 26 Weimar culture produced dozens of physiognomic surveys such as this one, each one surveying and taking measure of the new face (Antlitz, a characteristic Weimar-era word) of the postwar world. Photographers such as Erich Retzlaff, Erna Lendvai-Dircksen and August Sander scrutinized the faces and bodies of Germans to build galleries of strength, solidity and rootedness at the level of the ordinary existence. 27 [End Page 25]
Cultural activity in the Weimar years developed as an effort to identify the human types and biological and technological forces that would equip the regenerate nation. It constituted nothing less than an ever-expanding archive of German capacity. However, the instrumentalization of the archive in the first years after 1918 was not systematic and lacked political direction, despite its nationalist tendency and military accent. After 1933, with the National Socialist seizure of power, the archive assumed a much larger role in German political life.
The Racial Archive
For the Nazis to realize their aim of reconstituting the German public as a self-consciously biological body politic, they had to be able to distinguish Jews from Germans and unhealthy elements from healthy ones, and they had to discipline Germans to conduct their lives according to new biological standards. This required not only the mobilization of existing records for political ends but the creation of new records that would recognize the biological categories the Nazis held to be so consequential. As the definitions of the political became more biological so did the official archive. Josef Franz Knöpfler, director of the Bavarian archival administration, stated the enhanced function of the archive in the National Socialist state quite clearly in 1936: "There is no practice of racial politics without the mobilization of source documents, which indicate the origin and development of a race and people.… There is no racial politics without archives, without archivists." 28 The first major step in the process of racial documentation were directives that beginning in 1933 instructed local health offices to identify those citizens who were deemed to be biologically unhealthy. These became ever more detailed and intrusive and provided the basis for the sterilization campaign that identified as many as one million Germans as biologically degenerate—a fifth of these were actually sterilized. 29 The second step was taken with the Nuremberg Laws of September 1935, which redefined German citizenry and excluded Jews from public life. But a comprehensive archive of who was German and who was not was only established with the census of May 1939. [End Page 26]
Conducted on 17 May 1939, after having been postponed for one year to include Austria, the national census established a relatively accurate count of who was Aryan and who was Jewish. It counted a total of 233,973 so-called racial Jews within the borders of 1939. A much more detailed survey took place on 13 August 1939, and it was the data it produced that was stored on punch cards for subsequent retrieval. (IBM's German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft, produced as many as 1.5 billion punch cards a year to sort and resort Germany's population.) 30 Although the data was never reassembled on the national level, it was stored in local and regional card catalogs, or Volkskarteien, which allowed authorities to identify in the territory of their responsibility able-bodied workers, potential soldiers, and Jews. Handed out one week by thousands of volunteers and collected the next, the Volkskartei compiled data in fourteen fields that corresponded to fourteen punch holes at the top margin of each card; these were later tabbed with different colors to simplify the process of assessment. All legal residents—Jews as well as non-Jews—filled out the cards, providing information on trade (field 2), physical impairments (field 4), education (field 6); ability to speak foreign languages or travel experience in a foreign country (field 7), other skills and expertise (field 8), and the ability to drive, ride and fly (field 9). It was no secret that this information was assembled in order to more perfectly mobilize Germans and make efficient use of their specific skills in the event of war. The types the Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung had introduced to readers in its Weimar-era photo series, the Nazi census succeeded in identifying for political purposes across the entire population. Mobilization was also accompanied by exclusion, or purification as the Nazis saw it: in the last field, field 14, authorities marked whether residents were Jewish; a black tab over the fourteenth punch hole designated the cardholder as Jewish. It was on the basis of these catalogs that local authorities identified and gathered up German Jews for deportation after 1941; all they had to do was pull the cards with the black tab on the last field. 31 Although not accessible from a single point, the Volkskartei very nearly realized the goal of a systematic ethnographic and racial archive.
The Nazis also racialized vernacular archives since they obligated individual Germans to maintain extensive racial archives about their bodies, lives and families. The biological politics of the regime did not simply posit the applicability of new physiognomic categories of race and health [End Page 27] but demanded that citizens strive to match their lives to those categories. "It is not a party badge or a brown shirt that makes you a National Socialist, but rather your character and the conduct of your life," announced one leading National Socialist health official in July 1933. 32 A "spiritual revolution" had to follow the accomplishments of the political revolution, insisted Walter Gross, director of the Rassenpolitisches Amt of the Nazi Party, a year later: we will "fundamentally remodel and reform"—"even all those things that seem today completely solid," he added. 33 What was necessary was to "recognize yourself" (Erkenne dich selbst), which meant following the tenets of hereditary biology to find a suitable partner for marriage and marry only for love, to provide the Volk with healthy children, and to accept "the limits of empathy" as a revitalized Germany weeded out racial undesirables. 34 The task was to make Germans into Aryans. Not only would the Aryan body have to be protected through vigorous eugenic measures but the Aryan self had to be implemented by the individual's responsibility to the collective racial whole. This put the emphasis on the efforts of ordinary, racially desirable Germans to discipline themselves in order to conduct their lives in accordance with the precepts of the racial future.
The most important papers in the expanded archive of domestic life in the Third Reich were those that documented Aryan identity. With the publication of the Nuremberg Laws in September 1935, the racial distinction between German (or Aryan) and Jew governed the most important aspects of everyday life, particularly the permission to marry and the registration of births and deaths. Just how willingly the transformation of Germans into Aryans and Jews was accepted is not clear, but the categories worked their way into everyday life. Victor Klemperer, for example, was astonished to hear even non-Nazi acquaintances talk about Sippe or genealogical kin. 35 Since vigorous public interest in genealogy went hand-in-hand with legal requirements to prepare an Ahnenpass, or genealogical passport, there seems to have been broad legitimacy to the idea of kin and thus the idea of racial insiders and outsiders. Most contemporaries were familiar with a "family tree," in which relatives are organized from the oldest ancestors down several generations to the numerous family clusters of the living generation. But the table of ancestors that Germans had to include in their racial passports worked quite differently, from the contemporary individual backward to include all blood relatives in an inverted pyramid. [End Page 28] "If the family tree is colorful and many-sided, depending on the number of children and the structure of the family," one genealogical expert commented, the table of ancestors "has an architectonic layout characterized by strict discrimination and mathematical uniformity." Beginning with the individual in question, it "reveals the direction of maternal and paternal bloodlines" in order to serve as a certification of blood purity and thus the inclusion of the individual in the "Volksgemeinschaft." 36 The effort at certification was no easy task. Germans needed the "nose of an accomplished detective" in order to gather up all the data to track bloodlines into the past. "State archives and libraries have to be trawled ... and also ranking lists, muster roles, telephone books, bills of lading, guild records. We also have to make our way to old cemeteries where tumble-down graves might reveal yet another clue." 37 ("Tumble-down graves"—there is an uneasy resemblance between the effort to document Aryan identity before 1945 and the recovery of traces of Jewish life in Germany and Poland after 1945.)
Beginning in 1936, anyone getting married assumed an "Aryan" identity. Prospective husbands and wives needed to document their Aryan racial status with notarized citations of the registrations of the birth, marriage and death of each of their parents and grandparents. Moreover, prospective newlyweds had to certify their genetic health, which, if local authorities believed it necessary, meant a visit to the local public health office and the acquisition of additional documents. (The law requiring such visits was drawn up, but suspended in practice.) In addition to handing out Mein Kampf, the registrar's office provided couples with pamphlets on maintaining and reproducing good racial stock—Deutscher, denk an deine und deiner Kinder Gesundheit, Handbuch für die deutsche Familie and Ratgeber für Mütter—and instructions on how to maintain proper genealogical records. 38 This constituted a broad effort to push Germans to document and comport themselves as Aryans. Piece by piece, ordinary Germans assembled their own private archives, and as they did they invariably became more recognizable as Aryans in Hitler's eyes and in their own.
Like the pre-formatted albums in which contemporaries during World War I pasted letters and photographs under patriotic and other sentimental headings, the racial passport or Ahnenpass was the axis around which the people's archive proliferated in the 1940s. For individuals to acquire the [End Page 29] necessary passport entailed the reorganization and systemization of old family records that were lying around as well as the procurement of new documents, some going back to the early nineteenth century. A cardboard box in Berlin's Landesarchiv contains old Ahnenpässe. Many were in fact mass-produced by the Verlag für Stammbaumwesen and included in the back matter a handy "Reichsalphabet der Familie," a list of permissible names for children, divided into recommended Germanic names from Adalbert to Wulf, for men, and Ada to Wunhild, for women, and acceptable non-Germanic names (Achim to Vinzent for men, Agathe to Viktoria for women), as well as the ubiquitous "Law for the Protection of German Blood" of 15 September 1935. New papers gathered inside the pages of the Ahnenpass: the mandated Arbeitsbuch; a four-leaf clover; a restaurant bill; a marriage certificate; birth announcements of children; baptismal certificates; innoculation records; divorce papers; insurance cards; Winter Aid stamps; and also correspondence with a son serving on the front; official confirmation of a soldier missing in action; a letter from a fallen man's comrade describing the whereabouts of the dead man's grave "in Aleksandrowka (village center) ... some 16 km. south of Olenin which is some 60 km. west of Rshew"; a 1945 "welfare card for bomb victims" (on which was also handwritten "refugees from the East"). 39 Family archives, racial categories and individual identities became increasingly calibrated with one another.
For German Jews, however, the process of archiving ran in reverse. Jews and so-called "racial Jews," converts to Christianity, were required to register themselves as Jewish with local authorities and to carry identification papers which labeled them as such. But otherwise, the paperwork they filled out at the command of the National Socialist regime was a prelude to the destruction of their private property and ultimately to their murder. In Dresden, Victor Klemperer spent the morning of Wednesday, 29 June 1938, "filling out forms: Inventory of Assets of Jews." An inventory of "household assets" followed in December 1941. Since "a house search can be expected immediately after the inventory statement," Klemperer resolved to part with his manuscripts and his diary, which his wife stowed with friends; thereafter, the additional entries that Klemperer made had to be secreted out of his rooms in small packets. As it was, the ability to maintain a private archive was already severely hampered by the shortage of paper and the prohibition on Jews from possessing typewriters. Since [End Page 30] the concentration of Jews in "Jew houses" usually preceded the outright evacuation of German Jews, Klemperer, like so many others, was forced to move into drastically smaller quarters, which meant the disposal of books and papers. "[I] am virtually ravaging my past," he wrote in his diary on 21 May 1941. "The principal activity" of the next day was "burning, burning, burning for hours on end: heaps of letters, manuscripts." Letters were still received: "today," wrote Klemperer on 7 December 1941, "I saw a postcard with the postmark: 'Litzmanndstadt Ghetto'... The card bore yet another stamp: 'Litzmannstadt, biggest industrial city of the East," Klemperer added. 40 But soon that correspondence came to an end as well. Incidentally, Jews had been prohibited from using German archives since 1938.
The racial archive reflected the ambitious efforts of the Nazis to shape a new collective subject; it at once required substantial self-archiving and recontextualization on the part of racial insiders and rested on the step-by-step exclusion and decontextualization of racial outsiders. It came with extraordinary systemization of provenience in order to manufacture a collective, Aryan subject in such a way that the possession of the archive itself became the arbiter of historical existence.
Archives of Loss
The burning of his personal archive that Klemperer undertook in May 1941 indicates an entirely new dimension to modern archival practice. Even the vernacular archive had become dangerous, and its carefree maintenance impossible, in conditions in which the Nazis sought to revisualize, reclassify and reorder the world. Klemperer's activity on that spring day reproduced in miniature the immense reconfiguration of the German archive in the twentieth century. His arson followed the demolition of countless politically risky archives already in 1933, when left-wing politicians and intellectuals burnt or otherwise disposed of their papers, a conflagration which the Nazis themselves fueled in their own book-burnings that they sponsored across Germany beginning in May 1933 and the ransacking of the files of countless civic groups and trade unions. 41 The holdings of some libraries actually diminished over the course of the 1930s. The emigration of German Jews entailed as well the dispersion and loss of personal papers, [End Page 31] libraries, heirlooms, photographs and other family memorabilia. Hundreds of synagogues were burned down in November 1938 and with them the evidence of Jewish life in Germany over the course of many centuries, a prelude to the willful destruction of the life and property of Jewish communities across Europe after 1939. German history came to the rest of Europe in the form of terrifying annihilation.
Klemperer's arson of May 1941 also anticipated the destruction that came with the end of the war. Much of the material evidence of Nazism's domestic setting was deliberately destroyed. "When you have two military brothers and a like-minded brother-in-law, you can image what sort of stuff has collected around the house," wrote one woman in besieged Gleiwitz in late January 1945 as she tore up incriminating photographs before the arrival of the Russians. 42 The writer Günter Kunert remembers the same thing as a child in Prenzlauer Berg, his Berlin neighborhood. He recounted what happened when word spread that the Russians were about to arrive: "Turmoil ensued—papers are taken out, documents, passports, photographs, any indication of one's own complicity ... straight into the fires of purgatory with all that incriminating material." 43 These private acts of destruction, and the absence to this day of a cluttered domestic archive of the years 1933–45, provide an indication of the entanglement of individuals in the racial categories of Nazism. (In contrast to this destruction was the rapid production of new archives after the war—stories of communist relatives, assistance to Jewish colleagues, Persilscheine, and other anti-Nazi bonafides.) 44 The actions of getting rid of the evidence of collaboration were compounded by the furious end of the war in Germany, the expulsion of twelve million Germans from eastern Europe, the bombardment of German cities and thus the ruin of countless households. In his poem "Autumn 1944," Hans Magnus Enzenberger remembered watching Allied bombers fly toward his hometown of Nuremberg and imagining the remnants of what amounted to his family's archive in the attic catching fire:
to him lying in the grass they appeared magnificent, shimmering high up in the wide open October sky, these streams of bombers, and no great loss the souvenirs burning far away in the musty attic: [End Page 32] collector's teacups and angel's hair, grandfather's Parisian postcards (Oh là là!) and his belt buckle from another war, petticoats full of holes, medals, doll houses, a plaster model of Psyche and in a cigar box some forgotten tickets to a shrine— but in the basement the corpses are still there. 45
I do not cite Enzenberger's poem in order to dramatize the poignancy of the material losses of Germans in Nuremberg or elsewhere, but to indicate the radical discontinuity that past things came to stand for after the mobilizations of total war. Like the photographs, domestic artifacts and old-fashioned interiors in W. G. Sebald's fiction, the material remnants of the 1920s and 1930s came to signify the broken nature of historical connections across the divides of the twentieth century. 46
However, the destruction of sensible connections with the past was not primarily the function of the material devastation of the war or even of the physical homelessness of millions of Germans in 1945. It was the result of the total seizure of German history by the National Socialists. The jumble in the German attic had been ever more deliberately organized and classified during the Third Reich so that the German past was transformed more and more into the specific prehistory of National Socialism: the messy family tree made way for the uniform table of ancestors. What did not fit in was thrown away. Indeed it is telling that with the onset of air raids after 1942 the Nazis had ordered the "Entrumpelung" or uncluttering of attic spaces. This precautionary measure against incendiary bombs thus led to the disposal of the junk that people had kept around them. By 1945, the loose ends of history had been largely cut off. What remained were artifacts that all too unambiguously designated National Socialism as the embodiment of German history, and these were both dangerous and useless with the end of the Third Reich. For this reason, traces of the domestic interior of the years 1933–45 have almost completely disappeared. Much of the past was simply jettisoned. "One bucket, one lampshade, a blue enamel bowl, 1 tall glass vase, and a picture in a [End Page 33] gilded frame"—the artist Eva Richter-Fritzsche watched an old man haul a few possessions into the Berlin subway in January 1945: "It is hard to believe," she commented, "that we are still able to haul all things along with us. But actually one throws away too much ballast—anything not to endanger the momentum, the new start." 47 Getting rid of the debris of the past was politically expedient, but it was more than that; it was a recognition that the archive had lost its pell-mell or happenstance quality and its multivocal registers. It was the imbrication of Germany's historical continuity and its political catastrophe that made so dramatic the break represented by 1945, which separated a cluttered but difficult past from an empty, directionless present. For contemporaries, 1945 was most readily described as collapse ("Zusammenbruch") or catastrophe. 48
With the "catastrophe" of 1945 Germany's archival fever had come to an end. National archives were reestablished in Potsdam in 1946 and, with the division of Germany, in Bonn in 1952, but the effort to distinguish a common German past as the marker of German identity proved increasingly unpersuasive. Of course, the Federal Republic oversaw attempts to reconstitute the German archive as a record of German loss and German victimization. In the 1950s, the West German government sponsored a massive Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, which gathered up hundreds of eyewitness accounts and cited a growing memoir literature. A large vernacular literature also chronicled the destruction of German towns and cities and the suffering of German soldiers in the east. 49 But while these accounts more or less adequately fashioned a collective subject in the form of the German victim, they did not provide a usable history and ultimately sharpened the evidence of loss and temporal discontinuity. The increasingly energetic effort to come to terms with the Nazi past had the same effect. While postwar archives and scholarly institutes promoted an understanding of Nazism, and its origins in the sweep of German history, they also marked off the past from the present and thereby dramatized the new beginnings of 1945 and then of 1968 and 1989 rather than historical connections. The sense of a new beginning persistently overshadowed the work of historical resolution. What sense of historical rootedness West Germans did feel was either local and thus politically indistinct or European and thus not specifically German. Postwar history came to stress what Germans shared with other people rather than what made them distinct and therefore did not require [End Page 34] the provenience of the archive. A specifically German historical continuity meant less and less to a population that increasingly felt that the present was the best time in which to live. 50 Even as conservative intellectuals such as Hans Freyer and Helmut Schelsky in the 1950s or Botho Strauss in the 1990s mourned the diminished role of history in the formation of German subjectivity, they acknowledged that national identity in postwar Germany rested on accepting the incommensurate nature of prewar lives in postwar contexts.
It was in the German Democratic Republic (GDR) that the new start was promoted most relentlessly and most oppressively. The attempt to create a new socialist citizen came with all the regimentation of the dictatorship but also opened up new spaces, putting stress on the willingness to adapt in the name of the future rather than recollecting the specificities of political background. This disregard for the personal histories of East Germany's citizens is startling; it stood in dramatic contrast to Stalinist Russia, where allegedly bourgeois pasts had continued to implicate and mortally endanger individuals throughout the 1930s and 1940s. 51 To cut off the dead hand of the past after 1945 had two critical implications for the status of the archive.
On the one hand, the particular histories of collaboration, opportunism or, for that matter, resistance in the Third Reich were absorbed by the general momentum of forward movement toward socialism. "We do not require a negative certification for not having been compromised, for having been neutral," party officials insisted, "but rather positive evidence of cooperation" now. Most of the population in East Germany could thereby acquire vague antifascist attitudes without providing the evidence of specific antifascist activities. 52 The particulars of antifascist resistance were not cultivated by a regime interested in creating a new socialist unity. It is telling that the East German state literally divested its citizens of their history, expropriating the memorabilia of Wilhlemine and Weimar-era political struggles by encouraging individuals to donate historical artifacts to East Berlin's Museum for German History; prohibiting sport clubs from maintaining their pre-1933 flags, banners and traditions; and marginalizing the testimony of surviving "old fighters." 53 Socialist unity in the East, much like the emerging democratic consensus in the West, had little use for reworking the political differences in the past. The traces of political trajectories disappeared in order to produce a generalized [End Page 35] antifascist consensus. The result was the characteristic "eventlessness" (Ereignislosigkeit) of the GDR. 54
On the other hand, the GDR strenuously monitored the political education of its citizens, creating a massive archive in the form of internal state security or Stasi files. By the end of the 1980s over 100,000 official Stasi agents and nearly twice as many unofficial collaborators reported on the extent to which the East German population lived up to the standards of a new, postwar socialist citizenship. Set against internal government documents, which were saturated with the monotonal ideological language of the Socialist Unity Party and even at the highest levels could hardly be distinguished from published propaganda in the official newspaper, Neues Deutschland, the Stasi archives provide an extremely textured documentation of everyday life in East Germany. In order to report on dissent, on contacts with the West and contamination by nonsocialist media, the Stasi infiltrated the most intimate, domestic spheres. It thereby enforced political compliance but also left an extraordinary record of ordinary conversations, daily rhythms and household arrangements.
The reach of the Stasi was certainly oppressive; nowhere in the Eastern Bloc were internal security agents so densely settled as in the GDR in the 1980s. No wonder citizens felt their presence like "a scratchy undershirt." 55 But Stasi attention to private spaces was also an acknowledgment that homes were not only one of the few spaces where antigovernment opinion could congeal but the particular sites where the regime could gain legitimacy by providing adequate housing, consumer goods and the promise of relaxation. Party officials spent an inordinate amount of time trying to realize a socialist standard of living. The agenda of high-level meetings, comments Thomas Lindenberger, often resembled nothing so much as a "catalog to an exhibit on the history of everyday life. That is how thoroughly they up there cared about everything that happened down there." 56 So important was success on this domestic terrain that citizens themselves were encouraged by the Ulbricht regime after 1961 to inform authorities about substandard products and services. This information produced a huge archive from below as ordinary East Germans passed along Eingaben or complaints to local and party authorities, to shop-floor work brigades and to media outlets. 57 By the end of the 1980s over one million petitions were being written annually, mostly about the housing crisis and meager travel opportunities. One estimate concludes [End Page 36] that nearly one in every two adults in East Germany wrote at least one petition each year. 58 While this ventilation of ordinary problems ended by channeling and depoliticizing criticism of the regime, it also indicated the degree to which citizens actively participated in the common cause of making a more just society. The Eingaben revealed just how much East Germans argued in terms of an ideal socialist society and thereby insinuated themselves in the effort. In this regard, the regime's aims to create a new morality were largely realized. The archive of everyday complaint had a further effect: it demonstrated how important the social and cultural role of the home had become in the years before 1989 and set the stage for the widespread nostalgia for those niches and the consumer products that came with them once the GDR disappeared.
Both the racial archive in the Third Reich and the Stasi archive in the GDR were founded on the attempt to create new kinds of citizens and to undo the disunities of the past. And both projects of classification invited citizens to recast their own lives in politically appropriate ways. But the differences are also fundamental. The racial archive aimed at the destruction of non-Aryans, while the Stasi archive was at once less dangerous to and more intrusive for the majority population. The sheer scale of Stasi espionage is extraordinary: more than one in every five, mostly male adults in East Germany had links to the Stasi and many more were monitored so that by the end of 1996 more than one million Germans had asked to review their files. 59 Ultimately, Nazi Germany rested on broader popular support, circumstances which demanded less intense monitorship of the population but also invited more energetic archiving of the self.
What remains in the aftermath of both dictatorships is the messy evidence of the imbrication of individuals in larger political projects, a mix of opportunism, regret and idealism. The desire to make the personal realm political mingles with efforts of even true believers to shield themselves and their families from complete political subordination. The legitimacy of the new future, whether it was the Nazi future of 1933, or the West German democratic future of 1949, or its East German socialist counterpart, quite successfully wiped away much of the old future it had superseded. Monika Maron, for example, describes German history in the twentieth century as a series of conversions, which repeatedly displaced the evidence of former lives. She admits her astonishment at how quickly her family had forgotten about the Jewish origins of the family in Poland [End Page 37] at the turn of the century, the heartbreaking letters to deported grandparents in the years 1939–42 and, more generally, the grinding poverty of tenement life in pre-1933 Berlin. 60 One of the dramatic things about recent German history is that it has repeatedly offered individuals opportunities for reinvention: as racial insiders in 1933 and as new democrats or socialists after 1945. The accent always fell on discontinuity rather than continuity. That reinvention meant acquiring new identities had the effect of both plundering and refashioning archives so that only traces of the repressed past remained. But these traces spoke with greater eloquence as one turning point gave way to another and the process of remembering increasingly meant reconstructing the process of forgetting and accounting the record of loss.
A new archive has emerged in the last two decades. On the vernacular level, it is based on the knowledge that the successive lives that Germans have made in the twentieth century were based on the extraordinary selectivity of remembrance. Memoirs and other autobiographical texts endeavor to reconstruct what had not been told, what did not get remembered. Thus authors such as Monika Maron, Wibke Bruhns, Stefan Wackwitz and Uwe Timm reconstruct past family histories on the basis of traces, misplaced photographs, diaries and letters—Pawels Briefe. 61 The careful reconstructions of time and place in the recent memoir literature reveal not simply the objects stranded across the twentieth century but the selectivity of prior recollection that kept those objects out of view for so long. They plainly reveal the storiedness of autobiography and make use of the traces of other pasts that have survived to yield new evidence in the present. The story they tell is one of massive displacement. This sense of loss is also apparent at the national level. The German archive can no longer encompass the history of all the new Germanies. Its holdings cannot provide the answers to the questions about complicity, survival and murder or even provide a record of loss. The Bundesarchiv is hardly the only site where it is possible or necessary to research German history. German history no longer belongs to Germans alone: among the most moving Holocaust memoirs, for example, are those written by a Pole, an Italian and a Spaniard. Historians of Germany must move beyond Germany to begin to account for its history: to the places to which European Jews fled while it was still possible, including the Leo Baeck Institute in New York, Yad Vashem in Jerusalem and the National Archives in Washington, DC. [End Page 38] The forcible dispersion of European Jews and other refugees produced an archive of exile which encompasses semi-official papers of institutions such as the American Friends Service Committee, the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem, the American Jewish Archives and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee; private efforts at documentation from the autobiographies deposited already in the 1930s at Harvard University to the oral interviews of the Yale Holocaust project; and most impressively, thousands upon thousands of memoirs, autobiographies, and other recollections of displacement passed on from generation to generation. 62 The global displacements of the Holocaust have created a massive archive of survivor accounts that is without precedent.
The point of origin of this last archive is discontinuity, which makes special demands on its users. It is plural, rather than authoritative; manifestly incomplete, rather than comprehensive; global, rather than local. This archive of loss thereby subverts the state-centered authority of the conventional archive. To even begin to adequately understand the history of exile and mass death in twentieth-century Germany, and to write against the idea of a common past, the historian needs to write narratives from a variety of perspectives and adopt techniques of intertextuality. At the same time, the histories of Germany are marked with a lingering deficit: the final impossibility of completely understanding or fully accounting for the loss. The great burden of German history is to recognize that the archive in Germany is broken; to use it as if it were not would be to reproduce the excisions of the past. At the same time, the great opportunity of German history is to take the broken, dispersed archive of the twentieth century as a means to reflect on the storiedness of history, its exclusions and repressions, and its means of self-representation, and to reconsider the displacements of life and death in the past. In the end, the German archive provides evidence for both the absence of a common past and the enormous violence entailed in the attempts to produce it.
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What is the traditional trade surname for a person who made or sold (typically knitted) legwear and socks?
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Research: Fashion Glossary - An A-to-Z Compilation of Fashion Industry Definitions | WeConnectFashion
Accessories
A collective term for articles usually worn to complete or enhance an outfit of apparel.
A thing of secondary or subordinate importance, items that enhance the aesthetic appeal or function of a garment.
Accessories include all articles ranging from Bags, Gloves, Belts, Neckwear, Jewelry, Legwear, Scarves, Ties, and Headwear.
Also known as: accessory, fashion, Accessoires, Zusatzgeräte, Accessori, Accesorios, Acessórios
Accessories industry
All articles ranging from hosiery to shoes, bags, gloves, belts, scarves, jewery, and hats. Usually worn to complete or enhance an outfit of apparel. 2. a thing of secondary or subordinate importance, items that enhance the aesthetic appeal or function of a garment. Also known as: accessory market, Industrie D’Accessoires, Zusatzgerät-Industrie, Industria Degli Accessori, Industria De los Accesorios, Indústria Dos Acessórios
Acetate
A synthetic fabric made from cellulose. 2: It is soft and has a crisp feel. It has the lustrous appearance of silk and excellent drapability. 3: It is not a strong fibre, as it’s resistance to abrasion is poor. It does resist shrinkage, moths, and mildew and does not absorb moisture readily. 4: Acetate is a dry clean only fiber. 5: Commonly used for Blouses, Lingerie, Uniforms, Bathing Suits and Interlinings. Also known as: Acetate, Azetate, Acetati, El Acetato, o acetato
Acrylic
A synthetic fabric made from acrylonitrile 2: It is a durable fibre with a soft, woolly feel. It has an uneven surface, making it different from most manufactured fibres. It comes in a variety of colors, and can be dyed easily. It is resistant to sun and chemicals. 3: Often used as a replacement for wool. trademark acrylic fibers: * Biofresh® anti-microbial fiber by Sterling Fibers * Cresloft® by Sterling Fibers * Duraspun® by Solutia * MicroSupreme® (warm) by Sterling fibers * MicroSupreme® (cold) by Sterling fibers * Piltrol®, low pill fiber by Solutia * Weatherbloc® by Solutia Also known as: Acryliques, Akrylisch, Acrilici, Acrílico, acrílico
Activewear
Also known as: active wear, athletic wear, athleticwear
Adjustable hemline
A hemline that has the ability to change the length by adjustable tabs.
Adjustable sleeve
A sleeve in which the length can be adjusted by a flap.
After five dresses
Also known as: after five, after five attire, after five wear, after five dress, after five fashion, after five fashions
Agents representatives
Also known as: Agents Représentants
A-line
A silhouette shape that resembles the shape of an A, fits tight at the waist and flows loosely at the bottom.
Alternative clothing
Also known as: Vetements de Fantaisie, Alternative Bekleidung, Abbigliamento Alternativo, La Ropa Alternativa, A Roupa Alternativa
Aniline Leather
A type of leather dyed exclusively with soluble dyes without covering the surface with a topcoat paint or pigments. The resulting product retains the hide’s natural surface with the grain. Referred to as Pure Aniline, aniline and naked leathers.
Apparel
A collective term for coverings designed to be worn on by men, women, and children. Includes all articles ranging from Athleticwear, Bodywear, Bridal, Dresses, Eveningwear, Innerwear, Knitwear & Sweaters, Leather & Suede, Loungewear, Pants & Trousers, Shirts & Blouses, Sportswear, Streetwear, Suits, Swimwear & Beachwear, T Shirts. Also known as: garment, clothing, clothes, apparel industry, aparel, Habillement, Kleid, Abito, Ropa, Appare
Apparel designer
Also known as: designer d’habillement
Apparel industry
Also known as: garment industry, clothing, fashion, apparel market, Industrie D’Habillement, Kleid-Industrie, Industria Dell’Abito, Industria De la Ropa, Indústria Do Appare
Apparel marts
An established, stationary trading center or marketplace (Usually a large building) housing regional wholesale showrooms selling apparel and or accessories. Also known as: merchandise marts, apparel mart, merchandise mart, centres commerciaux, Kleidhandelszentren, marts dell’abito, centros comerciales de la ropa, marts do apparel
Application service provider
Application Service Provider Also known as: application service provider, apparel software, textile software, Fournisseur De Service D’Application, Anwendung Diensterbringer, Fornitore Di Servizio Di Applicazione, Abastecedor De Servicio Del Uso, Fornecedor De Serviço Da Aplicação
Appliques
A decoration or ornament, as in emblems or needlework, that are superimposed and sewn or fused to garment components. 2: Includes Emblems. Also known as: emblems, appliques, appliques, appliques, appliques, appliques
Argyle
A pattern designed with different color diamond shapes knit into a fabric.
Ascot
A wide scarf that is loosely tied under the chin.
Associations
A formal organization or body of people who have an interest, activity, or purpose in common. Also known as: organizations, trade offices, embassy, association, society, institute, Associations et Societes, Gesellschaften und Genossenschaften, Associazioni E Societa, Asociaciones y Sociedades, As Associações & As Sociedades
Asymmetric hemline
A hemline that is longer on one side of the skirt or dress than it is on the other.
Athleticwear
A kerchief for the head, made form a piece of folded trianangular shaped fabric.
Baby accessories
All articles ranging from Nursery Items, Layaettes, Juvenile Furniture, Bedding, Bibs and Diaper Bags. Also known as: infant accessories, Accessoires De Bébé, Baby-Zusatzgeräte, Accessori Del Bambino, Accesorios Del Bebé, Acessórios Do Bebê
Babywear
Clothing made especially for babies. Also known as: Vetements Pour Bebes, Babykleidung, Abbigliamento Per Neonati, Babywear, Babywear
Back yoke
a section of fabric inserted into the back of trousers below the waist and above the crotch, is functional as gives more ease for sitting.
Backpack
A bag with straps that is worn on a person’s back. Often made of fabric or plastic. Also known as: knapsack, rucksack, sac a dos, Rucksack, Fagotto, Petate, Backpack
Backwrap
Wraparound that fastens at back.
Badges
An article that is attached to the body using a pin. Often used as method of identification. Also known as: Ecussons, Abzeichen und Anstecknadeln, Distintivi, Divisas, Emblemas
Bags
An article made from fabric that is used to carry objects in. Also known as: sacs
Bags & carriers
A collective term for items used in wrapping and labeling. Includes all items ranging from Garment Bags, Shopping Bags, Tissue Paper, Labels and Hangtags. Also known as: wrap, wrapping, bag, Sacs et Ensembles de Transport, Plastiktuten und Tragetaschen, Saccheni E Buste, Bolsos y Portadores, Os Sacos & Os Portadores
Balaclava
A covering for the head and neck
Baldric
An ornamental shoulder belt to hold swords
Balloon sleeve
A large puffed sleeve, also known as a bouffant sleeve.
Balmacaan
Loose fitting single-breasted coat with a small turnover collar and raglan sleeves.
Band
Strip of fabric usually close fitting that holds fabric into an area of the body.
Band collar
Commonly found on shirts this collar is a narrow strip of fabric that incircles the neck.
Bangle
An item of jewelry for the wrist, usually a stiff shape that is clasped or slipped on.
Bar coding equipment
A series of vertical bars of varying widths, in which each of the digits zero through nine are represented by a different pattern of bars that can be read by a laser scanner. The bars are commonly found on consumer products and are used to indicate price and track inventory control. 2: Bar codes are read by a bar code reader and the code interpreted either through software or a hardware decoder. Also known as: bar coding, barcoding, Materiel CodeBarre, Strichcodiereinrichtung, Attrezzature Per Codici a Barre, El Equipo de la Codificación de Barra, O Equipamento Do Coding De Barra
Bar tack
a concentrated group of stitches used to reinforce an area of a garment
Bark cloth
A textured woven, usually printed cotton fabric that was popular in the 1930s-40s and 50s as an interiors fabric. The prints were often large vines, leaves and florals.
Basque
Form fitting bodice for women.
Bathing suit
A garment designed for swimming, refers to all styles including: bikinis, mallots, tankinis
Batik
A method of dyeing fabric where some areas are covered with wax or pastes made of glues or starches to make designs by keeping dyes from penetrating in pattern areas. Multicolored and blended effects are obtained by repeating the dyeing process several times, with the initial pattern of wax boiled off and another design applied before dyeing again in a new color.
Bathrobe
A loose fitting robe for use around the house, often absorbent for using after washing.
Batiste
A thin plain-weave cotton, rayon, wool or linen fabric. Light weight, soft and semi-sheer. 2: Also commonly used for shirts or dresses. In a heavier weight, it is used for foundation garments and linings. Also known as: batiste, Batist, batista, batista, cambraia
Batwing sleeve
Where the sleeve is cut in one with the garment body meaning there is no shoulder seam and the armhole reaches from the waist up.
Beachwear
Also known as: vetements de plage
Beachwear
Clothing for the beach.
Beads & pearls
A small, often round piece of material, such as glass, plastic, or wood, that is pierced for stringing or threading onto apparel and accessories. 2: Includes Pearls. Also known as: pearls, pearl, bead, beads, beads jewelry, perles et perles, Korne u. Perlen, branelli & perle, granos y perlas, grânulos & pérolas
Beanie
A small round tight fitted hat.
Bell bottoms
Pants that have very flared hem.
Bell sleeve
Sleeve that flayers to a bell shape at the hem.
Bellow pocket
Common pocket type on jackets, it has an inverted pleat to allow for expansion. It is also known as a safari pocket.
Belt loop
Small pieces of fabric positioned around the waistband to thread a belt through.
Belted cuff
Typically found on outerwear such as raincoats.
Belted waistline
A waistline that has a belt to help hold the garment in place.
Belts
A flexible band, as of fabric, leather, string, suede, plastic or chain, worn around the waist to support clothing, or serve as decoration. 2: A band to tie or buckle around the body (usually at the waist) 3: An often elastic strap worn over the shoulders to support trousers. Often used in the plural. Also known as: suspenders, Ceintures, Gortel, Cinture, Las Correas, Correias
Begaline
A fabric with a crosswise rib made from textile fibers (as rayon, nylon, cotton, or wool) often in combination.
Beret
A soft flat-crowned visorless hat
Bermuda
A rounded cloth bag with wooden handles.
Bermudas
Knee length shorts, usually with a bold print.
Bertha
A collar that covers the shoulders with its wide curved shape.
Bespoke
Usually refers to menswear tailoring, where that garments have been custom-made to fit the consumer.
Better
Also known as: meilleurs, besser, migliori, mejores, melhores
Bias bindings
Also known as: Liseres En Biais, Schraghander Zum Einfassen, Fenucce Di Sbieco, Atascamientos Diagonales, Emperramentos Diagonais
Bias ruffle
trim that is made from circular fabric pieces that are sewn on to a seam with a smooth edge creating a fuller shape at the hem.
Bindings
A strip sewn or attached over or along an outer edge for protection, reinforcement, or ornamentation. Also known as: binding, Liseres, Einfabander, Fenucce, Atascamientos, Emperramentos
Bishop sleeve
Normal set in shoulder that widens as it goes down the arm and then gathered at wrist by a shallow cuff.
Blazers
Also known as: blazers
Bleachers
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of bleaching of apparel or textiles. Also known as: bleaching, Gradins au soleil, Bleachers, Bleachers, Blanqueadores, Bleachers
Blouse
Woman’s shirt.
Blouse fabrics
Also known as: Tissus Pour Corsages, Blusengewebe, Tessuti Per Bluse, Telas de la Blusa, telas da blusa
Blouses & shirts
Also known as: Corsages et Chemises, Blusen und Hemden, Bluse E Camicette, Las Blusas y Las Camisas, As Blusas & As Camisas
Boat neckline
Shallow curve from shoulder to shoulder, also know as bateau neckline.
Bodies
Also known as: body wear, leotard, leotards
Boiled wool
Felted knitted wool, it offers the flexibility of a knit with great warmth. Created by washing100% wool jersey in hot water and drying in a hot dryer. Expect 50% shrinkage.
Bonings
Also known as: Baleinages, Nivellierzub, Stecche Di Balena, Bonings, Bonings
Boots
Also known as: bottes
Bound cuff
A casual style cuff that has all the edged bound within a trim to give a neat finished edge.
Bow
Two strips of fabric that are tied together to create a bow. can be used as decoration ar as a functional fastening.
Bow collar
Avery feminine collar that has two ties that are tied together to create a bow at the front.
Bows
Also known as: Noeuds de Ruban, Bandschleifen, Fiocchi, Arqueamientos, Curvas
Box pleats
evenly spaced double pleats created by folding under the fabrics on both sides.
Bracelets
An item of jewelry for the wrist made up of links that usually has a clasp fastening. Also known as: bracelets
Braids
Interwoven ornamental cord or ribbon used to trim, decorate or edge apparel or accessories. Also known as: braid, braiding, Tresses, Borten, Litzen Usw, Passamaneria, Trenzas, Tranças
Brahma Hide
A type of cow that has a hump in the neck area of the hide which creates a small slit or hole. Typically these areas are not used when cutting leather and have no impact on yield.
Brassieres
Undergarment (Usually worn by Women) to support and give contour to the breasts. Also known as: bras, bra, shapewear, bandeau, soutiens-gorge, Büstenhalter, reggiseni, sujetadores, brassieres
Brick-and-mortar
Retailers that have a physical storefront and offer face-to-face customer experiences.
Bridal
A collective term for clothing especially designed for active athletic lifestyle. Includes all items ranging from Bodywear, Golfwear, Jog suits, Playwear, Skiwear, Sweatwear and Tenniswear. Also known as: active wear, athleticwear, voile, activewear, activewear, activewear, activewear
Bridal veils
A length of cloth worn by bride over the head, shoulders, and often the face. 2: A length of netting or veiling attached to a woman’s hat or tiara, worn for decoration during wedding and bridal party. Also known as: veiling, Voiles de noce, BrautcSchleier, Velare Brida, Velos Nupciales, Véus Brida
Bridal wear
A collective term for clothing of or pertaining to a Bridal outfit, Bridal Party or Bridal ornaments. Includes all items ranging from Wedding Dresses, Mother of the Bride, Bridesmaid Dresses, Gowns, Evening Gowns, Formal Dresses. Also known as: bridalwear, bridal wear, wedding, mother of the bride, bridesmaid, Vetements de Mariee, Brautmoden, Abiti Da Sposa, El Desgaste Nupcial, O Desgaste Bridal
Bridge
Also known as: passerelle, Brücke, ponticello, puente, ponte
Broadcloth
A plain-weave or very fine crosswise rib weave fabric of cotton, silk, or wool with a smooth finish. 2: Commonly used for Shirts and dresses, particularly the tailored type. Also known as: broad cloth, Drap, Feiner Wollstoff, Tessuto a doppia altezza, Paño, Broadcloth
Brocade
A jacquard or dobby weave fabric of cotton with a rayon and silk pattern. A rich, heavy textured fabric with elaborate design. 2: Commonly used for After Five wear and church vestments. Also known as: brocard, Brokat, broccato, brocado, brocade
Broderie anglaise
A type of lace fabric that is white cotton-based with a patteren of small holes that have embroidered edges. Offten used in childerenswear and blouses. Also known as: Broderie Anglaise, Englische Broderie, Ricami All’inglese, Broderie Anglaise, Broderie Anglaise
Buckle
a type of fastenings offten used in shoes and belts, that has a strap of fabric with multiple holes so it can easily be adjusted.
Budget
Also known as: budget, Etat, preventivo, presupuesto, orçamento
Buffed leather
A shirt, tunic, or gown, made of light weight material, that fits loosely.
Camisole
A sleeveless short top for women.
Camisoles
Also known as: camisoles
Canvas
A heavy, coarse, closely woven fabric of cotton, hemp, or flax, commonly used for totes, tents and sails. Also known as: canvass, Toile, Kanevas, Tela, Lona, lona
Capelet
A tiny cape.
Cape
A loose sleeveless outer garment fastened at the throat and worn hanging over the shoulders. Designed for use outdoors. Also known as: cloak, mantle, cabo
Capote
A long coat or clock that incorporates a hood.
Capped sleeve
This sleeve has a larger shoulder part than it does underarm, creating a cap like look.
Capri pants
Fitted pants that end somewhere between under the knee and above the ankle (capris).
Capuchin
A cloak with a hood, made for women.
Car coat
A coat that is three quarter length.
Carcanet
A decorative necklace, chain, collar, or headband (archaic).
Cardigan
A sweater that opens the entire length of the center front, usually it does not have a collar.
Career wear
Also known as: career dress, career dresses, vetements de carriere
Cashmere
A soft often expensive fabric made of the fine, downy wool growing beneath the outer hair of the Cashmere goat. 2: Has a very soft silky finish; very light in weight. Doesn’t stand up to hard wear on account of extremely soft downy finish, can pill. 3: Commonly used for sweaters, shawls and scarfs. Also known as: cachemire, Kaschmir, cachemire, cachemira, caxemira
Casualwear & leisurewear
Also known as: Vetements Sport & Vetements Loisirs, Lassige Freizeitkleidung, Abbigliamento Sportivo, Casualwear y Leisurewear, Casualwear & Leisurewear
Catalog production
A publication, such as a book, pamphlet or directory, containing such a list or display of items for sale either wholesale or retail. Also known as: look books, catalogue, spec sheets, production de catalogue, Katalogproduktion, produzione del catalogo, _ catálogo producción, produção do catálogo
Catalogs
Also known as: catalog, Catalogues, Kataloge, Cataloghi, Catálogos, Catálogos
Catwalk
a belt or sash used at the waist.
Chaps
leather pants joined together by a belt or laces, which tend to have flared out flaps. Chaps are worn over pants.
Chemise
A lightweight loose fitting dress, worn under women’s clothes.
Chemisette
A garment used to fill in the front of a dress.
Chenille
A mostly plain weave heavy fabric woven with tufted cord, of cotton, silk or worsted. 2: Commonly used for sweaters and trimming. Also known as: chenille, chenille, chenille, chenille, chenille
Chesterfield
Either single breasted or double breasted overcoat with a collar made of velvet, tends to be semi-fitted.
Chic
(French) fashionable, stylish.
Chiffon
A soft gauzy plain weave fabric of sheer silk or rayon. 2: It is best suited to shirring, draping, gathering, tucking, etc., because it is so limp. If made in a straight sheath style, it should be underlined with very firm fabric. 3: Commonly used for After Five wear, Blouses, Scarves, Ruches and Trimmings. Also known as: chiffon, chiffon, chiffon, chiffon, chiffon
Children’s wear
Also known as: vetements pour enfants, Abnutzung der Kinder, usura dei bambini, desgaste de los niños, desgaste das crianças
Chinos
Men’s trousers that are made of chino fabric (Khakis).
Choker
a necklace that fits closely to the neck.
Christening gowns
Also known as: Robes de Bapteme, Tauftalare, Abitini Da Battesimo, Bautizando Los Vestidos, Christening Vestidos
Circular knit
Also known as: Tricoter Circulaires, Rundstrickmaschinen, Maglia Circolare, Circular de Knining, Circular De Knining
Classic
Something that does not go out of style.
Clearing lines
Also known as: Articles de Solde, Zwischenfutter, Liquidazioni, Líneas Que Borran, linhas de cancelamento
Cloak
An outer garment that drapes loosely.
Cloche
a tiny hat that has a deep rounded crown and a narrow brim, worn by women.
Clodhopper
a shoe that has a wooden sole
Closures
A fastening holding two ends fitted or coupled to the other. Also known as: Fasteners, snap, snaps, rivets, rivet, hook, hooks, button, buttons, hook and eye, fermetures, Schliessen, chiusure, encierros, fechamentos
Cloth examination machines
Also known as: Machines a Examiner Les Etoffes, Maschinen Zur Textilienprufung, Macchine Per Esaminare Stoffa, Máquinas de la Examinación del Paño, Máquinas Da Examinação De Pano
Cloth laying machinery
Also known as: Machines de Pose de Tissu, Stofflegemaschinen, Macchinario Posa Stoffa, Paño Que Pone Maquinaria, Pano Que Coloca A Maquinaria
Clothier
a person who produces or sells clothing.
Clothing
Also known as: Habillement, Kleidung, Vestiti, Ropa, Roupa
Club wear
Also known as: vetements de club
Clutch bag
a tiny handbag that is usually strapless (Clutch).
Clutches
A purse, usually without shoulder straps or handles designed to be grasped by hand. Usually designed for special occasion dressing. Also known as: clutch, clutch bag, clutch bags, clutch purse, Embrayages, Kupplungen, Frizioni, Embragues, Embreagens
Coat
a garment worn over clothes. They can have different lengths, collars, and styles.
Coatdress
A dress that is styled like a coat, incorporating buttons from top to bottom.
Coated fabrics
Also known as: Tissus Revetus, Beschichtete Gewebe, Tessuti Impregnati, Telas Cubiertas, telas revestidas
Coats
An external covering that has sleeves and covers the body from shoulder down below the waist. Usually worn outdoors. Falls under major category Outerwear. Also known as: top coat, overcoat, surcoat, surcoat, mantel, cappotti, Manteaux, Mantel, Cappotti, Las Capas, Os Revestimentos
Cocktail & evening wear
Also known as: Robes de Cocktail et de Soiree, Cocktailparty und Abendgarderobe, Abiti Da Cocktail E Da Sera, El Desgaste del Coctel y de la Tarde, O Desgaste Do Cocktail & Da Noite
Collar
Aband or chain worn around the neck.
Collars
Also known as: Cols, Halsbander, Colleni, Los Collares, Colares
Collars & cuffs
Also known as: Cols et Manchettes, Kragen und Manschetten, Colleni E Polsini, Collares y Pun¢Os, Colares & Cuffs
Collection visuals
Also known as: Collection visuelles
Color service
Also known as: service colore
Color services & equipment
Also known as: color trends, forecasting, trend forecasting, color forecasting, pantone, pantone color, color matching, color match, color forecast, color marketing, color association, color box, intenational color authority, Services Et Équipement De Couleur, Farbe Dienstleistungen U. Ausrüstung, Servizi & Attrezzature Di Colore, Servicios Y Equipo Del Color, Serviços & Equipamento Da Cor
Commission dyers
Also known as: Teinture Sur Commandes, Farbereien For Kommissionsarbeiten, Tintorie a Prowigione, Comisión Dyers, Commission Dyers
Commission knitters
Also known as: Tricoteurs Sur Commandes, Strickereien For Kommissionsarbeiten, Maglierie a Prowigione, Calceteros de la Comisión, Knitters Do Commission
Commission printers
Also known as: Imprimeurs Sur Commandes, Druckereien fur Kommissionsarbeiten, Stampatori a Prowigione, Impresoras de la Comisión, Impressoras Do Commission
Competitive intelligence and analysis
Also known as: Intelligence et Analyse Compétitive
Competitive pricing
Also known as: Évaluation compétitive
Component assembly
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of assembling goods into finished products. Also known as: Small Piece Goods Contractor
Computer aided design cad / cam
The use of computer programs and systems to design detailed two- or three-dimensional models of apparel or accessories. Also known as: computer aided design, computer aided manufacturing, Conception Assistees Par Ordinateur, Computerunterstutztes Design, Disegno Assistito Da Elaboratore, Diseño Automatizado Cad / Leva, Computador Ajudaram Ao Projeto Cad / Came
Contemporary
Also known as: contemporain, Zeitgenosse, contemporaneo, contemporáneo, comtemporâneo
Contractors
A collective term for someone (a person or firm) who agrees to furnish materials or perform services at a specified price. 2: Includes all initial stages of production from patternmaking, cutting and sewing to all final stages of production from trimming wet processing, garment dyeing, postcuring, final pressing to ticketing, folding and packaging.Independent producers who perform sewing operations, and sometimes cutting,f or apparel manufacturers and / or jobbers ( and increasingly for retai,lers). Typically, contractors receive cut garments in bundled form an process them into completed garments. Many contrctors and manufacturers have long-standing working relationships and function virtually as parrtners in producing garment lines. Contractors can be domestic or offshore. Also known as: contracter, apparel contractor, textile contractor, apparel factory, garment factory, clothing factory, Entrepreneurs, Fremdfirmen, Appaltatori, Contratistas, Contratantes
Contractors trim
Also known as: équilibre d’entrepreneurs, Fremdfirmaordnung, cornice degli appaltator, ajuste de los contratistas, guarnição dos contratantes
Converters
A firm that buys or handles the greige goods (unfinished fabrics from mills and contracts them out to finishing plants to have them finished, dyed and or printed to turn into finished products. Also known as: Convertisseurs, Konverter, Convertitor, Convertidores, Conversores
Conveyors & transporters
Also known as: Convoyeurs et Transporteurs, Forderanlagen und F6rderbander, Convogliatori E Trasportatori, Transportadores y Instrumentos de Los Transportadores, Os Transportes & Os Transporters
Coordinates
Also known as: Ensembles Coordonnes, Kombinationen, Completi, Coordinates, CoOrdinates
Cords
A slender length of flexible material usually made of twisted strands or fibers and used to trim, bind, tie, connect, or support. Also known as: cordage, cording, cord, Cordes, Schnure, Cordoni, Cuerdas, Cabos
Corduroy
A strong and hardwearing woven cotton-based fabric that has evenly spaced riddges running the length of the fabric. Also known as: Velours Cotele, Kordsamt, Velluto a Coste, Pana, corduroy
Corrected grain
Referring to the surface of the leather, which has been sanded, buffed and altered from a full grain.
Corselette
An undergarment, a combination of a girdle and brassiere.
Corset
A tight fitting undergarment incorporating boning for support; it usually is hooked or laced in the back and starts at the torso and ends below the hips.
Costume jewelry
Body Ornaments, such as Bracelets, Earrings, Necklaces, Pins and Pendants, or Rings, frequently made of semi-precious and precious stones and 14K - 21 K Gold. Handmade and mass produced. Also known as: Jewelery, jewellery, Joaillerie de Costume, Modeschmuck, Gioielleria Alla Moda, Traje y Manera, Forma Da Jóia
Cotton
A natural fabric made of thread or cloth manufactured from the fiber of cotton plants. 2: There are four main types of cotton: American Upland, Egyptian, Sea Island and Asiatic. 3: Cotton, in general, is very strong, drapeable, elastic and absorbent. 4: Commonly used for a wide range of apparel from blouses and shirts to hosiery and neckwear. Also known as: Coton, Baumwolle, Cotone, Algodón, algodão
Cotton knitted
Also known as: Coton Tricot, Gestrickte Baumwolle, Maglieria In Cotone, Algodón Hecho Punto, algodão knitted
Cotton woven
Also known as: Coton Tisse, Gewebte Baumwolle, Cotone Tessuto, Algodón Tejido, algodão tecido
Couture
Also known as: Couture, Couture, Couture, Couture, Couture
Cravat
a scarf worn around the neck (necktie).
Creasing machinery
Also known as: Machines a Former Les Plis, Falzmaschinen, Macchinari Per Fare Le Pieghe, Arrugando Maquinaria, Maquinaria Vincando
Crepe
A mostly plain-weave light soft thin fabric of silk, cotton, wool, or another fiber, usually with a crinkled or puckered surface with a soft mossy finish. 2: Comes in different weights and degrees of sheerness and drapes well. 3: Commonly used for dresses of all types, including long dinner dresses, suits, and coats. Also known as: crape, Crepe, Krepp, Crespo, Crepe, crepe
Crepe de chine
Also known as: Crepe de Chine, Chinakrepp, Crespo Dacina, Crepe de Chine, crepe de Chine
Crew neck
A neckline that does not have a collar and is rounded.
Crinkle fabrics
Also known as: Toiles Plissees, Faltengewebe, Tessuti Increspati, Telas de la Arruga, telas do crinkle
Crop top
A women’s top that is extremely short. It usually ends below the bust.
Cuff
The end of a shirt sleeve.
Culottes
S loose fitting pant, which resembles a skirt.
Cummerbund
a wide waistband that is worn instead of a vest in men’s formalwear.
Curved and change pocket
Mostly used in jeans, this pocket is a curved pocket, with an added tiny pocket on the inside, which is slightly visible.
Curved hemline
The bottom of a skirt or dress that has a slight curve to it.
Curved pocket
This pocket has a rounded look to it.
Curved waist
A style of a waistband that draws attention to the stomach.
Customs brokers
a market specialsit in a resident buying office who covers a segment of the sholesale market and makes information about is available to client stores.apparel trextiles see textile agent or broker Also known as: customs agents, Agents en douanes, Gewohnheiten Vermittler, Mediatori Di Dogana, Corredores De Costumbres, Corretores De Costumes
Cutaway
A coat that parts at the front waistline to form tails at the back of the garment.
Cut-away shoulder
An overgarment with slit sided and wide sleeves.
Dance & exercise wear
Also known as: Vetements Pour La Danse et Pour Excercices, Sport und Trainingsbekleidung, Indumenti Per Danza Ed Esercizio Fisico, La Danza y El Desgaste del Ejercicio, A Dança & O Desgaste Do Exercício
Dart
a fold in the fabric that tappers to a point and is sewn in place, gives shape to a garment.
Dart equivalents
ways of giving shape to a garment without the use of darts such as pannel lines and gathering.
Dashiki
A loose fitting pullover usually in a bright color.
Debutante & prom
Apparel of or pertaining to Coming out and Prom. Includes all items ranging from Prom, Debutante and Pageant gowns. Also known as: debutante, pageant, gowns, formal dresses, prom, prom dress, prom dresses, gown, pageant gown, Debutante et PROM, Debutante u. PROM, Debutante & prom, Debutante y prom, Debutante & PROM
Decolletage
A very low cut neckline that exposes the upper chest.
Delivery
Also known as: livraison
Denim
A coarse twill weave cloth, usually cotton with a dark blue hue. 2: Long wearing, it resists snags and tears. Comes in heavy and lighter weights. 3: Commonly used for jeans, overalls and work uniforms. Also known as: jeans, blue jeans, dungarees, Coutil, Drillich, Tessuti Di Cotone Ritorto, El Dril de Algodón, denim
Denim wear
Also known as: Vetements de Denim, Denim Bekleidung, Abiti In Tessuto Di Cotone Ritorto (Denim), El Desgaste del Dril de Algodón, O Desgaste Do Denim
Department stores
A large retail store offering a variety of merchandise and services and organized in separate departments. Also known as: Grands Magasins, Abteilung Speicher, Grandi magazzin, Almacenes grandes, Lojas De Departamento
Design
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of drawing or sketching a detailed plan for manufacturing. 2: An arrangment of parts, form, coor, and line to create a version of a style. Also known as: apparel design, textile design, fashion design, accessories design, accessory design, clothing design, conception, Design, disegno, diseño, projeto
Design ease
ease that is encorporated as a style feature, for example the difference between skinny and regular jeans is design ease.
Designer
Also known as: fashion designer, clothing designer, fashion designer, apparel designer, designer
Designer collections
A collective term used to describe a collection of apparel or accessories presented by an individual under his or her company name. 2: Commonly falls into a Bridge, Designer or Couture price points. Also known as: Haute couture, Runway shows, collections de créateur, EntwerferAnsammlungen, Collezioni Del Progettista, Colecciones Del Diseñador, Coleções Do Desenhador
Designer wear
Also known as: Vetements de Haute Couture, Designermoden, Abiti Di Designer, Desgaste del Diseñador, Desgaste Do Desenhador
Designs
Also known as: Broderie Diamantee, Diamante, Tessuto Ornato Di Cristalli, Diamante, Diamante
Dickey
Apiece of fabric that is used to fill in a neckline.
Direct cost
the entire cost for constructing a garment,includes fabric, thread, pattern, sewing operator time, packaging and shipping.
Discount
Also known as: rabais
Discount stores
A large retail store offering a variety of merchandise and services at discounted pricing. Also known as: Discounters, off price, off-price, Magasins de rabais, Diskontgesch5äfte, Depositi Di Sconto, Almacenes De Descuento, Lojas De Disconto
Display
Also known as: exposition
Display & point of sale manufacturers
A collective term used to describe objects or merchandise set out for viewing by consumers. 2: Includes all items ranging from Dress Forms, Fixtures, Mannequins, Hangers as well as Display services. Also known as: visual merchandising, visual design, Presentations et Postes de Vente Fabricants, Hersteller Von Ausstellungs und Ladenverkaufseinrichtungen, Fabbricanti Di Mostre E Punti Di Vendita, Visualización y Punta de Los Fabricantes de la Venta, Indicador & Ponto De Fabricantes Da Venda
Distressed leather
Leather that has been made to appear cracked, brushed, oiled, waxed, faded or wrinkled, as if from long steady use.
Distribution
The process of marketing and supplying goods, especially to retailers. Also known as: Distributors, Distribution, Logistik U. Verteilung, Logistica & Distribuzione, Logistica & Distribuzione, Logística & Distribuição
Distributors
Also known as: Distributeurs, Verteiler, Distributori, De Las Distribuidores, Distribuidores
Dmm
A collar that takes its shape form a dog’s ear.
Dolman sleeve
A sleeve that starts wide at the armhole and tappers to a narrow wrist.
Donkey jacket
A jacket worn by workers that is made of heavy material.
Double cuff
A formal style found on shirts that has a placket and two buttons.
Double jersey
A soft, plain-knitted fabric of Wool, worsted, silk, cotton, rayon, and synthetics. 2: Knitted on circular, flat-bed or warp knitted methods. 3: Wears very well and if washable, it washes very well. 4: Commonlu used for Dress goods, sportswear, suits, underwear, coats, gloves, sweaters, hats. Also known as: Tricots de Jersey Doubles, Wolljersey, Jersey Doppio, Jersey Doble, Jersey dobro
Double patch pocket
A double layered patch pocket with tow pockets placed upon each other.
Drafting
a method for drawing up patterns from set measurments, can be done manually or by computer.
Drape neckline
Common in eveningwear, excess fabric around the neckline creates a soft draping effect.
Draping
when fabric is drapped onto a form and then the patteren is taken form the 3-dimensional figure.
Drawers
Underwear for the lower body.
Drawstring
is pulled to form delicate gathers.
Drawstring neckline
A neckline that has a ribbon ir cord through a channel at the top, this can then be pulled to create gathers. Also known as peasant or gypsy neckline.
Dress
One piece bodice and skirt outer garment for women and girls.
Dress fabrics
Also known as: Toiles Pour Robes, Kleiderstoffe, Tessuti Del Vestito, Telas de la Alineada, telas do vestido
Dress forms
Also known as: formes de robes
Dress shirt
A formal shirt worn by men, usually worn with a tie.
Dress uniform
A formal uniform.
Dresses
A collective term for an article of clothing left open around the leg area (Usually for Women or Girls). 2: Usually divided into three categories: Casual, Career, After Five. Also known as: dress, sheaths, a line dresses, empire dresses, princess dresses, halter dress, sundress, casual dresses, career dresses, after five dresses, Robes, Kleider, Vestiti, Las Alineadas, Os Vestidos
Dressing gown
A robe designed for casualwear aroun the house.
Dressing gowns & robes
Also known as: Robes de Chambre et Peignoirs, Hausmantel und Roben, Vestaglie E Accappatoi, Los Vestidos y Los Trajes de Preparación, Os Vestidos & As Vestes De Limpeza
Drill
Also known as: Treillis, Feiner Drillich, Tessuto Diagonale, Los Taladros, brocas
Drill holes
holes in the body of pattern piece. used in industry to indicate the ends of darts, tucks and pocket placement.
D-ring
two d shaped rings that a strip of fabric is passed through and pulled back to create a fastening.
Dropped shoulder
a shoulderseam that is generally 2-4 inches below the natural shoulderline.
Dry suit
A form hugging waterproof suit for diving.
Drying machinery
Also known as: Secheuses, Trockenmaschinen, Macchinari Per Leessiccazione, De Sequía Maquinaria, Maquinaria De secagem Da Maquinaria
Duffel coat
A heavy coat with a hood that fastens with toggles.
Duffels
A large cylindrical bag of traditionally made of heavy cloth; for carrying personal belongings. 2: Recently made of lightweight materials and in rectangular forms. 3: Commonly reffered to as Duffel Bags, Duffle Bags or Duffle. Also known as: duffel bag, duffel, duffels, duffel bags, duffelbag, Duffels, Duffels, Duffels, Duffels, Duffels
Dungaree
Also known as: Fibre Elastine, Elastinefaser, Fibra Xeiastines, La Fibra de Elastane, fibra de Elastane
Elasticized cuff
A cuff with elastic for a cuff, which makes it tight on the wrist.
Elasticized waistband
This is a stretchy waistband, made of gathered fabric.
Elastics
A flexible stretchable fabric made with interwoven strands of rubber or an imitative synthetic fiber. 2: Often used for belts, braces, suspenders or waistbands. Also known as: Elastiques, Elastischer Bes, Elastici, Elástico, Elásticos
Embossed leather
Hides or skins finished with designs pressed into the surface by engraved plates or rollers. Embossed designs may be an imitation of the natural cow grain or exotic animal skins. ex Ostrich, Crocodile, Lizard, Floral.
Embossing
Also known as: Gaufrage, Gaufrieren, Goffratura Goffratura Su Stoffe, Grabando, Gravando
Embroidered
A fabric enriched with fanciful Needlework that uses close or overlapping stitches to form intircate, three dimensional, surface designs to embellish piece goods, trims or garments. Also known as: brodé, gestickt, ricamato, bordado, bordado
Embroiderers
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of fanciful Needlework that uses close or overlapping stitches to form intircate, three dimensional, surface designs to embellish piece goods, trims or garments. Also known as: embroiderers, embroiderer, Broderie, Stickereien, Ricamatrici, Embroiderers, Embroiderers
Embroidery
Also known as: Machines de Broderie, Stickereimaschinen, Macchinari Da Ricamo, Bordado Maquinaria, Maquinaria Do Embroidery
Empire waist
A silhouette shape; the waist begins right below the bust. This silhouette was popularized by Empress Josephine.
Ensemble
An entire outfit.
Enterprise software
Also known as: apparel enterprise software, textile enterprise software, Logiciel D’Entreprise, Unternehmen-Software, Software Di Impresa, Software De la Empresa, Software Da Empresa
Envelope neckline
This neckline has a piece of fabric that crosses over the back of the shoulder for an appealing detail.
Epaulet
a decorative fringed shoulder pad; a decorated loop or strip seamed across the shoulder of a coat or dress.
Epaulet sleeve
The armhole sleeve is continued into the neckline, which makes it look like an epaulet shape that goes across the shoulder.
Espadrille
a sandal that usually has a flexible sole and a fabric strap.
Ethical sourcing
Also known as: source ethic
Eton collar
A big firm turnover collar.
Eton jacket
A short black jacket that has broad lapels, long sleeves, and an open center front.
Evening accessories
Also known as: Accessoires Pour Soirees, Zuheor fur Den Festlichen Anlab, Accessori Da Seria, Los Accesorios de la Tarde, Acessórios Da Noite
Evening wear
A collective term for evening attire. Also known as: evening wear, formalwear, formal wear, evening dress, Tenues de Soiree, Abendgarderobe, Abiti Da Sera, Desgaste de la Tarde, Desgaste Da Noite
Eveningwear & formal wear
Also known as: Eveningwear Et Usage Formel, Eveningwear U. Formale Abnutzung, Eveningwear & Usura Convenzionale, Eveningwear Y Desgaste Forma, Eveningwear & Desgaste Forma
Event producers
Also known as: Producteurs d’Événement
Export houses
Also known as: Maisons D’exportation, Exporteure, Casa Di Esportazione, Exportar Casa, Export Casa
Expositions
a payment term that stands for First Cost to Agent.
Fabric
A collective term for cloth produced especially by knitting, weaving, or crocheting natural or synthetic fibers. 2: Fabric is usually divided into three major catagories: Interlining, Knits, Wovens, and Non Wovens. Also known as: textile, textiles, fabric, cloth, Tissu, Gewebe, Tessuto, Tela, Tela
Faced waistline
a waistline that has no waistband but is finished using facings on the inside.
Facing
a fabric piece that is used to give a finished edge to a garment on the inside, can be either grown or sewn on, usually in same fabric as the main body of garment.
Fall
Section of collar that folds over to conceal the stand.
Fanny pack
a bag strapped around the waist
Fascinator
a womans headband usually worn at special occassions such as weddings.
Fashion
Also known as: Mode, Art und Weise, Moda, Manera, Forma
Fashion calendar
Also known as: calendrier de la mode
Fashion designers
Also known as: designer de mode
Fashion editors
Also known as: editeurs de mode
Fashion forecasting
Also known as: Prédiction de la mode
Fashion industry
industry overview Also known as: Mode, Moda, industrie de mode, Art und Weiseindustrie, industria di modo, industria de la manera, indústria da forma
Fashion pattern
finished patteren that included all information needed for construction, i.e grainlines and notches.
Fashion photography
Also known as: Photographie de mode
Fashion school
Also known as: ecole de mode
Fashion show producer
A person or firm that organizes runway / catwalk shows.Runway collections or Catwalks are traditionally a presentation of Haute Couture or Ready-to-Wear Collections by Apparel an Designer. Shows are usually held to promote the designers clothing line to key retail buyers and press. A majority of Runway Shows take place in the key Fashion capitals of New York, London, Paris, Tokyo and Milan. Additional venues showcasing innovative designers are being held in Los Angeles, Brazil, Australia and Amsterdam. Also known as: catwalk, cat walk, exposition de mode, Art und Weiseerscheinen, esposizione di modo, demostración de la manera, mostra da forma
Fashion trend research
Also known as: Recherche de tendances de la mode
Fashion week
Also known as: semaine de la mode
Feathers & flowers
Plumage used for decorating apparel and accessories. Also known as: Plumes et Fleurs, Federn und Blumen, Piume E Fiori, Plumas y Flores, Penas & Flores
Fedora
a hat that is made of soft felt and has a lenghwise creases crown.
Fibers
A natural or synthetic filament, as of cotton or nylon, capable of being spun into yarn for fabric. Also known as: fibres, fiber, textile fiber, fabric fiber, fibres, Fasern, fibre, fibras, fibras
Fichu
front fastening triangular scarf that is placed around the neck to fill in a low neckline.
Financial & legal & insurance services
Also known as: Services D’assurance Financiers et Légaux, Finanzielle, Gesetzliche und Versicherungsdienstleistungen, Servizi Finanziari, Legali E Assicurativi, Servicios Financieros y Legales y de Seguro, Financeiro & Legal & Seguro Serviço
Financial information
Also known as: Information Financière
Findings
Component materials used by an artisan or jeweler, such as: beads, metal stampings, castings, and cabachons. Also known as: Résultats, Entdeckungen, Risultati, Resultados, Findings
Furnishings
general term used to describe haberdashery items such as fastenings and trims.
Fit model
model who has exact measurements of target size whom sample size garments can be modeled on.
Fixtures
Also known as: dress dummy, dress dummies, mannequins, mannequin, fixture, store fixture, store fixtures, window display, rolling rack, rolling racks, montages
Flange dart
tuck in armhole of garment that gives more movement of the arms.
Flannel
The manufactures’ name for a heavy cotton fabric, twilled, and with a long plush nap. In England it is called swan’s-down cotton, or Canton flannel. Also known as: Flanel Le, Flanell, Flanella, La Franela, flannel
Flap pocket
Pocket with a flap that covers the entrance to the pocket.
Flat
shoe with either a flat heel or no heel
Flat collar
Lies flush against garment as has no stand i.e peter pan, sailors collars.
Fleece
Fabric with a soft deep pile, usually from sheep. Also known as: Molleton, Vlies, Vello, El Paño Grueso y Suave, fleece
Flip-flop
a type of sandal that is loosely fastened to the foot using a thong
Flocked
An inferior grade of wool added to cloth for extra weight. Also known as: flocking, assemblé, geschart, affollato, reunido, reunido
Florentine neckline
Straight neckline from shoulder to shoulder on front and back.
Flounce
flare at hem created by cutting two circles and attaching them with smooth line to hem.
Fluttered sleeve
A wide sleeve that is pulled in at the upper arm by elastic which gives the rest of the sleeve a nice drape.
Fly front placket
Also known as: Pieuses, Faltmaschinen, Macchine Piegatrici, Plegable Máquina, Máquinas Dobrando-se
Footwear
A collective term for attire or covering for the feet. 2: Includes all articles ranging from boots, sneakers, slippers, sandals, mary janes, pumps, mules, flip flops,. 3: Also includes Shoe Ornaments. Also known as: shoes, foot wear, shoe, mules, sneakers, slippers, sandals, mary janes, pumps, mules, flip flops, shoe ornaments, boots, Chaussures, Schuhwaren, Calzature, El Calzado, Os Calçados
Footwear
covering foe the foot i.e sneakers, boots, sandals etc
Forecasting
Also known as: Prédiction
Forecasting & trends
Also known as: Prévisions Et Tendances, Prognostizieren U. Tendenzen, Previsione & Tendenze, Pronóstico Y Tendencias, Prever & Tendências
Form
a dressmaking form is a mannequin used for pattern cutting
Formalwear
black tie, dinner suit of tuxedo
Four in hand
tie that is tied in flat knot at neck.
Fpu
fabric production unit
Freight forwarders
Also known as: freight forwarding, Expéditeurs De Fret, Fracht-Absender, Forwarders Del Trasporto, Promotores De la Carga, Remetentes Do Frete
French cuff
Double cuff created by folding the cuff back on itself and fastening with cufflinks.
French front placket
When the placket is turned back onto the lining of the garment.
French jersey
Also known as: Jersey Fransais, Franz Jersey, Jersey Francese, Jersey Francesa, Jersey francesa
French pleats
a common three fold pleat
French sleeve
Same as kimono sleeve, also known as chinese sleeve.
Frill sleeve
A sleeve that is created by sewing frill of fabric on to the shoulder seam.
Fringe trim
unraveled ends used as trim on hems, shawls and western styles.
Fringed hem
A length of fringing is sewn into the hem which gives movement to the garment.
Fringes
A decorative border or edging of hanging threads, cords, or strips, often attached to a separate band. Also known as: fringes, Franges, Fransen, Frange, Franjas, Franjas
Frock
Outer garment worn by monks and friars, also another term used to describe a woman’s dress.
Frock coat
A man’s double breasted knee length coat.
Frog toggle
decorative cord button fastening with one side forming the button and the other the button hole.
Frogs
Also known as: Soutaches, Quasten, Alamari, Ranas, Râs
Fully fashioned
Knitted garments that have been shaped to create a finished edge, that gives a more professional way of finishing knit than cutting.
Funnel neck
An extended neckline that goes up to the base of the neck.
Fur fabrics
A natural fabric made of the outer fur lined hide of an animal. 2: Commonly used for Coats, Collars and Muffs. Also known as: Toiles de Fourrure, Peizgewebe (Synt), Tessuti Di Pelliccia, Telas de la Piel, telas da pele
Furs
The outer skin of an animal or imitation of animal skin. Also known as: Fourrures, Peize, Pellicce, Las Pieles, As Peles
Furs simulated
A fabric made to imitate fur. 2: Commonly used for Coats, Collars, or Capes and Muffs. Also known as: faux fur, simulated fur, fake fur, FourruresSimulees, Imitierte Peize, Pellicce Finte, Las Pieles Simuladas, As Peles Simuladas
Fusecut
common way to cut labels and ribbons, a hot knife is used for cutting which seals edges
Fusible interlinings
Also known as: Doublures Intermediares Fusibles, Aufschmeizbare Zwischenfutter, Controfodere Fusibili, Interlinings Fusible, Interlinings Fundível
Fusing & laminating
Also known as: Fondre et a Laminer, Fusione E Laminazione, Fundir y Laminar, Fundindo & Máquinas Laminando
Fusing machines
a tall overshoe worn particularly in the snow.
Garment
A piece of clothing. Also known as: Vêtement, Kleid, Indumento, Ropa, Garment
Garment bags
Also known as: sacs de vetements
Garment covers
A long zippered bag used to wrap, carry or protect apparel such as suits, dresses, and coats. Also known as: Garment Covers, Dress Bags, Couvertures Pour Vetements, Kleidersacke und Abdeckungen For Kleidungsstocke, Anrezzatura Per Il Trasporto Capi Di Vestiario, Las Cubiertas de la Ropa, Garment Cubr
Garment finishing & packing
Also known as: Finition et Emballage de Vetements, Kleidungsstuckendfertigung und Verpackung, Finitura E Imballaggio Indumenti, El Acabamiento y El Embalaje de la Ropa, Garment Finishing & Embalagem
Garment fusing
Also known as: Fusion Des Vhements, Fusione Di Indumenti, Ropa Fundir Máquina, Máquinas De Fusão Do Garment
Garment industry
Also known as: industrie De Vêtement, Kleid-Industrie, Industria Dell’Indumento, Industria De la Ropa, Indústria Do Garment
Garment manufacturers
Also known as: Fabricants de vêtement
Garter
a strap worn to hold up stockings or socks; it can also be to hold up a shirt sleeve.
Georgette
A lightweight silk fabric with a dull crepe texture, has similar qualities to chiffon. Also known as: Georgette, Seidenkrepp, Georgette, Georgette, Georgette
Gingham
A dyed cotton that has a checkerboard pattern. Also known as: Guingan, Gingham, Percalle, La Guinga, gingham
Girdle
An undergarment for women; it is close fitting and is boned as well as typically elasticized; it starts at the waist and goes below the hips.
Glasses
Eyeglass Frames, Sunglasses, Goggles, or other objects worn over the eyes. Can be both prescription and non-prescription. Also known as: eye glasses, Lunettes, Brillen, Vitri, Los Cristales, Vidros
Glove
a covering for hands; having individual faces for each finger.
Gloves
Also known as: gants
Godet
a triangle shaped strip of fabric that is sewn into the bottom of the skirt; usually seen along the hemline.
Golfwear
Clothing especially designed for playing golf. Also known as: golf wear, golfwear, golfwear, golfwear, golfwear, golfwear
Gore
a triangular piece of fabric added to a skirt or dress to create volume.
Gmm
An acronym for General Merchandise Manager
Grading & marking
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of grading, increase of decrease in a single size of a pattern and marking, transferring marks from patterns to garmetn pieces to assist operators with assembly. Also known as: Graders, marking, markers, grading, marking, patterns, patternmaking, pattern, évaluation et repérage, Ordnen u. Kennzeichnen, classificazione & contrassegnare, el calificar y el marcar, classificar & marcar
Grain
woven fiber that makes up cloth
Grey market goods
Grey market goods are goods that are only authorized for sale outside of the United States, usually at lower prices than the corresponding products sold in the United States.
Gusset
small piece of cloth carried in pocket to blow nose with, also known as hankie.
Handkerchief hem
When the center of the hem tappers down to a point.
Handkerchiefs
A piece of cloth worn as a decorative article in a suit pocket or used for wiping the nose.or mouth. Also known as: handkerchieves, kerchiefs, Mouchoirs, Verzierte Taschentucher, Fazzoletti, Los Sombreros y Los Casquillos, Lenços
Handles
A part, usually of a handbag, that is designed to be held or operated with the hand. Also known as: handbag handle, purse handle, bag handle, poignées, Handgriffe, maniglie, manijas, punhos
Hangers
A device around which a garment is draped for hanging from a hook or rod. Used for Coats, Pants, Shirts and other types of Clothing. 2: Often made from wood, plastic, wire, satin padding or coated wire. Also known as: hangars, hanger, hangar, plastic hanger, wood hanger, Cintres, Aufhänger, ganci, suspensiones, ganchos
Hangtags
tags attached to garment that can be used to attract consumers attention as well as relay important information about the garment. Also known as: etiquettes du fabricant
Harem pants
Loose fitting trousers that have close fitting ankles worn by women.
Hats & caps
A covering for the head. 2: Often signifies membership in or support of Military, Educational or Sport establishments. 3: All articles ranging from Baseball caps, Beanies, Ski Hats, Visors, Cowboy Hats. Also known as: caps, millinery, headgear, chapeau, Baseball caps, Beanies, Ski Hats, visors, Cowboy hats, Chapeaux et Coiffures, Hute und Kappis, Cappelli E Berretti, Calcetería, Chapéus & Tampões
Haute couture
Also known as: haute couture
Haute couture
Hand crafted collection shown in Paris that contains at least 35 outfits covering both day and evening wear, term is protected by law.
Headwear
A covering for the head. 2: Often signifies membership in or support of Military, Educational or Sport establishments. 3: All articles ranging from Hats, Caps, Baseball caps, Beanies, Ski Hats, Visors, Cowboy Hats, Millinery, Chapeau and Bonnets, Hair Accessories. Also known as: hats, caps, millinery, baseball caps, milliner, articles pour la tete
Heat transfers
Also known as: heat transfer, heat transfer products, heat transfer product, heat transfer system, heat transfer systems, transfert de chaleur
Heels
shoes that have a high heel.
Hem
Finished edge of garment that is turned over and sewn in place e.g bottom of trousers.
Hemp
A fabric made from the tough, coarse fiber of the cannabis plant. 2: It is difficult to drape and bleach, but it can be dyed bright and dark colours. 3: Hemp is naturally moth resistant, but it is not impervious to mildew. 4: It wrinkles easily and is washable or dry cleanable. 5: Commonly used for apparel. Also known as: chanvre, Hanf, canapa, cáñamo, hemp
Henley
Casual shirt with a slit collarless neckline with 2 to 5 buttons.
Hidden zip
zip that is sewn into garment so that the teeth are concealed within the seam.
High fashion
Also known as: Haute Mode, Aktuelle Moden, Alta Moda, La Alta Manera, A Forma Elevada
High waist
A waistband that sitts above the waist line, how high varies depending on current fashions but hey are more common in womanswear.
Hood
Covering for head and neck that can be moved up and down, usually found on jackets.
Hook & eye tape
Also known as: Ruban, a Crochets et Oeillets, Haken und Osenband, Nastro a Ganci E Occhielli, Cinta del Gancho y del Ojo, Fita adesiva Do Gancho & Do Olho
Hook and bar
simmilar to hook and eye in the way that it functions, offten found on inside of waistbands.
Hook and eye
used as a concealed closure it can be used on its own or at the top of a zip.
Hook and loop tape
two piece closure that is pressed together and then ripped apart, often known as velcro
Hooks & eyes
Also known as: Crochets et Oeillets, Haken und Osen, Ganci E Occhielli, Ganchos y Ojos, Ganchos & Olhos
Horseshoe
A wide neckline that is in the shape of a horseshoe and shows off the decolletage.
Hosiery
Any transparent or translucent close-fitting covering for the foot and / or leg and often covering the derriere. 2: Usually come in matched pairs (usually used in the plural) 3: Includes all articles ranging from Stockings, Nylons, Pantyhose. Also known as: pantyhose, panty hose, hose, tights, nylons, stocking, stockings, Articles de Bonneterie, Trikotwaren, Indumenti a Maglia, Joyería, Hosiery
Hosiery fabrics
Fabrics for any transparent or translucent close-fitting covering for the foot and / or leg and often covering the derriere.: Includes fabrics for all articles ranging from Stockings, Nylons, Pantyhose.
Hosiery machinery
Also known as: Machines Pour Bonneterie, Trikotagen und Wirkmaschinen, Macchinari Per Maglieria, Calcetería Maquinaria, Maquinaria Do Hosiery
Housedress
Also known as: illustration, sketching, illustrateurs, Illustratoren, illustrators, ilustradores, illustrators
Importers
Also known as: Importateurs
Independent sales reps
Independent Sales Reps tend to be privately owned companies which represent a number of different brands and product lines. Also known as: Independent Sales Representatives, représentants de ventes indépendants, unabhängige Verkäufe Repräsentanten, rappresentanti indipendenti, representantes de ventas independientes, representantes de vendas independentes
Industry trends
Also known as: Tendances d’industrie
Infants
Also known as: enfants en bas age
Inset neckline
A deep V neck, with another piece of fabric behind it so that there is a sense of reservation.
Inspection
Also known as: testing, quality control, quality assurance, inspection
Interlinings
An extra lining between the outer fabric and regular lining of a garment that is fused or sewn to specific areas to increase aesthetics and performance by supporting, shaping, stabilizing, reinforcing and / or enclosing the interiors of garments or garment components. Also known as: interfacing, Doublures Intermediares, Zwischenfutter, Controfodere, Interlinings, Interlinings
Interlock
A soft, plain-knitted fabric with the stitch variation of the rib stitch, which resembles two separate 1 x 1 ribbed fabrics that are interknitted. Plain (double knit) interlock stitch fabrics are thicker, heavier, and more stable than single knit constructions. Also known as: Entrecroise, Interlockware, Interlock, El Dispositivo de Seguridad, bloqueio
Intimate apparel
Pleated frill attached to front of woman’s blouse or dress.
Jackets
A short coat usually extending to the hips. Includes all items ranging from Award Jackets. Also known as: coats, award jackets, Vestes, Jacketts, Giacche, Las Chaquetas, Os Revestimentos
Jackets & blazers
A lightweight single-breasted jacket usually of wool or silk. Usually embellished with an emblem from a club or school. Often used as Uniforms. Also known as: sports jacket, sports coat, Vestons et Blazers, Jacketts und Blazer, Giacche Normali E Sportive, Las Chaquetas y Las Chaquetas, Os Revestimentos & Os Blazers
Jacquard
A fabric woven on a special loom with an intricately woven pattern. Also known as: jacquards, Jacquard, Jaquardwebware, Tessuto Jacquard, El Telar Jacquar, jacquard
Jeans
Pants made of jean, denim, or another durable fabric. Also known as: denims, dungarees, blue jeans, jeans, Jeans, Nietenhosen, Jeans, Los Pantalones Vaqueros, As Calças de brim
Jersey
A soft, plain-knitted fabric of Wool, worsted, silk, cotton, rayon, and synthetics. 2: Knitted on circular, flat-bed or warp knitted methods. 3: Wears very well and if washable, it washes very well. 4: Commonlu used for Dress goods, sportswear, suits, underwear, coats, gloves, sweaters, hats. Also known as: Jersey, Jersey, Jersey, Jersey, Jersey
Jewel neckline
Plain round neckline suitable for wearing with jewelry.
Jewelry
Body Ornaments, such as Bracelets, Earrings, Necklaces, Pins and Pendants, or Rings, frequently made of imitation stones, plastic, glass and gold and silver plate findings. Handmade and mass produced. Also known as: fashion jewelery, jewelery, jewellery, fine jewelry, rings, earrings, earring, necklace, necklaces, bracelet, bracelets, silver jewelry, gold jewelry, Joaillerie, Schmuck, Gioielleria, Traje y Manera, Jóia
Jewelry contractors
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of assembling jewelery components into finished products.. Also known as: Assemblée Composante, TeilcVersammlung, Assemblea Componente, Asamblea Componente, Conjunto Componente
Job buyers
A person or company who buys surplus goods from mills, converters and or apparel manufacturers for resale. Also known as: broker, jobber, Acheteurs a La Tache, Gelegenheitskaufer, Compratori de Rimanenze, Imitación de Los Compradores del Trabajo, de compradores do trabalho imitation
Jobbers & brokers
Also known as: intermediaires et courtiers
Jog suits
Clothing especially designed for running, jogging and cycling. Includes all items ranging from insulated fabric based tops and bottoms. Also known as: jogging suits, sweat suits, warm ups, costumes d’essa, Stoßklagen, vestiti di trotto, juegos de la sacudida, ternos do movimento
Johnny collar
Flat collar used on shirts.
Juliette sleeve
Full length sleeve with fitted lover arm and puffed shoulder.
Jumper
Usually a knitted garment that is loose fitting and varies in sleeve and neck style.
Jumpsuit
a square piece of cloth that is often placed on the head or around the neck.
Keyhole cuff
a tiny cut out hole near the end of the sleeve, often closed with buttons.
Keyhole neckline
a rounded cutout at the front of the garment.
Kilt
a pleated skirt usually made of a plaid woolen fabric. Usually worn by men in Scotland.
Kimono
a long robe with wide sleeves, usually worn with a wide sash around the waist.
Kimono sleeve
a wide armed sleeve. That is seemed at the underarm and the outer arm.
Kneesock
a sock that comes up to the knee
Knickers
loose fitting shorts that end at the knee.
Knit
Interlinked yearns. Also known as: tricot
Knit contractors
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of manufacturing and assembling knit goods and related products. Also known as: entrepreneurs de tricots
Knitted cuff
Also known as: labels et etiquettes du fabricant
Labels & swing tickets
A tag attached to a piece of merchandise giving information about its composition, origin or proper care and use. 2: Includes all items ranging from Care Labels and Hang Tags. Also known as: Etiquenes et Tickets Pendants, Etiketten und Produktschilder, Etichene E Cartellini, Las Escrituras de la Etiqueta y Los Boletos del Oscilación, Etiquet & Balanç Bilhete
Lace
A delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern. Also known as: lacework, Dentelle, Spitzen (Gekloppelt), Merletto, Del Cordón, de laço
Lace edgings & allovers
Trim made of lace. 2: Includes Collars. Also known as: lace trimming, lace trim, Bordures et Revetements de Dentelle, Spitzenkantenbesatz, Bordure In Merleno E Disegni Ripetuti, Cordón Edgings y Allovers, Laço Edgings & Allovers
Laminating
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of laminating fabrics. Also known as: laminage
Lapels
the section of a jacket or coat that is folded back at the neck to leave a triangularly shaped opening.
Latchet
a strip of fabric that hold a shoe in place
Layered hem
has different layers sitting ontop of each other to create a tiered look.
Leather & suede
A natural fabric made of the dressed or tanned hide of an animal. Also known as: leather fabric, leather fabrics, leather textile, leather textiles, suede fabric, suede fabrics, suede textile, suede textiles, leather material, suede material, Cuir et Daim, Leder und Wildleder, Pelle E Camoscio, Del Cuero y del Ante, de couro & de suede
Leather imitation
Also known as: faux leather, fake leather, Cuir Simules, Leder Imitiert, Pelle Finti, Del Ante, de couro
Leather trimmings
Trim made of Leather. 2: Includes Collars and Elbow Patches. Also known as: leather trimming, Garnitures de Cuir, Lederbesatz, Rifiniture In Pelle, Recortes de Cuero, Aparamentos De couro
Leathergoods
A collective term for all articles ranging from Wallets, Bill folds, french purses, travel kits, jewelry boxes, cases, compacts, eyeglass holders, Make-Up Bags, Change Purses, Calendars and Key Chains all made of leather. Also known as: wallets, key chains, change purses, purses, Maroquinerie, Lederwaren, Oggetti In Cuoio, Leathergoods, Leathergoods
Leatherwear & sheepskins & suedes
Any of various clothing made of dressed or tanned hide, Suede or Sheepskin such as a Jackets or Pants. Also known as: sheep skin, suede, leather wear, leatherwear, sheepskin, sheepskins, sheep skins, suedes, Vetements de Cuir & Peaux de Mouton & Peau de Daim, Ledermoden Lederkleidung Aus Lammfell Oder Wildleder, Indumenti Di Cuoio, Di Pelle D’agnello, O Di Camoscio, Leatherwear y Las Zaleas y Los Antes, Leatherwear & As Peles de carneiro & Os Suedes
Leg o mutton sleeve
puffed sleeve head using gathers or tucks that is narrow at bottom.
Leg warmers
tubular covering for the legs often worn by dancers
Leggings
tight fitting garment that covers the leg, usually coming to below the knee
Legwear
A collective term for any close-fitting hosiery or covering for the foot, and / or leg. 2: Usually come in matched pairs (usually used in the plural) 3: Includes all articles ranging from Dress and Casual Socks, Opaques, Tights, Stockings, Thigh-hi’s, Knee-hi’s, Nylons, Pantyhose, Anklets, Hose, Argyles and Leggings. Also known as: leg wear, legging, leg warmers, Legwear, Legwear, Legwear, Legwear, Legwear
Leotard
one piece garment similar to swimsuit worn by dancers
Licensing
Also known as: fashion licensing, apparel licensing
Ligne
standard measurement method for buttons
Linen
A natural fabric woven from the thread made from fibers of the flax plant. 2: It is Strong, Absorbent and resistant to static, pilling and abrasion. 3: Commonly used for Clothing. Also known as: Toile de Lin, Leinen, Lino, El Lino, linho
Lingerie
A collective term for clothing, such as lingerie and underwear, designed to be worn under outer clothing near the skin. Includes all articles ranging from Lingerie, Underwear, Corsets, Stys, Corselets, Girdles, Garter Belts, Bras, Peignoirs, Camisoles, Teddies, Long Underwear, Shapewear, Petticoats, Slips and Brassieres. Also known as: intimate apparel, innerwear, foundations, intimates, underwear, under wear, corsets, corselets, girdles, garter belts, bras, brassieres, peignoirs, camisoles, teddies, shapewear, slips, inner wear, Lingerie, Reizvolle Damenunterwasche, Biancheria Intima, Ropa Interior, Lingerie
Lining
the inside layer of a garment that is used to conceal the seams
Linings
A layer of fabric between the outer fabric and skin that increases the aesthetics and performance by supporting and / or enclosing the interiors of garments or garment components. Also known as: Doublures, Futter, Fodere, Guarniciones, Forros
Loafers
a graphic used by a designer so their garments are easily recognized
Long johns
underwear garment worn under trousers to keep legs warm
Look book
informal garment worn for lounging around the house in
Loungewear
A collective term for clothing designed for relaxing or lounging. Includes all garments one utilizes while in the home; Pants, Shirts, Dresses, Jackets, Robes, Bed Jackets, Housecoats, Dressing Gowns, Smoking Jackets, Bathrobes. Also known as: lounge wear, robes, bathrobes, dressing gowns, housecoats, Hausmantel und Umhange, Vestaglie E Accappatoi, Los Vestidos y Los Trajes de Preparación, Os Vestidos & As Vestes De Limpeza
Low waist
a waistband that sits below the waist line but above the hips.
Ltl
refers to a shipment that doesn’t fill a container
Luxury goods
The process of examining materials, garments and components, or finished garments to determne acceptability against standards. Also known as: Marchandises De luxe, LuxuxcWaren, Merci Di lusso, Mercancías De lujo, Bens Luxuosos
Lycra
a stiff collar that stands up and has a slight opening in the front.
Mannequins
Also known as: mannequins
Mannequins & tailors dummies
A life-size full or partial representation of the human body, used for the fitting or displaying of clothes; a dummy. Also known as: Dress Forms, Dress Dummies, mannequin, mannequins, dress form, Mannequins de Tailleurs, Mannequins & Modelle, Manichini Per Sarti, Mannequins y Adapta Simulado, Mannequins & Costur Modelo
Mantelet
a short cape or cloak.
Mantle
a roomy sleeveless piece of clothing that is worn over other garments.
Mantua
a roomy coat or robe.
Manufacturer
Also known as: fabricant
Manufacturers
Any concern that develops garments, controls production, sells to retailers (or directly to end-use customers), and ships and bills for merchandise. Manufacturers can also be responsible for the advertising, marketing and distribution of its products. 2: A firm that buys fabrics and does the designing, patternmaking, grading, cutting sewing and assembling of garments in factories that it owns. Also known as: manufacturing, manufacturer, fabricants, Hersteller, fornitori, fabricantes, fabricantes
Manufacturers reps
A market specialist in a resident buying office who covers a segment of the wholesale market and makes information about it available to client stores, apparel or textiles companies. Manufacturers reps are usually closely associated with a manufacturer and represent the manufacturer’s line of products exclusively. See textile agent or broker. Also known as: manufacturers representatives, representants de fabricants
Manufacturing control
Also known as: Fabrication de contrôle
Market
Also known as: La place du marche
Martingale
a usually thick piece of fabric that is placed on the back of a garment, ex: a coat
Mass
Also known as: masse
Mass retailers
A large retail store offering a variety of low priced merchandise to consumers. 2: Includes Chain stores. Also known as: mass merchants, Détaillants De masse, MassencEinzelhändler, Rivenditori Totali, Minoristas Totales, Varejistas Maciços
Maternity wear
Also known as: Vetements de Maternite, Kleidung fur die Werdende Mutter, Indumenti Per Gesetanti, Desgaste de Maternidad, Desgaste De maternidade
Maxi
a skirt, dress, or coat that is long in length.
Measuring machines
Also known as: Machine a Mesurer,, Masmaschinen, Macchine Misuratrici, Medir Máquina, Máquinas De Medição
Medium waist
a type of waist band that lies on the natural waist.
Melton
Also known as: Melton, Melton, Melton, Melton, Melton
Men
Also known as: hommes, Männer, uomini, hombres, homens
Menswear
Also known as: vetements pour Hommes, Mannabnutzung, usura degli uomini, desgaste de los hombres, desgaste dos homens
Merchandising
Also known as: Marchands, Handler, Commercianti, Comerciantes, Comerciantes
Merry widow
a corset that has no straps and usually has garters attached to the bottom.
Mesh & net
A fine mesh fabric with a loose open weave made on a lace machine or gauze or leno weaves. 2: Commonly forms the foundation for a great variety of laces, curtains, millinery, fancy pillows, trims, evening and bridal wear. Also known as: netting, gauze, veiling, Mailles et Resilles, Gitter und Netzware, Tessuti Di Cotone, Acoplamiento y Red, O Engranzamento & A Rede De linho
Mess jacket
a tight jacket that stops at the waist, and is part of dress uniform. This garment is worn by men.
Messenger bags
A large rectangular bag that loops over one shoulder traditionally used by Messengers. 2: Usually made of durable materials with reflective tapes. Also known as: messenger bag
Metallic
A fabric having the characteristics of a metal. Also known as: métallique, metallisch, metallico, metálico, metálico
Micromini
a hemline that falls either below or on top of the knee.
Middy
a sailor collared, loose fitting blouse.
Midi
a skirt, dress, or coat that ends at mid calf length.
Midriff
A woman’s top that shows some of the torso.
Miniskirt
a short skirt that ends a few inches above the knee.
Mitt
a pair of women’s gloves, which exposes the fingers.
Mitten
a cover for the hands that has one space for four fingers and a separate space for the thumbs.
Mobcap
a women’s hat, that is used indoors; it has a high crown and ties under the chin.
Moccasin
flat leather shoe or boot. The soles of the shoe are brought around the foot and secured with a U shaped seem and piece that lays on the top of the shoe.
Model agencies
An agency which represents Models. Also known as: models, model agencies, modelling, Agences de Modeles, Modellagenturen, Ageze Di Modelle, Las Agencias Modelo, Modelo Agência
Moderate
Also known as: modérés, gemäßigt, moderati, moderados, moderados
Montero
a hat with ear flaps, used by hunters.
Mother hubbard
a loose, normally shapeless dress.
Motifs
Also known as: Motifs, Leitmotive, Motivi, Adornos, Motifs
Muff
a tube like object that has openings on both sides. The openings are used to put hands into the muff.
Muffler
a scarf.
Mules
A type of shoes that only covers the front section of the foot. Also known as: mules
Multichannel retailing
Retail operations with customer transactions possible through multiple connected channels, such as: brick-and-mortar stores, direct mail catalogs, online store sites, mobile apps, and telephone.
Musette
a piece of fabric that is tied around the neck
Necklace
An item of jewelry that os worn around the neck. Also known as: colliers
Neckwear
A collective term for articles worn around the neck. 2: Includes all articles ranging from Cravats, Collars, Scarves and Ties. Also known as: neck wear, ties, scarves, scarf, tie, accesoires pour le cou
Needles
A short, straight, stiff piece of wire with a blunt head and a sharp point, used especially for fastening. 2: Includes Needles and Safety Pins. Also known as: pins, pin, needle, Aiguilles, Nahnadeln, Aghi, Aguja, Agulhas
Nehru collar
manderin style collar but with rounded edges
Nightclothes
clothes that are worn to sleep in
Nightwear
A collective term for clothing especially designed to be worn in bed. 2: Includes all items ranging from Pajamas, Night Shirts, Night Dresses, Nighties. Also known as: sleep wear, pajamas, nightwear, nite wear, night wear, nighties, Vetements de Nuit, Pyjamas und Nachthemden, Indumenti Da Letto, La Camisa de Dormir, O Nightwear
Nightwear
A collective term for clothing especially designed to be worn in bed. 2: Includes all items ranging from Pajamas, Night Shirts, Night Dresses, Nighties. Also known as: sleep wear, pajamas, nightwear, nite wear, Vetements de Nuit, Pyjamas und Nachthemden, Indumenti Da Letto, La Camisa de Dormir, O Nightwear
Non wovens
Fabric that is neither knitted or woven. 2: Includes leather, sueds and furs. Also known as: non tisses
Norfolk jacket
single breasted jacket with box pleats
Notches
a wide sash that is worn with the kimono.
Off price
Also known as: outre du prix, weg vom Preis, fuori del prezzo, del precio, fora do preço
Off the shoulder neckline
a neckline that starts below the shoulders.
Omnichannel retail
similar to multichannel retail, with the focus on creating a seamless consumer experience through any and all shopping channels, including: mobile, tablet, computers, brick-and-mortar storefronts, television, radio, direct mail and catalog.
One shoulder neckline
a neckline that starts below the arm and continues across the chest up over the shoulder of the opposite arm. This neckline leaves one shoulder bare.
On-time delivery
Also known as: livraison en temps
Opera
A collapsible top hat.
Organza
A sheer, stiff fabric of silk or a silklike fabric that resembles organdy. 2: Commonly used for After Five Dresses, Trimming, Neckwear, Millinery, and Underlinings for delicate, sheer materials, as well as an underlining for other fabrics that require a bit of stiffness without weight. Also known as: organza, organza, organza, organza, organza
Outerwear
A collective term for clothing designed for use outdoors. Includes all items ranging from Coats, Overcoats, Blazers, Capes, Jackets and Rainwear. 3: Sometimes referred to as Overclothes. Also known as: outer wear, blazers, capes, outdoor wear, Vetements de Dessus, Oberbekleidung, Capi D’abbigliamento, El Outerwear, O Outerwear
Overall
Loose fitting jumpsuit. Connected to the trousers is a bib like portion with two straps.
Overblouse
Fitted blouse usually worn untucked.
Overcoat
a coat that is worn over indoor clothing
Overshirt
a shirt that is worn over another and is not tucked in.
Overskirt
looses fitting trousers, often shorter than normal trousers.
Pants
outer garment for legs, covers legs form the waist to the ankle. also used to refer to undergarments for bottom half.
Pantsuit
woman’s suit consisting of trousers and a jacket
Pantyhose
tights
Paperbag waistline
a waistline that has gathers coming from the top of the waistband, usually done in stiff fabrics.
Parka
jacket with a fur trimmed hood, casual wear
Pashmina
large soft scarf that can be wrapped around the body
Patch pocket
can be a variety of shapes and is sewn on the outside of a garment. also known as applied pocket
Patch pocket with flap
a patch pocket that has a pocket flap at the top that gives a neater more finished look.
Patch pocket with welt
a double pocket that is used on the insides of jackets that had a jetted pocket on a patch pocket
Pattern cards & bunch makers
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of creating patterns. Also known as: pattern making, patternmakers, pattern makers, Fabrication de Cartes a Patrons et Modeles, Musterkarten und Kartenzusammenstellung, Fabbricanti Di Modelli Carte E Fiocchi, Tarjetas del Modelo y Fabricantes del Manojo, Teste Cartão & Grupo Fabricante
Pattern companies
Company who supplies patterns for apparel. Also known as: Compagnies De Modèle, Muster-Firmen, Aziende Del Modello, Compañías Del Patrón, Companhias Do Teste padrão
Pattern makers
transform designer sketches into patterns that can be used to construct the garment
Pattern matching
ensuring that when using a patterned fabric that the pattern lines up at all seams.
Pdm system
Pattern Design System, allows you to create and edit patterns on computer.
Pea jacket
originally worn by sailors, a heavy double-breasted jacket
Pedal pushers
tight fitting calf length trousers for women
Peep toe
shoes where there is an opening at the toe that reveals the wearers toes
Peplum
found on jackets, between hips and waist, allows for sections to be pleated or gathered to give more volume
Permanent press
details which will keep their shape for the garments lifespan, such as sharp creases and flat seams
Petal sleeve
sleeve that resembles flower petals.
Peter pan collar
flat collar that sits closely against the shoulders and has rounded edges.
Petticoat
woman’s underskirt
Photographers
One who practices, or is skilled in, photography. Also known as: Photographes, Photographen, Photographers, Fotógrafos, Fotógrafos
Picot
used for decorating edges, rows of small loops. In knitwear refers to a scalloped welt.
Pierrot collar
series of ruffles that are attached to neckline to create a ruffled collar.
Pin
used to hold fabric in place
Pinafore
dress that has a bib top.
Pinking shears
used to cut fabric and leave a zigzag edge.
Pins
A short, straight, stiff piece of wire with a blunt head and a sharp point, used especially for fastening. 2: Includes Needles and Safety Pins. Also known as: needles, pin, needle, Epingles, Stecknadeln, Spilli, Contacto, Pinos
Pinstripe
narrow vertical stripes on suit fabric
Piping
used for trimming edges
Pique
A tightly woven cotton, rayon or synthetic fabric with various raised patterns, produced especially by a double warp. 2: It is durable and launders well. but wrinkles badly unless given a wrinkle-free finish. 3: Trims, collars, cuffs, millinery, infants wear, coats, and bonnets, women’s and children’s summer dresses, skirts and blouses, shirts, play clothes, and evening gowns. Also known as: twill, corded, piqué, Pikee, piquè, piqué, pique
Placket
used on shirts with button fastening, multiple fabric layers that button/buttonholes are attached to
Platform
a layered heel used on shoes
Playsuit
a one piece garment that consists of shorts and top for casual wear
Playwear
Clothing especially designed for play (Usually for Children). Includes all items ranging from Rompers, Jumpers, Creepers and Infantwear. Also known as: play wear, infant wear, vetements de jeu
Pleat
a fold in cloth made by doubling the material upon itself and then pressing or stitching into place.
Pleaters
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of pleating and hemstitching. Also known as: hem stitching, hemstitching, pleating, Plissage, Plisseeverarbeitung, Pieghenatrici, Pleaters, Pleaters
Plimsolls
casual shoes made from canvas with rubber soles.
Pocketbook
casual shirt usually made of knitted fabric with a turnover collar
Polyester
A wrinkle-resistant fabric of fibers made from any of numerous synthetic polymers. 2: Polyester is lightweight, smooth, strong and weather resistant. 3: it is insensitive to moisture. It is lightweight, strong and resistant to creasing, shrinking, stretching, mel dew and abrasion. It is readily washable and is not damaged by sunlight or weather and is resistant to moths and mildew. 4: Commonly used for all types of clothing.trademark polyester fibers: * Akwatek® thermoregulation technology by Comfort Technologies, Inc.* Coolmax® by DuPont * Coolmax Alta® by DuPont* Comfortrel® by Wellman * Thermolite® Base by DuPont Also known as: Polyester, Polyester, Poliestere, Poliester, Poliéster
Polyester viscose
Also known as: Viscose Polyester, Polyesterviskose, Viscosa E Poliestere, Viscosa del Poliester, Viscose Do Poliéster
Polypropylene
A synthetic fabric made from any of various thermoplastic resins that are polymers of propylene. 2: Polypropylene fabric is hard and tough, and are used to make molded articles. Also known as: Polypropylène, Polypropylen, Polipropilene, Polypropylene, Polypropylene
Poncho
blanket with a slit so can be worn as on outer garment.
Poplin
A crosswise ribbed fabric of silk, rayon, wool, or cotton, used in making clothing and upholstery. 2: Has quite a high lustre andmay be bleached, or dyed (usually vat dyes are used) or printed. 3: Commonly used for Sportswear of all kinds, shirts, boy’s suits, uniforms, blouses and dresses. Also known as: popeline, poplin, popeline, popelín, poplin
Press service
Also known as: service de presse
Pret a porter
Also known as: label prive
Product development
Also known as: Développement de produit
Product line
Also known as: ligne de produit
Production pattern
finished patteren used to mass produce a design.
Production planning
Also known as: Planification de production
Public relations
A person or company hired to establish and promote goodwill for a product or service. Hired to foster good relations between a company and the public. Also known as: pr agencies, Relations Publiques, Öffentlichkeitsarbeiten, Pubbliche relazioni, Relaciones Públicas, Relações Públicas
Puffed sleeve
a sleeve that has added fullness at the shoulder and the cuff and varies in length, common in childerens and teenwear.
Pull Up leather
When pulled tight this type of leather produces a brilliant burst of color. Pull-up leathers have received an oil and/or wax application. When the leather is pulled, the oil and/or wax separates, causing the color to become lighter.
Pullover
a jumper that is put on the body by pulling it n over the head.
Pumps
sleeve that has shoulder and sleeve cut together and then sewn into garment at an angle.
Raincoat
a coat that protects from the rain as is constructed of waterproff material.
Rainwear
Waterproff clothing designed for use in the Rain. Includes all items ranging from Slickers to Trench coats. Also known as: rain wear, weather proof, foul weather gear, rain coat, raincoat, Vetements de Pluie, Regenschutzkleidung, Impermeabili, La Ropa Impermeable, O Rainwear
Raw edge
edges of fabric that aren’t finished
Raw material sourcing
Also known as: Approvisionnement de matière première
Rayon
A fabric made of cellulose. 2: It is soft, highly absorbent, drapable and dyeable. 3: Rayon does have a tendency to shrink but does not melt in high temperatures. It is resistant to moths and is not affected by ordinary household bleaches and chemicals. 4: Commonly used for all types of clothing. Also known as: rayons, viscose, rayonne, Rayon, rayon, rayón, rayon
Ready-to-wear
off the rack garments that are mass produced. Also known as: pret-a-porter
Realeased dart
same principal as normal dart but end is left unstitched to give a more straight silhouette.
Reflective
A material with a reflective surface. Also known as: reflective tape, Refléchissant, Reflektierend, Riflettente, Reflexivo, Reflexivo
Registered number
All american companies have unique number that may appear on labels along with or instead of manufacturers name.
Research & testing & quality control
The process of examining materials, garments and components, or finished garments to determine acceptability against standards. Also known as: Recherche Essais et Controle de La Qualite, Forschung, Produknests und Qualitatskontrolle, Ricerche, Prove E Controllo Della Qualita, Investigación y Testing y Control de Calidad, Pesquisa & Testing & Qualidade Controle
Resort
A collective term for clothing especially designed for use in Resorts or on Vacation. Includes all items ranging from Shorts, Tanks, Swimwear and Beachwear. Also known as: Resort, Vacation, ressource, Erholungsort, ricorso, recurso, recurso
Retail price
the set price at what a retailer will sell a particular garment for. also known as RRP or recommended retail price.
Retail store
Also known as: magasin au detail
Retailers
A collective term for any merchant who buys goods from a variety of wholesalers for resale to consumers. Retailers complete the final link of the fashion chain. 2: Types of retailers range from department and chain stores to specialty and boutique stores and mail order catalogs. Also known as: stores, department stores, chain stores, specialty boutiques, mail order, etail, Détaillants, Einzelhändler, Rivenditori, Minoristas, Varejistas
Retailing
Also known as: Vente au détail
Retro
an oldfashioned style that has came back into fashion.
Revers
part of lapel, found on jackets and collars.
Rhinestone
Artificial gems of paste or glass, often with facets that sparkle in imitation of a diamond. 2: Includes Jewels. Also known as: jewels, Strass, Schmucksteine, Brillanti Artificiali, Rhinestone, Rhinestone
Ribbed cuff
a stretchable cuff that allows the hand to be passed through it and then sits closely around the wrist, commonly found in sportswear.
Ribbed fabrics
A soft, plain-knitted fabric using a basic stitch used in weft knitting in which the knitting machines require two sets of needles operating at right angles to each other. Rib knits have a very high degree of elasticity in the crosswise direction. 2: Commonly used for complete garments and for sleeve bands, neck bands, sweater waistbands, and special types of trims for use with other knit or woven fabrics. Also known as: ribbing, rib knits, Textile Coteles, Gerippte Stoffe, Tessuti a Coste, Las Telas Acanaladas, Telas Com nervuras
Ribbed hem
used on casual garment to pull in fabric at the bottom, gives a lot of stretch.
Ribbed waistline
this waistband allows for a lot of stetch and is commonly found on activewear and childrenswear.
Ribbing
Also known as: Cotes, Gestrickte Rippenmuster, Bordo a Coste, Proveiendo de Costillas, Marcando
Ribbon
flat trim that is used as decoration, comes in various types such as satin, grosgrain.
Ribbons
A narrow strip or band of fabric, such as satin or velvet, finished at the edges and used for trimming, tying, or finishing. Also known as: ribbon, bows, Rubans, Bortenbesatz, Nastri, Cintas, Fitas
Rickrack
zigzag ribbon trim mostly used as decoration on childrens garments.
Riding wear
Also known as: Vetements Pour L’equitation, Reitkostume, Abiti Da Cavallerizzo, El Desgaste del Montar A Caballo, O Desgaste Da Equitação
Rigid beltings & webbings
A strong, narrow, closely woven fabric used especially for seat belts. Also known as: Ceintures et Sanglages Rigides, Versteifte Gurte und Gurtbander, Nastri E Cinture Rigidi, Beltings Rígido y Las Correas, Beltings Rígido & Os Webbings
Ring
type of jewelry that is worn on the finger and is usually made of precious metal.
Rise
crotch depth, distance between crotch level and waistband.
Rivet
used to reinforce stress points in pockets of jeans, although bartacks are now more commanly used for practicality, rivets are used as a decorative feature.
Robe
an outer garment worn over clothes, resembles a long loose coat. worn at graduation adn by royals.
Roll line
line at which a grown on collar is follded back on itself.
Roll neckline
neckline found in knitwear where the neck naturally rolls down.
Rolled collar
collar that has stand and fall cut as one and rolls over to create the collar.
Roller skate
boots that have wheels on the bottom that are used for skating.
Round neck
a simple neckiline that has a rounded shape, the depth of the neckline varies.
RTW
a loose fitting dress
Saddle shoe
a shoe that is in the style of an oxford shoe; this shoe has contrasting colors (Saddle Oxford)
Safari jacket
A jacket that has expandable pockets and has a belt.
Sailor collar
a wide collar that has a flat square shaped piece that lays flat on the back and that comes together to a V shape in the front.
Sales representative & agents
Also known as: representant de ventes et agents
Sales representatives
Also known as: representant de vente
Sample
Also known as: echantillon
Sample sales
Also known as: Ventes D’Échantillon, BeispielcVerkäufe, Vendite Del Campione, Ventas De la Muestra, Vendas Da Amostra
Samplemaking
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of making samples for sales reps to use in selling producct lines. Also known as: sample making, samplemaker, samplemakers, sample maker, sample makers, fabrication d’echantillons
Sandal
a shoe that has straps to unite the foot to the sole of the shoe.
Sarong
a long panel of fabric that is used to wrap around the body; both men and women wear this.
Satchel
a bag that has a shoulder strap.
Satin
A smooth fabric, as of silk or rayon, woven with a glossy face and a dull back. 2: Commonly used for Slips, After Five Dresses, Coats, Capes, and Jackets, lining fabrics and Millinery. Also known as: Satin, Satin, Raso, Satén, Satin
Scallops
sequential curves usually seen at the hem line.
Scarves
An oblong or square piece of cloth worn about the head, neck, or shoulders. 2: Includes all articles ranging from Pashmina, Shawls, Mufflers and Stoles. Also known as: scarf, scarves, pashmina, shawls, mufflers, stoles, Echarpes, Schals und Halstocher, Sciarpe, Las Bufandas, Scarves
Schools
2: Includes Universities, Institutes, Colleges and High Schools that specialize in Fashion Design. Also known as: Fashion Design, Écoles, Schulen, Scuole, Escuelas, Escolas
Scoop neck line
a neckline that is rounded around the neck, also can plunge low
Screen printers, rotary”
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of screen printing or silk-screening, applying dye or pigment paste through a mesh stencil to produce a surface design. Also known as: screenprinting, Impression Au Pochoir Type Rotatif, Rotationssiebdruck, Stampatori In Serigrafia Rotativa, Pantalla Impresora, Rotatorio, Tela Impressora Giratório
Screen printing
Also known as: impressions d’ecran
Season
Also known as: saison, Jahreszeit, stagione, estación, estação
Security tag systems
Also known as: Systemes a Etiquettes de Securite, Sicherheitsetiketten, Sistemi Di Etichene Di Sicurezza, Seguridad Etiqueta Sistema, Segurança Tag Sistema
Seersucker
A light thin Plain, slack tension weave fabric, generally cotton or rayon, with a crinkled surface and a usually striped pattern. 2: Durable, gives good service and wear. May be laundered without ironing. Can be bleached, yarn dyed, or printed. 3: Commonly used for Summer suits for men, women, and children, coats, uniforms, trims, nightwear, all kinds of sportswear, dresses, blouses and children’s wear. Also known as: seersucker, seersucker, seersucker, seersucker, seersucker
Separates
Also known as: Ensembles Separes, Zweiteilige Kleider, Capi Di Vesetiario Separati, Se Separa, Separam
Sequin
Also known as: Sequins, Sequingewebehersteller, Tessuti a Lustrini, Sequin
Sequins
A small shiny ornamental disk, often sewn on cloth. Also known as: sequin, spangle, Sequins, Spangen, Lustrini, Sequins, Sequins
Services
Often referred to as showrooms. The majority of wholesalers fall into two categories: Manufacturer’s respresentatives and Independent Sales Representatives. manufacturer’s representatives are usually closely associated with a manufacturer and represent the manufacturer’s line of products eclusively. Independent Sales Representatives tend to be privately owned companies which represent a number of different companies and product lines. Also known as: services, Dienstleistungen, servizi, servicios, serviços
Services to importers
Also known as: Services a Importers, Services Zu Den Importeuren, Servizi Agli Importatori, Servicio Importador, Serviço Importers
Sewing
A person or firm who performs the process of sewing. Also known as: sewing factory
Sewing machinery automation
Also known as: Machines a Coudre Automation, Nahmaschinerie Automatische, Automazione Del Macchinario Di Cucito, Sewing Maquinaria Automatización, Sewing Maquinaria Automatização
Sewing threads & cottons
A fine cord of a fibrous material, such as cotton or flax, made of two or more filaments twisted together and used in sewing, needlework and the weaving of cloth. Also known as: threads, thread, sewing thread, silk thread, cotton thread, Fils et Cotons a Coudre, Nahgarne und Baumwolizwirne, Fili E Cotoni Da Cucire, Las Cuerdas de Rosca y Cottons de Costura, As Linhas Sewing & Cottons
Shantung
A heavy plain weave fabric with a rough nubby surface, made of spun wild silk, cotton, rayon or synthetics. 2: Wrinkles quite a bit. Underlining helps to prevent this as well as slipping at the seams. 3: Do not fit too tightly, if long wear is expected. Also known as: Shantung, Schantungseide, Shantung, Shantung, Shantung
Shaped waistband
a waistband that does not just cut straight across; usually has a high waisted look and a side-seam zipper.
Shawl collar
this collar connects to the main portion of the garment.
Shawls
A square or oblong piece of cloth worn as a covering for the head, neck, and shoulders. Also known as: chales
Shears & scissors
Also known as: Cisailles et Ciseaux, Scheres, Cesoie & Forbici, Pelar y Tijera, Cort & Tesoura
Shell
a sweater that is sleeveless.
Shift
Also known as: Chargement de consolidation
Shirring
columns of gathers that are parallel to each other seen in the main portion of the garment.
Shirtdress
a dress that resembles a button down shirt.
Shirts
A collective term for a garment for the upper part of the body. Includes all items ranging from Blouses, Dress Shirts, Sport Shirts, Knit Shirts, Jerseys, Polo Shirts, V necks, Turtlenecks, Tanks, Halter Tops, Tube Tops, Bandeause, Tunics, T shirts, Hawaiian Wear and Dickeys. Also known as: tops, blouses, dress shirts, sport shirts, knit shirts, jerseys, polo shirts, v necks, turtlenecks, tanks, halter tops, tube tops, tunics, t shirts, hawaiian wear, dickeys, Chemises, Hemden, Camicie, Las Camisas, As Camisas
Shirts
Also known as: Chemises, Hemden, Camicie, Las Camisas, As Camisas
Shoe machinery agents
Also known as: Agents En Machines Pour La Chaussure, Vertreter fur Schuhverarbeitungsmaschinen, Agenti Per Macchinari Da Scarpe, Zapato Maquinaria Agente, Sapata Maquinaria Agente
Shopping bags
An oversized bag that is used for carrying shopping in. Also known as: packaging supply, packaging supplies, shopping bag, retail supplies, retail suppliers, sacs a provisions
Short
pants that stop at the knee or above; shorts.
Short hemline
the bottom of a skirt or dress that falls around the middle of the thigh.
Shorts
A collective term for a garment extending from the waist to the knee or above, covering each leg separately. 2: Includes all categories ranging from Hot Pants, Bermuda, jamaican, Trunks and Skorts. Also known as: bottoms, shorts, Kurzschlüsse, shorts, cortocircuitos, shorts
Shoulder bags
A bag that has a strap that sits across the shoulders. Also known as: shoulder bag, sacs a bandouliere
Shoulder pad manufacturers
A thin, cushionlike mass of soft material, usually foam, used to fill or give shape to apparel. Also known as: padding, Fabrication de Rembourrages D’epaules, Schulterpolsterhersteller, Fabbricanti Di Spalline Imbonite, Los Fabricantes de la Pista del Hombro, Os Fabricantes Da Almofada Do Ombro
Showrooms
Also known as: Salles d’exposition
Shows
a tiny jacket or sweater, worn by women.
Side-seam pocket
This pocket comes from the side seam of the garment.
Silhouette
Also known as: silhouette
Silk
A natural fabric made from the fine threads produced by silkworm cocoons. 2: It is soft, crisp, luxurious and has a brilliant sheen. 2: It is very strong, absorbent, highly drapeable and well suited for tailoring. 3: Commonly used for all types of clothing and accessories. Also known as: Sope, Seide, Seta, Seda, Seda
Single cuff
Mostly seen on shirts; this cuff has a vent towards the back of the sleeve.
Skimmer
a hat that is made of straw and has a flat crown; the brim is wide and flat.
Skirts
A collective term for a garment that hangs freely from the waist down. 2: Includes all categories ranging from Culottes and Skorts. Also known as: bottoms, skirt, Jupes, Rocke, Sottane, Las Faldas, As Saias
Skiving machines
Also known as: Machines a Doler, Spaltmaschinen fur die Lederverarbeitung, Macchine Per Tagliare In Strati, Skiving Máquina, Skiving Máquina
Skiwear
Clothing especially designed for Skiing. Includes all items ranging from Snowsuits to Parkas. Also known as: ski wear, snowear, sno wear, vetements de ski
Skort
a combination of a skirt and shorts; the skirt covers the shorts.
Sku
an acronym for Shop Keepers Unit.
Skullcap
a tight hat that does not have a brim.
Slack
this pocket has a slant or tilt to it; mostly used on pants.
Slash neckline
this type of neckline cuts straight across, lies on the collar bone.
Sleeveless
a shirt or dress that does not have sleeves.
Sling back
Also known as: slingback, lancez en arriere
Slingback
a type of women’s shoe that has an open back with a strap behind the heel or ankle.
Slip
an undergarment worn under a dress or a skirt.
Slippers
Shoes that are for use within the home. Also known as: Pantoufles, Hausschuh, Pistoni, Los Deslizadores, Deslizadores
Slips
A woman’s undergarment worn beneath a dress or skirt.
Slit sleeve
this sleeve has slits on either edges, which creates a winged or flared look.
Snap-brim
a hat that has a dented crown, and a brim that is turned upward in the back and downward in the front, usually made of felt.
Sneakers
Training shoes. Also known as: tennis
Socks
Any close-fitting hosiery or covering reaching a point between the ankle and the knee. 2: Usually come in matched pairs (usually used in the plural) 2: Includes all articles ranging from Dress and Casual Socks, Anklets, Argyles. Also known as: argyles, anklets, casual sock, dress sock, chaussettes
Sourcing
To obtain (parts or materials) from another business, country, or locale for use in manufacturing: Also known as: approvisionnement, Auftreten, Sourcing, Sourcing, Sourcing
Sourcing chain
Also known as: Chaîne d’approvisionnement
Sourcing services
Also known as: Services d’approvisionnement
Special occasion
A collective term for a clothing usually worn to special events. Includes all items ranging from Prom, Debutante and Pageant Gowns, Christening, Communion and Confirmation. Also known as: occasion speciale
Specialty
Also known as: specialite
Specialty stores
A retail store offering a specialized merchandise to a niche or select audience. Also known as: boutiques, Magasins de spécialités, Facheinzelhändler, Depositi Di Specialità, Almacenes De Especialidad, Lojas De Specialty
Spencer
a jacket that is short in length
Sportswear
A collective term developed by out of the industry’s idea of a Collection Concepts. It encompasses various garments that when put together achieve a casual look. Used to describe clothing designed for comfort and casually styled but often acceptable for many business or social occasions. Includes all items ranging from Coordinates, Separates, Bottoms, Tops, Sweaters, Blazers and Dresses. 3: Often referred to as Casual Wear, Casualwear, Weekend Wear, Leisurewear or Coordinates. Also known as: sports wear, coordinates, separates, casual look, bottoms, casual wear, casualwear, weekend wear, leisurewear, Vetements de Sport, Sportbekleidung, Indumenti Sportivi, La Ropa de Deportes, O Sportswear
Sportswear
casual clothing
Sportswear fabrics
Also known as: Tissus Pour Vetements de Sport, Sportskleidungsstoffe, Stoffe Per Abiti Sportivi, Las Telas de la Ropa de Deportes, Telas Do Sportswear
Split leather
Leather made from the bottom split which has an imitation grain embossed into a heavily finished pigmented surface.
Spring
Also known as: Printemps
Square bertha
a type of collar in the shape of a square, but is still connected to the rounded neckline.
Square neckline
a neckline that drops vertically and then ends abruptly in a horizontal line.
Stand
the part of the collar that is closest to the neck.
Stand collar
a collar that stand up from the neckline and does not fold over.
Stocking
a lightweight elastic fabric that covers the leg and foot
Stole
a long broad piece of cloth that women wear around their shoulders.
Stonewashing
Also known as: Caillou Lavage, Steinreinigung, Di Pietra Lavaggio, Stonewashing, Stonewashing
Storage & handling systems
Also known as: Systemes de Magasinage et de Manutention, Lagerungs und Transportsysteme, Impianti D’immagazzinaggio E Moviementazione, Almacenaje y Tramitación Sistema, Armazenamento & Handling Sistema
Street trends
Also known as: Tendances de La rue
Streetwear
A collective term for trendy, fashion conscious merchandise which incorporates a fresh, often cutting edge Youth Quake or Urban Street aesthetic. Includes all items ranging from Bottoms, Tops, Sweaters and Dresses. Also known as: street wear, hip hop, street fashion, rap, vetements de rue
Style
Also known as: Style, Art, Stile, Estilo, Estilo
Style books
Also known as: livres de styles
Stylist
Also known as: styling, Styliste, Stilist, Stilista, Estilista, Estilista
Suede
The underneath portion of a hide after splitting has occurred, a fibrous leather.
Suede imitation
Also known as: faux suede, fake suede, Daim Simules, Wildleder Imitiert, Camoscio Finti, del Ante, de suede
Suitings
Also known as: Tissus de Confection, Herrenstoffe, Tessuti Per Vestiti, Suitings, Suitings
Suits
A collective term for tailored apparel. Often divided into two categories: Carrer and Evening. 3: Often referred to as Tailored Clothing and Suiting. Also known as: after five suiting, suit, suiting, tailored clothing, tailored clothes, careerwear, career wear, tailoring, Costumes, Anzuge, Vestiti, Los Juegos, Ternos
Suits
Tailored clothing usually worn to the office. Also known as: career wear, careerwear, Costumes, Anzuge, Tailleur, Los Juegos, Os Ternos
Suits
Also known as: Costumes, Anzuge, Completi, Los Juegos, Os Ternos
Suppliers
A collective term for a person or company who represent raw material that are in turn processed into finished goods. 2: Includes suppliers for Apparel, Accessories and Textile production. 3: Suppliers can include: notions & trim, Textile wholesalers, etc. Also known as: Fournisseurs, Lieferanten, Fornitori, Surtidores, Fornecedores
Supply chain
Also known as: Chaîne de provision
Surplus stock buyers
Also known as: close outs, surplus merchandise, close out, liquidation, excess inventory, designer sales, overstock, over stock, closeout, closeouts, mark downs, mark down, markdown, markdowns, Acheteurs de Stocks En Surplus, Kaufervon Uberschussigem Material, Compratori Di Eccedenze, Los Compradores de la Terraja de Sobra, Compradores Do Estoque Em excesso
Suspenders
Stockings that are held up using a suspender belt. Also known as: bretelles
Sweaters
made especially of knit, crocheted, or woven wool, cotton, or synthetic yarn a crocheted or knitted garment covering the upper part of the body. Also known as: sweater, cardigans, pullovers, jumpers, cardigan, pull over, pullover, jumper, chandails, Strickjacken, maglioni, suéteres, sweaters
Sweatshirt tshirt & sportswear fabrics
Also known as: Tissus Pour Chemisettes, Chemisettes a Manches Courtes et de Sport, Gewebe fur Sweatshirts T Shirts U Nd Sportbekleidung, Tessuti Per Bluse, Magliene E Altri Indumenti Sportivi, Sweatshirt Tshirt y Las Telas de la Ropa de Deportes, Sweatshirt TShirt & Telas Do Sportswear
Sweatshirts & t shirts
Clothing especially designed for active athletic lifestyle. Includes all items ranging from Sweatsuits, Fleecewear, Sweat Shirts, Sweat pants, Gymwear, General Athletic Apparel. Also known as: sweat wear, sweat suits, sweatsuits, sweat pants, sweatpants, gymwear, gym wear, sweatpant, sweat pant, sweat shirt, sweatshirt, sweat shirt, sweatshirts, sweatsuit, sweatwear, Chemisettes et Chemisettes a Manches Courtes, TShirts und Sweatshirts, Bluse E Magliette Sportive, Sweatshirts y Tshirts, Sweatshirts & TShirts
Sweatshirts & tshirts
Clothing, especially outer garments; attire. 2. External clothing; vesture; garments; dress; garb; external habiliments or array.3. covering designed to be worn on a person’s body4. An all embracing term that applies to men’s women’s and children’s clothing Also known as: t-Shirts, Chemisettes et Chemisettes a Manches Courtes, TShirts und Sweatshirts, Bluse E Magliette Sportive, Sweatshirts y Tshirts, Sweatshirts & TShirts
Sweatshirts & tshirts
this is a test Also known as: Chemisettes et Chemisettes a Manches Courtes, TShirts und Sweatshirts, Bluse E Magliette Sportive, Sweatshirts y Tshirts, Sweatshirts & TShirts
Sweetheart neckline
this neckline combines a square neckline and a V-neckline.
Swim & beachwear
Also known as: Costumes de Bain et de Plage, Bade und Strandmoden, Costumi Da Bagno E Indumenti Da Spiaggia, La Nadada y Beachwear, A Nadada & Beachwear
Swimwear
Also known as: t shirt, tank top, t shirts
Tabbard
a strap of fabric that is offten found on shoulers and pockets as well as a fastening for garments. its held in place by either a button or stud. offten found in military styles.
Table of contents
Also known as: table des matieres
Taffeta
A crisp, smooth, plain-woven fabric with a slight sheen, made of various fibers, such as silk, rayon, or nylon. 2: Commonly used for After Five wear, Dressy Eveningwear: Suits and Coats, Slips, Ribbons and Blouses. Also known as: Taffeta, Taft, Taffena, Tafetán, Taffeta
Tailcoat
tailed coat worn by men at formal occasions.
Tailored goods
Also known as: Marchandises façonnées
Tank top
vest top with wide shoulder straps and usually a rounded neckline.
Tanneries & hides
Also known as: tanning, hides, Les Tannerie Et Se cache, Gerberei U. Versteckt Sich, Le Concerie & Si nasconde, Las Curtidurías Y Ocultan, Os Tanneries & Escondem
Tapes
Also known as: Rubans, Bander, Fenucce, Las Cintas, As Fitas adesivas
Tartan
Also known as: Tartan, Tartan (Karierte Schottenmuster), Tartan, Tartan, Tartan
Tassels
A bunch of loose threads or cords bound at one end and hanging free at the other, used as an ornament on accessories or clothing. Also known as: Glands, Quasten, Nappe, Las Borlas, Os Tassels
Tea dress
loose floating dress tradtionally worn for midafternoon parties, popular in 1940’s.
Tennis shoe
a type of sneaker.
Tenniswear
Clothing especially designed for Tennis. Includes all items ranging from shorts, skirts and sweatbands. Also known as: tennis wear, tennis apparel, tennis clothing
Terry cloth
A Cotton and linen pile, also jacquard and dobby combined with pile. 2: Long wearing, easy to launder and requires no ironing. May be bleached, dyed, or printed. Better qualities have a close, firm, underweave, with very close loops. Very absorbent, and the longer the loop, the greater the absorbency. 3: Commonly used for Towels, beachwear, bathrobes, all kinds of sportswear and children’s wear. Also known as: terry, tissu de Terry, Terry Tuch, panno del Terry, paño de terry, pano de terry
Testing
Also known as: mise a l’epreuve
Textile
a type of cloth, woven fabric, or fibers compiled together
Textile
Also known as: Textile, Gewebe, tessile, textil, textil
Textile agents
Also known as: Textile Sales Representatives, agents de textile
Textile industry
industry overview Also known as: fabric industry, fabric Market,, Industrie Textile, TextilcIndustrie, Industria tessile, Industria De Textil, Indústria De Textile
Textile machinery
Also known as: Machines de Textiles, Textilmaschinen, Accessori Per Macchinari Tessili, Maquinaria del Textil, Textile Maquinaria
Textile mills
A building or group of buildings equipped with machinery for processing raw materials, ususally fibers into finished fabrics. Also known as: textile mill, textile jobber, textile, fabric, Moulins De Textile, TextilcMühlen, Laminatoi Della Tessile, Molinos Del Textil, Moinhos De Textile
The fashion calendar
Also known as: le calendrier de la mode
Thong
goes between toes to hold sandals in place. also a type of womans underweaar.
Thread guides
Also known as: Guidages de Fils, Zwirnfuhrungen, Guide Per Filo, Guías de Cuerda de Rosca, As Guias De Linha
Three-quarter sleeve
coming to between the wrist and the elbow its a quarter length shorter than a full length sleeve.
Tiara
formal headwear for woman, usually precious metal and decotated with jewels.
Tie
a narrow piece of fabric that is tied in a knot around the neck, mens formalwear worn with a shirt.
Ties
Also known as: liens
Ties, bowties & cravats
A long rectangular piece of cloth worn about the neck (Usually on Men). 2: A common variation includes the Bow Tie, a short necktie fashioned into a bowknot close to the throat. 3: Includes all articles ranging from Ascots, Neckties, Bow tie, Cravat and Cravattes, Also known as: neckties, tie, bow ties, cravat, Cravates, Noeuds Papillon et Lavalieres, Krawatten, Fliegen und Halsbinder, Cravatte, Cravatte a Fadalla E Fazzoleni Da Collo, Los Lazos y Bowties y Los Pañuelos, Laços BowTies & Cravats
Tights
tight fitted garment for legs, come in a variety of shades and opacities, also known as panty hoes.
Toboggan
lightweight coat.
Topmakers
Also known as: Fabrication de Rubans de Peigne, Topmakers, Fabbricanti Di Corpetti E Giacche, Topmakers, Topmakers
Topstitched bound hem
bias binding is topstitched around the hem of a garment to give a decorative finish.
Topstitching
rows of stitching that are visible on the outside of the garment offten done in contrasting colors for decoration.
Total value-added
Also known as: total de la valeur ajoutee
Total value-added packages
Also known as: Paquets À valeur ajoutée totale
Totes
A large capacious bag or pouch used for carrying large or multiple items. (Usually by Women) 2: Often made of durable materials or woven basket materials. Also known as: Tote Bag, Tote, carryall, Emballages, Totes, Totes, Totalizadores, Totes
Towelling
Also known as: Tissu Eponge, Handtuchdrill, Tela Per Asciugamani, Towelling, Towelling
Tracksuit
a two piece suit that is worn during excercise.
Trade events
Also known as: evenements d’expositions
Trade offices
Also known as: trade consulates, trade representatives, embassies, Bureaux Commerciaux, GeschäftscBüros, Uffici Commerciali, Oficinas Comerciales, Escritórios De comércio
Trade show
Also known as: Exposition commerciale
Trade shows
A chance for companies to display their clothing and/or accessories to buyers. Also known as: Expositions Commerciales d’habillement
Trade shows
Shouldn’t be in guides see events Also known as: expositions commerciales
Tradeshow
Also known as: exposition commerciale
Trading hubs
Also known as: exchanges, portals, commerce de centre
Training & consulting
Also known as: Instruction et Conseils Services, Ausbildungs und Beratungsdienste, Servizi Addestramento E Consulenza, Entrenamiento y Consulting, Treinamento & Consulting
Tram-lined cuff
a series of topstitching lines that encircle the cuff.
Trench
a type of coat that typically has long sleeves and ties around the waist with a belt.
Trend
type of hat that is typically made of felt and has an inverted crown.
Trim contractors
A person or firm who performs the specialized process of applying trim to finished or unfinished products including garments / apparel and accessories. Also known as: trim application, trimming contractors
Trimmings
A decoration or ornament. 2: Includes Appliques, . Also known as: trim, Garnitures, besatz, Rifiniture, Recortes, Aparamentos De Cambric
Trouser waistbands
Also known as: Bandes de Ceintures de Pantalons, Taillenbander fur Hosen, Cinture Di Pantaloni, Trouser Waistbands, Trouser Waistbands
Trousers
A collective term for a garment extending from the waist to the knee or ankle, covering each leg separately. 2: Includes all categories ranging from Trousers, Khakis, Stirrups, Dress Pants, Casual Pants, Jeans and Corduroys. Also known as: bottoms, trousers, Pantalons, Hosen, Pantaloni, Los Pantalones, Os Trousers
Trousers
type of male shorts used for sports and swimming.
T-shirt
a casual collarless top usually made of a stretch fabric.
T-strap
shoe that has a narrow strap that goes from the toes up the foot and then around the ankle.
Tube top
a top the is a simple tube of fabric that is just pulled onto the body.
Tuck
folds that are sewn into place to create interest in a garment. when done in a repeat is known as pintucks.
Tunic
a loose fitting garment that has no fastenings and just pulls over the head.
Turnup hem
when the hem is turned up on the outside of a garment instead of the inside so it is visible.
Turtleneck
style of collar used on sweaters that sits high against the neck.
Tutu
a short netted skirt, worn traditionally by dancers.
Tuxedo
mens formal jacket worn for eveningwear.
Tuxedos
Also known as: Tweed, Tweed, Tweed, Tweed, Tweed
Twill
A fabric with diagonal parallel ribs. Also known as: Croise, Twill (Gekopert), Tesuto Spigato, Tela Cruzada, Twill
Twinset
matching cardigan and pullover that are worn as set.
Two-piece
a two piece bathing suit, also known as bikini.
Two-piece sleeve
sleeve that is constructed for two pieces a top sleeve and an under sleeve.
Two-way zip
clothing that is meant to be worn under garments.
Underwear
Clothes worn next to the skin, beneath one’s outer clothing. 2: Includes Undershirts, Tanks, Thermal wear, Boxers, Briefs and Long Johns. Also known as: under wear, innerwear, Panties, Undies, undershirts, tanks, thermal wear, boxers, briefs, long johns, boxer, under shirt, panty, inner wear, SousVetements, Unterwasche, Biancheria Intima, La Ropa Interior, O Underwear
U-neck
an alteration of the square neckline. Where the square neckline has abrupt edges, this one has a bit of a rounded edge.
Uniforms
A collective term for apparel of a distinctive design worn by members of a particular group as a means of identification. Includes all items ranging from Smocks, Pinafores, Aprons, School, Coveralls, Camouflage and Military. Also known as: work clothing, uniform, Uniformes, Uniforme Kleidung, Uniformi, Uniformes, Uniformes
Union suit
an outfit that connected both the bottom portion to the top portion.
Unions
An alliance or confederation of workers for mutual interest or benefit. Also known as: unions
Unitard
a tight all in once piece. The legs, arms, and torso are all connected to each other.
Upper collar
the section of the collar that is observable
Urbanwear
neckline that is cut in the shape of a v.
V zone
the v shaped opening in a tailored collar.
Vanity case
used by women to carry toiletries and cosmetics.
Velvet & velveteen & velour
A soft fabric, such as silk, rayon, or nylon, having a smooth, short dense pile and a plain underside. 2: Inferior quality velvets are often made with a silk pile on a cotton or linen back. Strong and takes hard wear. Poor quality rubs off. Has to be cut all one way. 3: Commonly used for After Five and Eveningwear. Also known as: velveteen, Velours & Velventine et Taupe, Samt, Baumwollsamt und Velours, Velluto, Velluto Di Cotone E FeltroVelluto, Terciopelo y Pana y Terciopelo, Veludo & Velveteen & Velour
Vendors
Also known as: vendeurs
Vent
used to give freedom of movement by putting a slit in the hem of a garment.
Vented cuff
taken from the vents used on hem lines this cuff gives a functional and smart finish.
Vest
traditionally worn as underwear but now commanly used as outerwear, a vest is a tightfitted top with thin shoulder straps.
Vests
A sleeveless garment, often having buttons down the front, usually worn over a shirt or blouse and sometimes as part of a three-piece suit. Also known as: waistcoats, vest, gilets, Westen, maglie, chalecos, vestes
Vinyl
A tough, synthetic, flexible, shiny plastic fabric derived from ethylene. Also known as: vinyle, Vinyl, vinile, vinilo, vinil
Virtual runway
Also known as: RUNWAY Virtuelle
Viscose mix
A fabric made from viscose (cellulose xanthate) fibers. Also known as: Melange de Viscose, Viskosemischung, Misto Viscosa, Mezcla Viscosa, Mistura Viscosa
Visor
the section of a cap that extends forward to cover the eyes.
Visual merchandising
Also known as: Gilets, Westen, Pancioni, Chalecos, Waistcoats
Walking sticks
Sticks that are used to assist with walking, offten used by the old. Also known as: Cannes, Spazierst6cke, Bastoni Da Passeggio, Los Palillos El Recorrer, As varas andar
Wallets
A purse for men. Also known as: pochettes
Warehousing
A place in which goods or merchandise are stored and from which they are distributed.
Watches
A small portable timepiece, usually worn on the wrist. 2: A common variation is the Pocket Watch usually carried in the pocket. Also known as: watch, wristwatches, wrist watches, Montres, Uhren, Orologi, Los Relojes, os relógios
Waxed conons
Also known as: Cotons Cire, Wachstuch, Cotoni Cerati, Conons Encerado, Conons Encerado
Weatherwear & waterproofs
Waterproff clothing designed for use in the Rain. Includes all items ranging from Slickers to Trench coats. Also known as: rain wear, weather proof, slickers, trench coats, Vetements de Campagne et Impermeables, Schlechtwetter und Wasserundurchlassiae Bekleiduna, Indumenti a Prove Drintemperie, Weatherwear y Impermeabiliza, Weatherwear & Waterproofs
Weaving & reel manufacturers
Also known as: Fabricants de Tissages et Bobines, Hersteller Von Spulen und Webereizubeh6r, Fabbricanti Di Telai E Roccheni, Tejiendo y Fabricantes del Carrete, Tecendo & Os Fabricantes Do Carretel
Web development
The act of creating internet sites. Also known as: web design, developpement internet
Wedding attire
Also known as: Costumes Pour Mariages, Hochzeitskleidung, Abiti Da Matrimonio, Traje de la Boda, Attire Do Casamento
Wedge
a type of shoe that has a heel that continues to the front of the shoe.
Welt hem
a simple turnup hem used on knitted garments the length of the welt can vary depending on the style desired.
Western wear
A collective term for apparel of or pertaining to horseback riding. Includes all items ranging from Chaps, Helmuts, Spurrs, Buckles. Also known as: westernwear, riding wear, usage occidental, westliche Abnutzung, usura occidentale, desgaste occidental, desgaste ocidental
Wholesaler
Also known as: grossiste
Wholesalers
Often referred to as showrooms. The majority of wholesalers fall into two categories: Manufacturer’s respresentatives and Independent Sales Representatives or Agents. Manufacturer’s Representatives are usually closely associated with a Manufacturer and represent the Manufacturer’s line of products eclusively. Independent Sales Representatives tend to be privately owned companies which represent a number of different companies and product lines. Also known as: wholesaler, showroom, showrooms, trade suppliers, wholesale, wholesaling, off price, closeout, trade suppliers, sales representatives, sales reps, sales agents, Manufacturer’s respresentatives, Independent Sales Representatives, Grossistes, Groehandler, Commercianti All ‘Ingrosso, Los Comerciantes, Atacadistas
Windsor tie
a wide necktie that is looped in a bow
Women’s wear
Also known as: vetements pour femmes, Frauabnutzung, Usura delle donne, Desgaste de las mujeres, Desgaste das mulheres
Women’s wear daily
a fashion newspaper
Wool
A natural fabric made from fiber sheared from animals such as sheep, llamas, camels and goats and twisted into yarn for weaving. 2: It is very dyeable, resilient and resistant to wrinkling. 3: Commonly used for all types of apparel. Also known as: Laine, Wole, Lana, Lanas, Lãs
Wool fabric
Also known as: Wool fabric, Wool, Wool fabrics, Wool textiles, Top Dix
Wool mix
Also known as: Melange de Laine, Wollmischung, Misto Lana, Lanas Se Mezcla, Lãs Misturam
Work clothing
Also known as: vetements de travail
Workwear
A collective term for apparel of a distinctive design worn by members of a particular group as a means of identification. Includes all items ranging from Smocks, Pinafores, Aprons, School, Coveralls, Camouflage and Military. Also known as: uniforms, work clothing, work wear, Vetements de Travail, Berufskleidung, Abiti Da Lavoro, Workwear, Workwear
Worldwide
Also known as: Dans le monde entier
Worsted
Also known as: Peigne, Kammgarnstoff, Peninato, Worsted, Worsted
Wovens
To make (cloth) by interlacing the threads of the weft and the warp on a loom into cloth Also known as: Tisse, Baumwolle, Tessuto, Tejido, tecido
Wraps
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Hosiery
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Quark, clabber, twaróg, and viili are international variations of a food made from?
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ETN - Equestrian Trade News - April 2015 by ETN - Equestrian Trade News - issuu
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Equestrian Trade News
T h e Vo i c e o f t h e E q u e s t r i a n I n d u s t r y
April 2015 Volume 39, No 4 Monthly
T h e Vo i c e o f t h e E q u e s t r i a n I n d u s t
STAYING T h e V o i c e o fSAFE the Equestrian I Hats latest: we ask the experts
FEEDING FOR PERFORMANCE AMTRA accredited SQP CPD nutrition module
ETN is the official media partner of BETA International
PLUS • Pre-election business insights • Good grooming • New products
... the magazine for the industry, about the industry, by the industry
Editor’s Comment PLEASE could someone ask Louise Bell to get those lovely Amerigo saddles off those awful racks (Horse & Hound, February 19 issue, page 28)? Or least put some padding under them? It’s clear from the picture taken inside the top show producer’s tackroom how the rounded racks are digging into the underside of the saddles’ panels. It makes me cringe. She’d be better off storing them on poles or using the traditional wooden saddle horse she’s leaning on.
THERE were many signs at BETA International 2015 that the equestrian trade is on the up. None more so than the launch of some lovely products designed mainly to make horses – and their owners – happy. Botanicals from Absorbine, Simplyirrestible from Equilibrium Products and Well Gel from Westgate EFI are all delightfully decadent. And you know what they say about a little of what you fancy…Read more in Product News in this issue of ETN.
THERE was a time when Lavenham quilted coats and even rubbery beige riding macs were considered the height of equestrian chic across the continent. In more recent times, British clothing brands have had some catching up to do in the European labels’ wake. But they’re most definitely on the case… Good looking newcomers include British horseracing themed shirts by Freddie Parker. While the toggles that feature in Sherwood Forest’s A/W 2015 collection – previewed in this issue of ETN - are reminiscent of Paddington Bear’s duffle coat. And what could be more British than that?
TRAVEL to and from Badminton plus an entry ticket for £50 or less is an innovative bargain from the organisers of next month’s Mitsubishi Badminton Horse Trials (7 – 10 May). Coaches leave from Chester, Cambridge and Exeter, with pick-up points en route, to enable visitors to spend the day at the event on the Thursday and Saturday. All inclusive (travel and admission) prices from Chester and Cambridge are £42 on the Thursday and £50 on the Saturday. Prices from Exeter are £37 and £48 respectively. Retailers might like to organise days out for customers or local riding clubs. More details at www.badminton-horse.co.uk
Liz Benwell
CONTENTS
APRIL 2015
NEWS......................................................................... 4 PRODUCT NEWS....................................................... 8 PEOPLE.................................................................... 13 BETA MEMBERS’ PAGE.......................................... 14 PRE-ELECTION BUSINESS INSIGHTS COVER STORY Who’ll get your business vote?............................. 16 RETAILER PROFILE Meet White Rose Saddlery.................................... 18 STAYING SAFE COVER STORY Hats: we ask the experts....................................... 20 Latest products....................................................... 23 How to sell air vests............................................... 24 BETTER BUSINESS Crowd funding: could it help you?........................ 28 GOOD GROOMING Get set for a fresh, fly free Spring........................ 30 CLOTHING & FOOTWEAR New collections for the season ahead.................. 34 What every horsey girl wants............................... 40 FEEDING FOR PERFORMANCE COVER STORY Product gallery....................................................... 42 AMTRA accredited SQP CPD feature.................... 46 INSURANCE FOR ONLINE RETAILERS Are you covered?.................................................... 48 COUNTY COURT JUDGMENTS................................ 50
FRONT COVER: Beatle Payne puts safety first as she enjoys a cross country round on Percival’s Rebel at last year’s Animalife British Riding Clubs National Horse Trials Championships. Beatle is wearing an Airowear Outlyne XC with matching shoulder protectors and BodyBase Sport baselayer. Her helmet is a Pink 2Star by Charles Owen. You’ll find features on safety and feeding for performance in this issue of ETN. (Photo: Pete Morris)
News
4
Owners still not getting worming right THE way that eight in ten owners worm their horses is failing to fight resistance to worming drugs. A survey of 1,000 consumers also discovered that while 67% believe they are protecting their horses from the rise of resistance, 81% are not doing sufficient FECs (faecal egg counts). An adequate level is considered to be three or more FECs per year per horse. The figures come from a survey by retailer Countrywide in collaboration with analysts Westgate Laboratories, pharmaceutical company Norbrook and BW Equine Vets. “Countrywide’s aim was to invest in research that will help build awareness and start to change attitudes and behaviour in the approach to effective worming strategies,” said Sara Blackshaw, equine category manager at Countrywide. “The survey has brought out the disparities in current practice against best practice and how this is leading to the rise in resistance to wormers.”
Most worm routinely When asked about their worming practice, most owners (59%) say they do so out of routine. The majority use interval dosing at set times of the year, with just 31% conducting regular FEC tests. In other findings: • 53% of respondents are still choosing their worming product based on active ingredient and time of year. • 53% have conducted at least one FEC and of those who subsequently did not worm 69% said it was because the FEC was below 200epg and therefore worming wasn’t needed. • 99% of people worm their horse at least once a year, however 38% of owners do not know an accurate weight of their horse. (Inaccurate dosing contributes to resistance). • Tapeworms were the most wormed-for parasite with 86% of respondents treating for them. However, only 6% of horse owners have conducted a saliva test for tapeworm and only 8% have conducted the more established elisa blood test through vets. • 65% seek advice from their vet or in-store advisor (SQP) for worming and general health care with 26% choosing a product based on in-store advisor or vet recommendation. • 72% regularly poo pick and 45% harrow their fields. However 45% are not rotating pasture, 65% are over-grazing and 51% are overstocking. • 62% still rely on just a routine wormer when bringing a new horse into a yard.
Half a million Brits keep horses HORSE keeping in the UK is holding steady at nearly half a million households. It’s just one statistic from the 2015 National Equestrian Survey (NES), just published by BETA. The research, undertaken by independent analysts, also found that spending on equestrian goods and services (excluding racing) has returned to pre-recession levels and stands at £4.3 billion per annum. The latest NES is the fifth such snapshot of the equestrian community and its habits since the first survey was commissioned by BETA in 1995. The NES provides what’s almost certainly the most accurate calculation of the UK equine population which it puts at 944,000. The latest number of horse keepers is 446,000 households, a figure that was in decline but has levelled out in the past four years. The NES also covers different equestrian activities, safety and security and detailed expenditure on product sectors. In addition, it looks at current and lapsed riders. It’s calculated that 4.3% of the British population have ridden a horse in the last 12 months. The figure, which is in decline, equates to an estimated 2.7 million people. However, the decline is far less among regular riders – those riding at least once a month. The NES puts regular riders at 1.3 million people compared with 1.6 million in 2010. The survey looks at reasons why people no longer ride, access to horses and time factors being the main ones.
Shopping habits The survey covers riders’ shopping habits, and how they are changing, in detail. Highlights from this section include evidence that in-store shopping is as popular as ever with equestrian consumers. Other statistics reflect the rise of the internet and decline of mail order. • BETA Members receive a free overview of key findings from the National Equestrian Survey. This is available to others for £120. A full structural analysis costs £240 to BETA Members and £456 to non-members. (Prices include VAT). Two products and brands reports will be available focussing on horse feeds and bedding plus horse and rider clothing and saddlery, again with preferential rates available to BETA Members. Hard copies of the structural analysis and overview will be available early next month (May) with the two product reports due out in June. To order, contact Laura Clegg in the BETA office tel 01937 587062 or email [email protected]
ADVERT INDEX
Equestrian Trade News Stockeld Park, Wetherby, West Yorkshire LS22 4AW Tel: 01937 582111 Fax: 01937 582778 – Sales Email: [email protected] Website: www.equestriantradenews.com Publisher: Equestrian Management Consultants Ltd Editor: Liz Benwell Email: [email protected] Tel: 0345 6185007 Advertising Sales: Nicki Lewis Email: [email protected] Tel: 01937 582111 Fax: 01937 582778 Advertising Copy: Nicki Lewis Email: [email protected] Tel: 01937 582111
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
Subscriptions Distributed on a controlled-circulation basis to the retail trade. Paid-for annual subscriptions are £39.95 (UK), £73.00 (Europe), £86.00 (rest of the world). The magazine is independent of all groups. Editorial views expressed in ETN are not necessarily the official view of any organisation or group. Copyright: All material is copyright Equestrian Management Consultants Ltd. Design & Print: G.H. Smith & Son, Market Place, Easingwold, North Yorkshire YO61 3AB Tel: 01347 821329 Fax: 01347 822576 Email: [email protected] Web: www.ghsmith.com ISSN 1462-9526
Allen & Page.......................................................43 The Animal Health Company................................32 Animalife........................................................3 & 7 Airowear.............................................................25 Battles...................................................................9 Barrier Animal Health...........................................30 BETA International...............................................41 British Equestrian Directory...................................50 Classified.............................................................49 Ekkia.....................................................11, 17 & 37 Equisafety...........................................................22 Faulks & Cox Ltd..................................................29 Finest Brands International...........................23 & 39 Freddie Parker.....................................................38 Horse Masters Distribution...................................12 Jenkinson Equestrian...................................19 & 33 John Whitaker International.................................35 Kool Kaps..............................................................5 Magic Brush........................................................10 Natural Animal Feeds........................................ OBC Norbrook Laboratories Ltd....................................15 Charles Owen......................................................21 Saracen Horse Feeds............................................45 SEIB......................................................................5 Shires Equestrian.................................................13 Sherwood Forest................................................ IFC Snowhill Trade Saddlery......................................IBC L S Sales (Farnam) Ltd..........................................31 United Sports Products GmbH..............................26 Westgate EFI.......................................................27 WF Young Inc........................................................6 Verdo Horse Bedding.............................................8
www.equestriantradenews.com
5
Winner relinquishes award BETA International organisers have accepted The Herbal Horse & Pet’s voluntary relinquishment of the Innovation Award won in the Feed & Supplements category for its Ultimate Mix at this year’s trade fair. The winner’s trophy will be presented to TopSpec Equine, which was highly commended in this category for its UlsaKind cubes. The Herbal Horse & Pet relinquished its award on discovering that one of the product’s ingredients – the probiotic Bacillus subtilis – was not approved by the EU for use in equine supplements. BETA International’s Innovation Awards celebrate new products. “They are highly prized by the equestrian trade and have continued to grow over the past 20 plus years,” said BETA International organiser Claire Thomas. “They are judged by a panel of independent experts. All products are accepted into the competition in good faith.”
Packaging regulations updated A NEW European regulation on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures has come into force. Known in its abbreviated form as ‘the CLP Regulation’, it affects companies dealing with products such as hoof preparations and fly repellents. Retailers and consumers may notice some updated pictograms that warn of potential hazards on packaging. Rules suppliers must follow when classifying chemicals and other substances have also changed. Full details can be found at www.hse.gov.uk/chemical-classification/ legal/clp-regulation.htm
Dressage revises hat rule DRESSAGE competitors can continue to wear European standard riding hats until 1st January 2017. A revised British Dressage (BD) rule will allow BS/EN1384 standard hats to be worn in affiliated competitions for an extra 12 months. When the European standard was unexpectedly and suddenly withdrawn last December, BD said it would permit complying hats to be used until 1st January 2016. The new deadline may yet be extended “depending on the publication of the new harmonised European standard, the date for which has yet to be confirmed,” said BD in a statement. BD advises that members should update their hats regularly and when doing so that they meet one of the current standards. The revised hat ruled, announced on 16 March, also applies to RDA (Riding or the Disabled) competitions.
THE STORE THAT STOCKS EVERYTHING: Where can you find a lifestyle model foal in central London? Harrods, of course. The palomino Breyer foal, originally made for the New York Toy Fair, is now a permanent fixture at the famous department store. “We’re considering the idea of having more made for more retailers in future,” said Farel Williams of UK distributor DKL.
www.equestriantradenews.com
EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS APRIL 2015
News
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First UK clinic for saddle guru
More than 30 retailers and saddle fitters attended the day organised by Mark and Jenny Hammett, UK agents for Italian saddle brand Prestige. SADDLE designer Carsten Engelke presented his first UK clinic to a gathering of 33 retailers and saddle fitters at Wellington Riding in Hampshire in February. The day began in the classroom with an introduction to Italian saddle brand Prestige. Carsten explained how horses have evolved over the years into being shorter backed with bigger, sloping shoulders. He added that people becoming taller and heavier has made saddle fitting harder than ever. The afternoon was spent in the indoor school. “We saw four horses, all very different shapes and sizes,” said Prestige’s UK agent Jenny Hammett. “We discussed what could work for each horse, seeing and feeling how the saddles fitted and the reaction from the horse and rider. To aid the saddle fitting, we also explored the difference the new RP girth makes.” Many attendees said they left feeling inspired with lots to think about. “Carsten [Engelke] is such a forward thinking man, who clearly explains the reasons behind the design and technology; I could listen to him all day,” said Keith Ewers of Equitogs. Karolina Mikulicz-Church, of Arka Equipe, was also impressed. “It was fantastic to have the opportunity to gain some true insider knowledge.” Kirsty Milner, of S. Milner & Son said it had been useful “to see a completely different perspective and to hear from a very knowledgeable person.” While Bev Jenner, of Saddles Direct, described Carsten’s outlook on saddle fitting as “revolutionary in the very traditional industry we work in.” She added: “It was a great insight into a more scientific approach to saddle fitting. We hope to be able to use this knowledge to further enhance our service in the future.”
Carsten Engelke explains his approach to saddle fitting.
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Copies provoke legal action THE supplier of a grooming tool has told ETN that he’s considering taking legal action over a number of copies appearing on the market. Matthias Linnert-Kuhn, whose Austrian aunt invented MagicBrush, is also urging retailers to ensure they’re stocking the genuine article. The MagicBrush is made in Europe, he said. “The original design has very carefully shaped bristles for the best grooming effect.” Mattias has sold MagicBrush, available in packs of three and in various seasonal and themed colours, to Australia, South Africa, Scandinavia, the USA, Canada and across Europe. The popular product makes light work of removing loose hair, sweat and mud, while the back doubles as a sweat scraper. It’s machine washable. “I saw several copies at BETA International,” said Mattias. “Some are even packed in threes to mimic MagicBrush. I am definitely talking to my lawyers about this.” The UK distributor of MagicBrush is Trilanco.
British brands sought for China ROYAL MAIL is launching a shop front on Alibaba’s Tmall to help UK companies tap into the Chinese market. Tmall is an online retail site owned by the Chinese Alibaba Group. Distinctive products by British brands are sought to be sold through the global e-marketplace. The initiative was due to go live at the end of last month (March). “Royal Mail’s new shop front will help support British retailers and exporters expanding into the China market, fulfilling the strong demand of Chinese consumers for authentic, high quality British goods,” said chief executive Moya Greene. “We’re excited at the prospect of offering UK companies a new and streamlined way to increase the accessibility of their products to Chinese consumers.” Royal Mail says the shop front will give brands the chance to sell to China’s 302 million online shoppers without facing challenges such as local customer support service, customs duties, documentation, shipping and logistics.
WINNING WAYS: Burgess Hill, West Sussex based merchants Bodle Bros won a mixed pallet of feed in a competition run on Honeychop Horse Feeds’ stand at BETA International. Pictured receiving their prize are Julie Sandercock, Gemma Barnett, Claire Thomsett of Bodle Bros with Honeychop agent Susie Blackburn.
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News
NEWS IN BRIEF ETA is to continue its sponsorship of the Riding for the •B Disabled (RDA) Business Partnership Award at the charity’s Gala Awards evening in September. The award recognises businesses who work closely with RDA groups to support fundraising or donate time and expertise. The RDA Gala Awards take place at Lord’s Cricket Ground on 30 September 2015 with special guests, Clare Balding, Jonathan Agnew and Alastair Stewart. For tickets email Sal Atkinson [email protected] ENGIE celebrates the 20th anniversary of its sponsorship of •D the Pony Club Winter League Championships when this year’s event takes place at Moreton Morrell College, Warwickshire, on 3 and 4 April. Members of the Dengie nutrition team will be on hand throughout the event with their portable weighbridge to provide feeding advice. RENCH sportswear retailer Decathlon is to open its fourth •F store in London in June, bringing the total in the UK to 19 stores. • V ENUES for horse sports during the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games have been announced. The dressage and showjumping site will be Baji Koen, the Japan Racing Authority owned facility that hosted the Tokyo 1964 Olympic equestrian events. The eventing cross country venue is Sea Forest, also known as Umi no Mori, in Tokyo Bay. Olympic rowing, canoe sprint and mountain biking will also be staged here.
Product News
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New boot “is easy to sell” THE NEW Sovereign boot from Mountain Horse is made from soft, best quality leather with a show-ring shine and finish. Concealed laces at the instep flex with the foot offering supreme comfort in and out of the stirrup. There’s also excellent ankle support without compromising flexibility plus cushioned insoles and pigskin lining. “These features should add up to comfort from the moment your customer tries the boot on,” says a spokesman for Mountain Horse. “The fit is divine and the look speaks for itself. This will, without doubt, be one of the easiest boots to sell, especially at the fantastic RRP of just £299.” The Sovereign is available in ladies’ sizes 36 – 42 and black or brown. A flat-fronted version, the Opus, comes in black. t Horsemasters Distribution 01462 432596
Simply ingenious!
NEW simplyirrestible from Equilibrium Products is designed to liven up equine mealtimes and support a healthy gut. Made from natural ingredients in fruit or vegetable varieties, simplyirrestistible can sprinkled on top of hard feed, chaff or forage to add flavour and interest. It can also hide medication, tempt fussy feeders or be given as a treat. Each variety is packed with an array of delicious tastes and textures (beware the horse owner eating it first, it tastes so good!) Simplyirrestistible also offers natural plant antioxidants and contains a probiotic to support digestive health and help the horse get the most out of its feed. It’s cereal free with no added sugar. The fruits blend contains apple, apricot, strawberry, date and sultanas; while the vegetable variety features carrot, parsnip, pea, courgette and beetroot. The trade price is £36.28 per box of four x 1.5kg packs. RRP is £12.95 per 1.5kg pack.
Pop-up scoop Almost as exciting as simplyirresistible is the new pop-up scoop designed for dishing it out. This clever device measures out 50g portions, so is ideal for supplements too. It has a clip for attachment to the simplyirresistible pack to help seal in freshness. Dishwasher safe, the scoop comes in two colour designs. The trade price is £11 per pack of four, RRP £4.95 per scoop. t Equilibrium Products 01442 879115 APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
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Special offer for new stockists
VERDO HORSE Bedding is offering easy payment terms to selected retailers opening new accounts. From this month (April) to July, new stockists of the wood pellet bedding will enjoy payment terms extended to 30 days on first orders and no upfront fees (subject to terms and conditions). The move is designed to develop new business, explained Michele Griffiths (pictured), Verdo sales executive. “Verdo Horse Bedding offers exceptional value for money for both retailer and consumer and product satisfaction on all levels,” she added. “So we hope that this short promotion will enable even more consumers to obtain Verdo through our growing network of retailers nationwide.” Verdo also offers glossy PoS material, video tutorials with sponsored riders and in-store training. t Verdo Horse Bedding 01264 726 753
Saddle is “a first” AMERIGO says its latest jump saddle is the first to be designed for horses with a lot of compensation in their backs and straighter than usual toplines. Compensation, in this case, is the difference in height between the withers and the lowest part of the back. The CC Basso is built on a wooden spring tree with wool flocked panels. It’s available with monoflap and forward flap options and in plain or printed refined leather. RRPs are from £3,300 for plain leather. t Zebra Products 01352 763350 • Zebra Products is offering retailers a promotion on new Equipe and Amerigo saddles during this month (April) with a 10% discount off trade prices on the Equipe Emporio dressage and Amerigo Vega dressage and jump models. This makes the Emporio dressage £945, Vega Dressage £1,215 and Vega jump £1170, all exclusive of VAT.
Getting the whip hand
RETAI L TIP
IF YOU stock whips and keep them in a pot type container, do store them with the handle downwards. Otherwise the little lash on the end of schooling whips gets bent and/or worn and the whip looks ‘used’. With thanks to Jenkinsons Equestrian for this handy tip.
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11 Just for men EURO-STAR Jay breeches were developed with popular British showjumper Jay Halim. The new men’s pleated style is made from elastic, micro-stretch fabric. The breeches are available in full seat and knee patch options in a range of colours. The RRP is £138 for the full seat version.
Do you have polo customers? THE SSG Digital Pro-Tec Polo glove has protective gel pads across the back of the fingers and hand to protect from mallet strike. Launched in time for the new season, the palm is in SSG Digital synthetic leather for great grip with breathability. The glove is sold in singles (trade price £8.75), in a choice of black, yellow or blue with new colours to come. Pairs are available too. t Tagg Equestrian 01636 636135
Club scheme encourages consumer sampling NETTEX’S ‘Try It Club’ initiative enables consumers to buy and try selected products at half RRP. When they sign up via the Nettex website, consumers receive a free welcome pack containing a hi-viz vest, car stickers and other goodies. The first product range on promotion to Try It Club members is Nettex’s Mini range of popular equine care lines. When consumers spend over £15, postage is free. “Being able to try products at half price enables existing customers to try other merchandise in the range and also encourages new customers to try Nettex,” said a spokesman. “The Try It Club is designed to encourage customers to continue to buy the Nettex range from their local retailer once they have recognised the quality and value for money that Nettex equine products deliver.” Club members will also be invited to enter competitions and receive expert advice on seasonal issues via email. t Nettex 01634 257150 www.equestriantradenews.com
Product News
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Caring customers will love it ABSORBINE BOTANICALS were launched in the USA last year, and are now available to the UK trade. The collection helps owners to massage their horses, calm and comfort tired muscles – or simply enjoy some ‘me time’ together. There are two products; an economical, concentrated Body Rinse and a convenient, drip-free Massage Foam. Both contain a blend of a dozen herbs and essential oils, including aloe vera and arnica. Absorbine Botanicals Body Rinse gently cools sore muscles and tendons when added to water for an after-work wash. The formula leaves the skin and coat with a healthy shine. A 251ml bottle makes more than 100 litres. The container is calibrated and comes with a non-drip cap and handy hook for hanging. Absorbine Botanicals Massage Foam can be used all over the equine body. The light, drip free foam can also be used under wraps and bandages. It comes in a 473ml pump action bottle. Absobine products are available from your wholesaler.
Seeing those step changes
SADDLE FITTERS, physiotherapists and trainers increasingly use the measurement of a horse’s stride length to assess its soundness and well-being. Using Golly Galoshes, the all-weather equine gaiters, can help illuminate stride patterns and therefore make the job much easier. They’re also great for groundwork, lunging and long reining. While in lessons or riding with mirrors, they can help focus the eye on rhythm and step length. Fans include eventer and ex-racehorse trainer Victoria Bax and MBE and multi gold medallist Natasha Baker who both use Golly Galoshes while training their top competition horses. Originally designed to keep boots and bandages clean and dry, Golly Galoshes are also waterproof and breathable. They feature secure hook and loop fastenings and full length zips with protective fleece lapels for security and comfort. (Photo: Thoroughbred Sports Photography)
Pure pleasure WESTGATE EFI has been appointed sole equestrian distributor for Well Gel horse and pet care products. Handmade in Essex by aromatherapy specialist Jane Acuta, the aloe vera based collection uses pure essential oils to tackle a range of grooming and healthcare issues. Natural formulations and appealing aromatherapy fragrances are cleverly combined with stylish packaging. The result is as soothing and pleasurable to the human as it is to the animal. t Westgate EFI 01303 872277 www.equestriantradenews.com
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People
•BETA International 2015 saw saddlery apprentices and trainees competing in Society of Master Saddlers’ (SMS) competitions. Prize money was donated by The Worshipful Company of Saddlers. Sunday’s competitors, who made pelham roundings, included Julia Balfour of Chobham Rider, Victoria Barnett of Bearhouse Saddlery, George Hills of The Saddleman and Tanya Baldwin of The King’s Troop RHA. The winning prize of £150 went to Tanya with Julia claiming £100 as runner-up. The judges were Master Saddlers Frances Kelly and Roger Coates. “I’m just delighted the judges could see the attention to detail I had tried to achieve,” said Tanya. On the Monday, second year Capel Manor College students Lydia Newsome, Stephanie Rubbo, Corrin King and Imogen Arnold made a lead rein with butterfly attachment. Judges Laurence Pearman and Issi Russell, both Master Saddlers, chose Corrin as their winner with Lydia taking second place. “We had the opportunity to practice one lead rein and we all found it was stitching the buckle end which proved the most difficult task,” commented Corrin. On the Tuesday, first year Capel Manor College students Charlotte Fuller and Chang Choi were joined by Saddlery Training Centre apprentices Sam Davies-Thomas of Harley Equestrian and Peter Robinson of T&C Robinson, Lincs. They made an Irish martingale. Judged by Chris Taylor and Louise Palmer, the top award went to Charlotte with Chang Choi claiming the runner-up prize. Pictured, from left, SMS president Peter Wilkes, Tanya Baldwin. Julia Balfour and SMS chief executive Hazel Morley.
•Susie Blackburn has become Honeychop Horse Feeds’ sales agent for the south. Susie previously worked for pharmaceutical company Merial for seven years, winning sales awards in 2012 and 2013. Before that she was with Dodson & Horrell. Always accompanied on her travels by her Jack Russell terrier Molly, Susie says she’s looking forward to visiting retailers across her area. •Bedmax has promoted Tim Edmonds from area sales manager south to sales manager. Tim, who has worked for the bedding manufacturer for five years, leads a team of three area sales managers promoting Bedmax, Littlemax and Hotmax in Wales, Northern Ireland and England. Based near Frome, Somerset, Tim formerly showjumped and reached the young riders final at Olympia. He also ran a yard producing, selling and schooling horses.
BETA Members’ Page
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PRODUCTS FOR PRIZES, PLEASE!
FREE tickets! WE HAVE a number of free tickets for Bramham and Gatcombe, which we are giving away to BETA members. If you would like a pair – for yourselves or to offer to customers as a special promotion – please get in touch with the BETA office to find out more.
Animation and audio benefits
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wo new BETA benefits are proving extremely popular with members. A bespoke audio branding package – known as on-hold marketing – for only £100 a month is offered by PH Media. The service means no more beeps, tinny music or silence when callers to your company are put on hold and it is a great way to enhance your professional image, provide essential information and bring callers up to speed about new offers. Meanwhile, Equine Events is offering BETA members a discounted logo animation to add strength to your brand and “life” to your website and presentations. Contact us in the BETA office if you would like to find out more about these – or any of our other member benefits.
The luxury equestrian hamper is a fantastic prize, as last year’s winner, Heidi Southgate from Tiptree, Essex, discovered at Gatcombe.
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ETA is really pleased that 2015 will see its continued support of the CIC 3* at the Equitrek Bramham International Horse Trials, from 11 to 14 June, and return as presenting sponsor of the Festival of British Eventing, at Gatcombe Park from 7 to 9 August. To ensure that BETA and its members are given maximum coverage, we will be holding a luxury equestrian prize draw and offering goody bags at both events, and would like to invite members to get involved by contributing a prize. These popular initiatives are a tremendous incentive for visitors to come to the BETA stand and the prize draw typically attracts almost 1,000 entries at each event. Donations of goods are gratefully received and essential for the draw to take place. Contributions
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
for each hamper – at Bramham and Gatcombe – should have a minimum retail value of £100 and will appear on an attractive display at the BETA stand during the event. Perfect prizes include a saddle, bridle and other leatherwork, a set of rugs, a rider outfit, safety equipment – including hat and body protector – leg wear for horses, feed and supplements, bedding, stable equipment and giftware. Smaller items such as pens, baseball caps and sample pots are ideal for the goody bags, which are handed out at both events and to the winning teams in the Pony Club Show Jumping Final at Gatcombe. If you would like to donate to the hamper, goody bags or both, please contact Laura Clegg in the BETA office.
NOPS on the menu THE fourth annual BETA Feed Conference has been set for 25 June at Whittlebury Hall, near Towcester. It will include an extensive programme of topical issues – including an update on the BETA NOPS code – from a range of specialist speakers. The event is designed for those working in the feed and supplements industry, and open to both BETA members and non-members, at a cost of £85 (plus VAT) and £120 (plus VAT) respectively. Please contact the BETA office to book your place.
For further information on any of the items mentioned here
CONTACT LAURA CLEGG AT BETA Tel: 01937 587062 Website: www.beta-uk.org Email: [email protected] Stockeld Park, Wetherby, West Yorkshire LS22 4AW www.equestriantradenews.com
Politics
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R U O Y T E G L L ’ O H W BUSINESS VOTE? As General Election day (7 May) approaches, political analyst Adam Bernstein has a snapshot of what the main parties are offering your business.
The UK economy and tax The Conservative Party points to past achievements and plans to continue the £2,000 reduction on employee national insurance for all businesses via the Employment Allowance. It would further abolish national insurance on jobs for those under 21 and, from April 2016, apprentices. The party would keep corporation tax at 20%, the 100% annual investment allowance for capital purchases to £500,000 until the end of 2015, and would keep the (doubled) small business rate relief until April 2016. The Labour Party says that it wants the budget to be run in surplus and aims to do this by further reducing tax avoidance, introducing a “mansion tax” on houses valued over £2m, and restoring the 50p rate of tax for those earning over £150,000. Lower earners would benefit from the re-introduction of a 10p starting rate of tax. Labour wants a levy on payday lenders with the funds raised going to low cost alternatives like credit unions. Also being part of the government means that the Liberal Democrat Party can part-claim to have cut corporation tax from 28% to 21% (20% for small businesses with profits up to £300,000), and helped save businesses £2,000 on their national insurance bills. But going forward, this party wants further reforms to business tax, including business rates, which they see as a disproportionate burden on smaller businesses. Personal tax allowances would be raised to at least £12,500. The UK Independence Party (UKIP) plans to increase the
income tax personal allowance to the level of full-time minimum wage earnings (around £13,000) while introducing a 35p income tax rate on incomes of between £42,285 and £55,000, whereupon the 40p rate becomes payable. The party would set up a Treasury commission to design a turnover tax to compel large businesses to pay a minimum rate of tax proportionate to their UK turnover. The Green Party takes a different approach and would band corporation tax, with higher rates payable by larger companies in order to encourage smaller businesses. The Greens would phase out VAT, replacing it with taxes targeting environmentally damaging resource use, production methods, products and pollutants - it sees VAT as highly bureaucratic. On the personal side they’d merge national insurance into income tax.
Employment and small businesses In terms of employment, the Green Party would support more apprenticeships and place higher priority on technical and vocational education. At the same time, it would provide free education for adults to acquire skills and qualifications needed for employment, and the minimum wage would rise to become a living wage with £10 an hour being the target rate. For businesses, the Greens would invest in a network of community banks to provide, among other things, a new source of finance for small businesses. The Conservative Party, being part of the governing
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
coalition, have the advantage of being able to talk about their government record. It has set up the British Business Bank with a claimed £4bn of backing and plans to keep Funding for Lending to further incentivise bank lending to businesses. The party also plans to treble the number of startup business loans to 75,000 by the end of the next parliament. The scheme would have £130m backing. The Conservatives claim two million more apprenticeships created this parliament. If reelected they’d make it easier for businesses to take on apprentices by abolishing national insurance contributions for apprentices under 25 and offering £1,500 grants to those taking on apprentices. Under this party, employment law burdens would be further reduced for employers together with more trade union reform. Proposals include requiring 50% membership turnout in ballots before strikes can go ahead, ending the ban on taking on agency workers where employees strike, and ensuring minimum standards of service for public bodies. The Labour Party plans to help businesses with cuts in business rates for 1.5m small firms followed by a rates freeze. The party says it would set up a Small Business Administration to work across government to support SMEs, and would also create a British Investment Bank and a network of regional banks to work at a local level. It also wants at least two new challenger banks on the high street. Labour too backs apprenticeships and wants
more vocational education, new technical degrees and would give employers more control over the design of apprenticeships. This party wants to abolish zero-hours contracts and give employees who have consistently worked regular hours the right to receive a fixed-hours contract automatically. The party would increase the national minimum wage to £8 an hour by the end of the next Parliament (in 2020) while increasing fines for employers who fail to pay the minimum wage and give local authorities a role in enforcement. Labour would abolish a loophole that allows firms to pay agency workers less than permanent staff. Listed companies would be forced to report on whether they pay the living wage and large companies would have to publish their gender pay gap. The law against maternity discrimination would be strengthened. UKIP wants businesses to be able to discriminate in favour of young British workers and would repeal the Agency Workers Directive that gives equal rights to those working through agencies that do that same work as an employee. The party wants better skilled workers and would implement a skills review that feeds into the education system and qualifications. UKIP would encourage councils to provide more free high street parking, simplify planning regulations and licences for empty commercial property vacant for over a year, and extend the right of appeal for micro businesses (those with less than nine employees or less) against HMRC action. Bank lending would be tackled www.equestriantradenews.com
17 by UKIP through better access to business angels and alternative forms of finance such as peerto-peer lending which leave business equity intact. UKIP calls late payment “a scourge” of public and private organisations, particularly big business but they offer no detail on how it would be tackled. The party wants to see much greater broadband penetration and better mobile phone coverage in the countryside. An “Industrial Strategy” is part of Liberal Democrat Party policy to help sectors key to UK international trade, listed as motor vehicles, aerospace, lowcarbon energy, chemicals and the creative industries. It would continue to back the Regional Growth Fund (“which has already delivered 573,000 jobs and £1.8bn of private investment.”). Liberal Democrats would ringfence the science funding spending budget up to 2016. The party is pro-apprenticeship and wants an expansion of advanced apprenticeships that offer vocational education on a par with academic qualifications. Part of this means extending the Apprenticeship Grant for Employers for the remainder of the next parliament. Also, following coalition government policy, it wants to complete the roll-out of high speed broadband, to reach over 99% of the UK.
Europe and further afield UKIP is well known for its antiEurope standing, so if elected would review all legislation and regulations from the EU while negotiating a separate trade agreement with the bloc. It would seek to get the UK out of the EU saving, it reckons, £8bn a year. At the same time, UKIP would not seek to remain in the European Free Trade Area or European Economic Area leaving the UK to manage its own borders. While UKIP recognises the benefits of limited, controlled immigration, it would extend to EU citizens the existing pointsbased system for time-limited work permits. Those coming to work in the UK would be required to have a job, speak English, accommodation agreed prior to arrival, and have NHS-approved health insurance. The Green Party also maintains an anti-Europe stance, albeit less fervently than UKIP. It would remove EU VAT www.equestriantradenews.com
regulations and VAT. However, it wants increased funding from EU regional development funds and would devolve spending decisions to the local level. The party also supports breaking up “monopolistic supermarkets” by strengthening and enforcing EU competition laws. According to the Conservative Party, the EU is heading in a different direction to that the UK signed up to. It sees the single market as valuable but European interference excessive. The party plans to renegotiate the UK’s relationship with Europe and would offer the UK population an in/out referendum in 2017. Further, the Conservatives plan to prevent benefit tourism, tighten the rules for migrants, seek greater control of justice and home affairs and renegotiate the UK’s financial contribution to Europe. And of course it wants to keep the pound sterling. The Labour Party wants no more powers transferred to Europe without an in/out referendum, reform of the EU and reform of the free movement of individuals. Immigration would be controlled, with 1,000 new border staff and the counting of visitors both in and out. Illegal immigration could, reckon Labour, be controlled by reinstating fingerprint checks at Calais and closing down student visitor visa loopholes. A Labour government would ban recruitment agencies from only hiring overseas, ensure that EU migrants earn an entitlement to benefits, and would require public sector workers in public facing roles to speak English. The Liberal Democrat Party believes that the UK should stay in the EU because they see more than 3m jobs linked to trade with the EU. It also thinks that being in Europe helps the UK when negotiating non-EU trade deals. However, it wants further cuts to the EU budget and bureaucracy while seeking open borders for “highly skilled, entrepreneurial people.” More information conservatives.com; greenparty.org.uk; labour.org.uk; libdems.org.uk; ukip.org • Candidates from other parties will be standing at the General Election. Information in this feature is correct as supplied at the time of going to press.
Retailer Profile
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BEATING THE ODDS White Rose Saddlery, based in the famous horse-racing town of Malton in North Yorkshire, celebrated three decades in business last year. But as proprietor Wendy Hoggard tells Tim Smith, the going hasn’t always been good…
We are specialists; Master Saddlers that ride, understand horses and are involved in racing.”
White Rose Saddlery is convenient for trainers’ yards and the gallops.
Q .Tell us about your business. A. White Rose Saddlery was founded in 1984 by Chris Hoggard, an ex-jockey who loved horse-racing and Yorkshire cricket - hence the company name. I [Wendy] joined the business in 1987 after finishing my four year apprenticeship. Q. What makes you remain so passionate about the business? A. Chris and I worked together and eventually married. We experienced the highs and lows of running a business; we survived three recessions, two monumental floods in the town which caused lots of problems to homes and businesses and many other factors outside our control.
When Chris passed away suddenly in 2009, the business kept me busy. I stayed focused and determined, mainly because it was important for me to keep the show on the road in his memory. We both always said that the most important thing about the business was the people that came through the door. Customers became firm friends. I consider my work and business to be a lifestyle choice and not just a job. I feel very lucky. Q. How do you see the saddlery industry changing? A. Internet shopping has brought with it so much choice and competition. I believe White Rose Saddlery has survived for 30 years because we’ve specialised in a particular sector of the equestrian
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
world. We’re specialists in what we do, Master Saddlers that ride, understand horses and are involved in racing. Unfortunately, at times, price seems to have outweighed quality. Some people are unaware of where saddlery is manufactured and I’m sure it doesn’t matter to some of them. As an industry, we haven’t done enough to educate customers and we’re working hard to address this. We have become a throwaway society, something which is very noticeable through the workshop. People have become less likely to get saddlery repaired - with exception to some of the older generation who have generally purchased better quality products in the first instance.
Q. Who else works at White Rose Saddlery? A. I employ one trainee, Les Evans, who has been with me now for nearly three years. He has been attending the Saddlery Training Centre in Salisbury and has passed level 2 and 3 bridle and is currently working towards level 2 saddle. Les rides an exracehorse and whips-in for the Staintondale Hunt. I also employ Jo Penrose, who works in my office dealing with day-to-day enquiries, website and mail order matters. Then there’s Noel Scaling who is my book keeper and good friend. Jo rides an ex-racehorse for pleasure and Noel loves going racing. Q. What’s your involvement with the Society of Master Saddlers? A. I’ve been a member since 1987 when I finished my apprenticeship and joined White Rose Saddlery. The society is a great organisation and very important to the industry in so many ways. I joined the executive committee in 2012. I’m also on the marketing sub-committee which is working towards encouraging its members to www.equestriantradenews.com
19 Wendy welcomes shoppers to her tradestand at Witton point-to-point course.
become more pro-active. I would eventually like to arrange some regional and social meetings for members. I would also like to help the SMS become more accessible to the public. This could include making presentations to equine colleges and schools, educating students and horse owners about the saddlery trade and what it has to offer them. I’m also keen to be involved with the training side of the industry, more so now I have a trainee. I’m proud to say I was asked to judge at the National Saddlery Competitions at Saddlers Hall in London (reported in ETN March issue) earlier this year, which was such an honour. Q. What do you enjoy outside of work? A. I work a lot of hours but still manage to keep a horse for pleasure. I love eventing and dressage with my Thoroughbred Joey. Last June, I was lucky enough to ride in a charity race at York. I started in March by riding out for my neighbour, top dual-purpose trainer Brian Ellison. He also provided me with a horse for the race. The race-day is an annual charity fixture and I personally raised more than £7,000 for Macmillan Cancer Support. It was a day to remember. Q. How does your business reflect local equestrian interests? A. Malton is steeped in racing history. Every yard can tell a story! And White Rose Saddlery considers itself to be the north’s racing and point-to-point specialist. With Chris’s racing background and all his contacts, it was clear from the outset that this was the direction the business would take. We moved out of the town in 2007 to new premises in a stable conversion at Wold House Stables. It was the very place where Chris had served his apprenticeship to become a jockey, so his career had gone full circle. Our present shop [on Langton Road, Norton] is convenient for many race yards and the gallops. It also has good parking for horseboxes. We run a satellite shop on race-days at Beverley racecourse from which we serve the local racing community and meet other trainers and jockeys from different parts of the country. We sponsor an amateur race at Beverley every August too. Our trade stand attends all the Yorkshire point-to-point meetings, plus a few in Northumberland. We sponsor the Yorkshire Ladies’ Point-to-Point Championship as well as a race in memory of Chris at the Yorkshire Point-to-Point Area Club meeting. We sponsor three jockeys too. James Reveley, a top northern National Hunt jockey, leading point-to-point jockey Chris Dawson and Jack Garritty, an apprentice flat jockey, are all great ambassadors for White Rose Saddlery. I’m a keen supporter of pony racing which does so much to nurture our jockeys of the future. We also support the Go Racing in Yorkshire Apprentice Series. Q. What else has been happening? A. A new addition to the business last year was an industrial embroidery machine. This enables us to produce everything in-house for jockeys, trainers and owners. I hope to build this into a business supplying embroidered garments for other trades and businesses. www.equestriantradenews.com
Staying Safe
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HATS: LET’S ASK THE EXPERTS…. When riding hats hit the headlines, retailers find themselves facing consumer queries. ETN asked Claire Williams, BETA executive director, to tackle some currently thorny headgear questions…
ETN: What can retailers tell SHOP WHERE YOU their customers who’ve been spooked the withdrawal SEE byTHE SIGN of the European standard EN 1384? Claire Williams of BETA: We are aware that the withdrawal of this standard has left customers wondering where they stand in terms of riding hat safety standards, particularly as many UK disciplines and organising bodies are considering their hat rules for the future. It is important to remember that EN 1384 has not been removed for reasons of safety. The standard has helped to reduce injuries and saved countless lives over many years and correctly fitting hats bearing the standard will continue to offer the same levels of protection they have since it was introduced two decades ago. For many of the country’s 1.6 million regular leisure riders, the revision to EN 1384 makes no difference at all and hats with this standard can still be sold. A long-overdue review of EN 1384 by the EU Commission – the body responsible for safety standards – is currently under way, with publication of a final version of the standard expected in the next couple of years. In the
Retailers are trained to fit and sell riding hats (and body protectors) on BETA Safety Courses. A three-yearly refresher is recommended to stay acquainted with the latest developments.
meantime, the VG1 specification has been introduced to enable more consistent CE marking throughout Europe in the interim period. Therefore, those competing under riding club rules can continue to wear their current hats but, if buying new hats for use after 2015, those with an alternative safety standard such as PAS 015, Snell, ASTM F1163 or the new VG1 specification, which is starting to appear on the market, should be worn. The ASTM F1163 standard,
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
however, is not suitable when a Kitemark is called for. It is also worth remembering that many EN 1384 hats also featuring a second standard such as PAS 015 can still be worn in competition after the end of this year. (See News for an update on British Dressage hat rules. BS/ EN 1384 hats are now permitted under BD rules until 1st January, 2017) ETN: What is VG1 and is it the new European standard? Claire Williams of BETA: The VG1 is an interim specification
that has been developed by various bodies and testing houses across Europe to facilitate a consistent approach to CE marking. It is not, however, the new harmonised EU standard, which is currently in draft form following a period of consultation. The EN 1384 standard was previously used by manufacturers to secure a CE mark for their products. However, with the standard no longer an option, there were fears that an inconsistent approach would result in a lack of agreed protocol. www.equestriantradenews.com
Staying Safe Q: The BETA safety courses are best known for teaching retailers to fit hats and body protectors. But do the courses also cover safety standards and the latest rules issued by the competitive disciplines? Claire Williams of BETA: BETA safety courses cover topics relevant to the sale and fitting of body protectors and hats, and this includes the standards they meet. It can be difficult to keep abreast of constant rule changes, so we usually refer people to discipline websites. However, in light of the revision of the EN 1384 safety standard and the uncertainty among riders that it has caused, we will be covering these subjects in much greater detail. BETA members can also contact the BETA office for a list of current rules from all the disciplines. Some, such as RDA and the range of showing bodies, are still making decisions on their policies after 2015, but have sought BETA’s advice and we expect to have their changes agreed soon. ETN: How often do you suggest that individuals attend BETA safety courses? Even if someone has done the course, is it important to sign up for a refresher? Claire Williams of BETA: We recommend that a course should be taken every three years to keep up to date with the latest developments and advances in riding hats and body protectors, including changes to standards. However, it is always a good idea to refresh and develop existing knowledge. Retailers can do this - and gain a qualification into the bargain – by taking a City & Guilds course in Riding Hat & Body Protector Fitting. They can attend a refresher morning, followed by the examination in the afternoon. The qualification is available to anyone who has previously completed a BETA safety course and involves a written exam and practical. ETN: Do you feel that fashion has overtaken safety when it comes to consumer demand for riding hats? Or is it a good thing that there’s more choice and a variety of looks?
22 Claire Williams of BETA: Anything that encourages someone to wear a riding hat can only be regarded as a good thing. As long as the hat is made and tested to an appropriate standard, it doesn’t matter what the colour is or how much bling it has. The important thing is that is correctly fitted, properly fastened and worn! Younger riders, in particular, are extremely fashion-conscious and susceptible to peer pressure. They are also impressionable and need to form good – and safe – riding habits that will follow them through their lives. Manufacturers of clothing and footwear offer a wide range of stylish gear, so it is completely natural that hat makers want to do the same. The point was proved only last month when ten-year-old Kyra Wood, from Oregon, in the United States, took a nasty tumble from her pony. She was wearing a brightly coloured riding helmet that doctors credited with saving her life. Her mother said that her daughter wore it all the time because “it fits and it’s cute!” ETN: Does BETA make any recommendations about helmet cameras? Claire Williams of BETA: We reiterate the advice of British Eventing, which states that no cameras should be used in competition until such a time when manufacturers are able to show that there would be no repercussions in the event of an accident. The cameras’ protrusion is a concern and any retailers selling these devices should be aware of the potential inherent risks that they pose to the rider. However, we have recently become aware of a new design of camera, which is certainly something that could be considered for the future because it is lightweight, slim-line and free from any protrusions. ETN: If you could have one wish granted for riding hats, what would it be? Claire Williams of BETA: This is an easy one. I would like the revision of EN 1384 to be sorted out as quickly as possible so that stability can be brought back to the marketplace.
• BETA is an authoritative source of information for riders and retailers on riding safety, hats and hat standards, and is regularly consulted by the equestrian disciplines on the subject. For more information or to find out more about BETA Safety Courses, contact the BETA office on 01937 587062 or visit www.beta-uk.org www.equestriantradenews.com
23
Because you care… Retailers are often the first port of call for riders determined to stay as safe as possible. ETN looks at the latest developments in the sector.
Take a tip from Tim POPULAR international showjumper Tim Stockdale (pictured) liked the look of the new Chelsea Air Flow Prohelmet from Gatehouse when he spotted it at BETA International. The lightweight, slimline PAS015 hat is ventilated with a removable, washable liner. It comes in black or blue in matt or suedette finish – and, says supplier Westgate EFI, has “an extremely competitive” price tag. t Westgate EFI 01303 872277
Air system supports jaw and pelvis INNOVATIVE air technology from Airowear features in its new AyrVest body protector. The garment comprises a foundation body protector and a gilet in black or navy soft shell fabric. A choice of foam technology is available; Flexion for a draped, loose fit or Advanced UltraFlex for a secure, firm fit. In both cases, the foundation body protector is certified to BETA 2009 Level 3. The air system, certified to M38:2013 Satra Air Vest standard, inflates away from the body to create a protection zone. This includes an air tube that rises on inflation to offer support around the jaw which in turn stabilizes the head. Other airways create an air bridge over the zip, adding protection to the sternum. The air system inflates down the body to provide protection to the pelvis and hips. Additional features include a pocket to store a second air canister and allen key for quick recharging. t Airowear 01434 632816 www.equestriantradenews.com
Staying Safe How to sell air vests… Rachael Faulkner explains how to make the most of selling the Hit-air brand.
24
RETAI L TIP
APPEARANCES COUNT: The product type and price tag means customers usually wish to come into a store or visit a tradestand to try on an air vest before purchasing. Air vests are best displayed as part of a safety section alongside body protectors and hats. Consider stocking some distinctive colours, perhaps a fluorescent yellow, to grab attention. The most effective selling tool is a permanently inflated demonstration model displayed on a mannequin. Not only is this eye-catching, but it also clearly shows the areas of coverage. PERFECT FIT: Always encourage customers to try on air vests; they’re invariably surprised at how neat and lightweight they are. With Hit-air, the air bags are folded neatly away when riding so as not to interfere with the saddle, so you can point this out. We recommend inflating a customer’s air vest during fitting to enable you to explain how to replace the canister. However, this isn’t essential; simply having an inflated model in store is often enough to satisfy their curiosity. Hit-air vests are highly adjustable with three sizes fitting more than 95% of customers. So you don’t need to hold huge quantities of stock. To achieve a perfect fit for this brand, ensure that the lower internal strap on the vest is correctly adjusted. Also check that it can be adjusted to fit over a t-shirt, body protector and/or winter layers such as jackets. The other important point to check is that the lower back protection reaches to the bottom of the coccyx when un-popped. For children, we suggest allowing at least three years’ growing room. Hit-air vests retail from £325 and come with a free, three-year warranty and servicing support. SALES CHECKLIST - Explain the air vest’s coverage using a demonstration model. - Fit with the appropriate size, check the lower strap and length. - Show the customer how to fit the saddle strap and lanyard. - Inflate the vest (if the customer requires). - Change the canister. - Advise the customer about the limitations of air. In the rare event of a rider failing to leave the saddle when as fall occurs, the garment won’t inflate. - Explain the servicing and warranty cover. t Hit-air 0845 894 2868
Eventers’ choice THE Rodney Powell Superflex Contour Body Protector is popular with many leading event riders. Designed for flexibility and perfect contouring of the torso, body heat quickly penetrates the foam panels for maximum comfort. An absorbent lining and
breathable properties enhance the effect. Features include a wipe-clean outer, front zip fastening and adjustment at the shoulder and waist. An air jacket is available too. The Rodney Powell Pro Air Jacket incorporates Point Two airbag technology and offers an inflation rate of one tenth of a second. t Westgate EFI 01303 872277
Overshoes have dual benefit SEALSKINZ Lightweight Halo Overshoes fit snugly over footwear to keep feet warm and dry. They also have powerful LED lights in the heels. The RRP is £40. The LED offers up to 500m visibility and runs in flashing or continuous modes. A replaceable battery gives a maximum of 240 hours’ runtime. The overshoes have Kevlar heels and toes for wear resistance. They cover the top of the footwear, leaving the sole free, and attach with a strap. This photograph shows them used on a cycling shoe; the yellow protrusions are not part of the overshoe. t Sealskinz 01553 817990
Smile, you’re on camera! HACK Cam from Gizapaw is designed to encourage motorists to drive safely around horses. While reflective and hi-viz tail sleeves and tabards aid visibility, a small attachable camera weighing just 19g records drivers’ behaviour as they pass riders. The accessories have “Smile You’re on Camera” or “Please Pass Wide & Slow” messages to encourage motorists to drive carefully when they meet horses. A WIFI version of the Hack Cam – which was highly commended in the BETA International 2015 Innovation Awards - will be available shortly. t Gizapaw 01902 673465 www.equestriantradenews.com
Staying Safe
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Shining example EQUISAFETY has once again raised the bar in hi-viz with new its Mercury Illuminating Jacket. Part of the label’s A/W 20115 range, it’s manufactured from soft touch reflective fabric which is waterproof, wind resistant and breathable. This unique jacket incorporates a flash of high visibility material. But its highlight is the incredible illuminating properties of the silver-grey fabric which shines in headlights and torchlight - and gives the illusion of pearlescence in sunshine. The Mercury Illuminating Jacket is mesh lined for lightness and breathability. It has built-in rear air vents to alleviate sweating plus underarm zips for extra ventilation if required. There are two front zipped pockets, an inside mobile phone pocket, drawcords at the hemline and a scooped rear hem. The machine washable jacket comes in men’s and ladies’ sizes in silver/pink or silver/ orange. The RRP is £78.98. A matching rug will be available. t Equisafety 0151 678 7182
Compulsory hi-viz for road riding? A STUDENT who believes all riders should wear hi-viz on the roads is petitioning her local MPs to press for legislation. Daniella Flintan (18) from Wiltshire has also contacted the Health & Safety Executive, urging them to back her campaign. I want to increase awareness of the dangers of not using hi-viz, and to try and make road riding safer for everyone,” she told ETN.
Editor’s note: While we applaud Daniella’s efforts to improve rider safety, we’re not sure about legislation…If it happened, hi-viz sales could potentially rocket – but policing such a law would be very difficult. How would ‘hi-viz’ be defined, for a start? What do you think? Let us know at [email protected]
Entered for Badminton… RACESAFE launches its lightest, most flexible and breathable BETA 2009 Level 3 compliant body protector at Badminton next month. The new arrival features a new combination of perforated protection with a breathable net outer. Racesafe says there’s also an improved size range and easy to fit adjustment. RRPs for adults’ sizes are from £185. t Racesafe 01536 771051
www.equestriantradenews.com
27 UK made hats meet PAS015 CHAMPION has 11 new riding hat designs certified to PAS015. These include the Champion Evolution Pro, the Junior X-Air Dazzle Plus and the Champion Junior X-Air Plus. In addition, new styles of existing models have been launched. The Euro Deluxe Plus, X-Air Plus, Junior X-Air Plus and Junior X-Air Star Plus are all certified to PAS015. With colour options available across these styles, your customers have an additional 20 variations to choose from. It brings to 42 the total number of Champion riding hats kitemarked to PAS015:2011.
What’s new? The Evolution Pro riding hat has low profile, lightweight glass fibre shell, with a carbon pattern finish. It incorporates a ventilated airflow system designed to keep the head cool and comfortable.
With its dazzling coloured centre panel and sparkling silver vent, the new Junior X-Air Dazzle Plus looks stunning. It’s built on a lightweight, injection moulded shell with a soft, four-point padded harness. The new Junior X-Air Plus is ideal for children who compete. Built on a lightweight, moulded ABS shell, with a ventilation system, there’s a four-point padded nubuck harness. Colours are black, navy, pink and silver.
Most flexible BP to date The new Evo-Flex body protector is Champion’s most flexible to date. It’s light weight is proving popular with riders and retailers alike. Flexibility is maximised via Champion’s CutFlex and HingeTek technologies which make the most of the Evo-Flex’s ultralightweight foam. The bottom of the protector moulds into the nape of the back to enhance comfort; while the Polygiene treated inner lining helps keep it fresh. t Finest Brands International 0113 270 7000
Better Business
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HARNESSING THE POWER OF THE CROWD Crowdfunding is ideal for small companies needing money to grow. Luke Lang, co-founder of Crowdcube, explains how it works.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
LUKE LANG is co-founder of Crowdcube, the world’s first and biggest equity crowdfunding platform that enables everyday investors to fund British businesses in return for a share in the company. More details at www.crowdcube.com
Specialist platforms enable the public to buy shares in racehorses.
A
business wanting to finance expansion or new ideas would traditionally have had to convince a bank, or maybe a business angel, to lend it the money. But the possibility of rejection or discovery of crippling repayments always loom large. So many companies are now discovering equity crowdfunding as an alternative source of investment.
What is it? Equity crowdfunding allows entrepreneurs to showcase their business opportunity in an online pitch and attract investment from everyday investors in return for shares in the company. The shareholders get a return on their money once the company exits via sale or floating. It’s not to
be confused with rewards-based crowdfunding where people just get products in return for their contributions. On crowdfunding sites, lots of people can contribute small amounts of money in support of a venture, which makes it far easier to raise finance. So the enterprise that’s looking for £50,000, for example, could find 100 people, each contributing £500 instead of relying on one or two individuals. In 2011, Crowdcube became the world’s first equity crowdfunding platform, and is still the most popular. There are also specialist platforms like Crowd Racing that lets the general public own a share in either a single racehorse or build up their own string across multiple trainers. Since it was established last year,
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
Crowd Racing has funded two racehorses, with a number of live opportunities on the site at the moment.
Why do it?
• For younger enterprises
without a track record, the sums that they can borrow (if successful) from a bank are far lower than they actually need to make headway. Crowdfunding offers an opportunity that is more flexible and simpler; it is also cost effective. With Crowdcube, the company only pays a fixed legal and admin fee and then 5% of the total funded rather than a high rate of interest per annum. The online model means the process of winning investment can be much faster than traditional finance routes. There are plenty of examples of
•
campaigns hitting substantial targets in a matter of days. It’s another way of generating customer loyalty as people invest in what they care about. They act as brand ambassadors, which is worth a lot in a competitive market. Business owners have found that their investors also provide a pool of talent and experience from which they can gain valuable advice and support. The Government gives investors EIS (Enterprise Investment Scheme) and SEIS (Seed Enterprise Investment Scheme) tax relief which helps reduce the risk. In addition, investors can secure all of the benefits of being business shareholders such as full dividend rights and a share in the future success of the business.
•
• •
www.equestriantradenews.com
29 Who’s done it? Hundreds of pitches have funded successfully to date on Crowdcube and the other platforms out there, and here are a couple of examples.
Rollasole (www.rollasole.com) In 2008, Matt Horan had a break-through The inventor of this ladies’ lifesaver raised £270 from moment while coming 135 people. home from a night of clubbing with his girlfriend. He had to give her a piggy-back to save her sore feet and she remarked that no-one sold sensible shoes to fit in a handbag. He made a note on his phone and within a year had set up his business. Women have suffered for decades on nights out, while commuting and driving and at weddings; now Rollasole would come to the rescue. Rollasole footwear is designed to be compact enough to carry at all times. Five years on and business is booming and Matt is working with some of the biggest high street retailers including Miss Selfridge, NEXT, Oasis, Debenhams and House of Fraser, plus he’s collaborating with brands such as Virgin Airways and the Golden Globes and is distributed across Las Vegas MGM resorts. To help fund this growth, Rollasole pitched on Crowdcube and raised £270,000 in November 2014 from 135 fans. This was well over Matt’s original £150k target, which just shows what you can achieve if the idea is right and it’s presented well.
JIVE Bike (www.jivrbike.com) Marcin Piątkowski has created the JIVE Bike, a folding, electric, chainless city bicycle that eliminates all Crowdfunding the hassles helped take faced by Jivebike from cyclists prototype to mass and urban manufacture. commuters. No more sweaty, breathless arrivals at work, nor chain oil on your suit. It even plugs into your phone to use GPS to plan routes. Marcin arrived from Poland to do a Masters degree at University College London and came up with the idea of this smart bike for his dissertation project. He found the banks wouldn’t lend to such an early stage company but savings and prize money from winning four awards for his idea gave him enough to get started. He then got backing from a network of angels, but turned to Crowdcube for this major investment as he liked the idea of the crowd getting involved: “Crowdcube investors want to be active supporters. Between them they have so many skills and social media contacts and these are as valuable as the money. However, my first attempt to crowdfund failed because I had no prototype, no market validation and no investment traction.” He put this right and raised £180,000 in three weeks from an international crowd of 60 investors, overfunding by 25%. The money helped take JIVE from prototype into mass manufacture stage and provide for online advertising campaigns to drive interest and preorders from individuals.
www.equestriantradenews.com
Good Grooming
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Summer LOVIN’ ETN reviews the latest products designed help your customers enjoy a sparkling, fly free season with their horses and ponies.
Good products equal repeat business “GROOMING products are a regular buy, so there’s profit in volume and repeat sales,” says Rachael Holdsworth of Absorbine. Customers are creatures of habit, she adds. “So once they’ve used a good brand they know they can trust, they’ll come back for it again.” W.F Young, the company behind Absorbine, has been manufacturing grooming products for more than 120 years. Today, taking advantage of the latest technology plays a big part in its success. Current bestselling Absorbine products include original ShowSheen, ShowSheen 2 in 1 Shampoo and Conditioner and ShowSheen Stain Remover and Whitener. “It’s important to stock a good quality range of grooming products so customers really do notice the difference the products make to their horses,” says Rachael. Absorbine products are specifically formulated for horses, ensuring the correct pH balance and deep cleaning power without harshness to the hair or skin. Conditioning to enhance a silky, shiny coat, mane and tail is an important part of the recipe too. So how can retailers guide customers on their choice of grooming products? “It’s really helpful if sales staff that have an understanding of horses,” says Rachael. “In addition, the staff need to understand the key features and benefits of each product. “At Absorbine, we carry out product training with the sales reps of our distributors. They can explain how a product works, and retailers can then pass this product information onto their customers”. Earlier this year, Absorbine introduced its new Botanicals range of Natural Massage Foam and Body Wash. (See Product News in this issue).
Seasonal best seller
ELICO Fly Masks come complete with ears and nose extensions for excellent protection against annoying insects. The masks are made from strong mesh fabric which lifts away from the horse’s face; while faux fur lining at key inside pressure points enhances comfort and avoids rubbing. In black, four sizes are available - small pony, pony, cob and full. The RRP is a competitive £14.95 t Jenkinsons Equestrian 01924 454681
Bath-time fun NEW from Flint’s Yard is Fun! – a yummy, scrummy-smelling pony shampoo available in ‘strawberry cheesecake’ or ‘apple and pear’. Perfect for ponies with sensitive skin, it gently cleans to ensure that all ponies can have Fun! at bath-time. Along with Itching!, also from Flint’s Yard, Fun! has a striking shelf presence and is backed with excellent sales support from this British company. t Flint’s Yard 01548 521777
No more tangled tails SILKY Tail Un-Tangler, new from Equine America, is a non-greasy mane and tail conditioner. It detangles the hair and leaves a silky sheen. The product contains hydrolysed silk, lemongrass and coconut oils for easy grooming. The lemongrass, in the form of an essential oil, is known for its fly repellent properties – adding another dimension to this product. The RRP for 750ml is £10.99. t Equine America 01403 255809
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
www.equestriantradenews.com
Good Grooming
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Kind yet effective CITRUS Wash is new for Spring from Barrier Animal Healthcare. Featuring citronella, chamomile, aloe vera and avocado, it’s available in 5litre and 500ml sizes. Citrus Wash is a 100% natural, long lasting, fresh zesty body wash for the summer months. There’s no need to rinse after application. The pure blend of concentrated ingredients provides soothing, antiseptic properties to cleanse the skin. High in vitamins A, D and E, the avocado oil helps to deep condition and nourish dry flaky skin, leaving it fresh, soft and silky. No harsh chemical ingredients, soap, detergent or artificial preservatives are included in Citrus Wash. Barrier Animal Healthcare specialises in effective products that your customers can trust, all at affordable prices. t Barrier Animal Healthcare 01953 456363
Fly free shower power
FLIES are often at their most annoying during sunny spells between showers of rain. So this handy, lightweight fly sheet, new to the Mark Todd Collection, is just the job. In 600 denier showerproof, breathable fabric along the back, with mesh sides and lining, it can be used for turnout on unpredictable summer days as well as at shows and events. A neck cover is sold separately. The rug was launched at BETA International in February. t Westgate EFI 01303 872277
Ah, that’s better… GROOMING is as much about enjoying time with a horse as cleaning it. The Coat Shine Mitt from Moorland Rider can be used for day to day coat care, a pre-show polish or just to show you care. The versatile, two-sided grooming tool can be used to remove stubborn stains and dirt or to shift the dust. It can be used all over the horse, including on the head area, and is machine washable. It’s available in turquoise at a handy RRP of £2.99. t Moorland Rider 01782 397796 www.equestriantradenews.com
33 Highlights for horses THE Grooms Choice collection of concentrated shampoos from the Animal Health Company caters for every type of coat. Super White is a pearlised shampoo for greys, dapples, flea bitten greys and roans. It produces a fantastic show finish. Super Black has a coconut oil base to bring out a nongreasy, high gloss sheen on black and dark bay coats. Designed for chestnuts, bays and dark roans, Super Red helps to maintain a good skin and coat condition and provides a glossy finish. Super Gold is formulated for use on duns, palominos and pale chestnuts. It enhances the coat’s natural highlights to produce a glistening, golden sparkle. The shampoos have an RRP of £5.75 for 500ml and are also available in one, 2.5 and 5 litres. t The Animal Health Company 01787 476400
What no stable yard should be without… MAGICBRUSH is perhaps the best new grooming tool to have hit the market since the rubber curry comb. Supplied in colourful sets of three, MagicBrushes have special conical bristles that groom and massage simultaneously. The brush’s back works well as a sweatscraper. Great at tackling dried on mud and sweat, MagicBrush suits even the most sensitive horses, can be used all over the body – and cleaned in the washing machine. Once tried, it’s universally loved by horse owners. Now the maker of MagicBrush has developed an equestrian apron. Clever Henry has variously sized pockets designed to hold everything from small items such as a mane comb, hoof pick and plaiting bands to a mobile phone and, of course, a MagicBrush. In two sizes (small/medium and large/ extra large) and made from easy-clean fabric, Clever Henry has an adjustable neck strap for height adjustment and can be tied back and front. A useful design feature is that the apron folds apart to protect the jodhpurs or trousers when the wearer squats or kneels down. Clever Henry comes in a choice of colour combinations such as Petticoat (soft lilac/true lilac/pink kiss) and Tropic (tropical pink/ green/yellow), many of which match MagicBrushes. t Trilanco 01253 888188
Clothing & Footwear
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THE NOBLE ART OF LAYERING What riders can learn from outdoor enthusiasts’ wardrobes… EVEN the most competitive riders spend 90% of their time training – and therefore wearing non-formal clothing. But do they always don the right gear? It’s easy to get wet and cold while hacking; while schooling can quickly work up a sweat, followed by the inevitable chill. The value of dressing appropriately in garments with proven capabilities has long been recognised in the outdoor sector. Layering is considered very much part of that mantra. Corry Taylor, the man behind leading UK outdoor brands such as Schoffel Country, believes the equestrian community needs to adopt these principles. He’s also come up with a solution via the newest brand to his stable - Noble Outfitters. “Whatever the sport, the most important thing is to focus on performance and not be inconvenienced by what you’re wearing,” said Corry. “The principles of layering technical garments to ensure the best possible comfort is nothing new. But the country, field sports and equestrian set are not generally earlyadopters, although the positive feedback at BETA International [where Noble Outfitters exhibited in February for the first time] indicates that this is now changing.”
Layering explained BASE LAYERS: The key to dressing for activity starts with base layers. Noble Outfitters has some well-cut, comfortable pieces that act as a second skin. Examples include Hailey, a long sleeve crew top with Opti-dry properties. If a customer wants to take it to the next level, the Ashley performance shirt is a Tactel, half-zip fitted top with a stretch mesh back panel and power-mesh under-arm panels for added breathability. With a stock loop, it doubles as a competition shirt. TECHNICAL TOPS: Over either of these base layers, the First Crush Cowl top is a goodlooking technical top with a funnel neck construction that converts into a hood.
Alternatively, for additional warmth, offer customers a Power-stretch fleece (fullsleeve or gilet) with a brushed fleece interior and flat outer face to which forage and bedding doesn’t stick. Design elements throughout the range include flat seam construction, dropped back hems and thumbholes at the cuffs. OUTER LAYER: The outer layer is the final barrier against the elements. Noble Outfitters’ Elite insulated jacket has a two layer, laminated construction and is lightly padded with 120gm insulation. It’s packed with detail such as sealed seams, hand-warmer pockets, adjustable hem cord, twoway YKK front zip with snap secure storm flap, internal knitted storm cuffs, secure internal pocket and device cord management system. The Evolution Insulated Jacket is longer length and shares the same features but has vents at the back and a hidden storm flap. LEGWEAR: Noble Outfitters’ Balance Riding Tight comes in Supplex/spandex fabric for a great cotton feel, durability and stretch. Useful details include a pocket on the thigh and inside the back of the waist, while the stretch hem reduces bulk inside boots. Opti-Dry technology wicks away moisture and makes for a comfortable fit. ACCESSORIES: Cold hands and feet are the rider’s worst enemy, so Noble Outfitters’ textile range also covers Perfect Fit gloves and Xtremesoft boot socks. “The trick is to keep the layers light and technical, so that clothing works hard and doesn’t restrict movement,” Corry added. “We’re finding that retailers appreciate design details that add value for their customers. They’re welcoming the quality and technicity from Noble Outfitters that’s normally only available from more expensive brands.” Examples of trade prices are technical base layers from £9.07, mid layers from £15.89, fleece from £22.70, soft shell from £27.25 and
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
Evolution insulated jacket
Premier fleece jacket
riding tight from £27.25. Outerwear has trade prices from £45.43, socks from £3.16 and Perfect Fit Gloves
from £7.95; all exclusive of VAT. t Noble Outfitters 01572 772508 www.equestriantradenews.com
Clothing & Footwear
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COME RAIN OR SHINE ETN discovers what’s new in clothing for the seasons ahead.
Fine fabrics, form and function… THE latest Toggi collection has your customers covered this summer. Each piece combines form with function, using fine fabrics and innovative design. The Toggi Clementine three-quarter length riding jacket is waterproof and breathable. It has a two-way front zip plus extra wide zip-up side vents for freedom of movement and an easy fit over the saddle. A highlight of Toggi’s selection of practical country wear is the April waterproof, breathable ladies’ coat, with its taped seams and durable water repellent finish. Toggi’s collection of finest quality shirts and knitwear has been expanded for 2015 too. Cordelia is a new style of sleeveless shirt with scalloped edge collar, made from a fine stripe fabric for a sophisticated, feminine look. Meanwhile, the sumptuous waffle knit detailing of the Joy crew neck jumper presents a flattering shape. t Finest Brand International 0113 270 7000
These boots are tops! HIGHLY polished jodhpur boots work equally well with chinos or jeans as with riding wear. Part of a new collection from Dublin, the Summit Zip has full grain, soft feel leather uppers. The boot includes the RCS (rider comfort system) Ultra footbed and a rubber outsole for traction. Poliyou technology enables the wearer’s foot to breathe, while the footbed is antibacterial, antifungal and fast drying. Retailing at £99.99, the Dublin Summit comes in black or brown and adult sizes 4 to 8. t Weatherbeeta 01295 226900
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
www.equestriantradenews.com
37
Shirts with heritage THE horseracing themed Freddie Parker shirt collection is a hot favourite for a British summer. Stock it to inspire customers searching for gifts, to treat themselves or simply for something seasonal, smart and wearable. The Freddie Parker Men’s Newmarket Shirt and the Freddie Parker Cheltenham Ladies’ Shirt in crisp white both feature the signature Freddie Parker graphic print across the inner cuff, inner collar and placket. Both are styled in a 100% Oxford cotton and follow a slim silhouette. The women’s version is cut to flatter curves. The men’s shirt has an RRP of £79 and is also available in light blue, pink, white, grey and claret. The ladies’ version retails at £65 and comes in candy pink stripe, pure white and candy turquoise stripe.
Zip up and ride! THE new Musto ZP 176 Action Jacket and Gilet are made to move with the wearer. The secret to their stretchy, ergonomic fit is added Elastane. The overall effect is a lightweight, non-bulky garment that performs like a second skin. Other features include gripper elastic at the hem to prevent ‘riding up’, plus a phone slot inside the main front pocket. Soft Elastane DWR (durable water repellent) cuffs reduce drafts and water ingress while encouraging surface water to bead and run off. The Action jacket and gilet use Primaloft technology to achieve a high warmth to weight ratio. Available in navy or royal blue, the jacket has an RRP of £150 and the gilet £120. www.equestriantradenews.com
Clothing & Footwear New season, fresh colours
CORAL and grey are this season’s new colours from the Mark Todd Collection. In addition to the usual polo shirts and tops, a new hoody has been included as well as a ladies’ zipped fleece. The popular Mark Todd Blouson and Ladies’ Quilted Gilet also get the grey/coral treatment. The co-ordinated collection extends to matching lightweight turnout rugs, saddlepads, headcollars and ropes plus waterproof dog rugs. t Westgate EFI 01303 872277
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
38 Advice from beyond our industry...
RETAI L TIP
Charlotte Ridge and Nina Bye joined Matchmakers International from the swimwear and recruitment sectors respectively. So ETN asked them to suggest some retail tips from a fresh perspective. Charlotte says: “Always aim to keep a brand’s core range in stock. These are key essential items that ensure a strong sell-through rate. You must, however, be confident that your supplier holds good stock levels of these items so that replenishment orders are fulfilled without delay. “Compliment this with seasonal items you’ve forward ordered to guarantee you get exactly what you want. This keeps the merchandising in store fresh and exciting for your customers, encouraging them to engage with the product offering and ultimately creating sales. It also allows you to keep up with the latest technology and trends.” Nina says: “Providing your customers with trusted advice, top notch customer service and taking an interest in their requirements will encourage them to continue to come back... “Back this up on social media, through product reviews, blogs and informative pages to enhance their experience. This will create additional footfall from recommendations and ‘likes’, along with the more traditional word of mouth.”
It’s a wonderful lifestyle… RIDERS’ busy lifestyles dictate a need for multipurpose wardrobes. Cavallo’s Erin quilted biker jacket (RRP £145), which is just as appropriate for the pub as the yard, is a perfect example. It’s pictured here with new Cavallo Caja breeches. This line uses Cavagrip technology to combine optimum ‘hold’ in the saddle, comfort and freedom of movement. t Zebra Products 01352 763350
www.equestriantradenews.com
39 Totally tweed
THE Karen tweed jacket is a highlight of the Jack Murphy Autumn/ Winter 2015 collection. Flattering lines coupled with the sumptuous texture of British tweed ensure this jacket looks and feels fantastic. It’s just the thing for wearing to a three-day event trot up or an evening out. The RRP is £174.99, sizes 8 to 18.
Attention to detail FROM the Alan Paine Country Collection A/W 2015 collection, this Richmond mid-length coat has a pure wool, water repellent outer. There’s a luxurious gold coloured lining and a single back vent. Lovely touches are the button cuff detail with contrasting cuff panels; plus two ticket pockets with contrastcoloured jets and two pockets with button closure tabs Sizes are 8 to 20 with the coat available in rosemary, woodland, teak, pine and brindle tweeds. The RRP is £314.99. t Alan Paine Country Collection 01623 522571
www.equestriantradenews.com
Clothing & Footwear
40
WHAT EVERY HORSEY GIRL NEEDS… Elizabeth Ward loves show jumping and hunter trials. She’s a student during the week and at weekends helps out at the livery yard where she keeps her own horse. Inevitably, Elizabeth has to watch her pennies; but she takes pride in her appearance. She also needs hardwearing, genuinely waterproof and/or warm garments as she’s out all day, in all weathers. So while the weather was still wintry, ETN asked Elizabeth to put some lines from Sherwood Forest’s Autumn/Winter 2015 collection to the ultimate test…
The waterproof, breathable Sherwood Foxdale jacket (RRP £61.95) has rear zipped vents, embroidered branded Sherwood Forest shield and a detachable hood. Elizabeth says: “I really like the subtle spots theme that carries through on the hood, lining and trim. And the pockets are brilliant; big enough for my phone, and you can put your hand in from two different directions. The jacket is a nice shape while also protecting you from the elements; the vents are very well designed. I like that it has a branding on the outside too.” APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
Sherwood Fairburn ladies’ gilet (£54.99) in indigo has fake down wadding, two-way front zip, Sherwood Forest branded logo, elasticated waist detail and quilted panels. Elizabeth says: “The toggles over the front zip are really stylish and make this gilet smart and unusual. It is surprisingly warm, but nice and light to work in - and I like that you can zip off the hood if you wish.”
The Sherwood Amberley jacket (RRP £72.50) in indigo was the envy of all ages – from 15 to 60 – who saw it. Classically styled, it has reflective piping, a detachable hood and is breathable and waterproof. Elizabeth says: “This was my choice for the point-to-point as it’s smart and sophisticated. It’s also brilliant for working in and riding in as it keeps you dry but isn’t bulky. It’s also made from ‘quiet’ material which doesn’t rustle and upset the horses. I took the hunters out cantering in it, which is quite hard work, so I know it’s breathable! I like the sturdy zip and the Sherwood Forest logo on the arm too.” www.equestriantradenews.com
41 Off to work Elizabeth goes, in the Sherwood Fairburn ladies’ jacket (RRP £66.95) in haze. With distinct toggle detail over a two-way zip, it has fake down wadding with quilted panels and a detachable hood. Elizabeth says: “I can see myself wearing this at shows. I love the warm colour and cosy hood, yet it’s cut for a flattering, feminine fit. Those toggles make it stand out from other jackets. Sometimes quilted jackets look nice but are easily snagged if you work in them. But these are very well made and have stood up well to mucking out, grooming and lunging.” t Sherwood Forest 0115 942 4265
With thanks to Dyfnog Stud, home of show jumping, arena eventing, training and equine services and supplies, for help with this feature.
www.equestriantradenews.com
Feeding for Performance
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Putting petrol in the tank ETN looks at what’s on the market for hard-working competition horses.
Fuelled by fibre
Energy for busy horses
A DIET fuelled by slow release energy from fibre, combined with regular exercise and training, helps to produce good top line and great condition. Part of the Barley & Molasses Free range from Allen & Page, Calm & Condition is high in fibre and low in sugar and starch. It contains linseed and soya oils, as well as vitamins and minerals for a balanced diet. Calm & Condition is a soaked feed for horses who need to put on or maintain condition. It’s also used successfully for competition horses that are working hard. t Allen & Page 01362 822902
New chop for sport horses NEW TopChop Sport is ideal for performance and racehorses. The palatable chop, a blend of hightemperature dried British grasses and alfalfa, is lightly coated with soya oil and dustextracted. TopChop Sport is suitable for all horses and ponies except those prone to laminitis and that need to lose weight. It’s particularly useful for fussy feeders. It can be fed solely with a TopSpec feed balancer or supplement, while TopSpec cubes and blends can be added if extra nutrients for work or condition are required. TopChop Sport retails at £12.25 for 15kg. t TopSpec 01845 565030 APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
NEW Equerry Performance Cubes are formulated to support the needs of medium to hard working horses. Containing highly digestible cereals to meet the high energy demands of competition horses, they also offer a source of good quality protein for muscle development and function. Oil and linseed have been added to help promote a shiny coat and increase energy levels to help build stamina for horses throughout a busy competition season. Performance Cubes also include yeast for a healthy digestive system, plus added vitamins and minerals including vitamin E and magnesium for all round health and vitality. A 20kg bag has an RRP of £11.75. t Equerry Horse Feeds 01845 565640
For fast release energy COMPETITION Mix from Dodson & Horrell provides fast release energy from cereals and oats. The muesli contains levels of minerals, antioxidants and B vitamins to cope with the demands of competition. With cooked cereals and quality protein for muscle fuel, development and strength, an electrolytes package is added for hydration and recovery after training and competitions. t Dodson & Horrell 0845 345 2627
www.equestriantradenews.com
Feeding for Performance
44 Whetting the appetite for a new season
Getting the right response SPILLERS offers feeds for all types of competition horse. The brand’s Response system means riders can choose the optimum source of energy to suit individual needs, whatever competitive level or stage of fitness. For excitable types, Spillers Response Slow Release Energy Cubes help deliver controlled power. The equivalent mix provides more ‘oomph’ when it’s called for. For your customers who prefer to use a balancer, Spillers Performance Balancer delivers additional essential vitamins and minerals necessary to support the equine athlete. All Spillers products adhere to the BETA NOPS code which was devised to reduce the risk of naturally occurring prohibited substances in feedingstuffs. The products are supported by detailed feeding guides, distinctive point of sale materials, comprehensive marketing campaigns, special promotions and nutrition advisors in the field. t MARS Horsecare UK 01908 222888
BAILEYS Horse Feeds supports the Jumping And Style (JAS) and Jump Training series which help event riders prepare for the season ahead. Earlier this year, an inaugural two-day championship took place at Hartpury College. It was the culmination of many qualifiers held around the country. Jump Training focusses on the showjumping phase and involves course walks, warm-up and competition rounds under the watchful eye of BE (British Eventing) accredited trainers. JAS comprises a round of showjumps followed immediately by a round of cross country fences, jumped against the clock, again with assessment by a trainer. “We had capacity entries on both days and lots of positive feedback from competitors on the format of the weekend and the series in general,” said Baileys’ marketing manager Jane Buchan. Prizes for class champions included vouchers for training and feed, with high redemption rates proving how highly they’re valued. “It’s great meeting riders at a time of year when we can help them fine tune for the season ahead,” said Jane. “Many keep in touch and report their progress.” Pictured are the top three in the BE80 Jump Training Championships with BE-accredited trainers for the day Nick Gauntlett and Jonathon Chapman, along with Baileys’ Jane Buchan. (Photo: Fiona Scott-Maxwell.)
When the workload steps up… AS their horses’ workload and fitness steps up, many competition riders worry about feeding increasing amounts of hard feed in case the additional calories affect rideability and performance, says the experts at Baileys. However while underfeeding may keep excitability in check, it can leave horses lacking in muscle and top line, something that’s often mistaken for a lean, fit look. Internal nutrient reserves may also suffer as they’re depleted through training and competing, causing horses to take longer to recover from exertion. “Whenever we can’t feed the full
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
amount of a performance feed, or when a leisure feed seems to suit on the calorie front, we recommend topping up the diet with Performance Balancer,” says Baileys director of nutrition, Liz Bulbrook. “This way we can ensure the horse is receiving the elevated levels of nutrients it needs to support performance but without any unwanted additional calories. It can make all the difference,” Liz explains. “Muscle and top line are built and maintained, while the horse has the nutrients to support stamina and recovery.” t Baileys Horse Feeds 01371 850247
www.equestriantradenews.com
SQP CPD Feature
46
Earn CPD points with ETN ETN’s series of CPD features helps SQPs (Suitably Qualified Persons) earn the CPD (continuing professional development) points they need. The features have been accredited by AMTRA, and highlight some of the most important subject areas for SQPs specialising in equine and companion animal medicine. This is the second in our series of CPD feeding and nutrition modules. AMTRA is required by the Veterinary Medicines Regulations to ensure its SQPs undertake CPD. All SQPs must earn a certain number of CPD points in a given period of time in order to retain their qualification. SQPs who read the following feature and submit correct answers to the questions below will receive two CPD points.
Feeding Oil: The benefits and pitfalls By Lizzie Drury Msc Rnutr, senior nutritionist of Saracen Horse Feeds. in both yearlings and arthritic horses. Horses fed the Omega 3 supplement had lower synovial fluid white blood cell counts that those in the control group. Raised white blood cell counts are indicative of local inflammation and arthritic horses typically have a much higher number of white blood cells than nonarthritic horses. In this study, increased mobility in the supplemented arthritic horses was not reported.
Eye health
Oil increases energy density of a competition horse’s ration.
OBVIOUSLY the starting point to keep any horse healthy is to ensure a well-balanced diet that is suited to that individual horse, with forage most importantly forming the basis. The rest of the diet needs to ensure suitable energy, quality protein, vitamin and mineral levels to keep the horse fit and healthy. As research into nutrition continually moves forward, there are advances in feed and supplement technology that bring to the shop shelf innovative ingredients proven to help support equine health and well-being. There has been much talk about the feeding benefits of oil with particular emphasis on the supply and balance of essential fatty acids, in particular the Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids. The Omega 3 family stems from alpha linolenic acid (ALA) while the Omega 6 family originates from linolenic acid (LA).
These essential fatty acids must be balanced within the body in order for both to be effective. Although researchers have not yet pinpointed the optimal ratio of Omega 3 to Omega 6 fatty acids for horses, continuing research is revealing more information about the benefits of supplementing horses with Omega 3 fatty acid.
Arthritis Humans supplemented with Omega 3 fatty acids have shown a reduction in inflammation from arthritis. Researchers at Michigan State University theorised that, if the same effect was found in supplemented horses, minimised discomfort might manifest itself as increased stride length amongst horses suffering from joint stiffness. To test this theory, they measured stride length at the walk and trot for 18 Arabian horses. The horses were
APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
paired and all the horses were fed a concentrate feed and Timothy hay. One horse in each group was supplemented with fish oil while the other was supplemented with corn oil for a period of 75 days. The horses were exercised five days a week under saddle or on a lunge line. At the end of the trial the horses supplemented with the fish oil had higher plasma levels of Omega 3 fatty acids. There was no change in stride length at the walk but horses supplemented with the fish oil tended to have an increased stride length at the trot. The increased stride length in the trot suggests a decrease in inflammation, stiffness and joint pain associated with movement. Researchers at Texas A&M University have reported that supplementation with Omega 3 fatty acids reduced joint inflammation
In humans, essential fatty acids are critical for proper visual development in infants; so one may presume that this would also be the case for the foal. In adults, deficiencies of Omega 3 fatty acids can lead to impaired vision and studies also suggest that prolonged deficiencies may increase the risk of damage to the retina. Essential fatty acids also play a role in helping eye fluids drain, which helps to regulate intraocular pressure. Supplementation with Omega 3 fatty acid may help to support and maintain normal eye health in the horse.
Performance horses Of all the health benefits associated with Omega 3 fatty acids, the one perhaps most relevant to the performance horse industry is the positive effect on inflammation, specifically inflammation involved in musculoskeletal disease. Dietary supplementation of Omega 3 fatty acids can help offset the inflammatory response, but the response is not immediate. They must be supplemented for at least 28 days before they have any effect on the inflammatory www.equestriantradenews.com
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Energy
Research is supporting the use of Omega 3 fatty acids for the maintenance of a healthy immune system, which is important for performance horses travelling on a regular basis.
cascade. Supplementation can help to support normal muscle function and recovery rates post exercise. Research is also supporting the use of Omega 3 fatty acids for the maintenance of a healthy immune system, which is important for performance horses travelling on a regular basis, breeding stock and foals.
Breeding stock
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Scientific study In a scientific study conducted by Kentucky Equine Research, the effects of feeding Equi Jewel and corn oil were compared. During strenuous exercise, horses fed Equi Jewel had lower lactic acid levels than horses fed corn oil. The inclusion of rice bran as a substitute for corn oil in rations also resulted in lower heart rates and subsequent shorter recovery periods.
SELECT YOUR ANSWERS AND TICK THE BOXES 1) What are the two essential fatty acids found in oil? a. Omega 2 b. Omega 3 c. Omega 6 d. Omega 3 and 6
2) Which omega fatty acid comes from Linolenic acid (LA)? a. Omega 6 b. Omega 3 c. None of these 3) Which essential fatty acid provides anti-inflammatory effects? a. Omega 3 b. Omega 6 c. Omega 3 and 6 d. None of these 4) What can supplementing omega-3 fatty acids help to support? a. Normal muscle function b. Recovery rates post exercise c. Eye health d. All of the above 5) How long do omega-3 fatty acids need to be fed before an effect on the anti-inflammatory cascade is seen? a. 1 day b. 7 days c. 2 weeks d. 28 days 6) In the stallion what benefits have been shown from supplementing Omega 3 fatty acids? a. Optimum sperm motility b. Normal sperm conformation and output c. Increased sperm survival d. All of the above 7) In the mare, Omega 3 fatty acids are preferentially taken up by what? a. The stomach b. Large intestine c. Placenta d. None of the above 8) What is the most common reason for feeding oil? a. To make the feed more palatable b. To add vitamins c. To stick the feed together d. To increase the energy density of the ration 9) Why is feeding oil beneficial? a. Decreases meal size b. Reduces the reliance on high cereal and starch diets c. Adds condition d. All of the above 10) How an oil be supplied in the diet? a. Concentrate feed b. Liquid oil c. Fat supplement d. All of the above
!
There has been an increasing amount of work looking at the benefits of feeding Omega 3 fatty acids to breeding stock including stallions and broodmares. Studies looking at the supplementation of stallions with high levels of Omega 3 fatty acids has been shown to support optimum sperm motility, normal sperm conformation and output and increased sperm survival in cooled and frozen semen. In mares, long chain Omega 3 fatty acids in the diet seem to be preferentially taken up by the placenta and may be responsible for supporting: – Increased ovulation rate – Embryo implantation by blocking release of prostaglandins from uterus and the sensitivity of the corpus luteum to prostaglandins – general growth and blood flow in the placenta (thus improving nutrient
Oil is probably most commonly added to the horse’s feed as a way of increasing the energy density of the ration. Increasing the energy density of the ration in this way helps to reduce the reliance on using high cereal and starch levels to provide those calories, enables meal sizes to be kept smaller to support optimum digestion and encourage horses with limited appetites to clear up their feeds, and to help put condition on horses that find it difficult to maintain body condition. Oil is also regarded as a non-heating energy source, which can help to manage horses with more excitable and reactive temperaments. Oil can be supplied into the diet in several ways: • Concentrate feeds: Feeds formulated specifically for performance, breeding, youngstock and conditioning tend to have higher oil levels of around 6-10% versus cool or maintenance feeds, which would typically have oil levels of 3-4.5%. • Liquid oil: Soya oil, linseed oil etc are usually added by the cup or mug full to help enhance coat condition. • Fat supplements: Rice bran supplements are becoming a more popular and effective way of adding calories from fat in a highly palatable, less messy and balanced form. Feeding 2lbs of a rice bran supplement is the equivalent to feeding 1 pint of liquid oil, which many horses would find unpalatable.
ETN CPD Questions
E PD UL P C OD SQ N M TN O ITI M E TR NU FRO
supply to the foetus) – increased content of Omega 3 fatty acids in the foetus (thus encouraging normal growth and development)
TWO CPD POINTS Full name...................................................................................... Company name/address ............................................................... Email ........................................................................................... Telephone number........................................................................ SQP number ................................................................................ Send your completed answers to:
ETN/CPD Feature, Equestrian Trade News, Stockeld Park, Wetherby, West Yorks, LS22 4AW. FIND IT ONLINE: ETN’s SQP CPD features are also available at www.equestriantradenews.com If you submit answers to the quiz online, please do not submit them by filling out the printed form as well – and vice versa.
EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS APRIL 2015
Insurance
48
PROTECTING YOUR ONLINE BUSINESS Online equestrian retail businesses have different insurance needs from those with retail premises, explains Oliver Lawton.
L
iability is the first consideration. When operating an online only outlet, the majority of interaction will be done virtually – via email, through web ordering or perhaps phone – so public liability is not necessarily essential unless you have members of the public coming into contact with yourself or staff via a store or warehouse. If you have staff working for you, whether they are packing or working administratively, you are legally required to have employers’ liability insurance. And if you’re offering professional advice in terms of supporting your customers, you may wish to include professional indemnity insurance as well.
Product liability Something you definitely need to consider is product liability. This covers you for the cost of compensating someone should a faulty product that you have sold to them cause injury. For example, if you sell equipment that could break and cause an accident you could be liable. Product liability protects you against such incidences. You need to ensure that you have ‘rights of recourse’ against any manufacturer or supplier in this case. If you buy all your stock from the EU you should have this automatically covered, but do check.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR OLIVER LAWTON is from Shearwater Insurance. For more information, to receive a no obligation quote or to view the comprehensive range of policies available from Shearwater Insurance, visit www.shearwater-insurance.co.uk or call 01992 718 666 APRIL 2015 EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS
Cyber liability An additional extra you can consider is cyber liability. This means that you can insure against business interruption should you be hacked, or a virus upsets your business. It also means that you can be covered if you subsequently infect third party computers, which in turn disrupt third party businesses and you are pursued for the third party loss. If you hold client data, including names, phone numbers and/or credit card information, if the data is lost or stolen you face the cost of reinstating the information, investigations into how this happened, as well as the potential fall-out of having to inform your clients. All this could significantly tarnish a reputation. Cyber liability would pick up the resulted cost.
Keeping stock safe As with any retail business, whether you keep items at your home or in a warehouse, keeping your stock safe is imperative to the running of your business. For this reason, it’s important to keep accurate details about your stock levels and notify your insurance company of any changes to the value of the items. Consider whether you could afford the cost of replacement of stock if it were damaged, stolen or lost. If the answer is no, then this is a vital element to your policy. If you are relying on courier companies
If you sell equipment that could break and cause an accident you could be liable. and postal services to handle your customers’ orders then you may wish to include an insurance that protects items during transit. Often the insurance provided by courier services is not sufficient, covering only a small percentage of the items’ value. High value items should be insured for their cost value to you, the retailer, for all risks of damage.
Home office Many online businesses operate from home. If this is the case, then you should inform your home insurers as you may need to take out a specialist ‘Working from Home’ policy. Such a policy has the scope to include stock among other things such as business interruption and employers liability which are not covered under standard home insurance policies. You are also at risk of invalidating your home insurance policy if you do not inform the company that you are working from home. www.equestriantradenews.com
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EQUESTRIAN TRADE NEWS APRIL 2015
CCJs
For more information call 01937 582111
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County Court Judgments from England and Wales and the Scottish version, which are called Court Decrees. The judgments listed are those recorded by the Registry Trust Ltd and appear to be of a commercial nature. Judgments/Decrees can be for damages rather than debts, and their listing here does not imply an inability to pay. PORTREE STABLES, WOODEND, GARALAPIN, PORTREE, ISLE OF SKYE, IV51 9LN, £868 LOGWOOD STABLES LIMITED, MANOR HOUSE, 35 ST THOMASS ROAD, CHORLEY, LANCASHIRE, PR7 1HP, £902 EQUITRADER MAGAZINE LIMITED, LIMES FARM, DEANS LANE, BARTHOMLEY, CREWE, CW2 5QJ, £482 TEVIOT EQUINE PRODUCTS LTD, 1 SAWLEY’S BARN, SAWLEY CROFT, CONONLEY, KEIGHLEY, BD20 8NZ, £435 TOTAL EQUESTRIAN CONSTRUCTION LIMITED, GLEBE FARM, WESTBURY ROAD, LITTLE CHEVERELL, SN10 4JW, £4,259
Now In Print and Online www.britishequestriandirectory.com Distributors • Manufacturers • Wholesalers Reach your target audience … Get listed in the industry’s favourite Trade Suppliers Directory... The ultimate guide for retailers
BETA International stand P1.1
MIDLAND HORSE MAGAZINE LIMITED, 93 MOOR END ROAD, MELLOR, STOCKPORT, SK6 5PT, £482 APJ HORSERACING LIMITED, MILL RACE STABLES, TWYFORD MILL, TWYFORD, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, MK18 4HA, £495 KINGFEEDERS UK (A FIRM), STYE FARM, BOSLEY, MACCLESFIELD, CHESHIRE, SK11 0PX, £174 NORFEED UK LTD, R/O UNIT 3A, FOLD COURT, BUTTERCRAMBE, YORK, YO41 1XU, £8,487
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What term for a structure in maths, science and human organization is from Latin 'breeding woman'?
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Matrix - definition of matrix by The Free Dictionary
Matrix - definition of matrix by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/matrix
(mā′trĭks)
n. pl. ma·tri·ces (mā′trĭ-sēz′, măt′rĭ-) or ma·trix·es
1. A situation or surrounding substance within which something else originates, develops, or is contained: "Freedom of expression is the matrix, the indispensable condition, of nearly every form of freedom" (Benjamin N. Cardozo).
2. The womb.
3. Anatomy
a. The formative cells or tissue of a specialized structure such as a hair, nail, claw, or tooth.
a. The solid matter in which a fossil or crystal is embedded.
b. Groundmass.
5. A mold or die.
6. The principal metal in an alloy, as the iron in steel.
7. A binding substance, as cement in concrete.
8.
a. Mathematics A rectangular array of numeric or algebraic quantities subject to mathematical operations.
b. Something resembling such an array, as in the regular formation of elements into columns and rows.
9. Computers The network of intersections between input and output leads in a computer, functioning as an encoder or a decoder.
10. Printing
a. A mold used in stereotyping and designed to receive positive impressions of type or illustrations from which metal plates can be cast. Also called mat2.
b. A metal plate used for casting typefaces.
11. An electroplated impression of a phonograph record used to make duplicate records.
[Middle English matrice, from Old French, from Late Latin mātrīx, mātrīc-, from Latin, breeding-animal, from māter, mātr-, mother; see māter- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.]
matrix
(ˈmeɪtrɪks; ˈmæ-)
n, pl matrices (ˈmeɪtrɪˌsiːz; ˈmæ-) or matrixes
1. a substance, situation, or environment in which something has its origin, takes form, or is enclosed
2. (Anatomy) anatomy the thick tissue at the base of a nail from which a fingernail or toenail develops
3. (Biology) the intercellular substance of bone, cartilage, connective tissue, etc
4. (Geological Science)
a. the rock material in which fossils, pebbles, etc, are embedded
b. the material in which a mineral is embedded; gangue
5. (Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) printing
a. a metal mould for casting type
b. a papier-mâché or plastic mould impressed from the forme and used for stereotyping. Sometimes shortened to: mat
6. (Electronics) (formerly) a mould used in the production of gramophone records. It is obtained by electrodeposition onto the master
7. (Mechanical Engineering) a bed of perforated material placed beneath a workpiece in a press or stamping machine against which the punch operates
8. (Metallurgy) metallurgy
a. the shaped cathode used in electroforming
b. the metal constituting the major part of an alloy
c. the soft metal in a plain bearing in which the hard particles of surface metal are embedded
9. (Chemistry) the main component of a composite material, such as the plastic in a fibre-reinforced plastic
10. (Mathematics) maths a rectangular array of elements set out in rows and columns, used to facilitate the solution of problems, such as the transformation of coordinates. Usually indicated by parentheses: (
). Compare determinant 3
11. (Linguistics) linguistics the main clause of a complex sentence
12. (Computer Science) computing a rectangular array of circuit elements usually used to generate one set of signals from another
13. (Anatomy) obsolete the womb
[C16: from Latin: womb, female animal used for breeding, from māter mother]
ma•trix
n., pl. ma•tri•ces (ˈmeɪ trɪˌsiz, ˈmæ-) ma•trix•es.
1. something that constitutes the place or point from which something else originates.
2. a formative tissue, as the epithelium from which nails grow.
3.
6. a crystalline phase in an alloy in which other phases are embedded.
7. a mold for casting typefaces.
8. (in a press or stamping machine) a multiple die or perforated block on which the material to be formed is placed.
9. a rectangular array of numbers, algebraic symbols, or mathematical functions, esp. when such arrays are added and multiplied according to certain rules.
10. a similar rectangular array consisting of rows and columns of numbers, symbols, etc., used in displaying statistical variables, linguistic features, or other data.
[1325–75; < Latin mātrīx female animal kept for breeding (Late Latin: register, orig. of such beasts), parent stem (of plants), derivative of māter mother]
ma·trix
(mā′trĭks)
A substance within which something is contained or embedded. The mineral grains of a rock in which fossils are embedded make up a matrix. Bone cells are embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers and mineral salts.
matrix
- From Latin, meaning "breeding female," it originally was used for the uterus or womb, then for a supporting or enclosing structure.
See also related terms for womb .
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Noun
1.
matrix - (mathematics) a rectangular array of quantities or expressions set out by rows and columns; treated as a single element and manipulated according to rules
math , mathematics , maths - a science (or group of related sciences) dealing with the logic of quantity and shape and arrangement
correlation matrix - a matrix giving the correlations between all pairs of data sets
array - an orderly arrangement; "an array of troops in battle order"
dot matrix - a rectangular matrix of dots from which written characters can be formed
square matrix - a matrix with the same number of rows and columns
real matrix - a matrix whose elements are all real numbers
transpose - a matrix formed by interchanging the rows and columns of a given matrix
2.
matrix - (geology) amass of fine-grained rock in which fossils, crystals, or gems are embedded
geology - a science that deals with the history of the earth as recorded in rocks
rock , stone - material consisting of the aggregate of minerals like those making up the Earth's crust; "that mountain is solid rock"; "stone is abundant in New England and there are many quarries"
3.
natural enclosure , enclosure - a naturally enclosed space
4.
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Matrix
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The beef cut called brisket comes from where on the animal?
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Matrix - definition of matrix by The Free Dictionary
Matrix - definition of matrix by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/matrix
(mā′trĭks)
n. pl. ma·tri·ces (mā′trĭ-sēz′, măt′rĭ-) or ma·trix·es
1. A situation or surrounding substance within which something else originates, develops, or is contained: "Freedom of expression is the matrix, the indispensable condition, of nearly every form of freedom" (Benjamin N. Cardozo).
2. The womb.
3. Anatomy
a. The formative cells or tissue of a specialized structure such as a hair, nail, claw, or tooth.
a. The solid matter in which a fossil or crystal is embedded.
b. Groundmass.
5. A mold or die.
6. The principal metal in an alloy, as the iron in steel.
7. A binding substance, as cement in concrete.
8.
a. Mathematics A rectangular array of numeric or algebraic quantities subject to mathematical operations.
b. Something resembling such an array, as in the regular formation of elements into columns and rows.
9. Computers The network of intersections between input and output leads in a computer, functioning as an encoder or a decoder.
10. Printing
a. A mold used in stereotyping and designed to receive positive impressions of type or illustrations from which metal plates can be cast. Also called mat2.
b. A metal plate used for casting typefaces.
11. An electroplated impression of a phonograph record used to make duplicate records.
[Middle English matrice, from Old French, from Late Latin mātrīx, mātrīc-, from Latin, breeding-animal, from māter, mātr-, mother; see māter- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.]
matrix
(ˈmeɪtrɪks; ˈmæ-)
n, pl matrices (ˈmeɪtrɪˌsiːz; ˈmæ-) or matrixes
1. a substance, situation, or environment in which something has its origin, takes form, or is enclosed
2. (Anatomy) anatomy the thick tissue at the base of a nail from which a fingernail or toenail develops
3. (Biology) the intercellular substance of bone, cartilage, connective tissue, etc
4. (Geological Science)
a. the rock material in which fossils, pebbles, etc, are embedded
b. the material in which a mineral is embedded; gangue
5. (Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) printing
a. a metal mould for casting type
b. a papier-mâché or plastic mould impressed from the forme and used for stereotyping. Sometimes shortened to: mat
6. (Electronics) (formerly) a mould used in the production of gramophone records. It is obtained by electrodeposition onto the master
7. (Mechanical Engineering) a bed of perforated material placed beneath a workpiece in a press or stamping machine against which the punch operates
8. (Metallurgy) metallurgy
a. the shaped cathode used in electroforming
b. the metal constituting the major part of an alloy
c. the soft metal in a plain bearing in which the hard particles of surface metal are embedded
9. (Chemistry) the main component of a composite material, such as the plastic in a fibre-reinforced plastic
10. (Mathematics) maths a rectangular array of elements set out in rows and columns, used to facilitate the solution of problems, such as the transformation of coordinates. Usually indicated by parentheses: (
). Compare determinant 3
11. (Linguistics) linguistics the main clause of a complex sentence
12. (Computer Science) computing a rectangular array of circuit elements usually used to generate one set of signals from another
13. (Anatomy) obsolete the womb
[C16: from Latin: womb, female animal used for breeding, from māter mother]
ma•trix
n., pl. ma•tri•ces (ˈmeɪ trɪˌsiz, ˈmæ-) ma•trix•es.
1. something that constitutes the place or point from which something else originates.
2. a formative tissue, as the epithelium from which nails grow.
3.
6. a crystalline phase in an alloy in which other phases are embedded.
7. a mold for casting typefaces.
8. (in a press or stamping machine) a multiple die or perforated block on which the material to be formed is placed.
9. a rectangular array of numbers, algebraic symbols, or mathematical functions, esp. when such arrays are added and multiplied according to certain rules.
10. a similar rectangular array consisting of rows and columns of numbers, symbols, etc., used in displaying statistical variables, linguistic features, or other data.
[1325–75; < Latin mātrīx female animal kept for breeding (Late Latin: register, orig. of such beasts), parent stem (of plants), derivative of māter mother]
ma·trix
(mā′trĭks)
A substance within which something is contained or embedded. The mineral grains of a rock in which fossils are embedded make up a matrix. Bone cells are embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers and mineral salts.
matrix
- From Latin, meaning "breeding female," it originally was used for the uterus or womb, then for a supporting or enclosing structure.
See also related terms for womb .
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Noun
1.
matrix - (mathematics) a rectangular array of quantities or expressions set out by rows and columns; treated as a single element and manipulated according to rules
math , mathematics , maths - a science (or group of related sciences) dealing with the logic of quantity and shape and arrangement
correlation matrix - a matrix giving the correlations between all pairs of data sets
array - an orderly arrangement; "an array of troops in battle order"
dot matrix - a rectangular matrix of dots from which written characters can be formed
square matrix - a matrix with the same number of rows and columns
real matrix - a matrix whose elements are all real numbers
transpose - a matrix formed by interchanging the rows and columns of a given matrix
2.
matrix - (geology) amass of fine-grained rock in which fossils, crystals, or gems are embedded
geology - a science that deals with the history of the earth as recorded in rocks
rock , stone - material consisting of the aggregate of minerals like those making up the Earth's crust; "that mountain is solid rock"; "stone is abundant in New England and there are many quarries"
3.
natural enclosure , enclosure - a naturally enclosed space
4.
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i don't know
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The verb word stymie, meaning to obstruct something, originally referred to a now obsolete rule in which sport?
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Self-contradicting words in English
Self-contradicting words in English
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This is a list of self-contradicting English words -- that is, words which in and of themselves have two or more generally accepted meanings in the English language that directly or generally contradict each other. Such words are also known as auto-antonyms, antagonyms, contronyms, and words having contradefinitions. Many such contradefinitions arise from slang usage. Others develop as a result of their frequent use in sarcasm.
A similar concept, where a commonly used phrase contains two words which have or can be construed to have definitions in opposition to each other is known as an oxymoron. See list of oxymora for a list of examples.
There are two forms of contranyms: homographic, where two words with the same spelling can have opposing definitions; and homophonic, where two words with the same pronunciation can have opposing definitions. In general, the terms below are both homographic and homophonic contranyms.
Richard Lederer included a list of self-contradicting words in a chapter on Janus-faced words in his book Crazy English.
T-Rex in the November 2nd, 2007 edition of Dinosaur Comics describes this class of words as homographic homophonic autantonyms.
A [ top ]
Adumbrate "To outline or sketch, to disclose partially", but also "to hide or obscure."
Awesome The strict definition of this adjective is "fearsome, mighty"; but the now generally accepted slang usage roughly equates to "enjoyable, fun."
Awful As with awesome above, this can mean "inspiring" or, more commonly, "revolting."
Against Depending on context, this word can mean "towards" or "close to" ("against the wall"); otherwise it means "opposing" ("against the wind").
B [ top ]
Bad American urban slang, chiefly in the 1970s and 1980s, reassigned bad to mean "good". This is believed to have been introduced by Afro-Americans based on a similar feature in a west African language.
Before Earlier or sooner than; or in the future of; awaiting as in "the golden age is before us". This arises from "before" representing "in front of," while time can be conceived of from the perspective of a person in the timeline ("the future is before us") or from an observer standing outside time ("the past is before the present").
Blunt In common use, when this adjective is applied to an object, it means "dull, not sharp"; but when applied to a statement, it generally means "straight to the point, direct".
Bolt As a transitive verb, it means "to secure something in place (with a bolt)". But as an intransitive verb, it means "to leave or run away from (quickly)". The expression "you're bolting the stable door after the horse has bolted" means that one is acting to prevent something that has already happened.
Boned To contain bones, to remove bones, or be in the state of having had bones removed.
Borrow American slang. Usually means to be on the receiving end of a loan, as in, "Bob, may I borrow your rake?" It is often also used as slang to describe the act of lending, as in, "Bob, will you borrow me your rake?"
Bound In the construction bound for, it means "moving towards someplace"; as an adjective by itself, it means "tied up, secure", in other words "unable to move".
Buckle As a verb construction of the noun buckle, which is a device for clasping a belt together, it means "to secure, tighten, hold"; otherwise, it means "to weaken, collapse".
C [ top ]
Certain can refer either to an indeterminate quality ("she has a certain air about her") as well as to an established fact (a certainty).
Check (cheque) Like bill, this can either refer to a bank check, having a positive monetary value; or to a restaurant check, which is a statement of money owed.
Chuffed In British slang this has come to mean "pleased", synonymous to "puffed up"; the strict definition is "displeased, upset".
Cleave To cleave means both to separate and to cling together.
Clip When referring to the noun clip, this verb means "to attach together". Otherwise, as applied to part of a larger corpus (e.g. "clipping an article"), it means "to cut apart from".
Commencement As a noun form of the verb commence, this should mean "the start"; however the most popular use of the term is for university graduation ceremonies, at the end of schooling. (It should be noted that the intent of the term is to mean "the start of professional life", but this is not the primary perception of the event.)
Comprise means "to consist of" (The nation comprises fifty states) but is also commonly used to mean "to constitute" (Fifty states comprise the nation).
Constrain can mean both "to force to" and "to repress".
Contingent The adjective contingent describes a known dependency or result; but the noun form contingency usually refers to an unexpected event.
Continue The verb continue means "to keep doing"; however the noun form continuation, in legal usage, means "to pick up later".
Cool In commonly accepted slang, cool means happy, pleasant, agreeable; but when referring to a personal interaction, especially in politics, it usually means "less than agreeable" or "polite but strained".
Critical Can mean "vital to success" (a critical component), or "disparaging" (a critical comment).
Custom As a noun, this means "conventional behavior"; but as an adjective, it means "specially designed".
D [ top ]
Derivation Derivation means both "something derived; a derivative" and the "source from which something is derived; an origin."
Dispose As a past tense verb, disposed means "removed" or "gotten rid of"; as an adjective; disposed means "available".
Downhill When referring to difficulty, it means "progressively easier"; but when referring to status or condition, it means "progressively worse".
Dusting When dusting furniture, this means "to remove dust from"; but when "dusting for fingerprints", or when used as a noun ("a dusting of snow"), it means respectively "to apply dust" or "the application of dust".
E [ top ]
Either As an adjective, it can mean "one or the other of two," as in "you either passed or failed your test". It can also mean "each of two; the one and the other" as in "there are trees on either side of the river."
Enduring Can mean either "long lasting" or "suffering through". In some context this can lead to antonymic word play, as Noam Chomsky pointed out in connection with George W. Bush's name for the war in Afghanistan: "Enduring Freedom".
Enjoin A verb meaning either "to require" or "to forbid," as in a judicial order
Execute To execute a person is to end their life; to execute a program is to start it [Note: This contradiction arises from a shift in meaning of execution in the sense of capital punishment; what is being executed is technically the sentence of death (i.e. it is being started, just like starting a program), but the usage has shifted away from the sentence and to the prisoner]. [RLC 19 July 2007]
F [ top ]
Fast Fast can mean either "to move or do quickly" or it can mean "to not move," as in "holding fast". As an adjective, it can also convey both meanings: "The rabbit is fast;" "The door is fast."
G [ top ]
Garnish With food, the verb means "to add to"; with wages, it means "to take from". (Strictly speaking, though, the intention of the latter is to mean something added to the charges against the wages, alongside insurance, taxes, etc.)
Generally usually true, but also subject to exception. The meaning "all-inclusive, without exception" is now obsolete.
H [ top ]
Handicap Advantage (e.g. in sport) or disadvantage/disability
Hew "To separate" as well as "to stick (to)" (when used with "to"); cf. "cleave" above.
I [ top ]
Incomparable The most common meaning of this adjective is "eminent beyond comparison, matchless": something is incomparable if it is far greater than anything else in its class. However, in mathematics, two objects are incomparable if neither is greater than the other.
L [ top ]
Lease To lend or to borrow.
Left As a past tense verb, it means "to have gone"; as an adjective; it means "remaining".
Let As a verb usually means "allow"; in an older (but not obsolete) sense it means "prevent".
Literally Originally "in the literal sense", it has come to mean "in effect, or virtually". The newer use is widely criticized by proscriptive speakers, as the original use enables one to make a useful distinction between the face value of words and their use in a metaphoric sense.
Lurid Can mean either pale or glowing with color.
M [ top ]
Moot Formerly and more acceptably meaning "open for discussion, debatable," it is now more commonly used to mean "irrelevant to discussion or debate."
O [ top ]
Off Generally, something being off means it is not operating; however when an alarm goes off, it means it has started operating (or when a person goes off, it means they have become very agitated).
Original Original either means plain, or unchanged (as in original flavour), or it could mean something creative or new (an original idea).
Out Similar to off, to take something out means to remove it; but to bring something out is to exhibit it prominently.
Oversight When used as a general concept, this word is the noun form of oversee, which means "to manage and be in charge of". But when used to refer to a specific incident, it becomes the noun form of overlook, meaning "error" or lapse in proper management.
P [ top ]
Par In all cases, par means "average". Below par should then mean "below average", and the phrase "to feel below par", meaning "to feel unwell" has this sense. However, in golf, since a lower score means a better showing, below par means "better than average".
Peer Strictly, a peer is someone on the same social level as you; but in chiefly British usage, a peer is a person having a title of nobility (and so at a higher social level than the general populace).
Periodic Means to occur both at regular intervals and at irregular intervals
Peruse Although considered an error by most usage experts, the word peruse is commonly understood to mean "to skim over" or "to glance at." The accepted definition is "to examine closely."
Prove Originally, it meant "test", but the meaning has shifted to "verify". It is the original meaning that is intended in such phrases as "50 proof", "the proof is in the pudding", and "the exception proves the rule".
Public As a noun, it refers to the common people of a society; however as an adjective, it normally refers to things operated by the government. (Of course, such government operations are maintained for public use. Furthermore, under representative democracy, the people and the government are considered one and the same by definition.)
Qualified Can mean "limited" (as in "qualified success") or "skilled, skilful" (as in "a qualified expert").
Quiddity Can mean either the essence of a thing or a quibble.
R [ top ]
Raveling means both to entangle and to untangle
Rent can be used to mean paying to use something, as in "I'm renting an apartment", or used to mean taking money to let someone else something of yours, as in "We rent cars to anyone, no questions asked"
Reservation as a concrete noun, this can be "a confirmation" of availability; as an abstract noun, it is "a fear or uncertainty".
Resign when someone resigns a contract (transitive) he commits to continuing his involvement in some activity. On the other hand, when he resigns (intransitive) he relieves himself of that commitment. The former is sometimes hyphenated (i.e. re-sign) to emphasize its pronunciation and differentiate the pair.
Riot A riot is usually a chaotic spree of violence and destruction; but in more casual use it can refer to a funny story or a good party. (Outside observers may argue that this last definition often resembles the first.)
S [ top ]
Sanction The verb sanction means "to permit"; the noun sanctions normally means "restrictions".
Scan Originally, this word meant "to examine closely," but has come to mean "to look over hastily".
Screen Conceal with or as if with a screen; or "to display prominently" as in screening a film.
Secreted Usually obvious due to context; but this can mean either "hidden" (secreted away), or "exposed" (secreted from a wound). The former is the verb form of "secret", and is pronounced with the emphasis on the first syllable. The latter is the past tense of "secrete" and is pronounced with the emphasis on the second syllable.
Seed to plant a field, or to clean seeds from a fruit
Several Originally meaning "separate, single, or individual", (as in "the several states" referred to in the US Constitution) it is now understood to mean "plural, more than two".
Shelled Shelled can describe either the result of removing a shelled (e.g., we shelled the hazelnuts) or describe something that has a shell (e.g., turtles are like shelled snakes with legs).
Show-stopper In the standard usage, this means "something that is strikingly attractive or has great popular appeal". Recent usage particularly in the computer industry has "A bug that makes an implementation effectively unusable".
Sick Used with a standard definition, this word can mean "disgusted; revolted," but used colloquially, it can mean "very pleasant; agreeable".
Skin To add skin, or to remove it. "Skin that deer" "Skin that kayak".
Smell Means both to emit an odor ("My foot smells") and to perceive an odor ("My nose smells"). The former is a rare example of the use of ergativity in English , which occurs when what is typically a direct object of a transitive verb is re-processed as an intransitive verb — "My foot smells" is in essence a re-processing of "[unknown subject] smells my foot."
Strike Normally meaning "to hit", in baseball it means "to miss", and an extension of this usage has led to the meaning "to make a mistake". Further adding to the contradiction, in bowling it refers to the best possible play. Another contradiction results with the phrase strike out: the baseball lineage leads to the meaning "to run out of hope"; but the original lineage also leads to the meaning "to start pursuing a desire"
Suspicious Can mean that a person is acting in a way that suggests wrong-doing, i.e. "He seems very suspicious." or can mean that the person in question suspects wrong doing in others, i.e. "He was suspicious of her motives."
T [ top ]
Table Generally, the phrase put on the table means "to present something for consideration"; however, in American parliamentary procedure, the verb table means to put off discussion of a topic.
Temper As a verb, it can either mean to soften or mollify, or to strengthen (e.g. a metal).
Terrific Originally and still used to mean "inducing terror", but has now come to have a positive connotation as well, meaning "fantastic" or "amazing"
Trim Similar to clip: it can mean "to add decoration to" (trim the (Christmas) tree), or "to remove from" (trim the bushes).
Trying As an adjective, 'hard to endure'. As a verb, 'to make an effort'. A teacher's report may say, "Your child is trying".
U [ top ]
Unbending Rigid, inflexible, refusing to yield or compromise, as in "his stance against reform was unbending": or becoming less tense, relaxing, as in "unbending a little, she confided ..."
Unshelled Not removed from their shells (adjective) or having been removed from their shells (the past tense and past participle of "to unshell"). The ambiguity therefore arises when in the adjective is used predicatively, as in "The eggs were unshelled", which can mean "The eggs had not been removed from their shells" or "The eggs were removed from their shells" (someone unshelled them).
Utopia A system of government regarded as perfect, often without war, poverty, hunger and the like, as in "It would be great if we could live in a utopia" : or a system of government bound to fall into a dystopia due to imperfect humans, or carelessness in design, or other factors, as in "His idea is naively utopian!"
W [ top ]
Weather Weathering a storm means "to endure" the storm; but generally weathering means "to decay".
Wicked Similar to awesome above, the strict definition of the adjective is "evil"; the now generally accepted slang usage (barring regional quirks) is roughly equivalent to "very good".
With Can mean together/accompanying, "I am with you"; also can mean against as in "I fought with my brother" .
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Golf
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In 1908 psychologist Alfred Adler cited which leader in proposing an inferiority complex in short people, which became known as the ('What leader?) Syndrome'?
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Full text of "New Word-Analysis: Or, School Etymology of English Derivative Words"
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The Project Gutenberg EBook of New Word-Analysis, by William Swinton This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: New Word-Analysis Or, School Etymology of English Derivative Words Author: William Swinton Release Date: September 22, 2006 [EBook #19346] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW WORD-ANALYSIS *** Produced by Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net NEW WORD-ANALYSIS: OR, SCHOOL ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH DERIVATIVE WORDS. _WITH PRACTICAL EXERCISES_ IN SPELLING, ANALYZING, DEFINING, SYNONYMS, AND THE USE OF WORDS. BY WILLIAM SWINTON, GOLD MEDALIST FOR TEXT-BOOKS, PARIS EXPOSITION, 1878; AND AUTHOR OF "SWINTON'S GEOGRAPHIES," "OUTLINES OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY," "LANGUAGE SERIES," ETC. NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY _Copyright_, 1879, BY WILLIAM SWINTON PREFACE. The present text-book is a new-modeling and rewriting of Swinton's _Word-Analysis_, first published in 1871. It has grown out of a large amount of testimony to the effect that the older book, while valuable as a manual of methods, in the hands of teachers, is deficient in practice-work for pupils. This testimony dictated a double procedure: first, to retain the old _methods_; secondly, to add an adequate amount of new _matter_. Accordingly, in the present manual, the few Latin roots and derivatives, with the exercises thereon, have been retained--under "Part II.: The Latin Element"--as simply a _method of study_.[1] There have then been added, in "Division II.: Abbreviated Latin Derivatives," no fewer than two hundred and twenty Latin root-words with their most important English offshoots. In order to concentrate into the limited available space so large an amount of new matter, it was requisite to devise a novel mode of indicating the English derivatives. What this mode is, teachers will see in the section, pages 50-104. The author trusts that it will prove well suited to class-room work, and in many other ways interesting and valuable: should it not, a good deal of labor, both of the lamp and of the file, will have been misplaced. To one matter of detail in connection with the Latin and Greek derivatives, the author wishes to call special attention: the Latin and the Greek roots are, as key-words, given in this book in the form of the _present infinitive_,--the present indicative and the supine being, of course, added. For this there is one sufficient justification, to wit: that the present infinitive is the form in which a Latin or a Greek root is always given in Webster and other received lexicographic authorities. It is a curious fact, that, in all the school etymologies, the present indicative should have been given as the root, and is explicable only from the accident that it is the key-form in the Latin dictionaries. The change into conformity with our English dictionaries needs no defense, and will probably hereafter be imitated by all authors of school etymologies. In this compilation the author has followed, in the main, the last edition of Webster's Unabridged, the etymologies in which carry the authoritative sanction of Dr. Mahn; but reference has constantly been had to the works of Wedgwood, Latham, and Haldeman, as also to the "English Etymology" of Dr. James Douglass, to whom the author is specially indebted in the Greek and Anglo-Saxon sections. W.S. NEW YORK, 1879. CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE I. ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY 1 II. ETYMOLOGICAL CLASSES OF WORDS 5 III. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 5 IV. RULES OF SPELLING USED IN FORMING DERIVATIVE WORDS 6 PART II. THE LATIN ELEMENT. I. LATIN PREFIXES 9 II. LATIN SUFFIXES 12 III. DIRECTIONS IN THE STUDY OF LATIN DERIVATIVES 21 LATIN ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIVES 23 DIVISION I. METHOD OF STUDY 23 DIVISION II. ABBREVIATED LATIN DERIVATIVES 50 PART III. THE GREEK ELEMENT. I. GREEK PREFIXES 105 II. GREEK ALPHABET 106 GREEK ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIVES 107 DIVISION I. PRINCIPAL GREEK ROOTS 107 DIVISION II. ADDITIONAL GREEK ROOTS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES 120 PART IV. THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. I. ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES 125 II. ANGLO-SAXON SUFFIXES 125 ANGLO-SAXON ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIVES 127 SPECIMENS OF ANGLO-SAXON 132 SPECIMENS OF SEMI-SAXON AND EARLY ENGLISH 135 ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT IN MODERN ENGLISH 136 PART V. MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIVES. I. WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS 142 1. NOUNS 142 2. ADJECTIVES 144 II. WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES 146 III. ETYMOLOGY OF WORDS USED IN THE PRINCIPAL SCHOOL STUDIES 149 1. TERMS IN GEOGRAPHY 149 2. TERMS IN GRAMMAR 150 3. TERMS IN ARITHMETIC 154 WORD-ANALYSIS. PART I.--INTRODUCTION. I.--ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 1. ETYMOLOGY[2] is the study which treats of the derivation of words,--that is, of their structure and history. 2. ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY, or word-analysis, treats of the derivation of English words. 3. The VOCABULARY[3] of a language is the whole body of words in that language. Hence the English vocabulary consists of all the words in the English language. I. The complete study of any language comprises two distinct inquiries,--the study of the _grammar_ of the language, and the study of its _vocabulary_. Word-analysis has to do exclusively with the vocabulary. II. The term "etymology" as used in grammar must be carefully distinguished from "etymology" in the sense of word-analysis. Grammatical etymology treats solely of the grammatical changes in words, and does not concern itself with their derivation; historical etymology treats of the structure, composition, and history of words. Thus the relation of _loves, loving, loved_ to the verb _love_ is a matter of grammatical etmology; but the relation of _lover, lovely_, or _loveliness_ to _love_ is a matter of historical etymology. III. The English vocabulary is very extensive, as is shown by the fact that in Webster's Unabridged Dictionary there are nearly 100,000 words. But it should be observed that 3,000 or 4,000 serve all the ordinary purposes of oral and written communication. The Old Testament contains 5,642 words; Milton uses about 8,000; and Shakespeare, whose vocabulary is more extensive than that of any other English writer, employs no more than 15,000 words. 4. The PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS of the English vocabulary are words of Anglo-Saxon and of Latin or _French-Latin_ origin. 5. ANGLO-SAXON is the earliest form of English. The whole of the grammar of our language, and the most largely used part of its vocabulary, are Anglo-Saxon. I. Anglo-Saxon belongs to the Low German[4] division of the Teutonic stock of languages. Its relations to the other languages of Europe--all of which are classed together as the Aryan, or Indo-European family of languages--may be seen from the following table:-- / CELTIC STOCK..........................as Welsh, Gaelic. | SLAVONIC STOCK........................as Russian. INDO- | / Greek / Italian. EUROPEAN < CLASSIC STOCK \ Latin < Spanish. FAMILY. | \ French, etc. | / Scandinavian:.......as Swedish. | TEUTONIC STOCK< / High Ger:.as Modern German. \ \ German < \ Low Ger....as Anglo-Saxon. II. The term "Anglo-Saxon" is derived from the names _Angles_ and _Saxons_, two North German tribes who, in the fifth century A.D., invaded Britain, conquered the native Britons, and possessed themselves of the land, which they called England, that is, Angle-land. The Britons spoke a Celtic language, best represented by modern Welsh. Some British words were adopted into Anglo-Saxon, and still continue in our language. 6. The LATIN element in the English vocabulary consists of a large number of words of Latin origin, adopted directly into English at various periods. The principal periods, during which Latin words were brought directly into English are:-- 1. At the introduction of Christianity into England by the Latin Catholic missionaries, A.D. 596. 2. At the revival of classical learning in the sixteenth century. 3. By modern writers. 7. The FRENCH-LATIN element in the English language consists of French words, first largely introduced into English by the Norman-French who conquered England in the eleventh century, A.D. I. French, like Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, is substantially Latin, but Latin considerably altered by loss of grammatical forms and by other changes. This language the Norman-French invaders brought with them into England, and they continued to use it for more than two centuries after the Conquest. Yet, as they were not so numerous as the native population, the old Anglo-Saxon finally prevailed, though with an immense infusion of French words. II. French-Latin words--that is, Latin words introduced through the French--can often be readily distinguished by their being more changed in form than the Latin terms directly introduced into our language. Thus-- LATIN. FRENCH. ENGLISH. inimi'cus ennemi enemy pop'ulus peuple people se'nior sire sir 8. OTHER ELEMENTS.--In addition to its primary constituents--namely, the Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and French-Latin--the English vocabulary contains a large number of Greek derivatives and a considerable number of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese words, besides various terms derived from miscellaneous sources. The following are examples of words taken from miscellaneous sources; that is, from sources other than Anglo-Saxon, Latin, French-Latin, and Greek:-- _Hebrew_: amen, cherub, jubilee, leviathan, manna, sabbath, seraph. _Arabic_: admiral, alcohol, algebra, assassin, camphor, caravan, chemistry, cipher, coffee, elixir, gazelle, lemon, magazine, nabob, sultan. _Turkish_: bey, chibouk, chouse, janissary, kiosk, tulip. _Persian_: azure, bazaar, checkmate, chess, cimeter, demijohn, dervise, orange, paradise, pasha, turban. _Hindustani_: calico, jungle, pariah, punch, rupee, shampoo, toddy. _Malay_: a-muck, bamboo, bantam, gamboge, gong, gutta-percha, mango. _Chinese_: nankeen, tea. _Polynesian_: kangaroo, taboo, tattoo. _American Indian_: maize, moccasin, pemmican, potato, tobacco, tomahawk, tomato, wigwam. _Celtic_: bard, bran, brat, cradle, clan, druid, pony, whiskey. _Scandinavian_: by-law, clown, dregs, fellow, glade, hustings, kidnap, plough. _Dutch, or Hollandish_: block, boom, bowsprit, reef, skates, sloop, yacht. _Italian_: canto, cupola, gondola, grotto, lava, opera, piano, regatta, soprano, stucco, vista. _Spanish_: armada, cargo, cigar, desperado, flotilla, grandee, mosquito, mulatto, punctilio, sherry, sierra. _Portuguese_: caste, commodore, fetish, mandarin, palaver. 9. PROPORTIONS.--On an examination of passages selected from modern English authors, it is found that of every hundred words sixty are of Anglo-Saxon origin, thirty of Latin, five of Greek, and all the other sources combined furnish the remaining five. By actual count, there are more words of classical than of Anglo-Saxon origin in the English vocabulary,--probably two and a half times as many of the former as of the latter. But Anglo-Saxon words are so much more employed--owing to the constant repetition of conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, auxiliaries, etc. (all of Anglo-Saxon origin)--that in any page of even the most Latinized writer they greatly preponderate. In the Bible, and in Shakespeare's vocabulary, they are in the proportion of ninety per cent. For specimens showing Anglo-Saxon words, see p. 136. II.--ETYMOLOGICAL CLASSES OF WORDS. 10. CLASSES BY ORIGIN.--With respect to their origin, words are divided into two classes,--primitive words and derivative words. 11. A PRIMITIVE word, or root, is one that cannot be reduced to a more simple form in the language to which it is native: as, _man, good, run_. 12. A DERIVATIVE word is one made up of a root and one or more _formative elements_: as, man_ly_, good_ness_, run_ner_. The formative elements are called prefixes and suffixes. (See §§ 16, 17.) 13. BY COMPOSITION.--With respect to their composition, words are divided into two classes,--simple and compound words. 14. A SIMPLE word consists of a single significant term: as, _school, master, rain, bow_. 15. A COMPOUND word is one made up of two or more simple words united: as, _school-master, rainbow_. In some compound words the constituent parts are joined by the hyphen as _school-master_; in others the parts coalesce and the compound forms a single (though not a _simple_) word, as _rainbow_. III.--PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 16. A prefix is a significant syllable or word placed before and joined with a word to modify its meaning: as, unsafe = _not_ safe; remove = move _back_; circumnavigate = sail _around_. 17. A suffix is a significant syllable or syllables placed after and joined with a word to modify its meaning: as, safeLY = in a safe _manner_; movABLE = that may be moved; navIGATION = _act_ of sailing. The word _affix_ signifies either a prefix or a suffix; and the verb _to affix_ means to join a prefix or a suffix to a root-word. EXERCISE. Tell whether the following words are primitive or derivative, and also whether simple or compound:-- 1 grace 2 sign 3 design 4 midshipman 5 wash 6 sea 7 workman 8 love 9 lovely 10 white 11 childhood 12 kingdom 13 rub 14 music 15 musician 16 music-teacher 17 footstep 18 glad 19 redness 20 school 21 fire 22 watch-key 23 give 24 forget 25 iron 26 hardihood 27 young 28 right 29 ploughman 30 day-star 31 large 32 truthful 33 manliness 34 milkmaid 35 gentleman 36 sailor 37 steamboat 38 wooden 39 rich 40 hilly 41 coachman 42 warm 43 sign-post 44 greenish 45 friend 46 friendly 47 reform 48 whalebone 49 quiet 50 quietude 51 gardener 52 form 53 formal 54 classmate 55 trust 56 trustworthy 57 penknife 58 brightness 59 grammarian 60 unfetter IV.--RULES OF SPELLING USED IN FORMING DERIVATIVE WORDS. Rule 1.--_Final "e" followed by a Vowel._ Final _e_ of a primitive word is dropped on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel: as, blame + able = blamable; guide + ance = guidance; come + ing = coming; force + ible = forcible; obscure + ity = obscurity. EXCEPTION 1.--Words ending in _ge_ or _ce_ usually retain the _e_ before a suffix beginning with _a_ or _o_, for the reason that _c_ and _g_ would have the hard sound if the _e_ were dropped: as, peace + able = peaceable; change + able = changeable; courage + ous = courageous. EXCEPTION 2.--Words ending in _oe_ retain the _e_ to preserve the sound of the root: as, shoe + ing = shoeing; hoe + ing = hoeing. The _e_ is retained in a few words to prevent their being confounded with similar words: as, singe + ing = singeing (to prevent its being confounded with singing). Rule II.--_Final "e" followed by a Consonant._ Final _e_ of a primitive word is retained on taking a suffix beginning with a consonant: as, pale + ness = paleness; large + ly = largely. EXCEPTION 1.--When the final _e_ is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted; as, due + ly = duly; true + ly = truly; whole + ly = wholly. EXCEPTION 2.--A few words ending in _e_ drop the _e_ before a suffix beginning with a consonant: as, judge + ment = judgment; lodge + ment = lodgment; abridge + ment = abridgment. Rule III.--_Final "y" preceded by a Consonant._ Final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into _i_ on the addition of a suffix. EXCEPTION 1.--Before _ing_ or _ish_, the final _y_ is retained to prevent the doubling of the _i_: as, pity + ing = pitying. EXCEPTION 2.--Words ending in _ie_ and dropping the _e_, by Rule I. change the _i_ into _y_ to prevent the doubling of the _i_: as, die + ing = dying; lie + ing = lying. EXCEPTION 3.--Final _y_ is sometimes changed into _e_: as, duty + ous = duteous; beauty + ous = beauteous. Rule IV.--_Final "y" preceded by a Vowel._ Final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into an _i_ before a suffix: as, joy + less = joyless. Rule V.--_Doubling._ Monosyllables and other words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after _qu_, double their final letter before a suffix beginning with a vowel: as, rob + ed = robbed; fop + ish = foppish; squat + er = squatter; prefer' + ing = prefer'ring. EXCEPTIONS.--_X_ final, being equivalent to _ks_, is never doubled; and when the derivative does not retain the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled: as, prefer' + ence = pref'erence. Rule VI.--_No Doubling._ A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable: as, toil + ing = tolling; cheat + ed = cheated; murmur + ing = murmuring. PART II.--THE LATIN ELEMENT. I.--LATIN PREFIXES. Prefix. Signification. Example. Definition. A- a-vert to turn _from_. ab- = _from_ ab-solve to release _from_. abs- abs-tain to hold _from_. AD- ad-here to stick _to_. a- a-gree to be pleasing _to_. ac- ac-cede to yield _to_. af- af-fix to fix _to_. ag- ag-grieve to give pain _to_. al- = _to_ al-ly to bind _to_. an- an-nex to tie _to_. ap- ap-pend to hang _to_. ar- ar-rive to reach _to_. as- as-sent to yield _to_. NOTE.--The forms AC-, AF-, etc., are euphonic variations of AD-, and follow generally the rule that the final consonant of the prefix assimilates to the initial letter of the root. AM- = _around_ am-putate to cut _around_. amb- amb-ient going _around_. ANTE- = _before_ ante-cedent going _before_. anti- anti-cipate to take _before_. BI- = _two_ or bi-ped a _two_-footed animal. bis- _twice_ bis-cuit _twice_ cooked. CIRCUM- = _around_ circum-navigate to sail _around_. circu- circu-it journey _around_. CON- con-vene to come _together_. co- co-equal equal _with_. co- = _with_ or co-gnate born _together_. col- _together_ col-loquy a speaking _with_ another. com- com-pose to put _together_. cor- cor-relative relative _with_. NOTE.--The forms CO-, COL-, COM-, and COR-, are euphonic variations of CON-. CONTRA- contra-dict to speak _against_ contro- = _against_ contro-vert to turn _against_ counter- counter-mand to order _against_ DE- = _down_ or de-pose; to put _down_; _off_ de-fend fend _off_. DIS- _asunder_ dis-pel to drive _asunder_. di- = _apart_ di-vert to turn _apart_. dif- _opposite of_ dif-fer to bear _apart_; disagree. NOTE.--The forms DI- and DIF- are euphonic forms of DIS-; DIF- is used before a root beginning with a vowel. EX- ex-clude to shut _out_. e- = _out_ or e-ject to cast _out_. ec- _from_ ec-centric _from_ the center. ef- ef-flux a flowing _out_. NOTE.--E-, EC-, and EF- are euphonic variations of EX-. When prefixed to the name of an office, EX- denotes that the person formerly held the office named: as, _ex_-mayor, the former mayor. EXTRA- = _beyond_ extra-ordinary _beyond_ ordinary. IN- (in nouns and in-clude to shut _in_. il- verbs) il-luminate to throw light _on_. im- = _in, into, on_ im-port to carry _in_. ir- ir-rigate to pour water _on_. en-, em- en-force to force _on_. NOTE.--The forms IL-, IM-, and IR- are euphonic variations of IN-. The forms EN- and EM- are of French origin. IN- (in adjectives in-sane _not_ sane. i(n) and nouns.) i-gnoble _not_ noble. il- = _not_ il-legal _not_ legal. im- im-mature _not_ mature. ir- ir-regular _not_ regular. INTER- = _between_ or inter-cede to go _between_. intel- _among_ intel-ligent choosing _between_. INTRA- = _inside of_ intra-mural _inside of_ the walls. INTRO- = _within, into_ intro-duce to lead _into_ JUXTA- = _near_ juxta-position a placing _near_ NON- = _not_ non-combatant _not_ fighting. NOTE.--A hyphen is generally, though not always, placed between _non-_ and the root. OB- ob-ject to throw _against_. o- _in the way_, o-mit to leave _out_. oc- = _against_, oc-cur to run _against_; or _out_ hence, to happen. of- of-fend to strike _against_. op- op-pose to put one's self _against_. PER- = _through_, per-vade; to pass _through_; pel- _thoroughly_ per-fect _thoroughly_ made. pel-lucid _thoroughly_ clear. NOTE.--Standing alone, PER- signifies _by_: as, _per annum_, _by_ the year. POST- = _after_, post-script written _after_. _behind_ PRE- = _before_ pre-cede to go _before_. PRETER- = _beyond_ preter-natural _beyond_ nature. PRO _for_, pro-noun _for_ a noun. = _forth_, or pro-pose to put _forth_. _forward_ NOTE.--In a few instances PRO- is changed into PUR-, as _pur_pose; into POR-, as _por_tray; and into POL-, as _pol_lute. RE- = _back_ or re-pel to drive _back_. red- _anew_ red-eem to buy _back_. RETRO- = _backwards_ retro-grade going _backwards_. SE- = _aside_, se-cede to go _apart_. _apart_ SINE- = _without_ sine-cure _without_ care. SUB- sub-scribe to write _under_. suc- suc-ceed to follow _after_. suf- suf-fer to _undergo_. sug- = _under_ or sug-gest to bring to mind from _after_ _under_. sum- sum-mon to hint from _under_. sup- sup-port to bear by being _under_. sus- sus-tain to _under_-hold. NOTE.--The euphonic variations SUC-, SUF-, SUG-, SUM-, SUP-, result from assimilating the _b_ of SUB- to the initial letter of the root. In "sustain" SUS- is a contraction of _subs-_ for _sub-_. SUBTER- = _under_ or subter-fuge a flying _under_. _beneath_ SUPER- = _above_ or super-natural _above_ nature. _over_ super-vise to _over_-see. NOTE.--In derivatives through the French, SUPER- takes the form SUR-, as _sur-_vey, to look over. TRANS- _through_, trans-gress to step _beyond_. tra- = _over_, tra-verse to pass _over_. or _beyond_ ULTRA- = _beyond_, or ultra-montane _beyond_ the mountain _extremely_ (the Alps). ultra-conservativ _extremely_ conservative. II.--LATIN SUFFIXES. SUFFIX. SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLE. DEFINITION. -ABLE = _that may be_; cur-able _that may be_ cured. -ible _fit to be_ possi-ble _that may be_ done. -ble solu-ble _that may be_ dissolved. -AC _relating to_ cardi-ac _relating to_ the heart. = or demoni-ac _like_ a demon. _resembling_ NOTE.--The suffix -AC is found only in Latin derivatives of Greek origin. -ACEOUS _of_; sapon-aceous _having the quality of_ = _having the_ soap. -acious _quality of_ cap-acious _having the quality of_ holding much. _condition of_ celib-acy _condition of being_ -ACY = _being_; single. _office of_ cur-acy _office of_ a curate. -AGE _act_, marri-age _act of_ marrying. = _condition_, or vassal-age _condition of_ a vassal. _collection of_ foli-age _collection of_ leaves. NOTE.--The suffix -AGE is found only in French-Latin derivatives. adj. ment-al _relating to_ the mind. -AL = _relating to_ remov-al _the act of_ removing. n. _the act of_; capit-al _that which_ forms the _that which_ head of a column. -AN adj. _relating hum-an _relating to_ mankind. -ane to_ hum-ane _befitting_ a man. = or _befitting_ artis-an _one who_ follows a trade. n. _one who_ -ANCE _state or_ vigil-ance _state of being_ watchful. -ancy = _quality_ eleg-ance _quality of being_ _of being_ elegant. -ANT = adj. _being_ vigil-ant _being_ watchful. n. _one who_ assist-ant _one who_ assists. -AR = _relating to; lun-ar _relating to_ the moon. like_ circul-ar _like_ a circle. adj. _relating epistol-ary _relating to_ a letter. -ARY to_ mission-ary _one who is_ sent out. = n. _one who_; avi-ary _a place where_ birds _place where_ are kept. n. _one who is_ deleg-ate _one who is_ sent by adj. _having_ others. -ATE = _the quality of_ accur-ate _having the quality of_ v. _to perform_ accuracy. _the act of_, navig-ate _to perform the act of_ or _cause_ sailing. -CLE = _minute_ vesi-cle a _minute_ vessel. -cule animal-cule a _minute_ animal. -EE = _one to whom_ refer-ee _one to whom_ something is referred. NOTE.--This suffix is found only in words of French-Latin origin. -EER engin-eer _one who_ has charge of = _one who_ an engine. -ier brigad-ier _one who_ has charge of a brigade. NOTE.--These suffixes are found only in words of French-Latin origin. -ENE = _having relation terr-ene _having relation to_ the to_ earth. -ENCE _state of being_ pres-ence _state of being_ present. -ency = or _quality of_ tend-ency _quality of_ tending towards. -ENT n. _one who_ stud-ent _one who_ studies. = or _which_ equival-ent _being_ equal to, adj. _being_ equal_ing_. or _-ing_ -ESCENCE = _state of conval-escence _state of becoming_ well. becoming_ -ESCENT = _becoming_ conval-escent _becoming_ well. -ESS = _female_ lion-ess a _female_ lion. NOTE.--This suffix is used only in words of French-Latin origin. -FEROUS = _producing_ coni-ferous _producing_ cones. -FIC = _making, sopori-fic _causing_ sleep. causing_ -FICE = _something done_ arti-fice _something done_ with or _made_ art. -FY = _to make_ forti-fy _to make_ strong. rust-ic _one who_ has countrified -IC n. _one who_ manners. -ical = adj. _like_, hero-ic _like_ a hero. _made of_, metall-ic _made of_ metal. _relating to_ histor-ical _relating to_ history. NOTE.--These suffixes are found only in Latin words of Greek origin, namely, adjectives in -IKOS. In words belonging to chemistry derivatives in -IC denote the acid containing most oxygen, when more than one is formed: as _nitric_ acid. -ICE _that which_ just-ice _that which_ is just. -ICS _the science of_ mathemat-ics _the science of_ quantity. -IC arithmet-ic _the science of_ number. NOTE.--These suffixes are found only in Latin words of Greek origin. -ID = _being_ or acr-id; flu-id _being_ bitter; flow_ing_. _-ing_ _-ile_ = _relating to_; puer-ile _relating to_ a boy. _apt for_ docile _apt for_ being taught. -INE = _relating to; femin-ine _relating to_ a woman. like_ alkal-ine _like_ an alkali. _the act of_, expuls-ion _the act of_ expelling. -ION = _state of corrupt-ion _state of being_ corrupt. being_, frict-ion rubb_ing_. or _-ing_ -ISH = _to make_ publ-ish _to make_ public. -ISE = _to render_, or fertil-ize _to render_ fertile. -ize _perform the act of_ NOTE.--The suffix -ISE, -IZE, is of French origin, and is freely added to Latin roots in forming English derivatives. -ISM = _state or act hero-ism _state of_ a hero. of_; _idiom_ Gallic-ism a French _idiom_. NOTE.--This suffix, except when signifying an idiom, is found only in words of Greek origin. _one who_ art-ist _one who practices_ -IST = _practices_ or an art. _is devoted to_ botan-ist _one who is devoted to_ botany. -ITE = n. _one who is_ favor-ite _one who is_ favored. -yte adj. _being_ defin-ite _being_ well defined. prosel-yte _one who is_ brought over. NOTE.--The form -YTE is found only in words of Greek origin. -ITY = _state or security _state of being_ secure. -ty quality_ ability _quality of being_ able. _of being_ liber-ty _state of being_ free. n. _one who is_ -IVE = or _that which_ capt-ive _one who is_ taken. adj. _having_ cohes-ive _having power_ to stick. _the power_ _or quality_ -IX = _feminine_ testatr-ix a _woman_ who leaves a will. IZE (See ISE.) -MENT _state of being_ excite-ment _state of being_ excited. = or _act of_; induce-ment _that which_ induces. _that which_ -MONY _state or_ matri-mony _state of_ marriage. = _quality of_; testi-mony _that which_ is testified. _that which_ _one who_; audit-or _one who_ hears. -OR = _that which_; mot-or _that which_ moves. _quality of_ err-or _quality of_ erring. adj. _fitted_ or preparat-ory _fitted_ to prepare. -ORY = _relating to_ n. _place armor-y _place where_ arms are where_; kept. _that which_ -OSE = _abounding in_ verb-ose _abounding in_ words. -ous popul-ous _abounding in_ people. -TUDE = _condition or_ servi-tude _condition of_ a slave. _quality of_ forti-tude _quality of_ being brave. -TY (See -ITY.) -ULE = _minute_ glob-ule a _minute_ globe. -ULENT = _abounding in_ op-ulent _abounding in_ wealth. -URE = _act or state depart-ure _act of_ departing. of_; creat-ure _that which_ is created. _that which_ CLASSIFIED REVIEW OF LATIN SUFFIXES, WITH GENERIC DEFINITIONS. -an -ent -ant -ier -ary -ist = _one who_ (_agent_); _that which._ -ate -ive -eer -or -ate -ite = _one who is_ (_recipient_); _that -ee -ive which is._ -acy -ism -age -ity -ance -ment NOUN SUFFIXES -ancy -mony = _state; condition; quality; act._ -ate -tude -ence -ty -ency -ure -ion -ary = _place where._ -ory -cle -cule = _diminutives._ -ule II. -ac -ic -al -ical -an -id = _relating to; like; being_. -ar -ile -ary -ine -ent -ory -ate -ose = _abounding in; having the quality_. -ous ADJECTIVE -able -ible = _that may be_. SUFFIXES. -ble -ile -ive = _having power_. -ferous = _causing_ or _producing_. -fic -aceous = _of; having the quality_. -acious -escent = _becoming_. III. -ate VERB SUFFIXES -fy = _to make; render; perform an act_. -ise -ize EXERCISE. I. a. Write and define nouns denoting the agent (one who or that which) from the following:-- 1. Nouns. MODEL: _art + ist = artist, one who practices an art._[5] 1 art 2 cash 3 humor 4 history 5 vision 6 tribute 7 cure 8 engine 9 auction 10 cannon 11 flute 12 drug 13 tragedy 14 mutiny 15 grammar 16 credit 17 note 18 method 19 music 20 flower (_flor_-) 2. Verbs. 1 profess 2 descend 3 act 4 imitate 5 preside 6 solicit 7 visit 8 defend 9 survey 10 oppose (_oppon_-) 3. Adjectives. 1 adverse 2 secret 3 potent 4 private b. Write and define nouns denoting the recipient (one who is or that which) from the following:-- 1 assign 2 bedlam 3 _captum_ (taken) 4 devote 5 favor 6 lease 7 _natus_ (born) 8 patent 9 refer 10 relate c. Write and define nouns denoting state, condition, quality, or act, from the following:-- 1. Nouns. 1 _magistr_ate 2 parent 3 cure 4 _priv_ate 5 pilgrim 6 hero 7 despot 8 judge 9 vassal 10 vandal 2. Verbs. 1 conspire 2 marry 3 forbear 4 repent 5 ply 6 abase 7 excel 8 prosper 9 enjoy 10 accompany 11 depart 12 abound 13 abhor 14 compose 15 deride (_deris_-) 3. Adjectives. 1 _accur_ate 2 _delic_ate 3 _dist_ant 4 _excell_ent 5 _curr_ent 6 parallel 7 prompt (_i_-) 8 similar 9 docile 10 moist d. Write and define nouns denoting place WHERE from the following words:-- 1 grain 2 deposit 3 penitent 4 arm 5 observe e. Write and define nouns expressing diminutives of the following nouns:-- 1 part 2 globe 3 animal 4 verse 5 _corpus_ (body) II. a. Write and define adjectives denoting relating to, like, or being, from the following nouns:-- 1 parent 2 nation 3 fate 4 elegy 5 demon 6 republic 7 Rome 8 Europe 9 Persia 10 presbytery 11 globule 12 _luna_ (the moon) 13 _oculus_ (the eye) 14 consul 15 _sol_ (the sun) 16 planet 17 moment 18 element 19 second 20 parliament 21 honor 22 poet 23 despot 24 majesty 25 ocean 26 metal 27 nonsense 28 astronomy 29 botany 30 period 31 tragedy 32 _ferv_or 33 _splend_or 34 infant 35 _puer_ (a boy) 36 _canis_ (a dog) 37 _felis_ (a cat) 38 promise 39 access 40 transit b. Write and define adjectives denoting abounding in, having the quality of, from the following nouns:-- 1 passion 2 temper 3 _oper_- (work) 4 fortune 5 _popul_- (people) 6 affection 7 _aqua_- (water) 8 verb (a word) 9 beauty 10 courage 11 plenty 12 envy 13 victory 14 joy 15 globe c. Write and define adjectives denoting that may be, or having the power, from the following verbs:-- 1 blame 2 allow 3 move 4 admit (_miss_-) 5 collect 6 abuse 7 _aud_- (hear) 8 divide (_vis_-) 9 vary 10 _ara_- (plough) Write and define the following adjectives denoting-- (_causing_ or _producing_) 1 terror, 2 _sopor_- (sleep), 3 _flor_ (a flower), 4 _pestis_ (a plague); (_having the quality of_) 5 _farina_ (meal), 6 crust, 7 _argilla_ (clay), (_becoming_), 8 effervesce. III. Write and define verbs denoting to make, render, or perform the act of, from the following words:-- 1 authentic 2 person 3 captive 4 _anima_ (life) 5 _melior_ (better) 6 ample 7 just 8 _sanctus_ (holy) 9 pan 10 false 11 _facilis_ (easy) 12 _magnus_(great) 13 equal 14 fertile 15 legal III.--DIRECTIONS IN THE STUDY OF LATIN DERIVATIVES. 1. A LATIN PRIMITIVE, or root, is a Latin word from which a certain number of English derivative words is formed. Thus the Latin verb _du'cere_, to draw or lead, is a Latin primitive or root, and from it are formed _educe_, _education_, _deduction_, _ductile_, _reproductive_, and several hundred other English words. 2. LATIN ROOTS consist chiefly of verbs, nouns, and adjectives. 3. ENGLISH DERIVATIVES from Latin words are generally formed not from the root itself but from a part of the root called the _radical_. Thus, in the word "education," the _root-word_ is _ducere_, but the _radical_ is DUC- (education = e + DUC + ate + ion). 4. A RADICAL is a word or a part of a word used in forming English derivatives. 5. Sometimes several radicals from the same root-word are used, the different radicals being taken from different grammatical forms of the root-word. 6. VERB-RADICALS are formed principally from two parts of the verb,--the first person singular of the present indicative, and a part called the _supine_, which is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in -ing. Thus:-- _1st pers. sing. pres. ind._ duco (I draw) _Root_ DUC- _Derivative_ _educe_ _Supine_ ductum (drawing, or to draw) _Root_ DUCT- _Derivative_ _ductile_ I. In giving a Latin verb-primitive in this book three "principal parts" of the verb will be given, namely: (1) The present infinitive, (2) the first person singular of the present indicative, and (3) the supine--the second and the third parts because from them radicals are obtained, and the infinitive because this is the part used in naming a verb in a general way. Thus as we say that _loved_, _loving_, etc., are parts of the verb "to love," so we say that _a'mo_ (present ind.) and _ama'tum_ (supine) are parts of the verb _ama're_. II. It should be noted that it is incorrect to translate _amo_, _amatum_, by "to love," since neither of these words is in the infinitive mood, which is _amare_. The indication of the Latin infinitive will be found of great utility, as it is the part by which a Latin verb is referred to in the Dictionary. 7. NOUN-RADICALS and ADJECTIVE RADICALS are formed from the nominative and from the genitive (or possessive) case of words belonging to these parts of speech. Thus:-- NOM. CASE. ROOT. DERIVATIVE. iter (a journey) ITER-. re_iter_ate GEN. CASE. ROOT DERIVATIVE. itineris (of a journey) ITINER- _itiner_ant felicis (nom. _felix_, happy) FELIC- _felic_ity NOTE.--These explanations of the mode of forming radicals are given by way of general information; but this book presupposes and requires no knowledge of Latin, since in every group of English derivatives from Latin, not only the root-words in their several parts, but the _radicals actually used_ in word-formation, are given. Pronunciation of Latin Words. 1. Every word in Latin must have as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs: as _miles_ (= _mi'les_). 2. _C_ is pronounced like _k_ before _a_, _o_, _u_; and like _s_ before _e_, _i_, _y_, and the diphthongs _æ_ and _œ_: as _cado_, pronounced _ka'do_; _cedo_, pronounced _se'do_. 3. _G_ is pronounced hard before _a_, _o_, _u_, and soft like _j_ before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, _œ_: as _gusto_, in which _g_ is pronounced as in _August_; _gero_, pronounced _je'ro_. 4. A consonant between two vowels must be joined to the latter: as _bene_, pronounced _be'ne_. 5. Two consonants in the middle of a word must be divided: as _mille_, pronounced _mil'le_. 6. The diphthongs _æ_ and _œ_ are sounded like _e_: as _cædo_, pronounced _ce'do_. 7. Words of two syllables are accented on the first: as _ager_, pronounced _a'jer_. 8. When a word of more than one syllable ends in _a_, the _a_ should be sounded like _ah_: as _musa_, pronounced _mu'sah_. 9. _T_, _s_, and _c_, before _ia_, _ie_, _ii_, _io_, _iu_, and _eu_, preceded immediately by the accent, in Latin words as in English, change into _sh_ and _zh_: as _fa'cio_, pronounced _fa'sheo_; _san'cio_, pronounced _san'sheo_; _spa'tium_, pronounced _spa'sheum_. NOTE.--According to the Roman method of pronouncing Latin, the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_ are pronounced as in _baa_, _bait_, _beet_, _boat_, _boot_; _ae_, _au_, _ei_, _oe_ as in _aisle_, _our_, _eight_, _oil_; _c_ always like _k_; _g_ as in _get_; _j_ as _y_ in _yes_; _t_ as in _until_; _v_ as _w_. See any Latin grammar. LATIN ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIVES. DIVISION I.--METHOD OF STUDY. 1. AG'ERE: a'go, ac'tum, _to do_, _to drive_. Radicals: AG- and ACT-. 1. ACT, _v._ ANALYSIS: from _actum_ by dropping the termination _um_. DEFINITION: to do, to perform. The _noun_ "act" is formed in the same way. DEFINITION: a thing done, a deed or performance. 2. AC'TION: act + ion = the act of doing: hence, a thing done. 3. ACT'IVE: act + ive = having the quality of acting: hence, busy, constantly engaged in action. 4. ACT'OR: act + or = one who acts: hence, (1) one who takes part in anything done; (2) a stage player. 5. A'GENT: ag + ent = one who acts: hence, one who acts or transacts business for another. 6. AG'ILE: ag + ile = apt to act: hence, nimble, brisk. 7. CO'GENT: from Latin _cogens_, _cogentis_, pres. part, of _cog'ere_ (= _co + agere_, to impel), having the quality of impelling: hence, urgent, forcible. 8. ENACT': en + act = to put in act: hence, to decree. 9. TRANSACT': trans + act = to drive through: hence, to perform. EXERCISE. (1.) What two parts of speech is "act"?--Write a sentence containing this word as a verb; another as a noun.--Give a synonym of "act." _Ans. Deed._--From what is "deed" derived? _Ans._ From the word _do_--hence, literally, something _done_.--Give the distinction between "act" and "deed." _Ans_. "Act" is a _single_ action; "deed" is a _voluntary_ action: thus--"The _action_ which was praised as a good _deed_ was but an _act_ of necessity." (2.) Define "action" in oratory; "action" in law.--Combine and define in + action. (3.) Combine and define in + active; active + ity; in + active + ity.--What is the _negative_ of "active"? _Ans. Inactive_.--What is the _contrary_ of "active"? _Ans. Passive_. (4.) Write a sentence containing "actor" in each of its two senses. MODEL: "Washington and Greene were prominent _actors_ in the war of the Revolution." "David Garrick, the famous English _actor_, was born in 1716."--What is the feminine of "actor" in the sense of stage player? (6.) Combine and define agile + ity.--What is the distinction between "active" and "agile"? _Ans_. "Active" implies readiness to act in general; "agile" denotes a readiness to move the _limbs_.--Give two synonyms of "agile." _Ans. Brisk_, _nimble_.--Give the opposite of "agile." _Ans. Sluggish_, _inert_. (7.) Explain what is meant by a "_cogent_ argument."--What would be the contrary of a _cogent_ argument? (8.) Combine and define enact + ment.--What is meant by the "_enacting_ clause" of a legislative bill?--Write a sentence containing the word "enact." MODEL: "The British Parliament _enacted_ the stamp-law in 1765." (9.) Combine and define transact + ion.--What derivative from "perform" is a synonym of "transaction"? 2. ALIE'NUS, _another_, _foreign_. Radical: ALIEN-. 1. AL'IEN: from _alienus_ by dropping the termination _us_. DEFINITION: a foreigner, one owing allegiance to another country than that in which he is living. 2. AL'IENATE: alien + ate = to cause something to be transferred to another: hence, (1) to transfer title or property to another; (2) to estrange, to withdraw. 3. INAL'IENABLE: in + alien + able = that may not be given to another. EXERCISE. (1.) Combine and define alien + age.--Can an alien be elected President of the United States? [See the Constitution, Article II. Sec. I. Clause 5.]--What is the word which expresses the process by which a person is changed from an _alien_ to a _citizen_? (2.) Combine and define alienate + ion.--Give a synonym of "alienate" in its _second_ sense. _Ans._ To _estrange_.--What is meant by saying that "the oppressive measures of the British government gradually _alienated_ the American colonies from the mother country"? (3.) Quote a passage from the Declaration of Independence containing the word "inalienable." 3. AMA'RE, _to love_, AMI'CUS, _a friend_. Radicals: AM- and AMIC-. 1. A'MIABLE: am(i) + able = fit to be loved. OBS.--The Latin adjective is _amabilis_, from which the English derivative adjective would be _amable_; but it has taken the form am_i_able. 2. AM'ITY: am + ity = the state of being a friend: hence, friendship; good-will. 3. AM'ICABLE: amic + able = disposed to be a friend: hence, friendly; peaceable. 4. INIM'ICAL: through Lat. adj. _inimi'cus_, enemy: hence, inimic(us) + al = inimical, relating to an enemy. 5. AMATEUR': adopted through French _amateur_, from Latin _amator_, a lover: hence, one who cultivates an art from taste or attachment, without pursuing it professionally. EXERCISE. (1). What word is a synonym of "amiable"? _Ans. Lovable_.--Show how they are exact synonyms.--Write a sentence containing the word "amiable." MODEL: "The _amiable_ qualities of Joseph Warren caused his death to be deeply regretted by all Americans."--What noun can you form from "amiable," meaning the quality of being amiable?--What is the negative of "amiable"? _Ans. Unamiable_.--The contrary? _Ans. Hateful_. (2.) Give a word that is nearly a synonym of "amity." _Ans. Friendship_.--State the distinction between these words. _Ans._ "Friendship" applies more particularly to individuals; "amity" to societies or nations.--Write a sentence containing the word "amity." MODEL: "The Plymouth colonists in 1621 made a treaty of _amity_ with the Indians."--What is the opposite of "amity"? (3.) Give a synonym of "amicable." _Ans. Friendly_.--Which is the stronger? _Ans. Friendly_.--Why? _Ans._ "Friendly" implies a positive feeling of regard; "amicable" denotes merely the absence of discord.--Write a sentence containing the word "amicable." MODEL: "In 1871 commissioners appointed by the United States and Great Britain made an _amicable_ settlement of the Alabama difficulties." (4.) What is the noun corresponding to the adjective "inimical"? _Ans. Enemy_.--Give its origin. _Ans._ It comes from the Latin _inimicus_, an enemy, through the French _ennemi_.--What preposition does "inimical" take after it? _Ans._ The preposition _to_--thus, "_inimical_ to health," "to welfare," etc. (5.) What is meant by an _amateur_ painter? an _amateur_ musician? 4. AN'IMUS, _mind_, _passion_; AN'IMA, _life_. Radical: ANIM-. 1. AN'IMAL: from Lat. n. _anima_ through the Latin _animal_: literally, something having life. 2. ANIMAL'CULE: animal + cule = a minute animal: hence, an animal that can be seen only by the microscope. 3. AN'IMATE, _v._: anim + ate = to make alive: hence, to stimulate, or infuse courage. 4. ANIMOS'ITY: anim + ose + ity = the quality of being (ity) full of (ose) passion: hence, violent hatred. 5. UNANIM'ITY: un (from _unus_, one) + anim + ity = the state of being of one mind: hence, agreement. 6. REAN'IMATE: re + anim + ate = to make alive again: hence, to infuse fresh vigor. EXERCISE. (1.) Write a sentence containing the word "animal." MODEL: "Modern science has not yet been able to determine satisfactorily the distinction between an _animal_ and a vegetable." (2.) What is the plural of "animalcule"? _Ans. Animalcules_ or _animalculæ_.--Write a sentence containing this word. (3.) What other part of speech than a verb is "animate"?--What is the negative of the adjective "animate?" _Ans. Inanimate._--Define it.--Combine and define animate + ion.--Explain what is meant by an "_animated_ discussion." (4.) Give two synonyms of "animosity." (5.) What is the literal meaning of "unanimity"? If people are of _one mind_, is not this "unanimity"?--What is the adjective corresponding to the noun "unanimity"?--What is the _opposite_ of "unanimity"?--Write a sentence containing the word "unanimity." (6.) Compare the verbs "animate" and "reanimate," and state the signification of each.--Has "reanimate" any other than its literal meaning?--Write a sentence containing this word in its figurative sense. MODEL: "The inspiring words of Lawrence, 'Don't give up the ship!' _reanimated_ the courage of the American sailors."--What does "_animated_ conversation" mean? 5. AN'NUS, _a year_. Radical: ANN-. 1. AN'NALS: from _annus_, through Lat. adj. _annalis_, pertaining to the year: hence, a record of things done from year to year. 2. AN'NUAL: through _annuus_ (annu + al), relating to a year: hence, yearly or performed in a year. 3. ANNU'ITY: through Fr. n. _annuité_ = a sum of money payable yearly. 4. MILLEN'NIUM: Lat. n. _millennium_ (from _annus_ and _mille_, a thousand), a thousand years. 5. PEREN'NIAL: through Lat. adj. _perennis_ (compounded of _per_ and _annus_), throughout the year: hence, lasting; perpetual. EXERCISE. (1.) Give a synonym of "annals." _Ans. History._--What is the distinction between "annals" and "history"? _Ans._ "Annals" denotes a mere chronological account of events from year to year; "history," in addition to a narrative of events, inquires into the causes of events.--Write a sentence containing the word "annals," or explain the following sentence: "The _annals_ of the Egyptians and Hindoos contain many incredible statements." (2.) Write a sentence containing the word "annual." (4.) Write a sentence containing the word "millennium." (5.) What is the meaning of a "_perennial_ plant" in botany? _Ans._ A plant continuing more than two years.--Give the contrary of "perennial." _Ans. Fleeting, short-lived._ 6. ARS, ar'tis, _art, skill._ Radical: ART-. 1. ART: from _artis_ by dropping the termination _is_. DEFINITION: 1. cunning--thus, an animal practices _art_ in escaping from his pursuers; 2. skill or dexterity--thus, a man may be said to have the _art_ of managing his business; 3. a system of rules or a profession--as the _art_ of building; 4. creative genius as seen in painting, sculpture, etc., which are called the "fine arts." 2. ART'IST: art + ist = one who practices an art: hence, a person who occupies himself with one of the fine arts. OBS.--A painter is called an artist; but a blacksmith could not properly be so called. The French word _artiste_ is sometimes used to denote one who has great skill in some profession, even if it is not one of the fine arts: thus a great genius in cookery might be called an _artiste_. 3. AR'TISAN: through Fr. n. _artisan_, one who practices an art: hence, one who practices one of the mechanic arts; a workman, or operative. 4. ART'FUL: art + ful = full of art: hence, crafty, cunning. 5. ART'LESS: art + less = without art: hence, free from cunning, simple, ingenuous. 6. AR'TIFICE: through Lat. n. _artificium_, something made (_fa'cere_, to make) by art: hence, an artful contrivance or stratagem. EXERCISE. (1.) What is the particular meaning of "art" in the sentence from Shakespeare, "There is no _art_ to read the mind's construction in the face"? (2.) Write a sentence containing the word "artist."--Would it be proper to call a famous hair-dresser an _artist_?--What might he be called?--Combine and define artist + ic + al + ly.--What is the negative of "artistic"? (3.) What is the distinction between an "artist" and an "artisan"? (5.) Give a synonym of "artless." _Ans. Ingenuous, natural._--Give the opposite of "artless." _Ans. Wily._--Combine and define artless + ly; artless + ness. (6.) Give a synonym of "artifice."--Combine artifice + er.--Does "artificer" mean one who practices artifice?--Write a sentence containing this word.--Combine and define artifice + ial; artifice + al + ity. Give the opposite of "artificial." 7. AUDI'RE: au'dio, audi'tum, _to hear_. Radicals: AUDI-, and AUDIT-. 1. AU'DIBLE: audi + ble = that may be heard. 2. AU'DIENCE: audi + ence = literally, the condition of hearing: hence, an assemblage of hearers, an _auditory_. 3. AU'DIT: from _audit(um)_ = to hear a statement: hence, to examine accounts. 4. AU'DITOR: audit + or = one who hears, a hearer. OBS.--This word has a secondary meaning, namely: an officer who examines accounts. 5. OBE'DIENT: through _obediens, obedient(is)_, the present participle of _obedire_ (compounded of _ob_, towards, and _audire_): literally, giving ear to: hence, complying with the wishes of another. EXERCISE. (1.) "Audible" means that can be heard: what prefix would you affix to it to form a word denoting what can _not_ be heard?--What is the adverb from the adjective "audible"?--Write a sentence containing this word. (2.) What is meant when you read in history of a king's giving _audience_? (3.) Write a sentence containing the word "audit." MODEL--"The committee which had to _audit_ the accounts of Arnold discovered great frauds."--How do you spell the past tense of "audit"?--Why is the _t_ not doubled? (5.) What is the _noun_ corresponding to the adjective "obedient"?--What is the _verb_ corresponding to these words?--Combine and define dis + obedient. 8. CA'PUT, cap'itis, _the head_. Radical: CAPIT-. 1. CAP'ITAL, _a._ and _n._: capit + al = relating to the _head_: hence, chief, principal, first in importance. DEFINITION: as an adjective it means, (1) principal; (2) great, important; (3) punishable with death;--as a noun it means, (1) the metropolis or seat of government; (2) stock in trade. 2. CAPITA'TION: capit + ate + ion = the act of causing heads to be counted: hence, (1) a numbering of persons; (2) a tax upon each head or person. 3. DECAP'ITATE: de + capit + ate = to cause the head to be taken off; to behead. 4. PREC'IPICE: through Lat. n. _præcipitium_: literally, a headlong descent. 5. PRECIP'ITATE: from Lat. adj. _præcipit(is)_, head foremost. DEFINITION: (1) (_as a verb_) to throw headlong, to press with eagerness, to hasten; (2) (_as an adjective_) headlong, hasty. EXERCISE. (1). Write a sentence containing "capital" as an adjective.--Write a sentence containing this word as a noun, in the sense of _city_.--Write a sentence containing "capital" in the sense of _stock_.--Is the _capital_ of a state or country necessarily the metropolis or chief city of that state or country?--What is the _capital_ of New York state?--What is the _metropolis_ of New York State? (3) Combine and define decapitate + ion.--Can you name an English king who was _decapitated_?--Can you name a French king who was _decapitated_? (4) What as the meaning of "precipice" in the line, "Swift down the _precipice_ of time it goes"? (5) Combine and define precipitate + ly.--Write a sentence containing the adjective "precipitate". MODEL: "Fabius, the Roman general, is noted for never having made any _precipitate_ movements."--Explain the meaning of the verb "precipitate" in the following sentences. "At the battle of Waterloo Wellington _precipitated_ the conflict, because he knew Napoleon's army was divided", "The Romans were wont to _precipitate_ criminals from the Tarpeian rock." 9. CI'VIS, _a citizen_. Radical: CIV-. 1. CIV'IC: civ + ic = relating to a citizen or to the affairs or honors of a city. OBS.--The "_civic_ crown" in Roman times was a garland of oak-leaves and acorns bestowed on a soldier who had saved the life of a citizen in battle. 2. CIV'IL: Lat adj. _civilis_, meaning (1) belonging to a citizen, (2) of the state, political, (3) polite. 3. CIV'ILIZE: civil + ize = to make a savage people into a community having a government, or political organization; hence, to reclaim from a barbarous state. 4. CIVILIZA'TION: civil + ize + ate + ion = the state of being civilized. 5. CIVIL'IAN: civil + (i)an = one whose pursuits are those of civil life--not a soldier. EXERCISE. (2.) "What is the ordinary signification of "civil"?--Give a synonym of this word.--Is there any difference between "civil" and "polite"? _Ans._ "Polite" expresses more than "civil," for it is possible to be "civil" without being "polite."--What word would denote the opposite of "civil" in the sense of "polite"?--Combine and define civil + ity.--Do you say _un_civility or _in_civility, to denote the negative of "civility"?--Give a synonym of "uncivil." _Ans. Boorish._--Give another synonym. (3.) Write a sentence containing the word "civilize."--Give a participial adjective from this word.--What compound word expresses _half_ civilized?--What word denotes a state of society between savage and civilized? (4.) Give two synonyms of "civilization." _Ans. Culture, refinement._--What is the meaning of the word "civilization" in the sentence: "The ancient Hindoos and Egyptians had attained a considerable degree of _civilization_"?--Compose a sentence of your own, using this word. 10. COR, cor'dis, _the heart_. Radical: CORD-. 1. CORE: from _cor_ = the heart: hence, the inner part of a thing. 2. COR'DIAL, _a._: cord + (i)al = having the quality of the heart: hence, hearty, sincere. The _noun_ "cordial" means literally something having the quality of acting on the heart: hence, a stimulating medicine, and in a figurative sense, something cheering. 3. CON'CORD: con + cord = heart _with (con)_ heart: hence, unity of sentiment, harmony. OBS.--_Concord_ in music is harmony of sound. 4. DIS'CORD: dis + cord = heart _apart from (dis)_ heart: hence, disagreement, want of harmony. 5. RECORD': through Lat. v. _recordari_, to remember (literally, to get by _heart_): hence, to register. 6. COUR'AGE: through Fr. n. _courage_: literally, _heartiness_: hence, bravery, intrepidity. OBS.--The heart is accounted the seat of bravery: hence, the derivative sense of courage. EXERCISE. (1.) "The quince was rotten at the _core_"; "The preacher touched the _core_ of the subject": in which of these sentences is "core" used in its _literal_, in which in its _figurative_, sense? (2.) What is the Anglo-Saxon synonym of the adjective "cordial"?--Would you say a "_cordial_ laugh" or a "_hearty_ laugh"?--What is the opposite of "cordial"?--Combine and define cordial + ly: cordial + ity.--Write a sentence containing the _noun_ "cordial" in its figurative sense. MODEL: "Washington's victory at Trenton was like a _cordial_ to the flagging spirits of the American army." (3.) Give a synonym of "concord." _Ans. Accord._--Supply the proper word: "In your view of this matter, I am in (_accord?_ or _concord?_) with you." "There should be ---- among friends." "The man who is not moved by ---- of sweet sounds." (4.) What is the connection in meaning between "discord" in music and among brethren?--Give a synonym of this word. _Ans. Strife._--State the distinction. _Ans._ "Strife" is the stronger: where there is "strife" there must be "discord," but there may be "discord" without "strife"; "discord" consists most in the feeling, "strife" in the outward action. (5.) What part of speech is "record'"?--When the accent is placed on the first syllable (rec'ord) what part of speech does it become?--Combine and define record + er; un + record + ed. (6.) "Courage" is the same as having a stout--what?--Give a synonym. _Ans. Fortitude._--State the distinction. _Ans._ "Courage" enables us to meet danger; "fortitude" gives us strength to endure pain.--Would you say "the Indian shows _courage_ when he endures torment without flinching"?--Would you say "The three hundred under Leonidas displayed _fortitude_ in opposing the entire Persian army"?--What is the contrary of "courage"?--Combine and define courage + ous; courage + ous + ly. 11. COR'PUS, cor'poris, _the body_. Radical: CORPOR-. 1. COR'PORAL: corpor + al = relating to the _body_. OBS.--The noun "corporal," meaning a petty officer, is not derived from _corpus_: it comes from the French _caporal_, of which it is a corruption. 2. COR'PORATE: corpor + ate = made into a body: hence, united into a body or corporation. 3. INCOR'PORATE: in + corpor + ate = to make into a body: hence, (1) to form into a legal body; (2) to unite one substance with another. 4. CORPORA'TION: corpor + ate + ion = that which is made into a body: hence, a body politic, authorized by law to act as one person. 5. COR'PULENT: through Lat. adj. _corpulentus_, fleshy: hence, stout in body, fleshy. 6. COR'PUSCLE: corpus + cle = a diminutive body; hence, a minute particle of matter. 7. CORPS: [pronounced _core_] through Fr. n. _corps_, a body. DEFINITION: (1) a body of troops; (2) a body of individuals engaged in some one profession. 8. CORPSE: through Fr. n. _corps_, the body; that is, _only_ the body--the spirit being departed: hence, the dead body of a human being. EXERCISE. (1.) Give two synonyms of "corporal." _Ans. Corporeal_ and _bodily_.--What is the distinction between "corporal" and "corporeal"? _Ans._ "Corporal" means pertaining to the body; "corporeal" signifies material, as opposed to spiritual.--Would you say a _corporal_ or a _corporeal_ substance? _corporal_ or _corporeal_ punishment? Would you say _corporal_ strength or _bodily_ strength? (3.) Write a sentence containing the verb "incorporate" in its _first_ sense. MODEL: "The London company which settled Virginia was _incorporated_ in 1606, and received a charter from King James I." (4.) Write a sentence containing the word "corporation." [Find out by what corporation Massachusetts Bay Colony was settled, and write a sentence about that.] (5.) What noun is there corresponding to the adjective "corpulent" and synonymous with "stoutness"?--Give two synonyms of "corpulent." _Ans._ _Stout_, _lusty_.--What is the distinction? _Ans._ "Corpulent" means fat; "stout" and "lusty" denote a strong frame. (6.) What is meant by an "army _corps_"? _Ans_. A body of from twenty to forty thousand soldiers, forming several brigades and divisions. (7.) How is the plural of corps spelled? _Ans. Corps._ How pronounced? _Ans. Cores._--What is meant by the "diplomatic _corps_"? (8.) What other form of the word "corpse" is used? _Ans_. The form _corse_ is sometimes used in poetry; as in the poem on the Burial of Sir John Moore: "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his _corse_ to the ramparts we hurried." 12. CRED'ERE: cre'do, cred'itum, _to believe_. Radicals: CRED- and CREDIT-. 1. CREED: from the word _credo_, "I believe," at the beginning of the Apostles' Creed: hence, a summary of Christian belief. 2. CRED'IBLE: cred + ible = that may be believed: hence, worthy of belief. 3. CRED'IT: from credit(um) = belief, trust: hence, (1) faith; (2) reputation; (3) trust given or received. 4. CRED'ULOUS: through the Lat. adj. _credulus_, easy of belief: credul + ous = abounding in belief: hence, believing easily. 5. DISCRED'IT: dis + credit = to _dis_believe. EXERCISE. (2.) Write a sentence containing the word "credible." MODEL: "When the King of Siam was told that in Europe the water at certain seasons could be walked on, he declared that the statement was not _credible_."--What single word will express _not credible_?--Combine and define credible + ity.--Give a synonym of "credible." _Ans. Trustworthy._--State the distinction. _Ans_. "Credible" is generally applied to things, as "_credible_ testimony"; "trustworthy" to persons, as "a _trustworthy_ witness." (3.) What is the meaning of _credit_ in the passage, "John Gilpin was a citizen Of _credit_ and renown"? Give a synonym of this word. _Ans. Trust._--What is the distinction? _Ans_. "Trust" looks forward; "credit" looks back--we _credit_ what has happened; we _trust_ what is to happen.--What other part of speech than a noun is "credit"?--Combine and define credit + ed.--Why is the _t_ not doubled? (4.) What is the meaning of "credulous" in the passage, "So glistened the dire snake, and into fraud Led Eve, our _credulous_ mother"?--MILTON. What noun corresponding to the adjective "credulous" will express the quality of believing too easily?--What is the negative of "credulous"?--What is the distinction between "incredible" and "incredulous"?--Which applies to persons? which to things? (5.) To what two parts of speech does "discredit" belong?--Write a sentence containing this word as a _noun_; another as a _verb_. 13. CUR'RERE: cur'ro, cur'sum, _to run_. Radicals used: CURR- and CURS-. 1. CUR'RENT, a.: curr + ent = running: hence, (1) passing from person to person, as a "_current_ report"; (2) now in progress, as the "_current_ month." 2. CUR'RENCY: curr + ency = the state of passing from person to person, as "the report obtained _currency_": hence circulation. OBS.--As applied to money, it means that it is in circulation or passing from hand to hand, as a representative of value. 3. CUR'SORY: curs + ory = runn_ing_ or pass_ing_: hence, hasty. 4. EXCUR'SION: ex + curs + ion = the act of running out: hence, an expedition or jaunt. 5. INCUR'SION: in + curs + ion = the act of running in: hence, an invasion. 6. PRECUR'SOR: pre + curs + or = one who runs before: hence a forerunner. EXERCISE. (1.) What other part of speech than an adjective is "current"?--What is now the _current_ year? (2.) Why are there two r's in "currency"? _Ans_. Because there are two in the root _currere_.--Give a synonym of this word in the sense of "money." _Ans._ The "circulating medium."--What was the "currency" of the Indians in early times?--Compose a sentence using this word. (3.) When a speaker says that he will cast a "_cursory_ glance" at a subject, what does he mean?--Combine and define cursory + ly. (4.) Is "excursion" usually employed to denote an expedition in a friendly or a hostile sense? (5.) Is "incursion" usually employed to denote an expedition in a friendly or a hostile sense?--Give a synonym. _Ans. Invasion._--Which implies a hasty expedition?--Compose a sentence containing the word _incursion_. MODEL: "The Parthians were long famed for their rapid _incursions_ into the territory of their enemies." (6.) What is meant by saying that John the Baptist was the _precursor_ of Christ?--What is meant by saying that black clouds are the _precursor_ of a storm? 14. DIG'NUS, _worthy_. Radical: DIGN-. 1. DIG'NIFY: dign + (_i_)fy = to make of worth: hence, to advance to honor. 2. DIG'NITY: dign + ity = the state of being of worth: hence, behavior fitted to inspire respect. 3. INDIG'NITY: in + dign + ity = the act of treating a person in an unworthy (_indignus_) manner: hence, insult, contumely. 4. CONDIGN': con + dign = very worthy: hence, merited, deserved. OBS.--The prefix _con_ is here merely intensive. EXERCISE. (1.) What participial adjective is formed from the verb "dignify"? _Ans. Dignified._--Give a stronger word. _Ans. Majestic._--Give a word which denotes the same thing carried to excess and becoming ridiculous. _Ans. Pompous._ (2.) Can you mention a character in American history remarkable for the dignity of his behavior?--Compose a sentence containing this word. (3.) Give the plural of "indignity."--What is meant by saying that "indignities were heaped on" a person? (4.) How is the word "condign" now most frequently employed? _Ans._ In connection with punishment: thus we speak of "_condign_ punishment," meaning richly deserved punishment. 15. DOCE'RE: do'ceo, doc'tum, _to teach_. Radicals: DOC- and DOCT-. 1. DOC'ILE: doc + ile = that may be taught: hence, teachable. 2. DOC'TOR: doct + or = one who teaches: hence, one who has taken the highest degree in a university authorizing him to practice and teach. 4. DOC'TRINE: through Lat. n. _doctrina_, something taught; hence, a principle taught as part of a system of belief. EXERCISE. (1.) Combine and define docile + ity.--Give the opposite of "docile." _Ans. Indocile._--Mention an animal that is very docile.--Mention one remarkable for its want of docility. (2.) What is meant by "_Doctor_ of Medicine"?--Give the abbreviation.--What does LL.D. mean? _Ans._ It stands for the words _legum doctor_, doctor of laws: the double L marks the plural of the Latin noun. (3.) Give two synonyms of "doctrine." _Ans. Precept, tenet._--What does "tenet" literally mean? _Ans._ Something _held_--from Lat. v. _tenere_, to hold.--Combine and define doctrine + al. 16. DOM'INUS, _a master or lord_. Radical: DOMIN-. 1. DOMIN'ION: domin + ion = the act of exercising mastery: hence, (1) rule; (2) a territory ruled over. 2. DOM'INANT: domin + ant = relating to lordship or mastery: hence, prevailing. 3. DOMINEER': through Fr. v. _dominer_; literally, to "_lord_ it" over one: hence, to rule with insolence. 4. PREDOM'INATE: pre + domin + ate = to cause one to be master _before_ another: hence, to be superior, to rule. EXERCISE. (1.) What is meant by saying that "in 1776 the United Colonies threw off the _dominion_ of Great Britain"? (2.) What is meant by the "_dominant_ party"? a "_dominant_ race"? (3.) Compose a sentence containing the word "domineer." MODEL: "The blustering tyrant, Sir Edmund Andros, _domineered_ for several years over the New England colonies; but his misrule came to an end in 1688 with the accession of King William." (4.) "The Republicans at present _predominate_ in Mexico": what does this mean? 17. FI'NIS, _an end or limit_. Radical: FIN-. 1. FI'NITE: fin + ite = having the quality of coming to an end: hence, limited in quantity or degree. 2. FIN'ISH: through Fr. v. _finir_; literally, to bring to an end: hence, to complete. 3. INFIN'ITY: in + fin + ity = the state of having no limit: hence, unlimited extent of time, space, or quantity. 4. DEFINE': through Fr. v. _definer_; literally, to bring a thing down to its limits: hence, to determine with precision. 5. CONFINE': con + fine; literally, to bring within limits or bounds: hence, to restrain. 6. AFFIN'ITY: af (a form of prefix _ad_) + fin + ity = close agreement. EXERCISE. (1.) What is meant by saying that "the human faculties are _finite_"? (2.) What is the opposite of "finite"?--Give a synonym. _Ans. Limited._--What participial adjective is formed from the verb to "finish"?--What is meant by a "_finished_ gentleman"? (3.) Give a synonym of "infinity." _Ans. Boundlessness._--"The microscope reveals the fact that each drop of water contains an _infinity_ of animalculæ." What is the sense of _infinity_ as used in this sentence? (4.) Combine define + ite; in + define + ite.--Analyze the word "definition."--Compose a sentence containing the word "define." (5.) Combine and define confine + ment.--What other part of speech than a verb is "confine"? _Ans._ A noun.--Write a sentence containing the word "confines." (6.) Find in the dictionary the meaning of "chemical _affinity_." 18. FLU'ERE: flu'o, flux'um, _to flow_. Radicals: FLU- and FLUX-. 1. FLUX: from flux_um_ = a flowing. 2. FLU'ENT: flu + ent = having the quality of flowing. Used in reference to language it means _flowing_ speech: hence, voluble. 3. FLU'ID, _n._: flu + id = Flow_ing_: hence, anything that flows. 4. FLU'ENCY: flu + ency = state of flowing (in reference to language). 5. AF'FLUENCE: af (form of _ad_) + flu + ence = a flowing _to_: hence, an abundant supply, as of thought, words, money, etc. 6. CON'FLUENCE: con + flu + ence = a flowing together: hence, (1) the flowing together of two or more streams; (2) an assemblage, a union. 7. IN'FLUX: in + flux = a flowing in or into. 8. SUPER'FLUOUS: super + flu + ous = having the quality of _over_flowing: hence, needless, excessive. EXERCISE. (2.) What is meant by a "fluent" speaker?--What word would denote a speaker who is the reverse of "fluent"? (3.) Write a sentence containing the word "fluid." (4.) What is meant by "fluency" of style? (5.) What is the ordinary use of the word "affluence"? An "_affluence_ of ideas," means what? (6.) Compose a sentence containing the word "confluence." MODEL: "New York City stands at the ---- of two streams." (8.) Mention a noun corresponding to the adjective "superfluous."--Compose a sentence containing the word "superfluous."--What is its opposite? _Ans. Scanty, meager._ 19. GREX, gre'gis, _a flock or herd_. Radical: GREG-. 1. AG'GREGATE, _v._: ag (for _ad_) + greg + ate = to cause to be brought into a flock: hence, to gather, to assemble. 2. EGRE'GIOUS: e + greg + (i)ous, through Lat. adj. _egre'gius_, chosen from the herd: hence, remarkable. OBS.--Its present use is in association with inferiority. 3. CON'GREGATE: con + greg + ate = to perform the act of flocking together: hence, to assemble. EXERCISE. (1.) What other part of speech than a verb is "aggregate"?--Why is this word spelled with a double _g_? (2.) Combine and define egregious + ly.--What does an "_egregious_ blunder" mean?--Compose a sentence containing the word "egregious." (3.) Why is it incorrect to speak of congregating _together_?--Combine and define congregate + ion. 20. I'RE: e'o, i'tum, _to go_. Radical: IT-. 1. AMBI'TION: amb (around) + it + ion = the act of going around. DEFINITION: an eager desire for superiority or power. OBS.--This meaning arose from the habit of candidates for office in Rome _going around_ to solicit votes: hence, aspiration for office, and finally, aspiration in general. 2. INI'TIAL, _a._: in + it + (i)al = pertaining to the _in_going: hence, marking the commencement. 3. INI'TIATE: in + it + (i)ate = to cause one to go in: hence, to introduce, to commence. 4. SEDI'TION: sed (_aside_) + it + ion = the act of going _aside_; that is, going to a separate and insurrectionary party. 5. TRANS'IT: trans + it = a passing across: hence, (1) the act of passing; (2) the line of passage; (3) a term in astronomy. 6. TRAN'SITORY: trans + it + ory = pass_ing_ over: hence, brief, fleeting. EXERCISE. (1.) Compose a sentence containing the word "ambition." MODEL: "Napoleon's _ambition_ was his own greatness; Washington's, the greatness of his country."--What is meant by "military ambition"? "political ambition"? "literary ambition"?--What adjective means _possessing ambition_?--Combine and define un + ambitious. (2.) What is the opposite of "initial"? _Ans. Final, closing._--What part of speech is "initial" besides an adjective?--What is meant by "initials"? (3.) What is meant by saying that "the campaign of 1775 was _initiated_ by an attack on the British in Boston"?--Give the opposite of "initiate" in the sense of "commence." (4.) Give a synonym of "sedition." _Ans. Insurrection._--Give another.--Compose a sentence containing this word. (5.) Explain what is meant by goods "in _transit_."--Explain what is meant by the "Nicaragua _transit_."--When you speak of the _transit_ of Venus," you are using a term in what science? (6.) Give a synonym of "transitory."--Give its opposite. _Ans. Permanent, abiding._ 21. LA'PIS, lap'idis, _a stone_. Radical: LAPID-. 1. LAP'IDARY: lapid + ary = one who works in stone: hence, one who cuts, polishes, and engraves precious stones. 2. DILAP'IDATED: di + lapid + ate + ed = put into the condition of a building in which the stones are falling apart: hence, fallen into ruin, decayed. 3. DILAPIDA'TION: di + lapid + ate + ion = the state (of a building) in which the stones are falling apart: hence, demolition, decay. EXERCISE. Use the word "lapidary" in a sentence. MODEL: "When Queen Victoria wanted the Koh-i-noor to be recut, she sent it to a famous _lapidary_ in Holland." (2.) Write a sentence containing the word "dilapidated." MODEL: "At Newport, Rhode Island, there stands a _dilapidated_ mill, which some writers have foolishly believed to be a tower built by Norsemen in the twelfth century."--If we should speak of a "_dilapidated_ fortune," would the word be used in its literal meaning or in a figurative sense? (3.) Give two synonyms of "dilapidation." _Ans. Ruin, decay._ 22. LEX, le'gis, _a law or rule_. Radical: LEG-. 1. LE'GAL: leg + al = relating to the law; lawful. 2. ILLE'GAL: il (for _in_, not) + leg + al = not legal: hence, unlawful. 3. LEG'ISLATE: from _legis_ + _latum_ (from Lat. v. _fer're, latum_, to bring), to bring forward: hence, to make or pass laws. 4. LEGIT'IMATE: through Lat. adj. _legitimus_, lawful; legitim (us) + ate = made lawful: hence, in accordance with established law. 5. PRIV'ILEGE: Lat. adj. _privus_, private; literally, a law passed for the benefit of a private individual: hence, a franchise, prerogative, or right. EXERCISE. (1.) Point out the different senses of "legal" in the two expressions, "the _legal_ profession" and "a _legal_ right."--Combine and define legal + ize. (2.) Give an Anglo-Saxon synonym of "illegal." _Ans. Unlawful._--Show that they are synonyms. _Ans_. il (_in_) = un; _leg_ = law; and al = ful.--Compose a sentence containing the word "illegal."--Combine and define illegal + ity. (3.) What noun derived from "legislate" means the law-making power?--Combine and define legislate + ion; legislate + ive. (4.) Give the negative of "legitimate." (5.) What is the plural of "privilege"?--Define the meaning of this word in the passage,-- "He claims his _privilege_, and says 't is fit Nothing should be the judge of wit, but wit." 23. LIT'ERA, _a letter_. Radical: LITER-. 1. LIT'ERAL: liter + al = relating to the letter of a thing; that is, exact to the letter. 2. LIT'ERARY: liter + ary = pertaining to _letters_ or learning. 3. OBLITERATE: ob + liter + ate = to cause letters to be rubbed out: hence, to rub out, in general. 4. LIT'ERATURE: through Lat. n. _literatura_ = the collective body of literary works. 5. ILLIT'ERATE: il (for _in_, not) + liter + ate = of the nature of one who does not know his letters. EXERCISE. (1.) Define what is meant by a "_literal_ translation." (2.) Give a synonymous expression for a "literary man."--Compose a sentence containing the terms "literary society." (3.) Give a synonym of "obliterate" in its literal meaning. _Ans._ To _erase_.--If we should speak of _obliterating_ the memory of a wrong, would the word be used in its primary or its derivative sense? (4.) "When we speak of English "literature" what is meant?--Can you mention a great poem in Greek "literature"?--Compose a sentence containing the word "literature." (5.) Give a synonym of "illiterate." _Ans. Unlearned_.--What is the opposite of "illiterate"? _Ans. Learned_. 24. MORS, mortis, _death_. Radical: MORT-. 1. MOR'TAL: mort + a = relating to death. 2. MOR'TIFY: mort + ify = literally, to cause to die: hence, (1) to destroy vital functions; (2) to humble. 3. IMMOR'TALIZE: im (for _in_, not) + mort + al + ize = to make not subject to death: hence, to perpetuate. EXERCISE. (1.) What does Shakespeare mean by the expression to "shuffle off this _mortal_ coil"?--Combine and define mortal + ity.--What is the opposite of "mortal"?--Give a synonym. _Ans. Deathless_. (2.) State the two meanings of "mortify."--What noun is derived from this verb? _Ans. Mortification_.--When a surgeon speaks of "mortification" setting in, what does he mean?--What is meant by "mortification" when we say that the British felt great _mortification_ at the recapture of Stony Point by General Anthony Wayne? (3.) Compose a sentence containing the word "immortalize." MODEL: "Milton _immortalized_ his name by the production of Paradise Lost." 25. NOR'MA, _a rule_. Radical: NORM-. 1. NOR'MAL: norm + al = according to rule. 2. ENOR'MOUS: e + norm + ous = having the quality of being out of all rule: hence, excessive, huge. 3. ENOR'MITY: e + norm + ity = the state of being out of all rule: hence, an excessive degree--generally used in regard to bad qualities. 4. ABNOR'MAL: ab + norm + al = having the quality of being _away_ from the usual rule: hence, unnatural. EXERCISE. (1.) What is meant by the expression, "the _normal_ condition of things"?--"What is the meaning of the term a "_normal_ school"? _Ans._ It means a school whose methods of instruction are to serve as a model for imitation; a school for the education of teachers. (2.) Give a synonym of "enormous." _Ans. Immense_.--Give another.--"What is meant by "_enormous_ strength"? an "_enormous_ crime?"--Combine and define enormous + ly. (3.) Illustrate the meaning of the word "enormity" by a sentence. 26. OR'DO, or'dinis, _order_. Radical: ORDIN-. 1. OR'DINARY: ordin + ary = relating to the usual order of things. 2. EXTRAOR'DINARY: extra + ordin + ary = beyond ordinary. 3. INOR'DINATE: in + ordin + ate = having the quality of not being within the usual order of things: hence, excessive. 4. SUBOR'DINATE: sub + ordin + ate = having the quality of being under the usual order: hence, inferior, secondary. 5. OR'DINANCE: ordin + ance = that which is according to order: hence, a law. 6. INSUBORDINA'TION: in + sub + ordin + ate + ion = the state of not being under the usual order of things: hence, disobedience to lawful authority. EXERCISE. (1.) What is meant by "_ordinary_ language"? an "_ordinary_ man"? (2.) Combine and define extraordinary + ly.--Compose a sentence using the word "extraordinary."--Give a synonym of "extraordinary." _Ans. Unusual._ (3.) Explain what is meant by saying that General Charles Lee had "_inordinate_ vanity."--Is "inordinate" used with reference to praiseworthy things? (4.) What part of speech other than an adjective is "subordinate"?--What is meant by "a _subordinate_"?--What does "subordinate" mean in the sentence, "We must _subordinate_ our wishes to the rules of morality"?--Combine and define subordinate + ion. (5.) What does the expression "the _ordinances_ of the Common Council of the City of New York" mean? (6.) Compose a sentence containing the word "insubordination."--Give the opposite of "insubordination"? _Ans. Subordination, obedience._ 27. PARS, par'tis, _a part or share_. Radical: PART-. 1. PART: from part_is_ = a share. 2. PAR'TICLE: part + (_i_)cle = a small part. 3. PAR'TIAL: part + (_i_)al = relating to a part rather than the whole: hence, inclined to favor one party or person or thing. 4. PAR'TY: through Fr. n. _partie_: a set of persons (that is, a part of the people) engaged in some design. 5. PAR'TISAN: through Fr. n. _partisan_ = a party man. 6. DEPART': de + part = to take one's self away from one part to another. EXERCISE. (1.) What part of speech is "part" besides a noun?--Write a sentence containing this word as a noun; another as a verb. (2.) Point out the connection of meaning between "particle" and "particular." _Ans_. "Particular"' means taking note of the minute parts or _particles_ of a given subject. (3.) What is the negative of "partial"? _Ans. Impartial._--Define it. (4.) Explain what is meant by a "political _party_." (6.) Combine and define depart + ure. 28. PES, pe'dis, _a foot_. Radical: PED-. 1. PED'AL: ped + al = an instrument made to be moved by the foot. 2. BI'PED: bi + ped = a two-footed animal. 3. QUAD'RUPED: quadru + ped = a four-footed animal. (_Quadru_, from _quatuor_, four.) 4. PED'DLER: literally, a trader who travels on foot. 5. EXPEDITE': ex + ped + ite (_ite_, equivalent to _ate_) = literally, to free the feet from entanglement: hence, to hasten. 6. EXPEDI'TION: ex + ped + ite + ion = the act of expediting: hence, (1) the quality of being expeditious, promptness; (2) a sending forth for the execution of some object of importance. 7. IMPED'IMENT: through Lat. n. _impedimentum_; literally, something which _impedes_ or entangles the feet: hence, an obstacle, an obstruction. EXERCISE. (2.) Make up a sentence containing the word "biped." (3.) Make up a sentence containing the word "quadruped." (4.) What is the English verb from which "peddler" comes?--In what other way is "peddler" sometimes spelled? _Ans._ It is sometimes spelled with but one _d_--thus, _pedler_. (5.) "To expedite the growth of plants": what does that mean?--Give the opposite of "expedite." _Ans._ To _retard_. (6.) Point out the double sense of the word "expedition" in the following sentences: "With winged _expedition_, swift as lightning."--_Milton_. "The _expedition_ of Cortez miserably failed."--_Prescott._ (7.) Compose a sentence containing the word "impediment."--What is meant by "_impediment_ of speech"?--Is the word here used in its literal or its figurative sense? 29. RUM'PERE: rum'po, rup'tum, _to break_. Radical: RUPT-. 1. RUP'TURE: rupt + ure = the act of breaking with another; that is, a _breach_ of friendly relations. 2. ERUP'TION: e + rupt + ion = the act of breaking or bursting out. 3. ABRUPT': ab + rupt = broken off short: hence, having a sudden termination. 4. CORRUPT': cor (for _con_) + rupt = thoroughly broken up: hence, decomposed, depraved. 5. INTERRUPT': inter + rupt = to break in between: hence, to hinder. 6. BANK'RUPT: literally, one who is bank-broken, who cannot pay his debts, an insolvent debtor. EXERCISE. (1.) What other part of speech than a noun is "rupture"? _Ans._ A verb.--Compose one sentence using the word as a verb, the other as a noun.--What does the "_rupture_ of a blood vessel" mean? Is this the literal sense of the word?--The "_rupture_ of friendly relations" between Maine and Massachusetts: is this its literal or its figurative sense? (2.) Compose a sentence containing the word "eruption." (3.) Combine and define abrupt + ness; abrupt + ly.--When we speak of an "_abrupt_ manner," what is meant?--When we speak of an "_abrupt_ descent," what is meant? (4.) Explain what is meant by "corrupt principles"; a "_corrupt_ judge."--Combine and define corrupt + ion; corrupt + ible; in + corrupt + ible.--What other part of speech than an adjective is "corrupt"?--What part of speech is it in the sentence "evil communications _corrupt_ good manners"? 30. TEM'PUS, tem'poris, _time_. Radical: TEMPOR-. 1. TEM'PORAL: tempor + al = relating to time: hence, not everlasting. 2. TEM'PORARY: tempor + ary = lasting only for a brief time. 3. CONTEM'PORARY: con + tempor + ary = one who lives in the same time with another. 4. TEM'PERANCE: through Fr. n. _tempérance_; literal meaning, the state of being _well timed_ as to one's habits: hence, moderation. 5. EXTEMPORA'NEOUS: ex + temporane(us) + ous = produced at the time. 6. TEM'PORIZE: tempor + ize = to do as the times do: hence, to yield to the current of opinion. EXERCISE. (1.) Give the opposite of "temporal." _Ans. Eternal._ Illustrate these two words by a sentence from the Bible. _Ans._ "The things which are seen are _temporal_; but the things which are not seen are _eternal_." (2.) Give the opposite of "temporary." _Ans. Permanent._--What is meant by the "_temporary_ government of a city"?--Give a synonym of "temporary." _Ans. Transitory._--Would you say that man is a "_temporary_ being" or a "_transitory_ being"? (3.) Compose a sentence illustrating the use of the word "contemporary."--What adjective corresponds to this adjective? (4.) State the distinction between "temperance" and "abstinence."--Write a sentence showing the use of the two words. (5.) What is meant by an "_extemporaneous_ speech?" (6.) What is one who _temporizes_ sometimes called? _Ans_. A _time_-server. DIVISION II.--ABBREVIATED LATIN DERIVATIVES. NOTE--In Division II, the English derivatives from Latin roots are given in abbreviated form, and are arranged in paragraphs under the particular _radicals_, from which the several groups of derivatives are formed. The radicals are printed at the left in bold-face type--thus., ACR-, ACERB-, etc. Derivatives not obviously connected with the Latin roots are given in the last paragraph of each section. Pupils are required to unite the prefixes and suffixes with the radicals, thus forming the English derivatives, which may be given either orally or in writing. Only difficult definitions are appended: in the case of words not defined, pupils may be required to form the definition by reference to the signification of the radicals and the formative elements, thus, acr + id = acrid, being bitter, acr + id + ity = state of being bitter, bitterness. 1. A'CER, a'cris, _sharp_; Acer'bus, _bitter_; Ac'idus, _sour_; Ace'tum, _vinegar_. ACR: -id, -idity; ac'rimony (Lat. n. _acrimo'nia_, sharpness of temper); acrimo'nious. ACERB: -ity; exac'erbate, _to render bitter_; exacerba'tion. ACID: ac'id; -ify, -ity; acid'ulate (Lat. adj. _acid'ulus_, slightly sour); acid'ulous; subac'id, _slightly acid_. ACET: -ate, _a certain salt; _-ic, _pertaining to a certain acid; _-ify, -ification, -ose, -ous. 2. AE'DES, _a house_. ED: ed'ify; edifica'tion; ed'ifice (Lat. n. _edifi'cium_, a large building); e'dile (Lat. n. _aedi'lis_, a Roman magistrate who had charge of buildings). 3. Æ'QUUS, _equal_: Æqua'lis, _equal, just_. EQU: -able, -ation, -ator, -atorial, -ity, -itable; ad'equate (Lat. v. _adequa're_, _adequa'tum_, to make equal); inadequacy; inad'equate; iniq'uity (Lat. n. _iniq'uitas_, want of equal or just dealing); iniq'uitous. EQUAL: e'qual (n., v., adj.), -ity, -ize; co-e'qual; une'qual. 4. Æ'VUM, _an age_; Æter'nitas, _eternal_. EV: co-e'val; longevity (Lat. adj. _lon'gus_, long); prime'val (Lat. adj. _pri'mus_, first). ETERN: -al, -ity, -ize; co-eter'nal. 5. A'GER, a'gri, _a field, land_. AGRI: agra'rian (Lat. adj. _agrarius_, relating to land); agra'rianism; ag'riculture (Lat. n. _cultu'ra_, cultivation), agricult'ural, agricult'urist. Per'egrinate (Lat. v. _peregrina'ri_, to travel in foreign lands); peregrina'tion; pil'grim (Fr. n. _pélérin_, a wanderer); pil'grimage. AGERE, to do. (See p. 23.) 6. AL'ERE: a'lo, al'itum _or_ al'tum, _to nourish_; ALES'CERE: ales'co _to grow up_. AL: al'iment (Lat. n. _alimen'tum_, nourishment); alimen'tary; al'imony (Lat. n. _alimo'ma_, allowance made to a divorced wife for her support). ALIT: coali'tion (-ist). ALESC: coalesce' (-ence, -ent). ALIENUS. (See p. 25.) 7. AL'TER, _another_; Alter'nus, _one after another_. ALTER: al'ter, -ation, -ative (a medicine producing a change); unal'tered; alterca'tion (Lat. n. _alterca'tio_, a contention). ALTERN: -ate, -ation, -ative; subal'tern, _a subordinate officer_. AMARE; AMICUS. (See p. 25.) ANIMUS; ANIMA. (See p. 26.) ANNUS. (See p. 27.) 8. ANTI'QUUS, _old, ancient_. ANTIQU: -ary, -arian, -ated, -ity; antique' (Fr. adj. _antique_), _old, ancient_. 9. AP'TUS, _fit, suitable_. APT: apt, -itude, -ly, -ness; adapt' (-able, -ation, -or). 10. A'QUA, _water_. AQUE: -duct (_du'cere_, to lead); a'queous; suba'queous; terra'queous (Lat. n. _terra_, land); aquat'ic (Lat. adj. _aquat'icus_, relating to water); aqua'rium (Lat. n. _aqua'rium_, a reservoir of water), _a tank for water-plants and animals_. 11. AR'BITER, ar'bitri, _a judge or umpire_. ARBITER: ar'biter, _a judge or umpire_. ARBITR: -ary, -ate, -ation, -ator; arbit'rament (Lat. n. _arbitramen'tum_, decision). 12. AR'BOR, ar'boris, _a tree_. ARBOR: ar'bor, _a lattice-work covered with vines, etc., a bower_; -et, _a little tree_; -ist, -escent, -(e)ous; arbore'tum, _a place where specimens of trees are cultivated_; arboricult'ure (-ist). 13. AR'MA, _arms, weapons_. ARM: arm (n. and v.); arms, _weapons_; -or, _defensive weapons_; ar'morer; ar'mory; armo'rial, _belonging to the escutcheon or coat of arms of a family_; ar'mistice (_sis'tere_, to cause to stand still); disarm'; unarmed'. Arma'da (Span, n.), _a naval warlike force_; ar'my (Fr. n _armée_); ar'mament (Lat. n. _armamen'ta_, utensils); armadil'lo (Span, n.), _an animal armed with a bony shell_. ARS. (See page 28.) 14. ARTIC'ULUS, _a little joint_. ARTICUL: -ate (v., to utter in distinctly _jointed_ syllables), -ate (adj. formed with joints), -ation; inartic'ulate; ar'ticle (Fr. n. _article_). 15. AS'PER, _rough_. ASPER: -ate, -ity; exas'perate; exas'peration. AUDIRE. (See page 29.) 16. AUGE'RE: au'geo, auc'tum, _to increase_. AUG: augment' (v.); augmentation. AUCT: -ion, _a sale in which the price is increased by bidders_; -ioneer. Author (Lat. n. _auc'tor_, one who increases knowledge); author'ity; au'thorize; auxil'iary (Lat. n. _auxil'ium_, help). 17. A'VIS, _a bird_; Au'gur, Aus'pex, aus'picis, _a soothsayer_. AUGUR: au'gur (n.), _one who foretells future events by observing the_ _flight of birds_, (v.) _to foretell_; au'gury, _an omen_; inau'gurate, _to invest with an office by solemn rites_; inaugura'tion; inau'gural. AUSPICI: -ous, _favorable_; inauspi'cious; aus'pices. 18. BAR'BARUS, _savage, uncivilized_. BARBAR: -ian (n. and adj.), -ic, -ism, -ity, -ize, -ous. 19. BIS, _twice or two_. BI: bi'ennial (Lat. n. _an'nus_, a year); big'amy (Greek n. _gamos_, marriage); bil'lion (Lat. n. _mil'lio_, a million; literally, twice a million); bipar'tite (Lat. n. _pars, par'tis_, a part); bi'ped (Lat. n. _pes, pe'dis_, foot); bis'cuit (Fr. v. _cuit_, cooked); bisect' (Lat. v. _sec'tum_, cut); bi'valve (Lat. n. _val'væ_, folding-doors); bi'nary (Lat. adj. _bi'ni_, two by two); binoc'ular (Lat. n. _oc'ulus_, the eye); combine'; combina'tion. 20. BO'NIS, _good_; Be'ne, _well_. BONUS: bonus (something to the _good_ of a person in addition to compensation), bounty (Fr. n. _bonté_, kindness); boun'teous; boun'tiful. BENE: ben'efice (Lat. v. _fac'ere, fac'tum_, to do), literally, _a benefit, an ecclesiastical living_; benef'icence; benef'icent; benefi'cial; ben'efit; benefac'tion; benefac'tor; benedic'tion (Lat. v. _dic'ere, dic'tum_, to say); benev'olence (Lat. v. _vel'le_, to will). EXERCISE. _In this and the following exercises, tell the roots of the words printed in italic_: The _equator_ divides the globe into two _equal_ parts. Good _agriculturists_ read _agricultural_ papers. In the _primeval_ ages the _longevity_ of man was very great. The _pilgrims_ have gone on a _pilgrimage_ to the Holy Land. The _subaltern_ had no _alternative_ but to obey. To remove the stain a powerful _acid_ must be used. The _alimony_ which had hitherto been allowed was no longer considered _adequate_. The discourse, though learned, was not _edifying_. God is an _eternal_ and unchangeable being. The handsome _edifice_ was burned to the ground. The plants and animals in the _aquarium_ were brought from abroad. Though the style is _antiquated_, it is not inelegant. The _arbitrary_ proceedings of the British Parliament _exasperated_ the Americans. God is the _bountiful_ Giver of all good. The President made a short _inaugural_ address. By _combined_ effort success is sure. One of Scott's novels is called The _Antiquary_. It is _barbarous_ needlessly to destroy life. George Peabody was noted for his _benevolence_. The Romans were famous for their great _aqueducts_. 21. CAD'ERE: ca'do, ca'sum, _to fall_. CAD: -ence, _a falling of the voice_; cascade' (Fr. n.); deca'dence. CIDE: ac'cident; coincide' (con + in); coin'cidence; decid'uous; in'cident; oc'cident, _the place of the falling or setting sun, the west_. CASE: case, _the state in which a thing happens or falls to be_; casual (Lat. n. _ca'sus_, a fall); cas'ualty; cas'uist, _one who studies cases of conscience_; cas'uistry; occa'sion. Chance (Fr. v. _choir_, to fall), _something that befalls without apparent cause_; decay (Fr. v. _déchoir_, to fall away). 22. CÆD'ERE: cæ'do, cæ'sum, _to cut, to kill_. CIDE: decide', _to cut off discussion, to determine_; frat'ricide, _the killing of a brother_ (Lat. n. _fra'ter_, a brother); hom'icide (_ho'mo_, a man); infan'ticide (_in'fans_, an infant); mat'ricide (_ma'ter_, a mother); par'ricide (_pa'ter_, a father); reg'icide (_rex, re'gis_, a king); su'icide (Lat. pro. _sui_, one's self). CISE: con-, ex-, pre-; concise'ness; decis'ion; deci'sive; excis'ion, incis'ion; inci'sor; precis'ion. 23. CAL'CULUS, _a pebble_. CALCUL: -able (literally, that may be counted by the help of pebbles anciently used in reckoning), -ate, -ation, -ator; incal'culable; miscal'culate. 24. CANDE'RE: can'deo, can'ditum, _to be white, to shine (literally, to burn, to glow)_; Can'didus, _white_. CAND: -id, _fair, sincere_; -or, _openness, sincerity_; incandes'cent. CAN'DID: -ate (in Rome aspirants for office wore _white_ robes). Cen'ser, _a vessel in which incense is burned_; in'cense (n.), _perfume given off by fire_; incense' (v.), _to inflame with anger_; incen'diary (Lat. n. _incen'dium_, a fire); can'dle (Lat. _cande'la_, a _white_ light made of wax); chand'ler (literally a maker or seller of candles); chandelier'; candel'abra. 25. CAN'ERE: ca'no, can'tum, _to sing_; Fr chanter, _to sing_. CANT: cant, _hypocritical sing-song speech_; canta'ta, _a poem set to music_; can'ticle; can'ticles, _the Song of Solomon_; can'to, _division of a poem_; discant'; incanta'tion, _enchantment_; recant', literally, _to sing back, to retract_. CHANT: chant; chant'er; chan'ticleer; chant'ry; enchant'. Ac'cent (Lat. _ad._ and _cantus_, a song), literally, _a modulation of the voice_; accentua'tion; precen'tor (Lat. v. _præcan'ere_, to sing before). 26. CAP'ERE: ca'pio, cap'tum, _to take_. CAP: -able, -ability; inca'pable. CIP: antic'ipate; eman'cipate (Lat. n. _ma'nus_, hand), literally, _to take away from the hand of an owner, to free_; incip'ient; munic'ipal (Lat. n. _municip'ium_, a free town; _mu'nia_, official duties, and _cap'ere_, to take); partic'ipate (Lat. n. _pars, par'tis_, a part); par'ticiple; prince (Lat. n. _prin'ceps_,--Lat. adj. _pri'mus_, first: hence, taking the _first_ place or lead); prin'cipal; prin'ciple; recip'ient; rec'ipe (imperative of _recip'ere_; literally, "take thou," being the first word of a medical prescription). CEIVE (Fr. root = cap- or cip-): conceive'; deceive'; perceive'; receive'. CAPT: -ive, -ivate, -ivity, -or, -ure. CEPT: accept' (-able, -ance, -ation); concep'tion; decep'tion; decep'tive; except' (-ion, -ionable); incep'tion; incep'tive; intercept'; pre'cept; precep'tor; recep'tacle; recep'tion; suscep'tible. CEIT (Fr. root = capt- or cept-): conceit'; deceit'; receipt'. Capa'cious (Lat. adj. _ca'pax_, _capa'cis_, able to hold: hence large); capac'itate; capac'ity; incapac'itate. CAPUT. (See page 30.) 27. CA'RO, carnis, _flesh_. CARN: -age, _slaughter_; -al, -ation, _the flesh-colored flower_; incar'nate; incarna'tion. Carne'lian (Lat. adj. _car'neus_, fleshy), _a flesh-colored stone_; car'nival (Lat. v. _vale_, farewell), _a festival preceding Lent_; carniv'orous (Lat. v. _vora're_, to eat); char'nel (Fr. adj. _charnel_, containing flesh). 28. CAU'SA, _a cause_. CAUS: -al, -ation, -ative; cause (Fr. n. _cause_), n. and v. Accuse' (Fr. v. _accuser_, to bring a charge against), -ative, -ation, -er; excuse' (Fr. v. _excuser_, to absolve); excus'able; rec'usant (Lat. v. _recusa're_, to refuse). 29. CAVE'RE: ca'veo, cautum, _to beware_. CAUT: -ion, -ious; incau'tious; precaution. Ca'veat (3d per. sing. present subjunctive = let him beware), _an intimation to stop proceedings_. 30. CA'VUS, _hollow_. CAV: -ity; concav'ity; ex'cavate. Cave (Fr. n. _cave_), literally, _a hollow, empty space_; con'cave (Lat. adj. _conca'vus_, arched); cav'il (Lat. n. _cavil'la_, a jest). 31. CED'ERE: ce'do, ces'sum, _to go, to yield_. CEDE: cede; accede'; antece'dent; concede'; precede'; recede'; secede'; unprecedented. CEED: ex-, pro-, sub- (suc-). CESS: -ation, -ion; ab'scess, _a collection of matter gone away, or collected in a cavity_; ac'cess; acces'sible; acces'sion; acces'sory; conces'sion; excess'; exces'sive; interces'sion; interces'sor; preces'sion; proc'ess; proces'sion; recess'; seces'sion; success' (-ful, -ion, -ive). 32. CENSE'RE: cen'seo, cen'sum, _to weigh, to estimate, to tax_. CENS: -or, -ure; censo'rious; cen'surable; recen'sion. Cen'sus (Lat. n. _census_, an estimate). 33. CEN'TRUM, _the middle point_. CENTR: -al, -ical; centrif'ugal (Lat. v. _fu'gere_, to flee); centrip'etal (Lat. v. _pet'ere_, to seek); concen'trate; concentra'tion; concen'tric; eccen'tric; eccentric'ity. Cen'ter or cen'tre (Fr. n. _centre_), n. and v.; cen'tered. 34. CEN'TUM, _a hundred_. CENT: cent; cent'age; cen'tenary (Lat. adj. _centena'rius_); centena'rian; centen'nial (Lat. n. _an'nus_, a year); cen'tigrade (Lat. n. _gra'dus_, a degree); cen'tipede (Lat. n. _pes_, _pe'dis_, the foot); cen'tuple (Lat. adj. _centu'plex_, hundredfold); centu'rion (Lat. n. _centu'rio_, a captain of a hundred); cent'ury (Lat. n. _centu'ria_, a hundred years); percent'age. 35. CER'NERE: cer'no, cre'tum, _to sift, to see, to judge_; Discrimen, discrim'inis, _distinction_. CERN: con-, de-, dis-; unconcern'; discern'er, discern'ible, discern'ment. CRET: decre'tal, _a book of decrees_; discre'tion; discre'tionary; excre'tion; se'cret; sec'retary. DISCRIMIN: -ate, -ation; indiscrim'inate. Decree' (Fr. n. _decret_); discreet' (Fr. adj. _discret_); discrete' (literally, sifted apart), _separate_. 36. CERTA'RE: cer'to, certa'tum, _to contend, to vie_. CERT: con'cert (n.); concert' (v.); disconcert'; preconcert'. 37. CIN'GERE: cin'go, cinc'tum, _to gird_. CINCT: cinct'ure; pre'cinct; succinct', literally, _girded or tucked up, compressed, concise_; succinct'ness. 38. CIR'CUS, _a circle_; cir'culus, _a little circle_. CIRC: cir'cus, _an open space for sports_; cir'clet. CIRCUL: -ar, -ate, -ation, -atory. Cir'cle (Fr. n. _cercle_); encir'cle; sem'icircle. 39. CITA'RE: ci'to, cita'tum, _to stir up, to rouse_. CITE: cite, _to summon or quote_; excite' (-able, -ability, -ment); incite' (-ment); recite' (-al); resus'citate (Lat. v. _suscita're_, to raise). CITAT: cita'tion; recita'tion; recitative', _a species of musical recitation_. CIVIS. (See p. 31.) 40. CLAMA'RE: cla'mo, clama'tum, _to cry out, to shout_; Clam'or, _a loud cry_. CLAIM: claim (v. and n., to demand; a demand), ac-, de-, dis-, ex-, pro-, re-; claim'ant; reclaim'a'ble. CLAMAT: acclama'tion; declama'tion; declam'atory; exclama'tion; exclam'atory; proclama'tion; reclama'tion. CLAMOR: clam'or (v. and n.), -er, -ous. EXERCISE. The _decay_ of the tree was caused by the _incisions_ which had _accidentally_ been made in the bark. The _captives_ will be set at liberty, but the _precise_ time of their _emancipation_ has not been fixed. The harbor is _capacious_, and can _receive_ vessels of the largest size. The merits of the _candidates_ were _discriminated_ with great _candor_. We were _enchanted_ with the _carnival_ at Rome. This _recitation_ is satisfactory. Have you ever seen a _centigrade_ thermometer? Nothing is so _successful_ as _success_. The number of _concentric circles_ in the trunk marked the age of the tree. No _censer_ round our altar beams. The heat being _excessive_, we took shelter in the _recesses_ of a _cave_. _Precision_ is the _principal_ quality of good writing. Franklin's father was a tallow _chandler_. Last _century_ there was great _carnage_ in America. _Infanticide_ is much practiced in China. The _proclamation_ was widely _circulated_. The president was _inaugurated_ on the 4th of March. The _census_ is taken every ten years. _Conceit_ is worse than _eccentricity_. Have you filed your _caveat_? 41. CLAU'DERE: clau'do, clau'sum, _to shut, to close_. CLUD: conclude'; exclude'; include'; preclude'; seclude'. CLUS: conclu'sion; conclu'sive; exclu'sion; exclu'sive; recluse'; seclu'sion. CLOSE: close (v., n., adj.); clos'et; close'ness; inclose' (-ure); enclose' (-ure). Clause (Fr. n. _clause_); clois'ter (old Fr. n. _cloistre_). 42. CLINA'RE: cli'no, clina'tum, _to bend_; Cli'vus, _a slope or hill_. CLINAT: inclina'tion. CLINE: de-, in-, re-. CLIV: accliv'ity; decliv'ity; procliv'ity. 43. COL'ERE: co'lo, cul'tum, _to till, to cultivate_ (_Low Lat._ Cultiva're, _to cultivate_). CULT: cult'ure (Lat. n. _cultu'ra_, a cultivation); ag'riculture (Lat. n. _a'ger_, a field); arboricult'ure (Lat. n. _ar'bor_, a tree); flor'iculture (Lat. n. _flos_, _flo'ris_, a flower); hor'ticulture (Lat. n. _hor'tus_, a garden); ausculta'tion (Lat. n. _ausculta'tio_, a listening; hence, a test of the lungs). CULTIV: -ate, -ation, -ator. Col'ony (Lat. n. _colo'nia_, a settlement); colo'nial; col'onist; col'onize. COR. (See page 32.) CORPUS. (See page 33.) CREDERE. (See page 35.) 44. CREA'RE: cre'o, crea'tum, _to create_. CREAT: -ion, -ive, -or, -ure; create' (pro-, re-). 45. CRES'CERE: cres'co, cre'tum, _to grow_. CRESC: cres'cent; excres'cence; decrease'; increase'. CRET: accre'tion; con'crete; concre'tion. Accrue' (Fr. n. _accrue_, increase); in'crement (Lat. n. _incremen'tum_, increase); recruit' (Fr. v. _recroitre_, _recru_, to grow again). 46. CRUX, cru'cis, _a cross_. CRUC: cru'cial (Fr. adj. _cruciale_, as if bringing to the cross: hence, severe); cru'cible (a chemist's melting-pot--Lat. n. _crucib'ulum_--marked in old times with a cross); cru'ciform (Lat. n. _for'ma_, a shape); cru'cify (Lat. v. _fig'ere_, _fix'um_, to fix); crucifix'ion; excru'ciating. Cross (Fr. n. _croix_); cro'sier (Fr. n. _crosier_); cruise (Dan. v. _kruisen_, to move crosswise or in a zigzag); crusade' (Fr. n. _croisade_, in the Middle Ages, an expedition to the Holy Land made under the banner of the cross); crusad'er. 47. CUBA'RE: cu'bo (_in compos, _cumbo__), cub'itum, _to lie down_. CUB: in'cubate; incuba'tion; in'cubator. CUMB: incum'bency; incum'bent; procum'bent; recum'bency; recum'bent; succumb' (sub-); superincum'bent. Cu'bit (Lat. n. _cub'itus_, the elbow, because it serves for leaning upon); in'cubus (Lat. n. _in'cubus_), the nightmare. 48. CU'RA, _care_. CUR: -able, -ate, -ative, -ator; ac'curate; ac'curacy; inac'curate; proc'urator. Cu'rious; prox'y (contracted from _proc'uracy_). _authority to act for another_; secure' (Lat. adj. _secu'rus_, from _se_ for _si'ne_, without, and _cu'ra_, care); secu'rity; insecure'; si'necure (Lat. prep. _si'ne_, without--an office without duties). CURRERE. (See page 36.) 49. DA'RE: do, da'tum, _to give_. DAT: date (originally the time at which a public document was given--_da'tum_); da'ta (Lat. plural of _da'tum_), _facts or truths given or admitted_; da'tive. DIT: addi'tion; condi'tion; ed'it (-ion, -or); perdi'tion; tradi'tion; extradi'tion. Add (Lat. v. _ad'dere_, to give or put to); adden'dum (pl. adden'da), _something to be added_. 50. DEBE'RE: de'beo, deb'itum, _to owe_. DEBT: debt; debt'or; indebt'ed; deb'it (n. and v.). 51. DE'CEM, _ten_; Dec'imus, _the tenth_. DECEM: Decem'ber (formerly the _tenth_ month); decem'virate (Lat. n. _vir_, a man), _a body of ten magistrates_; decen'nial (Lat. n. _an'nus_, a year). DECIM: dec'imal; dec'imate; duodec'imo (Lat. adj. _duodec'imus_, twelfth), _a book having twelve leaves to a sheet_. 52. DENS, den'tis, _a tooth_. DENT: dent, _to notch_; den'tal; den'tifrice (Lat. v. _frica're_, to rub); den'tist; denti'tion (Lat. n. _denti'tio_, a cutting of the teeth); eden'tate (Lat. adj. _edenta'tus_, toothless); indent'; indent'ure; tri'dent (Lat. adj. _tres_, three), _Neptune's three-pronged scepter_; dan'delion (Fr. _dent-de-lion_, the lion's tooth), _a plant_. 53. DE'US, _a God_; Divi'nus, _relating to God, divine_. DE: de'ify; de'ism; de'ist; deist'ical; de'ity. DIVIN: divine'; divina'tion (Lat. n. _divina'tio_, a foretelling the aid of the gods); divin'ity. 54. DIC'ERE: di'co, dio'tum, _to say_. DICT: dic'tate; dicta'tor; dictatorial; dic'tion; dic'tionary (Lat. n. _dictiona'rium_, a word-book); dic'tum (pl. dic'ta), _positive opinion_; addict' (Lat. v. _addic'ere_, to devote); benedic'tion (Lat. adv. _be'ne_, well); contradict'; e'dict; indict' (Lat. v. _indic'ere_, to proclaim), _to charge with a crime_; indict'ment; in'terdict; jurid'ic (Lat. n. _jus_, _ju'ris_, justice), _relating to the distribution of justice_; maledic'tion (Lat. adv. _ma'le_, ill); predict'; predic'tion; valedic'tory (Lat. v. _va'le_, farewell); ver'dict (Lat. adj. _ve'rus_, true). Dit'to, _n_. (Ital. n. _det'to_, a word), _the aforesaid thing_; indite' (Lat. v. _indic'ere_, to dictate), _to compose_. 55. DI'ES, _a day_; _French_ jour, _a day_. DIES: di'al; di'ary; di'et; diur'nal (Lat. adj. _diur'nus_, daily); merid'ian (Lat. n. _merid'ies_ = _me'dius di'es_, midday); merid'ional; quotid'ian (Lat. adj. _quotidia'nus_, daily). JOUR: jour'nal; jour'nalist; jour'ney; adjourn'; adjourn'ment; so'journ; so'journer. DIGNUS (See page 37.) 56. DIVID'ERE: div'ido, divi'sum, _to divide, to separate_. DIVID: divide'; div'idend; subdivide'; individ'ual, literally, _one not to be divided, a single person_. DIVIS: -ible, -ibility, -ion, -or. Device' (Fr. n. _devis_, something imagined or devised); devise' (Fr. v. _deviser_, to form a plan). DOCERE. (See page 38.) 57. DOLE'RE: do'leo, doli'tum, _to grieve_. Dole'ful; do'lor; dol'orous; condole'; condo'lence; in'dolent (literally, not grieving or caring), _lazy_. DOMINUS. (See page 38.) 58. DU'CERE: du'co, duc'tum, _to lead, to bring forward_. DUC: adduce'; conduce'; condu'cive; deduce'; educe'; ed'ucate; educa'tion; induce'; induce'ment; introduce'; produce'; reduce'; redu'cible; seduce'; superinduce'; traduce'; tradu'cer. DUCT: abduc'tion; duc'tile (-ity); conduct' (-or); deduct' (-ion, -ive); induct' (-ion, -ive); introduc'tion; introduc'tory; prod'uct (-ion, -ive); reduc'tion; seduc'tion; seduc'tive; aq'ueduct (Lat. n. _a'qua_, water); vi'aduct (Lat. n. _vi'a_, a road); con'duit (Fr. n. _conduit_), a channel for conveying water. 59. DU'O, _two_. DU: du'al; du'el (-ist); duet'; du'plicate (Lat. v. _plica're_, to fold); dupli'city (Lat. n. _duplic'itas_, double dealing). Dubi'ety (Lat. n. _dubi'etas_, uncertainty); du'bious (Lat. adj. _du'bius_, uncertain); indu'bitable (Lat. v. _dubita're_, to doubt); doub'le (Fr. adj. _double_, twofold); doubt (Fr. n. _doubt_), -ful, -less; undoubt'ed. 60. DU'RUS, _hard, lasting_; DURA'RE: du'ro, dura'tum, _to last_. DUR: -able, -ableness, -ability, -ance, _state of being held hard and fast_; duresse, _hardship, constraint_; endure' (-ance); ob'duracy. DURAT: dura'tion; in'durate, _to grow hard_; indura'tion; ob'duracy. EXERCISE. When the speech, was _concluded_ loud acclamation _arose_. In many parts of the _colony_ much of the waste land has been _reclaimed_, and _agricultural_ operations now _receive_ the due attention of the _colonists_. The patient declined to undergo _auscultation_. Fishing is a healthful _recreation_. Many of the _crusaders_ were inspired with great courage. _Security_ was offered, but it was not _accepted_. The _incumbent_ could not stand the _crucial_ test, and hence _succumbed_. A _curious excrescence_ was cut from the tree. To Neptune with his _trident_ the Greeks ascribed _divine_ power. A French _journalist_ has been _indicted_. The _valedictory_ was pronounced in _December_. What is the difference between _addition_ and _division_? We may easily _predict_ the ruin of an _indolent debtor_. How many _maledictions_ are heaped on _dentists_! The _reduction_ of the public _debt_ is desirable. The prisoner was _doleful_ because he was in _duresse_ vile. An educated man is known by his _accurate_ use of language. The _dandelion_ is a _productive_ plant. The _pilgrims received_ the priest's _benediction_ before setting out on their _journey_. The _decimal_ system _conduces_ to the saving of time. 61. EM'ERE: E'MO, EMP'TUM, to buy or take. EMPT: exempt' (-ion); per'emptory (Lat. adj. _perempto'rius_, wholly taken away), _decisive_, _final_; pre-empt'; pre-emp'tion, _the right of buying before others_; redemp'tion. Redeem' (Lat. v. _redim'ere_, to buy back); redeem'er; prompt (Lat. adj. _promp'tus_ = _pro-emp'tus_, taken out; hence, ready); prompt'er; prompt'itude; prompt'ness; impromp'tu (Lat. _in promp'tu_, in readiness). 62. ERRA'RE: er'ro, erra'tum, _to wander_. ERR: err, -ant, -antry; er'ror (Lat. n. _er'ror_); erro'neous (Lat. adj. _erro'neus_, erring). ERRAT: errat'ic; erra'tum (pl. er'rata), _a mistake in printing_; aberra'tion. 63. ES'SE, _to be_; en, en'tis, _being_. ENT: ab'sent (-ee); ab'sence; en'tity; nonen'tity; omnipres'ent (Lat. adj. _om'nis_, all); pres'ent (-ation, -ly); represent' (-ation, -ative); misrepresent'. Es'sence (Lat. n. _essen'tia_, being); essen'tial; quintes'sence (Lat. adj. _quin'tus_, fifth), _the highest essence; in'terest_ (3d pers. sing. pres. indic. of _interes'se_ = it interests or is of interest); disin'terested. 64. FA'CERE: fa'cio, fac'tum, _to do or make_; _French_ Faire. FAC: face'tious (Lat. adj. _face'tus_, merry); fac'ile (Lat. adj. _fa'cilis_, easily done); facil'ity; facil'itate; fac'ulty (Lat. n. _facul'tas_, power, ability); fac-sim'ile (Lat. adj. _sim'ilis_, like), literally, _make like_, _an exact copy_; facto'tum (Lat. adj. _to'tum_, the whole; literally, do the whole), _a servant of all work_. FIC: ben'efice (see _bene_); def'icit (literally, it is wanting), _a lack_; defi'ciency; defi'cient; dif'ficult (Lat. adj. _diffic'ilis_, arduous); ef'ficacy (Lat. adj. _ef'ficax_, _effica'cis_, powerful); effi'cient, _causing effects_; of'fice (Lat. n. _offic'ium_, a duty); of'ficer; offi'cial; offi'cious; profi'cient; suffice', literally, _to make up what is wanting_; suffi'cient. FACT: fact; fac'tor; fac'tion, _a party acting in opposition_; fac'tious; facti'tious (Lat. adj. _facti'tius_, artificial); benefac'tor; manufacture (Lat. n. _ma'nus_, the hand). FECT: affect' (-ation, -ion); disaffec'tion; confec'tion, literally, _made_ _with sugar_ (-er); defect' (-ion, -ive); effect' (-ive); effect'ual; infect' (-ion); infec'tious; per'fect, literally, _thoroughly made_ (-ion); imper'fect (-ion); refec'tion; refec'tory. FAIRE (past participle _fait_): fash'ion (Fr. n. _façon_, the make or form of a thing); fea'sible (Old Fr. _faisible_, that may be done); feat; affair'; coun'terfeit, literally, _to make again_, _to imitate_; for'feit, (Fr. v. _forfaire_, to misdo), _to lose by some fault_; sur'feit, v., _to overdo in the way of eating_. 65. FAL'LERE: fal'lo, fal'sum, _to deceive_; _French_ Faillir, _to fall short or do amiss_. FALL: fal'lacy; falla'cious; fal'lible; fallibil'ity; infal'lible. FALS: false (-hood, -ify); falset'to (Ital. n. = a false or artificial voice). FAIL: fail'ure; fault (Old Fr. n. _faulte_); fault'y; fal'ter; default' (-er). 66. FA'NUM, _a temple_. FAN: fane; fanat'ic (Lat. adj. _fanat'icus_, literally, one inspired by divinity--the god of the fane), _a wild enthusiast_; fanat'ical; fanat'icism; profane', v. (literally, to be before or outside of the temple), _to desecrate_; profane', adj., _unholy_; profana'tion; profan'ity. 67. FA'RI, fa'tus, _to speak_. FAT: fate, -al, -ality, -alism, -alist; pref'atory. Affable (Lat. adj. _affab'ilis_, easy to be spoken to); affabil'ity; inef'fable; in'fant (Lat. participle, _in'fans_, _infan'tis_, literally, not speaking) (-ile, -ine); in'fancy; nefa'rious (Lat. adj. _nefa'rius_, impious); pref'ace (Fr. n. _préface_), _something spoken or written by way of introduction_. 68. FATE'RI: fa'teor, fas'sus (_in comp._ fes'sus), _to acknowledge, to show_. FESS: confess' (-ion, -ional, -or); profess' (-ion, -ional, -or). 69. FELIX, feli'cis, _happy_. FELIC: -ity, -itous; infeli'city; feli'citate, _to make happy by congratulation._ 70. FEN'DERE: fen'do, fen'sum, _to keep off, to strike_.[6] FEND: fend (-er); defend' (-er, -ant); offend' (-er). FENS: defense' (-ible, -ive); offense' (-ive); fence (n. and v., abbreviated from defence);[7] fencer; fencing. 71. FER'RE: fe'ro, la'tum, _to bear, to carry_. FER: fer'tile (Lat. adj. _fer'tilis_, bearing, fruitful); fertil'ity; fer'tilize; circum'ference, literally, _a measure carried around anything_; confer', _to consult_; con'ference; defer'; def'erence; deferen'tial; dif'fer (-ence, -ent); infer' (-ence); of'fer; prefer' (-able, -ence, -ment); prof'fer; refer' (-ee, -ence); suf'fer (-ance, -able, -er); transfer' (-able, -ence); conif'erous (Lat. n. _co'nus_, a cone); florif'erous (Lat. n. _flos_, _flo'ris_, a flower); fructif'erous (Lat. n. _fruc'tus_, fruit); Lu'cifer (Lat. n. _lux_, _lucis_, light), _the morning or evening star, Satan_; pestif'erous (Lat. n. _pes'tis_, pest, plague). LAT: ab'lative (literally, carrying away; the sixth case of Latin nouns); collate' (-ion); dilate' (-ory); elate'; ob'late, _flattened at the poles_; obla'tion, _an offering_; prel'ate; prel'acy; pro'late, _elongated at the poles_; relate' (-ion, -ive); correla'tion; correl'ative; super'lative; translate' (-ion); delay' (= dis + lat, through old Fr. verb _delayer_, to put off). 72. FERVE'RE: fer'veo, _to boil_; Fermen'tum, _leaven_. FERV: -ent, -ency, -id, -or; effervesce', _to bubble or froth up_; efferves'cence. FERMENT: fer'ment, -ation. 73. FES'TUS, _joyful, merry_. FEST: -al, -ival, -ive, -ivity; feast (Old Fr. _feste_, a joyous meal); fête (modern Fr. equivalent of _feast_), _a festival_; festoon (Fr. n. _feston_, originally an ornament for a festival). 74. FID'ERE: fi'do, _to trust_; Fi'des, _faith_; Fide'lis, _trusty_. FID: confide' (-ant, -ence, -ent, -ential); dif'fidence; dif'fident; per'fidy (per = through and hence _away from_ good faith); perfid'ious. FIDEL: fidel'ity; in'fidel; infidel'ity. Fe'alty (Old Fr. n. _féalté_ = Lat. _fidel'itas_), _loy'alty_; fidu'cial (Lat. n. _fidu'cia_, trust); fidu'ciary; affi'ance, _to pledge faith_, _to betroth_; affida'vit (Low Lat., signifying, literally, he made oath), _a declaration on oath_; defy' (Fr. v. _défier_, originally, to dissolve the bond of allegiance; hence, to disown, to challenge, to brave). 75. FI'GERE: fi'go, fix'um, _to join, fix, pierce_. FIX: affix'; cru'cifix (Lat. n. _crux_, _cru'cis_, a cross); cru'cify; fix'ture; post'fix; pre'fix; suf'fix (n., literally, something fixed below or on; hence, appended); transfix', _to pierce through_. 76. FIN'GERE: fin'go, fic'tum, _to form, to feign_; Figu'ra, _a shape_. FICT: fic'tion; ficti'tious. FIGUR: fig'ure; figura'tion; configura'tion; disfig'ure; prefig'ure; transfig'ure. Feign (Fr. v. _feindre_, _feignant_, to pretend); feint (_feint_, past part. of _feindre_); ef'figy (Lat. n. _effig'ies_, an image or likeness); fig'ment (Lat. n. _figmen'tum_, an invention). FINIS. (See page 40). 77. FIR'MUS, _strong, stable_. FIRM: firm; firm'ness; infirm' (-ary, -ity); fir'mament, originally, _firm foundation_; affirm' (-ation, -ative); confirm' (-ation, -ative). 78. FLAM'MA, _a stream of fire_. FLAM: flame; inflame' (-able, -ation, -atory). Flambeau' (Fr. n. _flambeau_ from v. _flamber_, to blaze); flamin'go (Span. n. _flamenco_), _a bird of a flaming red color_. EXERCISE. Age does not always _exempt_ one from _faults_. _Peremptory _orders were given that all the princes should be _present_ at the _diet_. Many _beneficial_ results must come from the _introduction_ of drawing into the public schools. The lady is _affable_ and _perfectly_ free from _affectation_. The field is _fertile_ and _produces_ abundant crops. The _professor's_ lecture _related_ to _edentate_ animals. Men sometimes _feign_ a _fealty_ they do not feel. The lady _professed_ that her _felicity_ was ineffable. The King seized a _flambeau_ with zeal to destroy. It is a _nefarious_ act to make a _false affidavit_. _Fanaticism_ is often _infectious_. The _confirmed offender_ had issued many _counterfeits_. Dickens gives us the _quintessence_ of the _facetious_. In _figure_ the earth is an _oblate_ spheroid. 79. FLEC'TERE: flec'to, flex'um, _to bend_. FLECT: deflect' (-ion); inflect' (-ion); reflect' (-ion, -ive, -or). FLEX: -ible, -ile, -ion, -or (a muscle that bends a joint), -ure; flex'-uous; flex'uose; cir'cumflex; re'flex. 80. FLOS, flo'ris, _a flower_. FLOR: -al, -et, -id, -ist; Flo'ra, _the goddess of flowers_; flor'iculture (Lat. n. _cultu'ra_, cultivation); florif'erous (Lat. v. _fer're_, to bear); flor'in (originally, a Florentine coin with a lily on it); flour (literally, the _flower_ or choicest part of wheat); flow'er (-et, -y); flour'ish (Lat. v. _flores'cere_, to begin to blossom, to prosper); efflores'cence; efflores'cent. FLUERE. (See page 41.) 81. FŒ'DUS, fœd'eris, _a league or treaty_. FEDER: fed'eral; fed'eralist (in the United States a member of the party that favored a strong league of the States); fed'erate; confed'erate; confed'eracy; confedera'tion. 82. FO'LIUM, _a leaf_. FOLI: -aceous, -age, -ate; fo'lio (ablative case of _fo'lium_, a leaf), _a book made of sheets folded once_; exfo'liate, _to come off in scales_; foil, _a thin leaf of metal_; tre'foil, _a plant with three (tres) leaves_; cinque'foil (Fr. _cinque_, five). 83. FOR'MA, _shape, form_. FORM: form (-al, -ality); conform' (-able, -ation, -ity); deform' (-ity); inform' (-ant, -er, -ation); perform' (-ance, -er); reform' (-ation, -atory, -er); transform' (-ation); for'mula (Lat. n. _for'mula_, pl. _for'mulæ_, a little form, a model); for'mulate; mul'tiform (Lat. adj. _mul'tus_, many); u'niform (Lat. adj. _u'nus_, one). 84. FOR'TIS, _strong_. FORT: fort; for'tress, _a fortified place_; for'tify; fortifica'tion; for'titude; com'fort, n., _something that strengthens or cheers_ (-able, -er, -less); discom'fort; effort, _a putting forth of one's strength_; force (Fr. n. _force_, strength); for'cible; enforce' (-ment); reinforce' (-ment). 85. FRAN'GERE: fran'go, frac'tum, _to break_; Fra'gilis, _easily broken_. FRANG, FRING: fran'gible (-ibility); infran'gible; infringe' (-ment); refran'gible. FRACT: frac'tion; frac'tious; fract'ure; infract' (-ion); refract' (-ion, -ory). Fra'gile; frag'ment; frail (old Fr. ad; _fraile_ = Lat. _fra'gilis_); frail'ty. 86. FRA'TER, fra'tris, _a brother_; Frater'nus, _brotherly_. FRATR: frat'ricide (Lat. v. _cæd'ere_, to kill). FRATERN: -al, -ity, -ize; confrater'nity. Fri'ar (Fr. n. _frère_, a brother); fri'ary. 87. FRONS, fron'tis, _the forehead_. FRONT: front (-age, -al, -less, -let); affront'; confront'; effront'ery; fron'tier (Fr. n. _frontière_); front'ispiece (Lat. n. _frontispi'cium_, from _frons_ and _spic'ere_, to view; literally, that which is seen in front). 88 FRU'OR: fruc'tus, _to enjoy_; Fru'ges, _corn_; French Fruit, _fruit_. FRUCT: -ify, -ification; fructif'erous (Lat. v. _fer're_, to bear). FRUG: -al, -ality; frugif'erous (Lat. v. _fer're_, to bear). FRUIT: fruit; fruit'erer; fruit'ful; frui'tion. 89. FU'GERE: fu'gio, fu'gitum, _to flee_. FUG: fuga'cious; centrif'ugal (Lat. n. _cen'trum_, the center); feb'rifuge (Lat. n. _fe'bris_, fever); fugue (Lat. n. _fu'ga_, a flight), _a musical composition_; ref'uge (-ee); sub'terfuge; ver'mifuge (Lat. n. _ver'mis_, a worm). FUGIT: fu'gitive (adj. and n.). 90. FU'MUS, _smoke_. FUM: fume; fu'mid; fumif'erous (Lat. v. _fer're_, to bear), _producing smoke_; fu'matory, _a plant with bitter leaves_; per'fume (-er, -ery). Fu'migate (Lat. v. _fumiga're_, _fumiga'tum_, to smoke), _to disinfect_; fumiga'tion; fu'migatory. 91. FUN'DERE: fun'do, fu'sum, _to pour_. FUND: refund'; found (Fr. v. _fondre_ = Lat. _fun'dere_), _to form by pouring into a mould_ (-er, -ery); confound' (Fr. v. _confondre_, literally, to pour together; hence, to confuse). FUS: fuse (-ible, -ion); confuse' (-ion); diffuse' (-ion, -ive); effuse' (-ion, -ive); infuse' (-ion); profuse' (-ion); refuse' (-al); suffuse' (-ion); transfuse' (-ion). 92. GER'ERE: ge'ro, ges'tum, _to bear or carry_. GER: ger'und, _a Latin verbal noun_; bellig'erent (Lat. n. _bel'lum_, war); con'geries (Lat. n. _conge'ries_, a collection); vicege'rent (Lat. _vi'ce_, in place of), _one bearing rule in place of another_. GEST: gest'ure; gestic'ulate (Lat. n. _gestic'ulus_, a mimic gesture); gesticula'tion; congest' (-ion, -ive); digest', literally, _to carry apart_: hence, _to dissolve food in the stomach_ (-ible, -ion, -ive); suggest', literally, _to bear into the mind from below_, that is, _indirectly_ (-ion, -ive); reg'ister (Lat. v. _reger'ere_, to carry back, to record); reg'istrar; registra'tion; reg'istry. 93. GIG'NERE: gig'no, gen'itum, _to beget_; Gens, gen'tis, _a clan or nation_, Ge'nus, gen'eris, _a kind_. GENIT: gen'itive, _a case of Latin nouns_; congen'ital, _born with one_; primogen'itor (Lat. adj. _pri'mus_, first), _an ancestor_; primogen'iture, _ state of being first born_; progen'itor, _an ancestor_. GENT: genteel' (Lat. adj. _genti'lis_, pertaining to the same clan; hence, of good family or birth); gentil'ity; gen'tle (_genti'lis_, of good birth), _mild, refined_; gen'try (contracted from gentlery), _a class in English society_; gen'tile, _belonging to a nation other than the Jewish_. GENER: gen'eral (-ity, -ize); gen'erate (Lat. _genera're, genera'tum_, to produce); genera'tion; regenera'tion; gener'ic; gen'erous; generos'ity; con'gener, _of the same kind_; degen'erate, _to fall off from the original kind_; degen'eracy. Gen'der (Fr. n. _genre_ = Lat. _ge'nus, gen'eris_), _the kind of a noun as regards the sex of the object_; gen'ial (Lat. adj. _genia'lis_, cheerful); gen'ius (Lat. n. _ge'nius_, originally, the divine nature innate in everything); gen'uine (Lat. adj. _genui'nus_, literally, proceeding from the original stock; hence, natural, true); ge'nus, a kind including many species; engen'der (Fr. v. _engendrer_, to beget); ingen'ious (Lat. adj. _ingenio'sus_, acute, clever); ingen'uous (Lat. adj. _ingen'uus_, frank, sincere). 94. GRA'DI: gra'dior, gres'sus, _to walk_. GRAD: grada'tion; gra'dient (_gra'diens, gradien'tis_, pres. part. of v. _gradi_), _rate of ascent, grade_; grad'ual (Lat. n. _gradus_, a step); grad'uate; degrade' (-ation); ingre'dient (Lat. part. _ingre'diens_, entering); ret'rograde. GRESS: aggres'sion; aggres'sive; con'gress (-ional); digress' (-ion); e'gress; in'gress; prog'ress (-ion, -ive); retrogres'sion; transgress' (-ion, -or). Grade (Fr. n. _grade_ = Lat. _gra'dus_, degree or rank); degree' (Fr. n. _degré_ = _de_ + _gradus_). 95. GRA'TUS, thankful, _pleasing_. GRAT: grate'ful; gra'tis (Lat. _gra'tiis_, by favor, for nothing) grat'itude; gratu'ity; gratu'itous; grat'ify (-ication); congrat'ulate (-ion, -ory); ingra'tiate. Grace (Fr. _grâce_ = Lat. _gra'tia_, favor, grace); grace'ful; gra'cious; grace'less; disgrace'; agree' (Fr. v. _agréer_, to receive kindly), -able, -ment; disagree'. 96. GRA'VIS, _heavy_. GRAV: _grave_, literally, _heavy_: hence, _serious_; grav'ity; gravita'tion; ag'gravate (-ion). Grief (Fr. _grief_ = Lat. _gra'vis_), literally, _heaviness of spirit, sorrow_; grieve; griev'ance; griev'ous. GREX. (See page 41.) 97. HABE'RE: ha'beo, hab'itum, _to have or hold_; HABITA'RE, hab'ito, habita'tum, _to use frequently, to dwell_. HABIT: habit'ual; habit'uate; hab'itude; hab'itable; hab'itat, _the natural abode of an animal or a plant_; habita'tion; cohab'it; inhab'it (-able, -ant). HIBIT: exhib'it, literally, _to hold out, to show_ (-ion, -or); inhib'it (-ion); prohib'it (-ion, -ory). Hab'it (Lat. _hab'itus_, state or dress); habil'iment (Fr. n. _habillement_, from v. _habiller_, to dress); a'ble (Lat. adj. _hab'ilis_, literally, that may be easily held or managed; hence, apt, skillful.) 98. HÆRE'RE: hæ'reo, hæ'sum, _to stick_. HER: adhere' (-ency, -ent); cohere' (-ence, -ency, -ent); inhere (-ent). HES: adhe'sion; adhe'sive; cohe'sion; cohe'sive. Hes'itate (Lat. v. _hæsita're, hæsita'ium, _to be at a stand, to doubt); hes'itancy; hesita'tion. 99. HÆRES, hære'dis, _an heir or heiress_; French Hériter, _to be heir to_. HERED: hered'itary, _descending to heirs_. HERIT: her'itable; her'itage; inher'it (-ance); disinher'it. Heir (Old Fr. _heir_ = Lat. _hæ'res_); heir'ess; heir'loom (Anglo-Saxon _geloma_, goods). 100. HO'MO, hom'inis, _a man_; Huma'nus, _human_. HOM: hom'age (Fr. _hommage_, literally, acknowledgment by a _man_ or vassal to his feudal lord); homicide (Lat. v. _cæd'ere_, to kill) HUMAN: hu'man, _belonging to a man_; humane', _having the feelings proper to a man, kind_; human'ity; hu'manize; inhu'man. EXERCISE. _Floral devices_ were tastefully _introduced_. The _friar_ gives himself to _reflection_, and does not care a _florin_ for worldly pleasures. The tree is covered with _foliage_, but bears no _fruit_. The rights of the _fraternity_ have been _infringed_. The metal was _fused_ in iron pans. By the law of _primogeniture_ the eldest son will _succeed_ to the estate. _Congress_ met, and a _general_ of the army was chosen president. The _gradient_ is _gentle_, and the _access_ easy. The _reform_ of the _refractory_ was in the highest _degree genuine_. We _received_ our _frugal_ meal with _gratitude_. Many of the _inhabitants_ perished in the _flames_. Hamilton and Jay were leading _federalists_. To err is _human_; to forgive, _divine_. The boy _gesticulated_ violently, but it was a mere _subterfuge_. Your words _infuse comfort_ into my heart. May one not be _human_ without being _humane_? Do you know the _difference_ between the _genitive_ and the _ablative case_? 101. HU'MUS, _the earth_; Hu'milis, _on the ground, lowly_. HUM: exhume' (-ation); inhume. HUMIL: humil'ity; humil'iate (-ion); hum'ble (Fr. adj. _humble_ = Lat. _hu'milis_). IRE. (See page 41.) 102. JA'CERE: ja'cio, jac'tum, _to throw or cast_. JECT: ab'ject; ad'jective; conject'ure (-al); deject'ed; dejec'tion; eject' (-ion, -ment); inject' (-ion); interject' (-ion); object' (-ion, -ionable, -ive, -or); project' (-ile, -ion, -or); reject' (-ion); subject' (-ion, -ive); traject'ory. Ejac'ulate (Lat. v. _ejacula're, ejacula'tum_, to hurl or throw); ejacula'tion; ejac'ulatory; jet (Fr. v. _jéter = ja'cere_); jet'ty; jut. 103. JUN'GERE: jun'go, junc'tum, _to join_; Ju'gum, _a yoke_. JUNCT: junc'tion; junct'ure, _a point of time made critical by a joining of circumstances_; ad'junct; conjunc'tion; conjunc'tive; disjunc'tion; disjunc'tive; injunc'tion; subjunc'tive (literally, joined subordinately to something else). JUG: con'jugal, _relating to marriage; _conjugate (-ion); sub'jugate (-ion). Join (Fr. v. _joindre_ = Lat. _jun'gere_); adjoin'; conjoin'; disjoin'; enjoin'; rejoin'; subjoin'; joint (Fr. part, _joint_ = Lat. _junc'tum_); joint'ure, _property settled on a wife_, _to be enjoyed after her husband's death_; jun'ta (Spanish _junta_ = Lat. _junc'tus_, joined), _a grand council of state in Spain; _jun'to (Span, _junt_), _a body of men united for some secret intrigue_. 104. JURA'RE: ju'ro, jura'tum, _to swear_. JUR: ju'ry; ju'ror; abjure'; adjure'; conjure'; con'jure, _to effect something as if by an oath of magic_; con'jurer; per'jure, _to forswear_; per'jurer; per'jury. 105. JUS, ju'ris, _right law_; Jus'tus, _lawful_; Ju'dex, ju'dicis, _a judge_. JUR: jurid'ical (Lat. v. _dica're_, to pronounce), _relating to the administration of justice_; jurisdic'tion, _legal authority_; jurispru'dence, _science of law_; ju'rist; in'jure; in'jury. JUST: just; jus'tice; justi'ciary; jus'tify; justifica'tion. JUDIC: ju'dicature, _profession of a judge_; judi'cious, _according to sound judgment_; prej'udice, n., _judgment formed beforehand_; prejudi'cial; judge (Fr. n. _juge_ = Lat. _ju'dex_); judg'ment; prejudge'. 106. LE'GERE: le'go, lec'tum, _to gather, to read_. LEG: le'gend (originally, stories of saints to be read--_legen'da_--in church); leg'endary; leg'ible; le'gion (originally, a body of troops _gathered_ or levied--_le'gio_); el'egance; el'egant; sac'rilege (originally, the gathering or stealing of something sacred--_sa'crum_). LIG: dil'igent (originally, esteeming highly; hence, assiduous): el'igible; intel'ligible; intel'ligence; intel'ligent; neg'ligent (literally, not--_neg_ = _nec_ = not--picking up). LECT: lect'ure (-er); collect' (-ion, -ive, -or); recollect' (-ion); eclec'tic (Greek _ec_ = _ex_); elect' (-ion, -or, -oral); in'tellect; neglect'; predilec'tion, _a liking for_; select' (-ion); les'son (Fr. n. _leçon_ = Lat. _lec'tio_, a reading). 107. LEVA'RE: le'vo, leva'tum, _to raise_; Le'vis, _easily raised, light_; _French_ Lever, _to rise or raise_. LEV: lev'ity; levita'tion; alle'viate (-ion); el'evate (-ion); rel'evant, literally, _raising up_: hence, _pertinent, applicable_; rel'evancy; irrel'evant. LEVER: leav'en (Fr. _levain_, yeast); Levant', literally, _the place of the rising sun--the countries near the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea_; lev'ee; le'ver (-age); lev'y. LEX. (See page 43.) 108. LI'BER, _free_. LIBER: -al, -ality, -alize, -ate, -ator, -ty. Deliv'er (Fr. v. _délivrer_ = Lat. _delibera're_, to set free); deliv'erance; deliv'ery. LITERA. (See page 43.) 109. LO'CUS: _a place_. LOC: -al, -ality, -alize, -ate; locomo'tive (Lat. v. _move're_, to move); al'locate; col'locate (-ion); dis'locate (-ion). 110. LO'QUI: lo'quor, locu'tus, _to speak_. LOQU: loqua'cious; loqua'city; col'loquy; collo'quial; el'oquent; magnil'oquent (Lat. adj. _mag'nus_, big, pompous); ob'loquy; solil'oquy (Lat. adj. _so'lus_, alone); ventril'oquist (Lat. n. _ven'ter_, the stomach). LOCUT: circumlocu'tion; elocu'tion; interloc'utor. 111. LU'DERE: lu'do, lu'sum, _to play or deceive_. LUD: lu'dicrous (Lat. adj. _lu'dicrus_, sportive, laughable); allude', literally, _to play at, to refer to indirectly_; delude'; elude'; prelude'. LUS: allu'sion; collu'sion; delu'sion; delu'sive; illu'sion; prelu'sive; prelu'sory. 112. LUX, lu'cis, _light_; Lu'men, lu'minis, _light_. LUC: Lu'cifer (Lat. v. _fer're_, to bear); lu'cid; elu'cidate; translu'cent. LUMIN: lu'minary; lu'minous; illu'minate; illu'mine. 113. MAG'NUS, _great_; Ma'jor, _greater_; Magis'ter, _master_. MAGN: magnanim'ity (Lat. n. _an'imus_, soul); mag'nate, _a man of rank_; mag'nify (-er); magnif'icent (Lat. v. _fac'ere_, to make), _showing grandeur_; mag'nitude. MAJ: maj'esty (-ic); ma'jor (-ity); may'or; may'oralty. MAGISTER: mag'istrate; mag'istracy; magiste'rial; mas'ter (Old Fr. _maistre_ = Lat. _magis'ter); _mis'tress (Old Fr. _maistresse_ = Lat _magis'tra_, fem. of _magis'ter_). 114. MA'NUS, _the hand_; _French_ Main, _the hand_. MAN: man'acle (Lat. n. _man'ica_, a fetter); manip'ulate, _to work with the hand_ (-ion, -or); man'ual; manufact'ure (Lat. v. _fac'ere_, to make); manufac'tory; manumit' (Lat. v. _mit'tere_, to send); man'uscript (Lat. v. _scrib'ere, scrip'tum_, to write); amanuen'sis (= _ab_ + _ma'nus), one who does handwriting for another_; eman'cipate (Lat. v. _cap'ere_, to take); quadru'manous (Lat. _quatuor_, four). MAIN: man'ner (Fr. n. _manière_, originally, the mode in which a thing is _handled_); maneu'ver (Fr. n. _manœuvre_, literally, hand work; Fr. n. _œuvre = o'pus_, work); manure', _v_. (contracted from Fr. _manœuvrer_, to cultivate by manual labor). 115. MA'RE, _the sea_. Marine' (Lat. adj. _mari'nus_, pertaining to the sea); mar'iner; mar'itime (Lat. adj. _mariti'mus_ = _mari'nus_); submarine'; transmarine'; ultramarine'; mermaid (Fr. n. _mer_ = Lat. _ma're_). 116. ME'DIUS, _the middle_. Mediæ'val (Lat. n. _æ'vum_, age), _relating to the Middle Ages_; me'diate (-ion, -or); me'diocre (Lat. adj. _medio'cris_, middling; hence inferior); medioc'rity; Mediterra'nean (Lat. n. _ter'ra_, land); me'dium (Lat. n. _me'dium_, the middle); imme'diate (prefix _in_ = not), _with nothing intervening_; interme'diate. 117. MENINIS'SE: mem'ini, _to remember_; Me'mor, _mindful_; MEMORA'RE mem'oro, memora'tum, _to remember, to mention_. MEMINISSE: memen'to (imper. mood; literally, _remember thou), a reminder, a memorial_. MEMOR: mem'orable; memoran'dum (Lat. _memoran'dus_, p. part. of _memora're_; literally, something to be remembered); commem'orate (-ion, -ive); mem'ory (Lat. n. _memo'ria_); memo'rial (-ize); immemo'rial. Mem'oir (Fr. n. _mémoire_ = Lat. _memoran'dum_); men'tion (Fr. n. _mention_ = Lat. _men'tio_, a speaking of); remem'ber (Old Fr. v. _remembrer = Lat. remem'orare_); remem'brance; remem'brancer; reminis'cence (Fr. n. _réminiscence_, from Lat. v. _reminis'ci_, to recall to mind). 118. MENS, men'tis, _the mind_. MENT: men'tal; dement'ed; demen'tia, _insanity_; ve'hement (Lat. adj. _ve'hemens = ve_, not, and _mens_; literally, not reasonable), _furious, ardent_. EXERCISE. We _reject_ insincere _homage_. When the body was _exhumed_ the _jury decided_ that poison had been administered. _Legendary_ stories were _related_ by the _friar_. The _lessons_ were _selected_ with _intelligence. Levity_ and _gravity_ are _different_ qualities. The _mayor's_ speech was more _ludicrous_ than _facetious_. The _magistrate_ claimed _jurisdiction_ in the _locality_. We heard Hamlet's _soliloquy_ finely _delivered_. Do you _recollect_ the _magnificent_ lines at the beginning of "Paradise Lost"? The _lecturer_ was _lucid_ in his _allusions_. In _mediæval_ times _homage_ was exacted of all vassals. The _mariners maneuvered_ beautifully. Your _magnificent donation_ will be _gratefully remembered_. The _mermaid_ is a mere _delusion. Illegible manuscript_ is a _decided nuisance_. The eastern part of the _Mediterranean_ is called the _Levant_. Franklin's _memoirs_ are very interesting. 119. MER'CES, _hire_; Merx, mer'cis, _merchandise_. MERC: mer'cantile (Lat. part. _mer'cans, mercan'tis_); mer'cenary (Lat. adj. _mercena'rius_); mer'cer (Fr. n. _mercier_), _one who deals in silks and woolens_; mer'chant (Lat. part, _mer'cans_); mer'chandise; com'merce (Fr. n. _commerce_); commer'cial; mar'ket (Lat. n. _merca'tus_, a place of public traffic). 120. MER'GERE: mer'go, mer'sum, _to dip, to sink_. MERG: merge; emerge'; emer'gency, _that which arises suddenly_; submerge'. MERS: emer'sion; immerse'. 121. MIGRA'RE: migro, migra'tum, _to remove_. MIGR: em'igrant (Lat. part. _mi'grans, migran'tis_). MIGRAT: mi'grate (-ion, -ory); em'igrate (-ion); im'migrate (-ion); transmigra'tion, _the passage of the soul into another body after death_. 122. MI'LES, mil'itis, _a soldier_. MILIT: -ary, -ant; mil'itate, _to act against_; mili'tia, _enrolled soldiers not in a standing army_. 123. MINE'RE: min'eo, min'itum, _to hang over_. MIN. em'inent (Lat. part, _em'inens, _standing out); em'inence; im'minent, literally, _threatening to fall_; pre-em'inent; pre-em'inence; prom'inent; prom'inence; superem'inent. 124. MINU'ERE: min'uo, minu'tum, _to lessen_; Mi'nor, _less_; Mi'nus, _less_. MINUT: minute'; minu'tiæ (pl. of Lat. n. _minu'tia_, a very small object); min'uend (Lat. part, _minuen'dus_, to be lessened); min'uet (Fr. n. _minuet_ = Lat. adj. _minu'tus, _small), _a dance of small steps_; dimin'ish (Lat. v. _diminu'ere_, to lessen); diminu'tion; dimin'utive. MINOR: mi'nor, _n_. and a.; minor'ity. MINUS: mi'nus (Lat. adj. comp. deg., less); min'imum (Lat. adj. super, deg., least); min'im. 125. MINIS'TER, _a servant or attendant_. MINISTER: min'ister; ministe'rial; min'istry; admin'ister; administra'tion; admin'istrative; administra'tor. 126. MIRA'RI: mi'ror, mira'tus, _to wonder_. MIR: admire' (-able, -ation); mir'acle (Lat. n. _mirac'ulum_, a wonderful thing); mirac'ulous. Mirage' (Fr. n. _mirage_, a reflection); mir'ror (Fr. n. _miroir_, from v. _mirer_, to view). 127. MISCE'RE: mis'ceo, mix'tum, _to mingle_. MISC: mis'cellany; miscella'neous; promis'cuous. MIXT: mix; mixt'ure; admixt'ure; intermix'. 128. MI'SER, _wretched_. MISER: mi'ser (-able); mis'ery; commis'erate (-ion). 129. MIT'TERE: mit'to, mis'sum, _to send or cast_. MIT: admit' (-ance); commit' (-ee, -ment); demit'; emit'; intermit' (-ent); manumit' (Lat. n. _manus_, the hand), _to release from slavery_; omit'; permit'; pretermit'; remit' (-ance); submit'; transmit'; mit'timus (Lat. _we send_), _a warrant of commitment to prison_. MISS: mis'sile; mis'sion (-ary); admis'sible; admis'sion; com'missary, _an officer who furnishes provisions for an army_; commissa'riat; commis'sion (-er); com'promise; demise', _death_; em'issary; intermis'sion; omis'sion; permis'sion; premise'; prem'ises; prom'ise (-ory); remiss' (-ion); submis'sion; submis'sive; transmis'sion; transmis'sible. 130. MODERA'RI: mod'eror, modera'tus, _to keep within bounds_; Mo'dus, _a measure or manner_. MODERAT: mod'erate (-ion, -or); immod'erate. MOD: mode; mood; mod'ify (-able, -er); modifica'tion; accom'modate (-ion); commode' (Lat. adj. _com'modus_, convenient). _a small sideboard_; commo'dious, literally, _measured with_; commod'ity, literally, _a convenience_; incommode'; mod'ern (Lat. adv. _mo'do_, lately, just now); mod'ernize; mod'ulate (Lat. n. _mod'ulus_, a measuring of tones); modula'tion. 131. MONE'RE: mo'neo, mon'itum, _to remind, to warn_. MON: admon'ish; mon'ument (Lat. n. _monumen'tum_); premon'ish; sum'mon (Lat. v. _summone're_ = _sub_ + _mone're_, to remind privily), _to call by authority_. MONIT: mon'itor (-ial); admoni'tion; admon'itory; premoni'tion; premon'itory. 132. MONS, mon'tis, _a mountain_. MOUNT: mount, n. _a high hill_; v. _to rise or ascend_; moun'tain (-eer, -ous); mount'ebank (It. n. _banco_, a bench); amount'; dismount'; par'amount (Fr. _par_ = Lat. _per_, exceedingly), _of the highest importance_; prom'ontory (literally, the _fore_-part or projecting part of a mountain); remount'; surmount' (-able); tan'tamount (Lat. adj. _tan'tus_, so much); ultramon'tane (literally, beyond the Alps; i. e. on the Italian side). 133. MONSTRA'RE: mon'stro, monstra'tum, _to point out, to show_. MONSTR: mon'ster; mon'strous; monstros'ity; mus'ter, literally, _to show up_, _to display_. MONSTRAT: dem'onstrate (-able, -ion, -ive); remon'strate; remon'strance. 134. MORDE'RE: mor'deo, mor'sum, _to bite_. MORD: mor'dant, _biting_, _serving to fix colors_; morda'cious (Lat. adj. _mor'dax_, _morda'cis_, biting), _severe_, _sarcastic_. MORS: mor'sel, literally, _a little bite_; remorse', _the biting of conscience_ (-ful, -less). MORS. (See page 44.) 135. MOS, mo'ris, _manner, custom_; _pl._ Mo'res, _manners or morals_. MOR: mor'al (ist, -ity, -ize); immor'al (-ity); demor'alize (-ation). 136. MOVE'RE: mo'veo, mo'tum, _to move_. MOV: move (-able, -er, -ment); remove' (-able, -al). MOT: (-ive, -or); commo'tion; emo'tion (-al); locomo'tion (Lat. n. _lo'cus_; a place); promote' (-er, -ion); remote' (-ness). Mob (Lat. adj. _mob'ilis_, easily moved); mo'bile (-ity); momen'tum, _the force of a moving body_, _impetus_. 137. MUL'TUS, multi, _many, much_. MULTI: mul'titude; multitu'dinous; multifa'rious; mul'tiform; mul'tiple (Lat. adj. _mul'tiplus_ for _mul'tiplex_, manifold); mul'tiply (Lat. adj. _mul'tiplex_); mul'tiplicate (-ion); multiplic'ity. 138. MU'NUS, mu'neris, _a gift, a service_. MUN. munic'ipal (Lat. n. _municip'ium_, a free town), _pertaining to a corporation_; municipal'ity; munif'icent; munif'icence; com'mon (Lat. adj. _commu'nis_ = _con_ + _munus_; literally, ready to be of service); commune', _v._ literally, _to share (discourse) in common_; commun'ion, commu'nity; com'munism; com'munist; commun'icate (-ion, -ive); commu'nicant; excommu'nicate; immu'nity (_in_ + _munus_; literally, absence of service). MUNER: remunerate (-ion, -ive). 139. MUTA'RE: mu'to, muta'tum, _to change_. MUT: mu'table (-ity); immu'table; commute'; transmute' (-able). MUTAT: muta'tion; commutation; transmuta'tion. 140. NAS'CI: nas'cor, _na'tus, to be born, to grow_; Natu'ra, _nature_. NASC: nas'cent, _growing_; renaissance' (a style of decorative art _revived_ by Raphael). NAT: na'tal; na'tion, originally, _a distinct race or stock_ (-al, -ality, -ize); interna'tional; na'tive (-ity); cog'nate; in'nate. NATUR: nat'ural (-ist, -ize, -ization); preternat'ural; supernat'ural. 141. NA'VIS, _a ship_. NAV: nave, _the middle or body of a church_; na'val; na'vy; nau'tical (Lat. adj. _nau'ticus_, from _nauta_ or _nav'ita_, a sailor); nav'igate (Lat. v. _naviga're_ = _na'vis_ + _ag'ere_); nav'igable; naviga'tion; nav'igator; circumnavigate. 142. NEC'TERE: nec'to, nex'um, _to tie or bind_. NECT: connect' (-ion, -ive); disconnect' (-ion). NEX: annex'; annexation. EXERCISE. The _administration_ of affairs is in the hands of her _majesty's ministers_. A _miscellaneous collection_ of goods was sold on _commission_. The _merchant remitted_ the money called for in the _emergency_. The _suggestion_ to _modify_ the plan was _tantamount_ to its _rejection_. Do you _admire_ Bunker Hill _Monument_? A _miser_ is an object of _commiseration_ to all who know him. _Remuneration_ will be allowed according to the _amount_ of labor. The _major_ has been _promoted_ to the rank of colonel. All who were _connected_ with the _movement_ were _excommunicated_. As the _annexed_ territory is chiefly _maritime_ it will greatly _increase_ the _commerce_ of the _nation_. The _monitor admonished_ the pupils with great _gentleness_. The _committee_ said the _master_ had done his work in an _admirable_ manner. The _Pilgrim_ Fathers _emigrated_ to this country in 1620. A _minute missile moved_ towards us. What is the _subjunctive mood_ or _mode_? A _multitude_ of _communists_ appeared in Paris. 143. NEGA'RE: ne'go, nega'tum, _to deny_. NEGAT: nega'tion; neg'ative; ab'negate (-ion); ren'egade, _an apostate_. Deny' (Fr. v. _dénier_ = Lat. _de_ + _nega're_, to contradict); deni'al; undeni'able. 144. NEU'TER, neu'trum, _neither of the two_. NEUTR: neu'ter; neu'tral (-ity, -ize). 145. NOCE'RE: no'ceo, no'citum, _to hurt_. NOC: no'cent, _hurtful_; in'nocent; in'nocence; innoc'uous. Nox'ious (Lat. adj. _nox'ius_, hurtful); obnox'ious; nui'sance (Fr. v. _nuire_ = Lat. _noce're_). 146. NO'MEN, nom'inis, _a name_. NOMEN: nomenclat'ure, _a list of technical names_; cogno'men, _a surname_. NOMIN: nom'inal; nom'inate (-ion, -ive); nominee'; denom'inate (-ion, -or); ig'nominy (Lat. _i(n)_ + _gnomen_, old form of _nomen_, a deprivation of one's good name); ignomin'ious. Noun (Fr. n. _nom_ = Lat. _no'men_); pro'noun; misno'mer (Old Fr. _mes_ = wrong, and _nommer_, to name), _a wrong name_. NORMA. (See page 45.) 147. NOS'CERE: nos'co, no'tum, _to know_; No'ta, _a mark_. NOT: note (-able, -ary, -ice, -ify, -ion); no'ticeable; notifica'tion; noto'rious (Lat. adj. _noto'rius_, making known), _known in a bad sense_; notori'ety; an'notate (-ion); denote'. No'ble (Lat. adj. _no'bilis_, deserving to be known); noblesse' (Fr. n. _noblesse_ = Lat. _nobil'itas_); nobil'ity; enno'ble; igno'ble (Lat. prefix _i(n)_ + _gnobilis_, old form of _nobilis_); cog'nizance (Old Fr. _cognizance_ = Lat. _cognoscen'tia_, notice or knowledge), _judicial observation_; connoisseur' (Fr. n. _connoisseur_, a critical judge); incog'nito (Italian _incognito_, from Lat. part. _incog'nitus_, unknown), _unknown, in disguise_; rec'ognize (Lat. _re_, again, and _cognos'cere_, to know); recog'nizance, _a term in law_; recogni'tion; reconnoi'ter (Fr. v. reconnoitre), _to survey, to examine_. 148. NO'VUS, _new_. NOV: in'novate (-ion, -or); ren'ovate (-ion, -or). Nov'el (Lat. adj. _novel'lus_, diminutive of _no'vus_); adj. _something new, out of the usual course_; n., literally, _a story new and out of the usual course_; nov'elist; nov'elty; nov'ice, _a beginner_; novi'tiate, _time of being a novice_. 149. NU'MERUS, _a number_. NUMER: (-al, -ate, -ation, -ator, -ic, -ical, -ous); enu'merate (Lat. v. _enumera're_, _enumera'tum_, to count or tell of), _to reckon up singly_; enumera'tion; innu'merable (= _in_ + _nu'mer_ + _able_, that may not be counted); supernu'merary, _one above the necessary number_; num'ber (Old Fr. n. _numbre_ = Lat. _nu'merus_). 150. NUNCIA'RE: nuncio, nuncia'tum, _to announce_; Nun'cius, _a messenger_. NUNCIAT: enun'ciate, _to utter_ (-ion); denuncia'tion; pronuncia'tion; renuncia'tion, _disavowal, relinquishment_. Nun'cio (Sp. n. _nuncio_ = Lat. _nun'cius), a messenger from the Pope_; announce' (Fr. v. _annoncer_ = Lat. _ad_ + _nuncia're_), _to proclaim_; announce'ment; denounce' (Fr. v. _dénoncer_ = Lat. _de_ + _nuncia're_), _to accuse publicly_; pronounce' (Fr. v. _prononcer_ = Lat. _pro_ + _nuncia're_); pronounce'able; renounce' (Fr. v. _renoncer_ = Lat. _re_ + _nuncia're_), _to disclaim_; renounce'ment. 151. NUTRI'RE: nu'trio, nutri'tum, _to nourish_. NUTRI: nu'triment, _that which nourishes_; nutri'tion; nutri'tious; nu'tritive. Nour'ish (Fr. v. _nourrir_ = Lat. _nutri'ere_); nurse (Fr. v. _nourrice_; a nurse); nur'sery; nurs'ling, _a little one who is nursed_; nurt'ure. 152. O'PUS, op'eris, _a work or deed_; OPERA'RI, opera'tus, _to work_. OPER: operose, _requiring labor_, _tedious_. OPERAT: operate (-ion, -ive, -or); co-operate (-ion, -ive, -or). Op'era (It. _op'era_ = _opera_, pains, pl. of _o'pus_), _a musical drama_; operat'ic. ORDO. (See page 45.) 153. PAN'DERE: pan'do, pan'sum, _and_ pas'sum, _to spread_; Pas'sus, _a step_. PAND: expand', _to spread out_. PANS: expanse' (-ion, -ive). PASS: pass; pass'able, _that may be passed_, _tolerable_; pas'sage; com'pass, v. _to stretch round_; encom'pass; surpass'; tres'pass (_tres_ = _trans_), _to pass beyond due bounds_. Pace (Fr. n. _pas_ = Lat. _pas'sus_); pas'senger (Old Eng. _passager_); pass'over, _a Jewish festival_;[8] pass'port (= pass + port, literally, a permission to leave a port or to sail into it.) 154. PAR, _equal_. PAR: par'ity; dispar'ity; dispar'age, _to injure by comparison of unequals_; dispar'agement. Pair (Fr. adj. _paire_ = Lat. _par_), _two of a kind_; peer (Old Fr. _peer_ or _pair_ = Lat. _par_), _an equal_, _a nobleman_; peer'age; peer'less; compeer'; non'pareil (Fr. _non_, not, and _pareil_, equal), _a peerless thing or person_. 155. PARA'RE. pa'ro, para'tum, _to make ready, to prepare_; SEPARA'RE: sep'aro, separa'tum, _to separate_. PARAT: compar'ative; prepara'tion; prepar'atory; repara'tion. SEPAR: sep'arate, literally, _to prepare aside_: hence, _to disjoin_; separa'tion; sep'arable; insep'arable. Parade' (Fr. n. _parade_, literally, a parrying), _military display_; pare (Fr. v. _parer_, to pare or ward off); par'ry (Fr. v. _parer_, to ward off); appara'tus (Lat. _appara'tus_ = _ad_ + _paratus_, literally, something prepared for a purpose); appar'el (Fr. n. _appareil_, preparation); compare' (Fr. v. _comparer_ = Lat. _compara're_), _to set things together to see how far they resemble each other_; prepare' (Fr. v. _preparer_ = Lat. _prepara're_); repair' (Fr. v. _réparer_ = Lat. _repara're_), literally, _to prepare again_, hence, _to restore after injury_; irrep'arable; sev'er (Old Fr. v. _sevrer_ = Lat. _separa're_), _to render asunder_; sev'eral (Old Fr. adj. _several_ = Lat. _separa'lis_, separate); sev'erance; dissev'er. PARS. (See page 46.) 156. PAT'ER, pa'tris, _a father_; Pa'tria, _one's native country_. Pater'nal (Lat. adj. _pater'nus_, pertaining to a father); pater'nity (Lat. n. _pater'nitas_, Fr. _paternité_), _fathership_; patri'cian (Lat. adj. _patri'cius_, from _pa'tres_, fathers or senators), _a Roman nobleman_; pat'rimony (Lat. n. _patrimo'nium_), _an estate inherited from one's ancestors_; pa'tron (Lat. n. _patro'nus_, a protector), _one who countenances or supports_; pat'ronage; pat'ronize; pat'tern (Fr. n. _pattern_, something to be copied), _a model_; expatriate, _to banish_; expatria'tion. 157. PA'TI: pa'tior, pas'sus, _to bear, to suffer_. PATI: pa'tient; pa'tience; impa'tient; compat'ible, _consistent with_; compat'ibility; incompat'ible. PASS: pas'sion, _strong agitation of the mind_; pas'sive; impas'sive, _insensible_; compas'sion, _sympathy_; compas'sionate. 158. PEL'LERE; pel'lo, pul'sum, _to drive_. PEL (com-, dis-, ex-, im-, pro-, re-). PULS: pulse, _the beating of an artery as blood is driven through it_; pul'sate; pulsa'tion; compul'sion; compul'sory; expul'sion; propul'sion; repulse'; repul'sive. 159. PENDE'RE; pen'deo, pen'sum, _to hang_. PEND: pen'dant, _a long, narrow flag_; pend'ing, _not decided, during_; append'; append'age; depend' (-ant, -ent, -ence); independ'ent; independ'ence; suspend'. PENS: pen'sile, _hanging_; suspense'(-ion). Pen'dulous (Lat. adj. _pen'dulus_, hanging); pen'dulum (Lat. adj. _pen'dulus)_; appen'dix (Lat. n. _appen'dix_, an addition). 160. PEN'DERE: pen'do, pen'sum, _to weigh, to pay_. PEND: com'pend (contraction of compendium); compen'dium (Lat. n. _compen'dium_, that which is weighed, saved, shortened); compen'dious (Lat. adj. _compendio'sus_, brief, succinct); expend'; expen'diture; sti'pend (Lat. n. _stipen'dium_, literally, the pay of soldiers); stipendiary. PENS: pen'sive, _thoughtful_; pen'sion, _an allowance for past services_ (-eer); com'pensate (-ion); dispense', _to deal out_ (-ary); dispensa'tion; indispen'sable; expense' (-ive); rec'ompense. PES. (See page 47.) 161. PET'ERE: pe'to, peti'tum, _to attack, to seek_. PET: centrip'etal (Lat. n. _cen'trum_, center); compete'; com'petent, _fit, suitable_; com'petence, _sufficiency_; incom'petent. PETIT: peti'tion, _a request_ (-er); compet'itor; compet'itive; repeti'tion. Pet'ulant (Fr. adj. _petulant_, fretful); ap'petite (Fr. n. _appétit_), _a seeking for hunger_; impet'uous (Lat. adj. _impetuo'sus_, vehement); impetuos'ity; im'petus (Lat. n. _im'petus_, a shock); repeat' (Fr. v. _répéter_ = Lat. _repet'ere_). EXERCISE _Numerous objections_ were _submitted_ against the _innovations_ about to be _introduced_. The _obnoxious_ articles have been _removed_. The _nominee_ by his _ludicrous_ speech _neutralized_ all that his friends did for him. _Part_ of the _apparatus prepared_ for the _occasion_ was damaged in _transmission_. The _patronage_ of the _nobility_ and _gentry connected_ with the neighborhood was asked. Many _parts_ of the _edifice_ are highly _ornate_. Christ had _compassion_ on the _multitude_, for they had been a long time without food. The _petitioner's application_ for a _pension_ was not _repeated_. How can an _acid_ be _neutralized_? The _renegade_ was brought to _ignominy_. The _prince_ was travelling _incognito_. The young lady seems _pensive_ rather than _petulant_. Here is a new _edition_ of the _novel_, with _annotations_ by the _author_. The _opera_ seems to be well _patronized_ this winter. Webster had a _compendious mode_ of stating great truths. What is meant by _centripetal motion_? What is the _difference_ between the _numerator_ and the _denominator_? 162. PLEC'TERE: plec'to, plex'um, _to twist_; PLICA'RE: pli'co, plica'tum, _and_ plic'itum, _to fold_. PLEX: com'plex (literally, twisted together); complex'ion; complex'ity; perplex' (literally, to twist thoroughly--_per_: hence, to puzzle or embarrass); perplex'ity. PLIC: ap'plicable (-ity); ap'plicant; ex'plicable. PLICAT: applica'tion; com'plicate (-ion); du'plicate; im'plicate (-ion); replica'tion, _an answer in law_; sup'plicate, _to entreat earnestly_; supplica'tion. PLICIT: explic'it (literally, out-folded; hence, distinctly stated); implic'it, _implied_. Ply (Fr. v. _plier_ = Lat. _plica're_), _to work diligently_; pli'able, _easily bent_; pli'ant; pli'ancy; accom'plice, _an associate in crime_; apply' (Old Fr. _applier_ = Lat. _applica're_); appli'ance, _the thing applied_; comply' (Fr. v. _plier_), _to fold with_: hence, _to conform or assent_; compli'ance; display' (Old Fr. v. _desployer_, to unfold); doub'le (Fr. adj. _double_ = Lat. _du'plex_, twofold); du'plex; duplic'ity (Lat. n. _duplic'itas_, from _du'plex_, double); employ' (Fr. v. _employer_ = Lat. _implica're_), _to keep at work_; employé; employ'er; employ'ment; exploit' (Fr. n. _exploit_ = Lat. _explic'itum_, literally, something unfolded, set forth: hence, a deed, an achievement); imply', literally, _to infold_: hence _to involve_, _to signify_; mul'tiply (Fr. v. _multiplier_ = Lat. _mul'tus_ much, many); quad'ruple (Lat. _qua'tuor_, four); reply' (Old Fr. v. _replier_ = Lat. _replica're_, to answer); sim'ple (Lat. _simplex_, gen. _simplicis_), _not compounded_, _artless_; sim'pleton (compare It. _simplicione_, a silly person); simplic'ity (Lat. n. _simplic'itas_); sim'plify; sup'ple (Fr. adj. _souple_ = Lat. _sup'plex_, bending the knee, from _sub_ and _plica're_); sup'pliant (literally, bending the knees under, kneeling down); treb'le (Old Fr. adj. _treble_ = Lat. _tri'plex_, threefold); trip'le (Lat. _tri'plex_); trip'let, _three lines rhyming alternately_. 163. PON'ERE: po'no, pos'itum, _to place_. PON: compo'nent, _forming a compound_; depone', _to bear testimony_; depo'nent; oppo'nent; postpone' (-ment). POSIT: posi'tion; pos'itive; pos'itivism, _a system of philosophy_; pos'itivist, _a believer in the positive philosophy_; ap'posite, _adapted to_; compos'ite, _compound_; composi'tion; compos'itor; decomposi'tion; depos'it (-ary, -ion, -ory); deposi'tion, _the giving testimony under oath_; exposi'tion; expos'itor; imposi'tion; interposi'tion; juxtaposi'tion; op'posite (-ion); preposi'tion; proposi'tion; supposi'tion; suppositi'tious; transposi'tion. Pose (Fr. v. _poser_ = Lat. _pon'ere_), _to bring to a stand by questions_; post; post'age; post'ure (Fr. n. _posture_ = Lat. _positu'ra_, position); compose' (Fr. v. _composer_ = Lat. _compon'ere_); compos'ure; com'pound (Lat. v. _compon'ere_); com'post, _a mixture_, _a manure_; depot' (Fr. n. _dépôt_ = Lat. _depos'itum_); dispose' (Fr. v. _disposer_); dispo'sal; expose' (Fr. v. _exposer_); expos'ure; impose' (Fr. v. _imposer_); im'post, _a tax placed on imported goods_; impos'tor, _one guilty of fraud_; impost'ure; interpose'; oppose'; propose'; prov'ost (Old Fr. _provost_, from Lat _præpos'itus_, placed before, a chief), _the principal of a college_; pur'pose (Old Fr. n. _purpos_, _propos_ = Lat. _propos'itum_), _an end set before one_; repose' (Fr. v. _reposer_); suppose' (Fr. v. _supposer_); transpose' (Fr. v. _transposer_). 164. PORTA'RE: por'to, porta'tum, _to carry_. PORT: port'able; por'ter (-age); deport'ment; export' (-ation, -er); im'port (-ance, -ant, -er); pur'port, _design_; report' (-er); support'; insupport'able; transport' (-ation). Portfo'lio (Lat. n. _fo'lium_, a leaf); portman'teau (Fr. n. _manteau_, a cloak); importune' (Lat. adj. _importu'nus_, unseasonable); import'unate; importu'nity; op'portune (Lat. adj. _opportu'nus_, literally, at or before the port or harbor: hence, seasonable); opportu'nity; inop'portune. 165. POS'SE, _to be able_; Po'tens, poten'tis, _powerful, mighty_. POSSE: pos'sible (Lat. adj. _possib'ilis_); possibil'ity; impos'sible. POTENT: po'tent; po'tency; po'tentate; poten'tial; im'potent; omnip'otent (Lat. adj. _om'nis_, all); plenipoten'tiary (Lat. adj. _ple'nus_, full). 166. PREHEN'DERE: prohen'do, prehen'sum, _to lay hold of, to seize_. PREHEND: apprehend'; comprehend'; reprehend'. PREHENS: prehen'sile; apprehen'sion; apprehen'sive; comprehen'sible; comprehen'sion; comprehen'sive; reprehen'sible. Appren'tice (Old Fr. n. _apprentis_, from v. _apprendre_, to learn); apprise' (Fr. v. _apprendre_, part. _appris_, to inform); comprise' (Fr. v. _comprendre, compris_), _to include_; en'terprise (Fr. n. _entrepise_, something undertaken); impreg'nable (Fr. adj. _imprenable_, not to be taken); pris'on (Fr. n. _prison_); prize (Fr. n. _prise_, something taken, from _prendre, pris_, to take); reprieve' (Old Fr. v. _repreuver_, to condemn), _to grant a respite_; repri'sal; surprise'. 167. PREM'ERE: pre'mo, pres'sum, _to press_. PRESS: press (-ure); compress' (-ible); depress' (-ion); express' (-ion, -ive); impress' (-ion, -ive, -ment); irrepres'sible; oppress' ('-ion, -ive, -or); repress' (-ion, -ive); suppress' (-ion). Print (abbreviated from _imprint_, from Old Fr. v. _preindre_ = Lat. _prem'ere_); im'print, _the name of the publisher and the title page of a book_; imprima'tur (Lat. _let it be printed_), originally, _a license to print a book, the imprint of a publisher_. 168. PRI'MUS, _first_; Prin'ceps, prin'cipis, _chief, original_. PRIM: prime; pri'mate, _the highest dignitary of a church_; pri'macy; prim'ary; primer; prime'val (Lat. n. _æ'vum_, an age); prim'itive; primogen'itor (Lat. n. _gen'itor_, a begetter); primogeniture (Lat. n. _genitu'ra_, a begetting), _the exclusive right of inheritance which in English law belongs to the eldest son or daughter_; primor'dial (Lat. v. _ordi'ri_, to begin), _existing from the beginning_; prim'rose (Lat. n. _ro'sa_); prin'cess; prince (Fr. n. _prince_ = Lat. _prin'ceps_); prin'cipal; prin'ciple. Pre'mier (Fr. adj. _premier_, first), _the prime minister_; pri'or (Lat. adj. _prior_, former); pri'oress, _the female superior of a convent_; pri'ory, _a convent_; prior'ity, _state of being first_; pris'tine (Lat. adj. _pristi'nus_, primitive), _original, ancient_. 169. PROBA'RE: pro'bo, proba'tum, _to try, to prove_. PROB: prob'able, _likely, credible_; probabil'ity; improb'able; pro'bate, _the proof of a will_; proba'tion, _the act of trying_; proba'tioner; proba'tionary; probe, _to try by an instrument_; prob'ity, _tried integrity_; approba'tion, _commendation_; rep'robate (adj. literally, proved against), _base, condemned_. Prove (Old Fr. _prover_, New Fr. _prouver_ = Lat. _proba're_); proof (Old Fr. n. _prove_ = Lat. _pro'ba_, proof); approve' (Fr. v. _approuver_ = Lat. _approba're_); approv'al; disapprove'; improve', (-ment); reprove'; reproof'. 170. PUN'GERE: pun'go, punc'tum, _to prick_; Punc'tum, _a point_. PUNG: pun'gent; pun'gency; expunge', _to mark out_. PUNCT: punctil'io (Sp. _punctillo_, from Lat. _punc'tum_, a point), _a nice point of exactness in conduct_, etc.; punctil'ious; punct'ual (-ity); punct'uate (-ion); punct'ure; compunc'tion, _remorse_. Punch (abbreviated from _puncheon_, from Lat. n. _punc'tio_, a pricking), _an instrument for cutting holes_; point (Fr. n. _pointe_ = Lat. _punc'tum)_; poign'ant (Fr. part. _poignant_, stinging); pon'iard (Fr. n. _poignard_), _a small dagger_. 171. PUTA'RE: pu'to, puta'tum, _to think, to prune, to count or reckon_. PUT: compute' (-able, -ation); depute' (Lat. v. _deputa're_, to allot), _to empower to act_; dep'uty; dispute' (-ant); indis'putable; impute' (literally, to reckon in), _to charge_; repute'; disrepute' (-able). PUTAT: pu'tative, _supposed_; am'putate, _to cut off the limb from an animal_; deputa'tion; imputa'tion; reputa'tion. Count (Fr. v. _compter_ = Lat. computa're); account'; discount'; recount'. 172. RAP'ERE: ra'pio, rap'tum, _to seize suddenly, to snatch or hurry away_. RAP: rapa'cious (Lat. adj. _ra'pax, rapa'cis_, greedy); rapac'ity; rap'id (Lat. adj. _rap'idus_, swift); rapid'ity; rap'ids; rap'ine (Lat. n. _rapi'na_, robbery). RAPT: rapt, _transported_; rapt'ure (-ous); enrapt'ure; surrepti'tious (Lat. v. _surrip'ere, surrep'tum_, to take away secretly), _done by stealth_. Rav'age (Fr. v. _ravager_ = to lay waste); rav'ish (Fr. v. _ravir_ = Lat. _rap'ere_). 173. REG'ERE: re'go, rec'tum, _to rule_; Rec'tus, _straight_. REG: re'gent; re'gency; reg'imen (Lat. n. _reg'imen_, that by which one guides or governs anything); reg'iment (Lat. n. _regimen'tum_); re'gion (Lat. _re'gio, regio'nis_, a region); cor'rigible (Lat. v. _corrig'ere_ = _con_ + _reg'ere_); incor'rigible. RECT: rec'tify; rec'titude; rec'tor (-ory); correct' (Lat. v. _corrig'ere_ = _con_ + _reg'ere), to remove faults_; direct' (-ion, -or, -ory); erect'; insurrec'tion; resurrec'tion. Re'gal (Lat. n. _rex, re'gis_, a king); rega'lia; reg'icide (Lat. v. _cæd'ere_, to kill); reg'ular (Lat. n. _reg'ula_, a rule); reg'ulate; realm (Old Fr. _realme_, from Lat. adj. _rega'lis_, royal); reign (Fr. n. _règne_ = Lat. _reg'num); _corrigen'da (sing. _corrigen'dum_), _things to be corrected_; dress (Fr. v. _dresser_ = Lat _dirig'ere_); address' (Fr. v. _adresser_, to direct); redress' (Fr. v. _redresser_ = Lat. _re_ + _dirig'ere), to rectify, to repair_; source (Fr. n. _source_, from Lat. _sur'gere_, to spring up); surge; insur'gent (Lat. v. _insur'gere_). 174. RI'VUS, _a river_. RIV: ri'val (Lat. n. _riva'lis_, one who used a brook in common with another); ri'valry; outri'val; riv'ulet (Lat. n. _riv'ulus_, diminutive of _ri'vus_); derive' (literally, to receive as from a source); deriva'tion; deriv'ative. 175. ROGA'RE: ro'go, roga'tum, _to ask_. ROG: ar'rogant, _proud, overbearing_; ar'rogance; prorogue' (Fr. v. _proroger_ = Lat. _proroga're_). ROGAT: ab'rogate; _to repeal_; ar'rogate, _to assume_; arroga'tion; derog'atory, _detracting_; inter'rogate (-ion, -ive, -ory); prerog'ative (literally, that is asked before others for an opinion: hence, preference), _exclusive or peculiar right or privilege_; proroga'tion, _prolonga'tion_; superer'ogate (Lat. _super_ + _eroga're_, to spend or pay out over and above), _to do more than is necessary_; supereroga'tion. 176. RUM'PERE: rum'po, rup'tum, _to break_. RUPT: rupt'ure, _to part violently_; abrupt' (-ly, -ness); bank'rupt (It. n. _banco_, a merchant's place of business); bank'ruptcy; corrupt' (-ible, -ion); disrup'tion; erup'tion; interrupt' (-ion); irrup'tion; irrup'tive. 177. SA'CER, sa'cri, _holy_. SACR: sac'rament (Lat. n. _sacramen'tum_, an oath, a sacred thing); sa'cred (orignally, past p. of Old Eng. v. _sacre_, to consecrate); sac'rifice (Lat. v. _fac'ere_, to make); sac'rilege (literally, that steals--properly gathers, picks up, _leg'ere_--sacred things); sac'ristan (Low Lat. _sacrista'nus)_, a church officer. SECR: (in comp.) con'secrate (-ion); des'ecrate (-ion); ex'ecrate (-ion); ex'ecrable; sacerdo'tal (Lat. n. _sacer'dos, sacerdo'tis_, priest), _pertaining to the priesthood_. 178. SA'LUS, salu'tis, _health_; Sal'vus, _safe_. SALUT: sal'utary, _promoting health_; salu'tatory, _giving salutation_; salute' (-ion). SALV: sal'vage, _reward for saving goods_; sal'vo, _a volley_; salva'tion. Safe (through Old Fr. _salf_ or _sauf_); safe'ty; save; sav'ior salu'brious (Lat. adj. _salu'bris_, health-giving); salu'brity. 179. SCAN'DERE: scan'do (_in comp._ scen'do), scan'dum (_in comp._ scen'sum), _to climb_. SCEND: ascend' (-ant, -ency); descend' (-ant); condescend' (-ing); transcend' (-ent); transcendental. SCENS: ascen'sion; ascent'; condescen'sion. 180. SCRIB'ERE: scri'bo, scrip'tum, _to write_. SCRIB: ascribe', _to impute to_; circumscribe', _to draw a line around, to limit_; describe'; inscribe'; prescribe', _to order or appoint_; pro-scribe' (literally, to write forth), _to interdict_; subscribe'; superscribe'; transcribe'. SCRIPT: script, _type in imitation of handwriting_; script'ure; ascrip'tion; con'script, _one taken by lot and enrolled for military service_; conscrip'tion; descrip'tion; inscrip'tion; man'uscript (see _manus_); post'script; prescrip'tion; proscription; subscription; superscrip'tion; tran'script. Scribe (Fr. n. _scribe_); scrib'ble; escritoire'. 181. SECA'RE: se'co, sec'tum, _to cut_. SEC: se'cant (Lat. pres. p. _se'cans_, _secan'tis_), _a line that cuts another_. SECT: sect (literally, a body of persons separated from others by peculiar doctrines); secta'rian (-ism); sec'tion (-al); bisect' (Lat. _bis_, two); dissect' (-ion); in'sect (literally, an animal whose body is apparently cut in the middle); insectiv'orous (Lat. v. _vora're_, to feed); intersect' (-ion); venesec'tion (Lat. n. _vena_, a vein). Seg'ment (Lat. n. _segmen'tum_), _a part cut off_. 182. SEDE'RE: se'deo (_in comp._ se'do), ses'sum, _to sit_. SED: sed'entary (Lat. adj. _sedenta'rius_, accustomed to sit); sed'iment (Lat. n. _sedimen'tum_, a settling or sinking down); sedimen'tary; sed'ulous (Lat. adj. _sed'ulus_, sitting close to an employment); supersede'. SID: assid'uous; assidu'ity; insid'ious (literally, sitting in wait against); preside' (literally, to sit before or over); pres'ident; presidence; reside' (-ence); res'idue; resid'uary; subside'; subsidiary. SESS: ses'sion (-al); assess' (literally, to sit by or near a person or thing); assess'ment; assess'or; possess' (Lat. v. _possid'ere, posses'sum_, to sit upon: hence, to occupy in person, to have or hold); posses'sion; possess'or; posses'sive; prepossess', _to take possession of beforehand, to prejudice_. 183. SENTI'RE: sen'tio, sen'sum, _to feel, to think_. SENT: scent (Old English _sent_), _odor_; sen'tence (Lat. n. _senten'tia_); senten'tious (Lat. adj. _sententio'sus_, full of thought); sentiment (Fr. n. _sentiment_); sentimen'tal; assent', _to agree to_; consent' (literally, to think or feel together), _to acquiesce, to permit_; dissent' (-er); dissen'tient; presen'timent; resent' (literally, to feel back), _to take ill_; resent'ment. SENS: sense (-less, -ation, -ible, -itive); insen'sate; non'sense; sen'sual (Lat. adj. _sensua'lis_); sen'sualist; sen'suous. 184. SE'QUI: se'quor, secu'tus, _to follow_. SEQU: se'quence, _order of succession_; consequent; con'sequence; consequential; ob'sequies, _formal rites_; obse'quious (literally, following in the way of another), _meanly condescending_; sub'sequent (-ly). SECUT: consec'utive; persecute (-ion, -or); pros'ecute (-ion). Se'quel (Lat. n. _seque'la_, that which follows); sue (Old Fr. v. _suire_, New Fr. _suivre = se'qui), to follow at law_; suit; suit'able; suit'or; suite (Fr. n. _suite_), _a train or set_; ensue' (Fr. v. _ensuivre_, to follow, to result from); pursue' (Fr. v. _poursuivre_, to follow hard, to chase); pursu'ance; pursu'ant; pursuit'; pur'suivant, _a state messenger_; ex'ecute (Fr. v. _executer_ = Lat. _ex'sequi_); execu'tion; exec'utor; exec'utrix. 185. SERVA'RE: ser'vo, serva'tum, _to save, to keep, to bind_. SERV: conserve'; observe' (-able, -ance); preserve' (-er); reserve'; unreserved'. SERVAT: conserv'ative; conserv'atory; observ'ation; observ'atory; preserva'tion; preserv'ative; reserva'tion. Res'ervoir (Fr. n. _réservoir_ = Lat. _reservato'rium_, a place where anything is kept in store). EXERCISE. The puzzle is _complicated_ and _displays_ much _ingenuity_ on the _part_ of the inventor. A _reply_ may be _explicit_ without showing _duplicity_. It was urged that the _election_ of _delegates_ be _postponed_. The _portmanteau_ containing _important_ papers was left at the _merchant's office_. An _impostor_ is sure to show _opposition_ to the course of _justice_. Coleridge holds that it is _possible_ to _apprehend_ a truth without _comprehending_ it. The _bankrupt_ was so _arrogant_ that his _creditors_ were not _disposed_ to be lenient with him. Most of the questions _proposed_ by the _rector_ were answered in the _negative_. What is the origin of the word _derivation_? The _region_ is _described_ as healthful. The _manuscript_ was _transcribed_ and _subscribed_ by the _author_. It is _salutary_ to be _rivals_ in all worthy _ambitions_. 186. SIG'NUM, _a sign_. SIGN: sign; sig'nal (-ize); sig'net; sig'nify; signif'icant; signif'icance; significa'tion; assign' (Lat. v. _assigna're_, to designate); assignee'; consign' (Lat. v. _consigna're_, to seal) _to intrust to another_; consign'ment; coun'tersign, _to sign what has already been signed by another_; design', _to plan_; design'er; des'ignate, _to name_, _to point out_; designa'tion; en'sign, _the officer who carries the flag of a regiment_; insig'nia, _badges of office_; resign' (-ation); sig'nature (Lat. n. _signatu'ra_, a sign or stamp). 187. SIM'ILIS, _like_. SIMIL: sim'ilar (-ity); sim'i-le, _a formal likening or comparison_; simil'itude; verisimil'itude (Lat. adj. _ve'rus_, true); dissim'ilar; assim'ilate; fac-sim'ile (Lat. _v. fac'ere_, to make), an exact copy; sim'ulate (Lat. v. _simula're_, _simula'tum_, to make like). Dissimula'tion (Lat. v. _dissimula're_, _dissimula'tum_, to feign); dissem'ble (Fr. v. _dissembler_ = Lat. _dissimula're_); resem'ble (Fr. v. _ressembler_). 188. SIS'TERE: sisto, sta'tum, _to cause to stand, to stand_. SIST: assist' (-ance, -ant); consist' (-ent, -ency); desist'; exist' (for ex-sist), _to stand out_: hence, _to be, to live_; exist'ence; co-exist'; pre-exist'; insist', _to stand upon, to urge firmly_; persist' (-ent, -ence); resist' (-ance, -ible); subsist (-ence). 189. SOL'VERE: sol'vo, solu'tum, _to loosen_. SOLV: solve (-able, -ent, -ency); absolve'; dissolve'; resolve'. SOLUT: solu'tion; ab'solute (-ion); dis'solute (-ion); res'olute (-ion). Sol'uble (Lat. adj. _solu'bilis_); solubil'ity. 190. SPEC'ERE _or_ SPIC'ERE: Spe'cio _or_ spi'cio, spec'tum, _to behold_; Spe'cies, _a kind_. SPIC: aus'pices (literally, omens drawn from the inspection of birds); auspi'cious; conspic'uous (Lat. adj. _conspic'uus_, wholly visible); conspicu'ity; des'picable (Lat. _despicab'ilis_, deserving to be despised); perspic'uous (Lat. adj. _perspic'uus_, that may be seen through); perspicu'ity; suspi'cion; suspi'cious. SPECT: as'pect; cir'cumspect (-ion); expect' (-ant, -ation); inspect' (-ion, -or); perspec'tive; pros'pect (-ive); prospec'tus (Lat. n. _prospec'tus_, a view forward); respect' (literally, to look again: hence, to esteem or regard); respect'able; respect'ful; re'tro-spect (-ive); suspect'. SPECIES: spe'cies; spe'cial (-ist, -ity, -ize); spe'cie; spec'ify (-ic, -ication); spe'cious, _showy_. Spec'imen (Lat. n. _spec'imen_, a sample); spec'tacle (Lat. n. _spectac'ulum_, anything presented to view); specta'tor (Lat. n. _specta'tor_, a beholder); spec'ter (Lat. n. _spec'trum_, an image); spec'tral; spec'trum (pl. spec'tra), _an image_; spec'troscope (Gr. v. _skopein_, to view), _an instrument for analysing light_; spec'ulate (Lat. n. _spec'ula_, a lookout), _to contemplate_, _to traffic for great profit_; specula'tion; spec'ulative. 191. SPIRA'RE: spi'ro, spira'tum, _to breathe_; Spir'itus, _breath, spirit_. SPIR: spir'acle, _a breathing pore_; aspire' (-ant); conspire' (-acy); expire'; expir'ing; inspire'; perspire'; respire'; transpire'. SPIRAT: aspira'tion; as'pirate; conspir'ator; inspira'tion; perspira'tion; respira'tion; respir'atory. SPIRITUS: spir'it; spir'itual (-ity); spir'ituous. Sprightly (spright, a contraction of spirit); sprite (a contraction of spirit). 192. SPONDE'RE: spon'deo, spon'sum, _to promise_. SPOND: correspond', _to answer one to another_; correspond'ence; correspond'ent; despond' (literally, to promise away: hence, to give up, to despond); despond'ency; respond'. SPONS: spon'sor, _a surety_; response' (-ible, -ibility, -ive); irrespon'sible. Spouse (Old Fr. n. _espous_, _espouse_ = Lat. _spon'sus_, _spon'sa_); espouse' (Old Fr. v. _espouser_ = Lat. _sponsa're_, to betroth, from _spondere_). 193. STA'RE: sto, sta'tum (_in comp._ sti'tum, _to stand; pres. part._ stans, stan'tis, _standing_); SIS'TERE: sis'to, sta'tum, _to cause to stand_; STATU'ERE: stat'uo, statu'tum, _to station, to fix, to place_. STANT: cir'cumstance (from part. _circumstans'_, _circumstan'tis_, through Lat. n. _circumstan'tia_, Fr. _circonstance_), _the condition of things surrounding or attending an event_; circumstan'tial; circumstan'tiate; con'stant; con'stancy; dis'tant (literally, standing asunder: hence, remote, reserved); dis'tance; ex'tant; in'stant; instanta'neous; transubstan'tiate, _to change to another substance_. STAT: state; sta'tion (-ary, -er, -ery); state'ly; state'ment; states'man; stat'ue (-ary); stat'ure. STIT: supersti'tion (literally, a standing over, as if awe-struck); supersti'tious. STATUT: stat'ute (-ory). STITU: con'stitute (literally, to set or station together: hence, to establish, to make); constitu'tion (-al); constituent; constit'uency; des'titute (literally, put from or away: hence, forsaken, in want of); in'stitute (literally, to place into: hence, to found, to commence); restitu'tion; sub'stitute (-ion). Sta'ble; (Lat. adj. _stab'ilis_, standing firmly); stab'lish; estab'lish (-ment); stay, literally, _to keep standing_; ar'mistice (Lat. n. _ar'ma_, arms), _a temporary stand-still of war_; arrest' (Old Fr. _arrester_ = Lat. _ad_ + _restare_, to stay back, to remain); contrast' (Lat. _contra_ + _sta're_, to stand against); inter'stice; ob'stacle; ob'stinate; sol'stice (Lat. n. _sol_, the sun). 194. STRIN'GERE: strin'go, stric'tum, _to bind; to draw tight_. STRING: strin'gent; astrin'gent; astrin'gency. STRICT: strict (-ness, -ure); dis'trict, _a defined portion of a country_; restrict' (-ion). Strain (Old Fr. _straindre_ = Lat. _strin'gere_); constrain'; dis-train'; restrain'; restraint'. 195. STRU'ERE: stru'o, struc'tum, _to build, to place in order_. STRUCT: struct'ure; construct' (-ion, -ive); destruct'ible; destruc'tion; instruct' (-ion,-ive,-or); obstruct'(-ion); superstruct'ure. Con'strue; destroy'; in'strument (Lat. n. _instrumen'tum_); instrumental'ity. 196. SU'MERE: su'mo, sump'tum, _to take_; Sump'tus, _cost, expense_. SUM: assume'; consume' (-er); presume'; resume'. SUMPT: sumpt'uous (Lat. adj. _sumptuo'sus_, expensive); sumpt'uary, _relating to expense_; assumption; consumption; consump'tive; presump'tion; presump'tive; presump'tuous. 197. TAN'GERE: tan'go, tac'tum, _to touch_. TANG: tan'gent, _a straight line which touches a circle or curve_; tan'gible. TACT: tact, _peculiar faculty or skill_; con'tact; intact'. Attain' (Fr. v. _attaindre_, to reach); attain'able; conta'gion, _communication of disease by contact or touch_; contam'inate, _to defile, to infect_; contig'uous; contin'gent. TEMPUS. (See page 48.) 198. TEN'DERE: ten'do, ten'sum _or_ ten'tum, _to stretch_. TEND: tend, _to aim at, take care of_; tend'ency; attend' (-ance, -ant); contend'; distend'; extend'; intend' (literally, to stretch to), _to purpose, to design_; portend' (literally, to stretch forward), _to presage, to betoken_; pretend' (literally, to stretch forth), _to affect, feel_; subtend', _to extend under_; superintend' (-ence, -ent). TENS: tense (adj.), _stretched_; ten'sion; intense' (-ify); osten'sible (Lat. v. _osten'dere_, to stretch out or spread before one), _apparent_; pretense'. TENT: tent, literally, _a shelter of stretched canvas_; tentac'ula, _the feelers of certain animals_; atten'tion; atten'tive; conten'tion; conten'tious; extent'; intent' (-ion); ostenta'tion; ostenta'tious; por'tent, _an ill omen_. 199. TENE'RE: ten'eo, ten'tum, _to hold_; _French_ Tenir (_radical_ tain), _to hold_. TEN: ten'able; ten'ant, _one who holds property under another_; ten'antry; ten'ement; ten'et (Lat. _tenet_, literally, "he holds"), _a doctrine held as true_; ten'ure. TIN (in compos.): ab'stinent; ab'stinence; continent; incon'tinent; per'tinent; imper'tinent. TENT: content' (-ment); contents'; discontent'; deten'tion; reten'tion; reten'tive; sus'tenance. TAIN: abstain'; appertain'; contain'; detain'; entertain' (-ment); pertain'; retain' (-er); sustain'. Tena'cious (Lat. adj. _te'nax, tena'cis_, holding firmly); tenac'ity; appur'tenance, _that which belongs to something else_; contin'ue (Fr. v. _continuer_ = Lat. _contine're_); contin'ual; contin'uance; continua'tion; continu'ity; discontin'ue; coun'tenance (literally, the contents of a body: hence, of a face); lieuten'ant (Fr. n. _lieu_, a place); maintain' (Fr. n. _main_, the hand), literally, _to hold by the hand_: hence, _to support, to uphold_; main'tenance; pertina'cious; pertinac'ity; ret'inue, _a train of attendants_. 200. TER'RA, _the earth_. TERR: ter'race (Fr. n. _terrasse_); terra'queous (Lat. n. _a'qua_, water); terres'trial; ter'ritory (-al); ter'rier, _a small dog that goes into the ground after burrowing animals_; Mediterra'nean (Lat. n. _me'dius_, middle); subterra'nean. Inter, _to put in the earth, to bury_; inter'ment; disinter'. 201. TES'TIS, _a witness_. TEST: tes'tify; attest' (-ation); contest'; detest' (-able); protest' (-ation, -ant); prot'estantism. Tes'tament (Lat. n. _testamen'tum_, a will); testamen'tary; testa'tor; tes'timony (-al); intes'tate, _not having left a will_. 202. TOR'QUERE: tor'queo, tor'tum, _to twist_. TORT: tort'ure; contort' (-ion); distort' (-ion); extort' (-ion, -ionate); retort'. Tor'tuous (Lat. adj. _tortuo'sus_, very twisted); tortuos'ity; torment' (Lat. n. _tormen'tum_, extreme pain). 203. TRA'HERE: tra'ho, trac'tum, _to draw_; _Fr._ Trair, _past part._ Trait. TRACT: tract (-able, -ile, -ion); ab'stract (-ion); attract' (-ion, -ive); contract' (-ile, -or); detract'; distract'; extract' (-ion, -or); protract'; retract' (-ion); subtract' (-ion). Trace (Fr. n. _trace_); track (Old Fr. n. _trac_); train; trait; treat (-ise, -ment, -y). 204. TRIBU'ERE: trib'uo, tribu'tum, _to allot, to give_. TRIBUT: trib'ute (-ary); attrib'ute; contribute (-ion); distrib'ute (-ion, -ive); retribu'tion; retrib'utive. 205. TRU'DERE: tru'do, tru'sum, _to thrust_. TRUD: detrude', _to thrust down_; extrude'; intrude' (-er); obtrude'; protrude'. TRUS: abstruse' (literally, thrust away: hence, difficult to be understood); intru'sion; intru'sive; obtru'sive; protru'sion. 206. TU'ERE: tu'eor, tu'itus _or_ tu'tus, _to watch_. TUIT: tui'tion, _instruction_; intui'tion, _the act or power of the mind by which it at once perceives the truth of a thing without argument_; intu'itive. TUT: tu'tor; tuto'rial; tu'torage. 207. UN'DA, _a wave_. UND: abun'dance, literally, condition of overflowing--(_abunda're_, to overflow); abun'dant; superabundant; inun'date (-ion); redun'dant (literally, running back or over: hence, exceeding what is necessary); redundance; redun'dancy. Un'dulate (Lat. n. _un'dula_, a little wave); undula'tion; un'dulatory; abound'; superabound'; redound' (Old Fr. v. _redonder_ = Lat. _redunda're_, to roll back as a wave or flood). 208. U'TI: u'tor, u'sus, _to use_. UT: uten'sil (Lat. n. _uten'sile_, something that may be used); util'ity (Lat. n. _util'itas_, usefulness); u'tilize. US: use (-able, -age, -ful, -less); us'ual (Lat. adj. _usua'lis_, of frequent use); u'sury, _illegal interest paid for the use of money_; u'surer; abuse' (-ive); disabuse'. 209. VAD'ERE: va'do, va'sum, _to go_. VAD: evade'; invade'; pervade'. VAS: eva'sion; inva'sion; perva'sive. 210. VALE'RE: valeo, vali'tum, _to be strong, to be of value_; Val'idus, _strong_; Va'le, _farewell_. VAL: valedic'tory, _bidding farewell_; valetudina'rian (Lat. n. _valetu'do_, state of health), _a person in ill-health_; val'iant, _brave_, _heroic_; val'or (-ous); val'ue (-able, -ation, -ator); convales'cent, _regaining health_; equiv'alent (Lat. adj. _e'quus_, equal); prev'alent, _very common or general_; prevalence. VAIL: (Fr. radical): avail' (-able); prevail'. VALID: val'id; valid'ity; in'valid. 211. VENI'RE: ve'nio, ven'tum, _to come, to go_. VENT: vent'ure, literally, _something gone upon_; vent'uresome; ad'vent; adventi'tious, _accidental, casual_; advent'ure (-ous); circumvent'; contraven'tion; con'vent, _a monastery, a nunnery_; conven'ticle, _a place of assembly_; conven'tion (-al); event'(-ful); event'ual; invent' (literally, to come upon), _to find out, to contrive_; inven'tion; invent'ive; invent'or; interven'tion; peradvent'ure; prevent' (-ion, -ive). Av'enue (Fr. n. _avenue_, an approach to); contravene'; convene'; conven'ient (Lat. pres. part, _conve'niens, convenien'tis_, literally, coming together), _suitable_; conven'ience; cov'enant _an agreement between two parties_; intervene'; rev'enue; supervene', _to come upon, to happen_. 212. VER'BUM, _a word_. VERB: verb (-al, -ally, -ose, -osity); ad'verb; prov'erb. Verba'tim (Lat. adv. _verba'tim_, word for word); ver'biage (Fr. n. _verbiage_, wordiness). 213. VER'TERE: ver'to, ver'sum, _to turn_. VERT: advert'; inadver'tent (literally, not turning the mind to), _heedless_; ad'vertise, _to turn public attention to_; adver'tisement; animadvert' (Lat. n. _an'imus_, the mind), _to turn the mind to, to censure_; avert'; controvert', _to oppose_; convert', _to change into another form or state_; divert'; invert', literally, _to turn the outside in_; pervert', _to turn from the true purpose_; retrovert'; revert'; subvert'. VERS: adverse' (-ary, -ity); animadver'sion; anniver'sary, _the yearly_ (Lat. n. _an'nus_, a year) _celebration of an event_; averse', _having a dislike to_; aver'sion; con'troversy; converse' (-ant, -ation); conver'sion; diverse' (-ify, -ion, -ity); ob'verse; perverse' (-ity); retrover'sion; reverse' (-al, -ion); subver'sion; subversive; tergiversa'tion (Lat. n. _ter'gum_, the back), _a subterfuge_; transverse', _lying or being across_; u'niverse (Lat. adj. _u'nus_, one), _the system of created things_; univer'sal (-ist); univer'sity, _a universal school in which are taught all branches of learning_. Verse (Lat. n. _ver'sus_, a furrow), _a line in poetry_; ver'sify; versifica'tion; ver'sion, _that which is turned from one language into another, a statement_; ver'satile (Lat. adj. _versat'ilis_, turning with ease); vertex (pl. ver'tices), _the summit_; vertical; vertebra (pl. ver'tebræ); ver'tebrate; ver'tigo; vor'tex (Lat. n. _vor'tex_, a whirlpool); divorce' (Fr. n. _divorce_), _a separation_. 214. VE'RUS, _true_; Ve'rax, vera'cis, _veracious_. VER: ver'dict (Lat. n. _dic'tum_, a saying), _the decision of a jury_; ver'ify, _to prove to be true; _verifica'tion; ver'ity (Lat. n. _ver'itas_, truth); ver'itable; verisim'ilar, _truth-like_; verisimil'itude; aver', _to declare truer_; aver'ment; ver'ily; ver'y. VERAC: v'era'cious; verac'ity. 215. VI'A, _a way_. VIA: vi'aduct (Lat. v. _du'cere, duc'tum_, to lead); viat'icum (Lat. n. _viat'icum_, literally, traveling money), _the sacrament administered to a dying person_; de'viate (-ion); de'vious; ob'viate, _to meet in the way, to remove_; ob'vious; per'vious, _affording a passage through_; imper'vious. Voy'age (Fr. n. _voyage_); convoy', _to escort_; en'voy (Fr. v. _envoyer_, to send), _one sent on a special mission_; triv'ial (Lat. n. _triv'ium_, a cross road), _trifling_; trivial'ity. 216. VIDE'RE: vi'deo, vi'sum, _to see_. VID: ev'ident, _clearly seen; _ev'idence; invid'ious, literally, _looking against_: hence, _likely to provoke envy_; provide', _to look out for, to supply_; prov'idence; prov'ident. VIS: vis'ible; vis'ion (-ary); advise'; advis'able, _expedient_; im'provise, _to compose and recite without premeditation_; provis'ion; revise' (-al, -ion); supervis'ion; supervis'or. View (Fr. v. _voir_, to see, _vu_, seen); review'; in'terview; vis'age (Fr. n. _visage_, the countenance); vis'it (-ant, -or, -ation); vis'or, _part of a helmet perforated to see through; _vis'ta (It. n. _vista_, sight), _a prospect as seen through an avenue of trees _; advice'; en'vy (Fr. n. _envie_ = Lat. _invid'ia_, from _invide're_, to see against); in'voice (It. n. _avviso_, notice), _a priced list of goods_; peruse' (Lat. v. _pervide're, pervi'sum_, to look through); provi'so, _a stipulation_; pru'dent (Lat. adj. _pru'dens _from _prov'idens_); pru'dence; purvey', _to look out for in the way of buying provisions_; purvey'or; survey' (-or). 217. VIN'CERE: vin'co, vic'tum, _to conquer_. VINC: vin'cible; invin'cible; convince'; evince', _to show clearly_ VICT: vic'tor; vic'tory (-ous); convict', _to prove guilty of crime_; evict', _to dispossess_; evic'tion. Vanquish (Fr. v. _vaincre, vaincu_ = Lat. _vin'cere_); prov'ince (Fr. n. _province_ = Lat. _provin'cia_, literally, a conquered country). 218. VOCA'RE: vo'co, voca'tum, _to call_; Vox, vo'cis, _the voice_. VOCAT: voca'tion, literally, _calling, occupation_; voc'ative, _the case of a noun in which the subject is called, or addressed_; ad'vocate _to plead for_; convoca'tion, _an assembly, a meeting_; equivocate (Lat. adj. _e'quus_, equal), _to use words of doubtful meaning_; equivoca'tion; evoca'tion, _act of calling forth_; invoca'tion; provoca'tion; provo'cative; revoca'tion. VOC: vo'cable (Lat. n. _vocab'ulum_, that which is sounded with the voice), _a word_; vocab'ulary; vo'cal (-ist, -ize); vociferate, _to cry with a loud voice_; ad'vocacy, _a pleading for, a defense_; irrev'ocable. Voice (Fr. n. _voix_ = Lat. _vox), sound uttered by the mouth_; vouch, _to call out, or affirm strongly_; vow'el (Fr. n. _vouelle_, a voice-sound); advow'son, _right of perpetual calling to a benefice_; convoke', _to call together_; evoke'; invoke'; revoke'. 219. VOL'VERE: vol'vo, volu'tum, _to roll_. VOLV: circumvolve'; convolve', _to roll together_; devolve'; evolve'; involve'; revolve' (-ion, -ionist). VOLUT: circumvolu'tion; evolu'tion; revolution (-ary, -ist, -ize). Vol'ume (Lat. n. _volu'men_, a roll, or inscribed parchment sheet rolled up), _a single book_; volute', _a kind of rolled or spiral scroll_; vol'uble, literally, _rolling easily_: hence, _having great fluency of speech_; convol'vulus, _a genus of twining plants_; revolt'. 220. VUL'GUS, _the common people_. VULG: vul'gar; vul'garism; vulgar'ity; vul'gate, _a Latin version of the Scriptures_. Divulge', _to make known something before kept secret_; divulge'ment; promulgate (-ion). PART III.--THE GREEK ELEMENT. I.--GREEK PREFIXES. PREFIX SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLE. DEFINITION a- = _without_; a-pathy state of being _without_ an- _not_ an-omalous feeling. _not_ similar. amphi- = _around_; amphi-theater place for seeing all _both_ amphi-bious _around_. living in _both_ land and water. ana- = _back_, ana-logy reasoning _back_. _throughout_ ana-lysis loosening _throughout_. anti- = _against_; anti-pathy a feeling _against_. ant- _opposite_ ant-arctic _opposite_ the Arctic. apo- = _away_; apo-stle one sent _out_. ap- _out_ ap-helion _away_ from the sun. cata- = _down_ or cata-ract a rushing _down_. cat- _against_ cat-arrh a flowing _down_. dia- = _through_ or dia-meter measure _through_ the _across_ dia-logue center. speaking _across_ (from one another). dis- = _two_, dis-syllable word of _two_ syllables. di- _double_ di-lemma a _double_ assumption. dys- = _ill_ dys-pepsia _ill_ digestion. ec- = _out of_ ec-centric _out of_ the center. ex- ex-odies an _outgoing_. Note--EX- is used before a root beginning with a vowel. en- = _in_ or en-ergy power _in_ one. em- _on_ em-phasis stress _on_. epi- = _upon_; epi-dermis skin _upon_ skin. ep- _for_ ep-hemeral lasting _for_ a day. Note--EP- is used before a root beginning with a vowel or a _h_ aspirate eu- = _well_ or eu-phonic sounding _well_. ev- _good_ ev-angel _good_ news. hemi- = _half_ hemi-sphere _half_ a sphere hyper- = _over_ or hyper-critical _over_-critical. _beyond_ hyper-borean _beyond_ the North. hypo- = _under_ hypo-thesis a placing _under_ (= Lat. supposition.) meta- = _beyond_; meta-physics science _beyond_ physics. met- _transference_ met-onymy _transference_ of name. para- = _by the_ par-helion mock sun _by the side of_ par- _side of_ the real. peri- = around peri-meter the measure _around_ anything. pro- = before pro-gramme something written _before_. pros- = to pros-elyte one coming _to_ a new religion. syn- _with_ syn-thesis placing _together_. sy- = or sy-stem part _with_ part. syl- _together_ syl-lable letters taken _together_. sym- sym-pathy feeling _together_. NOTE.--The form SY- is used before _s_; SYL- before _l_, SYM- before _b, p_ or _m_. II.--GREEK ALPHABET. Α α a _Alpha._ Β β * b _Beta._ Γ γ g _Gamma._ Δ δ d _Delta._ Ε ε e as in _met_ _Epsilon._ Ζ ζ z _Zeta._ Η η e as in _me_ _Eta._ Θ θ * th _Theta._ Ι ι i _Iota_ Κ κ k _Kappa._ Λ λ l _Lambda._ Μ μ m _Mu._ Ν ν n _Nu._ Ξ ξ x _Xi._ Ο ο o as in _not_ _Omicron._ Π π * p _Pi_ Ρ ρ r _Rho._ Σ ς, ς final s _Sigma._ Τ τ t _Tau._ Υ υ u, or y _Upsilon._ Φ φ ph _Phi._ Χ χ ch _Chi._ Ψ ψ ps _Psi._ Ω ω o as in _no_ _Omega._ Pronunciation of Greek Words. _Gamma_ has always the hard sound of _g_, as in _give_. _Kappa_ is represented by _c_ in English words, although in Greek it has but one sound, that of our _k_. _Upsilon_ is represented by _y_ in English words; in Greek it has always the sound of _u_ in mute. _Chi_ is represented in English by _ch_ having the sound of _k_; as in _chronic_. In Greek words, as in Latin, there are always as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs. An inverted comma placed over a letter denotes that the sound of our _h_ precedes that letter. GREEK ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIVES. DIVISION I.--PRINCIPAL GREEK ROOTS. 1. A'ER (αηρ), _the air_. A'ERATE, _to combine with air; to mix with carbonic acid_. A-E'RIAL, _belonging to the air_. A'ERIFORM, _having the form of air_. A'EROLITE (Gr. n. _lith'os_, a stone), _a meteoric stone_. A'ERONAUT (Gr. n. _nau'tēs_, a sailor), _a balloonist_. AEROSTA'TION, _aerial navigation_. AIR, _the atmosphere; a melody; the bearing of a person_. AIR'Y, _open to the air; gay, sprightly_. 2. AG'EIN (αγειν), _to lead_. APAGO'GE, _a leading away; an indirect argument_ DEM'AGOGUE (Gr. n. _de'mos_, the people), _a misleader of the people_. PARAGO'GE (literally, a leading or extension beyond), _the addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word_. PED'AGOGUE (Gr. n. _pais_, a child), _a schoolmaster; a pedantic person_.. SYN'AGOGUE, _a Jewish place of worship_. 3. A'GON (αγων), a contest. AG'ONY, _extreme pain_. AG'ONIZE, _to be in agony_. ANTAG'ONISM, _direct opposition_. ANTAG'ONIST, _or_ ANTAGONIS'TIC, _contending against_. 4. ANG'ELLEIN (αγγελλειν), _to bring tidings_; ANG'ELLOS (αγγελλος), _a messenger_. AN'GEL, _a spiritual messenger_. ANGEL'IC, _relating to an angel_. ARCHAN'GEL (Gr. prefix _archi-_, chief), _an angel of the highest order_. EVAN'GEL (Gr. prefix _eu_, well), _good tidings; the gospel_. EVAN'GELIST, _one of the writers of the four gospels_. 5. AR'CHE (αρχη), _beginning, government, chief_. AN'ARCHY, _want of government_. AR'CHITECT (Gr. n. _tek'tōn_, workman), literally, _a chief builder, one who devises plans for buildings_. AR'CHIVES, _records_. HEP'TARCHY (Gr. _hepta_, seven), _a sevenfold government_. HI'ERARCHY (Gr. adj. _hi'eros_, sacred), _dominion in sacred things; a sacred body of rulers_. MON'ARCH (Gr. adj. _mon'os_, alone), _one who rules alone, a sovereign_. MON'ARCHY, _government by one person, a kingdom_. OLIGARCHY (Gr. adj. _ol'igos_, few), _government by a few, an aristocracy_. PA'TRIARCH (Gr. n. _pat'ēr_, a father), _the father and ruler of a family_. PATRIAR'CHAL, _relating to patriarchs_. 6. AS'TRON (αστρον), _a star_. AS'TERISK, _a mark like a star (*) used to refer to a note, and sometimes to mark an omission of words_. AS'TEROID (Gr. adj. _ei'dos_, like), _one of the numerous small planets between Mars and Jupiter_. AS'TRAL, _belonging to the stars_. ASTROL'OGY, _the pretended science of foretelling events by the stars_. ASTRON'OMY (Gr. n. _nom'os_, a law), _the science that treats of the stars_. ASTRON'OMER, _one skilled in astronomy_. DISAS'TER, _calamity, misfortune_. DISAS'TROUS, _unlucky; calamitous_. 7. AU'TOS (αυτος), _one's self_. AUTOBIOG'RAPHY (Gr. n. _bi'os_, life, _graph'ein_, to write), _the life of a person written by himself_. AU'TOCRAT (Gr. n. _krat'os_, power), _an absolute ruler_. AUTOCRAT'IC, _like an autocrat_. AU'TOGRAPH, _one's own handwriting_. AUTOM'ATON (Gr. _mema'otes_, striving after), _a self-acting machine_. AUTHEN'TIC, _genuine, true_. AUTHENTIC'ITY, _genuineness_. 8. BAL'LEIN (βαλλειν), _to throw or cast_. EM'BLEM, _a representation; a type_. EMBLEMAT'ICAL, _containing an emblem_. HYPER'BOLE, _a figure of speech which represents things greater or less than they are_. PAR'ABLE, _a story which illustrates some fact or doctrine_. PARAB'OLA, _one of the conic sections_. PROB'LEM, _a question proposed for solution_. SYM'BOL, _a sign; a representation_. SYMBOLICAL, _representing by signs_. 9. BAP'TEIN (βαπτειν), _to wash, to dip_. BAP'TISM, _a Christian sacrament, in the observance of which the individual is sprinkled with or immersed in water_. BAPTIZE', _to sprinkle with or immerse in water_. BAPTISMAL, _pertaining to baptism: as baptismal vows_. BAP'TIST, _one who approves only of baptism by immersion_. ANABAP'TIST, _one who believes that only adults should be baptized_. CATABAP'TIST, _one opposed to baptism_. PEDOBAP'TISM (Gr. _pais_, _paidos_, a child), _infant baptism_. 10. CHRON'OS (χρονος), time. CHRON'IC, _lasting a long time_; _periodical_. CHRON'ICLE, _a record of events in the order of time_; _a history recording facts in order of time_. CHRONOL'OGY, _the science of computing the dates of past events_. CHRONOM'ETER (Gr. n. _me'tron_, a measure), _an instrument for measuring time_. ANACH'RONISM, _an error in computing time_. SYN'CHRONAL, SYN'CHRONOUS, _existing at the same time_. 11. GRAM'MA (γραμμα), _a letter_ GRAM'MAR, _the science of language_. GRAMMA'RIAN, _one skilled in or who teaches grammar_. GRAMMAT'ICAL, _according to the rules of grammar_. AN'AGRAM, _the change of one word into another by transposing the letters_. DI'AGRAM, _a writing or drawing made for illustration_. EP'IGRAM, _a short poem ending with a witty thought_. MON'OGRAM (Gr. adj. _mon'os_, alone), _a character composed of several letters interwoven_. PRO'GRAMME, _order of any entertainment_. TEL'EGRAM (Gr. _te'le_, at a distance), _a message sent by telegraph_. 12. GRAPH'EIN (γραφειν), _to write_. GRAPH'IC, _well delineated; giving vivid description_. AU'TOGRAPH. See _au'tos_. BIOG'RAPHY (Gr. n. _bi'os_, life), _the history of a life_. CALIG'RAPHY (Gr. adj. _kal'os_, beautiful), _beautiful writing_. GEOG'RAPHY (Gr. n. _gē_, the earth), _a description of the earth_. HISTORIOG'RAPHER (Gr. n. _histo'ria_, history), _one appointed to write history_. HOL'OGRAPH (Gr. adj. _hol'os_, whole), _a deed or will wholly written by the grantor or testator_. LEXICOG'RAPHER (Gr. n. _lex'icon_, a dictionary), _the compiler of a dictionary_. LITH'OGRAPH (Gr. n. _lith'os_, a stone), _an impression of a drawing made on stone_. LITHOG'RAPHY, _the art of writing on and taking impressions from stone_. ORTHOG'RAPHY (Gr. adj. _or'thos_, correct), _the correct spelling of words_. PHO'NOGRAPH (Gr. n. _pho'ne_, sound), _an instrument for the mechanical registration and reproduction of audible sounds_. PHONOG'RAPHY, _a system of short hand; the art of constructing or of using the phonograph_. PHOTOG'RAPHY (Gr. n. _phos, phot'os_, light), _the art of producing pictures by light_. STENOG'RAPHY (Gr. adj. _sten'os_, narrow), _the art of writing in short-hand_. TEL'EGRAPH (Gr. _te'le_, at a distance), _an apparatus for conveying intelligence to a distance by means of electricity_. TOPOG'RAPHY (Gr. n. _top'os_, a place), _the description of a particular place_. TYPOGRAPHY (Gr. n. _tu'pos_, a type), _the art or operation of printing_. 13. HOD'OS ('οδος), _a way_. EP'ISODE, _an incidental story introduced into a poem or narrative_. EX'ODUS, _departure from a place; the second book of the Old Testament_. METH'OD, _order, system, way, manner_. METH'ODIST, _the followers of John Wesley_. (The name has reference to the strictness of the rules of this sect of Christians). PE'RIOD (Gr. n. _period'os_, a passage round), _the time in which anything is performed; a kind of sentence; a punctuation mark_. SYN'OD, _a meeting of ecclesiastics_. 14. HU'DOR ('υδορ), _water_. HY'DRA, _a water-snake; a fabulous monster serpent slain by Hercules_. HYDRAN'GEA, _a genus of plants remarkable for their absorption of water_. HY'DRANT, _a water-plug_. HYDRAU'LIC (Gr. n. _au'los_, a pipe), _relating to the motion of water through pipes; worked by water_. HYDRAU'LICS, _the science which treats of fluids in motion_. HYDROCEPH'ALUS (Gr. n. _keph'ale_, the head), _dropsy of the head_. HY'DROGEN (Gr. v. _gen'ein_, to beget), _a gas which with oxygen produces water_. HYDROG'RAPHY, _the art of maritime surveying and mapping_. HYDROP'ATHY (Gr. n. _path'os_, feeling), _the water-cure_. HYDROPHO'BIA (Gr. n. _phob'os_, fear), literally, _dread of water; canine madness_. HY'DROPSY, _a collection of water in the body_. ("Dropsy" is a contraction of _hydropsy_). HYDROSTAT'ICS, _the science which treats of fluids at rest_. 15. KRAT'OS (χρατος), _rule, government, strength_. ARISTOC'RACY (Gr. adj. _aris'tos_, best), _government by nobles_. ARIS'TOCRAT, _one who favors aristocracy_. AU'TOCRAT. See _au'tos_. DEMOC'RACY (Gr. n. _de'mos_, the people), _government by the people_. DEM'OCRAT, _one who upholds democracy; in the United States, a member of the democratic party_. THEOC'RACY, _government of a state by divine direction, as the ancient Jewish state_. 16. LOG'OS (λογος), _speech, ratio, description, science_. LOG'IC, _the science and art of reasoning_. LOGI'CIAN, _one skilled in logic_. LOG'ARITHMS (Gr. n. _arith'mos_, number), _a class of numbers that abridge arithmetical calculations_. ANAL'OGY, _a resemblance of ratios_. AP'OLOGUE, _a moral fable_. APOL'OGY, _a defense, an excuse_. CAT'ALOGUE, _a list of names in order_. CHRONOL'OGY. (See _chronos_.) CONCHOL'OGY (Gr. n. _kon'chos_, a shell), _the science of shells_. DEC'ALOGUE (Gr. _dek'a_, ten), _the ten commandments_. DOXOL'OGY (Gr. n. _doxa_, glory), _a hymn expressing glory to God_. EC'LOGUE, _a pastoral poem_. ENTOMOL'OGY (Gr. n. _ento'ma_, insects, and v. _tem'nein_, to cut), _the natural history of insects_. EP'ILOGUE, _a short poem or speech at the end of a play_. ETYMOL'OGY (Gr. _et'umon_, true source), _a part of grammar; the science of the derivation of words_. EU'LOGY, _praise, commendation_. GENEAL'OGY (Gr. n. _gen'os_, birth), _history of the descent of families_. GEOL'OGY (Gr. n. _gē_, the earth), _the science which treats of the internal structure of the earth_. MINERAL'OGY, _the science of minerals_. MYTHOL'OGY (Gr. n. _mu'thos_, a fable), _a system or science of fables_. ORNITHOL'OGY (Gr. n. _or'nis, or'nithos_, a bird), _the natural history of birds_. PATHOL'OGY (Gr. n. _path'os_, suffering), _that part of medicine which treats of the causes and nature of diseases_. PHILOL'OGY (Gr. _phil'os_, loving, fond of), _the science which treats of languages_. PHRENOL'OGY (Gr. n. _phrén_, the mind), _the art of reading the mind from the form of the skull_. PHYSIOL'OGY (Gr. n. _phu'sis_, nature), _the science which treats of the organism of plants and animals_. PRO'LOGUE, _verses recited as introductory to a play_. PSYCHOL'OGY (Gr. n. _psu'che_, the soul), _mental philosophy; doctrine of man's spiritual nature_. SYL'LOGISM, _a form of reasoning consisting of three propositions_. TAUTOL'OGY (Gr. _tau'to_, the same), _a repetition of the same idea in different words_. TECHNOL'OGY (Gr. n. _tech'ne_, art), _a description of the arts_. THEOL'OGY. See _theos_. TOXICOL'OGY (Gr. n. _tox'icon_, poison) _the science which treats of poisons and their effects_. ZOOL'OGY (Gr. n. _zo'on_, an animal), _that part of natural history which treats of animals_. 17. MET'RON (μετρον) _a measure_. ME'TER, _arrangement of poetical feet; a measure of length_. MET'RIC, _denoting measurement_. MET'RICAL, _pertaining to meter_. ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. n. _an'emos_, the wind), _an instrument measuring the force and velocity of the wind_. BAROM'ETER (Gr. n. _ba'ros_, weight), _an instrument that indicates changes in the weather_. DIAM'ETER, _measure through anything_. GEOM'ETRY (Gr. n. _ge_, the earth), _a branch of mathematics_. HEXAM'ETER (Gr. _hex_, six), _a line of six poetic feet_. HYDROM'ETER (Gr. n. _hu'dor_, water), _an instrument for determining the specific gravities of liquids_. HYGROM'ETER (Gr. adj. _hu'gros_, wet), _an instrument for measuring the degree of moisture of the atmosphere_. PENTAM'ETER (Gr. _pen'te_, five), _a line of five poetic feet_. PERIM'ETER, _the external boundary of a body or figure_. SYM'METRY, _the proportion or harmony of parts_. THERMOM'ETER (Gr. adj. _ther'mos_, warm), _an instrument for measuring the heat of bodies_. TRIGONOM'ETRY (Gr. n. _trigo'non_, a triangle), _a branch of mathematics_. 18. MON'OS (μονος), _sole, alone_. MON'ACHISM, _the condition of monks; a monastic life_. MON'AD, _something ultimate and indivisible_. MON'ASTERY, _a house of religious retirement_. MONK (Gr. n. _mon'achos_), _a religious recluse_. MONOG'AMY (Gr. n. _gam'os_, MARRIAGE), _the marriage of one wife only_. MON'OLOGUE (Gr. n. _log'os_), _a speech uttered by a person alone_. MONOMA'NIA (Gr. n. _ma'nia_, madness), _madness confined to one subject_. MONOP'OLY (Gr. v. pol'ein, to sell), _the sole power of selling anything_. MONOSYL'LABLE, _a word of one syllable_. MON'OTHEISM (Gr. n. _the'os_, God), _the belief in the existence of only one God_. MON'OTONE, _uniformity of tone_. MONOT'ONY, _sameness of sound; want of variety_. 19. O'DE (ωδε), _a song_. ODE, _a lyric poem_. MEL'ODY (Gr. n. _mel'os_, a song), _an agreeable succession of musical sounds_. PAR'ODY, _the alteration of the works of an author to another subject_. PROS'ODY, _the study of versification_. PSAL'MODY, _the practice of singing psalms_. TRAG'EDY (Gr. n. _trag'os_, a goat[9]), _a dramatic representation of a sad or calamitous event_. EXERCISE. The _periods_ of _astronomy_ go far beyond any _chronology_. The _phonograph_ and the _telegraph_ are both American inventions. By the aid of a _diagram_ the _problem_ was readily solved. Dr. Holmes, the _Autocrat_ of the Breakfast Table, has written many _parodies_. In the struggle between _monarchy_ and _democracy_ Mexico has often been in a state of _anarchy_. His _antagonist_ suffered great _agony_ from the _disaster_ that occurred. The _eulogy_ pronounced on the great _zoölogist_ Agassiz was well deserved. What is the _etymological_ distinction between _geography_ and _geology_? The _aeronaut_ took with him a _barometer_, a _thermometer_, and a _chronometer_. I owe you an _apology_ for not better knowing your _genealogy. Typography_ has been well called "the art preservative of all the arts." Who is called the great American _lexicographer? Tautology_ is to be avoided by all who make any pretence to _grammar_. One may be a _democrat_ without being a _demagogue_. You cannot be an _architect_ without knowing _geometry. Zoology_ shows that there is great _symmetry_ in the structure of animals. The pretensions of _astrology_ are now dissipated into thin _air_. Many persons skilled in _physiology_ do not believe in hydropathy. Longfellow's "Evangeline" is written in _hexameter_, and Milton's "Paradise Lost" in _pentameter_. 20. ON'OMA (ονομα), _a name_. ANON'YMOUS, _without a name_. METON'YMY, _a rhetorical figure in which one word is put for another_. ON'OMATOPOE'IA, _the forming of words whose sound suggests the sense_. PARON'YMOUS, _of like derivation_. PATRONYM'IC (Gr. n. _pat'er_, a father), _a name derived from a parent or ancestor_. PSEU'DONYM (Gr. adj. _pseu'des_, false), _a fictitious name_. SYN'ONYM, _a word having the same meaning as another in the same language_. 21. PAN (παν, παντος), _all; whole_. PANACE'A (Gr. v. _ak'eomai_, I cure), _a universal cure_. PAN'CREAS (Gr. n. _kre'as_, flesh), _a fleshy gland situated at the bottom of the stomach_. PAN'DECT, _a treatise which combines the whole of any science_. PANEGYR'IC (Gr. n. _ag'ora_, an assembly), _an oration in praise of some person or event_. PAN'OPLY (Gr. n. _hop'la_, armor), _a complete suit of armor_. PANORA'MA (Gr. n. _hor'ama_, a sight or view), _a large picture gradually unrolled before an assembly_. PAN'THEISM (Gr. n. _the'os_, God), _the doctrine that nature is God_. PAN'THEON, _a temple dedicated to all the gods_. PAN'TOMIME, _a scene or representation in dumb show_. 22. PA'THOS (παθος), _suffering, feeling_. PATHET'IC, _affecting the emotions_. PATHOL'OGY, _the science of diseases_. ALLOP'ATHY, _a mode of medical practice_. ANTIP'ATHY, _dislike, aversion_. AP'ATHY, _want of feeling_. HOMEOP'ATHY, _a mode of medical practice_. HYDROP'ATHY. See _hudor_. SYM'PATHY, _fellow-feeling_. 23. PHIL'OS (φιλος), _a friend, a lover_. PHILADEL'PHIA (Gr. n. _adel'phos_, a brother), literally, _the city of brotherly love_. PHILANTHROPY (Gr. n. _anthro'pos_, a man), _love of mankind_. PHILHARMON'IC (Gr. n. _harmo'nia_, harmony), _loving harmony or music_. PHILOS'OPHY (Gr. n. _sophi'a_, wisdom), _the general laws or principles belonging to any department of knowledge_. PHILOS'OPHER, _one versed in philosophy or science_. PHILOSOPH'IC, PHILOSOPH'ICAL, _relating to philosophy_. 24. PHA'NEIN (φαινειν), _to cause to appear_; PHANTA'SIA (φαντασια), _an image, an idea_. DIAPH'ANOUS, _translucent_. EPIPH'ANY, _the festival commemorative of the manifestation of Christ by the star of Bethlehem_. FAN'CY, _a pleasing image; a conceit or whim_. FAN'CIFUL, _full of fancy; abounding in wild images_. FANTA'SIA, _a musical composition avowedly not governed by the ordinary musical rules_. PHAN'TOM, _a specter, an apparation_. PHASE, _an appearance_. PHENOM'ENON, _anything presented to the senses by experiment or observation; an unusual appearance_. SYC'OPHANT (Gr. n. _sukon_, a fig, and, literally, an informer against stealers of figs), _a mean flatterer_. 25. PHO'NE (φωνη), _a sound_. PHONET'IC, PHON'IC _according to sound_. EU'PHONY, _an agreeable sound of words_. SYM'PHONY, _harmony of mingled sounds; a musical composition for a full band of instruments_. 26. PHOS (φως, φωτος), _light_. PHOS'PHORUS (Gr. v. _pherein_, to bear), _a substance resembling wax, highly inflammable, and luminous in the dark_. PHOS'PHATE, _a salt of phosphoric acid_. PHOSPHORES'CENT, _luminous in the dark_. PHOSPHOR'IC, _relating to or obtained from phosphorus_. PHOTOG'RAPHY. See _graphein_. 27. PHU'SIS (φυσις), _nature_. PHYS'IC, _medicines_. PHYS'ICAL, _natural; material; relating to the body_. PHYSI'CIAN, _one skilled in the art of healing_. PHYS'ICIST, _a student of nature_. PHYS'ICS, _natural philosophy_. PHYSIOG'NOMY (Gr. n. _gno'mon_, a judge), _the art of discerning the character of the mind from the features of the face; the particular cast of features or countenance_. PHYSIOL'OGY. See _logos_. METAPHYS'ICS, literally, _after or beyond physics_; hence, _the science of mind_. METAPHYSI'CIAN, _one versed in metaphysics_. 28. POL'IS (πολις), _a city_. POLICE', _the body of officers employed to secure the good order of a city_. POL'ICY, _the art or manner of governing a nation or conducting public affairs; prudence_. POL'ITIC, _wise, expedient_. POLIT'ICAL, _relating to politics_. POLITI'CIAN, _one devoted to politics_. POL'ITICS, _the art or science of government; struggle of parties_. POL'ITY, _the constitution of civil government_. ACROP'OLIS (Gr. adj. _ak'ros_, high), _a citadel_. COSMOP'OLITE (Gr. n. _kos'mos_, the world), _a citizen of the world_. METROP'OLIS (Gr. n. _me'ter_, a mother), _the chief city of a country_. NECROP'OLIS (Gr. adj. _nek'ros_, dead), _a burial-place; a city of the dead_. 29. RHE'O ('ρεω), _I flow, I speak_. RHET'ORIC, _the art of composition; the science of oratory_. RHETORI'CIAN, _one skilled in rhetoric_. RHEU'MATISM, _a disease of the limbs_ (so called because the ancients supposed it to arise from a deflection of the humors). RES'IN, _a gum which flows from certain trees_. CATARRH', _a discharge of fluid from the nose caused by cold in the head_. DIARRHOE'A, _purging_. HEM'ORRHAGE (Gr. n. _haima_, blood), _a flowing of blood_. 30. SKOP'EIN (σκοπειν), _to see, to watch_. SCOPE, _space, aim, intention_. BISH'OP (Gr. n. _epis'kopos_, overseer), _a clergyman who has charge of a diocese_. EPIS'COPACY, _church government by bishops_. EPIS'COPAL, _relating to episcopacy_. KALEI'DOSCOPE (Gr. adj. _kal'os_, beautiful), _an optical instrument in which we see an endless variety of beautiful patterns by simple change of position_. MI'CROSCOPE (Gr. adj. _mik'ros_, small), _an instrument for examining small objects_. MICROS'COPIST, _one skilled in the use of the microscope_. STETH'OSCOPE (Gr. n. _steth'os_, the breast), _an instrument for examining the state of the chest by sound_. TEL'ESCOPE (Gr. _te'le_, afar off), _an instrument for viewing objects far off_. 31. TAK'TOS (τακτος), _arranged_; TAX'IS (ταξις), _arrangement_. TAC'TICS, _the evolution, maneuvers, etc., of military and naval forces_; _the science or art which relates to these_. TACTI'CIAN, _one skilled in tactics_. SYN'TAX, _the arrangement of words into sentences_. SYNTAC'TICAL, _relating to syntax_. TAX'IDERMY (Gr. n. _der'ma_, skin), _the art of preparing and arranging the skins of animals in their natural appearance_. TAX'IDERMIST, _one skilled in taxidermy_. 32. TECH'NE (τεχνη), _art_. TECH'NICAL, _relating to an art or profession_. TECHNICAL'ITY, _a technical expression_; _that which is technical_. TECHNOL'OGY, _a treatise on or description of the arts_. TECHNOL'OGIST, _one skilled in technology_. POLYTECH'NIC (Gr. adj. _pol'us_, many), _comprising many arts_. PYR'OTECHNY (Gr. n. _pur_, fire), _the art of making fireworks_. 33. THE'OS (θεος), _God_. THE'ISM, _belief in the existence of a God_. THEO'CRACY. (See _kratos_.) THEO'LOGY. (See _logos_.) APOTHEO'SIS, _glorification, deification_. A'THEISM, _disbelief in the existence of God_. A'THEIST, _one who does not believe in the existence of God_. ENTHU'SIASM, _heat of imagination_; _ardent zeal_. PAN'THEISM. (See _pan_.) POL'YTHEISM (Gr. adj. _polus_, many), _the doctrine of a plurality of Gods_. 34. TITH'ENI (τιθεναι), _to place, to set_. THEME, _a subject set forth for discussion_. THE'SIS, _a proposition set forth for discussion_. ANATH'EMA, _an ecclesiastical curse_. ANTITHESIS, _opposition or contrast in words or deeds_. HYPOTH'ESIS, _a supposition_. PAREN'THESIS, _something inserted in a sentence which is complete without it_. SYN'THESIS, _a putting together, as opposed to analysis_. 35. TON'OS (τονος), _tension, tone_. TONE, _tension, vigor, sound_. TON'IC, adj. _increasing tension or vigor_; n. _a medicine which increases strength_. TUNE, _a series of musical notes on a particular key_. ATTUNE', _to make musical_; _to make one sound agree with another_. BAR'YTONE (Gr. adj. _ba'rus_, heavy), _a male voice_. DIATON'IC, _proceeding by tones and semitones_. IN'TONATE, _to sound; to modulate the voice_. INTONE', _to give forth a slow, protracted sound_. SEM'ITONE, _half a tone_. REVIEW EXERCISE ON GREEK DERIVATIVES. 1. Derivation of "antithesis"?--Compose an example of an antithesis.--Point out the antithesis in the following:-- "The prodigal robs his heir; the miser robs himself." "A wit with dunces and a dunce with wits." "Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull, Strong without rage, without o'erflowing, full." 2. Derivation of "hypothesis."--Give an adjective formed from this noun.--What Latin derivative corresponds literally to "hypothesis"? _Ans. Supposition_.--Show this. _Ans_. Supposition is composed of sub = hypo (under), and position (from _ponere_, to place) = thesis, a placing--What adjective from "supposition" would correspond to "hypothetical"? _Ans. Supposititious._ 3. Derivation of "parenthesis"?--Compose a parenthetical sentence. 4. What is the opposite of "synthesis"?--Give the distinction _Ans. Analysis_ is taking apart, _synthesis_ is putting together--What adjective is derived from the noun "synthesis"? 5. What adjective is formed from "demagogue"? _Ans. Demagogic_ or _demagogical_--Define it--Compose a sentence containing the word "demagogue". MODEL: "Aaron Burr, to gain popularity, practiced the arts of a _demagogue_." 6. What adjective is formed from "pedagogue"? _Ans. Pedagogic_--What would the "_pedagogic_ art" mean?--Is "pedagogue" usually employed in a complimentary sense?--Give a synonym of "pedagogue" in its literal sense. 7. Derivation of "anarchy"?--Compose a sentence containing this word. MODEL: "Many of the South American States have long been cursed by _anarchy_." 8. What adjective is formed from "monarchy"? _Ans. Monarchical_--Define it.--Can you mention a country at present ruled by a monarchical government?--What is the ruler of a monarchy called? 9. Compose a sentence containing the word "oligarchy". MODEL: "During the Middle Ages some of the Italian republics, as Genoa and Venice, were under the rule of an _oligarchy_." 10. From what root is "democracy" derived?--What adjective is formed from "democracy"?--Is Russia at present a _democracy_?--Can you mention any ancient governments that for a time were democracies? 11. What adjective is formed fiom "aristocracy"?--What noun will denote one who believes in aristocracy? _Ans. Aristocrat_--What does "aristocrat" ordinarily mean? _Ans._ A proud or haughty person who holds himself above the common people. 12. What is the etymology of "thermometer"? 13. Illustrate the meaning of "chronometer" by using it in a sentence. 14. What adjective is formed from "diameter"? _Ans. Diametrical_--What adverb is formed from "diametrical"?--What is meant by the expression "_diametrically_ opposed"? 15. What science was the forerunner of astronomy? _Ans. Astrology_--Give the derivative of this word.--What word denotes one who is skilled in astronomy?--Form an adjective from "astronomy."--Compose a sentence containing the word "astronomy." MODEL: "The three great founders of _astronomy_ are Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton." 16. From what root is "telescope" derived?--Combine and define telescop + ic.--Compose a sentence using the word "telescope." 17. From what root is "microscope" derived?--Combine and define microscop + ic.--What single word denotes microscopic animals? _Ans. Animalculæ_.--Compose a sentence containing the word "microscope." MODEL: "As the telescope reveals the infinitely distant, so the _microscope_ reveals the infinitely little." 18. Compose a sentence containing the word "antipathy." MODEL: "That we sometimes have antipathies which we cannot explain is well illustrated in the lines: 'The reason why I cannot tell, I do not like you, Dr. Fell.'" 19. What adjective is formed from "apathy"? 20. Derivation of "sympathy"?--Give a synonym of this Greek derivative. _Ans. Compassion_.--Show why they are literal synonyms. _Ans._ Sym = con or com, and pathy = passion; hence, compassion = sympathy.--Give an English derivative expressing the same thing. _Ans. Fellow-feeling._ 21. From what two roots is "autocrat" derived?--Form an adjective from "autocrat."--Who is the present "autocrat of all the Russias"?--Could the Queen of England be called an _autocrat_?--Why not? 22. Compose a sentence containing the word "autograph." MODEL: "There are only two or three _autographs_ of Shakespeare in existence." 23. Derivation of "automaton"?--Illustrate the signification of the word by a sentence. 24. What word would denote a remedy for "all the ills that flesh is heir to"?--Compose a sentence containing the word "panacea." 25. Derivation of "panoply"?--In the following sentence is "panoply" used in a literal or a figurative sense? "We had need to take the Christian _panoply_, to put on the whole armor of God." 26. From what two roots is "pantheism" derived?--What word is used to denote one who believes in pantheism? 27. Can you mention an ancient religion in which there were many gods?--Each divinity might have its own temple; but what name would designate a temple dedicated to _all_ the gods? 28. Give an adjective formed from the word "panorama."--Compose a sentence using the word "panorama." 29. What is the derivative of "eulogy"?--Illustrate its meaning by a sentence.--Form an adjective from "eulogy." 30. What is the etymology of "pseudonym"?--Give an example of a pseudonym. DIVISION II.--ADDITIONAL GREEK ROOTS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. ACH'OS, _pain_--ache, headache. AINIG'MA, _a riddle_--enigma. AK'ME, _a point_--acme. AKOU'EIN, _to hear_--acoustics. AK'ROS, _high_--_acropolis (polis)._ ALLEL'ON, _each other_--parallel, parallelogram. AN'ER, _a man_--Andrew, Alexander. AN'THOS, _a flower_--anther, anthology, polyanthus. ANTHRO'POS, _a man_--anthropology, anthropophagi, misanthrope, philanthropist, philanthropy. ARK'TOS, _a bear_--arctic, antarctic. AR'GOS, _idle_--lethargy, lethargic. ARIS'TOS, _best_--aristocrat _(kratos)_, aristocracy, aristocratic. ARITH'MOS, _number_--arithmetic, arithmetician, logarithm, logarithmic. ARO'MA, _spice, odor_--aromatic. ARTE'RIA, _a bloodvessel_--artery, arterial. ASK'EIN, _to discipline_--ascetic, asceticism. ASPHAL'TOS, _pitch_--asphalt. ATH'LOS, _a contest_--athlete, athletic. AT'MOS, _vapor, smoke_--atmosphere, atmospheric. AU'LOS, _a pipe_--hydraulic. BAL'SAMON, _balsam_--balm, embalm. BA'ROS, _weight_--barometer, barytes. BA'SIS, _the bottom_--base, baseless, basement, basis. BIB'LION, _a book_--bible, biblical. BI'OS, _life_--biography, biology. BO'TANE, _a plant_--botanic, botanical, botanist, botany. BRON'CHOS, _the throat_--bronchial, bronchitis. BUS'SOS, _bottom_--abyss. CHA'LUPS, _steel_--chalybeate. CHARAS'SEIN, _to stamp_--character, characterize, characteristic. CHA'RIS, _grace_--eucharist. CHEIR, _the hand_--surgeon (short for _chirurgeon_), surgical. CHLO'ROS, _green_--chloride, chlorine CHOL'E, _bile_--choler, cholera, choleraic, melancholy. CHOR'DE, _a string_--chord, cord, cordage. CHRIS'TOS, _anointed_--chrism, Christ, Christian, Christmas, Christendom, antichrist. CHRO'MA, _color_--chromatic, chrome, chromic, chromotype, achromatic. CHRU'SOS, _gold_--chrysalis, chrysolite. CHU'LOS, _the milky juice formed by digestion_--chyle, chylifaction. CHU'MOS, _juice_--chyme, chemist, chemistry, alchemy, alchemist. DAI'MON, _a spirit_--demon, demoniac, demonology. DE'MOS, _the people_--demagogue, democracy, democrat, endemic, epidemic. DEN'DRON, _a tree_--dendrology, rhododendron. DER'MA, _the skin_--epidermis. DES'POTES, _a ruler_--despot, despotic, despotism. DIAI'TA, _manner of life_--diet, dietary, dietetic. DIDO'NI, _to give_--dose, antidote, anecdote. DOG'MA, _an opinion_--dogma, dogmatic, dogmatize, dogmatism. DOX'A, _an opinion, glory_--doxology, heterodox, orthodox, paradox. DRAM'A, _a stage-play_--drama, dramatic, dramatist. DROM'OS, _a course_--dromedary, hippodrome. DRUS, _an oak_--dryad. DUNA'THAI, _to be able_--dynamics, dynamical, dynasty. DUS, _ill, wrong_--dysentery (_entera_, the bowels), dyspepsia (_peptein_, to digest). EKKLE'SIA, _the church_--ecclesiastes, ecclesiastic, ecclesiastical. E'CHEIN, _to sound_--echo, catechise, catechism, catechumen. EKLEI'PEIN, _to fail_--eclipse, ecliptic. ELEK'TRON, _amber_--electric, electricity, electrify, electrotype. EM'EIN, _to vomit_--emetic. EP'OS, _a word_--epic, orthoepy. ER'EMOS, _desert, solitary_--hermit, hermitage. ER'GON, _a work_--energy, energetic, surgeon (_cheir_, the hand). ETH'NOS, _a nation_--ethnic, ethnical, ethnography, ethnology. ETH'OS, _custom, manner_--ethics, ethical. EU, _good, well_--eulogy, eulogize, euphony, evangelical. GAM'OS, _marriage_--bigamy, polygamy, misogamist. GAS'TER, _the stomach_--gastric, gastronomy. GE, _the earth_--geography, geology, geological, geometry, George, apogee, perigee. GEN'NAEIN, _to produce_--genealogy, genesis, heterogeneous, homogeneous, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen. GIGNOS'KEIN, _to know_--diagnosis, diagnostic, prognosticate. GLOS'SA, GLOT'TA, _the tongue_--glossary, glottis, polyglot. GLU'PHEIN, _to carve_--hieroglyphics. GNO'MON, _an indicator_--gnomon, physiognomy (_phusis_). GO'NIA, _a corner_--diagonal, heptagon, hexagon, octagon, trigonometry. GUM'NOS, _naked_--gymnasium, gymnast, gymnastics. HAI'REIN, _to take or choose_--heresy, heretic, heretical. HARMO'NIA, _a fitting together_--harmony, harmonious, harmonize, harmonium. HEK'ATON, _a hundred_--hecatomb. HE'LIOS, _the sun_--heliotrope, aphelion, perihelion. HE'MERA, _a day_--ephemeral. HEP'TA, _seven_--heptagon, heptarchy. HE'ROS, _a hero_--hero, heroic, heroine, heroism. HET'EROS, _another, unlike_--heterodox, heterodoxy, heterogeneous. HEX, _six_--hexagon, hexangular. HI'EROS, _sacred_--hierarchy, hieroglyphics (_glyphein_, to carve). HIP'POS, _a horse_--hippodrome, hippopotamus, Philip, philippic. HOL'OS, _all_--holocaust, holograph, catholic, catholicity. HOM'OS, _like, the same_--homogeneous (_gennaein_, to produce). HOR'OS, _a boundary_--horizon, aphorism. HU'MEN, _the god of marriage_--hymeneal. HUM'NOS, _a song of praise_--hymn, hymnal, hynmology. ICH'THUS, _a fish_--ichthyology. ID'EA, _a form or pattern_--idea, ideal. ID'IOS, _peculiar_--idiom, idiosyncrasy, idiot, idiotic. IS'OS, _equal_--isothermal. KAI'EIN, _to burn_--caustic, cauterize, holocaust (_holos_, whole). KA'KOS, _bad_--cacophony. KA'LOS, _beautiful_--caligraphy, calotype, kaleidoscope (_skopein_). KAL'UPTEIN, _to conceal_--apocalypse. KAN'ON, _a rule_--canon, canonical, canonize. KAR'DIA, _the heart_--cardiac, pericardium. KEN'OS, _empty_--cenotaph. KEPH'ALE, _the head_--acephalous, hydrocephalus (_hydor_). KER'AS, _a horn_--rhinoceros. KLE'ROS, _a portion_--clergy, clerical, clerk, clerkship. KLI'MAX, _a ladder_--climax. KLI'NEIN, _to bend_--clinical, recline. KO'MOS, _a merry feast_--comedy, (_odè_), comedian, comic, encomium. KO'NEIN, _to serve_--deacon, deaconship, diaconal, diaconate. KO'NOS, Lat. CONUS, _a cone_--cone, conic, conical, coniferous, coniform. KOP'TEIN, _to cut_--coppice, copse, syncope. KOS'MOS, _the world_--cosmography, cosmopolitan. KRI'TES, _a judge_--crisis, criterion, critic, critical, criticism, hypocrite. KRUP'TEIN, _to conceal_--crypt, apocrypha. KRUSTAL'LOS, _ice_--crystal, crystallize. KUK'LOS, _a circle_--cycle, encyclical, cyclops, cyclades, encyclopedia. KULIN'DROS, _a roller_--cylinder. LAM'BANEIN, _to take_--syllable, dissyllable, polysyllable. LAM'PEIN, _to shine_--lamp. LA'OS, _the people_--layman, laity. LATREI'A, _worship_--idolatry, heliolatry. LITH'OS, _a stone_--litharge, lithograph, aërolite. LU'EIN, _to loosen_--analysis, paralysis, paralytic, palsy. MAN'IA, _madness_--mania, maniac. MAR'TUR, _a witness_--martyr, martyrdom, martyrology. MEL'AS, _black_--melancholy, Melanesia. ME'TER, _a mother_--metropolis. MIK'ROS, _small_--microcosm, microscope, microscopic. MI'MOS, _an imitator_--mimic, mimicry, pantomime. MOR'PHE, _shape_--amorphous, metamorphosis. MU'RIAS, _ten thousand_--myriad. MU'THOS, _a fable_--myth, mythology. NAR'KE, _torpor_--narcissus, narcotic. NAUS, _a ship_--nausea, nauseate, nautical, nautilus, aëronaut. NEK'ROS, _dead_--necropolis. NE'SOS, _an island_--Polynesia. NOM'OS, _a law_--astronomy, Deuteronomy, economy (_oikos_, a house), economic. OL'IGOS, _few_--oligarchy (_arche_). OR'PHANOS, _deserted_--orphan, orphanage. OR'THOS, _right, straight_--orthodox, orthoepy, orthography. PAIDEI'A, _instruction_--cyclopædia. PAIS, _a child_--pedagogue, pedant, pedantic, pedobaptist. PAP'AS, Lat. PAPA, _a father_--papacy, pope, popedom, popery. PARADEI'SOS, _a pleasant garden_--paradise. PAT'EIN, _to walk_--peripatetic. PEN'TE, _five_--pentagon, pentecost. PET'RA, _a rock_--Peter, petrescent, petrify, petroleum, saltpeter. PHOB'OS, _fear_--hydrophobia (_hudor_, water). PHRA'SIS, _speech_--phrase, phraseology, paraphrase. PHREN, _the mind_--phrenology, frantic, frenzy. PHU'TON, _a plant_--zoophyte. PLA'NAEIN, _to wander_--planet, planetary. PLAS'SEIN, _to mould_--plaster, plastic. PLEU'RA, _the side_--pleurisy. PNEU'MA, _breath_, _spirit_--pneumatic. PO'LEIN, _to sell_--bibliopolist, monopoly, monopolize. POL'US, _many_--polygamy, polyglot, polysyllable, polytechnic. POR'OS, _a passage_--pore, porosity, porous, emporium. POT'AMOS, _a river_--hippopotamus. POUS, _the foot_--antipodes, polypus, tripod. PRAS'SEIN, _to do_--practice, practical, practitioner, impracticable. PRESBU'TEROS, _elder_--presbytery, presbyterian, presbyterianism. PRO'TOS, _first_--protomartyr. PSAL'LEIN, _to touch_, _to sing_--psalm, psalmist, psalmody, psalter. PUR, _fire_--pyramid, pyrotechny. RHIN, _the nose_--rhinoceros. RHOD'ON, _a rose _--rhododendron. SARX, _flesh_--sarcasm, sarcastic, sarcophagus. SCHED'E, _a sheet_--schedule. SCHE'MA, _a plan_--scheme. SCHIS'MA, _a division_--schism, schismatic. SIT'OS, _corn_--parasite, parasitical. SKAN'DALON, _disgrace_--scandal, scandalous, scandalize, slander, slanderous. SKEPTES'THAI, _to consider_--sceptic, sceptical, scepticism. SKEP'TRON, _an emblem of office_--scepter. SOPH'IA, _wisdom_--sophist, sophistry, philosopher (_philos_), philosophy. SPHAI'RA, _a globe_--sphere, spherical, spheroid, hemisphere. STAL'AEIN, _to drop_--stalactite, stalagmite. STEL'LEIN, _to send_--apostle, apostolic, epistle, epistolary. STEN'OS, _narrow_--stenography. STHEN'OS, _strength_--calisthenics. STIG'MA, _a mark_--stigma, stigmatize. STRAT'OS, _an army_--stratagem, strategy, strategist. STROPH'E, _a turning_--apostrophe, catastrophe. TA'PHOS, _a tomb_--epitaph, cenotaph. TAU'TO, _the same_--tautology. TEK'TON, _a builder_--architect. TE'LE, _far off_--telegraph, telescope. TEM'NEIN, _to cut_--atom, anatomy, anatomist. TET'RA, _four_--tetragon, tetrarch. THER'ME, _heat_--thermal. THRON'OS, _a throne_--throne, enthrone. TOP'OS, _a place_--topography. TREP'EIN, _to turn_--trope, tropic, tropical, heliotrope. TU'POS, _a stamp_--type, typography, prototype. TURAN'NOS, _a ruler_--tyrant, tyrannical, tyrannize, tyranny. ZEIN, _to boil_--zeal, zealous. ZEPHU'ROS, _the west wind_--zephyr. ZO'ON, _an animal_--zodiac, zoology, zoological, zoöphyte. PART IV.--THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. I.--ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. A--(corrupted from A.-S. _on_) signifies _in_, _on_, _at_: as abed, aboard, aside, aback; and gives the adverbial form to adjectives, as in aloud, aboard. BE--gives a transitive signification, as in bespeak. It is sometimes intensive, as in bestir, and converts an adjective into a verb, as in bedim. _Be_, as a form of _by_, also denotes proximity, as in beside: as bystander. FOR[10]--means privation, or opposition: as forbear, forbid, forget. FORE--_before_: as foretell, forebode. MIS--_error_, _wrongness_: as mistake, misstate, misinform. N--has a negative signification, as in many languages: thus, never, neither, none. OFF--from offspring. OUT--_beyond_: as outdo, outlaw. OVER--_above_: as overhang, overflow, overturn. TO--in to-day, to-morrow. UN--_not_, _the reverse_: as, unskilled, unlearned. UNDER--_beneath_: as undermine. WITH--_against_ (German _wider_): as withstand. II.--ANGLO-SAXON SUFFIXES. AR, ARD, ER, YER, STER[11]--signifying _agent_ or _doer_; as in beggar, drunkard, beginner, lawyer, spinster. _Er_ forms verbs of adjectives, as lower, from low, and also forms the comparatives of adjectives. ESS, as in songstress, is borrowed from the French. DOM, SHIP, RIC, WIC--from _dom_, judgment; _ship_, shape or condition; _ric_, _rice_, power; _wic_, a dwelling--signify state, condition, quality, etc., as in kingdom, friendship, bishopric, Berwick. EL, KIN (= _chen_, German), LET (from French), LING, OCK--have a _diminutive_ effect, as in manikin, streamlet, youngling, hillock, cockerel. EN--adjective termination, as wooden, from wood; it also converts adjectives into verbs, as deepen from deep. FOLD--from _fealdan_, to fold; a numeral termination, like _ple_, from the Latin _plico_, I fold. FUL--full; truthful. HOOD, NESS--of uncertain derivation, signify state, etc., as in priesthood, righteousness. ISH--_isc_ (Saxon), _isch_ (German), denotes a quality; like rakish, knavish, churlish, Danish. _Ish_ is also employed as a diminutive--blackish. LESS--_loss_: as penniless, hopeless. LIKE and LY--_like_; _lic_ (A.-S.): as warlike, manly. SOME--_sum_ (A.-S.), _sam_ (German), lonesome, handsome. TEEN--ten, as in fourteen. TY--from _tig_ (A.-S ), ten; _zig_ (German), as in six-_ty_. _Teen_ adds ten--_ty_ multiplies by ten. WARD--_weard_, _wärts_ (German), _versus_ (Latin), against, direction, towards; downward, eastward. WISE--_wisa_, manner; likewise. Y--_ig_, an adjective termination; _dreorig_ (A.-S.), dreary. ANGLO-SAXON ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIVES. The pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon is much nearer to that of modern German or the Continental pronunciation of Latin than of modern English. The letters of the alphabet wanting in Anglo-Saxon are: _j_, _k_, _q_, _v_, and _z_. _K_ is commonly represented by _c_; thus, _cyning_ (king) is pronounced _kining_; _cyrtel_, _kirtle_; _qu_ is represented by _cw_, as _cwic_, _quick_; _cwen_, _queen_; _cwellan_, to _quell_; _th_ is represented by two peculiar characters, one of which in its reduced form resembles _y_, as in _ye olden times_, where _ye_ should be pronounced _the_, and not _ye_, as is often ignorantly done. Long vowels should be carefully distinguished from short vowels. Long vowels are _a_ as _far_, _ae_ as in _fare_, _e_ as in _they_, _i_ as in _pique_, _o_ as in _bone_, _u_ as in _rule_, _y_ as in _i_ (nearly). Short vowels are _a_ as in _fast_, _ae_ as in _man_, _e_ as in _men_, _i_ as in _pin_, _o_ as in _God_, _u_ as in _full_, _y_ as in _i_ (nearly). In the diphthongs _ea_, _eo_, and _ie_, the first element receives the stress; the second is pronounced very lightly. There are no silent letters in Anglo-Saxon as in modern English. The vowel of every syllable is pronounced, and in difficult combinations of consonants, as in _hlud_, loud, _cniht_, knight, _cnif_, knife, each consonant has its distinct sound. _E_ before _a_ and _o_ has the sound of _y_ as a consonant; _i_ before _e_ and _u_ has the same sound: thus, _Earl_ = _yarl_; _eow_ = _you_; _iett_ = _yett_; and _iúgoth_ = _yúgoth_, youth. AC, _an oak_--oak, oaken. ACSIAN, _to inquire_--ask. ÆCER, _a field_--acre, acreage. ÆR, _before_--early, ere, erelong, erst. AFT, _hind-part_--after, abaft. ÁGAN, _to have_--owe, own, owner, ought, disown. ARISAN, _to arise_--raise, rise, rouse. BÁCAN, _to bake_--baker, bakery, bakehouse, batch. BÆC, _back_--backbite, backslide, backward, aback. BÆLG, _a bag_. BALD, _bold, brave_--bold, boldness. BÁNA, _death_--bane, baneful, henbane. BANC, _a bank or raised place_--bank, banker, bankrupt, bankruptcy, bench, embankment. BEACNIAN, _to beckon_--beck, beckon, beacon. BELLAN, _to roar_--bawl, bellow. BEORGAN, _to protect_--borough, borrow, burgh, burglar, burrow, harbinger, harbor, berth. BEORHT, _bright_--bright. BERAN, _to bear, to bring forth_--barrow, bear, bier, birth. BIDAN, _to wait_--abide. BIDDAN, _to pray_, _to bid_--bid, bidding, bead, beadsman, beadle, forbid, unbidden. BINDAN, _to bind_--band, bond, bondage, bundle. BLÆC, _pale_--bleach, bleacher, bleak, bleakness. BLAWAN, _to blow_--blade, bladder, blast, blaze, blazon, blister, blossom, blow, blush, bluster. BLETSIAN, _to bless_--bless, blessing. BRÁD, _broad_--broad, breadth, board, aboard. BRÉCAN, _to break_--bray (_to pound_), breach, breaker, breakfast, brink, broken. BREOST, _the breast_--breast, breastplate, breastwork, abreast. BREÓWAN, _to brew_--brew, brewer, brewery. BRUCAN, _to use_--broker, brokerage, brook (_to endure_). BUAN, _to cultivate_--boor, boorish, neighbor, neighborhood. BUGAN, _to bow or bend_--bay, bight, bough, bow, buxom, elbow. BYLDAN, _to design_, _to make_--build, builder, building. BYRNAN, _to burn_--brand, brandish, brandy, brimstone, brown, brunt, auburn, firebrand. CÆLAN, _to cool_--chill, chilblain. CEAPIAN, _to buy_--cheap, cheapen, cheapness, chaffer, chapman. CÉNNAN, _to produce_--kin, kind, kindness, kindred, akin, mankind. CEORL, _a churl_--carle, churlish. CLÆNE, _clean_--clean, cleanly, cleanliness, cleanse, unclean. CLÁTH, _cloth_--clothe, clothier, clothing, clad, unclad. CLEÓFAN, _to cleave_; CLIFIAN, _to adhere_--cleaver, cliff, clover, club. CNAFA, _a boy_--knave, knavery. CNÁWAN, _to know_--knowledge, acknowledge, foreknow, unknown. CNYLL, _a loud noise_--knell. CNYTTAN, _to knit_--knitting, knot, knotty, net, network. CRACIAN, _to crack_; CEARCIAN, _to creak_--crack, crackle, creak, cricket, croak, screech, shriek. CUMAN, _to come_--comely, comeliness, become, overcome, welcome. CUNNAN, _to know_, _to be powerful_--can, con, cunning, keen. CWELLAN, _to slay_--kill, quell. DÆG, _a day_--dawn, daylight, day-star, daisy = day's eye. DǼL, _a part_--deal, dole, ordeal. DÉMAN, _to think_--deem. DEOR, _a wild animal_--deer. DEORE, _dusky or black_--dark, darken, darkly, darkness. DIC, _a dyke_--dig, ditch, ditcher. DISC, _a plate_--desk, disc, dish. DÓM, _judgment_--doom, doomsday. DÓN, _to do_--doer, deed, undo. DRAGAN, _to draw_--drag, draggle, drain, draught, draughtsman, draw, dray. DRIFAN, _to drive_--drift, driver, drove. DRIGAN, _to dry_--drysalter, drought, drug (originally _dried plants_), druggist. DRINCAN, _to suck in_--drench, drink, drunk, drunkard, drunken. DRYPAN, _to drip or drop_--drip, drop, droop, dribble, drivel. DWINAN, _to pine_--dwindle, dwine. DYN, _a noise_--din, dun. EAGE, _the eye_--eye, eyeball, eye-bright, eyelid. EALD, _old_--alderman, earl. EFEN, _just_--even, evenness. ERIAN, _to plough_, _to ear_--earth, earthy, earthquake. FAEGER, _bright_--fair, fairness. FÁER, _fear_--fearful, fearless. FARAN, _to go_--fare, farewell, ferry, ford, seafaring, wayfarer. FEDAN, _to feed_--feed, feeder, fodder, food, father, fatherly. FEOND, _an enemy_--fiend, fiendish. FLEÓGAN, _to fly_--flag, flake, fledge, flee, flicker, flight. FLEÓTAN, _to float_--float, fleet. FLÓWAN, _to flow_--flood, flow. FOLGIAN, _to go after_--follow. FÓN, _to seize _--fang, finger. FÓT, _the foot_--foot, fetter, fetlock. FREÓN, _to love_--free, freedom, friend, friendship. FRETAN, _to gnaw_--fret, fretful. FUGEL, _a bird_--fowl, fowler, fowling-piece. FÚL, _unclean_--filth, filthy, foul, fulsome. FULLIAN, _to whiten_--full (_to scour and thicken cloth in a mill_), fuller, fuller's-earth. FÝR, _fire_--fiery, fireworks, bonfire. GABBAN, _to mock_--gabble, gibe, gibberish, jabber. GALAN, _to sing_--nightingale. GANGAN, _to go_--gang, gangway. GÁST, _a ghost_--gas, ghastly, ghost, ghostly, aghast. GEARD, _an enclosure _--garden, orchard, yard. GEOTAN, _to pour_--gush, gut. GEREFA, _a governor_--grieve (_an overseer_), sheriff, sheriffdom. GETAN, _to get_--get, beget, begotten, forget, forgetful. GIFAN, _to give_--give, gift, forgive, forgiveness, misgive, unforgiven. GLOWAN, _to glow_--glow, glowing. GÓD, _good_--gospel, gossip. GRÆS, _grass_--grass, graze, grazier. GRAFAN, _to dig_--grave, graver, graft, groove, grove, grub, engrave. GRAPIAN, _to grapple_; GRÍPAN, _to gripe_; GROPIAN, _to grope_--grapple, grapnel, gripe, grope, group, grovel. GREOT, _dust_--gritty, groats. GRÓWAN, _to grow_--grow, growth. GRÚND, _the ground_--ground, groundless, groundsel, groundwork. HABBAN, _to have_--have, haft, behave, behavior, misbehave. HÆGE, _a hedge_--haw, hawthorn. HÆL, _sound_, _whole_--hail, hale, heal, health, healthful, healthy, holy, holiness, whole, wholesome. HÁM, _a dwelling_--hamlet, home, homely, homeliness. HANGIAN, _to hang_--hang, hanger, hinge, unhinge, overhang. HÁT, _heat_--heat, heater, hot. HEALDAN, _to hold_--halt, halter, hilt, hold, behold, uphold, upholsterer, withhold. HEARD, _hard_--harden, hardihood, hardship, hardware, hardy. HEBBAN, _to lift_--heap, heave, heaven, heavy, upheaval. HÉDAN, _to heed_--heed, heedful, heedfulness, heedless, heedlessness. HEORTE, _the heart_--hearten, heartless, hearty, heartburn, heart's-ease, dishearten. HLÁF, _bread_--loaf. HLEAPAN, _to leap_--leap, overleap, elope, elopement. HOL, _a hole_--hole, hold (_of a ship_), hollow, hollowness. HRISTLAN, _to make quick sounds_--rustle, rustling. HUNTIAN, _to rush_--hunt, hunter, huntsman. HÚS, _house_--housewife, husband, hustings. HWEORFAN, _to turn_--swerve, wharf. HÝRAN, _to hear_--hear, hearer, hearsay. LǼDAN, _to lead_--lead, leader, loadstar, loadstone, mislead. LÆFAN, _to leave_--left, eleven, twelve. LǼRAN, _to teach_--learn, learner, learning, lore, unlearned. LANG, _long_--long, length, lengthen, lengthy, linger. LECGAN, _to lay_--lay, layer, lair, law, lawful, lawless, lea, ledge, ledger, lie, low, lowly, outlaw. LEOFIAN, LYBBAN, _to live_--live, lively, livelihood, livelong, alive, outlive. LEOHT, _light_--lighten, lightsome, lighthouse, enlighten. LÍC, _like_--like, likely, likelihood, likeness, likewise, unlike. LOCIAN, _to stretch forward_--look. LOMA, _utensils_, _furniture_--loom, hand-loom, power-loom. LOSIAN, _to lose_--lose, loser, loss. LÚF, _love_; LUFIAN, _to love_--lover, lovely, loveliness, lief, beloved, unlovely. LYFAN, _to permit_--leave (_permission_), belief, believe, believer, misbelieve. LYFT, _the air_--loft, lofty, aloft. MACIAN, _to make_--make, maker, match, matchless, mate, inmate. MÆNGAN, _to mix_--among, mingle, commingle, intermingle, mongrel. MAGAN, _to be able_--may, might, mighty, main, mainland, dismay. MEARC, _a boundary_--mark, marksman, marches, remark. METAN, _to measure_--meet, meeting, meet (_fit_), meetness. MUND, _a defence_--mound. MURNAN, _to murmur_--mourn, mourner, mournful. MYND, _the mind_--mind, mindful, mindfulness, remind. NÆS, _a nose_--naze, ness. NAMA, _a name_--name, nameless, namesake, misname. NEAD, _need_--need, needful, needless, needs, needy. NEAH, _nigh_--near, next, neighbor. NIHT, _night_--night, nightfall, nightless, nightmare, nightshade. OGA, _dread_--ugly, ugliness. PÆTH, _a path_--pathless, pathway, footpath. PLEGAN, _to exercise_, _to sport_--play, player, playful, playmate. RÆCAN, _to reach_--reach, overreach, rack, rack-rent. RǼDAN, _to read_--read, readable, reader, reading, riddle. READ, _red_--red, redden, ruddy. REAFIAN, _to seize_--bereave, bereavement, raven, ravenous, rive, rob, robber, robbery, rove, rover. RECAN, _to heed_--reck, reckless, recklessness, reckon, reckoning. RÍDAN, _to ride_--ride, rider, road, roadster, roadstead. RINNAN, _to run_--run, runner, runaway, outrun. RIPAN, _to reap_--reap, reaper, ripe, ripen, ripeness, unripe. RUH, _rough_--rough, roughness. SÆGAN, _to say_--say, saying, hearsay, unsay. SAR, _painful_--sore, soreness, sorrow, sorrowful, sorry. SCACAN, _to shake_--shake, shaky, shock, shocking. SCEADAN, _to shade_--shade, shady, shadow, shed (_a covered enclosure_). SCEDAN, _to scatter_, _to shed_--shed (_to spill_), watershed. SCEOFAN, _to push_--shove, shovel, scuffle, shuffle, sheaf. SCEÓTAN, _to shoot_--shoot, shot, sheet, shut, shutter, shuttle, overshoot, undershot, upshot. SCÉRAN, _to cut_--scar, scarf, score, share, sharp, shear, sheriff, shire. SCÍNAN, _to shine_--sheen, outshine, moonshine, sunshine. SCREOPAN, _to creak_--scrape, scraper, swap, scrap-book. SCROB, _a bush_--shrub, shrubbery. SCYPPAN, _to form_--shape, shapeless, landscape. SELLAN, _to give_--sale, sell, sold. SEON, _to see_--see, seer, sight, foresee, oversee, unsightly, gaze. SETTAN, _to set_; SITTAN, _to sit_--set, setter, settle, settler, settlement, set, beset, onset, outset, upset. SÍDE, _side_--side, sideboard, aside, beside, inside, outside, upside. SINGAN, _to sing_--sing, singer, song. SLÆC, _slack_--slack, slackness, slow, sloth, slothful, sluggard, sluggish. SLEÁN, _to slay_--slay, slaughter, sledge (_a heavy hammer_). SLIDAN, _to slide_--slide, sled, sledge. SLIPAN, _to glide_--slip, slipper, slippery, slipshod. SMITAN, _to smite_--smite, smiter, smith, smithy. SNICAN, _to creep_--snake, sneak. SOCC, _a shoe_--sock, socket. SOFT, _soft_--soften, softly, softness. SOTH, _true_--sooth, soothsayer. SPECAN, _to speak_--speak, speaker, speech, bespeak. SPELL, _a message_--spell (_discourse_), gospel. SPINNAN, _to spin_--spinner, spider. STÁN, _a stone_--stony, stoneware. STANDAN, _to stand_--standard, understand, understanding, withstand. STEALL, _a place_--stall, forestall, install, pedestal. STEORFAN, _to die_--starve, starvation, starveling. STICIAN, _to stick_--stake, stick, stickle, stickleback, sting, stitch, stock, stockade, stocking. STIGAN, _to ascend_--stair, staircase, stile, stirrup, sty. STRECCAN, _to stretch_--stretch, stretcher, straight, straighten, straightness, outstretch, overstretch. STÝRAN, _to steer_--steer, steerage, steersman, stern (_the hind part of a ship_), astern. STÝRIAN, _to stir_--stir, bestir. SÚR, _sour_--sour, sourish, sourness, sorrel, surly, surliness. SWERIAN, _to swear_--swear, swearer, forswear, answer, unanswered. SWÉT, _sweet_--sweet, sweetbread, sweeten, sweetmeat, sweetness. TÁECAN, _to show, to teach_--teach, teachable, teacher. TELLAN, _to count_--tell, teller, tale, talk, talkative, foretell. THINCAN, _to seem_; pret. thuh-te, _methinks_, _methought_. THRINGAN, _to press_--throng. THYR, _dry_--thirst, thirsty. TREOWE, _true_--true, truth, truthful, truism, trust, trustee, trustworthy, trusty. TWA, _two_--twice, twine, twist, between, entwine. TYRNAN, _to turn_--turn, turner, turncoat, turnkey, turnpike, overturn, return, upturn. WACAN, _to awake_--wake, wakeful, waken, wait, watch, watchful, watchfulness, watchman. WARNIAN, _to defend_, _to beware_--warn, warning, warrant, wary, weir, aware, beware. WEARM, _glowing_--warm, warmth. WEGAN, _to move_--wag, waggle, wain, wave, way, wayfarer, weigh, weight, weighty. WEORDH, _worth_--worth, worthy, worship, worshipper, unworthy. WERIAN, _to cover_--wear, wearable, weary, wearisome. WINNAN, _to labor_--win, won. WITAN, _to know_--wise, wisdom, wizard, wit, witness, witty. WRINGAN, _to twist_--wrangle, wrench, wriggle, wring, wrinkle. WRITHAN, _to twist_--wrath, wrathful, wroth, wreath, wreathe, wry, wryneck, wrong. WUNIAN, _to dwell_--wont, wonted. WYRM, _a worm, a serpent_--worm. Specimens of Anglo-Saxon, and the same literally translated into Modern English. _EXTRACT FROM CÆDMON'S PARAPHRASE._ _Cædmon: died about 680._ Nu we sceolan herian | Now we shall praise heofon-rices weard, | the guardian of heaven, metodes mihte, | the might of the creator, and his mod-ge-thonc, | and his mind's thought, wera wuldor-fæder! | the glory-father of men! swa he wundra ge-hwæs, | how he of all wonders, ece dryhten, | the eternal lord, oord onstealde. | formed the beginning. He ærest ge-scéop | He first created ylda bearnum | for the children of men heofon to hrófe, | heaven as a roof, halig scyppend! | the holy creator! tha middan-geard | them the world mon-cynnes weard, | the guardian of mankind ece dryhten, | the eternal lord, æfter teode, | produced afterwards, firum foldan, | the earth for men, frea ælmihtig! | the almighty master! _PASSAGE REPEATED BY BEDE ON HIS DEATH-BED._ _Bede: died 735._ For tham ned-fere | Before the necessary journey neni wirtheth | no one becomes thances suotera | more prudent in thought thonne him thearf sy, | than is needful to him, to ge-hicgeune | to search out er his heonon-gange | before his going hence hwet his gaste | what to his spirit godes othe yveles | of good or of evil efter deathe heonon | after his death hence demed weorthe. | will be judged. _EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE--Tenth Century._ Tha feng Ælfred Æthelwulfing to | Then took Alfred, son of Ethelwulf West-Seaxna rice; and thæs ymb ænne | to the West Saxon's kingdom; and monath gefeaht Ælfred cyning with | that after one month fought Alfred ealne thone here lytle werode æt | king against all the army with a Wiltoune, and hine lange on dæg | little band at Wilton, and them long geflymde, and tha Deniscan ahton | during the day routed and then the wæl-stowe geweald. And thæs geares | Danes obtained of the battle-field wurdon nigon folcgefeoht gefohten | possession. And this year were nine with thone here on tham cyne-rice be | great battles fought with the army suthan Temese, butan tham the him | in the kingdom to the south of the Ælfred, and ealdormen, and cyninges | Thames, besides those in which thegnas oft rada onridon the man na | Alfred, and the alder-men, and the ne rimde. And thæs geares wæron | king's thanes oft inrode--against of-slegene nigon eorlas, and an | which one nothing accounted. And cyning; and thy geare namon | this year were slain nine earls and West-Seaxan frith with thone here. | one king; and this year made the | West-Saxons peace with the army. _EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON GOSPELS--Eleventh Century._ LUCÆ, Cap. I. v. 5-10. | LUKE, Chap. I. v. 5-10. | 5. On Herodes dagum Iudea cyninges, | 5. In the days of Herod the king of wæs sum sacerd on naman Zacharias, of| Judea, there was a certain priest by Abian tune: and his wif wæs of | name Zacharias, of the course of Aarones dohtrum, and hyre nama wæs | Abia: and his wife was of the Elizabeth. | daughters of Aaron, and her name was | Elizabeth. 6. Sothlice hig wæron butu rihtwise | 6. And they were both righteous beforan Gode, gangende on eallum his | before God, walking in all the bebodum and rihtwisnessum, butan | commandments and ordinances of the wrohte. | Lord without blame. 7. And hig næfdon nan bearn, fortham | 7. And they had no child, because the Elizabeth wæs unberende; and hig | that Elizabeth was barren; and they on heora dagum butu forth-eodon. | in her days were both of great age. 8. Sothlice wæs geworden tha | 8. And it befell that when Zacharias Zacharias hys sacerdhades breac on | should do the office of the his gewrixles endebyrdnesse beforan | priesthood in the order of his Gode, | course before God, 9. Æfter gewunan thæs sacerdhades | 9. After the custom of the hlotes, he eode that he his offrunge | priesthood he went forth by lot, to sette, tha he on Godes tempel eode. | burn incense when he into God's | temple went. 10. Eall werod thæs folces wæs ute | 10. And all the multitude of the gebiddende on thære offrunge timan. | people were without praying at the | time of incense. _THE LORD'S PRAYER._ Fæder ure, thu the eart on heofenum; | Father our, thou who art in heaven; si thin nama gehalgod; to-becume thin| be thine name hallowed; let come rice; geweordhe thin willa on | thine kingdom; let be done thine eorthan, swa swa on heofenum. Urne ge| will on earth, so as in the heavens. dæghwamlican hlaf syle us to-dæg; and| Our also daily bread give thou us forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we | to-day; and forgive thou to us our forgidfadh urum gyltendum; and ne | debts, so as we forgive our debtors; gelæde thu us on costnunge, ac alys | and not lead thou us into us of yfle, etc. | temptations, but deliver thou us | from evil, etc. SPECIMENS OF SEMI-SAXON AND EARLY ENGLISH. _EXTRACT FROM THE BRUT OF LAYAMON--About 1180._ He nom tha Englisca boc | He took the English book Tha makede Seint Beda; | That Saint Bede made; An other he nom on Latin, | Another he took in Latin, Tha makede Seinte Albin, | That Saint Albin made, And the feire Austin, | And the fair Austin, The fulluht broute hider in. | That baptism brought hither in. Boc he nom the thridde, | The third book he took, Leide ther amidden, | _And_ laid there in midst, Tha makede a Frenchis clerc, | That made a French clerk, Wace was ihoten, | Wace was _he_ called, The wel couthe writen, | That well could write, And he hoc yef thare aethelen | And he it gave to the noble Allienor, the wes Henries quene, | Eleanor, that was Henry's Queen, Thes heyes kinges. | The high king's. _EXTRACT FROM A CHARTER OF HENRY III.--1258._ Henry, thurg Gode's fultome, King on | Henry, through God's support, King Engleneloande, Lhoaverd on Yrloand, | of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of Duk on Norman, on Acquitain, Earl on | Normandy, of Acquitain, Earl of Anjou, send I greting, to alle hise | Anjou, sends greeting to all his holde, ilærde and ilewede on | subjects, learned and unlearned, of Huntindonnschiere. Thæt witen ge wel | Huntingdonshire. This know ye well alle, hæt we willen and unnen thæt | all, that we will and grant what our ure rædesmen alle, other the moare | counsellors all, or the more part of del of heom, thæt beoth ichosen thurg| them, that be chosen through us and us and thurg thæt loandes-folk on ure| through the landfolk of our kingdom, kineriche, habbith idon, and schullen| have done, and shall do, to the don in the worthnes of God, and ure | honor of God, and our allegiance, treowthe, for the freme of the | for the good of the land, etc. loande, etc. | Anglo-Saxon Element in Modern English. That the young student may be made aware of the extent of the employment of Anglo-Saxon in our present language, and that he may have some clue to direct him to a knowledge of the Saxon words, the following extracts, embracing a great proportion of these words, are submitted to his attention. The words not Teutonic are marked in _Italics_. MILTON. Of man's first _disobedience_, and the _fruit_ Of that forbidden tree, whose _mortal taste_ Brought death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of _Eden_, till one greater man _Restore_ us and _regain_ the blissful seat-- Sing, heavenly _Muse_. With thee _conversing_, I forget all time, All _seasons_, and their _change_; all _please_ alike. Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, With _charm_ of earliest birds; _pleasant_ the sun When first on this _delightful_ land he spreads His _orient_ beams on _herb_, tree, _fruit_, and _flower_, Glistering with dew; _fragrant_ the _fertile_ earth, After soft showers; and sweet the coming on Of _grateful_ evening mild; then _silent_ night With this her _solemn_ bird, and this fair moon, And these the _gems_ of heaven, her starry _train_. SHAKESPEARE. To be, or not to be, that is the _question_; Whether 't is _nobler_ in the mind to _suffer_ The stings and arrows of _outrageous fortune_, Or to take _arms_ against a sea of _troubles_, And, by _opposing_, end them? To die, to sleep; No more;--and by a sleep to say we end The heart_ache_ and the thousand _natural_ shocks That flesh is _heir_ to! 't were a _consummation_ _Devoutly_ to be wished. To die; to sleep; To sleep?--_perchance_ to dream! All the world's a _stage_, And all the men and women _merely_ players. They have their _exits_ and their _entrances_, And one man in his time plays many _parts_; His _acts_ being seven _ages_. At first the _infant_, Mewling and puking in his _nurse's arms_. And then the whining _school_-boy, with his _satchel_ And shining morning _face_, creeping like snail Unwillingly to _school_. And then the lover, Sighing like _furnace_, with a woeful _ballad_ Made to his _mistress'_ eyebrow. Then a _soldier_, Full of _strange_ oaths, and bearded like the _pard_, _Jealous_ in _honour_, _sudden_ and quick in _quarrel_; Seeking the bubble _reputation_ Even in the _cannon's_ mouth. TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE. In the beginning God _created_ the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without _form_, and _void_; and darkness was upon the _face_ of the deep: and the _Spirit_ of God _moved_ upon the _face_ of the waters. And God said, Let there be light; and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good; and God _divided_ the light from the darkness. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.--_Genesis_ i. 1-6. And it came to _pass_, that when _Isaac_ was old, and his eyes were dim, so that he could not see, he called _Esau_, his eldest son, and said unto him, My son. And he said unto him, Behold, here am I. And he said, Behold now, I am old, I know not the day of my death. Now therefore take, I _pray_ thee, thy weapons, thy _quiver_ and thy bow, and go out to the field, and take me some _venison_; and make me _savoury_ meat, such as I love, and bring it to me, that I may eat; that my soul may bless thee before I die. And _Rebekah_ heard when _Isaac_ spake to _Esau_ his son. And _Esau_ went to the field to hunt for _venison_, and to bring it. And _Rebekah_ spake unto _Jacob_ her son, saying, Behold, I heard thy father speak unto _Esau_ thy brother, saying, Bring me _venison_, and make me _savoury_ meat, that I may eat, and bless thee before the Lord before my death.--_Genesis_ xxvii. 1-7. THOMSON. These as they _change_, Almighty Father! these Are but the _varied_ God. The _rolling_ year Is full of thee. Forth in the _pleasing_ spring Thy _beauty_ walks, thy _tenderness_ and love. Wide flush the fields; the softening _air_ is _balm_; _Echo_ the _mountains round_; the _forest_ smiles; And every _sense_ and every heart is _joy_. Then comes thy _glory_ in the summer months, With light and heat _refulgent_. Then thy sun Shoots full _perfection_ through the swelling year. ADDISON. I was yesterday, about sunset, walking in the open fields, till the night _insensibly_ fell upon me. I at first _amused_ myself with all the richness and _variety_ of _colours_ which _appeared_ in the western _parts_ of heaven. In _proportion_ as they _faded_ away and went out, _several_ stars and _planets appeared_, one after another, till the whole _firmament_ was in a glow. The blueness of the _ether_ was _exceedingly_ heightened and enlivened by the _season_ of the year. YOUNG. Let _Indians_, and the _gay_, like _Indians_, fond Of feathered _fopperies_, the sun _adore_: Darkness has more _divinity_ for me; It strikes thought inward; it drives back the soul To settle on herself, our _point supreme_. There lies our _theater_: there sits our _judge_. Darkness the _curtain_ drops o'er life's dull _scene_: 'T is the kind hand of _Providence_ stretched out 'Twixt man and _vanity_; 't is _reason's reign_, And _virtue's_ too; these _tutelary_ shades Are man's _asylum_ from the _tainted_ throng. Night is the good man's friend, and guardian too. It no less _rescues virtue_, than _inspires_. SWIFT. Wisdom is a fox, who, after long hunting, will at last _cost_ you the _pains_ to dig out. 'T is a cheese, which by how much the richer has the thicker, homelier, and the _coarser coat_; and whereof, to a _judicious palate_, the _maggots_ are the best. 'Tis a _sack posset_, wherein the deeper you go on you will find it sweeter. But then, lastly, 'tis a nut, which, unless you choose with _judgment_, may _cost_ you a tooth, and _pay_ you with nothing but a worm. HUME. The _beauties_ of her _person_ and _graces_ of her _air combined_ to make her the most _amiable_ of women; and the _charms_ of her _address_ and _conversation aided_ the _impression_ which her lovely _figure_ made on the heart of all beholders. _Ambitious_ and _active_ in her _temper_, yet _inclined_ to _cheerfulness_ and _society_; of a lofty _spirit_, _constant_ and even _vehement_ in her _purpose_, yet _politic, gentle_, and _affable_, in her _demeanor_, she _seemed_ to _par_take only so much of the _male virtues_ as to _render_ her _estimable_, without _relinquishing_ those soft _graces_ which _compose_ the _proper ornament_ of her _sex_. GIBBON. In the _second century_ of the _Christian era_, the _empire_ of _Rome comprehended_ the fairest _part_ of the earth, and the most _civilized portion_ of mankind. The _frontiers_ of that _extensive monarchy_ were guarded by _ancient renown_, and _disciplined valour_. The _gentle_ but _powerful influence_ of laws and _manners_ had _gradually cemented_ the _union_ of the _provinces_. Their _peaceful inhabitants enjoyed_ and _abused_ the _advantages_ of wealth and _luxury_. The _image_ of a free _constitution_ was _preserved_ with _decent reverence_. JOHNSON. Of _genius_, that _power_ which _constitutes_ a _poet_; that _quality_ without which _judgment_ is cold, and knowledge is _inert_; that _energy_ which _collects_, _combines_, _amplifies_, and _animates_; the _superiority_ must, with some _hesitation_, be _allowed_ to Dryden. It is not to be _inferred_ that of this _poetical vigor Pope_ had only a little, _because_ Dryden had more; for every other writer since Milton must give _place_ to _Pope_; and even of Dryden it must be said, that if he has brighter _paragraphs_, he has not better _poems_. BYRON. _Ancient_ of days! _august Athena!_ where, Where are thy men of might--thy _grand_ in soul? Gone--glimmering through the dream of things that were. First in the race that led to _Glory's goal_, They won, and _passed_ away. Is this the whole? A _school_-boy's tale--the wonder of an _hour_! The warrior's-weapon and the _sophist's stole_ Are sought in _vain_, and o'er each _mouldering_ tower, Dim with the mist of years, gray flits the shade of _power_. SIR WALTER SCOTT. The way was long, the wind was cold, The _Minstrel_ was _infirm_ and old; His withered cheek and _tresses_ gray _Seemed_ to have known a better day; The harp, his _sole remaining joy_, Was carried by an _orphan_ boy. The last of all the bards was he Who sung of border _chivalry_; For, well-a-day! their _dale_ was fled; His _tune_ful brethren all were dead; And he, _neglected_ and _oppressed_, Wished to be with them and at rest. WORDSWORTH. Ah! little doth the young one dream, When full of play and childish cares, What _power_ is in his wildest scream, Heard by his mother unawares! He knows it not, he cannot guess; Years to a mother bring _distress_; But do not make her love the less. My son, if thou be _humbled_, _poor_, Hopeless of _honor_ and of _gain_, Oh! do not dread thy mother's door; Think not of me with _grief_ and _pain_. I now can see with better eyes; And worldly _grandeur_ I _despise_, And _Fortune_ with her gifts and lies. TENNYSON. Not wholly in the busy world, nor _quite_ Beyond it, blooms the garden that I love. News from the humming _city_ comes to it In _sound_ of _funeral_ or of _marriage_ bells; And sitting muffled in dark leaves you hear The windy clanging of the winter clock; Although between it and the garden lies A _league_ of grass, washed by a slow broad stream, That, stirred with _languid pulses_ of the oar, Waves all its lazy _lilies_, and creeps on, Barge laden, to three _arches_ of a bridge, _Crowned_ with the _minster-towers_. PART V.--MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIVES. I.--WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. 1.--NOUNS. AT'LAS, _a collection of maps bound together_: "Atlas," a fabled giant who, according to the Greek notion bore the earth upon his shoulders. ACAD'EMY, _a superior grade school, a society of learned men_: "Academus," a Greek in whose garden near Athens Plato taught. AMMO'NIA, _the pungent matter of smelling salts_: "Jupiter Ammon," near whose temple in Libya it was originally obtained. BAC'CHANAL, _one who indulges in drunken revels_: "Bacchus," the god of wine. BOW'IE KNIFE, _an American weapon_: Colonel "Bowie," the inventor. BRAGGADO'CIO, _a vain boaster_: "Braggadochio," a boastful character in Spenser's Faery Queen. BUD'DHISM, _a wide-spread Asiatic religion_: "Buddha," a Hindoo sage who lived about 1000 B.C. CAL'VINISM, _the doctrines of Calvin_: "Calvin," a Swiss theologian of the 16th century. CAMEL'LIA, _a genus of evergreen shrubs_: "Camelli," a Spaniard who brought them from Asia. CICERO'NE (sis e-ro'ne or chĭ chĕ-ro'-ne), _a guide_: "Cicero," the Roman orator. CINCHO'NA, _Peruvian bark_: Countess "Cinchona," wife of a Spanish governor of Peru (17th century). By means of this medicine she was cured of an intermittent fever, and after her return to Spain she aided in the diffusion of the remedy. DAGUERRE'OTYPE, _a picture produced on a metal plate_: "Daguerre," the inventor (1789-1851). DAHL'IA, _a garden plant_: "Dahl," a Swedish botanist. DUNCE, _a dull, slow-witted person_: "Duns Scotus," a subtle philosopher of the 13th century. His method of reasoning was very popular in the schools during the Middle Ages, and a very skillful hair-splitter was called a Dunse, but at last, through the influence of the antagonists of the philosopher, the word passed into a term of reproach. EP'ICURE, _one fond of good living_: "Epicurus," a Greek philosopher who was said to teach that pleasure is the chief good. FAH'RENHEIT, _a thermometer that marks the freezing-point of water at_ 32° (which is different from both the centigrade and the Reaumur thermometer): "Fahrenheit," the inventor. FUCHSIA (fu'sĭ-a), _a genus of flowering plants_: "Leonard Fuchs," a German botanist of the 16th century. GAL'VANISM, _a branch of the science of electricity_: "Galvani," an Italian physician, its discoverer. GEN'TIAN, _a medicinal root_: "Gentian," king of Illyria, who is said to have first experienced the virtues of the plant. GOB'ELIN, _a rich tapestry_: "Jehan Gobeelen," a Flemish dyer. GUILLOTINE', _an instrument for beheading_: "Guillotin," who invented and brought it into use at the time of the French Revolution, last century. HY'GIENE, _the principles and rules of health_: "Hygeia," the goddess of health in classical mythology. JES'UIT, _a member of the Society of Jesus, formed by Ignatius Loyola in_ 1534: "Jesus." LYNCH, _to punish without the usual forms of law_: said to be from "Lynch," a Virginia farmer, who took the law into his own hands. MACAD'AMIZE, _to cover a road with small broken stones_: "Macadam," the inventor. MAGNO'LIA, _a species of trees found in the southern parts of the United States_: "Magnol," a French botanist. MEN'TOR, _a faithful monitor_: "Mentor," the counselor of Telemachus. MOR'PHIA, _the narcotic principle of opium_: "Morpheus," the god of sleep. NE'GUS, _a mixture of wine, water, and sugar_: Colonel "Negus," who introduced its use in the time of Queen Anne. OR'RERY, _an apparatus for showing the motions, etc., of the heavenly bodies_: the Earl of "Orrery," for whom one of the first was made. PALLA'DIUM, _something that affords effectual defense, protection, and safety_: Greek "palla'dion," an image of "Pallas Athene," which was kept hidden and secret, and was revered as a pledge of the safety of the town where it was lodged. PAN'IC, _a sudden fright_: "Pan," the god of shepherds, who is said to have caused alarm by his wild screams and appearance. PE'ONY, _a plant of the genus_ PÆONIA, _having beautiful showy flowers_: "Pæon," its discoverer. PET'REL, _an ocean bird_: diminutive of Peter, probably so called in allusion to "St. Peter's" walking on the sea. PHA'ETON, _an open carriage_: "Phaethon," the fabled son of Phœbus or the Sun, whose chariot he attempted to drive. PINCH'BECK, _an alloy of copper and zinc resembling gold_: said to be from one "Pinchbeck," the inventor. QUAS'SIA, _a bitter wood used as a tonic_: "Quassy," a negro who discovered its qualities. RODOMONTADE', _vainbluster_: "Rodomonte," a boasting hero who figures in Ariosto's poem of the _Orlando Furioso_. SILHOUETTE (sil oo et'), _the outline of an object filled in with black color_: "Silhouette" (see Webster). TAN'TALIZE, _to torment or tease_: "Tantalus," according to the poets, an ancient king of Phrygia, who was made to stand up to the chin in water with fruit hanging over his head, but from whom both receded when he wished to partake. TYPHOON', _a violent hurricane which occurs in the Chinese seas_: "Typhon," a fabled giant who was taught to produce them. VOLCA'NO, _a burning mountain_: "Vulcan," the god of fire. 2.--ADJECTIVES. AMER'ICAN, _relating to America_: from "Amerigo (Latin, _Americus_) Vespucci"--contemporary of Columbus. A'RIAN, _relating to Arius_: a theologian of the 4th century who denied the divinity of Christ. ARISTOTE'LIAN, _relating to the deductive method of reasoning set forth by Aristotle_: a Greek philosopher of the 4th century B.C. ARMIN'IAN, _relating to Arminius_: a Dutch theologian of the 16th century, who opposed the doctrines of Calvin. BACO'NIAN, _relating to the inductive method of reasoning set forth by Bacon_: an English philosopher of the 17th century. CARTE'SIAN, _relating to the philosophy of Descartes_: a French philosopher of the 17th century. CE'REAL, _relating to grain_: from "Ceres"--the Roman goddess of corn and tillage. COPER'NICAN, _relating to Copernicus_: a German philosopher of the 16th century, who taught the theory of the solar system now received, and called the _Copernican system_. ELIZ'ABETHAN, _relating to the times of Queen Elizabeth of England_: (1558-1603). EO'LIAN, _relating to the wind_: from "Æolus"--the god of the winds in classic mythology. ERAS'TIAN, _relating to Erastus_:--a German theologian of the 16th century, who maintained that the Church is wholly dependent on the State for support or authority. ESCULA'PIAN, _relating to the healing art_: from "Esculapius"--the god of the healing art among the Greeks. GOR'DIAN, _intricate, complicated, difficult_: from "Gordius"--king of Phrygia who tied a knot which could not be untied. HERCULE'AN, _very large and strong_: from "Hercules"--a hero of antiquity celebrated for his strength. HERMET'IC, _relating to Hermes_--the fabled inventor of alchemy; adv., HERMETICALLY, _in a perfectly close manner_. HUDIBRAS'TIC, _in the manner of the satirical poem called Hudibras_, by Samuel Butler (1612-1680). JO'VIAL, _gay, merry_: from "Jupiter" (Jovis),--the planet of that name having in the Middle Ages been supposed to make those who were born under it of a joyous temper. LINNÆ'AN, _relating to Linnæus_--the celebrated Swedish botanist. LU'THERAN, _relating to the doctrines of Luther_--a German religious teacher of the 16th century. MACHIAVEL'IAN, _cunning and sinister in politics_: from "Machiaveli"--an Italian writer of the 15th century. MERCU'RIAL, _active, sprightly_--having the qualities fabled to belong to the god "Mercury." MOSA'IC, _relating to Moses, his writings or his time_. NEWTO'NIAN, _relating to Sir Isaac Newton and his philosophy_. PINDAR'IC, _after the style and manner of Pindar_--a lyric poet of Greece. PLATON'IC, _relating to the opinions or the school of Plato_,--a philosopher of Greece, in the 4th century B.C. PLUTON'IC, _relating to the interior of the earth, or to the Plutonic theory in geology of the formation of certain rocks by fire_: from "Pluto"--in classic mythology, the god of the infernal regions. PROCRUS'TEAN, _relating to or resembling the mode of torture employed by Procrustes_--a celebrated highwayman of ancient Attica, who tied his victims upon an iron bed, and, as the case required, either stretched out or cut off their legs to adapt them to its length. PROME'THEAN, _relating to Prometheus_--a god fabled by the ancient poets to have formed men from clay and to have given them life by means of fire stolen from heaven, at which Jupiter, being angry, sent Mercury to bind him to Mount Caucasus, and place a vulture to prey upon his liver. QUIXOT'IC, _absolutely romantic, like Don Quixote_--described by Cervantes, a Spanish writer of the 16th century. SATUR'NIAN, _distinguished for purity, integrity, and simplicity_; _golden, happy_: from "Saturn"--one of the gods of antiquity whose age or reign, from the mildness and wisdom of his government, was called the _golden age_. SOCRAT'IC, _relating to the philosophy or the method of teaching of Socrates_--the celebrated philosopher of Greece (468-399 B.C.). STENTO'RIAN, _very loud or powerful, resembling the voice of Stentor_--a Greek herald, spoken of by Homer, having a very loud voice. THES'PIAN, _relating to tragic action_: from "Thespis"--the founder of the Greek drama. TITAN'IC, _enormous in size and strength_: from the "Titans"--fabled giants in classic mythology. UTO'PIAN, _ideal, fanciful, chimerical_: from "Utopia"--an imaginary island, represented by Sir Thomas More, in a work called "Utopia," as enjoying the greatest perfection in politics laws, and society. VOLTA'IC, _relating to voltaism or voltaic electricity_: from "Volta"--who first devised apparatus for developing electric currents by chemical action. II.--WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES. AG'ATE, _a precious stone_: "Achates," a river in Sicily where it is found. AL'ABASTER, _a variety of soft marble_: "Alabastrum," in Egypt, where it is found. AR'RAS, _tapestry_: "Arras," in France, where it is manufactured. ARTE'SIAN, _applied to wells made by boring into the earth till the instrument reaches water which flows from internal pressure_: "Artois" (anciently called Artesium), in France, where many of such wells have been made. AT'TIC, _marked by such qualities as characterized the Athenians, as delicate wit, purity of style, elegance, etc._: "Attica," the country of the Athenians. BAN'TAM, _a small domestic fowl_: "Bantam," in Java, whence it was brought. BARB, _a Barbary horse_: "Barbary," in Africa. BAY'ONET, _a dagger fixed on the end of a musket_: "Bayonne," in France, where it was invented, in 1679. BEDLAM, _a lunatic asylum_: "Bethlehem," a monastery in London, afterwards used as an asylum for lunatics. BUR'GUNDY, _a French wine_: "Burgundy," where it is made. CAL'ICO, _a kind of cotton cloth_: "Calicut," in India, where it was first manufactured. CANA'RY, _a wine and a bird_: the "Canary" Islands. CAN'TER, _an easy gallop_: "Canterbury," in allusion to the easy pace at which the pilgrims used to ride thither. CAR'RONADE, _a short cannon_: "Carron," in Scotland, where it was first made. CASH'MERE, _a rich shawl, from the wool of the Thibet goat_: "Cashmere," the country where first made. CHALCED'ONY, _a variety of uncrystalized quartz_: "Chalcedon," in Asia Minor, where obtained. CHAMPAGNE', _a wine_: "Champagne," in France, where produced. CHER'RY, _a red stoned fruit_: "Cerasus" (now Kheresoun), in Pontus, Asia Minor, whence the tree was imported into Italy. CHEST'NUT, _a fruit_: "Castanea," in Macedonia, whence it was introduced into Europe. COG'NAC, _a kind of French brandy_: "Cognac," in France, where extensively made. COP'PER, _a metal_: "Cyprus," once celebrated for its rich mines of the metal. CORD'WAINER, _a worker in cordwain, or cordovan, a Spanish leather_: "Cordova," in Spain. CURAÇOA', _a liquor or cordial flavored with orange peel_: the island of "Curaçoa," where it was first made. CUR'RANT, _a small dried grape_: "Corinth," in Greece, of which "currant" is a corruption. DAM'ASK, _figured linen or silk_: "Damascus," in Syria, where first made. DAM'SON, _a small black plum_: (shortened from "Damascene") Damascus. DELF, _a kind of earthenware_: "Delft," in Holland, where it was orignally made. DI'APER, _a figured linen cloth, used for towels, napkins, etc._: "Ypres," in Flanders, where originally manufactured. DIM'ITY, _a figured cotton cloth_: "Damietta," in Egypt. GAMBOGE', _a yellow resin used as a paint_: "Cambodia, where it is obtained. GING'HAM, _cotton cloth, made of yarn dyed before woven_: "Guincamp," in France, where it was first made. GUIN'EA, _an English gold coin of the value of twenty-one shillings_: "Guinea," whence the gold was obtained out of which it was first struck. GYP'SY, _one of a wandering race_: old English "Gyptian," from "Egypt," whence the race was supposed to have originated. HOL'LAND, _a kind of linen cloth_: "Holland," where first made. HOL'LANDS, _a spirit flavored with juniper berries_: "Holland," where it is extensively produced.. IN'DIGO, _a blue dye_: "India". JAL'AP, _a cathartic medicine_: "Jalapa," in Mexico, whence it was first imported in 1610. JET, _a mineral used for ornament_: "Gagates," a river in Asia Minor, whence it was obtained. LAN'DAU, LAN'DAULET, _a kind of carriage opening at the top_: "Landau," a town in Germany. MADEI'RA, _a wine_: "Madeira," where produced. MAGNE'SIA, _a primitive earth_: "Magnesia," in Thessaly. MAG'NET, _the loadstone, or Magnesian stone_. MALM'SEY, _a wine_: "Malvasia," in the Morea. MAR'SALA, _a wine_: "Marsala," in Sicily. MEAN'DER, _to flow in a winding course_: "Meander," a winding river in Asia Minor. MIL'LINER, _one who makes ladies' bonnets, etc._: "Milan," in Italy. MOROC'CO, _a fine kind of leather_: "Morocco," in Africa, where it was originally made. NANKEEN', _a buff-colored cloth_: "Nankin," in China, where first made. PHEAS'ANT, _a bird whose flesh is highly valued as food_: "Phasis," a river in Asia Minor, whence it was brought to Europe. PIS'TOL, _a small hand gun_: "Pistoja," in Italy, where first made. PORT, _a wine_: "Oporto," in Portugal, whence extensively shipped. SARDINE', _a small Mediterranean fish, of the herring family_: "Sardinia" around whose coasts the fish abounds. SAUTERNE', _a wine_: "Sauterne," in France, where produced. SHER'RY, _a wine_: "Xeres," in Spain, where it is largely manufactured. SPAN'IEL, _a dog of remarkable sagacity_: "Hispaniola," now Hayti, where originally found. TAR'IFF, _a list of duties or customs to be paid on goods imported or exported_: from an Arabic word, _tarif_, information. TO'PAZ, _a precious stone_: "Topazos," an island in the Red Sea, where it is found. TRIP'OLI, _a fine grained earth used in polishing stones_: "Tripoli," in Africa, where originally obtained. TURQUOIS', _a bluish-green stone_: "Turkey," whence it was originally brought. WORST'ED, _well-twisted yarn, spun of long-staple wool_: "Worsted," a village in Norfolk, England, where first made. III.--ETYMOLOGY OF WORDS USED IN THE PRINCIPAL SCHOOL STUDIES. 1.--TERMS IN GEOGRAPHY. ANTARC'TIC: Gr. _anti_, opposite, and _arktos_, a bear. See _arctic_. ARCHIPEL'AGO: Gr. _archi_, chief, and _pelagos_, sea, originally applied to the Ægean Sea, which is studded with numerous islands. ARC'TIC: Gr. _arktikos_, from _arktos_, a bear and a northern constellation so called. ATLAN'TIC: Lat. _Atlanticus_, from "Atlas," a fabled Titan who was condemned to bear heaven on his head and hands. AX'IS: Lat. _axis_, an axletree. BAR'BAROUS: Gr. _barbaros_, foreign. BAY: Fr. _baie_, from Lat. _baia_, an inlet. CAN'CER: Lat. _cancer_, a crab (the name of one of the signs of the zodiac). CAPE: Fr. _cap_, from Lat. _caput_, head. CAP'ITAL: Lat. _capitalis_, from _caput_, head. CAP'RICORN: Lat. _caper_, goat, and _cornu_, horn (the name of one of the signs of the zodiac). CAR'DINAL: adj Lat. _cardinalis_, from _cardo, cardinis_, a hinge. CHAN'NEL: Lat. _canalis_, from _canna_, a reed or pipe. CIR'CLE: Lat. _circus_, from Gr. _kirkos_, a ring. CIRCUM'FERENCE: Lat. _circum_, around, and _ferre_, to bear. CIT'Y: Fr. _cite_, from Lat. _civitas_, a state or community. CIV'ILIZED: Lat. _civilis_, pertaining to an organized community. CLI'MATE: Gr. _klima, klimatos_, slope, the supposed slope of the earth from the Equator to the poles. COAST: Old Fr. _coste_ (New Fr. _côte_), from Lat. _costa_, rib, side. CON'FLUENCE: Lat. _con_, together, and _fluere_, to flow. CON'TINENT: Lat. _con_, together, and _tenere_, to hold. CON'TOUR: Lat. _con_, together, and _tornus_, a lathe. COUN'TY: Fr. _comte_, from Lat. _comitatus_, governed by a count. DEGREE': Lat. _de_, and _gradus_, a step DIAM'ETER: Gr. _dia_, through, and _metron_, measure. EQUA'TOR: Lat. _equus_, equal. ES'TUARY: Lat. _æstuare_, to boil up, or be furious, the reference being to the commotion made by the meeting of a river-current and the tide. FRIG'ID: Lat. _frigidus_, from _frigere_, to be cold. GEOG'RAPHY: Gr. _ge_, the earth, and _graphe_, a description. GLOBE: Lat. _globus_, a round body. GULF: Fr. _golfe_, from Gr. _kolpos_, bosom, bay. HAR'BOR: Anglo-Saxon, _hereberga_, from _beorgan_, to shelter. HEM'ISPHERE: Gr. _hemi_, half, and _sphaira_, sphere. HORI'ZON: Gr. _horizein_, to bound. IN'DIAN (ocean): India. ISTH'MUS: Gr. _isthmos_, a neck. LAKE: Lat. _lacus_, a lake. LAT'ITUDE: Lat. _latitudo_, from _latus_, broad. LON'GITUDE: Lat. _longitudo_, from _longus_, long. MERID'IAN: Lat. _meridies_ (= _medius_, middle, and _dies_, day), noon. METROP'OLIS: Gr. _meter_, mother, and _polis_, city. MON'ARCHY: Gr. _monarchés_, from _monos_, alone, and _archein_, to rule. MOUN'TAIN: Fr. _montagne_, from Lat. _mons_, _montis_, a mountain. OB'LATE: Lat. _oblatus_ (_ob_ and past part. of _ferre_, to bring), brought forward. O'CEAN: Gr. _okeanus_, from _okus_, rapid, and _nacin_, to flow. PACIF'IC: Lat. _pacificus_, from _pax_, _pacis_, peace, and _facere_, to make. PAR'ALLEL: Gr. _para_, beside, and _allelon_, of one another. PENIN'SULA: Lat. _penes_, almost, and _insula_, island. PHYS'ICAL: Gr. _physis_ (_phusis_), nature. PLAIN: Lat. _planus_, flat. PLANE: Lat. _planus_, flat. POLE: Gr. _polos_, a pivot. POLIT'ICAL: Gr. _polis_, a city or state. PROM'ONTORY: Lat. _pro_, before, and _mons_, _montis_, a mountain. RELIEF': Fr. _relever_, from Lat. _relevare_, to raise. REPUB'LIC: Lat. _res_, an affair, and _publica_, public: that is, a _commonwealth_. RIV'ER: Fr. _rivière_, from Lat. _ripa_, a shore or bank. SAV'AGE: Fr. _sauvage_, from Lat. _silva_, a wood. SEA: Anglo-Saxon, _sæ_, the sea. SOCI'ETY: Lat. _societas_, from _socius_, a companion. 2.--TERMS IN GRAMMAR. AD'JECTIVE, Lat. _adjectivus_, from _ad_ and _jacere_, to add to: _a word joined to a noun or pronoun to limit or describe its meaning_. AD'JUNCT, Lat. _adjunctus_, from _ad_ and _jungere_, to join to: _a modifier or subordinate element of a sentence_. AD'VERB, Lat. _adverbium_, from _ad_, to, and _verbum_, word, verb: _a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb_. ANAL'YSIS, Gr. _analusis_, from _ana_ and _luein_, to unloose, to resolve into its elements: _the separation of a sentence into its constituent elements_. ANTECE'DENT, Lat. _antecedens_, pres. part. of _antecedere_, to go before: _the noun or pronoun represented by a relative pronoun_. APPOSI'TION, Lat. _appositio_, from _ad_, to, and _ponere_, to place beside: _the state of two nouns put in the same case without a connecting word between them_. AR'TICLE, Lat. _articulus_, a little joint: _one of the three words_, a, an, _or_ the. AUXIL'IARY, Lat. _auxiliaris_, from _auxilium_, help, aid: _a verb used to assist in conjugating other verbs_. CASE, Lat. _casus_, from _cadere_, to fall, to happen: _a grammatical form denoting the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence_. CLAUSE, Lat. _claudere_, _clausum_, to shut: _a dependent proposition introduced by a connective_. COMPAR'ISON, Lat. _comparatio_, from _comparare_, to liken to: _a variation in the form of an adjective or adverb to express degrees of quantity or quality_. COM'PLEMENT, Lat. _complementum_, from _con_ and _plere_, to fill fully: _the word or words required to complete the predication of a transitive verb_. COM'PLEX (sentence), Lat. _complexus_, from _con_ and _plectere_, to twist around: _a sentence consisting of one independent proposition and one or more clauses_. COM'POUND (sentence), Lat. _componere_ (= _con_ and _ponere_), to put together: _a sentence consisting of two or more independent propositions_. CONJUGA'TION, Lat. _conjugatio_, from _con_ and _jugare_, to join together: _the systematic arrangement of a verb according to its various grammatical forms_. CONJUNCTION, Lat. _conjunctio_, from _con_ and _jungere_, to join together: _a word used to connect sentences or the elements of sentences_. DECLEN'SION, Lat. _declinatio_, from _declinare_, to lean or incline: _the process of giving in regular order the cases and numbers of a noun or pronoun_. ELLIP'SIS, Gr. _elleipsis_, a leaving or defect: _the omission of a word or words necessary to complete the grammatical structure of the sentence_. ETYMOL'OGY, Gr. _etumologia_, from _etumon_, the true literal sense of a word, and _logos_, a discourse: _that division of grammar which treats of the classification and grammatical forms of words_. FEM'ININE (gender), Lat. _femininus_, from _femina_, woman: _the gender of a noun denoting a person of the female sex_. GEN'DER, Lat. _genus_, _generis_, kind: _a grammatical form expressing the sex or non-sex of an object named by a noun_. GRAM'MAR, Gr. _gramma_, a letter, through Fr. _grammaire_: the science of language. IMPER'ATIVE (mood), Lat. _imperativus_, from _imperare_, to command: _the mood of a verb used in the statement of a command or request_. INDIC'ATIVE (mood), Lat. _indicativus_, from _indicare_, to proclaim: _the mood of a verb used in the statement of a fact, or of a matter taken as a fact_. INFLEC'TION, Lat. _inflexio_, from _inflectere_, to bend in: _a change in the ending of a word_. INTERJEC'TION, Lat. _interjectio_, from _inter_ and _jacere_, to throw between: _a word which expresses an emotion, but which does not enter into the construction of the sentence_. INTRAN'SITIVE (verb), Lat. _intransitivus_ = _in_, not, and _transitivus_, from _trans_ and _ire_, _itum_, to go beyond: _a verb that denotes a state or condition, or an action not terminating on an object_. MAS'CULINE (gender), Lat. _masculus_, male: _the gender of a noun describing a person of the male sex_. MODE. See _mood_. MOOD, Lat. _modus_, through Fr. _mode_, manner: _a grammatical form denoting the style of predication_. NEU'TER (gender), Lat. _neuter_, neither: _the gender of a noun denoting an object without life_. NOM'INATIVE (case), Lat. _nominativus_, from _nomen_, a name: _that form which a noun has when it is the subject of a verb_. NOUN, Lat. _nomen_, a name, through Fr. _nom_: _a name-word, the name of anything_. NUM'BER, Lat. _numerus_, through Fr. _nombre_, number: _a grammatical form expressing one or more than one of the objects named by a noun or pronoun_. OB'JECT, Lat. _ob_ and _jacere_, to set before: _that toward which an activity is directed or is considered to be directed_. OBJEC'TIVE (case), Lat. _objectivus_, from _ob_ and _jacere_: _the case which follows a transitive verb or a preposition_. PARSE, Lat. _pars_, a part: _to point out the several parts of speech in a sentence and their relation to one another_. PAR'TICIPLE, Lat. _participium_, from _pars_, part, and _capere_, to take, to share: _a verbal adjective, a word which shares or participates in the nature both of the verb and of the adjective_. PER'SON, Lat. _persona_, the part taken by a performer: _a grammatical form which shows whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of_. PHRASE, Gr. _phrasis_, a brief expression, from _phrazein_, to speak: _a combination of related words forming an element of a sentence_. PLE'ONASM, Gr. _pleonasmos_, from _pleion_, more: _the use of more words to express an idea than are necessary_. PLU'RAL (number), Lat. _pluralis_, from _plus_, _pluris_, more: _the number which designates more than one_. POSSESS'IVE (case), Lat. _possessivus_, from _possidere_, to own: _that form which a noun or pronoun has in order to denote ownership or possession_. POTEN'TIAL (mood), Lat. _potens_, _potentis_, being able: _the mood of a verb used in the statement of something possible or contingent_. PREDICATE, Lat. _prædicatum_, from _præ_ and _dicare_, to proclaim: _the word or words in a proposition which express what is affirmed of the subject_. PREPOSI'TION, Lat. _præpositio_, from _præ_ and _ponere_, to put before: _a connective word expressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other word_. PRO'NOUN, Lat. _pronomen_, from _pro_, for, and _nomen_, a noun: _a word used instead of a noun_. PROP'OSITION, Lat. _propositio_, from _proponere_ (_pro_ and _ponere_), to put forth: _the combination of a subject with a predicate_. REL'ATIVE (pronoun), Lat. _relativus_, from _re_ and _ferre_, _latus_, to bear back: _a pronoun that refers to an antecedent noun or pronoun_. SEN'TENCE, Lat. _sententia_, from _sentire_, to think: _a combination of words expressing a complete thought_. SIM'PLE (sentence), Lat. _simplex_, from _sine_, without, and _plica_, fold: _a sentence having but one subject and one predicate_. SUB'JECT, Lat. _subjectus_, from _sub_ and _jacere_, to place under: _that of which something is predicated_. SUBJUNC'TIVE (mood), Lat. _subjunctivus_, from _sub_ and _jungere_, to subjoin: _the mood used in the statement of something merely thought of_. SYN'TAX, Gr. _suntaxis_, from _sun_, together, and _taxis_, arrangement: _that division of grammar which treats of the relations of words in sentences_. TENSE, Lat. _tempus_, time, through Fr. _temps_: _a grammatical form of the verb denoting the time of the action or event_. TRAN'SITIVE, Lat. _transitivus_, from _trans_ and _ire_, _itum_, to pass over: _a verb that denotes an action terminating on some object_. VERB, Lat. _verbum_, a word: _a word that predicates action or being_. VOICE, Lat. _vox_, _vocis_, voice, through Fr. _voix_: _a grammatical form of the transitive verb, expressing whether the subject names the actor or the recipient of the action_. 3.--TERMS IN ARITHMETIC. ADDI'TION, Lat. _additio_, from _addere_, to add. AL'IQUOT, Lat. _aliquot_, some. ARITH'METIC, Gr. adj. _arithmetike_, numerical, from n. _arithmos_, number. AVOIRDUPOIS', Fr. _avoir du pois_, to have [a fixed or standard] weight. CANCELLA'TION, Lat. _cancellatio_, from _cancellare_, to make like a lattice (_cancelli_), to strike or cross out. CENT, Lat. _centum_, a hundred. CI'PHER, Arabic _sifrun_, empty, zero. CUBE, Gr. _kubos_, a cubical die. DEC'IMAL, Lat. _decimus_, tenth, from _decem_, ten. DENOM'INATOR, Lat. _denominare_, from _de_ and _nominare_ (_nomen_, a name), to call by name. DIG'IT, Lat. _digitus_, a finger. DIV'IDEND, Lat. _dividendus_, to be divided, from _dividere_, to divide. DIVIS'ION, Lat. _divisio_, from _dividere_, to divide. DIVI'SOR, Sp. _divisor_, that which divides, from Lat. _dividere_, to divide. DOL'LAR, Ger. _thaler_, an abbreviation of _Joachimsthaler_, i.e. a piece of money first coined, about 1518, in the valley (_thal_) of _St. Joachim_, in Bohemia. EQUA'TION, Lat. _æquatio_, from _æquus_, equal. EXPO'NENT, Lat. _exponens_, pres. part. of _exponere_, to set forth (= _ex_ and _ponere_). FAC'TOR, Lat. _factor_, that which does something, from _facere_, _factum_, to do or make. FIG'URE, Lat. _figura_, shape, from _fingere_, to form or shape. FRAC'TION, Lat. _fractio_, from _frangere_, to break. IN'TEGER, Lat. _integer_, untouched, whole. IN'TEREST, Lat. _interest_ = it interests, is of interest (3d per. sing. pres. indic. of _interesse_, to be between, to be of importance). MIN'UEND, Lat. _minuendus_, to be diminished, from _minuere_, to lessen. MUL'TIPLE, Lat. _multiplex_, from _multus_, much, and _plicare_, to fold. MUL'TIPLY, MULTIPLICATION, etc. See _multiple_. NAUGHT, Anglo-Sax. _nawhit_, from _ne_, not, and _awiht_ or _auht_, aught, anything. NOTA'TION, Lat. _notatio_, from _notare_, to mark (_nota_, a mark). NUMERA'TION, Lat. _numeratio_, from _numerus_, a number. QUO'TIENT, Lat. _quoties_, how often, how many times, from _quot_, how many. SUBTRACTION, Lat. _subtractio_, from _sub_ and _trahere_, to draw from under. U'NIT, Lat. _unus_, one. ZE'RO, Arabic _çifrun_, empty, cipher. * * * * * NOTES. [1] To teachers who are unacquainted with the original _Word-Analysis_, the following extract from the Preface to that work may not be out of place:-- "The treatment of the Latin derivatives in Part II. presents a new and important feature, to wit: the systematic analysis of the structure and organism of derivative words, together with the statement of their primary meaning in such form that the pupil inevitably perceives its relation with the root, and in fact _makes_ its primary meaning by the very process of analyzing the word into its primitive and its modifying prefix or suffix. It presents, also, a marked improvement in the method of approaching the definition,--a method by which the definition is seen to _grow out of_ the primary meaning, and by which the analytic faculty of the pupil is exercised in tracing the transition from the primary meaning to the secondary and figurative meanings,--thus converting what is ordinarily a matter of rote into an agreeable exercise of the thinking faculty. Another point of novelty in the method of treatment is presented in the copious practical exercises on the _use of words_. The experienced instructor very well knows that pupils may memorize endless lists of terms and definitions without having any realization of the actual living power of words. Such a realization can only be gained by _using_ the word,--by turning it over in a variety of ways, and by throwing upon it the side-lights of its synonym and contrasted word. The method of thus utilizing English derivatives gives a study which possesses at once _simplicity_ and _fruitfulness_,--the two desiderata of an instrument of elementary discipline." [2] "Etymology," Greek _et'umon_, the true literal sense of a word according to its derivation, and _log'os_, a discourse. [3] "Vocabulary," Latin _vocabula'rium_, a stock of words; from _vox, vocis_, a voice, a word. [4] By the _Low_ German languages are meant those spoken in the low, flat countries of North Germany, along the coast of the North Sea (as Dutch, the language of Holland); and they are so called in contradistinction to _High_ German, or German proper. [5] For the full definition, reference should be had to a dictionary; but in the present exercise the literal or etymological signification may suffice. [6] _Fen'do_, _fen'dere_, is used in Latin only in composition. [7] Another mode of spelling _defense_. [8] From _pass_ and _over_, a feast of the Jews instituted to commemorate the providential escape of the Jews to Egypt, when God, smiting the first-born of the Egyptians _passed over_ the houses of the Israelites, which were marked with the blood of the paschal lamb. [9] For the explanation of the etymology see Webster's _Unabridged_. [10] _For_ is different from _fore_, and corresponds to the German _ver_, different from _vor_. _A_, _be_, _for_, _ge_, are often indifferently prefixed to verbs, especially to perfect tenses and perfect participles, as well as to verbal nouns.--BOSWORTH. [11] _Ster_ was the Anglo-Saxon feminine termination. Females once conducted the work of brewing, baking, etc., hence brewster, baxter; these words were afterwards applied to men when they undertook the same work. _Ster_ is now used in depreciating, as in trickster, youngster. 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What is the South African style of dried meat named originally in Dutch meaning 'rump strip'?
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Africa Products - The Traditional South African Vice - Biltong, Droewors, Boerewors - Home
Biltong
The word biltong is from the Dutch bil ("rump") and tong ("strip" or "tongue").
The Dutch settlers who arrived in South Africa in the 17th century brought recipes for dried meat from the Old World.
To this day this tradition is honored and all our Biltong is made from authentic recipes and imported spices from South Africa.
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TRADITIONAL
Droewors
Droëwors (Afrikaans lit."dry sausage") is a popular South African snack food. It is usually made from dunwors (Afr. "thin sausage") rather than dikwors ("thick sausage"), as the thinner sausage dries more quickly and is thus less likely to spoil. The recipe used for these dried sausages is similar to that for boerewors, though pork and veal are replaced by beef.
The spices used in this product, like that of biltong, are traditional and imported from South Africa.
Welcome to Africa Products.
We produce and sell traditional South African products using the finest local Australian beef and imported spices.
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TRADITIONAL
Boerewors
Boerewors(singular),popular in South African cuisine. The name comes from the Afrikaans words boer ("farmer") and wors ("sausage"). Most non-Afrikaans-speaking persons find it difficult to pronounce but a reasonable approximation is Boerie.
All our products are made with MSA certified, Australian Beef prepared in the traditional way and delivered directly to you.
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IMPORTED
Spices
Africa spice, a leader in the industry with many years of experience in blending spices, is now available in Australia.
All spices are perfectly blended with all the necessary ingredients to give you the original flavors that every South African grew up with.
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HOZZA
Hozza is a traditional Zulu word meaning 'come here' or 'come closer'.
HOZZA is a fund initiated by South Africans to assist fellow migrating South Africans fleeing the political collapse of their homeland.
Here you will find products,services, events, and news regularly updated facilitating a helping hand and general networking.
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Biltong
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Cadence in music and language technically and originally referred to rhythmic or tonal effect associated with a?
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A Handy Guide to Speaking South African | Banana Newsline
About
A Handy Guide to Speaking South African
Have you ever wondered what the hell South Africans are talking about? Do you get lost when you are told to park your bakkie at the shebeen and have a dop? Never fear! Help is here! [Scroll down for list of slang words]
This handy glossary contains words used in South African mainstream English (that means, it’s in the Oxford English Dictionary , you just never noticed it), as well as slang and other words that crawled over from South Africa’s many languages.
South Africa has eleven official languages ( Afrikaans , English , Ndebele , Northern Sotho , Sotho , Swazi , Tswana , Tsonga , Venda , Xhosa , and Zulu ). [Please note that when it’s indicated that a word has been taken up into all mainstream languages, it means you’ll find it’s definition in the dictionary for all eleven official languages. That includes the Oxford English Dictionary]
While most slang in South Africa is as a result of the cross-polination of languages, there are many original coinages as well, some of which you’d find below.
A few words from the Khoisan languages (spoken by the Khoi and San Bushmen) have been taken into mainstream Afrikaans, and some are commonly used by speakers of all languages. Some words, like buchu, dagga and eina even made it into the Oxford English dictionary. Most of the Khoisan languages are endangered or extinct, with Khoekhoe (quarter of a million speakers) remaining the only one in widespread use.
This list is by no means complete (although it’s updated occasionally). It’s merely a guide to help you understand the meaning of some words commonly known to South Africans, and often used even when speaking English.
Pronunciation (pron.) help is provided in accordance with a general English tongue, so if you say it the way you usually do, you should come close. In some languages, especially Afrikaans, the ‘g’ is often pronounced with a phlegm-inducing, throat-scraping guttural sound, like a Welshmen or an Arab with a terrible cold. This is indicated with a double ‘g’ (gg). If only one ‘g’ is present, stick to normal English phonetics.
(Image courtesy of ST Communications )
Ag (pron \agg\ like the German Achtung) – can be used to start a reply when you are asked a tricky question to indicate uncertainty, as in ‘Ag, I don’t know’, or to indicate a sense of resignation, as in “Ag, I’ll have some more mieliepap then.” It can also stand alone to indicate irritation or pleasure.
Ag Man (pron. \Agg\) – oh man; ag as the Afrikaans equivalent to “oh”, man pronounced as in English
Ag Shame/Shame (pron. \Agg\ \Shame\) –how cute (“Is that your baby? Ag shame”); an expression of empathy, much like “I’m so sorry for you” (Marie: “My dog died.” Suzie: “Ag shame.”) – ‘ag’ is not necessary, it only adds emphasis
Aikôna (pron. \eye-caw-nah\) – not on your life / never / no [from a variety of African languages]
Aitsa (pron. \eye-t-sah\) – is usually used when exclaiming agreement like you would when saying “sweet!”, “nice!”, “lekker!”, and “got it! (of Khoisan origin)
Akubekuhle (pron. \aako-beck-hooleh\) – meaning cheers, to cheers a drink or thanks in Zulu
Aluta Continua – the struggle continues (was the rallying cry of Samora Machel’s FRELIMO movement during Mozambique’s war for independence, later taken up by the South African anti-Apartheid movement.) [From the Portuguese phrase ‘A luta continua, vitória é certa’ meaning, ‘The struggle continues, victory is certain’]
Amandla! –power (popular chant at protests and gatherings, usually call and response, with a lead calling out ‘amandla’ and the crowd calling out ‘awethu’, meaning ‘to us’ in response) ‘amandla awethu’ can also mean ‘power to the people’ [of Zulu and Xhosa origin]
An’ All – and so on; can also mean ‘et cetera, et cetera’ [from ‘and all’]
Asijiki (pron. \ah-see-gee-key\) – there is no turning back, also used to imply that there will be no backing down. [from isiZulu]
Askies (pron. \aah-skees\) – sorry; excuse me; I beg your pardon [from the Afrikaans word ‘ekskuus’)
Ausie/Ousie (‘ausie’ pron. \auhw-see\; ‘ousie’ pron. \oh-see\) – ‘woman’ in various African languages; term used by white people to refer to a black maid or domestic worker (‘ousie’ denotes the Afrikaans appropriation) [not to be confused with Aussie (pron. \Ozzie\) which means Australian]
Authi (pron. \auhw-tee\) man, guy in various African languages
Awe/Aweh (pron. \ah-weh\) – howsit; hello; A slang way of greeting someone; (“Awe, my bru!”); also said in excitement (“Aweh, my boss said I can go home early today.”) [most common in Cape Town]
Ayoba (pron. \ah-yaw-bah\) – expression of excitement, it is good
Baas – boss (from the Afrikaans word for ‘boss’)
Babbelas/Babelaas (pron. \bah-buh-laas\) – commonly used Afrikaans word for hangover (of Zulu origin)
Bakgat (pron. \buck-ggaht\) – cool; expression of appreciation for something very well accomplished
South Africa’s favourite bakkie – The Nissan 1400 (RIP)
Bakkie (pron. \buck-key\) – utility truck, pick-up truck, now a mainstream word in all South African languages; can also refer to a small container [from the Afrikaans word for a small container]
Bek (pron. \back\) – derogatory term for mouth (Afrikaans: an animal’s mouth); hou jou bek – “shut up, shut your trap” (literally” “hold your [animal’s] mouth”). This translates well into British English as “Shut your gob.”
Bergie (s) (pron. \behr-ggey\) – originally referring to vagrants who sheltered in the forests of Table Mountain ; now a mainstream word for a particular subculture of vagrants, or homeless persons, especially in Cape Town. When used as slang refers to anyone down-and-out [from Afrikaans word ‘berg’ meaning ‘mountain’),
Beskuit (pron. \buh-skate\) – rusks (a dry biscuit or piece of rebaked bread) [from Afrikaans]
Biltong – dried, seasoned meat, similar to jerky
Bioskoop/Bioscope (bioskoop pron. \bee-ooh-skoowp\) – cinema; movie theatre – originally a defunct English word that survived longer in South Africa because of the influence of the Afrikaans word, ‘bioskoop’
Biscuit – used as a term of affection when a person does something good – Claudia, you biscuit!!
Bladdy – damn (eg. I can’t believe the bladdy referee gave that penalty)
Blesser – sugar-daddy; an older man sponsoring the expensive lifestyle of a young woman
Bliksem (pron. \bluhk-suhm\) – strike, hit, punch; also used as an expression of surprise/emphasis (rude). It derives from the Dutch word for “lightning”, and often occurs in conjunction with donner. Used as a curse in Afrikaans: Jou bliksem! (You bastard!) Used to curse that Bliksem
Bobotie (pron. \buh-boo-tea\) – a spicy traditional Malay mince with an egg custard topping, served with yellow rice and raisins.
Boer – literally “farmer” in Afrikaans; English-speaking people use the word to indicate an Afrikaans farmer, especially in a derogatory way, like “country bumpkin”, “boorish”; but Afrikaners use it with much pride, indicating a person with a deep love of the soil of Africa, a provider of food. boere (the plural form) can also refer to the police
Boeretroos – coffee (literally ‘farmer’s comfort’) [from Afrikaans]
Boerewors (boerie) – spicy South African farmers’ sausage, used as a mainstream word in South African English
Boet/Boetie (pron. \boot\ \boot-tea\) – boet is used to mean friend, boetie is used to mean friend in a patronising way [from Afrikaans; boet means brother, boetie means little brother]
Bokkie – a small buck in Afrikaans, or affectionate name for a girlfriend/boyfriend (my bokkie), as a mistranslation of the English ‘dear’ (‘deer’ means buck; ‘dear’ is a term of affection)
Boom (pron. \boowm\) – Literal translation is “tree” but is commonly used to refer to marijuana
Bosberaad (pron \boss-buh-raahd\) – strategy meeting held outdoors, for example in a game reserve
Boykie/Boitjie (both pron. \boy-key\) – meaning a young white male who is cool in the high-school stereotype kind of way. Sporty and tanned, uses a lot of slang. [From English “boy” and the Afrikaans diminutive “-tjie”]
Bra – Afrikaans slang word for male friend – “dude” in English
Braai (pron. \br-eye\) – a Barbecue [from Afrikaans for barbecue; mainstream word to mean barbecue in all South African languages]
Braaivleis (pron. \br-eye-vlase\) – The meat for a braai; A braaivleis fire refers to the fire for a braai. [from Afrikaans]
Brak – mongrel dog, can also refer to brackish water
Bring en Braai – a barbecue where everyone is required to bring their own meat (also see Shisa Nyama)
Bru (pron. \brooh\) – A term of affection see also “bra” and “boet”, shortened from Afrikaans broer, meaning “brother”. An example would be “Hey, my bru, howzit?”
Buchu (Maurocenia frangularia)
Buchu/Boegoe (pron. \boo-ggoo\) – a heather-like South African shrub, cultivated for its essential oil; name applied to a range of medicinal plants (of Khoisan origin)
Buck – the main unit of currency: in South Africa the rand ; usage became popular due to the range of antelope found on South African coins
Bunny Chow – type of food, made with a hollowed out loaf of bread filled with a curry stew
Café/Cafe (pron. \caffie\) – convenience store; corner store
Chaile/Tjaila (pron. \chai-lah\) – time to go home [chaile of Zulu origin; tjaila Afrikaans use variant spelling)
Charf – flirt, (e.g., check that china charfing my chick)
Charo (pron. \chah-roo\) – a person of Indian origin
Checkers – Township slang for a plastic bag [from branded plastic bags by the Checkers supermarket chain]
Cherry/pl. Cherries – Girl(s); girlfriend(s)
China – friend / mate (eg. ‘Hoezit, my china?) – [From Cockney rhyming slang (mate – china plate) alternatively, from the Bantu word umshana, shortened to shana]
Chiskop – Township slang for a shaved head (denoting the hairstyle); a person with a shaved head
Chizboy – Township slang for a person from a wealthy family; one who dresses like he’s wealthy
Chommie/Tjommie/Tjomma – friend; buddy (‘How are you, my chommie?’) [from the British English term ‘chum’]
Choc – township slang for R20 note
Choon – to tell someone something (“I choon you” – I tell you); could also mean a song [South African Indian origin] – Also see “tune”
Chop – a person behaving in a stupid or pathetic way (‘don’t be such a chop’)
Chow/Chowing – to eat; eating
Coconut – derogative term for a black person who is perceived to embrace white culture too much. Black on the outside and white on the inside (derogatory term used amongst city dwelling Black South Africans)
Cocopan – small tip truck on rails used in mines (from Zulu and Xhosa ‘nqukumbana’ meaning ‘Scotch cart’)
A perfect example of a cozzie (Model: Joelle Kayembe)
Cozzy – swim suit; swimming costume; bathing costume (applies to both male and female)
Dagga (pron. \dah-ggah\) – most common word for marijuana; Mainstream word in all South African languages (of Khoisan origin)
Dik bek (pron. \duh-k-back\) – sulking, pouting, grumpy, in a huff (literally: “thick mouth” (pout), with an image of puffed-out cheeks like a bullfrog)
Diski – township slang for football (soccer)
Dof/Doff – stupid, daft (“Are you doff?”) [from the Afrikaans word ‘dof’ meaning ‘dim’]
Dolos/pl. Dolosse (pron. \daw-laws\) – ox knuckle-joint bones used in divination practices by sangomas [from Afrikaans]
Domkop – idiot (litrally dumbhead), similar to the German ‘dummkopf’ [from Afrikaans]
Donga – ditch or dried up waterway of the type found in South African topography. (From Zulu word meaning ‘wall’; this has become a mainstream word for such a feature)
Donner – to beat up; often used together with ‘bliksem’ [derived from the Afrikaans word ‘donder’ meaning ‘thunder’] (sometimes considered moderately rude)
Doos/Dose (pl) (dose pron. /doo-suh/) – literally the Afrikaans translation for ‘box’. Used in English, it’s a derogatory synonym for ‘prat’, ‘twat’ or ‘idiot’. Used in Afrikaans, it can also be vulgar slang for female genitals.
Dop – alcohol, a drink (‘Come and drink a dop with me’) / also means to fail a test or to fail at graduating (‘I’m gonna dop grade 6’)
Doss/Dossing – nap, to take a nap
Dorpie (pron. \door-pee\) – a town small in size
Droëwors (pron. \droo-a-wors\) – traditional Afrikaner dried sausage
Dronkie – drunkard [of Afrikaans origin]
Duidelik (pron. \day-duh-lik\) – cool, awesome, amazing (e.g. That bra’s car looks duidelik!) [from Afrikaans word ‘duidelik’ meaning ‘clear’]
Dwaal – lost or loss of concentration (e.g. I was in a dwaal and didn’t see the red robot)
Ek Sê/Eksê (pron \eh-k-seh\) – I say! (used at the beginning of a statement to get somebody listening to you) [from Afrikaans]
Eina! (pron. ‘ei’ as the ‘a’ in apron \ay-nah\) – ouch! used as a cry-out when experiencing physical pain, can also be used to express sympathy at another’s physical pain [of Khoisan origin; used as a mainstream word in South African English]
Eish! (pron. /aysh/ but also, less often, as /ish/) – A term of resignation; Used to express everything ranging from frustration to surprise to disapproval, but also just everyday acknowledgement of things you can’t change like “Eish, the traffic is bad today”. Heard frequently each and every day! Also used to indicate displeasure, for example: “Eish, what’s going on here?”
Entjie (pron. \eh-n-chee\) – a cigarette (e.g. Come smoke an entjie with me.) [Cape Town slang]
Fire Pool – a pool that looks exactly like a swimming pool, but is in fact a fire pool for fire fighting, used to scoop water from when your expensive thatch roof catches fire, because it’s more effective than a pump and a hose pipe. Most notably found at the Nkandla homestead of President Jacob Zuma.
Fong Kong – cheap and fake products that one can buy from vendors on the streets; sometimes used as a derogative term for an idiot or loser
Fundi (pron. \foon-dee\) – expert (From the Zulu word ‘umfundisi’ meaning teacher or preacher) – used in mainstream South African English [not to be confused with ‘fundie’ (pron. fun-dee), American slang for ‘Christian fundamentalist’]
Frostun/Forstan (pron. like ‘frost’ and ‘stun’ together) – township slang meaning ‘understand’ – Often used to mean a complete question as in ‘do you understand’ [mispronunciation of the Afrikaans word ‘verstaan’ meaning ‘understand’]
Gatvol (pron. \ggut-fawl\) – fed up, had enough. (Afrikaans – asshole-full)
Gesuip (pron. \ghe-sayp\) – Very drunk [from Afrikaans]
Know your ‘gogga from your ‘gogo’. It could save your life.
Gogga (pron. \ggaw-ggah\) – bug or insect (of Khoikhoi origin)
Gogo (pron. gaw-gaw) – grandmother, elderly woman [from Zulu, ugogo]
Gooi (pron. ggoow-ee) – chuck or throw something
Goose – chick, cherry: a young woman or girlfriend
Graft – work (I’m grafting; ‘I’m at work’ / ‘I’m busy)
Graze – to eat, food (‘do you want to graze?’ / ‘let’s go get some graze’)
Guzzie – friend [from the Zulu word guz’lam]
Haw! (pron. \how\) – expression of disbelief, surprise [From the Zulu ‘hawu’]
Hayibo! (pron \hah-yee-boh\) – wow! really? Can it be?; expression of surprise (from Zulu, ‘definitely not’)
Hectic: Extremely, expression of amazement (e.g. I had to stand in a queue for 30 minutes to get my latte – Hectic bru)
Heita (pron. \hey-tah\) – a greeting, meaning “hello” or “hi”
Hey – Handy word used in a variety of contexts. It can be an interjection (e.g. Hey! What do you mean I have bad breath?); It can be a question, meaning “what” or “pardon”. It can be used to get attention (e.g. Hey you!); It can be used as an expression of agreement (e.g. It was nice to eat Indian food for a change, hey?)
Hoesit / Hoezit / Howzit – a greeting – derived from ‘How is it going?’ – contracted to ‘how’s it?’ – In English SA context, howzit is more a greeting of ‘hello’ rather than ‘how are you?’, similar to SA black slang’s “heita” or “ola”
Hundreds – excellent, good (As in 100%; for example: John: “Hey bru, howzit going?” Dominic: “I’m hundreds, boet.”)
(Image courtesy of ST Communications)
Indaba – from Zulu and Xhosa meaning ‘a matter for discussion’; can also refer to a gathering or meeting; used in mainstream South African English to mean ‘conference’
Isit? – (pron. \izit\) the words “is” and “it” put together. Short term for “Is that so?” (For example: John: “Bra, I just found out I have a million dollars!” Charles: “Isit?”; Also, it can mean ‘really?’; sometimes used as an interjection to respond when you have nothing to contribute to the conversation, like ‘uh huh’.
Ja (pron. \yaah\) – yeah (literally “yes” in Afrikaans)
Ja-nee – an agreement, but not enthusiastically so; can also be a sarcastic agreement (like yeah, right) [From Afrikaans – Literal translation : Yes No]
Ja Wel No Fine – roughly means ‘how about that?’ It indicates acceptance of a situation [Mixture of Afrikaans and English, derived from the four words ‘Ja’ (yes), ‘wel’ (well), ‘no’ and ‘fine’]
Jislaaik! (pron. \yis-like\) – an expression of surprise or astonishment, can be positive or negative. For instance, if someone tells you there are a billion people in China, a suitable comment is, “Jislaaik, that’s a hang of a lot of people, hey?” [from Afrikaans, an euphemism for Jesus!]
Jo!/Yo! (pron. \yaw\; or as ‘yo’ in ‘yonder’) – an expression of surprise e.g., “Jo, that was rude” “Jo, you gave me a fright!”
Jol – to have fun, to party; can also refer to a disco, a party or a nightclub (“I want to dance, let’s go find a jol.”); sometimes used as a term that means to commit adultery, casual dating (but not to general casual sex) or just making out with someone (“John and Suzie jolled at my house last night.”); can also mean ‘to play’ (“Let’s go jol rugby.”) [shortened from ‘jolly’]
Just Now – interchangeable meanings which could be ‘soon’, ‘tomorrow’ or perhaps ‘never’; sometime in the near future or the near past, not necessarily immediately; expresses an intention to act soon, but not necessarily immediately, or expresses something that happened in the near past [from the Afikaans netnou with the same meaning] [also see ‘now now’]
Kaalgat (pron. \kaal-ghut\) – very naked (literally, naked hole) [from Afrikaans]
Kak (pron. \kah-k\) – shit; crap; rubbish, nonsense (vulgar), of very wide usage. Also used as a way of further expressing one’s feeling in language, for example, instead of “that girl is pretty” one can say emphatically “that girl is kak pretty!” [from the Afrikaans word ‘kak’ meaning ‘shit’]
Kassie (pron. \kah-sea\) – township slang for the township [from the Afrikaans word ‘lokasie’, meaning ‘location’]
Kettie – slingshot ( a small hand-powered projectile weapon)
Kierie — walking stick, cane [Afrikaans word of Khoisan origin]
Kiff, Kif, Kief – (adjective) wicked, cool, neat, great, wonderful [The word derives from the Arabic word ‘kif’ meaning pleasure or marijuana. This may also be related to the Afrikaans word for poison: gif. Coastal pot-smokers used the term to refer to Durban Poison: “Gifs” (locally-grown marijuana). The word evolved into kiff, an adjective or exclamation meaning “cool”, amongst English-speaking people on the east coast.]
Kiffness – the state of being kiff (see kiff)
Klap (pron. \klup\) – to smack, whack or spank; like a bitch-slap (“He got klapped in the bar”) [From Afrikaans]
Knobkierie (pron. \knob-key-ree\) – a short stick with a knobbed head, used as a weapon by South African tribesmen [used in mainstream English; from knob + kierrie (from Nama the word kieri, suggested by the Afrikaans word knopkierie]
Koeksister (pron. \cook-sister\) – delicious, syrupy deep-fried dough plaited into knots [from Afrikaans]
Kombi – a minivan
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i don't know
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What unusual shape might a rainbow adopt when seen from a plane flying above the clouds?
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Stuff in the Sky
Stuff in the Sky
Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
First-time Visitors: Please visit Site Map and Disclaimer . Use "Back" to return here.
Scattering
Scattering is the process of light bouncing off small particles. There are many kinds of scattering. However, short wavelengths of light (blue) are more effectively scattered because long wavelengths simply pass over particles the same way large ocean waves ignore pebbles.
Why the Sky is Blue
This turns out to be an amazingly complex problem. If short wavelengths of light are scattered more than long wavelengths, then violet light should be scattered most of all, so why isn't the sky violet?
The answer depends on many factors. First, the sun emits the largest amount of light in the green part of the spectrum. There is less blue light than green and less violet light than blue. Second, our eyes have evolved to see the light emitted by the sun, so our eyes are most sensitive in the green part of the spectrum rather than to blue and violet. So we see blue better than violet, and there's more of it to see.
Next, scattering increases toward the violet end of the spectrum, so even though there's more green light in sunlight, less of it gets scattered from the open sky. Violet light gets scattered the most, but it also gets absorbed the most, so some of it never reaches our eyes.
Finally, there's the way our eyes respond to mixtures of colors. Sunlight is strongest in the green part of the spectrum, but we don't see the sun as green. We see that mixture of colors as white with a hint of yellow. If we illuminate something with a mix of green, blue and violet light, our brains will process that mix as blue.
On the average, a photon of light from blue sky has been scattered just once. If particles are numerous, however, the light may be scattered many times, a phenomenon called multiple scattering.
When light has undergone multiple scattering, our eyes get a random mixture of colors from all over, and we see white light. Virtually everything that is white owes its color to multiple scattering: clouds, snow, paper, sugar, salt, beach sand, milk, white paint.
Also, since light is scattered so much, the chances of a photon making it all the way through in a straight line are very small. Small amounts of multiple scattering, as in thin fog, wash out colors and reduce visibility of distant objects. Larger amounts of multiple scattering, as in thick clouds, make the object completely opaque. This is why clouds look dark when they are not sunlit. In the photo at lower right above, even though the salt, sugar and milk are made entirely of substances that are intrinsically transparent, they all cast distinct shadows because scattering prevents light from getting through.
Side comment: one material that is very good at scattering light is titanium dioxide. It is a principal ingredient in white paint. Surprisingly, it's also an ingredient in black ink, because any light that gets through the ink is scattered by the titanium dioxide. It helps make the ink opaque.
The Setting Sun
Red Sun
When the sun is setting, it looks red because it is traveling through a long distance of air, and all the shorter wavelengths of light are absorbed or scattered before they reach your eye.
The atmosphere also bends or refracts light, so much so that when the setting sun appears to be on the horizon, it has actually set. This effect is greatest the closer the sun is to the horizon, so that the setting sun appears flattened because light from the bottom of the sun is refracted more than light from the top.
The fact that sunlight is reddened and refracted by the earth's atmosphere means that during an eclipse of the moon, reddened sunlight refracted through the earth's atmosphere still strikes the moon.
Only once has an eclipse of the sun by earth been photographed from the moon. This astonishing picture, surprisingly, is rarely seen. Taken in 1966 by one of the Surveyor lunar landers, it is the only picture ever taken of a lunar eclipse as seen from the Moon. The Earth is totally eclipsing the sun, but sunlight scattered by the Earth's atmosphere creates a bright ring around the Earth.
The Green Flash
Not the latest comic book (sorry, graphic novel) super-hero, and not an urban legend as some people claim. It's real. The atmosphere bends different wavelengths differently, just like a prism. This effect is called dispersion. If you look at a very bright star just above the horizon with binoculars, you may see it flicker with different colors because of dispersion.
If the sky is extremely clear at sunset, then the refraction of sunlight may bend red and yellow light into the ground before it gets to your eye, while blue and violet light are scattered or absorbed before they reach you. The last pinpoint of the setting sun may appear green for a second or two.
This is rarely seen because it's rare for the horizon to be that clear and unobstructed. You need a very flat horizon, otherwise the sun won't be low enough for dispersion to be effective. A sea horizon would be best, but even on very clear days at sea there is enough haze on the horizon to redden the sun too much. The green flash is often seen in the Arctic and Antarctic because the cold air is very dry and because the sun sets at a grazing angle to the horizon, making the effect last longer. (Around here, try northern Door County after the Bay is frozen.)
The green flash above actually appeared as a bright blue-white star on the horizon for a few seconds. Blue is even less common than green and requires extremely clear air. (Small consolation if you want to see green! The sky is blue.) This picture was taken at Palmer Station, Antarctica.
The Earth's Shadow
After the sun has set, the sky overhead still looks blue because it is still sunlit and still scattering sunlight. But in the east, the atmosphere is no longer illuminated by the sun. We see the boundary as a rather sharp line between light illuminated sky and dark blue sky. This boundary, which is actually the shadow of the earth cast on the atmosphere, is sometimes called the Girdle of Venus.
The earth's shadow is seen here as a blue band grading sharply into pink. Note that the full moon is very close to the boundary, hence exactly opposite the Sun. So it should be no surprise that there was an eclipse of the moon a few hours later.
From an airliner, the earth's shadow can be seen sloping down toward the sun. The curvature of the earth's horizon is just barely visible from an airliner at 10 kilometers altitude.
On high mountain peaks, not only is the earth's shadow visible, but the shadow of the mountain itself.
Crepuscular Rays
"Crepuscular" actually means "pertaining to twilight." I heard a talk on mountain lions once that described them as crepuscular. Fortunately, just because you see crepuscular rays doesn't mean there's a mountain lion lurking nearby. Usually. These rays are most dramatic near sunrise or sunset, hence the name.
These wonderfully picturesque rays are due to scattering. Dust or water droplets in the air are illuminated by the sun and scatter sunlight while shadowed areas do not. Light also scatters through the thin edges of clouds, making them bright white, while the same scattering prevents light from penetrating through the thick parts of the clouds, leaving them darkly silhouetted.
The rays are actually parallel but appear to radiate away from the sun because of perspective.
Crepuscular rays over water are sometimes said to be the sun drawing water up into the clouds. Nonsense.
Anti-Crepuscular Rays
Now here's some nicely confused terminology. Strictly speaking, anti-crepuscular should mean the opposite of twilight - in other words, rays you see at noon. However, you can only see these from the ground when the anti-solar point is close to the horizon, that is, near sunrise or sunset. Under the right conditions, you can see them from an airplane any time of day.
Actually, these are crepuscular rays that cross the entire sky to converge on the opposite horizon. Again, the rays are parellel and the convergence is a perspective effect. Shadows can penetrate hundreds of miles across the atmosphere, so these rays can be created by clouds or distant mountains far beyond the horizon, up to hundreds of kilometers away. They can occur in a completely cloudless sky.
A spectacular set of anti-crepuscular rays.
Anti-crepuscular rays seen from an airplane looking down into a hazy sky.
Rainbows
The poet Keats once lamented that science had explained the rainbow and robbed it of its mystery:
There was an awful rainbow once in heaven:
We know her woof, her texture; she is given
In the dull catalogue of common things.
Philosophy will clip an angel�€™s wings. (Lamia. Part ii)
As a scientist, I can look at a rainbow and see all the beauty that Keats saw, plus I can see things he could not. For one thing, every single rainbow is unique and no two people ever see exactly the same rainbow. For that matter, you never see the exact same rainbow for more than a split second.
The only thing that matters with a rainbow is the angle between the sun, the drop and your eye. Distance doesn't enter into it at all. So it's possible to see a continuous rainbow formed by droplets from a distant rainstorm, a nearer waterfall, and a nearby fountain.
Rainbow over Niagara Falls
Even though a rainbow isn't a real physical object, this one can be seen faintly reflected in the water. The explanation is below.
In theory a rainbow should make a complete circle. Inverted bows are rarely seen from commercial airliners. To see one, you'd have to be flying through sunlit rain. Here a rain shower is illuminated just right to see that the rainbow also has a lower half.
When the sun is high in the sky, rainbows are low. If the sun is higher than 42 degrees, the rainbow is below the horizon.
The drops can be any distance away and it is common to see rainbows in front of distant objects.
The whole pot of gold business is a reflection of the fact that the rainbow is a purely optical effect and has no real physical location. So you can never get to the end of one.
A rainbow isn't a physically real object, merely a cone of drops that refracts light back to our eyes at a particular angle. Nevertheless, it's possible to see rainbows reflected in water under the right conditions. How can that be?
The answer is that it's different drops that produce the reflected rainbow. These drops refract light on a path that would normally miss you completely, except that it's reflected to your eye.
Secondary (and Higher?) Rainbows
We often see double rainbows, with a fainter bow outside the primary bow and its colors reversed. The secondary bow is formed by light reflected twice within the drops, and is always fainter. After all, any light that exits to form the primary bow is no longer available to form a secondary bow.
The fact that the two bows are close together is misleading. Actually, the right side of the primary bow corresponds to the left side of the secondary, and vice versa. That's why the colors are reversed.
So is it possible to see a third order or tertiary rainbow? The surprising answer is that the tertiary bow wouldn't be just outside the secondary bow as you'd expect, but back in the direction of the sun. Light from the primary bow gets bent through 137.5 degrees, light from the secondary bow gets bent 231 degrees. Since we look opposite the sun (180 degrees away) to see a rainbow, the primary bow has a radius of 180 - 137.5 = 42.5 degrees and the secondary bow has a radius of 231 - 180 = 51 degrees. That's why they appear close together. Light from the tertiary bow gets bent 317.5 degrees, so the bow is only 42.5 degrees from the sun. It's in a completely different part of the sky.
To see a tertiary bow, you'd have to be looking through rain toward the sun, and there's a lot of glare in that direction. I've tried on several occasions without success. There are a few claimed sightings but no photographs. To make matters worse, the fourth order bow overlaps the third order bow but with reversed colors, meaning anything you do see will be washed out.
High order "rainbows" can be observed in the lab. Not the entire bow, but rays of light that have been internally reflected many times. A drop of water and a laser will do it.
Fogbows and Cloud Bows
In principle, water droplets in clouds should produce rainbows. In practice, when particles are very tiny, light experiences a process called diffraction that produces colored halos around each droplet. These colored halos smear out any rainbow colors, so all you can see is a diffuse white arc.
At left center is a fogbow on distant low clouds. The arc is sharply defined but lacks color. The nearest part of the fog bank is maybe half a mile away, but the horizon is many miles away. Nevertheless, the bow extends right to the horizon.
Coronas
Coronas are fairly simple. They are colored rings around the sun or moon, caused when water droplets or ice crystals refract light passing through them. The bend angle isn't large so the colors are always very close to the sun or moon.
The droplets don't have to be far away to create the effect. A fogged up window pane will do it nicely.
Ice Halos
Ice can both reflect and refract light and the range of optical effects produced by ice is enormous. Ice crystals can vary in shape and can produce special effects if the air is still and the ice crystals have some specific orientation. Some of the more common effects are shown below. Halos are due to refraction through the ice crystals. Sun pillars and parhelic circles are due to reflection off vertical and horizontal faces of the ice crystals. These appear when the air is calm because any turbulence would cause the ice crystals to be randomly oriented.
This picture, tinted green by window glass, shows a 22 degree halo and a rarely seen small halo. The cause of the small halo is not certain but may be due to unusual crystalline forms of ice that form at extremely low temperatures.
Here we have a very intense 22 degree halo and sun dog plus a sun pillar. These are due to wind-blown snow and thus end not far above the horizon.
A spectacular sun pillar seen from an aircraft.
Flying above a cirrus cloud layer may present the opportunity to observe a halo in the clouds below.
Sometimes, thin cirrus layers below your plane will have ice crystals all with similar orientations that reflect the sun like a mirror. Sometimes an anti-sun will be so bright it can even have its own sundogs.
The Glory
Air travelers commonly see the shadow of their airplane surrounded by colored rings. This phenomenon, the glory, is fairly complex. When light hits a water droplet at a grazing angle, some of it is refracted into the droplet and some travels along the surface. The refracted light bounces off the back of the droplet and exits on the other side, where it encounters the light traveling along the surface. If the light waves are in step, they add up (called constructive interference). Other waves are out of step and cancel out (called destructive interference). The wavelengths that experience constructive interference show up as colored rings.
We can see from this that:
Glories only occur in water droplet clouds. If you see one, you know the clouds are made up of water droplets. They are most often seen during takeoffs and landings.
They depend on the size of the droplets so are quite variable.
If your plane is far from the clouds, it no longer casts a shadow. As seen from the clouds, your plane is silhouetted against the sun, but doesn't cover it. Nevertheless, the glory still appears as a series of colored rings.
In this photo, the glory appears under the wing near the left edge and a faint cloud bow appears extending vertically below the rightmost wing pod.
Before air travel, the only way to see this effect was to be on a mountain peak with the sun casting your shadow onto clouds. It was rarely seen. If a group of people observed this effect, each person saw the glory around his own shadow. Some people think the haloes in religious art were inspired by this effect. A mountain in Germany, the Brocken, is a place where this effect occurs frequently because of its foggy weather, and the combination of the observer's shadow and glory is sometimes called the Specter of the Brocken.
It sounds simple but the Specter of the Brocken is rarely seen. You need bright sun behind you and thick fog in front. This is the only time in my life I have ever photographed it.
Volcanic Effects
Large volcanic eruptions eject large amounts of sulfuric acid droplets into the stratosphere. These photos were all taken after the great eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, although smaller eruptions can produce short episodes of these effects. One effect is long-lasting sunset colors extending high into the sky. Often the colors are light purple, so this effect is called the purple light.
Intense sunset colors can persist long after sunset.
Bright glare around the sun often grades into the blue sky in a diffuse purplish or brownish halo, called Bishop's Ring.
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Ring
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In which country is the most remote (farthest away) place from any sea or ocean?
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Report your Unusual Phenomena: Unusual Weather
Merrimack, NH USA - Monday, October 24, 2011 at 19:05:26 (PDT)
A red glow filled the air around 9:48 pm above my house. This glow lit the entire sky then faded into two parts. This glow started out fire red (not the whole sky) just a portion then faded away. I am not aware of how long this took place. Give me an explanation.
Flannagan < crystalflannagan a yahoo com >
Patrick Springs, VA USA - Monday, October 24, 2011 at 18:56:17 (PDT)
My Husband and I witnessed what we thought was odd phenomenon on 10/10/2011. We were in our back yard,it was very still outside (The wind was not blowing ect.) And suddenly the completely STILL water in our backyard swimming pool began spinning CounterClockWise This lasted for about 1/2 and hour then stopped. I've tried doing searches on the internet to see why this would happen and really have found NO useful information.Anyone know why this would happen ? Or does it mean something Eg.Like an earthguake will occur soon ? Any thoughts ???
Ford, VA USA - Tuesday, October 11, 2011 at 08:17:09 (PDT)
Negative rainbow.
Seen around 4pm on Sept 29, 2011, just west of Woodinville. Rainbow was odd for several reasons:
1. Curve of rainbow -away- from the sun, curvature well defined. Normally curve is a ring or halo around a light source, not a curved arc away from light.
2. Inside was curvature was blue, outer curvature red. Normal rainbow is red inside, blue outside.
3. Sun was fairly low in sky, rainbow near zenith. Outside of the 'sun-dog' angle. Sun-dogs were present near sun, but nowhere near this thing.
4. No rain, but thin cirrus-type clouds. Nacrescent clouds?
I managed to get several photos, and a short video, which I can forward on request.
Greg Gallacci < piro bot 668 a gmail com >
Kenmore, Wa USA - Thursday, September 29, 2011 at 18:39:18 (PDT)
It was about 3:30 today (9-28-11) I heard heavy rain fall to my left, I looked out the front door wich was ahead of me and saw nothing. So I returned and looked out the window to my left and saw heavy rainfall. So I went out side and noticed it was raining hard on just the left side of the house, not even reaching me in the front and maby as far as the back of the house, and it faded off and was barely sprinkling on the neibors house, and about a foot into thier house it had stopped. I guess long story short raining on only my house about a 8-10x8-10 feet area.
Brooke Winn < brookeeesue a hotmail com >
Fort Madisn, Ia USA - Wednesday, September 28, 2011 at 14:00:52 (PDT)
I was standing outside at about midnight, and I heard some thunder but saw no lightning. I thought this was strange considering that the thunder was of such a magnitude that it shook the ground vigorously. What happened next is something that is hard to explain, my sister came outside to see the storm and within seconds everything started glowing progressively brighter green, until I could see every detail of my surroundings as though through a night-vision apparatus. I felt a pressure or pushing sensation on my chest and then every light within range of my sight increased in intensity by a great many times and then went black. I can't seem to shake this feeling that this phenomena was not a natural occurrence, there was no lightning, it was as if the light came from all directions and yet from none. Almost as if it was my perception of the night becoming brighter instead... Strange.
ottawa, Canada - Saturday, September 03, 2011 at 22:27:03 (PDT)
Early this afternoon while I was sitting at my kitchen table with the blinds opened, I noticed a big flash that was reddish orange in color. it was raining and had some thunder and lightning. Only my children were in their room playing and only that bedroom light went off and then right back on. It didn't happen through out the house, just their room. i'm not sure what it may have been, so I'm looking for some answeres.
thank you
Christina < rdcrlvr a yahoo com >
gladstone , mo USA - Monday, August 22, 2011 at 13:04:37 (PDT)
It was 11:45pm in Miami beach. I don't understand what happened.Lightening hit 50 yards away 15 minutes prior. I'm on the 15th floor, I was sitting in my restroom. Playing solitaire for a few minutes. I heard boom a second later boom, I gazed my eyes up 6feet in front of me a cord to a small lamp I had sitting on the counter top where you wash your hands the cord hung 10inches from the floor resting against the cabinet below and curved up to the electrical outlet. It was swinging 15inches away from the cabinet then hitting the cabinet with a rhythm boom boom once a second. Then the cord came out 20inches strait sideways stayed there 3seconds then slowly (3seconds)came to a rest against the cabinet. That was it, I wasn't scared but confused. My friend an electrician said even a power surge couldn't cause my occurrence.
fl USA - Friday, February 11, 2011 at 00:03:11 (PST)
To whom it may concern,
My name is James and I am contacting you on behalf of a very good friend of mine who was doing Ecological Research in Charters Towers, Australia last year.
Storms are quite frequent in this area most evenings and he would spend time watching them of an afternoon/evening. One evening he noticed something quite peculiar and decided to record it. He managed to capture a very strange weather phenomena which he believes could be an unknown form of lightning or other weather event.
As I am in the I.T industry and quite computer savy, he passed the video on to me to see if I could get someone interested enough to have a look and offer some explanation as to what it could be. After doing much research and contacting some people, we have come up with no explanation as to what this could be.
After spending countless hours looking, we managed to find other people from around the world who have also recorded this same strange phenomena on video. It is very clear that this is the same type of phenomena.
I uploaded my friends videos to YouTube, you can see them here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fh-tmYe_ZY8
Other people who have captured the same thing from other countries
around the world here:
(THIS ONE IS VERY CLEAR)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Z_-uK5Btik
(SAME LOCATION AS THE ONE ABOVE, BUT DIFFERENT CAMERA)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUcH3VClzUI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sc9Ks6H3coY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IAGE9f0K1Q
We would greatly appreciate it if you can shed some light on this matter. If you do not know what this is then would you mind passing this on to someone else who may be interested?
Thank you very much,
James Wood < jimbob80 at gmaildot com >
Brisbane, QLD Australia - Sunday, November 08, 2009 at 03:18:43 (PST)
Today at around 8 pm i saw a violet light in the sky. Today its very windy here in new orleans so at first i thought that its lightening but then i saw that light all around that part of the sky for few seconds. It wasn't like lightening as they were like sparks. I assumed that it might be highly charged ions but i don't know if one can ever see those like this.
Anonymous
New Orleans, LA USA - Tuesday, May 03, 2011 at 20:29:14 (PDT)
I first want to state that I consider myself as a highly rationale person and I have a great interest in Physics and a PhD degree in engineering. In 2002,a cloudless summer night, I was playing table tennis with my cousin in our garden. There was no trees or plants surrounding us. I felt like it started drizzling and asked my cousin to go inside. But it was not raining at all, it was only me getting the sprinkled water. We got into the apartment. It went on drizzling only on me. Then I made a couple of experiments. It was apparently nothing to do with being outside or inside. Also, when my cousin was not around me I wasn't getting any drizzle. My family was suspicious about this; to prove them, I dried my back with a towel and then took a short walk with my cousin following behind me. When we were back in a minute, my back was soaked with water. I was amazed with the last thing I saw. I was again sitting in a table with my cousin. He put his head on the table and started to take a nap while I was reading. It suddenly started drizzling on me again, and that time I saw the actual position in the air where the drizzle was coming from. 2 feet above and 1 feet to the right from my head. It was starting from about 3 cm^2 of a plane in the air and looking like an actual rain drops. I am asking anyone for any scientific explanation of this phenomenon I had experienced several years ago and swept underneath the rug until now.
Thanks
USA - Sunday, April 24, 2011 at 08:01:56 (PDT)
We spent the weekend in Hilton Head , SC.
On a tour boat Monday around lunchtime we saw a cloud with really strange colours. The captain said in 32 years of running the tour he had never witnessed anything like it.
We were all gobsmacked. The boat was Captain Mark's dolphin tour, started at 11 AM and finished at 1 PM.
Aiken, SC USA - Wednesday, April 20, 2011 at 21:23:32 (PDT)
April 9 2011 12:15 pm kingman arizona THUNDERSNOW!!!
helen quinly < hquinly1 at yahoodot com >
kingman , az USA - Saturday, April 09, 2011 at 12:27:19 (PDT)
There is still snow falling, not much of the winter snow has melted and it is almost April in Alberta. The north Atlantic oscillation? Global warming Some experts believe the negative North Atlantic Oscillation seen for the past two years has something to do with global warning. Strong warming over the Arctic is melting the sea ice year-round. The heat from the ocean flows into the atmosphere, creating high pressure, which pushes the cold air out.
I believe the ice age is slowly going to cover Canada with that high pressureushing the cold air out.
Doreen savoie < Dsavoie at telusdot net >
USA - Wednesday, March 23, 2011 at 16:37:14 (PDT)
Timmins Ontario summer 2006 july fireworks et Gillies Lake witnessed by whole city while fireworks were going on a black cloud storm came very swiftly from the north west when about a quarter mile away the storm produces a round circle lightning that stays in a circle for about 5 seconds almost like a spinning motion and then It Imploded on Itself shooting triangular bolts in a circular fashion. All this while the july fireworks were going on, the circle round lightning was like fireworks from god.
Jean-Marc Bolduc < my__people at hotmaildot com >
Timmins, Ont Canada - Friday, March 18, 2011 at 14:30:42 (PDT)
Look at the NOAA's radar 1/09/2011 from 5:47 am to 6;32 am and look at the area at HWY 45 and farm rd. 646 League City Texas . A front is moving east. As it approaches this cross street, it looks as if something is affecting the front putting out some kind of waves to about a 15 mile radius.
Houston, tx USA - Sunday, January 09, 2011 at 05:16:17 (PST)
security number is my street address for starters...
What's with the weather over the central us atm? huge, unbroken temp line nw to se coming from ne while atmospheric activity moves in from west. all the while, remains of last atmospheric cycle recycling around and even exchanging conditions over great lakes.
Jon Hyneman < thibold at hotmaildot com >
evansville, in USA - Tuesday, December 14, 2010 at 22:29:13 (PST)
It may have been a year or two, I saw what looked like Spiral Vortexing Tubular Lightning. It came from fairly high clouds; It started as a huge circular motion of lightning that was round like tubular, in a very large curvature, that in one instant motion spiraled down in a vortex shape, perfectly spiraling, not in any way jaged or sharp, but perfectly vortexing lightning. I clearly remember how it was not like a bolt, but like tube shaped. And that it made a huge instant perfect downward vortex spiral. All along the tubular main beam of lightning was visable little sparkes of flame like effects all along the tubular lightning as it spiraled down. This was high and wide and very amazing and beautiful. Anyone ever heard of this kind of thing? Please email me and share.
Maurice Brown < bullfrogsblues at yahoodot com >
Montgomery, TX USA - Monday, October 25, 2010 at 16:21:39 (PDT)
friday 13 2010 there is a storm in our area-i am standing in a bedroom within 3 feet of a window-outside this window suddenly i heard a very loud explosion sounds like many explosion within an explosion then a flash of fire like light-as soon as the first one is over another explosion-just like the first one followed by a burst of yellow like light
madeline cornett
myrtle beach, sc USA - Sunday, August 15, 2010 at 19:50:43 (PDT)
A few days ago I was waiting for a storm and standing on my second floor deck. I was looking to the west and I noticed what I first thought was a firefly but more orange. It was at the very top of a spruce tree. I then observed that it was growing in intensity and it was the very tip of the tree slowly burning like a sparkler that had almost burned out. Soon the adjoining branch tips began to glow/burn as well but without any flames. I thought it was an optical illusion and stepped a couple feet to one side to see if maybe I was confused by the perspective. At this point it had been burning for almost a minute on several of the upward pointing branches. It didn't make any noticeable sound or smoke. I thought it was a good idea to go inside since the tree was only only 15 feet away from me and thought it might be a sign of a coming lightning strike. The next day the treetop was barren of needles but no visible burns. The phenomenon happened right in front of my eyes. The other trees in the row right next to it and even taller did not glow. There was also a power line close to the row of trees but I don't know if that was a factor. Otherwise the thunderstorm was unremarkable and never did the house lose power or get a near strike.
Three Rivers, MI USA - Wednesday, June 23, 2010 at 10:50:48 (PDT)
Last fall..
10 to 12 feet in diameter
6 to 8 inches deep
saw three within a quarter mile of each other in town along Liberty rd.Eldersburg, Maryland
Appear to have been created by small whirl winds..
the local weatherman was no help..
ken t < kthelencbg at yahoodot com >
westminster, md USA - Tuesday, May 11, 2010 at 18:07:23 (PDT)
Last night my boyfriend and I went to Red Top Mountain State Park to watch the sunset. It was about 8:30 pm. We sat on the edge facing a bridge that goes over Lake Allatoona, with Allatoona dam and the marina behind us. We knew that there was suppose to be a storm last night and the following day. But the weather didn't seem too bad and we weren't going to be there long. For about 20 minutes we sat on a rock looking out at the lake and the trees. The wind was starting to pick up but it wasn't that bad. The water seemed to be crashing more than usual but we figured it was the coming storm. Not until after it became dusky did the wind really scare us. It became almost like a gale, throwing my skirts around and our hair back from our faces. The wind blew like this for maybe 10 minutes. It would slow down occasionally for a matter of seconds then start again. None of this seemed all that weird to us. The winds in North Georgia we knew could be strong. What weirded us out was when the wind completely stopped. There was no gradual slowing of it, just complete silence, which also scared us. We later were in agreement that we both couldn't hear the cars crossing the bridge, or the waves that we could visibly see still moving violently, or even the slight sway of the trees above us. Needless to say we ran to our car and got out of there. There was just something about the wind and the silence that shook us up. Since it happened i've been trying to find a way to explain this phenomenon.
Jessie Temple < dieromantic567 at yahoodot com >
Cartersville, GA USA - Monday, May 03, 2010 at 07:04:13 (PDT)
If there isn't such a weather phenomena in known science I am proposing one based upon the content of this report. The following occurred at 10:40 p.m. PST on March 16, 2010:
While traveling in a car with my significant other along a residential street at the rate of about 30 mph on the way home from an errand, I spotted a perfectly straight line of amber colored light traveling at slow rate of speed toward an illuminated street light. The street light is the conventional sodium type with concrete pole, the variety that casts a yellowish glow. By contrast, the light traveling toward it was an orange-amber light, positioned roughly 3 ft below the level of the street lamp bulb, dense in form with a hard-edged look. As soon as the light "wave", with its tapering edges on either end intersected the bare winter limbs of the tree surrounding the pole, it disappeared as fast as it appeared.
Notes:
1) This light did not shoot across at a rapid clip the way a meteor or lightening bolt might.
2) It did not "switch off" the way a switched-light might. It did not flicker.
3) The light was perfectly parallel to the ground, with no angled "trail" suggesting someone at street level pointing a laser or a flashlight.
4) The street lamp casts a diffuse, wide glow, precluding most forms of reflection. The presence of a physical object should have caused a shadow were a solid object to obstruct the light's path. That was not the case. There was no blocking of light above, rather the light grew somewhat dimmer due to lessening contrast as it entered the direct glow of the street lamp. It began to emerge from beneath the lamp into the tree limbs, where at that point it disappeared. Beneath the light pole was a parked car and a curb. No water or other unusual phenomena below the lamp could have accounted for what we initially saw above the street (left side).
5) The light did not have a flapping or beating characteristic consistent with some sort of animal or insect. It was too narrow, almost pencil-like, perhaps 4 ft in length.
6) Because either end of this light "rod" tapered off and faded out, it gave the impression of possibly following a cylindrical path, as seen from an oblique perspective.
7) The light maintained a level, linear coarse — giving it the appearance of artificiality due to its unwavering geometric form. It had to it a strange weightless, levitating quality that did not look look familiar in any way.
The night on which this just occurred is cloudless, unseasonably warm and dry for these waning days of winter. Note also that this is not far from the epicenter of the 4.4 Pico Rivera earthquake and the Whittier Narrows faultline, which also calls into question whether this is weather related or potentially something akin to the "earthquake lights" some people report seeing. (The locals often refer to sudden, unseasonably dry and warm weather shifts as "earthquake weather", conditions that have prevailed over the past 48 hours here.)
Where the above-described phenomena to happen during the day, there would be no means to see it, I suspect, for relative to the intensity of the street lamp it was only modestly brighter but red-orange in hue and therefore appearing somewhat dull in comparison to other light spectrum/sources. My best explanation is to speculate that a series of statically charged, suspended dust particulates aloft emitted this electrical charge in the form of a dull, amber light. That fails to explain the linear appearance, as I would expect a natural phenomena to have a more diffuse, smoke-like characteristic, but it is the best hypothesis I can come up with at this time. According to my Davis weather station humidity earlier today was 20 percent, temps in the mid 80s and winds gusting at 20mph. At the time this occurred nighttime humidity was on the rise, nearing 40 percent, winds calm and temperature 65°F.
The "event", from start to finish, lasted no more than 3-5 seconds, at which point I said, "What in the world is that?" The driver, my SO, said "I don't know, that was really weird." At that point we began to compare notes, at which point we came to appreciate that our accounts of this event are identical. This phenomena is new to us and we hope someone comes up for a logical explanation for it.
Anon < jobs at seseervicesdot net >
Whittier, CA USA - Wednesday, March 17, 2010 at 00:02:25 (PDT)
A few years ago I was servicing a air conditioner on a commercial building in the Sunnyvale California area. It was sunny and a bit warm so I sat down in the shade with an a/c unit as a back rest. When I looked up I could hardly believe what I was seeing. A roof turban a few feet away was spinning as expected on a hot day but it was doing so about 5 feet off the roof with nothing between it and its base. It startled me and I shut my eyes and for a few seconds and when I look at it a second time it was on the roof again and spinning as before. This was the only time I have experienced anything like this in my 50 years and I have never used drugs and am a none drinker so I don't have a clue. Another time on a different roof a few years later a strange sputtering sound came down on me from straight up and lasted about 15 seconds. Later in the day a news report mentioned an earthquake had occurred in Los Angeles at the same time I heard the strange noise from the sky in the Mountain View area.
mark < makeeny at hotjunkdot common >
USA - Wednesday, January 27, 2010 at 22:22:03 (PST)
I use to live,at 3rd street,3rd avenue in florida city in 1992.The night sky was very bright,the weather man warned of a direct hit for our area.It was too late to evactuate,so me and three of my friends had to ride out the thing.We all stood in my front yard and gazed east ward,toward turkey point,homestead bay front when all of a sudden we witnessed a pulsating black ball hoovering and flying up in the air mayby 2000to3000 ft.You could see it very plainly,and it was headed straight towards us,it was shooting lighting bolts down at our power plants,you could hear the transformers explode in the distance.Now the hurricane was behind this thing,boiling clouds and loud noises that come with a hurricane.I'll tell you what,it looked like something out of startrack.we watched awe inspiring,scared to death,the winds picked up,it was all we could do,but to head inside the house and get under my king mattress andhold on for dear life.Don't know what happened to the black ball.
davey < dwilliams88 at comcastdot net >
homestead, fl. USA - Monday, January 11, 2010 at 17:42:14 (PST)
In 1970 in Kent Ohio I was walking home in a powerful thunderstorm at night. I was first distracted by low buzzing or crackling sound behind me and when I looked in that direct I saw what I would describe as a small blue-green cloud about the size of a refrigerator. It was moving slowly through the air about 10 meters off the ground in the direction of a telephone pole and eventually struck near the top of the pole causing a transformer on the pole to explode and fall to the ground. After this explosion the cloud was gone.
I always assumed that what I saw was "St. Elmo's Fire" but after reading about that phenomenon, what I saw was somewhat different from the description of St. Elmo's Fire in a few ways. First, it appeared to be moving independently through the air towards the top of the telephone pole, not emenating from the pole. Also, it lasted for what I would estimate to be about 20 seconds then vanished with the explosion of the transformer. I found it quite thrilling and lament that this is apparently a rare occurance that I can't expect ever to see again.
Hope this is helpful to anyone who studies this kind of thing. If from this description someone can correctly determine what I saw as either Elmo's Fire, or "Ball Lightning," I'd be pleased to hear it.
Thanks,
James Stone < greenston at hotmaildot com >
Oakland, CA USA - Thursday, December 31, 2009 at 22:24:32 (PST)
I have often seen sun dogs indicating ice crystals in the upper atmosphere. In the past month I have also seen inverted rainbows directly overhead twice in the last month; the last one in a seemingly cloudless sky. Obviously something had to be there to refract the suns rays into the rainbow colors I observed so I must theorize there was ice in the atmosphere without visual clouds.
Today was another first; two sun dogs accompanied by an inverted rainbow of approx. 30 degree segment; all three each 90 degrees apart placed on a faint large ring around the sun indicating ice crystals in the upper atmosphere....an amazing optical display!
wilson < will-lucy at hotmaildot com >
bowmansville, pa USA - Friday, December 18, 2009 at 12:40:04 (PST)
I was a young child at this time and my family lived in St. Louis, Mo. It was the early sixties, and we were all enjoying a summer vacation day. One of St. Louis's storms began to come up, so we were all racing around to get the barbecue pit moved onto the porch and to collect up the croquet set from the back yard. I was looking towards the side yard when there was a flickering up in the darkening clouds. Just a moment later, this glittering, blue-white arch-like display appeared in the air at the end of our house. It flickered there, slowly rotating for a few seconds, then quietly winked out. I would estimate that it was somewhere around six feet wide and six to nine feet tall. I have often thought it might have been a form of ball lightning, though I do not know.
William L. Adams < wladams at uarkdot edu >
Fayetteville, AR USA - Tuesday, October 06, 2009 at 15:37:03 (PDT)
First of all, I will say that I am not a believer of UFOs, ghosts or any other strange phenomenon of that type... but my whole life I have not been able to explain or find a similar occurrence since it happened.
Background: I'm from Russia, this happened when I was around six years old which puts this event around early-mid 90's.
I was laying in bed getting ready to go to sleep. My grandma was sitting by a window and sewing while we were both watching television. It was very dark outside and our curtains were closed. All of a sudden, fairly quickly... almost immediately there was a bright glow coming through the curtains from outside... it was bright yellow, almost lime in color. My grandma opened a curtain and I could see that all surroundings were lit up by the glow (there was an empty unattended field in front of the house that was relatively large with trees and everything was being hit by the glow)...
my grandma told me to stay inside as she went outside to look at what's going on.
I should mention, unlike me she is superstitious and what she told was exaggerated.
What I do believe is that the clouds looked very odd and were oddly shaped... she said she saw formations that looked like faces that were communicating with her which I have trouble believing :). She also said that that the light or the glow was evenly spread out throughout the sky and did not look like the moon was the source.
Other facts:
This happened about 140 kilometers from Moscow, I am not sure which direction. It was a farm type village with many farm fields and thick forests surrounding all around in the middle of nowhere.
There is a military base not too far away (which of course was my grandma's explanation).
There was very drastic weather changes in the past days.
If you have any explanation for this strange event, please let me know.
Dmitri < ruso at audio-rusodot com--- >
Ellensburg, WA USA - Saturday, September 19, 2009 at 13:46:25 (PDT)
i saw something a bit strange in Hartlepool, UK near the marina in a few minutes the sky turned from clear to dark, cloudy with thunder and lighting the strange thing was that the clouds had turned a dull grayish green colour the majority of the lightning was coming from this point which was above the football ground i was close enough to see that the lights were not on i waited and watched from the asda car park which is just across the railway line from it. i can't remember exactly when this was Possibly around 2005
USA - Tuesday, August 18, 2009 at 11:36:27 (PDT)
july 24, 2008, 11pm.
bride lake, bc, canada
i was about to lie down for the night when i saw a quick flash off my east, south east facing deck.
before i tell you what i saw, i will first give you an idea
of the setting i was in. first i live in the country, with many lakes around me it was a hot night i would say around 20 degrees, the sky was clear with many stars, the milky way is also present. it has been dry and hot here for the past week or two and today was also hot no thunder storms.
i stood out on my deck when and with in seconds it happened again. the sky would light up quite frequently with flash lightning and within every five minutes there was a ball of light . there was two specific areas where a ball of light would illuminate the first spot was very bright and then it would sort of 'burn off' and the other spot was a smaller ball of light, it was quicker lasting maby 5 seconds. this went on for about 3 hours! all in all i would say i seen about 30 orbs, and countless flashes!
i have never seen an electrical storm in life so i cant say for sure thats what i was seeing, but i thought it was strange because there was no sound, only a couple of times
when the larger of orb illuminated i could hear a faint 'puck' sound, it was quite an amzing sight no the less with sky in front being filled with stars and the light show off in the horizon, i would love to get some feed back on the phenomena, what causes "eletrical storms"
what are some of similar characteristics of other "light shows?"
thanks for reading please feel free to email
and where can i report this if it happens again, someone out there must be studying this?!
kyuss < kyussfournier at yahoodot ca >
bridge lake, canada - Saturday, July 25, 2009 at 13:34:21 (PDT)
While I was at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica in 1958 I experienced the following strange phenomenon: I was observing hourly weather during the summer of that year. The sky was free of clouds, the air dead still, visibility unrestricted, sea level pressure about 1012 millibars, and air temperature was zero degrees Fahrenheit with the standard extremely low relative humidity. I was comfortably dressed in shirt sleeves and on my way back to the weather office. Before reaching the building I received a slight chill but the air remained calm. Within one or two seconds, ice cyrstals in mid air began popping into view and no more than 15 seconds elapsed from the first appearnce of crystal when I couldn't see more than 50 feet in dense ice crystals. Of course that surprised me but an hour later I returned to take the next observation and noticed the crystals had all but disappeared. I checked the thermograph record sitting in the thermoscreen and amazingly saw that the trace plummeted from zero degrees F. to minus fifty degrees F. in less than a minute. The thing that makes this condition so strange is that the air was never in motion.
Gene Boland (Retired USN Senior Chief Aerographer's Mate)
Gene Boland < eboland at ec.rrdot com >
Wilmington, NC USA - Friday, July 03, 2009 at 11:39:44 (PDT)
My experience occurred about 20 years ago. I could not explain it at the time as I had nothing to compare it to; however, when I read about ball lightning a few years afterwards, I was sure this was what I had experienced.
One evening we had a thunderstorm. My son, who was about 4 at the time was siting on the toilet. I was standing around the corner in the lounge-room with my other son(about 7 metres away). There was a crash of thunder and with that an incredible noise and a very bright light "exploded" through the window (above the toilet)shot around the corner to where I was standing and "exited" through the television with a very loud bang (the TV went off when this happened). I was left with 2 hysterical children and an experience to date, that no one I have spoken to can relate to.
It was obvious to me that it was lightning, but it entered and exited without leaving a trace.
Suzanne
Sydney, NSW Australia - Sunday, March 29, 2009 at 03:39:39 (PDT)
this is not a report but a comment on some of the unusual weather reports. Double rainbows and rainbows near or during the moon phases are not unusual. They are rare but they do occur based on the amount of mositure droplets or ice crystals in the atmosphere and the refraction of sunlight or moonlight shining thru them this also causes the varied coloration. The ones at night around or near the moon are called Moonbows. Yes i have witnessed both occurances in my life time. Both these topics can be researched on normal weather sites on in weather books.Hope this helps.
Roland
Mass USA - Thursday, March 26, 2009 at 19:19:47 (PDT)
Many years ago when I was about 9 yrs. old and living on Long Island lightning came through the kitchen window, past my father, who was seated at the table, and then past the telephone on the wall, making it ring. I was walking out of the TV/extra room and sensed the energy go by as the phone rang. I only missed being speared by the lightning, I guess, by one step. The force continued on and passed through one of the living room windows without breaking that glass either.
Bay Point, CA USA - Thursday, March 26, 2009 at 10:29:07 (PDT)
March 4, 2009. About 1 PM.
I was walking down Concord Blvd in East Central Concord, California on my way home. That day it was raining off and on and some storms were in the area, so I was watching a dark cloud to the North hoping to see some lightning. I noticed a bright light under the storm cloud, but I can't guess how high up or how far away it was, it appeared nearby, maybe over North Concord, and I was staring at it wondering what the hell it was. Then it drifted to the right slowly and fizzled away within a few seconds.
I immediately thought it must have been ball lightning, something I have been fascinated in for a long time, but I never though I would actually witness it. It was very intensely bright and looked fuzzy almost.
I kept watching but saw nothing else, no regular lightning, no thunder, nothing. When I got home I turned on Weatherdot com and looked at the radar showing an area of heavy rain over North Concord and the Straits, East of the Benicia Bridge. Then I checked lightningstormdot com but there were no detected lightning strikes in the area.
I am convinced it was the ball lightning phenomenon, as hard as it is to believe I actually saw it.
Eric Noakes < ericnoakes at yahoodot com >
Concord, CA USA - Wednesday, March 04, 2009 at 23:25:45 (PST)
Perhaps 7 yr. ago,I was driving to work in the dark,about 5:30 a.m. near Detroit;it was quite cold [<20F] the air seemed slightly hazy [not unusual-and it was not snowing] and breezeless. As I left my street, I noticed that all light sources produced a vertical column of light Without Lateral Dispersion; the height of the light columns being proportional to the brightness of the source [ e.g., a bright iodine light at a car dealer's lot was visible for hundreds of feet, an oncoming car's headlights perhaps 50 ft]. Again, there was NO divergence of the beams;the upper light columns were precisely as wide as the width of their light sources at their bases.I suspect tiny nonspherical ice crystals in cold fog were reflecting the light [but this should result in an roughly semi-circular reflected patterns]:was an ambient field orienting crystals? If so,what field [ microwaves?, HAARP?]-In 55 years, I've only observed this once. I'm a doctor, and assure you that this was not from haziness in my corneae. This phenom. persisted throughout a 15 mi. drive, and was not present within the warmed car cabin [I checked].
USA - Thursday, February 26, 2009 at 19:26:07 (PST)
9/2/09
Traveling due south in northern Indianapolis at 11:30 AM today I saw a vertical break in the cloud cover that ran from the horizon to a point where I couldn't see it above my winshield. At first I thought that it looked like a shadow on the clouds. It's appearance is hard to describe. Over a 2 or 3 minute period it rotated to the left until it was horizontal to the earth. During the rotation it maintained a perfectly straight line. You couldn't draw a better line with a ruler or creater a better arc with a compass. This can't be natural.
PL
Patrice Lamumba < patrice_lamu##mba at yahoodot com >
Indianapolis, IN USA - Friday, January 02, 2009 at 17:19:45 (PST)
Got home from work after dark on 11-19-2008 around 6:45 PM and walked onto my porch to look at the stars when i noticed a bunch of lit up clouds in a vertical cylinder shape. the thing that got me was that they weren't moving. After calling my brother that lives a mile away to see if he saw them, which he did, i decided to call SETI. After calling i ran into my house and grabbed my digital rebel and set it to a 5 second no flash setting and took a set of pictures. after looking at them on my computer and sending them to SETI i then looked at the local weather radar and checked out the infared pictures and noticed a large area over my county uncovered by clouds but the whole state was covered with clouds. still no idea what they are/were
heather lewis < heatherlewis777 at yahoodot com!!nnaammhh >
kitts hill, ohio USA - Sunday, September 28, 2008 at 19:45:35 (PDT)
My father took my beagle outside to use the restroom this evening at about 8:00 pm. He came back inside minutes later with the report of a strange spinning light up in the sky. I followed him back outside, where I stood for ten minutes just looking. The light appeared to have no source whatsoever, and looked as if it was above the clouds. It slowly revolved, and the "center" of the orb changed places almost every time. We have no idea what it was, and would very much like to know, if anyone has any idea. We would like to dismiss the theory of UFOs in favor of scientific theories, but if a UFO is the only "logical" explanation, then so be it. That's all I can get on Google, anyway.
Hannah < almademusica at bellsouthdot net >
KY USA - Friday, September 19, 2008 at 18:24:25 (PDT)
Unusual weather seems to follow me! Yes I know, it sounds wierd, but I am beginning to believe. In the past 15 years I have traveled across America, back and forth several times. My husband was the first to notice and it is now a 'joke' he points out every time it occurs. For example; In late 1995 we moved to New York to help out his elderly mother. Enroute a tornado nearly took our u-haul as we were driving, and they closed the highway in Colorado as a freak ice storm hit. And after we arrived in NY, then the blizzard of 1996 hit. Moving to the Colorado river area soon after and a severe monsoon condition engulfed the area. The following 10 years the same pattern, I would roll into town and there would be reports on the news of what they would claim was 'unseasonable' storms or heatwaves etc. Most recently in January of 2008 we were driving to Chicago and while passing through Rollo Missouri, 2 large tornado's hit the area. But as we huddled in the parking lot of a truck stop, they split and passed to either side of us. After our arrival here, this area was hit with the harshest winter storms in over 40 years! I am watching the news this morning, seeing the aftermath of serious storms that hit Indiana, and Chicago. Weather (including tornado's) the residents claim they have never experienced in their lifetime. North of us and below us, yet where I am, just some rain. Is it possible for a person to be a 'storm magnet'? I am beginning to wonder....
USA - Tuesday, August 05, 2008 at 08:56:58 (PDT)
sounds all very recognisable.
I first noticed light going out after i had a psychotic episode and took serotine drugs, after about a year after i stopped with that, i ocasionally walked or drove by streetlights who would suddenly turn of or on.
The lessions i learned from my episode is to almost never trust my own brain, which is not a very good lesson, i admit.
But it's been 8 years, and i just got home turning one streetlight off and the next one on. Still makes me wonder, i've been kind of stressed lately and it was almost impossible both of those lights where faulty.
Still don't know what to think of it, i'm merely just curious if the people i spend the evening with saw the same thing, but of course i don't like to be the laughing stock of the whole pub so i'll probarbly never now.
T. Kraan < tino at tinonet.nl >
Doetinchem, NL - Thursday, July 31, 2008 at 14:51:06 (PDT)
I wish to report anomalous lightning. The type of lightning I've seen normally accompanies severe thunderstorms, snowstorms and even wind storms. I first observed this lightning about the year 2001-2002. It was a severe lightning storm with very strong lightning strikes bordering the citys of Dallas and Mesquite, Texas. I saw what appeared to be a shower of electrons, looking much like the pictures of the plume of the volcano of the planet Io, only this plume was: about one hundred feet up; translucent; a blue-green bright color; about 1-2 seconds in duration; with a hollow core; approx. 50 feet tall and 50 feet in circumference. I first thought a transformer had blown but it was not the case as I had just observed only minutes earlier a transformer blowing up on the side of the freeway. No comparison. The plume was much brighter but resembling an electrical short circuits time span. The storm moved away, however, I kept seeing green blue flashes up in the sky with no accompaning plume. I have since seen the blue green flashes on many occasions in the Dallas area accompanying storms. It appears to be the terminus of a lightning strike - as if the ground becomes supercharged and the bolt attempts to discharge into the atmosphere - with the characteristic blue-green plume. I've since moved to Albuquerue, New Mexico and have also observed it here - again during a severe rainstorm. I've also seen a blue-green discharge in the clouds during a snowstorm. I'm pretty sure now that it sounds just like an electrical short. Most people have passed sighting this phenomena as a transformer blowing up as I was next to photographers on a hill in Albuquerque who were taking pictures. There has absolutely been no coverage of this phenomena. I am of the opinion that these are high-frequency discharges creating this beatiful glow. I'm fairly certain that what I observed was not natural which leads me to believe that this is an artifact of weather manipulation - perhaps H.A.A.R.P.. Interesting that as of July 1, 2008, there were similiar lights that preceded an earthquake in Peru and video taped. Since I'm familiar with such discharges I would like to say that the discharges are EXACTLY the same in color and duration - the only drawback to the videos is that they were taken at a distance. I've come to label them ground aurora's since they resemble an auroral display, albeit, only lasting a second or two and always with a fixed shower of electrons rather than the dynamic display of the northern lights. If others are looking for proof of weather manipulation - this is probably going to be your best lead. I have a B.S. in Physics and am currently a computer programmer at Central New Mexico Community College. Thanks for letting me post!
Larry Leija < jubilatedeo314 at yahoodot com4w2$ >
Albuquerque, NM USA - Tuesday, July 01, 2008 at 18:25:56 (PDT)
I was walking with my cousin in the Sierra mountan range around Downieville, CA at 5am, it was aout 50 degrees out and windy. The wind was cold and gusty. We were walking alongside a river and suddenly we both felt a HOT strong wind for several seconds. I dont know how hot but it felt like when you open the oven with your face to close. I say it was over 100 degrees hotter thanthe outside air, but this is speculation. Does anybody know what causes this?
Billy < evans813 at yahoodot comjustremovethispart123 >
USA - Sunday, April 13, 2008 at 20:18:39 (PDT)
Well, about 40 minutes ago I was sat watching television as you do, and the brightest white just lit the conservatory followed by a huge explosion, the house shook and alarms went off. 6 or 7 neighbours congregated in the street, with no explanation, about 5 to 10 minutes later 2 Fire engines were searching around. Something definetly happened, someone suggested BL so I decided to look it up.. and this is where it lead me. Any more questions - email me :)
Manchester, UK - Monday, April 07, 2008 at 16:43:57 (PDT)
I'm not sure if this was weather phenomena or not.
When I was about nine or ten, I notice something very strange in the night sky. I was riding home in my mom'm car. Just as we turned down our street i looked into the sky and notice a dark circular figure. On that figure was four red bulbs, all equally apart from one another and forming a square. As we moved down the streets it seemed to follow us.
I turn to tell my parents but they did not believe me. When i looked back, it was gone. It was the weirdest thing i had ever seen in my life.
USA - Thursday, March 27, 2008 at 14:21:56 (PDT)
February 10, 2008 3:00 AM
I was looking out my window and noticed it had started snowing. The snow was very unusual in that it would come down in 1" to 6" long, mostly thin strings. There were a few that were about 1/4" in width and 3" long. As they were falling they would collapse down to make a flake before hitting the ground.
Barb Payne
MO USA - Tuesday, February 12, 2008 at 16:23:13 (PST)
It was a warm late-spring day in central Oklahoma about 25 years ago. A powerful thunderstorm had roared through, and it was now cloudy and very still outside. I looked out my front window, and suddenly the entire neighborhood.. cars, trees, the entire sky...everything...was enveloped by a green glow. It lasted perhaps 2 seconds. The experience doesn't seem quite the same as any other I've read about. Has anyone had a similar one?
>
Norman, OK USA - Wednesday, January 30, 2008 at 11:49:59 (PST)
A friend and i did witness the end of a rainbow and we actually got to drive right through it one site i was in said that there's no rainbow's end HA when we first saw it we took a left a the lights in oromocto headin towards the irvin station on waasis road when we were on waasis i said holy f sher look the rainbow's end i made her speed up n when we caught up to it again it was at then end of the treeline n headed into the golf course field i still told her to speed up to at least go under it then all of a sudden we ended up drivin right throught it's prism it came right for us and another white jeep in front of us
Dee M < Agonyl at Yahoodot com >
Oromocto, NB Canada - Friday, November 16, 2007 at 11:54:48 (PST)
My name is Ellen Bullock and I reside in Las Vegas Nevada and would like to share with you an observation I had in the month of Oct. 2005.
I had been in my backyard doing some gardening in the early afternoon. The morning had started off with blue skies but as usual the planes were making all those chemtrails as some people refer to them.The trails seem to stay and spread out & become clouds.
The sky was full of these smaller almost square looking clouds. I quickly became aware of something that looked like cobwebs was falling down out of the sky. Some landed on my clothing and seemed to disapate after a short while.This stuff continued to come down for over 4 hrs.
As I continued to watch the patterns of clouds in the sky I saw something even stranger. I saw some movement in the clouds, it was a large defined rectangular area with rows of horizontal flowing ripples in between the borders and it was moving from the northwest to southeast. As I watched it disappear in the distance I suddenly noticed another one exactly as the first moving in the same direction and again I watched it until it was out of sight. They were moving against the wind. They just moved over the clouds all the while keeping the same shape and there was absolutly no sound. It really was very visable for anyone to see. I could see through it and the clouds behind it and around it were not moving and thats what made it stand out. Can you tell me what i saw or if maybe you know of someone who has seen something similar.
Las Vegas, NV USA - Saturday, September 15, 2007 at 19:31:01 (PDT)
0027 alaska standard time
Unusually strong auroral events are occurring, right below them is an isolated "thunderstorm" however it is entirely silent with multiple lightning strikes within in the cloud only. No other cloud cover except for that single cloud. It's moving east to west at a normal rate of speed for clouds in this area. Lightning is illuminating the cloud in pinks, greens and blues. It's unusual due to the lack of thunder, the intensity of the lighting and how it's isolated in the one cloud. No rain or any other precipitation. The lightning strikes are in all directions as well. So far only the radio stations are commenting on the event.
raina douglass < raina.douglass at alaskadot net >
North Pole, ak USA - Saturday, September 01, 2007 at 01:32:41 (PDT)
I saw the most amazing thing this afternoon! Around 4:30 p.m. the sky looked like it might rain. The weather has been sooo hot that I thought it might kick up a good storm. I had left my car windows down, so ran out to the parking lot to put them up. Coming back into my office, I happened to look up into the sky. There was a large ball of brilliant white light that appeared for a split second. Then the light seemed to explode into jagged lightening-like "spokes." There was no thunder, just the bright ball.
I had hoped I would hear news reports of others who saw this, but heard nothing. Or, perhaps others had seen it, but like me did not report it. I looked it up on the internet tonight and it is called "ball lightening." Kind of neat.
Deenie Daugherty < deenied at hotmaildot com >
USA - Tuesday, August 14, 2007 at 21:17:36 (PDT)
Our odd event occured during March of 2007. We were traveling back to my (Chuck) apartment. It was around 10 PM. It was a cold night, however the weather wasn't bad. The skies were pretty clear (as we remember as this was months ago). We were driving down Route 3 West towards Clifton when we saw 1 giant bolt of green lightning stretch horizontally across the sky. It happened briefly, but occurred long enough for both of us to look as far as we could to the left and then as far as we could to the right and saw nothing but the lightning. At first it seemed unbelievable to us so we weren't sure if we had actually seen it. It wasn't until she brought up that she saw it that I agreed that I had seen the same thing.
I know that some of the details seem a little bit sketchy because they aren't very specific, however, realize that this was months ago and until we found this website neither of us really had anyone to talk to about it that would believe us.
If anyone else has experienced this or has any info to shed light on the situation, please email me. Thank you.
Lisa Ostros & Chuck Chobot < dropchucky at aimdot com >
Clifton, NJ USA - Tuesday, June 26, 2007 at 21:09:26 (PDT)
In the winter of 2004 I saw what looked like an electrical discharge of energy. To say that it was Lightning would discredit the uniformity of the charge. If you can visualize what looks like a drop of water in a still pond and watch the wave effect, that is what this discharge of electricity looked like. It was between 1 and 3 a.m.. the climate was cold and the clouds in which it passed through were at about 800 ft. It had been snowing and Im trying to figure out if any one else has seen such a phenomena. perhaps the same event. For some reason I believe the origin of the discharge might have been the doplar radar tower about 10 miles away giving the diameter of the "anomaly" and the course of its movement... If any one knows of such an event please let me know what it was...
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i don't know
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The biological mating theory that males seek novelty and females seek familiarity is known as the '(What US President?) Effect'?
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Sex Differences in Attraction to Familiar and Unfamiliar Opposite-Sex Faces: Men Prefer Novelty and Women Prefer Familiarity | SpringerLink
July 2014
, Volume 43, Issue 5 , pp 973–981
Sex Differences in Attraction to Familiar and Unfamiliar Opposite-Sex Faces: Men Prefer Novelty and Women Prefer Familiarity
Authors
Anthony C. Little Email author
Lisa M. DeBruine
1.9k Downloads
Abstract
Familiarity is attractive in many types of stimuli and exposure generally increases feelings of liking. However, men desire a greater number of sexual partners than women, suggesting a preference for novelty. We examined sex differences in preferences for familiarity. In Study 1 (N = 83 women, 63 men), we exposed individuals to faces twice and found that faces were judged as more attractive on the second rating, reflecting attraction to familiar faces, with the exception that men’s ratings of female faces decreased on the second rating, demonstrating attraction to novelty. In Studies 2 (N = 42 women, 28 men) and 3 (N = 51 women, 25 men), exposure particularly decreased men’s ratings of women’s attractiveness for short-term relationships and their sexiness. In Study 4 (N = 64 women, 50 men), women’s attraction to faces was positively related to self-rated similarity to their current partner’s face, while the effect was significantly weaker for men. Potentially, men’s attraction to novelty may reflect an adaptation promoting the acquisition of a high number of sexual partners.
Keywords
AttractivenessFace processingFamiliarityPreferenceNoveltySex differences
Introduction
Generally, humans like familiar individuals and stimuli (Moreland & Zajonc, 1982 ; Zajonc, 1968 ), although in some studies such effects may depend on the complexity of the stimuli, with complex stimuli becoming more pleasant with familiarity and low complexity stimuli becoming less pleasant (Berlyne, 1970 ). Many studies have demonstrated that average faces (i.e., faces that are mathematically close to the mean shape of a population of faces) are attractive. For example, averageness has been found to be positively correlated with attractiveness ratings of real faces (Light, Hollander, & Kayra-Stuart, 1981 ) and studies that have used computer graphic methods to manipulate the averageness of face images have also demonstrated attraction to average faces (Galton, 1878 ; Jones, DeBruine, & Little, 2007 ; Langlois & Roggman, 1990 ; Langlois, Roggman, & Musselman, 1994 ; Little & Hancock, 2002 ; Rhodes, Sumich, & Byatt, 1999 ; Rhodes & Tremewan, 1996 ). One explanation for attraction to average faces is derived from theories of prototype formation (Langlois & Roggman, 1990 ). For each class of stimuli, it is possible that the visual system develops an internal prototype with the average of the characteristics of all the different stimuli of that type that have been seen. When novel stimuli are encountered, they are compared against this prototype and similarity to the prototype is positively related to how familiar and attractive we find the new stimuli (e.g., Halberstadt & Rhodes, 2000 ). Average faces may then be attractive because they are perceived as looking familiar (Halberstadt & Rhodes, 2000 ).
Other evidence for attraction to familiarity comes from studies demonstrating that visual exposure to certain face types can influence facial attractiveness judgments (Buckingham et al., 2006 ; Little, DeBruine, & Jones, 2005 ; Rhodes, Jeffery, Watson, Clifford, & Nakayama, 2003 ), with individuals demonstrating increased attraction to faces that are similar to those they have previously seen. It may be noteworthy, however, that few studies have explicitly tested for possible sex differences in human preferences for novelty versus familiarity.
While much research demonstrates preferences for familiarity (Bornstein, 1989 ; Zajonc, 1968 ), there are theoretical reasons to expect preferences for novelty under certain circumstances. One example of preference for novelty is the “Coolidge effect,” named after the 30th U. S. president, Calvin Coolidge. While it may not be historical fact, the often-cited anecdote suggests that the President and Mrs. Coolidge were visiting a farm and were shown a yard with hens and a cockerel. Mrs. Coolidge asked why there was only one cockerel and was told that the cockerel could copulate many times a day. She replied “Tell that to Mr. Coolidge.” When informed of this, the President asked whether it was the same hen each time, to which the answer was no. The President replied “Tell that to Mrs. Coolidge” (Kelley, Graves, & Magurran, 1999 ; Wilson, Kuehn, & Beach, 1963 ).
The Coolidge effect refers to the tendency for males to be aroused by sexual novelty to a greater extent than females are. This effect has been observed in several species. For example, in male Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), sexual satiation is reached after about 1.5 h when housed with a single female, but males can be kept sexually active for almost 8 h with the introduction of novel females at regular intervals (Fisher, 1962 ). Another example comes from fish, in which male guppies that were familiarized with a set of females subsequently directed courtship behavior at unfamiliar females (Kelley et al., 1999 ).
The Coolidge effect is thought to reflect an adaptation to the asymmetric investment in reproduction between males and females. It has been long noted that males invest less in reproduction than females and that this has led to males generally being ardent and less discriminating while females are more choosy (Trivers, 1972 ). There is then a tendency for males to pursue a large number of partners, as they can dramatically increase their reproductive success by mating with multiple females. However, a female’s reproductive success is less closely tied to her number of partners, as generally she can be inseminated by only one male at a time.
In humans, where paternal investment is high, women may best secure investment from males that they encounter on a regular basis. Conversely, unfamiliar men are unlikely to make best candidates for long-term relationships because their behavior is unknown. In contrast, men may increase their reproductive success by mating with a variety of women without strong concerns over securing parental investment, meaning a lack of familiarity is unlikely to be an issue and indeed may be seen as a positive. Generally, familiarity would likely be seen as a positive trait in all dealings involving extended cooperation, leading to a relative dislike of unfamiliar or strange individuals. This general preference for familiarity, however, may be overridden in the case of men by preferences for sexual novelty. Theoretically, then, we might expect men to express preferences for novelty in potential sexual partners and women to express preferences for familiarity. Certainly, men express greater interest in short-term sexual encounters and desire a greater number of lifetime partners (Buss & Schmitt, 1993 ; Clark & Hatfield, 1989 ; Simpson & Gangestad, 1991 ). Following findings in other species that individuals may prefer novelty under certain circumstances, particularly findings showing that males are relatively more attracted to novelty in sexual partners than females, we investigated preferences for familiarity and novelty in men and women.
In Study 1, we examined preferences for familiarity by using exposure to both male and female faces. Following previous findings, we predicted preferences to increase for seen faces but also that men would show weaker attraction to familiarity for women’s faces. In Studies 2 and 3, we also used exposure but asked different questions distinguishing short- versus long-term preferences and sexiness versus trustworthiness. We predicted that, if familiarity is less attractive to men because of the potential benefits of pursuing multiple sexual partners, the positive effects of familiarity would be weakest for men rating women’s faces in short-term relationship contexts. We also predicted that familiarity would impact differently on sexiness and trustworthiness across sex, such that while both men and women would find familiar faces more trustworthy, men would find familiar opposite-sex faces less sexy than women. Finally, in Study 4, we used participant’s ratings of attractiveness and ratings of partner similarity of a set of faces to examine partner attraction. We predicted that, if men value novelty more than women, they would show a weaker correlation between attractiveness and current partner similarity than women would.
Study 1
In Study 1, we examined the effect of familiarizing men and women with novel faces and measured their attraction on first and second viewing of the same male and female faces.
Participants
Participants were 83 women (M age = 23.7 years, SD = 3.0) and 65 men (M age = 23.4 years, SD = 3.1). The majority of participants were British/European (62 %) or North American (26 %) and White (78 %). Other nationalities (African = 1 %, Asian = 6 %, Australian = 1 %, South American = 4 %) and ethnicities (Asian = 1 %, Chinese = 3 %, Black = 3 %, Hispanic = 3 %, Indian = 6 %, Other = 6 %) were represented in the sample. All participants were volunteers and were selected for reporting to be heterosexual and between the ages of 17–45. Participants were recruited via a research-based website and the experiments were administered online using custom presentation software without an experimenter present.
Procedure
Stimuli were composites, made from multiple images, of unfamiliar young male and female faces. Original faces were selected from a database collected by the authors from individuals who had taken part in previous studies and given permission to use their photographs. The database consisted of face photographs of young (<25 years old) White Europeans. Photographs were taken under standardized lighting conditions and with a neutral posed expression. Composite images were made by combining two individual photographs (Benson & Perrett, 1993 ) and were cropped around the outside of the face so that hair and clothing were not visible. All images were standardized on interpupillary distance.
Participants were exposed to a set of faces and then presented with the same faces alongside new distracter faces in a second test. Participants rated the same faces twice and our interest was in the change in rating from first to second exposure. The test was administered over the internet. Participants reported their age, sex, and sexuality. Participants were then first shown five male and five female faces and asked to rate the faces for attractiveness on a 7-point scale (rating 1). Following this, they were then asked to repeat the test but this time they saw the same faces as before plus five new male and five new female faces that acted as filler trials to prevent participants overtly guessing the study was simply about repeated exposure (rating 2). Faces were shown in a random order. Participants were randomly allocated into one of two conditions; the conditions served to counterbalance the five rated faces and the five novel faces in the second test. In Condition 1, participants saw face set A followed by face sets A and B. In Condition 2, participants saw face set B followed by face sets A and B.
Results
For male and female faces, we calculated the mean score for each set of faces separately at each rating which resulted in four mean scores (i.e., we calculated separate means for the first rating of male faces, the first rating of female faces, the second rating of male faces, and the second rating of female faces). We calculated the difference between attractiveness scores given to faces in the first rating and the second rating for male and female faces as the dependent measures (rating 2 minus rating 1). Positive scores indicated that attractiveness increased on second rating and negative scores indicated that attractiveness decreased on the second rating. We include age as a covariate in the ANOVA below because of the range of ages tested but note that the pattern of data is the same when age is not included in the model.
A 2 (Sex of Rater) × 2 (Sex of Face) × 2 (Condition: Set A vs. Set B) mixed model analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted on the facial attractiveness rating difference score with age as a covariate (see Fig. 1 ). The ANCOVA yielded a significant Sex of Rater × Sex of Face interaction, F(1, 143) = 5.17, p = .024, ηp2 = .035. To follow up the Sex of Rater × Sex of Face interaction, paired sample t-tests were carried out between change in attractiveness ratings for male faces versus female faces split by sex of rater. These revealed that, for women, there was no significant difference between change in ratings for male and female faces, t(82) < 1, d = 0.20, whereas men showed a significant difference, t(64) = 3.51, p < .001, d = 0.88, with men rating female faces as less attractive and male faces as more attractive on the second rating. Additional independent sample t-tests comparing male and female difference scores for male and female faces revealed that there was a significant difference for female faces, t(146) = 2.91, p = .004, d = 0.48, in which men’s scores were lower than women’s scores, but not for male faces, t(146) < 1, d = 0.01.
Fig. 1
Study 1: Difference in preference for faces rated twice (+1 SE of the mean). Positive scores indicate attractiveness increased on second viewing while negative scores indicate attractiveness decreased on second viewing. *Significantly different from no change (0)
In the ANCOVA, there was a significant main effect of Sex of Rater, F(1, 143) = 4.69, p = .032, ηp2 = .032, although this effect was superseded by the interaction above. A significant Sex of Face × Condition interaction, F(1, 143) = 5.84, p = .017, ηp2 = .039, reflected a theoretically unrelated effect of the average attractiveness change of male and female faces being different between conditions by which female faces scored lower in Condition A than B whereas male faces scored lower in Condition B than A. No other within or between participants effects or interactions were significant, all Fs(1, 143) < 1.55, ηp2 < .011.
We additionally conducted one-sample t-tests against no change (0) to address overall changes in preferences split by sex of rater and sex of face. These revealed that there was a significant increase on the second rating for women rating both male, t(82) = 3.38, p < .001, d = 0.75, and female faces, t(82) = 2.18, p = .032, d = 0.49, and for men rating male faces, t(64) = 2.58, p = .012, d = 0.65. Men demonstrated a significant decrease in attractiveness on the second rating of female faces, t(64) = −2.00, p = .049, d = 0.50.
These results demonstrated that faces were perceived as more attractive on second rating, except when female images were judged by men.
Study 2
In Study 2, we examined changes in rating of long-term versus short-term attractiveness ratings for opposite-sex faces according to exposure.
Participants
Participants were 42 women (M age = 23.8 years, SD = 7.3) and 28 men (M age = 27.0 years, SD = 7.9). The majority of participants were British/European (52 %) or North American (38 %) and White (73 %). Other nationalities (Asian = 6 %, Australian = 4 %) and ethnicities (Asian = 2 %, Chinese = 2 %, Japanese = 2 %, Black = 3 %, Hispanic = 6 %, Indian = 3 %, Other = 9 %) were represented in the sample. All participants were volunteers and were selected for reporting to be heterosexual and between the ages of 17–45. Participants were recruited via a research-based website and the experiments were administered online using custom presentation software without an experimenter present.
Procedure
The stimuli were identical to Study 1.
Participants only saw opposite-sex faces. The procedure was otherwise identical to Study 1 except that two statements were presented below each face: Attractiveness as a long-term partner and attractiveness as a short-term partner. Participants were asked to rate the faces for both short-term and long-term attractiveness on a 7-point scale.
Instructions also included the following definitions:
Short-term: You are looking for the type of person who would be attractive in a short-term relationship. This implies that the relationship may not last a long time. Examples of this type of relationship would include a single date accepted on the spur of the moment, an affair within a long-term relationship, and possibility of a one-night stand.
Long-term: You are looking for the type of person who would be attractive in a long-term relationship. Examples of this type of relationship would include someone you may want to move in with, someone you may consider leaving a current partner to be with, and someone you may, at some point, wish to marry (or enter into a relationship on similar grounds as marriage).
Results
We used the same means of calculating a difference score as in Study 1 but here had change for short-term and change for long-term attractiveness. We again included age as a covariate in the ANOVA but note that the pattern of data was the same when age was not included in the model.
A 2 (Sex of Rater) × 2 (Rating) mixed model ANOVA was conducted on the attractiveness rating difference scores with age as a covariate (see Fig. 2 ). The ANCOVA yielded a significant Sex of Rater × Rating interaction, F(1, 67) = 5.93, p = .018, ηp2 = .081. To follow up the Sex of Rater × Rating interaction, paired sample t-tests were carried out between change in attractiveness ratings for short-term versus long-term ratings split by sex of rater. These revealed that, for women, there was no significant difference between change in ratings of male faces for short-term and long-term attractiveness, t(41) = < 1, d = 0.23, but that men showed a significant difference, t(27) = 2.30, p = .029, d = 0.89, rating female faces as less attractive for short-term more than long-term on second rating. Additional independent sample t-tests comparing male and female scores revealed that, for both short-term, t(68) = 4.28, p < .001, d = 1.04, and long-term, t(68) = 3.04, p = .003, d = 0.74, difference scores, men scored significantly lower than women.
Fig. 2
Study 2: Difference in ratings of short- and long-term attractiveness for faces rated twice (+1 SE of the mean). *Significantly different from no change (0)
In the ANCOVA, there was a significant effect of Sex of Rater, F(1, 67) = 13.84, p < .001, ηp2 = .171, although this effect was superseded by the interaction described above. No other within or between participants effects or interactions were significant, all Fs(1, 67) < 1, ηp2 < .008. We did not enter Condition as it did not interact with Sex of Rater in Study 1.
We additionally conducted one-sample t-tests against no change (0) to address overall changes in preferences split by sex of rater and rating. These revealed a significant increase on the second rating for women rating both short-term attractiveness, t(41) = 3.02, p = .004, d = 0.94, and long-term attractiveness, t(41) = 2.90, p = .006, d = 0.91. Men demonstrated a significant decrease in attractiveness on second rating for short-term, t(27) = −3.66, p = .001, d = 1.41, and a non-significant decrease for long-term, t(27) = −1.46, d = 0.56, attractiveness.
These results demonstrated that opposite-sex faces were rated as more attractive on the second rating by women but less attractive by men, particularly for short-term ratings.
Study 3
In Study 3, we examined changes in rating of sexiness and trustworthiness of opposite-sex faces according to exposure.
Participants
Participants were 51 women (M age = 28.0 years, SD = 8.8) and 25 men (M age = 29.4 years, SD = 9.2). The majority of participants were British/European (45 %) or North American (42 %) and White (90 %). Other nationalities (Australian = 4 %, South American = 8 %, Other = 1 %) and ethnicities (Black = 3 %, Hispanic = 3 %, Other = 4 %) were represented in the sample. All participants were volunteers and were selected for reporting to be heterosexual and between the ages of 17–45. Participants were recruited via a research-based website and the experiments were administered online using custom presentation software without an experimenter present.
Procedure
The stimuli were identical to Study 1.
The procedure was identical to Study 2 except that the two statements presented below each face were trustworthiness and sexiness. Participants were asked to rate the faces for trustworthiness and sexiness on a 7-point scale.
Results
A 2 (Sex of Rater) × 2 (Rating) mixed model ANCOVA was conducted on the rating difference scores with age as a covariate (see Fig. 3 ). The ANCOVA yielded a significant Sex of Rater × Rating interaction, F(1, 73) = 6.65, p = .012, ηp2 = .083. To follow up the Sex of Rater × Rating interaction, paired sample t-tests were carried out between change in attractiveness ratings for male faces versus female faces split by sex of rater. These revealed that there was a significant difference between change in ratings for trustworthiness and sexiness ratings for women, t(50) = −2.29, p = .025, d = 0.65, and men, t(24) = −3.76, p = .001, d = 1.54. For both men and women, difference scores were lower for sexy than trustworthy ratings. Additional independent sample t-tests comparing male and female scores revealed a significant difference for differences scores for sexiness ratings, t(74) = 3.51, p = .001, d = 0.82, in which men had lower scores than women, and no significant difference for scores of trustworthiness, t(74) < 1, d = 0.12.
Fig. 3
Study 3: Difference in ratings of trustworthiness and sexiness for faces rated twice (+1 SE of the mean). *Significantly different from no change (0)
In the ANCOVA, there was a significant effect of Rating, F(1, 73) = 6.76, p = .011, ηp2 = .085, and Sex of Rater, F(1, 73) = 5.85, p = .018, ηp2 = .074, although these effects were superseded by the interaction described above. Age had no significant main effect or interaction with sex of rater, both FS(1, 73) < 1.68, ηp2 < .022.
We additionally conducted one-sample t-tests against no change (0) to address overall changes in preferences split by sex of rater and rating. These revealed that there was a significant increase on the second rating for women rating trustworthiness, t(50) = 3.15, p = .003, d = 0.89, but a non-significant increase for sexiness, t(50) = 1.08, d = 0.31. Men demonstrated a significant decrease in sexiness on second rating, t(24) = −3.06, p = .005, d = 1.25, and a non-significant increase in trustworthiness ratings, t(24) = 1.66, d = 0.68.
These results demonstrated that women and men rated opposite-sex faces as more trustworthy on the second rating compared to changes in sexiness; however, men decreased their ratings of sexiness on second rating whereas women non-significantly increased their ratings of sexiness on second rating.
Study 4
In Study 4, we examined how ratings of facial similarity to a current or past partner were related to attractiveness ratings of opposite-sex faces.
Participants
Participants were 64 women (M age = 21.9 years, SD = 3.1, 39 with and 25 without a current partner) and 50 men (M age = 22.9 years, SD = 3.4, 28 with and 22 without a current partner). The majority of participants were British/European (48 %) or North American (36 %) and White (71 %). Other nationalities (African = 3 %, Asian = 6 %, Australian = 2 %, South American = 5 %) and ethnicities (Asian = 2 %, Chinese = 4 %, Japanese = 1 %, Black = 3 %, Hispanic = 11 %, Other = 8 %) were represented in the sample. All participants were volunteers and were selected for reporting to be heterosexual and between the ages of 17–45. Participants were recruited both via an internal online psychology participant management system and a research based website. The experiments were administered online using custom presentation software without an experimenter present.
Procedure
The stimuli were 30 male and 30 female white European faces drawn from the same database of young adult faces as Study 1. Photographs were taken under standardized lighting conditions and with a neutral posed expression. Images were cropped around the outside of the face so that hair and clothing were not visible. All images were standardized on interpupillary distance.
Participants were asked to rate the 30 opposite-sex faces twice, firstly for attractiveness and secondly for partner similarity. Participants were asked to: “Please rate the person for attractiveness” and “Please rate the person for how closely they resemble your current/most recent partner.” A 7-point Likert was presented below the image anchored with “low” and “high.” Images were presented individually and in a random order. The image remained on screen until the image was rated, which moved the test on to the next trial.
Results
For each participant, we computed the r value for the correlation between rated attractiveness and rated partner-similarity. This was used as a measure of positive attraction towards partner similarity (which we call partner attraction). Higher scores indicate individuals found partner similar faces more attractive. Individuals with a current partner rated similarity to this partner and those without a partner rated similarity to their most recent partner and we call these groups current partner and past partner. We again included age as a covariate in the ANOVA but note that the pattern of data is the same when age is not included in the model.
A 2 (Sex of Rater) × 2 (Partner) mixed model ANCOVA was conducted on partner attraction with age as a covariate (see Fig. 4 ). The ANOVA yielded a significant Sex of Rater × Partner interaction, F(1, 109) = 5.69, p = .019, ηp2 = .050. There was a significant effect of Partner, F(1, 109) = 7.61, p = .007, ηp2 = .065, reflecting a greater partner attraction for those rating past partners though this was superseded by the interaction. No other main effect or interactions were significant, all Fs(1, 109) < 1, ηp2 < .002.
Fig. 4
Study 4: Mean correlation (r) between attractiveness and partner similarity ratings (+1 SE of the mean) split by ratings of current versus past partner. *Significantly different from no correlation (0)
To follow up the Sex of Rater × Partner interaction, independent sample t-tests were carried out between partner attraction for those with and without partners split by sex of rater. These revealed that there was a significant difference in partner attraction between men rating current versus past partners, t(48) = 4.08, p < .001, d = 1.18, in which men rating their current partner had lower partner attraction than those rating their past partner, but no difference for women rating current versus past partners, t(62) < 1, d = 0.12. Additional independent samples t-tests comparing partner attraction for males and females split by partner revealed that there was a significant difference in partner attraction between men and women rating their current partners, t(65) = 2.28, p = .026, d = 0.57, in which men scored lower in partner attraction than women, but no difference for men and women rating past partners, t(45) = 1.22, d = 0.36.
We additionally conducted one-sample t-tests against no correlation (0) to address overall partner attraction split by sex of rater and partner. These revealed that there was significant positive partner attraction for women with partners, t(38) = 6.48, p < .001, d = 2.10, and without partners, t(24) = 5.65, p < .001, d = 2.31. For men, there was significant partner attraction for those with partners, t(27) = 3.42, p = .002, d = 1.32, and without partners, t(21) = 7.47, p < .001, d = 3.26.
These results demonstrated that women and men rated faces as more attractive when they were seen as similar to a partner and this was the same for individuals rating past partners. The main effect of partner reflected that, for both men and women, rated similarity to a past partner was more positively related to attractiveness than rated similarity to a current partner. The interaction between sex of rater and partner indicated that for participants rating their similarity to their current partner, women demonstrated greater partner attraction than did men (i.e. men were less attracted to images similar to their current partner than were women).
Discussion
Our data demonstrated that experience with faces influenced perceptions of attractiveness differently for men and women. Studies 1–3 demonstrated that only limited exposure was sufficient to generate preferences for familiar stimuli, a phenomenon seen in many previous studies (Bornstein, 1989 ; Zajonc, 1968 ). The critical exception was that men actually lowered their preference for previously seen female faces (Study 1), found seen female faces particularly less attractive for short-term relationships (Study 2), and, while finding seen female faces more trustworthy, found seen female faces as less sexy (Study 3). Study 4 moved beyond experimental exposure to examine the relationship between perceptions of attractiveness and similarity to current or past partners. While there was generally a positive impact of partner similarity on ratings of opposite-sex attractiveness, the strength of partner attraction was weakest for men rating similarity to their current partner, again indicating that men have weaker preferences for familiarity/greater preferences for novelty in opposite-sex faces than women do. There are theories that suggest individuals are motivated to seek out novelty (Berlyne, 1960 ), in some circumstances, and studies show that, while familiarity increases the pleasantness of complex shapes, for simple shapes, familiarity decreases pleasantness (Berlyne, 1970 ). Our data suggest that even using the same complex social stimuli (faces), exposure can result in similar preferences for familiarity across men and women judging male faces, but divergent preferences for novelty when men and women judge the attractiveness of female faces.
Visual preferences for novelty in opposite-sex stimuli in men are consistent with a male preference for a greater number of partners and a greater interest in short-term relationships than women (Buss & Schmitt, 1993 ; Clark & Hatfield, 1989 ; Simpson & Gangestad, 1991 ). Our data are also consistent with men and women having different attitudes towards desiring sexual intercourse based on how long they have known someone. When asked, “If the conditions were right, would you consider having sexual intercourse with someone you viewed as desirable if you had known that person for…”, at range of different times, from 1 h to 5 years, men were more likely to be positive about saying yes than women, but this difference in positive attitude decreased as the length of time increased and at 5 years women were equally as positively inclined to say yes as men (Buss & Schmitt, 1993 ). While based on self-reported projected sexual interest, this finding is in line with the idea that men are more interested in intercourse with novel partners than women, or women’s greater preference for familiar partners, because the sex difference in desiring intercourse is strongest for unfamiliar partners (known for 1 h) but absent for very familiar potential partners (known for 5 years). Overall, our data are consistent with the idea that familiarity is a positive trait with both men and women disliking unfamiliar individuals. This general preference for familiarity, however, appears to be overridden in the case of men by preferences for novelty when it comes to judging potential sexual partners.
Within a long-term partnership, attraction to novelty could certainly foster an increase of reproductive success in men by increasing the chances of male philandering. Our data also indicated that such decreases in attraction occurred most strongly for short-term relationships (Study 2) and sexiness (Study 3), indicating that sexual attraction may be the key variable. That such novelty preferences carry over to women that males have not engaged in intercourse with could reflect a low cost by-product of such an adaptation. Of course, the very short exposure times required in Studies 1–3 to generate lowered attraction and sexiness ratings to encountered female faces may appear maladaptive in guiding males away from women who they have only seen rather than mated with. We note, however, the decrease in rating was small and that generally a visual preference for novelty based on the level of familiarity could be, on average, adaptive. We might also speculate that male preferences for novelty may increase further when sexual activity is involved, although this is difficult to test experimentally. The results of Study 4, however, were consistent with the idea that being with a partner may be important: men showed similar levels of partner attraction when rating a past partner while showing significantly lower levels of attraction to faces seen as more similar to their current partner than women.
Novelty preferences were specific to men judging female faces, as men found familiar male faces more attractive (Study 1). Likewise, exposure increased rated trustworthiness of opposite-sex faces in both men and women, but also increased ratings of sexiness in women while decreasing ratings of sexiness in men (Study 3). Such specificity is particularly interesting, as it suggests that exposure effects are not uniform across men and women or across type of judgment. The effect of visual familiarity in humans appears to show evidence of adaptive design, driving men to seek variety in their partners more than women. While there are clearly similarities in what men and women judge as attractive in same-sex and opposite-sex faces (Langlois et al., 2000 ), there is also evidence that men and women judge same-sex and opposite-sex stimuli differently in regard to preferences (e.g., Little, Jones, DeBruine, & Feinberg, 2008 ), potentially based on mate-choice relevance, and future studies should consider these sex of rater by sex of stimuli interactions.
Our data add to a burgeoning literature showing that exposure to faces biases subsequent perceptions of novel faces in the short-term (Leopold, O’Toole, Vetter, & Blanz, 2001 ; Leopold, Rhodes, Muller, & Jeffery, 2005 ; Rhodes, Halberstadt, & Brajkovich, 2001 ; Rhodes et al., 2003 , 2004 ; Webster, Kaping, Mizokami, & Duhamel, 2004 ). Although our results generally complement those demonstrating the attractiveness of average and familiar faces (Langlois & Roggman, 1990 ; Langlois et al., 1994 ; Little & Hancock, 2002 ; Rhodes et al., 1999 ) to some degree, our finding that men did not prefer faces they were previously exposed to supports the proposal that averageness and familiarity alone cannot fully explain face preferences (see also DeBruine, 2004 ; DeBruine, Jones, Unger, Little, & Feinberg, 2007 ; Perrett, May, & Yoshikawa, 1994 ).
In Study 4, we found a positive impact of partner similarity on ratings of opposite-sex attractiveness, but the strength of partner attraction was weakest for men rating similarity to their current partner. We relied on the participants rating of similarity to their current or previous partner. An improvement here would be to assess partner similarity more directly using photographs of current/past partners, though this may be more challenging for past partners. Additionally, comparing men’s attractiveness ratings to their ratings of similarity to both a previous and current partner, or a longitudinal study of men’s attraction to their partner over time could provide additional support for the ideas presented here. Lastly, while we did not measure it here, information on the length of participants’ previous or current relationship would prove interesting as relationship length appears likely to influence the strength of preferences for partner similarity in novel faces.
Previous studies have shown that individuals have a tendency to partner with or prefer people who have similar traits (such as eye-color, hair color, and age) to their parent’s, imprinting-like effects (Little, Penton-Voak, Burt, & Perrett, 2003 ; Perrett et al., 2002 ). Pairing based on attraction to parental traits may also indicate positive preferences for familiar face traits based on exposure. Preferences for self-similarity in faces also appear to differ between men and women, with data suggesting that men dislike similarity in opposite-sex faces more than women do (DeBruine, 2004 ). Potentially, the results of the current studies may demonstrate a mechanism via which such effects could come about, though our finding that men did not prefer familiar face shapes in female faces might suggest that imprinting-like effects and self-similarity preferences, at least in men, may occur via other specialized mechanisms.
In summary, our data demonstrated that while there were general preferences for familiarity in faces, men preferred more novel female faces. We found this effect in four studies. This relative interest in novelty in men may reflect the asymmetric investment in reproduction between men and women and the greater increase of reproductive success that can be gained by men by seeking multiple sexual partners. In this way, sex-specific preferences for novelty in partners may reflect evolved psychology that serves to maximise reproductive success in men and women.
Acknowledgments
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Coolidge
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What joint in the body leverages the fastest human motion?
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Sexual Paradox: Human Evolution
Research Updates
The Contradictory Diversity of Anthropoid Societies
Evolutionary equilibrium means that a strategy has to be optimal to any changes either sex might inflict, or any defection from the game theoretic equilibrium the situation might present. In the context of sex this means that societies need to reflect the complementary interplay between the vastly differing reproductive investments females and males make, the one massive and forthright, and the other opportunistic and competitive.
Diverse ape societies derive their complexity and viability through responding to this sexual interplay, without the extensive capacity humans have for imposing 'artificial' cultural structures upon it. The relative clumping or diffuse nature of plant foods, determine, through the female foraging distribution, and the opportunities it provides males, whether ape species are monogamous (very dispersed females), form harems (clumping sufficient for one male to guard several females - e.g. gorillas) or promiscuous (intermediate distributions requiring free movement of individuals, as in the case of our closest relatives, the chimpanzee. Pan troglodite, and the bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee, Pan paniscus. In turn these reproductive patterns determine the shifting hierarchies and coalitions of social structure.
The most promiscuous ape societies are the most complex and versatile. Monogamous gibbons lead a solitary and relatively sterile existence in widely spaced territories with little social interaction. For Gorillas there is a little more dynamic movement. Largely affairs are dominated by a silver back who retains dominance over his harem while struggling endlessly against being toppled and his females robbed by a more powerful male. But females will also mate with a younger male if he is present in the group. However only in chimp and bonobo societies do social complexities and subtleties really come to the fore.
Pan troglodyte: Chimpanzee
Chimps have a narrow muscular penis inviting intentional displays rather than the fat hydrodynamic penis of the human. Females have a large sexual swelling in estrus, usually mate from behind and females grunt at climax in a way suggestive of 'orgasm' (Pusey R561 ).
Chimp societies are complex, dynamically changing 'fission-fusion' societies with shifting sexual relationships between females and males, however here the emphasis is on male hierarchies and coalitions. In de Waal's perceptive words ( R162 62) "Male chimpanzees hunt together, engage in fights over territory, and enjoy a half-amicable, half-competitive camaraderie. Their cooperative action-packed existence resembles that of a human male, who in modern society teams up with other males in corporations that compete with other corporations." While males display rituals of dominance, amid blustering aggression and reconciliation, females exert significant reproductive choice by subtlety and charisma, with up to half the offspring coming from secret liaisons outside the troop on safari trysts (Fisher R209 , Jolly R346 ). Females seem to be more concerned with establishing and keeping a set of solid relationships with a small selective circle of friends and a few more clearly defined enemies. De Waal notes: "Over the years. I've gained the impression that each female in the Arnhem colony has one or two absolute enemies with whom reconciliation is absolutely out of the question'. Instances which would have been previously attributed to male aggression on closer examination reveal the action was instigated by a female with a long-standing grudge of her own" (Watson R735 117).
When females have sexual swellings indicating fertility, they are extremely gregarious and range over large areas. Otherwise females usually feed alone or are accompanied only by their dependent offspring in core areas of about 2 square kilometers. In the wild they spend about half their time in each mode. In contrast the adult males are more sociable, spending less than a fifth of their time alone and ranging over an area of 8-15 square kilometers, seeking females and protecting and expanding their range against other males. Female distribution in relation to food resources is only a partial explanation for this arrangement because females are also monopolized into seeking the protection of male ranges to avoid aggression against themselves and their infants (Pusey R561 15-17).
Apes, unlike most monkey species, are female exogamous, with half to 90% of chimp females moving to other troops (Hrdy R330 51, Pusey ( R561 20), while the males remain with the existing group, which thus consists of males related to varying degrees who have a kin altruistic basis for reproductive cooperation. However males only show significant relatedness in some chimp troops (Taï, but not Gombe) ( R561 25). Mitochondrial mtDNA testing of hair suggests that mitochondrial genes are shared between chimps several hundred kilometers apart, indicating wide-ranging exogamy (22). Analyzing DNA found in the hair follicles collected from chimpanzee nests has become a method to test chimp paternity in the wild. At Gombe Julie Constable has found about 20% of conceptions come from low-ranking males with a majority from mating inside the group, particularly with males that were alpha at some time. All three mothers with more than one offspring fathered them by different males, emphasizing both female choice and the shifting nature of male hierarchies. (Pusey R561 ). In the Taï National Forest on the Ivory Coast, Pascal Gagneaux found only 6 out of 13 cases of paternity could be traced to male residents in the community the females frequented (Strier R673 , Pusey ( R561 ), linking most to secret liaisons outside.
Incest avoidance and female exogamy in chimps are linked in a way which suggests it is females and not males in humans which should naturally be driving the incest taboo by their exogamy rather than being regarded as mediums of exchange by males, since they have to bear the full reproductive burden of inbreeding. Females coming into adolescence initially mate with most of the males in their own community. However females with older brothers or close relatives cease to travel with them and rarely mate with them. Even if the male shows interest in the female, she will scream and avoid him, presumably as a result of histocompatibility (MHC) odor similarity ( p 355 ) and familiarity during immaturity. Females become fearful of older males in their own community but when they wander with sexual swellings they eagerly meet and mate with males from new communities, either joining the new community permanently or returning pregnant (Pusey R561 19). Sperm competition in utero may allow for selection of sperm with greater viability and genetic fitness. Promiscuity may also aid fertility by promoting histo-complementarity relative to the female's own MHC and immunity type, again through odour (Birkhead R63 204). Mate guarding by an alpha male at the peak of fertility towards the end of the estrus (which ironically means 'gadfly') may also serve to give her access to generally fitter genes, despite her promiscuity.
This pattern of female reproductive choice, despite male mate guarding, is shared among many primate species. Despite living in harems dominated by a 'silver back' male, female gorillas sometimes mate with subordinate younger 'black backs' when they are present (Hrdy R329 147). Recently a mature captive female has been seen teaching her daughter how to bring up a child after she abandoned her first one, suggesting some matrilineal adaption (Leahy R401). A female savannah baboon in estrus will frequently mate with many different males, despite focusing her favours on a few dominant males who can secure her attentions when in peak. These strategies are all consistent with females applying genetic choice and manipulating such services of protection and resourcing as males have to offer.
Chimpanzees enter into "deals" whereby they exchange meat for sex, according to researchers. "By sharing, the males increase the number of times they mate, and the females increase their intake of calories," said Dr Gomes. "What's amazing is that if a male shares with a particular female, he doubles the number of times he copulates with her, which is likely to increase the probability of fertilising that female." Meat is important for the animals' diet because it is so high in protein. Since female chimps do not usually hunt, "they have a hard time getting it on their own," explained Dr Gomes. (Chimpanzees exchange meat for sex BBC Victoria Gill 7 April 2009)
However other research contradicts this idea:
Only one study has found statistically meaningful, if indirect, support for such swaps, showing that male chimpanzees are more likely to hunt for monkeys when oestrous females are around. Yet when Gilby's team examined observations from four chimpanzee communities in Uganda and Tanzania spanning 28 years, they found no evidence that female fertility affected whether males hunted or not. Other evidence also questions the idea of meat for sex, Gilby says. Males with access to meat were no likelier to share it with oestrous females – who can become pregnant – than with non-oestrous females. Nor do they preferentially give meat to older females, who tend to be more likely to conceive than younger females (Exchange meat for sex? No thank you May 2010 New Scientist ).
However a negative finding in chimps doesn't imply a negative finding in early humans and some human groups such as the Bushmen do seem to have traded meat for sex.
Both chimps and bonobos share an overt reproductive cycle, and a frankly promiscuous reproductive life, in which the females assume almost all the responsibility for child-rearing. On average a chimpanzee will make love 100 times as often as a gorilla. Rather than a larger body size, the chimp has large testicles which can sustain frequent 'flooding' ejaculates to compete in a promiscuous environment. Copulating with as many males as possible in the vicinity within her immediate troop while she is in overt estrus and can pass without harassment, may serve to reduce a variety of risks of infanticide, although females on the periphery of an established group remain vulnerable to attack both from the existing troop and from outside males, particularly of their male offspring (Hrdy R330 86). The threat of infanticide, of alien offspring and of direct attacks on non-receptive females by male chimps drives females to seek the relative security of a range well within that of her male troop.
At least four female mating modes are in play, mating with the dominant alpha male, openly mating promiscuously with all the males in the troop (to protect against infanticide), going 'on safari' in temporary 'monogamous' relationship with a male with whom a female shares an affectionate bond out of sight of other animals, and 'mate guarding' by a small coalition of males (Jolly R346 78). A female on safari will copulate 5 to 10 times a day, but an estrus female travelling with a group of males may copulate 30 to 50 times in a day (Hrdy R329 148). A high ranking chimp female may stay with the troop giving her offspring added survival support of a central position. The onset of menarche in an adolescent female may occur at about the age of eight but it is several years before her sexual swellings are full sized and grown males pay attention and begin mating in earnest. Even then a female may copulate on the order of 3,600 times during successive subfertile cycles before she conceives the first time, around age 14 and gives birth. Hrdy ( R330 185) comments "an adolescent's sexual swellings are especially conspicuous. Like bonobos, young females use them as 'diplomatic passports' that permit safe passage through hostile territories. This way a female can check out competitors and local resources in foreign communities while she decides where to settle and breed." Once she becomes fertile she will be more fecund than older females. A female wandering with such a passport may not be attacked by patrolling males but may not so easily be accepted by resident females in unfamiliar territory ( R330 85). Female chimps from dominant ranks are known to commit infanticide against lower ranking females ( R330 52). A fertile female who conceives will have made love more than 100 times with as many as a dozen or more males during her ovulatory period. Such motivated sex is lustful and in De Waal's ( R164 53) careful words involves 'orgasm-like experiences'. Along with bonobo sexual ecstasy this provides an evolutionary basis for human female orgasm in our common ape ancestors. Once she delivers her baby she does not return to the group but takes it alone and feeds in a small core range to protect it form attack.
"While males are forming coalitions, females are often by themselves, and compete for exclusive access to fragments of forest where lots of food can be found," says Anne Pusey, who studies chimps in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Overt aggression is rare, but infants are at risk of being killed by females who aren't their mothers. There is one situation in which competition is inevitable. "Male chimps don't migrate - they'd simply be killed when found in the forest all by themselves," says Pusey. "Females usually do, and immigrants are under relentless attack by the other females until a male steps in to protect the cute new girl on the block." (Vernimmen T 2015 Gentle sex? Females just as feisty as males over reproduction New Scientist 25 Jun).
Male chimps often form flexible coalitions to collectively depose a dominant male or to attack other groups. They have even been observed banding together to kill the alpha male of a troop (American J. of Primatology, doi.org/kn4). They share food as tokens of cooperation. As noted ( p 59 ), successful alpha males often display skills of group mediation and conflict resolution as well as aggression to maintain their position. Coalitions of male chimps also stage raiding parties on neighbouring troops, killing or injuring other males and killing infants. Male monkeys and apes tend to commit infanticide on any offspring not sired by themselves ( R330 34) sufficiently frequently to cause female chimps strategic reproductive problems. Infanticide both serves to eliminate genetic rivals before they become active adversaries and is a natural extension of interspecies competition. Males play no part in infant care but may form casual affectionate bonds and be followed by adoring young males.
Chimp societies display many features shared with human gatherer-hunter societies. including a division of labour between meat and plant foods, predominant female exogamy (2/3 of gatherer-hunter societies are male philopatric and less than 1/5 female philopatric), male cooperation in coalitions, reconciliation of aggression within groups, the presence of inter-group violence between males, raiding parties against individuals in other groups, and a similar group size of about 150 to gatherer-hunter bands (Pusey R561 ).
Chimps at the Whipsnade zoo have been shown to enjoy puzzle solving, and continue puzzle-solving even when they didn't receive food rewards. Scientists set up a game for six chimps that involved moving red dice through pipes until they fell into a container. The same task was also carried out using brazil nuts instead of dice, so that success led to a treat. "For chimps in the wild, this task is a little bit like foraging for insects or honey inside a tree stump or a termite mound, except more challenging because the dice do not stick to the tool." Researchers created higher "levels" of challenge by connecting many pipes together, and making them opaque so the dice or nuts could only be glimpsed through small holes (BBC 2013 Whipsnade Zoo research shows chimpanzees 'solve puzzles for fun' 25 Feb).
Chimpanzees use tools for more purposes than any other non-human species (McGrew), have been seen to make and use spears in the wild in Senegal and 4,300 year old remains have been found of a nut smashing stone in East Africa. Young female chimps learn earlier and faster by watching their mothers than males, who are more involved in wrestling play (Lonsdorf et. al. R424 ). Females learn earlier and ultimately better how to 'fish' for termites and mirror their mother's techniques in a way which males don't. These patterns suggest sex differences in human learning go back six million years. Chimps in captivity also show cultural preferences for conformity with their peers even when they know an alternative tool using strategy is more effective (Nature doi:10.1038/050815-12).
Chimps have also been seen to engage in 'ritual' behavior - a dance performed during rainfall and a peculiar slow-motion display in the face of a bush fire in Senegal and more recently young chimps were observed storing stones in a tree and banging rocks against it in what was loosely described as a 'tree shrine' (Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/srep22219). Young chimps have also been seen to use doll-shaped sticks as toyseven making nests for them to sleep in (What do chimp 'temples' tell us about the evolution of religion? New Scientist 4 March 2016).
Pan paniscus: Bonobo
Bonobo Heaven password="model"
The bonobo or 'pygmy chimpanzee' was first discovered only in 1927 from a skull and shortly after recognized as a separate species. It is slightly smaller, darker and more gracile and childlike than the average chimp. This neotonous feature is shared by humans. In 1933 Harold Coolidge (de Waal R164 42) who gave them species status considers them to be anatomically more generalized than chimps and "may approach more closely to the common ancestor of chimpanzees and man than does any living chimpanzee". Adrienne Zihlman has found them to be the closest ape to Australopithecus by several quantitative measures. They are often observed to walk bipedally, especially when carrying food. Like humans, bonobos are receptive sexually for most of their ovarian cycle. They regularly make love face to face as humans do, which chimps do only rarely.
Bonobos mating face to face often stare deeply into one another's eyes and French kiss. Here and below centre two females 'mate' in hoka-hoka with the aid of their large clitoris (below left). Right bonobo male giving a penis display (De Waal and Lanting R163 , Hrdy R330 ex Amy Parish).
Bonobo societies have become renowned in Franz de Waal's "Good Natured" ( R162 ) as hyper-sexed, promiscuous societies, which use pan-sexuality as a universal social panacea to invite reconciliation for aggression and even at any sight of food, when both males and females will invite sex in a free-for-all. They engage frequent and repetitious apparently orgasmic sex, as much between females (with their especially enlarged clitorises) as between male and female. Males also rub their scrotal areas together in reconciling aggression and occasionally hang upside down in trees rubbing their erect penises together called penis fencing (de Waal R164 54). There are also sexual liaisons between adults and juveniles of both sexes. Frequent sexual encounter has become a contributory phenomenon which generates sufficient cohesion among female coalitions to keep dominant males respectfully deferring to their wishes, trading sex for food in favourable, or indulgent terms, with little molestation of the females. In fact females bond more strongly to one another than to the males and follow them around seven times more. Females having sex together advertise their liaisons to others presumably to enhance their status in the group. Females use sex to solicit food from males. De Waal notes this wryly as "sex as a weapon." They will also claim food possessed by males if necessary by force. Males tend to follow their mothers. By contrast with chimps, male alliances are little developed and ranking males derive key support from their mothers and the alliance between the females. Females are thus regarded as being dominant.
Intriguingly bonobos, like humans, French kiss. Frans de Waal recalls a zookeeper who accepted what he thought would be a friendly kiss from one of the bonobos, until he felt the ape’s tongue in his mouth!
However 'loving bonobos' have a carnivorous dark side - they mercilessly hunt and eat monkeys alive (SPNews 1733 ).
Robert Jay Russel called the bonobos' propensity for males trading food for sex the 'lemur's legacy', as one of our most remote cousins also share the trait (Taylor R683 81). Timothy Taylor demurs that it is simply the males being courteous and offering the females both food and sex. While this is a nice idea, it negates the subtlety of Machiavellian interplay the whole transaction expresses. Neither does it, as he suggests, imply the female sex drive is less, and we know female bonobos have a great deal of sex themselves. He also observes:
"Most shockingly to human eyes, adults and children have a lot of sex. In fact infants are often initiated by their mothers - the only observed taboo on sex is between mothers and any sons over six years of age." ( R683 81).
De Waal ( R162 55) proposes that they avoid incest both by a combination of female exogamy and close familial associations and similar body odours inhibiting sexual attraction, driven principally by females avoiding kin. When a young female reaches adolescence at about seven, she stops having sex with her troop and begins to have her first small swellings. This is a major crisis time for a young female. The swellings act as a passport of 'implied fertility' so she can wander freely from group to group and have sex with strange males in the forest without fear of attack, looking for a group with individuals she can bond with and be safe. She invites sex from the other females. Once accepted, her sexuality flowers. She rapidly gains almost continuous sexual swellings which grow in volume with every cycle till they reach full size at about ten. She can expect her first offspring at about thirteen or fourteen. This gives the females ample time to find a home troop and become fully integrated into the community before pregnancy ensues. Unlike chimps where females wander alone with small offspring to protect the young from the risk of infanticide, bonobos return to the troop immediately and infanticide is unknown.
Bonobos appear to have a sense of fairness and react differently when they suffer an unprovoked attack which doesn't have a justifiable basis, and in return others gather around to give support indicating a sense of social fairness (Clay Z et al. 2016 Bonobos (Pan paniscus) vocally protest against violations of social expectations Journal of Comparative Psychology 130/1 44-54, doi.org/bcp3).
Bonobo (left) and chimp (right) using spears to hunt. Bonobos' tool-using abilities look a lot like those of early humans, suggesting that observing them could teach anthropologists about how our own ancestors evolved such skills. If so, tool use in great apes may be older than we thought, reaching back at least 5 million years to the common ancestor of chimps, bonobos and humans. Bonobos at a zoo in Germany and a bonobo sanctuary in Iowa were given a series of problems that required tools to solve - for example, showing the bonobos that food was buried under rocks, then leaving a tray of potential aids such as sticks and antlers nearby. Two of eight zoo animals and four of seven in the sanctuary made use of the tools - in some cases almost immediately. The bonobos used sticks, rocks and antlers to dig, and also used long sticks as levers to move larger rocks out of the way. Some used different tools in sequence. Three of the sanctuary animals used rocks as hammers to smash long bones and expose food in the marrow. Another cracked them neatly open lengthwise, a technique previously thought to be unique to the human lineage. One bonobo even sharpened a stick with her teeth to fashion a spear. (Am. J. of Phys. Anthro. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22778, doi.org/5z7). And in 2007, Jill Pruetz from Iowa State University in Ames discovered that chimps in the wild in Fongoli, Senegal, thrust sharpened sticks into nest holes in trees to stab or club small, nocturnal primates called bushbabies. They observed 308 such hunts. Females carried out 61% of them, despite making up only 39% of the chimps in hunting parties. The Fongoli chimps are still the only ones known to use weapons to kill or wound prey, even though chimps elsewhere in Africa - again mainly females - use tools to get at termites and tubers. If female chimps initiated the use of weapons to hunt, the same might have been true of the earliest humans, Pruetz suggests. "Maybe it should cause people to rethink the old premise of man the hunter" (Royal Soc. Open Science doi: 10.1098/rsos.140507).
Characteristic of both chimps and bonobos is reconciliation. This is a clear sign of mediation of aggression and implies, despite the relatively peaceful nature of the bonobo that competition, hierarchies and feelings of aggression are still present. In chimps it is the 'underdog' who usually initiates reconciliation, whereas in bonobos it is the 'aggressor', however reconciliation is so beneficial to a group of chimps that if neither of the warring individuals will initiate it, a third party may step in to broker a deal (Dugatkin R176 ). Reconciliation in chimps is by kissing and cuddling but in bonobos it is mediated through sex. Sex at the sight of food is an immediate mediation of feelings of competition to get enough of a share. Similarly if a male chases another away from a female the males reunite and have a scrotal rub, or if a female hits a juvenile and the mother lunges back they both have sex. Unusually, these types of engagement also occur between troops (de Waal R162 51). The females will groom one another while the males remain tense. Males compete fiercely for rank which is influenced by the rank of mothers, but the female hierarchy, based on age and residency is fairly loose. It is possible the bonobo has been able to engage this strategy because it has access to larger fruiting trees and selects types of abundant terrestrial herbaceous vegetation which can support large groups without conflict. Richard Wrangham has also suggested that the absence of the gorilla in their range opened an evolutionary niche for a less male-dominated social structure. However, missing from both chimp and bonobo societies is any form of pair-bonding or long-term relationship between males and females.
Researchers have suggested that bonobos display signs of early language evolution. Wild bonobos use a specific call type (the "peep") across a range of contexts that cover the full range positive-neutral-negative in much of their daily activities, including feeding, travel, rest, aggression, alarm, nesting and grooming. Peeps were produced in functionally flexible ways in neutral and positive contexts. Functional flexibility has recently been demonstrated in the vocalisations of pre-linguistic human infants and is the root of context independent language (Clay Z et al. (2015) Functional flexibility in wild bonobo vocal behaviour PeerJ doi:10.7717/peerj.1124).
Deaner et. al. ( R156 ) have found that even rhesus macaques are highly strategically sensitive to socio-sexual images. They found that a male would choose a significant cut in a cherry juice offering to look at 'pornographic' images the perineum of a female, or powerful males' faces, both of which are strategically important for reproduction, casting both gossip magazines and human pornographic imagery in a very ancient light.
Stone artifacts from Lake Turkana dating back 3.3 million years consistent with Australopithecus tool use (Harmand s et al 2015 Nature doi:10.1038/nature14464).
Australopithecus: Evolutionary Divergence of the Hominid Line
Our closest evolutionary cousins are the chimpanzee and the bonobo, from which we diverged around 7 million years ago matching the age of the oldest human line fossil Sahelanthropus. The claim that Dryopithecus is a form of gorilla, rather than a precursor (Hecht J 2015 Ape fossils put the origin of humanity at 10 million years ago New Scientist 2 Oct), has pushed the possible date back to 10 million years, with some estimates going back as far as 13 million (Brahic C 2012 Our true dawn: Pinning down human origins New Scientist 21 Nov). The divergence of our common ancestor from gorillas, orangutans and old world monkeys occurred at successively earlier dates. This has led to the idea that we are a species in the same genus as Pan. About 7 million years ago, primate evolution split along two tracks: one leading towards humans, the other towards chimpanzees. One to two million years later, our ancestors adopted an upright gait, and 2-3 million years after that their bodies and brains began to grow and they started making primitive stone tools. Even earlier 'artifacts' have been found suggesting primitive tool use in the form of score marks on bones at Dikika in Ethiopia (S. P. McPherron et al. Nature 466, 857-860; 2010) and large stone artifacts, some weighing as much as 15 kilograms from a site west of Kenya's Lake Turkana whose sediments date to around 3.3 million years ago. One key surface find was a small rock flake, which fitted in a gap in a buried core as snugly as a jigsaw puzzle piece, confirming that the tools were made through a flaking process (Callaway E 2015 Nature doi:10.1038/520421a, Harmand et al Nature doi:10.1038/nature14464).
Exciting stone tool find in Kenya 2011
The first modern-looking humans appear in the fossil record about 130,000 years ago. By 50,000 years ago, there is evidence for humans who appear to have distinctly modern bodies and life-styles. They created complex tools and jewelry, built shelters, buried their dead in graves and probably had similar language skills to us.
Analysis of early human-like A. africanus populations in southern Africa suggests females left their childhood homes, while males stayed at home. An international team examined tooth samples for metallic traces which can be linked to the geological areas in which individuals grew up. The conclusion was that while most the males lived and died around the same river valley, the females moved on. Similar patterns of female exogamy have been observed in chimpanzees, bonobos and modern humans (Ancient cave women 'left childhood homes' BBC 1 June 2011).
Sellen-Tullberg and Moller researching the family tree of living primate species by mating type, come to conclusions consistent with the idea that monogamy is a latecomer to the human line (Diamond R166 ). They suggest that monogamy has not been a trait of our primate evolutionary history, but rather promiscuity in lower primates followed by a common harem-building ancestor, as the gorilla is today. Since recent evolutionary trees place chimps closer to humans than gorillas, the ancestor probably then passed through a promiscuous phase. This missing link probably had the slight evidence of ovulation we find in both primitive primates and gorillas and evolved in opposite directions in humans and chimps, the chimp and bonobo forms of promiscuity emphasizing overt ovulation accompanied by estrus behavior and human monogamy with moderate polygyny favouring concealed ovulation. The overt estrus seen in chimps and baboons is rare in primates and constitutes a specific adaption (Hrdy R330 217).
Primate mating patterns and concealed or advertised ovulation. Pink and white discs indicate overt and covert ovulation, half-shaded slight signs (Diamond R166 ).
Sexual dimorphism varies by different measures from little or none in monogamous gibbons. Slight to moderate differences in bonobos and chimps (various measures range from 6-30% (Reno et. al. R573 , Pusey R561 35 Wrangham R765 35). Pair-bonding but moderately polygynous human populations vary from 6 to 23% with an average around through 15%. Harem-forming gorillas, and orangutans and baboons, have a difference of 100% characteristic of species where sexual choice is strongly related to male competition. Matt Ridley ( R580 19) comments "Better to be only a little larger than a female and use cunning as well as strength to rise to the top of the hierarchy".
Sexual mating patterns can evolve rapidly (Larsen R399 ). They can vary as a result of changing environmental and social factors much more rapidly than genotype or phenotype. Savannah and hamadryas baboons have indistinguishable bone morphology, although the latter is a little smaller, and can interbreed where they overlap in eastern Ethiopia, having been previously separated for only about 300,000 years, probably by the latter becoming an offshoot of the former. However they have very different patterns of sexual association. It is thus possible that mating patterns have gone through substantial changes during the time our brain size swelled from the 500cc of Australopithecus to the 1400cc of modern Homo. Recently a group of savannah baboons was seen to change its social profile from aggressive dominant males to more socially peaceable behavior and grooming, when bovine TB wiped out the aggressive alpha males, and has continued for two decades (Sapolski and Share R611 ). Savannah baboons live in stable groups, with no exclusive pair bonds, with intra-group relations strongly influenced by alliances among adult females. A troop may contain several competing matrilines and so high social rank of the females is important and markedly enhances daughter's reproductive prospects in infant survival. However high ranking females become more stressed and have more infertility problems as a result (Low R427 60). The social role of males is predominantly to protect against predators such as leopards.
Relative body, penis and testicle size viewed by an ape female and relative body, breast and ovulation signals as viewed by an ape male (redrawn from Jolly R346 180). Humans have intermediate testicles size between promiscuous chimps and lone harem-forming male gorillas, indicating sperm competition and moderate polygyny.
By contrast with savannah baboons, hamadryas are female exogamous. They live in fission-fusion groups, within which exclusive mating units interact with one another through alliances of adult males, leaving females largely powerless (Wrangham R765 ). Females are abducted as juveniles and taught firm rules of obedience neccesary for survival in their harsher environment, supported by biting on the scruff of the neck if they protest. Despite the paternalism, the sexes are coevolved. The investment of the male is substantial over time, chastising, educating, helping feed, and even carrying his much smaller charges. They will rescue neonates at risk during delivery. Within each large herd, males do not so much as look at females in another alpha male's harem (Hrdy R329 75, 101).
Evolutionary tree of mammalian male infanticide (circled species) which occurs in around half of the 200 species invesigated. It is commonest in social species (dark grey) and less so in solitary species (light grey) and even less in monogamous species (black) (Lukas & Huchard 2014 DOI: 10.1126/science.1257226).
Mammals give birth to live young and lactate. This has caused the reproductive investment of the two sexes to become highly skewed, with males investing primarily in fertilization, while females are investing primarily in parenting. This has a variety of consequences. For example only around 3% of mammal species are socially monogamous, with the rest being either polygynous with harems, or having promiscuous females. This again skews the reproductive strategies further, because there are secondary consequences. Females are less likely to go in heat and become pregnant while they are lactating a brood, and offsping of other males will compete with his own, so there is a double investment in species with competing males, to kill the offspring of competitors - male infanticide. Around half of mammalian species, including the ancestors of the great apes and humans, are inveterate infanticiders, as promiscuous chimps and harem forming gorillas are, and the trait appears to have evolved multiple times. In turn, the females adapt to promiscuous mating, often with an advertised estrus to make it as difficult as possible for males to determine paternity (Lukas & Huchard 2014 ). Finally the males adapt by forming larger testes to deal with the issues of sperm competition involved in promiscuity.
When Raymond Dart in 1925 announced the discovery of Australopithecus africanus, he speculated on flimsy evidence that it had been a bloodthirsty carnivore. With it we inherited a pessimistic 'killer-ape' notion consistent with 'man the hunter' ( R729 , R486 ), based on the connection between hunting and warfare that aggressiveness drives cultural progress. Konrad Lorenz ( R426 ) in "On Aggression" amplified this claiming our species had not had enough evolutionary time to develop the inhibitions against our own kind, as do full carnivores. With the discovery of violent aggression, murder and raiding parties among wild chimps (Wrangham and Peterson R764 ) our common origin "suggests that chimpanzee-like violence preceded and paved the way for human war, making modern humans dazed survivors of a continuous 5-million year habit of lethal aggression." However there is continuing debate between the 'hominid the hunter notion' and brain and Binford's notion of the humble scavenger (Adovasio et. al. R792 43).
Research suggests that, despite the versatility of the human hand with its opposed thum and index finger, it may represent a more primitive form of the hand dating from before the divergence of humans and chimps, implying that its evolution in early humans came not as a result of tool use but diverse forms of dexterity for example involving food gathering (Almecija S et al. 2015 The evolution of human and ape hand proportions Nature Comm 6 7717 doi:10.1038/ncomms8717).
This position has again been modified with the discovery of the more peaceful bonobo and the idea that aggression is an option, depending on environmental correlates and not a fixed drive. Many authors have drawn conclusions about general trends in evolution from apes to humans based on the greater size differences between males and females believed to have existed in early Australopithecines of about 100% compared with modern human differences of only 5-16% across cultures. These conclusions have applied both to Australopthecus, which might be assumed to have been a harem-forming species on this basis, and changes presumed to have accompanied the reduction of these differences later in Homo erectus, for example the rise of pair-bonding. If the sexual dimorphism of Australopithecus is less overall it is as likely to indicate a promiscuous origin.
Owen Lovejoy's group (Reno et. al. R573 , Larsen R399 ) contradict previous findings of extreme size dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis, our 500cc brained ancestor of some three and a half million years ago. They suggest a sexual dimorphism less than that of humans, consistent with pair-bonding monogamy or promiscuity rather than harems with strong male competition like gorillas as previous studies implied. Canine dimorphism is greater in chimps, leading them to further suggest a monogamous phase. It should also be noted that the female status of the small 'Lucy' skeleton is also open to debate (Adovasio et. al. R792 38, 84).
However an intriguing find in 2016 is the group of footprints left in vocanic ash that rapidly hardened 3.66 million years ago belonging to A afarensis, suggesting a male with a harem of females and children in a similar polygynous social arrangement to gorillas (eLife, DOI: 10.7554/eLife.19568).
Alison Jolly ( R346 362) in reviewing Lovejoy's previous work quotes his central motivating theme - that the reproductive nature of humanity sets us apart from other apes: "the unique sexual and reproductive behavior of [wo]man may be the sine qua non of human origin ... he saw the gift that led to bipedalism as monogamy".
Above: 2.8 million-year-old specimen found in the Ledi-Geraru research area, Afar Regional State, Ethiopia, is 400,000 years older than researchers thought that our kind first emerged. The discovery in Ethiopia suggests climate change spurred the transition from tree dweller to upright walker. Below: Teeth and jaw of Australopithecus deyiremeda from 3.3-3.5-million-year-old deposits in the Woranso–Mille study area, central Afar, Ethiopia (Haile-Selassie Y e al. Nature doi:10.1038/nature14448). The age of the remains means that this was potentially one of four different species of early humans that were all alive at the same time. The most famous of these is Australopithecus afarensis - known as Lucy in 1974 - who lived between 2.9-3.8m years ago, and was initially thought to be our direct ancestor. However the discovery of another species called Kenyanthropus platyops in Kenya in 2001, and of Australopithecus bahrelghazali in Chad, and now Australopithecus deyiremeda, suggests that there were several species co-existing. Most ancient hominins ate a broad diet, but one species Australopithecus bahrelghazali specialised on sedges, which might have led to its downfall. Unlike East Africa, and the Rift Valley, it migrated further west to an area of Chad which was rich in sedges and largely predator-free, allowing for a quiet life and a lot of time for eating. Yet such a restricted diet would have left it more vulnerable to extinction when the habitat changed. as the climate dried out (Journal of Human Evolution, doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.009).
However skeletal research suggests bipedalism evolved six-million years ago long before we can expect social patterns characteristic of humanity (Galik et. al. R232 ). Lovejoy's argument implies monogamy even before we came out of the trees, explaining bipedalism in terms of bringing roots back to a monogamous partner, males' wider ranging avoiding direct competition with closer ranging females based on the claim that human child rearing must have changed very early on to increase survival and shorten birth intervals, given a more slowly maturing infant and the five to eight year interval between births of apes. Jolly laconically notes "meanwhile the females progressively concealed her ovulation so as not to inflame all available males ... but ready to mate with her own man whenever he came home. Both female and male acquired permanent attractiveness, big breasts, big penis which continually advertised both sexiness displays and reassurance to the mate, as in mated birds that engage 'triumph displays'. Feminists were outraged. The idea of hulking polygynous males was horrid, but this kind of monogamy seemed even worse. ... on behavioral grounds, I would opt for big males, small females and a medium level of promiscuity, rather than Lovejoy's monogamy. " Adrienne Zihlman ( R782 ) also has bipedalism evolving from gathering but males learning from their mothers to gather and share with the immediate group in a polygamous rather than monogamous environment.
There is no evidence for Lovejoy's notion of monogamy ever having evolved in a species-wide sense among humans but rather pair bonding with a degree of polygyny in a majority of individual societies worldwide. There is a major problem here with the definition of monogamy as an intentional cultural trait defining relationships as one on one in the sense of marriage, with all its trappings of punishments for infidelity. Human societies clearly show they have a large majority of woman-man partnerships with a minority equilibrium of polygynous extended families as male resources permit. This is a complex and flexible form of social system which can provide optimal resourcing to females despite the tensions between co-wives. The idea that archaic humans would have defined a narrow prohibitive monogamous marriage code is contradicted by almost all societies outside Christianity.
Neither do the relative lack of male canines indicate monogamy since even early hominids before the archaeological advent of tool use could have come to depend more on stones than teeth is dominance displays, as noted in Chris Knüsel's theory of bipedalisim in which throwing was the key advantage gained (Taylor R683 36). Arguments in which human emergence is driven by tool use have palled with the discovery that wild gorillas use tools (Public Library of Science Biology Oct 2005) as well as chimps ( p 66 ). Sarah Hrdy ( R329 175) also notes that the reduced canines is a weak point in the argument since it does not seem necessary that early man used his teeth in fighting as other primates do. Richard Wrangham ( R765 ) also find the arguments unconvincing: "The anatomist Owen Lovejoy once suggested that bipedalism evolved in order to allow males to bring food to their mates but his much publicized idea of monogamy among the woodland apes now seems farfetched. One of several difficulties is the question of sexual dimorphism in body size. ... Other obstacles to Lovejoy's scheme include scepticism that a male who left his mate to find food for her could guard her from rival males. The absence of any evidence of home bases, the matter of why females became bipedal and evidence that Australopiths life histories resemble those of apes, not of humans as Lovejoy's scheme implied they should. In addition, no living non-human primates exhibit monogamy within social communities. Part of the explanation is that any female who mates exclusively with a low-ranking male within a social group can expect to find her offspring the target of infanticide attempts by more dominant males." The difficulty with arguments based on changes in infant care in Australopithicines is the chicken and egg problem of brain size and what caused it. Australopithecus has a small brain and major child-rearing changes requiring additional partner resourcing are naturally responses to pressures created by delayed development caused by increasing brain size and the need for birth to take place before the brain puts on its spurt of growth. It is thus difficult to place such child-rearing changes before our large brain evolved. When we move to Homo erectus with an increasing brain size, we still find sexual dimorphisms suggested to be a little larger than humans in the range of 20% larger in males, consistent with Jolly's position and with social monogamy emerging later.
Timothy Taylor suggests that breasts and genital hair of the human female are an evolutionary response to bipedal walking:
Stated in brief, I believe that upright walking hid females' engorgable estrus skin between their legs; walking itself both required buttock muscles and hid the female genital opening - an important focus of sexual signaling in primates; the new buttock area became denuded of hair to compensate for the lost sexual signal; and the bare buttocks were mimicked around the front, in the form of bare breasts, [and a pubic triangle of hair against a bare background]. That is, nakedness developed as a form of sexual signaling to compensate for the disappearance of estrus skin, which had formerly performed that function. The emergence of nakedness was thus not a question of losing hair but of extending areas of sexual skin. This process culminated through sexual selection within a cultural environment-clothes and cosmetics enhanced and selectively covered the areas from which hair was lost, and encouraged it to be lost over yet wider areas. In my view, therefore, we have never been truly naked apes ( R683 34).
Although acknowledging fatness and fecundity as a genuine indicator of reproductive fitness to carry a baby to term under fluctuating fortunes, and inviting the reader into a sensual notion of nakedness through sexual selection, Taylor cites a simple deterministic environmental sequence the loss of overt estrus signals, for what is a creative product of sexual choice. The critical flaw in such 'external factor' theories is that they attempt to explain the genesis of the most complex system we know of - human culture - in terms of the external advent of a single, generally simplistic, causal factor. The same applies to theories of human emergence based on bipedalism, tool use, hunting, monogamy and even language, each of which is a product of complexification, rather than the cause, although each can facilitate a qualitative leap forward. What is centrally at stake is the complexity of human sexual selection and how it has carried us forward into culture at the edge of chaos ( p 506 ). Central to this idea is understanding how the sociobiology of sex becomes the cultural phenomena which surround us today, not just the social varieties of sexuality itself but all the creative and coercive phenomena of culture, which like our hairlessness and language appear to have been driven by sexual rather than natural selection. To this end Taylor does acknowledge the advent of clothing invites 'gender' - the cultural interpretation of social sex roles.
A similar argument for the human penis holds marginally better, i.e. that a large penis signals an attractive sexual feature, but this is far short of the heady race between the penis and clitoris for insatiable sexual satisfaction Geoffrey Miller conjures up. Timothy Taylor also acknowledges that penis envy is as much a phenomenon of the locker room ( R683 24) and male pride among one's comrades as it is to impress the highly elastic vaginas of the girls, just as has been found for risk-taking games like Chicken ( p 24 ). The idea that a bigger penis has direct advantages in fertilization also looks shaky, particularly given that promiscuous chimps have a small penis but large testicles.
In an interesting twist to the origin of bipedalism associated with the loss of forest and the spreading of savannah around the rift valley is the idea that there may have been large areas of swamp land created during the same epoch. Chimpanzees are much more prepared to walk bipedally when partially immersed and need to do so to breathe. Such a scenario is not inconsistent with the 'aquatic ape' hypothesis (Morgan R482 ), explaining our hairlessness and other gracile features including a dependency of 98% of the population on eicosanoic acid (a 20 carbon oil) found in fish on the basis of an association with margins of water.
However Elaine Morgan's aquatic ape theory is based on a constellation of unverified assumptions, which don't stand up to closer scrutiny, including 'creative' use of a whole nexus of advantages, from the 'aquatic' hairlessness itself, through the curious vestigal webbing between our digits not seen in apes, to fatty breasts doubling as swimming floats for the kids, long hair to grab mum by in the water, the perceived advantages of 'water birth', rounded buttocks to breast feed on the gravelly shoreline, and subcutaneous fat. According to Taylor ( R683 40), despite a suggestive gap in the fossil record, the only evidence for aquatic hominids comes from pre-homo skulls mauled by crocodiles and human subcutaneous fat, which unlike that of marine mammals, fails to insulate us so we rapidly succumb to hypothermia in water. Neither do seals lack fur. Nevertheless it is true that chimps walk upright much more readily when buoyed by water, while foraging in swampland.
The 2.5-million-year-old Taung Child skull shows gaps between frontal skull bones at an age of 3 or 4 indicating similar skull development to modern humans allowing for increasing brain size (PNAS DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1119752109).
In 2010 a skeleton was found of a species Australopithecus sediba dating back 1.9 million years, which bears many of the hallmarks of Homo sapiens, features seen in the brain, feet, hands and pelvis, making it a possibly more plausible ancestor of humans and Homo erectus, than Homo habilis or Homo rudolfensis. A. sediba's brain appears to have been about 440 cubic centimetres in volume, or about the size of a medium grapefruit. This is smaller than much older fossils in the record such as the famous "Lucy" specimen, Australopithecus afarensis (3.2 million years), but, intriguingly, the shape is more human-like, especially at the front ( African fossils put new spin on human origins story BBC Sep 2011).
(Left) One hypothetical evolutionary tree for humans and related apes.
There is much debate about the actual form of such a tree. (Right) Homo species inclding the recently confirmed big-brained H. Rudolfensis ( BBC , Nature ).
The Emergence of Homo
Although we may look for historical evidence of evolutionary emergence of Homo in an 'environment of evolutionary adaptedness' in the Pleistocene (Hrdy R330 97), modern humans are an overlapping of many evolutionary processes on vastly different time scales. The molecule prolactin central to human maternal behavior and mammalian lactation generally has an evolutionary history running back to controlling water balance in fresh water fish and metamorphosis in amphibians ( R330 130). By contrast changes in allele frequency as a result of sexual selection occur extremely rapidly and could change from a 2% incidence to 98% within 10,000 years ( R330 106). Thus although humans have been molded by characteristics emerging over four million or so years, some are much longer and some are subject to extremely rapid selection and variation in modern human societies.
The evolution of SRGAP2
(Geshwind and Konopka Nature doi:10.1038/nature11380), showing the four human genes and the counterposed effects one maturing dendritic spines and another encouraging the formation of more immature spines resulting in a more complex expression.
An indication of a key "brain switch" (The humanity switch: How one gene made us brainier New Scientist 9 May 2012 Sara Reardon) which may have led to the increasing brain size of the Homo line has come from investigation of the gene family SRGAP2a,b,c, (Dennis, M. Y. et al. Cell 149 912-922 (2012) doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.03.033) involved in neocortex maturation, which is present in only one copy in chimps (splitting from our line some 4-6 million years ago) as well as other mammals such as mice, but has undergone three dupications in humans, the first daughter copy 3.4 million years ago around the time evidence of Australopithecus tool use seems to have occurred, and the second 2.4 million years ago around the time Homo is believed to have split off from Australopithecus and the third about 1 million years ago. The effect of the duplications of truncated copies appears to be that the duplications forms a more complex regulatory systems which partially inhibits the action of the the original leading to a slower larger brain growth with more complex ramified neurons which can also migrate more rapidly during embryogenesis, leading to design features consistent with a larger more complex brain (Charrier, C. et al. Cell 149, 923-935 (2012) doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.03.034). Several other brain genes may also prove to be duplicated in humans complementing this discovery.
The role of micro RNAs which bind to mRNAs and thus are able to initiate a coordinated array of regulatory changes have been implicated in the differences in evolutionary rates of change between humans and chimps. Constitutive gene expression divergence is comparable between humans and chimpanzees. However, humans display a 3–5 times faster evolutionary rate in divergence of developmental patterns. Such accelerated evolution of human brain developmental patterns is twice as pronounced in the prefrontal cortex than the cerebellum, preferentially affects neuron-related genes, and does not depend on cis-regulatory changes, but might be driven by human-specific changes in expression of trans-acting regulators. Developmental profiles of miRNAs, as well as their target genes, show the fastest rates of human-specific evolutionary change. miR-92a, miR-454, and miR-320b are possible regulators of human-specific neural development (Somel M. et al. 2011 MicroRNA-Driven Developmental Remodeling in the Brain Distinguishes Humans from Other Primates PLoS Biology 9/12 e1001214).
Until now, anthropologists have thought that Homo erectus evolved between 1.78 million and 1.65 million years ago. However at the Dmanisi site in the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia archaeologists found stone artefacts - mostly flakes that were dropped as hominins knapped rocks to create tools for butchering animals - lying in sediments almost 1.85 million years old ( Human ancestors in Eurasia earlier than thought Nature Jun 11). The immediate precursor of Neanderthals and humans is termed Homo heidelbergensis ., emerging some 600,000 years ago.
At some point from around the time we began to become bipedal to when the increasing human head size began to cause delivery problems, requiring births of helpless babies, needing more support to survive, this promiscuous ape pattern evolved towards one which gave more emphasis to longer-term semi-monogamous bonds between partners. Adovasio et. al. ( R792 76) suggest the need for the larger head to twist in the pelvis may have required the attendance of 'midwives' and hence the birth of cultural interactions. There are many slightly different renditions of this story, some emphasizing shared child-rearing by female kin and friends rather than male partners. Others vary from emphasizing female reproductive choice to the repressive impact of male coalitions on female reproductive covertness.
Evolutionary conditions now began to favour a stronger pair bond between partners, which would aid offspring survival, at least for the first few years until an infant could join a peer group and fend for itself. Into this picture, we find the development of a form of serial monogamy, extremely rare in mammals, only about 3% of which are overtly monogamous, but much more common in birds where it takes two and a next to incubate and feed the young. The estrus became permanently suppressed, instead of the overt ape form found in chimps, and the female became perpetually sexually receptive, promoting strong psycho-sexual partnership bond formation, developing as well erotic tokens of fecundity in curvaceous fatty, sensitive breasts, only a small minority of whose tissue is involved in lactation, with buttocks and an hour-glass torso indicating ripe fertility.
Some writers, such as Sarah Hrdy ( R330 ), question how much fathers have ever been involved in parenting, citing modern, 'primitive' and ape societies, and others consider that male coalitions may have had a significant influence towards female reproductive covertness rather than female choice, or partners alone. These are all features of a complex evolutionary dynamic whose centre is and has to be the reproductive relationship in a context of a ramifying linguistic grape vine, much of whose gossip, beyond sexual displays and emotional networking, has to have revolved around issues of fidelity and intimations of deceit.
We have noted ( p 33 ), that mutual parenting needs are not a good predictor of monogamy in mammals, but rather the spatial distribution females to form exclusive domains, forcing males to guard a single female (Komers and Brotherton R386 ). A consistent and more complex interpretation might thus be that women evolved to have private sex within closely cooperative human social groups in which, like tamarins and marmosets, the females kept other females out of their own private sexual sphere, (Miller R475 185, Hrdy R330 180) by expecting fidelity of commitment from male partners, thus creating small exclusive sexual ranges, keeping track of the consistency of their lovers through gossip with other women during gathering forays, at the same time embracing the prowess of good hunters. The relative difficulty for males of crossing between partners without friction would then bias the natural male tendency towards polygyny towards overt monogamy with secretive affairs unless a male could openly supply resources sufficient to protect and support two partners. Human pregnancy is about as much of a maternal crisis as a twin birth would be for a tamarin. Maternal ambivalence would thus seem to be inevitable, and like other mammals to fall both on a male partner and on other kin in the kind of cooperative breeding arrangement Hrdy has associated with allo-mothering.
500,000 year old spear heads believed to date from Homo heidlebergensis found at Kathu Pan in South Africa ( First stone-tipped spear thrown earlier than thought New Scientist).
The crucible for such evolution, rather than the small-brained Australopithicenes, with a cranial volume of some 450 cc similar to other apes, appears to be the major push made by Homo erectus and his alter-ego Homo ergaster who is consigned by some to an African rather than a dispersed Asian locale (Dennell and Roebroeks R157 ), although other research sugests he was the first Homo species coming out of Africa, went from a 750cc brain to 1250cc close to our own average size of around 1400cc. This expansion occurring between 1.6 million and 500,000 years ago achieved even in 75,000 generations, has to have been driven by a high degree of selection unlike any selection we see today in the relatively static brain size of modern humans. It is somewhere in this process, we can expect the human head size and retarded development to have played an increasingly significant role. There is little evidence of changes of tool-making during this time, with the handaxe playing an almost unchanging role, as continuing stereotype , but by 790,000 years ago, there is already evidence of control of fire, associated with flints and wood of six species including olive, wild barley and wild grape (Goren-Inbar et. al. R250 ).
There is some evidence that colonization of cooler climates may have been consistent with the use of skins or other forms of clothing. Analysis of erectus skulls and the discovery of a hyoid bone involved in speech vocalization is also consistent with an increasing use of language in erectus (Broadfield et. al. R79 ). On the other hand 1.6 million year old Nariokotome Homo ergaster skeleton, which does have some evidence of Broca's area (Taylor R683 41) has been claimed to have too narrow a spinal cord at the neck to have enabled the chest control for speech and some later examples have a high ape-like larynx that might be incompatible with speech (Ridley R580 219). Evidence for development of auditory areas associated with language goes back much further. Early work by Tobias ( R693 ) and others suggest that the beginning of brain asymmetry in early Australopithecus exists. There are current studies on chimpanzees that suggest that there are certain very specific lateralized brain functions having to do with language which are present in chimpanzee brains. In particular is the 'planum temporale' which is a specialized area in the auditory association cortex which receives sounds, and attaches meaning to them. In most of the chimp brains tested, this area was larger on the left side hemisphere than in the right one, which is also the human pattern (Begley R52 ). This evidence is also supported by Kanzi, a bonobo who has been in a language learning environment for nearly 20 years and has a very good level of comprehension of spoken English. He was tested on 660 novel English sentences and responded to the correctly on 72% of the trials, which was an equivalent response rate to that of a two year old human child tested on the same problems. (Savage-Rumbaugh et al. R613 ). Tobias ( R693 ) had suggested that Homo habilis might have a Broca's area and Falk ( R200 ) feels that by specialized measuring techniques she has confirmed its presence. A team of researchers has also established that Homo heidelbergensis thought to lead to Neanderthal had a hearing profile consistent with attention to speech rather than the high and low alert frequencies of chimps (DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0403595101).
The shape of the Neanderthal larynx and tongue was not positioned in the same way as ours
for language (Comrie et. al.) and the skull shapes are significantly different (Harvati et. al.).
On the other hand the Neanderthal throat is believed to have been less suited to verbal vocalization. Recent research, both from mitochondrial DNA (Krings et. al. R394 ), and from careful skull measurements (Harvati et. al. R296 ), suggests Neanderthal diverged from the line of Homo some 465,000 years ago and are a distinct species. Ridley ( R580 214) has also drawn attention to the FoxP2 transcription factor gene on chromosome 7 whose mutations can give rise to severe selective language impairment and appears to be associated with fine motor coordination of the larynx. Mutations in this gene are rare. There have only been two functional mutations detected, one in the ancestors of mice and one in those of orangutans. But there has been a double mutation in this gene and the paucity of 'silent' neutral mutations which don't change the protein suggests it is a very recent change, later than 200,000 years ago, which has swept through the population by conferring a major selective advantage (Callaway E 2009 Suite of chatterbox genes discovered New Scientist 11 Nov).
However there is evidence for Neanderthal bone flutes (Gray et. al. R262 ) similar to those found all the way to Dolni Vestonice ( p 173 ).
The most ancient flutes of Neanderthal and H. sapiens
There are hints that these differences in Neanderthal are linked to social differences in sex roles. Lewis Binford speculates that the pattern of bones and tools in the French cave of Combe-Grenal reveals two separate but contemporaneous kinds of living area, one suggesting a life lived very locally, the other showing the comings and goings of more mobile folk. Binford calls the first type "the nest", and believes its occupants were females and their dependent children, foraging in the immediate vicinity. The second kind – smaller, more peripheral to the cave itself, he calls "scraper sites," suggesting these sites were produced by males. There is a connection between the two types, but a small one. Binford sees some provisioning of the young on the part of the males, but only in a haphazard sort of way. This dual pattern occurs through the 75,000 Mousterian years in Combe-Grenal, unlike the way modern men and women live together and divide the labor of food procurement and preparation between them. The Neanderthal sexes may thus have lived more apart with independent food preparation, different land-use patterns, different uses of technology, suggesting sexually mature males and females were not bound together by the long-term, reasonably stable sexual and economic relationships that exist between the sexes in all known human communities today (Shreeve R641 331). Dental evidence also suggests Neanderthals had a more rapid growth, becoming fully mature at 15, consistent with a higher mortality rate (Rozzi and de Castro R596 ) in contrast to delayed human development, although this is contested ( R198 ). However at Shandar there is evidence of burial and caring for the disabled (Taylor R683 108).
According to initial genetic analysis, Neanderthals diverged from homo sapiens ~500,000 years ago. There has been interbreeding, and some transfer of genes e.g. from human males to Neanaderthal females, although candidate human genes conferring natural advantage do have a profile consistent with transfer from Neanderthals (Green et. al. R263 , Science 314, 1068-71).
More recent comprehensive investigation of the Neanderthal genome (Green, R. E. et al. (2010) Science 328, 710-722., Nature | doi:10.1038/news.2010.225) suggests that there was a period of interbreeding between Neanderthals and humans in the Near East around the time of the first migration out of Africa, rather than more recently in Europe, as the putative sequences are shared by non-African French, Han and Papuan, but not by the African Yoruba or San. It is estimated that among the former, 1-4% of the genome derives from Neanderthal sequences, although there is little evidence for these corresponding to the specific genes suggested by Lahn's team. Other transfers could have occurred but are not apprent in the research.
Computer simulation of genetic flow suggest that Neanderthals were about 40% less fit than their human couterparts, due to small population diversity and a social pattern of inbreeding and that given a migrant human population of 10 times the Neanderthal population, and the lower fitness of Neanderthal genes, the proportion of Neanderthal genes in humans feel from an initial 10% consistent with fairly indiscriminate interbreeding to the selective few percent we find today (Harris K & Nielsen. R 2016. The Genetic Cost of Neanderthal Introgression Genetics, 203/2, pp. 881-891 doi:10.1534/genetics.116.186890).
Assumptions that Neanderthal's exclusive meat diet contributed to their extinction has also come unstuck with the discovery of vegetable seeds in Neanderthal teeth, although previous discoveries of Neanderthal cannibalism ref 2 suggested they also ate one another, becoming the basis for another extinction scenario based on a kuru-like brain prion disease.
Breeding with Neanderthals helped humans go global Jun 11
DNA reveals Neanderthal extinction clues Feb 12 Study shows a collapse of Neanderthal genetic diversity 50,000 years ago before Homo sapiens arrived in Europe.
We propose the driving force for human brain growth was the complexification of the entire world of Homo brought about by the involution of semantic language into consciousness (and thus society) as an outgrowth of gesture and emotional vocalization and that it has been driven principally by social complexity, expressed in mate selection and social standing. Mirror neurons have been cited in this regard (p 379 ). In this description, the evolution of language is a crisis of social interaction generated by genetic systems through the dynamic capacity to encapsulate language as 'memes' rather than hard-wired genetic determinism.
Putative transfer of Neanderthal genes to the Human population after leaving Africa
( Some Neanderthal genes survive in us BBC ).
In terms of reproduction, language has a pervasive role from birth to reproduction. Adovasio et. al. ( R793 103-113) advance the notion of 'motherese' the language between mother and child, in the process of females inventing language, but it is clear that to complete the reproductive cycle, language needs to be as much about influencing reproductive choice, in terms both of information shared between females while gathering and the winning of sexual favours in courtship, as in Geoffrey Miller's scenario. This would involve both females and males in language evolution even though the roles of each would be different and complementary.
The "Out of Africa" hypothesis may be consistent with a degree of regional development involving some sexual interbreeding with Neanderthals and Homo erectus. Specific genes such a s PDHA1 consist of two families with the last common ancestor 1.8 million years ago, and microcephalin variants appearing 40,000 years ago (p 105) also have differences suggesting an original divergence 1 million years ago suggesting 'introgression' from Neanderthals (Jones R347 ). An even more ancient divergence in the pseudogene RRM2P4 in East Asian people suggests interbreeding with Homo Erectus. Some evidence from skeletons is also consistent with this picture. However more recent sequencing of the Neanderthal nuclear genome suggests little or no interbreeding with Homo sapiens and has cast doubt on the existence of the microcephalin variant in Neanderthals, as well as a gene associated with increased fertility in Icelanders also attributed to transfer from Neanderthals. However, research in 2010 into microsatellite variation in the human genome suggests that there have been two interbreeding events with other hominid species, one about 60,000 years ago in the eastern Mediterranean after the emergence of Homo sapiens from Africa, and the other about 45,000 years ago in eastern Asia (Nature | doi:10.1038/news.2010.194, Krause, J. et al. Nature doi:10.1038/nature08976 ).
The "Hobbit" persisted until 12,000 years ago on Flores
The situation has more recently been complicated by two finds. Firstly we have the 'hobbit' human remains found on Flores, named Homo floresiensis ., who lived from 70,000 to around 12,000 years ago. These are variously claimed to be a separate human species, which may be a remnant of Homo erectus stock adapted for small size ( R82 , R490 ).
More recently we have the discovery of remains of Denisovians , Ref 2 , a further species branching off from the Neanderthals. Genetic analysis of the remains indicates a significant interbreeding specifically with Melanesian people of some 6% (Reich D, et. al. 2010 Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia Nature doi:10.1038/nature09710, Meyer et al. (2012) A High-Coverage Genome Sequence from an Archaic Denisovan Individual 30 Aug Sciencexpress DOI:10.1126/science.1224344).
In the standard "Our of Africa" view of human evolution, H. erectus first evolved in Africa more than 2 million years ago. Then, around 600,000 years ago, it gave rise to a new species: Homo heidelbergensis, the oldest remains of which have been found in Ethiopia. About 400,000 years ago, some members of H. heidelbergensis left Africa and split into two branches: one ventured into the Middle East and Europe, where it evolved into Neanderthals; the other went east, where members became Denisovans - discovered in Siberia in 2010. The remaining population of H. heidelbergensis in Africa eventually evolved into our own species, H. sapiens, about 200,000 years ago. Then these early humans expanded their range to Eurasia 60,000 years ago, where they replaced local hominins with a small amount ofinterbreeding.
But the evidence from Chinese fossils remains at variance with those from Africa. The original Peking Man is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens was discovered in 1923-27 at Zhoukoudian near Beijing. Recent dating suggests they are in the range of 680,000-780,000 years old. But more recent Chinese fossils show that, between roughly 900,000 and 125,000 years ago, east Asia was teeming with hominins endowed with features that would place them somewhere between H. erectus and H. sapiens. One nearly complete skull unearthed at Dali in Shaanxi province and dated to 250,000 years ago, has a bigger braincase, a shorter face and a lower cheekbone than most H. heidelbergensis specimens, suggesting that the species was more advanced. Such transitional forms persisted for hundreds of thousands of years in China, until species appeared with such modern traits that some researchers have classified them as H. sapiens. One of the most recent of these is represented by two teeth and a lower jawbone, dating to 80,000 - 120,000 years ago, unearthed in 2007 in Zhirendong, a cave in Guangxi province, the jaw has a classic modern-human appearance, but retains some archaic features. But studies of Chinese populations show that 97.4% of their genetic make-up is from ancestral modern humans from Africa, with the rest coming from extinct forms such as Neanderthals and Denisovans. One suggestion is that these more modern fossils were Denisovans. Similar ideas have led to an alternative explanation that heidelbergensis or its source population diversified outside Africa before one group returned to Africa and in turn led to modern Homo sapiens (Qiu J 2016 How China is rewriting the book on human origins Nature 535 22-25 doi:10.1038/535218a).
Alternative histories - Left: Standard "Out of Africa" hypothesis. Right: Asian diversification (doi:10.1038/535218a).
Orthodox ideas of language evolution emphasize how natural selection shaped our ancestors to improve their talent for complex communication. Noam Chomsky ( R118 ) famously pointed out that infants learn language quickly and reliably from sparse and chaotic input. For him and many linguists, this 'poverty of the stimulus', is evidence that much of our language ability is innate, directly encoded in our genome, and takes the form of a neurologically hard-wired universal grammar. Steven Pinker ( R543 ) argues that the ability to communicate effectively would have given early humans a 'fitness advantage'. Natural selection favoured genetic mutations that improved our language faculty, so they spread through the hominid gene pool. The legacy is that we all have brains adapted for speech. However the development of the human brain, unlike that of song birds, doesn't simply consist of an enlarged language centre but an entire enlarged and complexified cerebral cortex, indicating evolution has been in the direction of adapting to a universal increase in complexity of the social environment.
Left: Evidence for violence in a 430,000 year old skull from a deep vertical shaft in the 'pit of bones' Sima de los Huesos in Spain. DNA evidence suggests the skull is Neanderthal and shows both the earliest known evidence for homicidal violence in Homo and possibly the earliest evidence for funerary behavior. Right: It has been suggested that Neanderthals became extinct partly because they adapted to the long European winter nights by evolving larger eyes (left) which meant their brain evolution centered on increased sensory processing, rather than the prefrontal cognitive expansion and social networking of Homo sapiens, leading to critical social disadvantage.
More recent investigations show that interbreeding with other hominins was critical to the globalization of Homo sapiens. Human leukocyte antigens (HLAs), a family of about 200 genes that essential to our immune system also contains some of the most variable human genes: hundreds of versions - or alleles - exist of each gene in the population, allowing our bodies to react to a huge number of disease-causing agents and adapt to new ones. One allele, HLA-C*0702, is common in modern Europeans and Asians but never seen in Africans; Peter Parham has found it in the Neanderthal genome, suggesting it made its way into H. sapiens of non-African descent through interbreeding. HLA-A*11 had a similar story: it is mostly found in Asians and never in Africans, and Parham found it in the Denisovan genome, again suggesting its source was interbreeding outside of Africa. This tallies with interbreeding giving H. sapiens pivotal resistance to non-African diseases. While only 6 per cent of the non-African modern human genome comes from other hominins, the share of HLAs acquired during interbreeding is much higher. Half of European HLA-A alleles come from other hominins, says Parham, and that figure rises to 72 per cent for people in China, and over 90 per cent for those in Papua New Guinea (Marshall M. 2011 Breeding with Neanderthals helped humans go global New Scientist 16 Jun, Neanderthal sex boosted immunity in modern humans BBC 26 Aug 2011).
The contribution to immunity from Neanderthals has now become strongly evident, with highly significant differences between immune response to pathogens in both macrophages and monocytes in separate studies highlighting differences between African and non-African populations, which involve genes with Neanderthal homology, implying a Neanderthal-derived shift in the immune response to cope with new kinds of pathgens in new areas the migrants found themselves in. The greater intensity of immune response in African populations may also may explain the three-fold higher rates of auto-immune disease in African women (Reardon S. 2016 Neanderthal DNA affects ethnic differences in immune response Nature doi:10.1038/nature.2016.20854).
In a 2014 study by David Reich and coworkers, genes for keratin filaments that lend toughness to skin, hair and nails, were enriched with Neanderthal DNA. This may have helped provide the newcomers with thicker insulation against cold conditions, the scientists suggest. But other genes are implicated in human illnesses, such as type 2 diabetes, long-term depression, lupus, billiary cirrhosis - an autoimmune disease of the liver - and Crohn's disease. Other regions of the human genome, including the X-chromosome, are devoid of Neanderthal sequences, suggesting they were selected against as deleterious. A genome region that lacked Neanderthal genes includes FOXP2, thought to play an important role in human speech (Sankararaman et al 2014 The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans Nature doi:10.1038/nature12961, Vernot B and Akey J 2014 Resurrecting Surviving Neandertal Lineages from Modern Human Genomes Science doi:10.1126/science.1245938). More recently selection for specific Tol-like receptors significant in disease resistance and acclimatization to high altitudes in Tibetans have both been tied to Neanderthal allelles among a wide survey of relative contributions to disease related genes (Callaway E 2015 Neanderthals had outsize effect on human biology Nature doi:10.1038/523512a). The cold adaption of Inuit has likewise been traced to a variant of a geneTBX15/WARS2 from a relative of the Denisovans (Fumagalli M. et al. 2015 Greenlandic Inuit show genetic signatures of diet and climate adaptation Science 349 (6254) 1343 DOI: 10.1126/science.aab2319). In a 2016 study traits linked to hypercoagulation, depresion and tobacco addiction correlated with Neanderthal alleles. Although these may be disadvantageous in older modern populations they must have either conferred advantages during reproductive age or general advantages for the population of the time. Coagulation may have protected against injury but makes people more prone to stroke in modern populations (Simonti et al. 2016 The phenotypic legacy of admixture between modern humans and Neandertals DOI: 10.1126/science.aad2149). A second 2016 study by Akey and co-workers confirms that hybridization with Neanderthals and Denisovans provided an important reservoir of advantageous mutations for modern humans that enabled adaptation to emergent selective pressures as they dispersed out of Africa. Our results show that immune and pigmentation traits were frequent substrates of adaptive introgression and that in many cases adaptive archaic haplotypes also contribute to the disease susceptibility in contemporary individuals. Many positively selected archaic haplotypes act as expression quantitative trait loci, which modulate the quantitative expression of particular genes, suggesting that modulation of transcript abundance was a common mechanism facilitating adaptive introgression (Gittelman R et al. (2016) Archaic hominin admixture facilitated adaptation to Out-of-Africa environments Current Biology doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.041).
Two studies examining immune response to infection highlight such differences. Nédélec et al. (doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.025) measured how gene expression in macrophages changed in response to the infection. About 30% of the approximately 12,000 genes that they tested were expressed differently between the two groups, even before infection and many of the genes whose activity changed the most during the immune reaction had sequences that were very similar between
Europeans and Neanderthals, but not Africans (Quach et al. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.024) grew monocytes in a dish and infected them with bacteria and viruses. Once again, the two groups showed differences in the activity of numerous genes, and Neanderthal-like gene variants in the European group played a major role in altering their immune response. The differences were especially stark in the way that those of African descent and the other half of European descent responded to viral infection. For some diseases, such as tuberculosis, a lower immune response tends to help with survival, and modern humans in Europe adopted the Neanderthal traits that helped with this. Overactive immune systems could help to explain why African American women, for instance, are up to three times more prone to the autoimmune disease lupus than white American.
Functionally important regions are deficient in Neanderthal ancestry (Sankararaman et al 2014).
The oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS) locus, which consists of three genes - OAS1, OAS2, and OAS3 - that encode enzymes involved in the innate immune response against viruses, and are among the core genes that are important to stop viral replication, A further comparison of OAS sequences among human populations revealed that this OAS Neanderthal allele is found in about 60 percent of individuals in Africa. However, outside of Africa, it is only found in individuals that harbor the Neanderthal haplotype. It is likely that Neanderthals were better adapted to the pathogens present in non-African environments than anatomically modern humans that had newly moved into these regions and it appears that this allele was lost during the out-of-Africa migration and that the Neanderthal haplotype resurrected this allele after the bottleneck following the human migration out of Africa (Sams A et al. 2016 Adaptively introgressed Neandertal haplotype at the OAS locus functionally impacts innate immune responses in humans Genome Biology 17 246).
A study of the Neanderthal Y chromosome, which is probably extinct in the human population, despite interbreediing, has shown that several key male histocompatability genes on the Y are mutated in a way which could have led to a maternal immune response and miscarriages, forming a barrier to interfertility (Mendez F et al. 2016 The Divergence of Neandertal and Modern Human Y Chromosomes The American Journal of Human Genetics 98 728-734). Moreover there are signs of hybrid infertility, suggesting only about 1 in 50 inter-matings resulted in fertile offspring, as regions in the X-chromosome, and on other chromosomes linked to testis genes, and mitochondrial DNA are all devoid of Neanderthal genes, a pattern common to interspecies infertility.Evidence from a study of European Ice Age genomes shows the proportion of Neanderthal DNA has been declining due to natural selection Fu et al. (2016 The genetic history of Ice Age Europe Nature doi:10.1038/nature17993.). As a result, evolution wiped away the Neanderthal DNA that negatively affected procreation. It is thus from these rare events that introgression into the human line has occurred, resulting in selective sweeps of a small subset of Neanderthal genes into the entire human population.
Recent discovery of 400000 year old bones with mitochondrial relationship to Denisovians has raised further questions about early human emergence (Meyer M et al. (2013) A mitochondrial genome sequence of a hominin from Sima de los Huesos Nature DOI: 10.1038/nature12788). The nuclear DNA, Meyer's team reports in 2016 (Meyer et al. Nature doi:10.1038/nature17405), shows that the Sima hominins are in fact early Neanderthals. And its age suggests that the early predecessors of humans diverged from those of Neanderthals between 550,000 and 765,000 years ago - too far back for the common ancestors of both to have been Homo heidelbergensis. Researchers should now be looking for a population that lived around 700,000 to 900,000 years ago such as Homo antecessor, known from 900,000-year-old remains from Spain (Callaway E 2016 Nature doi:10.1038/531286a).
Some doubt has been cast on the Neanderthal interbreeding idea, attributing the effects instead to shared sequences arising from isolated African populations of the two species separating some 300-350,000 years ago, with the last exchanged genetic material some 47-65,000 years ago. However these results are contested by the original researchers from Paabo's team. They say recent analyses firm up the evidence for interbreeding. Their evidence also suggests non-Africans have shared genes in common with Neanderthals for only a few tens of thousands of years, so these genes cannot predate the origin of Neanderthals (Ball J Neanderthal breeding idea doubted BBC 13 Aug 2012, Marshall M. Human and Neanderthal interbreeding questioned New Sci 13 Aug 2012).
In 2014 more accurate datings of the demise of Neanderthals in Europe suggests they were already in serious decline 50,000 years ago probably as a result of a climate cooling phase and that by the time sapiens arrived they were already only a small fragile remnant population in scattered isolated bands (Brahic C. 2014 Neanderthal demise traced in unprecedented detail New Scientist 20 Aug, Nature, doi.org/bxh255). The use of wolf-dogs by Homo sapiens has also been suggested to be a factor (Shipman P 2015 How our wolf-dogs hounded out the Neanderthals New Scientist 16 Mar). By 39,000 years ago they had largely vanished. This doesn't imply they were actively killed off by Homo sapiens but that their territory and resources were compromised by a new invasive species. Neither is it clear that they were manifestly intellectually inferior to modern humans, as artifacts from both species show similar innovations (Barras C 2014 Neanderthals may have been our intellectual equals New Scientist 30 Apr).
A more complete picture of introgression of genes from one hominin species to another has been developed as a result of further sequencing of a slightly older Neanderthal toe bone also from Denisova cave and the analysis of the Denisovan sequence implying gene flow from an older hominin, possibly erectus or heidelbergensis. Notably the Neanderthal female was highly inbred corresponding to being the offspring of half-siblings with a common mother (Prufer et al 2013 Nature 505 43-49 doi:10.1038/nature12886).
There is also suggestive evidence for up to 2% interbreeding with another hominin species, in ancient African populations of Biaka Pygmies and San Bushmen (Human ancestors interbred with related species (Nature doi:10.1038/news.2011.518, Hammer, M. F. et al. Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109300108) although this is based only on statistical divergences in some loci, and lacks a sister species reference sequence, it suggests interbreeding around 35,000 years ago with a population that originally diverged from the Homo sapiens line some 700,000 years before. A further introgression of one, or more unknown hominins possibly erectus has been found in the genomes of Andaman Islanders (Mondal M et al. (2016) Genomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation Nature Genetics doi:10.1038/ng.3621).
Left: Earlier interbreeding also occurred 100,000 years ago in which human genes and those of another mystery hominin were transferred to Eastern Neanderthals and Denisovans respectvely (Callaway E 2016 Evidence mounts for interbreeding bonanza in ancient human species Nature doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19394). Centre and right: The same events giving percentages and populations sizes (Kuhlwilm M et al. 2016 Ancient gene flow from early modern humans into Eastern Neanderthals Nature doi:10.1038/nature16544).
The female Neanderthal sequenced in the above study also had extensive inbreeding, with up to an eighth of the genome devoid of alelle variation implying breeding between half siblings, possibly as a consequence of small isolated populations. This led to notable incidence of deformities. Those he studied have a range of deformities, many of which are rare in modern humans (PLoS ONE, doi.org/p6r). Our genomes likewise still carry traces of past small population bottlenecks. A 2010 study concluded that our ancestors 1.2 million years ago had a population of just 18,500 individuals, spread over a vast area (PNAS, doi.org/dv75x8).
A 110,000-year-old Denisovan tooth, 60,000 years older than the previously analyzed Denisovan remains, suggest that this group of people was able to survive the harsh Siberian climate for millennia. Comparisons between them established that Denisovans were nearly as genetically diverse as modern Europeans, and much more so than Neandertals. The new tooth also contains DNA unlike that of Neandertals or modern humans, suggesting that Denisovans interbred with an even more mysterious branch of the human family tree, either unknown to science, or known only from fossils without preserved DNA. A, B Denisovan evolutionary tree. C relative genetic diversity of Denisovans compared with Neanderthals and Humans (Sawyer et al. 2015 PNAS doi/10.1073/pnas.1519905112).
In October 2014 Nature reported the analysis of a leg bone of a ~45,000-year-old modern human male from Siberia, which carries a similar amount of Neanderthal ancestry as present-day Eurasians (2.3% against 1.6-2.1%), however, the genomic segments of Neanderthal ancestry are substantially longer than those observed in present-day individuals, indicating that Neanderthal gene flow into the ancestors of this individual occurred 7,000-13,000 years before he lived. There are however no Denisovian insertions detected. The discovery also sets a lower mutation rate for humans over the intervening period of 0.43x10-9 per site per year than previous estimates but similar to current population de novo estimates of ~0.5x10-9, with somewhat higher values of 0.76x10-9 for Y genes and 2.53x10-8 for mitochondrial genes. The lower overall mutation rate suggests an older origin for the divergence of the human line from apes to 10 million years ago rather than the 5-6 million previous genetic research has suggested (Fu et al. 2014 doi:10.1038/nature13810).
A theory of language as an evolutionary 'parasites' reaching towards internal efficiency has recently been advanced. Darwin, the founder of the evolutionary approach speculated that language was potentially an invention ( R149 60): "Man not only uses inarticulate cries, gestures and expressions, but has invented articulate language, if indeed the word invented can be applied to a process completed by innumerable steps half consciously made". Morten Christiansen (Christiansen and Kirby R121 ) questions the need to invoke a Chomskian generative grammar. Instead, he argues, language has adapted to utilize more general cognitive processing capacities that were already part of our ancestors' brains before language came along. Among these, he focuses on 'sequential learning' - the ability to encode and represent the order of the discrete elements in a sequence. This ability is not unique to humans: mountain gorillas, for example, use it in the complicated preparation of certain spiky plant foods, where a sequence of tasks is required to remove the edible part. Language, he says, is a 'non-obligate mutualistic endosymbiont' - a kind of evolutionary structure like a 'symbolic virus'. Kirby suggests our brains are not so specifically designed for language and that we appear to be biologically adapted to language because language which evolves much faster than biology has culturally adapted to us, gaining semantic power and representational efficiency as it evolves.
Various lines of evidence support such optimization of representational and cognitive efficiency in existing languages. For example dependency length minimization, in which words which depend on one another come closer in a sentence than random (Futrell et al. 2015 doi:10.1073/pnas.1502134112 ), makes it easier to recognize meanings in both spoken and written sentences, although the efficiency of existing languages varies widely. Widely used languages such as English have evolved to simplify changes of tense, person, gender and number to avoid complex conjugation and declension of verbs and nouns. There is also evidence that the root of languages might be partly iconic rather than the arbitrary relationships between sound and meaning of traditional linguistic theories, so that words indicating slowness, descent or negative emotions have a falling pattern of intonation while those with the opposite have a rising one, like down as opposed to up (Matacic C 2015 doi: 0.1126/science.aad1612). "Splash" provides a good example of a word whose spoken sound mimics its natural sound.
Rings of stalactites piled in Bruniquel Cave Aveyron, Valley, France, deduced to be early Neanderthall activity dated to some 176,500 years ago by minerological analysis.
Languages as different as Danish and Hindi have evolved in less than 5000 years from a common Proto-Indo-European ancestor. Yet it took up to 200,000 years for modern humans to evolve from archaic Homo sapiens. The latest estimates of the oldest skulls discovered, from the Omo river by Richard Leakey are 196,000 years (McDougall et. al. R445 ).
Pinker ( R545 ) notes steps of this type in the experiments of Martin Nowak's group ( R507 , R508 ) in establishing both sequential symbols such as vowels and consonants to form a word and positional syntax in which words describing single events give way to active characterization of a type of event. Both are adaptive responses to informational crisis as a large number of symbols each associated with a single context or event involves too many similar symbols to adequately discriminate one from another. The emergence of such structures could in turn have enabled the semantic enfolding of the rational mind. Reading written language is clearly such an adaption of visual pattern recognition and other skills.
Homo erectus and Neanderthal artifacts. Click to enlarge. Upper row: 500,000 year old Homo erectus markings on a fossilized clam shell in Java (doi: 10.1038/nature13962). Lower Left-centre: Homo erectus hand axe - almost unchanging over long epochs. Lower left: Sculpture from Berekhat Ram, Israel dating from strata c 233,000-470,000 BP hints at an early origin of primitive art in Homo erectus. Inset: 'Neanderthal' flute 45,000 BP Divje babe I Slovenia. Lower centre: Nenaderthall "artwork" from Gorham's Cave Gibraltar. Recent finds suggest they intentionally buried their dead, adorned themselves with feathers, had an omnivorous diet including vegetables and painted their bodies with black and red pigments. Right: Eight 130,000 year-old eagle talons from a Neanderthal site in a rock shelter near the town Krapina in northern Croatia. A few raptor talons and feathers - also bearing hints of use as jewellery - have been discovered in other Neanderthal sites, but the Krapina collection of eight talons from at least three different birds is the largest and oldest on record. However out of 50 Neanderthal sites, only 2 have cultural artifacts so it remains uncertain whether this was a widespread feature of Neanderthal society or perhaps adopted from modern humans.
Ape communication is a fluid mix of gesture, body, hand and facial movements, and vocalizations, all of which play a role in expressing meaning in emotional terms. Yawning is catching in chimps suggesting self-awareness (DOI 10/1098/rsbl.2004.0224). Karen McComb ( R455 ) tested an idea of Robin Dunbar's that language arises from mutual or reciprocal grooming as ape societies become lager and more complex. In a study of 42 primate species she found that call repertoire and time spent grooming increases with group size.
Corballis ( R133 ) suggests language arose from a selective convergence of these diverse attributes to give rise to semantic language, possibly also accompanied by a convergence of other faculties such as mental perspectives of others, consistent with an early common origin of click sounds ( p 106 ). Gestures like the shrug are also ancient responses, while smiles, and snarls with all their dimensions from appeasement to tooth threatening exposure go all the way back through our primate relatives. Laughter is an example of a central chaotic and explosive emotional response to contradiction, or surprise, which is suggestive of an ancient origin, earlier than language as we know it, in sharing emotional reactions, which also appears to have a basis in sexual courtship and family bonding:
"Women laugh most in the presence of men they find attractive.
Men are the leading laugh getters, women are the leading laughers"
Robert Provine University of Maryland ( R381 )
The advent of semantic exchange would place a huge new evolutionary burden on all areas of the cortex by exploding time, space and society into an historical process in which more and more contexts, individuals and situations came to be named and hence distinguishable from one another. Such a language involution would then place a burden of selection on larger brains which could handle the new and diverse complexities of a world imbued with historical and semantic meaning requiring slowed fetal development and a new awareness of social and sexual relationships and their implications. We can see the germ of this complexity in ape societies, such as grazing gelada baboons where there are a host of cries indicating all manner of interactions, from courtship, through male competition, to emotional 'social contracts' of mutuality, reciprocation, aggression and reconciliation, as well as group warnings about predators. Among these, sexual courtship and competition are both very strong and also very subtle fleeting yet highly focused influences, as a glance at a female macaque inciting an extra-alpha 'safari' coupling behind the alpha males' backs indicates. This supports a general role for Machiavellian social interactions, with a core emphasis on reproduction and sexual selection driving the burgeoning complexity of semantic language, consistent with both Geoffrey Miller's sexual selection ideas and honesty and deceit in wider social contracts. Consistent with this view is the fact that the sneakiest monkeys have the largest brains (DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2004.2780)). Dunbar ( R178 ) suggests that, as neocortical size increases, more subtle social and political strategies, such as tactical deception come into play. As a result, lower-ranking individuals are able to find loopholes in the social dominance hierarchy. Their special cognitive capacity makes them able to improve their reproductive success, in spite of lower rank - in line with the Machiavellian Intelligence hypothesis (Whiten and Byrne R742 , R743 ). Boehm ( R68 182) comments that the political invention of egalitarian society during this process enabled such individuals to forgo or invoke strategies of social deception, suggesting that lower ranking coalitions bluffed or forced their way, as male coalitions of chimps can do, to form large, stable and purposeful coalitions which are at the root of our social egalitarianism, politics and morality.
Erectus is conceived as a gatherer-hunter species, so one can envisage a leading edge of such evolution applying to coalitions of gathering females consistent with sexual differences in human language acquisition in humans today. This in turn could have driven increased opportunities for female reproductive choice and the growth of a capacity to define long-term relationships and forms of serial monogamy within an existing social grouping not found in ape societies, where monogamy occurs only outside immediate social groupings, which are either harems, or promiscuous troops. We can envisage a continuing trend of sexual selection, increasing long-term partnership, female cooperation in gathering and social cohesion, the avoidance of male-driven infanticide and strong sexual selection for males with a good social capacity for fathering, entertainment, protective prowess and partnership.
Concealed Estrus, Menstruation and the Sex Strike
Menstruation is common in simians (Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, and apes), but completely lacking in lemurs and pottos but is possibly weakly present in tarsiers. Most monkeys living in Africa and Asia, such as rhesus macaques, menstruate and great apes do it too. Menstrual bleeding is easily detectable in chimpanzees and gibbons. Beyond primates, it is known only in bats, the elephant shrew, and the spiny mouse, while other species reabsorb their uterine linings. A few mammals besides humans have concealed ovulation and do not experience obvious, visible signs of fertility. In humans, while women can learn to recognize their own level of fertility, whether men can detect fertility in women is debated. Recent studies have given conflicting results, consistent with concealed estrus making it harder for men to know when a woman may be getting pregnant, so he has to stick around.
Left: Intra-individual variation in bonobo maximum swelling phase duration. Shown are medians (thick horizontal lines), quartiles (boxes), percentiles (2.5 and 97.5 %, vertical lines), as well as the minimum and maximum of each female’s MSP (circles). Females are arranged from highest-ranking (left) to lowest-ranking (right). Right: Duration and timing of the MSP relative to the day of ovulation (day 0) in ovulatory cycles.
Orangutans also lack visible signs of impending ovulation, and the extended estrus period of the bonobo (reproductive-age females are in heat for 75% of their menstrual cycle) may have a similar effect to the lack of a "heat" in human females. A 2016 study (Douglas et al. 2016 BMC Evolutionary Biology doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0691-3) found that the duration of females’ maximum swelling phase - MSP - was highly variable, ranging from 1 to 31 days. Timing of ovulation varied considerably in relation to the onset of the MSP, resulting in a very low day-specific probability of ovulation and fecundity across female cycles. Ovulation occurred during the MSP in only 52.9% of the analysed swelling cycles, and females showed regular sexual swelling patterns in swelling cycles where ovulation did not occur. These findings reveal that sexual swellings of bonobos are less reliable indicators of ovulation compared to other species of primates. Menstrual cycles in apes are frequently different from the 29.53 day lunar cycle; the average cycle length in orangutans is the close to that of humans, 28 days, while the cycle for chimpanzees is 35 days.
The link between concealed estrus, female reproductive choice, sexual privacy, clothing and the evolution of sensual skin contact raises interesting questions. Ernestine Freidl, studying the ethnographic literature claimed "hidden coitus may safely be declared a near universal", however the same literature has been biased by Judeo-Christian repression of days of sexual license among people like the Huron before anthropologists had the chance to study them. The Yequana of Amazonia consider presence of infants during coitus, an 'important psychobiological link' with their parents (Liedloff R416 ). Also it is debatable that early humans living in warms climates concealed much of their anatomy at all. Much of the incidence of clothing in so-called primitive peoples is a recent result of missionary zeal.
Desmond Morris's 'Naked Ape' speculates that the origin of hairlessness in humans arose in males by providing cooling for the peak of the hunt for which humans now required tools and dexterity as well as supreme effort. The fallacy of this argument ( R683 27) is that if the selection for hairlessness applied to the males, the females, the females would still be hairier. Women are less hairy than men, so the principal selection has to have occurred in women, implying that it is male sexual selection for females that has driven these major changes defining the human divergence from the apes. Taylor proposes a 'sensual skin' theory that, with the advent of some forms of clothing such as hides, sexual selection for sensual intimate naked skin, (coupled with the other sensuous aspects of female sexual curvature), caused women (and to a lesser extent men) to become the 'hairless ape'. In turn one can see sexual selection shaping male differences in beard hair, and baldness in differing human populations.
Darwin also thought that hairlessness was caused by sexual selection applied to women, which had happened early on in human evolution ( R683 35):"No one supposes that the nakedness of the skin is any direct advantage to man; his body cannot have been divested of hair through natural selection". In 'The Decent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex', he concludes that women lost their hair, because men found hairlessness attractive, not because it was burdensome; women's loss of hair led to a concomitant but less marked loss in men.
As an affectionate father of an infant daughter gently rocked in a baby sling, Taylor cites another single cause theory that the baby sling was the single most crucial step in the evolution towards larger brains ( R683 44). The argument is that to get through the pelvis, given the constraints which now make human childbirth difficult and require the rotation of the head during delivery required a slowing of brain development until after birth (human give birth at 29% of adult brain size rather than the 47-8% of chimps) and hence a less developed newborn. The sweeping claim is that the baby sling was the turning point which made possible, not only the 'development of the human brain but human sexual culture and the very idea of gender - the extension of human categories into the realm of objects and ideas … sex ceased to be necessarily short and sharp and became an act of potentially ecstatic contemplation'. While the baby sling is a major invention of women, central to both the gathering way of life and the capacity to demand feed and hence keep a balance between the number and quality of offspring ( p 107 ) this is another single external factor theory, when it is the inventiveness of sexual selection at play in generating innovations, from the sling through the wheel, to fine music, and the arts of love, rather than the artefacts driving evolution, although they may irreversibly change the social milieu.
Hrdy ( R330 264-6) ponders how humans could have evolved at all given our current forces of patriarchal domination so endemic in ape societies as well. "How could females so clearly at risk of reproductive exploitation be selected to produce such a large-brained, slow maturing offspring?" Based on her studies of langurs and other cooperatively breeding primates she proposes that "the earliest representatives of the genus Homo were cooperative breeders" suggesting that a variety of 'allo-mothers' including grandmothers, daughters, siblings, relatives, female friends and incidentally parental partners may all have been involved. This has the virtue of allowing for a flexible interplay of reproductive behavior incorporating both matrilineal and partner-based dynamics. However chimp females our nearest relative are very protective of their young and don't even hand them over to older siblings (Hrdy R330 502). Furthermore in addition to the manifest incidence of pair-bonding across all human societies, mate guarding is an almost universal feature of male mammals and so, even though men may not spend anywhere near as long in infant care as mothers, they are likely to have applied enough selective pressures throughout human emergence for partnership to have played a significant reproductive role. Since mate guarding is a better predictor of monogamy than paternal parental effort, monogamy would be expected to evolve based mutual competition between females for sexual territory. Human females do express preferences for monogamy and resist to a fair degree being co-wives, but moderate polygyny and affairs are common, consistent with a complex and varying social pattern of sexually antagonistic coevolution, poised in a state of paradox between the sexes.
What then of the relationship between our concealed ovulation and monogamy? While 10 out of 11 monogamous species have concealed ovulation, the reverse is not true. Monogamy occurs in only 10 out of 32 primates with concealed ovulation, the majority consisting of promiscuous and harem-forming species. Paradoxically the logic works in reverse for overt ovulation. While most boldly-advertising species are promiscuous (multi-male), 20 out of 34 promiscuous primates have concealed ovulation. Harem-forming species fall right across the spectrum. These confirm that concealed ovulation is a fundamentally successful strategy which can thrive in all mating systems, because it abets female choice, and that overt ovulation tends to be a specialized adaption. Many switches of mating type are believed to have occurred when tree analysis is taken into account. Overall it appears that social monogamy has evolved 7 times in different branches of the primates including humans, gibbons and 5 groups of monkeys, and harems 8 times (Diamond R166 103).
All these societies have frank characteristics of the "sexually-antagonistic coevolution" noted by William Rice ( p 16 ). Male infanticide in all these social systems is in evolutionary conflict with female choice. Concealed ovulation creates a paradox between overt polygyny and the covert polyandry of many 'possible fathers' (Hrdy R331 ). In promiscuous chimp society by some accounts we have some half the offspring being sired discreetly 'on safari' despite overt ovulation, so the paternity uncertainty is both an overt one shared between genetically related males from the same troop and a covert one of secret unions of more uncertain parenthood. Human societies go further than simple infanticide and stone women for adultery, showing this sexual antagonism to be central to religious imperatives.
Desmond Morris ( R486 ) and others (see Hrdy R329 141) assumed that concealed ovulation and continuous sexual receptivity, rather than the cyclical or seasonal reproductive patterns characteristic of other primates emerged on the basis of 'copulation as a female service' (Symons R678 ) on a 'man the hunter' basis to give men competing for hunting intelligence more sexual rights to maintain male cooperation in the hunt and enticements for pair-bonding. Taylor also debunks the 'man the hunter' view, as sexist, despite noting that Linda Hurcombe has pointed out that calling the division of labour between gathering and hunting sexist ignores the facts of life … that a mother holding a young child cannot be a stealthy and fleet of foot hunter ( R683 26).
Certainly overt ovulation runs counter to pair-bonding, as noted by Lancaster ( R398 ). However Hrdy ( R329 135-144) notes a poor correlation between pair-bonds and high levels of sexual activity in primates (except marmosets). Gibbons, the only monogamous ape for example make love only twice a day during an estrus which lasts a few months every 2 to 3 years with no sexual activity in between. Moreover constant sexual activity is not a good evolutionary basis to select for paternal behavior and could compete with reproductive imperatives. The occurrence of both 'assertive solicitations of males by non-ovulating females among primates which are not pair-bonded and female 'orgasm' in other primates also scotches ideas of its role being unique to humans, for example in making it 'easier for the female to be satisfied by one male'. Non-reproductive female-initiated sexual activity is likely to be selected for to impute paternity and avoid male infanticide in many species. At another extreme Nancy Burley ( R94 ) suggested that concealed ovulation serves to prevent the human female opting out of evolution because of the pain and stresses of childbirth. However this denies women have any sense of their own ovulation which they often do, and ignores women's capacity to resist sex altogether as a means to the same end.
Alexander and Noonan ( R7 ) argue that concealed ovulation, and the breast as a permanent signal of receptivity, enabled a female to hold on to a mate by reducing paternity certainty at the same time as inviting sexual receptivity, making it difficult for a male to know when she is on heat and thus having to stick around. Receptivity is then both an invitation and 'sex as a weapon' to enforce male resourcing compliance. Jared Diamond ( R166 ) calls this the 'daddy-at-home theory'. Diamond argues that a woman had to conceal her ovulation; otherwise her husband would only stay with her when she was exhibiting signs that she was fertile. The rest of the time, he would be out trying to find other women, who were exhibiting signs that they were sexually ready His absence would be detrimental to his children, and by concealing her ovulation, a woman convinced a man to stay by her side and make love to her throughout the month, so that he could be sure he was fathering the children she bore. However Shlain (R638) notes that several flaws and inconsistencies, weaken the argument that promotes sex as the glue holding human relationships together. If sex served the purpose of ensuring the durability of the human parenting commitment, then parents should become more ardent in their lovemaking following the birth of a baby. Instead, the opposite occurs. Both parents routinely report a sharp fall in their respective libidos. Barbara Smuts adds the ironical twist of females tolerating male mates to protect against coercion by other males, thus forcing males to accept these bonds even when they involved lower-ranking males (Pusey R561 ). Wrangham ( R765 ) has even speculated that pair bonds may relate to food guarding, with the establishment of cooking.
According to the ape family tree ( p 68 ), and the relative success of concealed ovulation across many mating habits, concealed ovulation evolved not to keep dad at home in an already monogamous family unit, but to promote the central reproductive issue for females in ape societies - reproductive choice - immediately equatable with paternity uncertainty of 'polyandrous motherhood' or 'possible fathers' (Hrdy R331 ). In some primate species such as Barbary macaques, which like chimps are promiscuous multi-male troops and where the attention of several males seems essential for offspring survival, paternity uncertainty may actually aid total paternal investment (Hrdy R329 157). A similar situation prevails in human societies which believe in 'partible paternity' (p 166) the idea that many inseminations are required to form an embryo (Hrdy R330 246). Birkhead ( R63 204) notes that extra-pair couplings in socially monogamous birds, aid fertility, reducing the number of eggs which fail to hatch through histo-incompatibility. Human parents with the same HLA leukocyte haplotype also have miscarriage of very early embryos. Prairie dogs also improve their fertility during their afternoon of estrus by copulating with more than one partner.
In the human context sexual privacy along with concealed ovulation acts to optimize covert and particularly female infidelity. According to Geoffrey Miller ( R475 ), such 'reproductive inscrutability' may have catalyzed language, art, science and cultural complexity. Human gossip and judgement of personality tend to focus on detecting deceit from honesty in love and betrayal. The village grape vine round camp fires at night are a prime source of gossip and sexual intrigue. Good art and astute skill in hunting are in turn genuine indicators of fitness giving the entire process of cultural evolution a valid drive in terms of sexual selection. But female 'infidelity' also invites female competition. Several studies in birds confirm the fact that competition between females is a substantial factor inhibiting polygyny, which could, in its absence, be as successful at rearing young as the monogamous state. Ridley ( R577 ) notes that in humans, just like sparrows, "adultery is common. It is commonest between high-ranking males and females of all ranks. To prevent it males try to guard their wives, are extremely violent towards their wives' lovers and copulate with their wives frequently, not just while they are fertile."
Bobbi Low ( R427 67) in her own research also confirms that, in human cultures, one of the strongest indicators of polygyny is parasite stress. High pathogen stress accounts for 28 percent of the variation alone and with rainfall seasonality, irrigation and hunting adds to a total of 46 percent of the observed variation in polygyny. High parasite loads favour more careful investment in exogamy, involving on the males' parts wife capturing and seeking wife diversity by choosing partners at a genetic and/or physical distance and promoting genetic diversity in the offspring. Sororal polygyny is avoided. On the woman's side it is better to be the second wife of a healthy man than the sole wife of a parasite-ridden man.
Chris Knight ( R383 ) is scathing of the evolutionary weakness of monogamy because of its sterility and lack of adaptive and social novelty in ape and other animal societies. He notes: "Among non-human primates, monogamy produces not advanced forms of sociability but a very elementary, simple and sparse social life, with little variety or political complexity to select for novel forms of self-awareness or intelligence. Compared with other primates, those which are monogamous appear to eat lower quality diets, have inferior ability to perceive social relationships, and have minimal levels of role differentiation. Moreover monogamous primates are known to be behaviorally more conservative and ecologically more restricted than their non-monogamous counterparts. ... Among non-human primates, in fact, a monogamous mating system appears to have been the least long-term adaptive value and it has been argued that this may apply to humans too." Kinzey ( R377 ) elaborates "The lack of social networks is the major disadvantage of monogamy per se. Promiscuity does not normally occur in any human society but polygyny and polyandry taken together are much more frequent than monogamy. They encompass a greater extension of social networks than monogamy they have greater long-term adaptability and consequently they are more common. Probably the majority of cultures in the world practice some form of extended family in which the living group contains more than a single pair and their children."
In considering human emergence, Carel van Shaik and Robin Dunbar ( R164 62) have suggested a radically different basis for pair-bonding as a form of mate guarding to prevent infanticide. Gibbons are socially monogamous, partly because the females distribute themselves too widely for a male to form a harem or a fission-fusion society to form. Consistent with female territory rather than paternal care being a predictor of monogamy, the male does little in infant care although he is remarkable tolerant of juveniles. Their conclusion is that he guards his mate to prevent another male committing infanticide.
Helen Fisher in "An Anatomy of Love" ( R209 ), advances a more flexible version of the monogamy-child care theory, which is not located so specifically early in time as Lovejoy's monogamy theory and is consistent with a later emergence with Homo erectus. She sees in the development of human sexual receptivity and reproductive inscrutability a human origin in which pair bonding had become strong enough that the frank promiscuity of our closest ape cousins had given way to a form of 'serial monogamy' important for successfully rearing increasingly dependent more slowly maturing human infants, lasting for around the four years required for the first offspring to become independent, weaned and able to join a peer play group. If a couple were incompatible or did not have further children, these bonds would frequently dissolve. Unlike people like Desmond Morris ( R486 ) who see female receptivity directed as a monogamous service to males, she notes that monogamy does not imply fidelity and that, on the evolutionary evidence, women pursued a variety of covert affairs as an integral part of their reproductive strategy. This makes much more sense. As Ridley ( R577 ) notes: "The use of veils, chaperones, purdah, female circumcision and chastity belts all bear witness to a widespread male fear of being cuckolded and a widespread suspicion that wives, as well as their potential lovers, are the ones to distrust (why else circumcise them?)" Given an established paradigm of concealed ovulation, monogamy could thus emerge on a 'daddy-at-home' basis, as a late comer, from greater needs for the 'father' to share resourcing, because of the delayed maturation of the human offspring.
Socio-sexual interaction has been proposed to be the prime generator of social diversity because it is the reproductive feedback process through which all other generators of culture such as toolmaking and language are utilized. Sexual paradox thus drives the resulting evolution of the human brain all the way to the Homo level because sexual paradox perpetuates all the way up the tree of increasing social and intellectual diversity (Miller R475 ). Robin Dunbar ( R179 ) has demonstrated a consistent correlation between social group size and neocortex to brain ratio, across wide groups of primates consistent with brain evolution being primarily related to social complexity. Socio-sexual complexity is also reflected in the dolphin brain's equivalent complexity to the human organ.
Geoffrey Miller also notes (Ridley R577 ): "The neocortex is largely a courtship device to attract and retain sexual mates: its specific evolutionary function is to stimulate and entertain other people, and to assess the stimulation attempts of others. ... Just as the peahen is satisfied with nothing less than a visually-brilliant display of peacock plumage, I postulate that hominid males and females became satisfied with nothing less than psychologically brilliant, fascinating, articulate, entertaining companions" - the cultural equivalent of runaway sexual selection - no one can afford to select for anything else and survive.
We can surmise that in the evolution to Homo, females with a less pronounced cycle became more easily able to secure a 'monogamous' partner 'on safari' without attracting the attentions of the dominant alpha male. Covert ovulation gave the females more control over their choice of sexual partners, and provided steadier mates, because it required consistent sexual attention by a male to have any real chance of fertilization. This also favoured sub-dominant attentive males, who gained much greater chances for survival of their offspring. Menstrual synchrony ( p 354 ), would also make it hard for an alpha male to corral all the simultaneously fertile females in a group. We have seen concealed ovulation operates successfully in many mating patterns, so we can't attribute its occurrence in humans to monogamy. Hrdy ( R329 158) has this to say of the transition: "A highly assertive female sexuality marked by a potential to shift from cyclical to situation-dependent receptivity constituted the physiological heritage that prehominid females brought to this evolutionary experiment."
The human menstrual period is coupled to the lunar cycle in a way which is different from those of our close relatives. Chimps have a cycle of 36 days and bonobos a doubled cycle of 60 days (de Waal R161 ). The Barbary macaque's menstrual cycle is 31 and the Japanese macaque's is 28 days in duration (Shlain R638 177). Human cycles average very closely to the 29.53 days of the lunar cycle. About 28% of reproductively mature women show a 29.5 ± 1 day cycle length (Cutler et. al. R142 ). Vollman et al. ( R716 - R718 ) as well as Treloar et al. ( R696 , R697 ), have shown that women whose cycles approach the 29.5 day span have the highest likelihood of fertile cycles, while women whose cycles become longer or shorter have a proportionately diminishing incidence of fertile cycles.
Female receptivity for sex, manifested by swollen genitals, occupies a much larger proportion of the estrus cycle of bonobos and humans than of chimpanzees. The receptivity of bonobos continues through lactation. (In chimpanzees, it disappears.) This circumstance allows sex to play a large part in the social relations of bonobos. ( Dahl, de Waal R161, King). Chimps have periods longer than the lunar-related human cycle ( p 351 ), although the bonobo half-cycle is very close.
This differs from the 28 day cycle frequently ascribed to the human female and with it the 28 day menses composed of 4 weeks of seven days, 13 of which comprise a 364 day 'year'. However it is known from deep cave studies that the human circadian rhythm is about 25 hours, not 24, and yet the action of the melatonin cycle keeps it primed to the sun, so many of these primate cycles, including a slightly shorter or longer human cycle could still be held in lunar synchronization by a melatonin-induced non-linear pacemaker effect from the lunar nightly illumination cycle, provided there is exposure to natural moonlight fluctuations, as has been the case until recent times for humans. Coordinated phase relationships between reproductive rhythms and lunar rhythms are documented in the old-world monkey genus Cercopithecus, which includes vervets (Reiter R572 ).
There are a number of studies that both confirm and dispute the correlation of the moon's cycle and a woman's. The majority of them, however, confirm a statistically significant relationship. The largest, conducted by Walter and Abraham Menaker ( R468 ), collected data on over 250,000 menstrual cycles in over 2,700 women. Their findings revealed that the average length was 29.5 days. Virtually all the studies have been conducted after the invention of artificial light, a fact that could influence each study's outcome. Sung Ping Law ( R400 ) studied women in rural China, a group minimally affected by artificial light. Her published data strongly suggest that the link between the moon and menses was statistically significant. While Law finds menstruation occurring around the ideas of the new moon, Cutler et. al. ( R142 ) working with US university students in a more urban situation claim that menstruation in the lighter part of the month close to the full moon. Criss and Marcum (R138) document that births vary systematically over lunar cycles with a peak fertility at 3rd quarter.
Attention has also been drawn to the notion that gatherer-hunter societies may have exchanged sex for meat and that men may have hunted to gain sexual favours, supported by some older accoounts of Southern Bushmen. We have noted that chimpanzees have recently been found to also offer sex for meat suggesting an ancient evolutionary origin.
Chris Knight ( R383 ) has proposed that a critical development in human evolution running right through to the cultural phase has been an association between a sex-for-meat exchange between women and men, the moon and menstrual synchrony. In a frankly socialist interpretation of human origins, he suggests that menstrual synchrony, coupled to the lunar cycle enabled the females to exert a form of 'sex strike' in which the males were forced by the women to go 'hunting' in return for sexual favours. Given the human variation in cycle length and the mild and ambiguous coupling with the lunar cycle, the idea of a monolithically consistent sex strike strategy remains speculative, however it may have played a formative role in cultural motifs and had a major influence over the relationship between hunting, sharing and sexual favours in a social ebb and flow from celebration in the moonlight to the stark nights before the new moon. While menstrual synchrony does depend on a relatively non-competitive relationship between the females (unlike savannah baboons), Taylor's idea of it being a survival adaption to enable stressed acyclic women to prime themselves on more fecund womens' cycles ( R683 103) is an evolutionarily unstable strategy. Neither does Desmond Morris's critique ( R488 159) of sex strike that many of the women would be non-menstruating due to pregnancy and prolonged lactation compromise the validity of the reproductive argument.
Consistent with the idea of a sex strike is the nineteenth century anecdote from Smith's notebook ( R551 322):
"The Bushmen when they will not go out to steal cattle, are by the women deprived of intercourse sexual by them and from this mode of proceeding the men are often driven to steal in opposition to their better inclination. When they have possessed themselves by thieving a quantity of cattle, the women as long as they exist appear perfectly naked without the kind of covering they at other times employ."
Also consistent with the sex strike concept is the 'normative belief associating menstrual with lunar periodicities' among San peoples. The /Xam, !Xu, G/wi and/or G//ana would not release a girl from seclusion until the appearance of the new moon. Shostak ( R639 68) also notes belief in menstrrual synchrony among !Kung women.
The lunar cycle and sex strike: Menstruation is associated with the dark moon, and the lightening moon gives good evening hunting. Sexual withdrawal is followed by the hunt, capped by the full moon, meat feast and sexual favours.
It is also consistent with Catherine Key's ( R359 ) prisoners' dilemma analysis of human sexual relations ( p 34 ), as reproductive investments shifted to increase the differential between smaller male and larger female reproductive effort with increasing head size, and slowed growth and development, and the ensuing need for females to cooperate to ensure adequate investment from the males through sexual control. Here males become non-reciprocal altruists partly in the hope of securing later matings. One of the strengths of the sex-strike sexual faking theory is that it addresses the question of why symbolic culture evolved, rather than simply how it did so, according to Robin Dunbar (Douglas R171 ).
Key notes that the presence of estrus females is the best predictor of hunting behaviour in male chimps, just as bonobo males give food for sex and subordinate baboons (Papio anubis) court favoured females in a harem in expectation of future matings. Key's Prisoner Dilemma simulations displayed complex system behavior with many strategies needing to be followed by players to survive the reproductive round. Females cooperated with females more than males and under reduced male reproductive effort. However when their reproductive effort was higher females could adopt a strategy of alternate defection tolerating only non-reciprocal altruist males who offered consistent cooperation. Key notes also that women defect when playing the prisoners' dilemma more frequently than men.
Menstruation can be thought of as a 'no' signal replacing the 'yes' signal of overt estrus, but still implies fecundity overall. Camilla Power ( R551 ) extends Knight's ideas directly into the use of ochre (p 94) as a symbolic substitute extending menstrual 'cheating' into the explosion of the cultural phase through the symbolization of the reproductive strategy.
The significance of menstruation and the moon are coupled in !Kung San ( p 113 ) , Hadza ( p 131 ), and Sandawe rites ( p 118 ). In the San eland dance during menarche, the girl plays the part of a bull, sending out a 'wrong sex, wrong species' signal. Meanwhile, the women of the camp dance around her as if mating with the bull, taunting the local men with their complete lack of interest in them. Power says: "The message to the males is absolutely clear - you go off, you hunt some eland, and then we'll see. It's a sex strike in all but name." The Hadza have a similar ritual called 'epeme', linked to symbolic menstruation and the new moon, associated with a mythical heroine who hunts down male zebra and wears their penises. The Sandawe have a corresponding fertility rite by the light of the full moon in which the women expose their buttocks invitingly to the men in the moonlight.
Leonard Shlain ( R638 ) has extended the significance of menstruation in cultural emergence to development of awareness of 'deep time' over months and the idea of gaining control of one's destiny through women discovering the coupling of their reproductive cycle to the moon and its relationship with birth nine lunar cycles later - a gaining of reproductive power over men which was only later usurped by male control over female fertility and the natural productivity of the planet. However responsiveness to seasonal cycles in the brain is evidenced in the migrations of many species. Nevertheless intriguingly close links among the words for moon, menses, and time are present in every language. The English menses,- month, moon and measurement have their roots in the Latin words mens 'mind' and mensis 'menses' and the Greek word menos 'menses'. So, too, do 'mental'. 'meter', 'metric', 'mentor', 'diameter', 'commensurate', 'immensity', 'parameter', 'perimeter' and 'dimension'. Shlain associates this transition with difficulties in childbirth associated with an increase in head size and a transfer from overt ovulation to concealed ovulation with advertised menstruation as a timekeeper. As a laparoscopic gynecologist, he is aware of the increasingly heavy demand on women to replace the iron lost by menstruation (at least in some women) and speculates that this became a burden of this evolutionary adaption which placed women hostage to a degree to the need for a meat component of their diet supplied by the men.
Women's string-figure depicting "menstrual blood of three women", illustrating the Yolngu people's tribal mythology of menstrual synchrony Arnhem Land R383 .
There continues to be controversy over the status of both menstrual synchrony and lunar coupling. Martha McClintock's original research methods R453 , have been questioned and other researchers have failed to replicate her findings. But both effects could be more predominant in cultures living with the sun and moon and coexisting in tribal bands. Differing evolutionary arguments have been made. One argument is that reproductive synchrony is a relatively common mechanism in animal populations through which co-cycling females can increase the number of males included in the local breeding system. Conversely, if there are too many females cycling together, they would be competing for the highest quality males; forcing female-female competition for high quality mates and thereby lowering fitness disfavoring synchrony. Differences of Neanderthal reproductive strategies from those of modern Homo sapiens have recently been analysed in these terms. Modern human female ancestors, less seasonally constrained, pursued a strategy of cosmeticization of menstrual signals. This Female Cosmetic Coalitions model accounts for the African Middle Stone Age record of pigment use. Among Neanderthals, strategies alternated. Severe seasonality during glacial cycles tied Neanderthal males into pair-bonds, suppressing cosmetic signaling. Only during interglacials when seasonality relaxed would Neanderthal females require blood-red cosmetics (Power C, Sommer V, Watts I 2013 The Seasonality Thermostat: Female Reproductive Synchrony and Male Behavior in Monkeys, Neanderthals, and Modern Humans PaleoAnthropology doi:10.4207/PA.2013.ART79) .
Sapientia: Adolescent Adam and the Unbearable Beauty of Eve
The emergence of modern Homo sapiens, is accompanied by a slight decrease in brain size from an average of about 1500cc to 1400. Although this is well within the range of human variation between 1100 and 2000cc, it does suggest that some form of compactification has taken place. One view of this is that the development of culture and language has actually made it cognitively easier for the brain to assimilate the world around us. Another suggested by Matt Ridley (R580 34) is that a reduction of aggression may be accompanied by a neotonic (tending towards embryonic form) reduction of the limbic brain areas associated with aggression, which appear to be among the latest to mature. A similar argument has been made about the evolution of the bonobo by comparison with chimps. More extreme such reductions in brain size have been seen in breeding domesticated animals from the wild
Human evolution stands at an extreme of animal evolution (Morris R487 ). Mammals are the most sexually polarized of animal classes because of the development of both uterine gestation and lactation. Human pregnancy is at a mammalian extreme. The difficulty of human pregnancy and delivery and the physiological affect on the female are unsurpassed. Although the human egg is tiny, the investments made by men and women in reproduction are very far from equivalent. The female has to make a genuine open and 'travail' investment, which continues long after birth in lactation and intimate child-rearing, while the male can simply impregnate and depart for greener pastures. While most women are selective about their partners, most men are prepared if given the opportunity to 'copulate with anyone bearing ovaries'.
The sexual evolution of the female human has become unique in many diverse ways. Female humans have evolved physically to become perpetually attractive to males, through continual receptiveness, able to make love 'in continuum', over prolonged periods, resulting in an intense sustained form of social bonding unparalleled in other socially monogamous species. These evolutionary characteristics involve the whole female body in such a way as to advertise ripe fecundity - fat-engorged breasts, hour-glass torso, larger buttocks. Despite Hrdy's demurring at Buss's 'patriarchal' emphasis on feminine beauty in sexual selection ( R96 ), this uncontrollable beauty of the feminine form, which has obsessed artists, scholars, lovers and fearful religious patriarchs alike is an aspect of human sexual evolution which, like the female's choosy preference for 'declared' monogamy to a resourceful partner, rings true throughout our evolutionary and cultural emergence.
This is complemented by a sensuality capped by a profound female orgasm which is tuned for reproductive selection of highly desired partners, whether long-term, or a secret love tryst. Ovulation is cryptic mid way between menstrual periods, making it difficult for any male to be sure whether or not he has succeeded in the fertility quest without sticking around. The sexual act is pursued largely in privacy which makes it as hard as possible for others to trace the intimate details of who was present and what went on. Sexual relationship is intense and long-lasting and has the capacity to become an abundant and fulfilling life transaction which has a major role in establishing a primary child-rearing resource in long-term partnership with a male, as well as the thrill of the chase in a strange affair.
There is also a great variety of sexual development among individual women. By comparison with the peacock's tail as a powerful indicator of alpha male genetic prowess and little else, human females appear to have evolved sexual diversity as a signal to accomplished and desirable males that they are uniquely different, alien, alluring, exotic and erotic in the extreme, thus responding to the innate philandering polygyny of the male and the high variance in male resources, by evolving sexual variety as an irresistible enticement.
Human pregnancy is at an extreme of living species, leaving the female vulnerable and travail in her final months, with birth a major compromise to fit the human head through the birth canal, and lactation and child rearing expanded into a fully fledged cultural discovery process which takes more care and effort than any other species. This is complemented by a human male who can excel as 'dad' but can also betray as a 'cad', who may oppress as a 'despot', or come to the rescue as a temporary hero. This perpetuates a situation of sexual paradox in which neither gender has ultimate control of their own reproductive destiny.
Into this mix enters an evolutionary race between the clitoris and the penis, the clitoris becoming ever more demanding and the penis more satisfying - the principal instruments of emotional lust, love and togetherness, a glue cementing the human family, from which all our notions of passion, romantic and compassionate love emerge. The human penis is the thickest, and most hydraulic of ape penises, by comparison with the thin pencils of muscle and bone sported by other apes. Jared Diamond laconically complained of the great failure of modern science to come up with an adequate theory of penis length, suggesting it might relate to aggression displays with other males (Blum R66 31). This is matched by the time and energy involved. Humans make love for periods of ten minutes to half an hour or so. Gorillas barely manage one minute. With bonobos its over in fifteen seconds and excitable chimps barely make seven seconds. The entire species is founded on premature ejaculation.
The answer to the enigma of the penis according to Geoffrey Miller ( R475 ) lies in its mysterious sister-spouse the clitoris. The apparently vestigial, but astonishingly powerful clitoris, despite its small size, has twice as many sensitive nerve endings as the penis. The clitoris and its hidden complement, the G-spot, now came into play in an evolutionary 'amatory race' with the penis, aptly described by Geoffrey Miller: "The penis evolved to deliver more and more stimulation, while the clitoris evolved to demand more and more." Both of these, according to Miller, were driven by female reproductive choice, the clitoris, which is not prominently displayed to male view and hence choice, unlike the estrus, swollen buttocks and reflex pheromones of apes, as a discriminator of sexual love, and the penis as an indicator to, and satisfier of, women's mate choices. In fact female orgasm dwarfs that of the male in its capacity for extremes of ecstasy, body-wracked convulsions and multiple, or even continual orgasm, undiminished by the 'downfall' and refractory 'impotence' following male ejaculation. It is also, unlike the physical necessity of male orgasm for insemination, an ephemeral discriminator, of male ardour, never dependable but coquettish and precocious, depending on the mood of the moment, which does not serve the routine life of monogamous pair bonding so much as it acts as a sense organ of novelty and excitement - an evolutionary discriminator which separates the man who can really give the lady "all she desires" from the boys who shoot once and think they are king of the road. A central part of male sexual denial in the desire to sexually dominate is a vain attempt to deny the full flood of female ecstasy and its implications.
Shlain ( R638 ) describes 3 theories of female orgasm which sexologists and anthropologists have whimsically given the names Pole Ax, Upsuck, and Cuddles. Pole Ax is the idea that laying a women out with a powerful orgasm will cause her to lie down and keep the sperm in place ensuring fertilization in a bipedal upright species with a downward pointing vagina. Baker and Bellis ( R38 ) have suggested that female orgasm, particularly the stronger variety which may accompany a passionate affair, may provide and 'upsuck' which selectively improves the chances of conception with the partner of choice. This in association with the tendency of women to be more prone to sexual activity during ovulation, with both their existing partners and others, could provide another partial explanation for its role in reproductive terms, which so far remains unproven. The third theory Cuddles, postulates that Mother Nature bestowed on 'Gyna sapiens' a multisynaptic orgasm to help a couple more thoroughly bond with each other through mutual great sex. However this is again a little naive in terms of their differing strategies and ignores the fact that natural selection has not seen fit to take this route in other socially monogamous species.
Mary Sherfey ( R637 ) in "The Evolution of Female Sexuality" noted that "to all intents and purposes, the human female is sexually insatiable in the presence of the highest degree of sexual satiation". Despite being based on the now believed to be false notion of a primal matriarchy and having no clear evolutionarily rationale, Sherfey's view coincides with that of pre-Victorian Europe where female sexual precociousness was recognized in an "exuberant and inexhaustible appetite for all variety of sexual pleasure", (just as it is feared in the Old Testament and Amazonian societies). Kim Phillips in "Medieval Maidens" ( R539 ) has noted that in old Europe mutual orgasm was deemed necessary for conception.
Infrared imaging: Female sexual arousal is accompanied by blood flow to the labia and clitoris just as it is to the penis. This is central to the nature of human courtship and bonding between the sexes ( p 361 ) but does it also function to confuse or even diminish paternity certainty?
An interesting twist to this comes in the form of research in to genes we have lost that may characterize human emergence. In a fascinating paper in Nature looking for genes, or regulatory sequences, which have been deleted in humans that may make us different from other animals, the authors report that one of the prominent genes essential to the majority of mammals which has been deleted in humans is the androgen regulator for penile spines. Penile spines, even though they are smaller and flatter in chimps than those in cats and other mammals, nevertheless are accompanied by basal nerve fibres which across mammals may have many functions including increasing male sexual sensitivity, reducing the length of female estrus, removing competitors sperm and many others. In the paper and its follow up comments the authors point out that the loss correlates with the evolution of pair bonding in humans (McLean CY et. al. 2011 Human-specific loss of regulatory DNA and the evolution of human-specific traits. Nature 471/7337, 216-9). The bumps or papules that can appear on the glans of some human men are not neuro-sensitive spines, and have a different origin and basis.
Above: Chimp, bonobo and human penises compared. Both chimp and bonobo penises have penis bones and neuro-sensitive penile spines (one shown inset top left) with a very short copulatory period. The human penis is notably larger and testes smaller than chimps. Below: Bonobo and human clitoris. Bonobos have a large clitoris enabling female-female erotic contact but like chimps have an overt estrus (centre). The human clitoris is smaller but highly sensistive with more nerve ending than the human penis.
Chimps and bonobos with neuro-sensitive spines have a very short copulation time of 5 to 7 seconds, hardly enough to keep a woman happy with her hubby. They also have a pronounced estrus unile the concealed estrus in humans, which serves to minimize male knowledge of when to 'make love' thus favoring social sexuality on a stable basis with a partner. So it looks like we have lost our penile spines so that we can make love in a way which gives women a convincing climax and gives both men and women a deep sense of bonding. Humans have also lost the baculum or penis bone which occurs in many mammals including chimps and bonobos, and have a consistently larger erect penis and smaller testes, consistent with human pair bonding through regular social sexuality satisfying to females as opposed to promiscuous sex at estrus, or to relieve groups tensions as in bonobos. Correspondingly human females have evolved permanently fatty breasts as part of their sexual enticement of male attraction and retained the capacity for ecstatic orgasm, whose role has become central to reproductive choice, rather than fertilization itself as in male physiology.
All in all the evolution of several aspects of the human male sex characteristics are consistent with the males having to give a genuine indicator of sexual fitness satisfying to choosy females making astute strategic decisions about who to copulate and form relationship with. Hence one might also conclude that this selection of male characteristics has been driven by women's preference for males who can really go the mile to make them feel fulfilled and bonded with, suggesting that female choice has driven human sexuality throughout our emergence.
By contrast, the Victorian era ushered in the notion that "the majority of women (happily for them) are not much troubled by sexual feelings of any kind" - a form of psychic female circumcision partly in concordance with the Darwinian awareness of greater reproductive variation and sexual competition in males. In response to Sherfey, Donald Symons ( R678 ) comments "It is difficult to see how expending time and energy pursuing the will-o'-the-wisp of sexual satiation, endlessly and fruitlessly attempting to make a bottomless cup run over could conceivably contribute to a female's reproductive success" noting it would both interfere with food gathering and child care and even subvert female choice. This case is based on females having little variation in reproductive success and that copulating with many males cannot improve their reproductive success.
This has led to the notion that both female orgasm and the clitoris are 'spandrels' like the appendix and male nipples as Stephen Jay Gould specualted - evolutionary relics, or results of underlying sexual homology. Some support for the idea comes from twin studies in which there is a 32-45% genetic factor involved in the wide variation in orgasmic ability of women from 14% who always succeed, through 32% who only do some quater of the time to 14% who cannot reach orgasm either by sex or masturbation (Spector et. al. R655 ). ElizabethLloyd ( R421 ) takes this case further, that like stump-tailed macaques and bonobos, female orgasm is more for female-female social bonding than reproductive advantage - a spandrel for pleasure, riding on the coat-tails of male evolution, extending this to questionable claims based on FGM ( p 285 ). However the 'choosiness' of the clitoris, in coitus does not imply no reproductive advantage but high discrimination in reproductive choice.
Sarah Hrdy's ( R329 - R331 ) view, offers an ironic twist, with formidable undertones. She proposes that females evolved an interest in promiscuous sex so that many males would 'presume' that they could have 'fathered' a female's child. Multiple male care for, or at least lack of harm to, her offspring would result, thus enhancing her fitness and offspring survival. Hrdy and others have also seen the human female's loss of physical signs of ovulation in this light: Concealed ovulation was naturally selected since it helped to decrease paternity certainty. Hrdy, despite extolling a life of monogamy herself, argues that paternity uncertainty was an advantage for evolving hominid women, but that, as human society developed, males devised ways to increase paternity certainty (through seclusion of women, chastity belts, and so on), women lost their autonomy, otherwise at a high level among primate females, as a result of male success in increasing paternity certainty.
One should note that although human ovulation is concealed, males still find a woman more attractive during ovulation and can tell that the vaginal mucosae, rich with fern-like polymers to aid sperm transit are unusually slippery and attractive. Kuukasjärvi et. al. ( R396 ) note that female body odours are more attractive to men during mid-cycle.
Her experience with primates ( R329 160-180) has led her to realize that there are a variety of reasons why females may elicit sex with more than one male, both in the relative frenzy of estrus and outside it. These actions are both an expression of graduated female sexual choice, focusing on prime genetic partners towards the peak of estrus, from a wider range she entices beforehand and they serve her reproductive efficacy in claiming many 'fathers' thus helping to give her offspring the relative protection of the males in her vicinity and reducing risks of injury or infanticide - specifically by reducing paternity certainty! Notably human step fathers are 65 times more likely to kill infants ( p 49 ). Noting the behavior of macaques and experiments on the stimulation of female rhesus monkeys, she has even gone so far as to suggest that the unique features we experience in female orgasm serve this promiscuous end, continuing after a male has completed his all-to-transient act of insemination and thus inviting the implied attention of more ardent suitors:
"What we know about primates suggests that prehominid females embarking upon the human enterprise were possessed of an aggressive readiness to engage in both reproductive and non-reproductive liaisons with multiple, but selected, males. What happened next is, and probably will always remain, shrouded in mystery. We can only document the attitudes prevalent in human cultures during historical times. There can be no doubt from such evidence that the expectation of female 'promiscuity' has had a profound effect on human cultural institutions."
This explanation is frightening, with dark undertones, explaining in one step why female sexuality is repressed cauterized and incised by a fearful patriarchy, perceiving that it reduces paternity certainty. Eighteen years later Hrdy ( R330 222-3) plays devil's advocate to her own radical position, in the light of our excoriating patriarchal history.
"Female libido and sexual assertiveness are dangerous predispositions in such contexts, more likely to get a woman beaten disfigured or killed than to increase her reproductive success ... Knowing how risky extra-pair sex can often be for females in my own species has led me to wonder if female orgasms may be a once adaptive retention, now no longer selected for, like the grasp of a just-born baby for maternal fur that no longer exists, a reflex gradually fading out of the human repertoire".
Jared Diamond ( R166 ) compares Alexander and Noonan's "daddy-at-home" theory with Sarah Hrdy's "many fathers" theory. Hrdy contrasts langurs, which have concealed ovulation with chimps which have overt ovulation, noting that overt ovulation is a rare (only 27 out of 175 primate species) evolutionary response to full-developed promiscuity, in which females mate with as many males in the troop as possible to avoid any of them having a reason to commit infanticide. Effectively this advertises to all "come and get me" for a gang bang while dealing with the matter effectively and quickly. By contrast, langurs have a single male in a harem and the females have concealed ovulation, again as a hedge against infanticide, because this makes it possible for the females to mate with a stray male outside the extended family without either her 'husband' or the 'gigolo' knowing whether she has gotten pregnant, or by whom. In more sinister terms it helps protect the female from infanticide when stray gangs of males take over the harem and displace the protecting male. Sperling ( R656 ) has claimed that, although Hrdy's vision of primates may be more acceptable to feminists, it is still based on unwarranted assumptions interpreting primate behaviors as end points, in evolutionary adaptations which are also more complex, varied, and context-dependent than sociobiological theory suggests. However this looks more of a case of denial of the disquieting roots of human culture which religious conservatives and gender feminists alike would seek to avoid, lest they throw their preconceived defences into disarray. Evolutionary ecologists maintain that social behavior, including that in humans, is influenced in subtle but fundamental ways by natural selection, fitness and sexual selection without the hard-line genetic determinism of earlier sociobiologists.
None of this complex picture of polyamory amidst social monogamy in humans implies that fidelity reigned, even if emerging Homo was predominantly patrilocal like other apes and pair-bonding was a strong feature associated with the needs of slowly-developing infants. Human males have medium sized testicles and killer sperm consistent with moderate sperm competition, but less than those of the larger ejaculates of promiscuous chimps. As a proportion of body size human testicles are five times the size of gorillas and one third the size of chimpanzees (Ridley R580 21). In the Cosmopolitan survey of 1980 half of married women under 35 had been unfaithful and 70% of those over. Likewise for men sewing wild oats is accepted as natural. Human males are about 10% larger than females consistent with moderate polygynous competition, but not the large harems of gorillas. Men are more aroused by images of males competing for a female than readily available females and produce better sperm after watching such images (Biology Letters doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0324).
Sexual privacy in humans is a complex process which seems to be driven by both male and female strategies. In primates where there is strong male competition such as orangutans and gorillas, alpha males copulate openly, but subordinate males are so discrete that no one realized they did at all until genetic paternity testing came along. Female dominated bonobos by contrast have sex openly, while chimps have an overt estrus in which the dominant male clan have sex openly, but females may also go on discrete safari with select males.
Humans have a complex sexual history. Women have won some control from men by evolving concealed ovulation and continual sexual receptivity to confuse paternity (Ethology and Sociobiology, vol 14, p 381) which gives the females an incentive to also seek privacy for sex to give more freedom of choice without consequences such as infanticide. Humans have also evolved to engage in pair-bonded parenting, with the emotional bond of love entering into the sexual equation and the stakes becoming even higher for discovery of infidelity. For human males sex becomes a precious commodity and to avoid jealousy and envy for one's own male mates it is easier to be discrete in the same way people conceal food in a time of famine.
Clandestine copulation thus becomes an intriguing male-female trade-off in which relationships are strengthened but infidelity becomes easier enabling us to be socially monogamous but not sexually monogamous in a context where frequent social sexuality is the emotional glue of familial relationships (Human nature: Being clandestine New Scientist 23 April 2012 Bob Holmes and Kate Douglas).
Into this arena falls the highly contentious question of whether human male acts of sexual coercion also have a biological basis, or are a cultural expression of male power and patriarchal dominance ( p 47 ). While some authors such as Thornhill and Palmer ( R690 ) argue for a sociobiological basis, others in reaction (Travis R695 ) see the question of 'rape' as at the very least a multi-disciplinary issue. This is clear from our studies of slavery and concubinage (p 195), where forms of effective male coercion have become institutional, however one can also argue that these are obvious expressions of sexual sociobiology. Moreover rape is rare in our primate cousins with one notable exception. In one study almost half the copulations in an orangutan troop happened after fierce female resistance had been overcome by the males (Sparks R654 153). Immature male orangs, which have a distinct phenotype ( p 33 ), use sexual coercion as their main mating strategy. Baboon males also engage in aggressive sex which appears reluctant on the part of the female ( R654 156). Jolly ( R346 80) comments that real rape is very rare in primates besides ourselves and orangutans but that it is natural in humans, although whether it is inevitable or right is a separate question.
Human females have a more heavy reproductive commitment than almost any other species, with massive pregnancy, difficult childbirth, and a period of vulnerability after lactating, with a small infant on the hip. To spread their massive out-front investment it is essential for virtually every species for the female to be able to exert genuine female reproductive choice. When reproduction depends also to some degree on the partnership and resourcing of a male, this involves a dissonance between the resources of the partner and the best genes available. Both humans and colonial monogamous birds solve this dilemma by investing about 80% in their overt partner's genes and up to 20% in those from covert affairs. The best genes may also be a relative issue. As noted in terms of the histocompatibility preferences ( p 354 ) and the incidence of potential mate infertility in both monogamous birds and humans (Birkhead R63 204) this may also serve to secure partners who, relative to the given female, have high fitness in immunological and histological terms and possibly higher than their resourcing partner. Men are renowned for spreading their wild oats, but women are subject to dire punishments for infidelity because of the fear males have of the 'pollution' of their reproductive chances and the life dilemma of bringing up another man's child. Consequently females have sought not only concealed estrus but privacy in sexual intercourse to protect them from real risk of ostracism, desertion, infanticide, injury and death. The veil, stoning, burning, and drowning , disfiguring, female genital mutilation, chastity belts and chaperones all attest to the deep and powerful nature of male jealousy and fear of female infidelity in major traditional societies. But this is not infidelity, so much as the prisoners' dilemma and the differing genetic strategies of each sex speaking.
Barash and Lipton ( R41 154) note the irony of how universal jealousy is in males, even more so in those whose beliefs are towards promiscuity: Wilhelm Reich the imprisoned founder of 'orgone' sexual energy therapy insisted in his work and writings that monogamy was an unhealthy state for human beings, undermining their sexual health and stunting their emotional lives. Yet his wife reports that Reich was often insanely jealous:
"Always, in times of stress, one of Reich's very human failings came to the foreground, and that was his violent jealousy. He would always emphatically deny that he was jealous, but there is no getting away from the fact that he would accuse me of infidelity with any man who came to his mind as a possible rival, whether colleague, friend, local shopkeeper, or casual acquaintance."
Polygyny is practised in the 85% of human societies which permit it pretty much to the extent which differing male resources allow. Distribution of wealth occurs in a rough inverse cube law, so one in eight men has the resources of twice the average male and can support two wives. Although there is often jealousy and dissension in polygynous partnerships, some women decide that it is better to be a second wife of a well-appointed male than dependent on a poor, or a genetically, physically, or intellectually disadvantaged man with few, or no resources. Although the fertility of a polygynous wife may be on average lower than a monogamous one, the principal wife is likely to gain a higher fertility (Hrdy R329 133). By contrast overt polyandry is almost unknown, occurring only in 0.5% of societies, and then only to retain family land ownership. In addition, genetic testing confirms 4-30% of ostensible children of a given father in human societies ( p 93 ), and 10-20% in monogamous colonial birds are the offspring of a secret affair, confirming that monogamy is 'social', as biologists state. There is a peak in human divorces around the time a single child would become able to fend for itself in a social grouping when they can run and talk (Fisher R209 ). Humans are thus serially monogamous for a time phased to carry out our basic reproductive function, in this way producing a majority of our offspring.
Many writers gloss the question of monogamy and its alternatives with their own orientation. Male researchers tend to stress the 'seeking wild oats in young buxom fertile women' scenario while female writers veer towards a plea for monogamy, or serial monogamy, on a resourcing basis. Geoffrey Miller ( R475 ) espouses the role of a resourceful lovable male who extols mutual mate selection while espousing sexual selection and its inevitable reproductive choice (and hence infidelity), as central to our cultural flowering. In being so affectionate to monogamy he looks ever more like a lekking grouse strutting ever-so-astutely on the human stage of sexual charisma. From her side Helen Fisher conveniently champions a short four-to-five year serial monogamy and separates monogamy from fidelity, thus bringing into swing all sorts of strange affairs characteristic of unfettered female choice, keeping the field wide open for female reproductive 'inscrutability'.
Sarah Hrdy (R330) quite rightly homes in on the parental aspects of reproductive process as equally essential to reproductive efficacy, as is sexual choice, in espousing the need to emphasize infant survival and its flip-side - infanticide in social relationships. She also advances a role for allo-parenting - the extended family help of daughters, grandmothers etc. with child support , rather than a dependence on 'monogamous' male partnership in human evolution. It is important to take this into account as it occurs in various forms among mammals and primates and is a human cultural motif which is prevalent or even predominant in some cultures. It extends to the historical epoch in beena marriages of biblical times typified by Jacob's sojourn with Laban. It also reflects the very significantly lower paternal investment made by men in many cultures, although many of the founding cultures we know of from Africa do have affectionate fathers ( p 109 ), ( p 124 ).
Hrdy's evidence for obligate allo-parenting ( R330 90), where its role is critical to infant survival comes only from "many species of birds, and about 10 percent of mammals, including a tiny fraction of primates (humans and a few species of monkeys and prosimians that bear multiple young)". However she notes ( R329 97) that in many primate species, including squirrel monkeys, howlers, vervets and colubines, mothers readily give up their newborns to the attention of others. A newborn langur may spend half their first day with other females. On the other hand baboons and rhesus monkeys refuse to give up their infants for some weeks. This sharing offers advantages of unencumbered foraging and additional protection and even, in an emergency, adoption. It also gives young females, who have not given birth, a chance to learn infant care. However it also involves negatives. In macaques and baboons where there are several competing matrilines, high ranking females may take infants of low-ranking females and injure them or refuse to give them back, causing them to starve ( R330 52). Young females may not be fully competent and drop their charges. The recurrent observations of abuse suggest not all females who borrow infants are doing so merely to care for them. Most allo-mothers are also exploiting their charges in some way, using them as pawns in social interactions or as props to practice maternal skills (Hrdy R329 98, Low R427 187).
Allo-mothering does not occur in apes, and so cannot fairly be advanced as an evolutionary strategy in the transition from apes to Homo, except as a human innovation. Chimp females do not release their offspring to the care of others even older siblings (Hrdy R330 161, 502), and have a 5 to 8 year gap between pregnancies (Jolly R346 362) (5 to 6 years for bonobos) so do not have the repeated reproductive pressures of many cooperate parenting species such as tamarins who have multiple births. Chimp mothers only resume estrus after lactation stops at three to four years, although this is not true for bonobos (de Waal R164 ). While chimp mothers often wander alone with infants, a strategy of defence against infanticide, bonobo mothers with coalitions which make infanticide an unknown rejoin their group immediately after having given birth and copulate within months. The closest we come to such activities in apes may be male games with infants in bonobos (Enomoto, R194 ). Like reciprocal altruism, allo-parenting is not just an issue of mutualism but of trusting interdependence. On the other hand there is good evidence in human society for a relatively high degree of mutual help with child care among families, particularly in matrilocal and or matrilineal societies, but also in patrilocal societies where there is adequate access and contact between maternal kin, and where there is respect for the bond between a first time mother and her maternal grandmother as in the !Kung.
One explanation for human menopause is that a slowly maturing, long-lived species may gain an evolutionary advantage from a 'biological clock' which causes a female who has reached the age where her children have offspring to enter menopause and to invest in the welfare of her children's offspring rather than her own - the grandmothering hypothesis. Chimps, unlike Humans ( p 348 ) remain fertile until too old to bear pregnancy. Kristen Hawkes ( R302 , Blurton Jones, Hawkes, et. al. R67 ) has put forward evidence from groups such as the !Kung and Hadza. A study (Lahdenpera et. al. R397 ) of 2,800 18th and 19th century women has confirmed that they had two extra grandchildren for each decade they lived after 50, confirming a selective advantage for grandparenting resulting from the help and experience received. Orcas share this menopausal biology, with females living to 90 yrs and taking a lead role in group salmon hunting, unlike males which live on average to about 40 and whose survivial is adversely affected by the death of their matriarch (Current Biology, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.037).
However there is no such advantage for grandfathers. The same type of historical research in Finland has shown that fathers with only one wife provided no benefit to their grandchildren. Neither did men who sired more than one family. Only widowed men could remarry, and if they had children with their new wife, they fathered more kids, on average, than men who married once. But ultimately remarried men don't end up with any more grandchildren. The presence of a grandfather tended rather to be associated with decreased survival of grandchildren - possibly because the children of the first mother lose out on food and resources that go to the second mother's kids. The researchers then compared the lifespan of men from polygamous countries with those from monogamous nations taking careful account of collateral factors and found that fathering more children with more wives leads to increased male longevity - suggesting that polygyny is at the root of male longlevity, rather than it being simply a free-rider effect of the genes for female longlevity (Callaway E 2008 Polygamy is the key to a long life New Scientist 19 Aug).
Trends is the proportion of individuals living to an age consistent with grandparenting (Caspari Rachel 2011 The Evolution of Grandparents Sci. Am. Aug)
It has been debated whether the rise of grandparenting has a genetic or cultural origin bearing in mind that cultural factors can also give rise to genetic changes through selective sweeps under the unique selective regimes cultures create. Archeological evidence based on tooth wear , secondary dentine and tomography indicate the proportion of individuals living to grandparenting age for their populations expanded only recently in evolution and might have a cultural basis. However menopause, which is not shared by chimps suggests an older origin, particularly bearing in mind that the mitochondrial evolutionary tree of the Bushmen goes back some 140,000 years, rather than the 40,000 years associated with cultural emergence in Europe.
Judith Rich Harris ( R293 ) also stresses the importance of horizontal peer groups in human development as opposed to the manifest vertical importance human societies pay to kinship and family parenting. Although these horizontal and vertical influences are largely complementary in any society, as we have noted in the prisoners dilemma, peer groups form an extension of the allo-parenting concept, as children mature. Human families and extended families are well positioned to gain help from existing daughters, as well as siblings, uncles and aunts. Humans also engage in more complex reciprocal and mutual relationships than any other species and social networking, even in the face of patriarchal dominance appears to be a central aspect of how human females maintain a state of relative autonomy, even under repressive conditions. Given the relatively low level of paternal investment in infant care in most patriarchal societies, such factors are certainly no less important.
Ironically, Hrdy gained this perspective in a climate of anxiety about her own absences and the allo-parenting of her own offspring (which she fittingly (62) calls "the day care factor") by a paid care-giver, while she was engaged in field studies, and her husband was occupied in a medical practice, placing her in a privileged position, not dissimilar to a tamarin mother. The allo-mothering issue is thus close to home and by no means entirely objective, although it is a dilemma of maternal ambivalence shared by many women in attempting to resolve the Hamiltonian prisoners' dilemma of the mother-child relationship:
"One angle to the story had to do with women who combined motherhood with demanding careers, a reasonable line of inquiry since my daughter had just been born ... No doubt Trivers spoke straight from the heart when he told the reporter 'My own view is that Sarah ought to devote more time and study and thought to raising a healthy daughter That way misery won't keep travelling down the generations'. Needless to say these off the cuff remarks, which cut straight to the heart of feminist wariness of evolutionists were prominently published. Here was not just a reference to inter-generational transmission of bad mothering ... this was a reference to the ghosts in my nursery. Was I offended? After all my daughter's father was an infectious disease specialist working long hours and Professor Trivers, also a father was just as consumed by his work as I was in mine. Clearly in addition to the assumption about what infants need, there was an assumption being made about precisely who should meet those needs. Progenitors of one sex only had to realign their priorities to prevent 'misery' passing down the generations. At the time though, the unfairness of this logic was far less riveting than my own nagging anxiety lest Trivers was right"... vocation or reproduction. Twenty years later I still return to this topic with trepidation (Hrdy R330 490).
Anne Campbell ( R103 250), perhaps as a result of dealing with female competition and girl gangs, give a more prosaic gloss: Polygyny is a system that has been and is practised in many societies but it is one that most women have resisted (it generates strong conflicts of interest between co-wives) and while men may have envied polygynists, democracy has meant that their envy has ultimately overthrown the system. It is not democracy, but Christian anti-sexual morality that has outlawed polygynous marriage in the Western world. Monogamy seems to have won for now.
Campbell's work has upset some evolutionary psychologists and those who believe that the world would be at peace if women were in charge. "Good male partners can be very thin on the ground [in US inner city gang areas] - male mortality is high, many men end up in jail, and the ones who are successful will often leave the neighbourhood," she says. Here the most desirable men are often gang members who have money and status. "They can provide for their girl, but since they're spoilt for choice, they can also afford to treat the girls quite abusively," says Campbell. "Yet, because of the intense competition for male partners, girls tend not to band together to teach those guys a lesson, but take it out on each other - especially on the new girls." She takes a more detached view. "Even though biology may help us understand where some of our more unpleasant tendencies come from, it never prescribes how things ought to be," she says. "On the contrary, I think understanding why people may feel or act this way may help us to deal with it" (Vernimmen T 2015 Gentle sex? Females just as feisty as males over reproduction New Scientist 25 Jun).
She goes on to cite the experiment by Holland and Rice ( p 16 ),which forced monogamy on normally promiscuous house flies. This demonstrated that their usual arms race of semi-toxic male semen and female immunity resistance waned, leaving the females defenseless to the toxicity of natural males and the males unable to compete. It also showed that the monogamously sequestered flies had more successful offspring under these artificial conditions. This is placing monogamy in double jeopardy - it is not an evolutionarily stable strategy in house flies and enforcing it is causing the loss of adaptive characteristics. Should we all seek stricter morals to increase the human population at risk of losing our own adaptability and creative ingenuity?
Bobbi Low's ( R427 ) study in "Why Sex Matters" considers human marriage patterns best fit a form of serial monogamy, but classifies humans as 'slightly polygamous', based on the manifest differences in variance of reproductive potential between men and women, noting (55): "Most societies with a one-spouse-at-a-time rules would be called polygynous in a biological definition." Deborah Blum ( R66 110) admits Low's evidence: "In the United States though, she suggests we maintain a kind of informal polygamy. The overall pattern in America is that more divorced men than divorced women remarry and when they do remarry, more of the divorced men begin new families ... it turns out that we in the United States look more like polygamists in general, than serial monogamists". However she then envisions hopefully (109-125) that we are 'travelling toward monogamy' - going so far as to identify monogamy with 'equal parenting partnership': "If we want to define ourselves as a monogamous species, then we need to accept all the biological implications" - namely equal parenting family values in which both partners 'bring resources, love and affection to all aspects of marriage' - this said from a position of a career marriage in journalism where a 'traditional' set of sex roles is sine qua non 'inappropriate'.
Sexual double-think in Western society. Left the typical pattern of serial monogamy: adventure, betrayal and divorce is really a cover for male polygynous desires, covertly expressed in the lone polygamous carousing alpha male underwear among a 'harem' of bras and panties (right).
Barash and Lipton ( R41 153) in "The Myth of Monogamy" sum up this complex situation:
"Having looked, although briefly, at the diversity of human mateships, what can we conclude? For one thing, it seems undeniable that human beings have evolved as mildly polygynous creatures whose "natural" mating system probably involved one man mated, when possible, to more than one woman. It is also clear than even in societies that institutionalized some form of polygyny, monogamy was nonetheless frequent, although, for men at least, this typically meant making the best of a bad situation. (Worse yet was bachelorhood.) There is also great diversity, however, in the patterns of monogamy, ranging from frequent extramarital sexuality, condoned and sometimes even encouraged by the social code, to occasional affairs, frowned upon but not taken very seriously, to rigid monogamy, jealously and violently enforced ... although even here it seems likely that the rules of absolute sexual fidelity are often violated, in secret. Certainly there is no evidence, either from biology, primatology, or anthropology, that monogamy is somehow 'natural' or 'normal' for human beings. There is, by contrast, abundant evidence that people have long been prone to have multiple sexual partners. In a sense, however, even if human beings were more rigidly controlled by their biology, it would be absurd to claim that monogamy is unnatural or abnormal, especially since it was doubtless the way most people lived, most of the time ... even while men strived for polygyny and women (as well as men) engaged in EPCS (extra pair couplings). This is clearest for men, if only because polygyny has often been institutionalized-and, thus, proudly displayed by the male 'winners' - whereas EPCs among Homo sapiens, as among most living things, have been much more covert, because of the costs of disclosure. Nonetheless, male philandering would never have become part of our biological heritage if women did not permit some men, at least on occasion, to succeed in their quest for EPC. Which is to say that, whether officially polygynous or monogamous, women-perhaps no less than men-have long sought extramarital lovers. What makes human beings unusual among other mammals is not our penchant for polygyny but the fact that most people practice at least some form of monogamy."
Barbara Smuts' ( R651 ) ideas of the evolutionary origins of patriarchy, or male dominance begin with the same assumptions, that nonhuman and human primates seek to maximize their fitness and that males and females have different reproductive strategies. In short, males go for 'mate quantity' whereas females pursue 'mate quality'. Smuts is quite explicit about not seeing human behavior as 'genetically programmed' and argues that "natural selection has favored in humans the potential to develop and express any one of a wide range of reproductive strategies, depending on environmental conditions". Smuts focuses her attention on male aggression against females and female resistance to this aggression - that males are aggressive against females in order to mate with them, to pursue 'mate quantity'; but females, following their own reproductive interests, can and do resist. At the same time, there is variation in the extent to which females can successfully resist male aggression. Consideration of the numerous factors that may be involved concerns females' ability to resist male aggression by forming alliances with other females against males. Among the many primate species in which females bond together, this strategy works quite well. Among others, such as the common chimpanzees, females disperse at maturity to join new groups where they do not have female relatives to protect them. Among the bonobos, females disperse out but are also able to form alliances with unrelated females in the new groups. Thus, among common chimpanzees we see relatively high levels of male aggression against females, whereas among bonobos male aggression is successfully resisted and males do not sexually coerce females. Applying the same logic to human evolution, she proposes that the prevalence of patrilocal residence in human societies means that women are often deprived of the support of female kin and allies, leaving them more vulnerable to male aggression "In pursuing their material and reproductive interests, women often engage in behaviors that promote male resource control and male control over female sexuality. Thus women, as well as men, contribute to the perpetuation of patriarchy". Here Smuts suggests that in some circumstances women can facilitate their own reproductive success not so much by allying with other females as by allying with mates who command more resources and by complying with customs that increase paternity certainty, promoting patriarchy. Smuts is correct in that cultural developments appear to have developed strategies of reproduction which have acted to enforce male domination to the detriment of sexual paradox. Human society is integrally complex and responds both to evolutionarily acquired traits and cultural interaction in choosing complex forms of social adaption (Stone R667 ).
Steatopygous fat buttocks are shared by some !Kung genotypes (Low R427 , Hrdy R330 ) and the paleolithic 'Venus' figurines such as Lespugue (right). Among the !Kung (then called Hottentot), Darwin's informant reported, a truly sexy woman was one who was unable to rise from level ground because of the weight of fat on her buttocks (Low R427 81). Unlike apes, human babies are usually born with a healthy store of fat. Mothers also accumulate reserves of fat on the breasts and buttocks to provide for, and indicate fecundity (Hrdy R330 126).
Gatherer-hunter societies with ancient roots, as well as most current societies show a spectrum of relationship patterns in which monogamy predominates, adultery is frequent and in addition to sewing wild oats, outside the Christian sphere, up to 15% of men who have the resources to support two families are in polygynous marriages. Serial monogamy accentuates this polygynous tendency. The possible sperm retention of female orgasm, occurring simultaneously or subsequent to male ejaculation and the fact that women having affairs frequently mate close to ovulation and have a predominance of powerful retentive orgasms all attest to an evolutionary basis for 'infidelity'. Even if an 'unfaithful' woman has sex more often with her husband, she is still more likely to conceive by her lover. On the male side, sperm competition supports the same conclusion. Men also make larger ejaculates when they are away from their wives during the day, again indicating sperm competition.
The evidence of genetic testing suggests up to 30% of offspring of ostensible fathers (with a possible average figure around 4%) are sired covertly by another man confirms female reproductive 'inscrutability' is likewise operating at a steady level (Bellis et. al. R56 ).
Concealed ovulation empowers the potential mother, both in long-term relationship, by keeping the daddy around, and the strange affair, by enabling covert infidelity and encouraging other men to consider themselves possible fathers, as long as this doesn't result in public accusations of 'loose promiscuity'. It thus entices toward monogamy, while promoting female reproductive choice. Given menopause and the much higher female fertility in the years after menarche, the higher mortality rate of young males and the male desire for fertile partners, rather than the resourcing and protection women seek, older men tend to seek young nubile partners they believe can produce the offspring they themselves are unable to. It is thus easy to see how female beauty becomes a biological indicator of fitness, with all the evolutionary manifestations of fecundity, in breasts, buttocks, hour-glass waist-hip ratio and the accessory features, including bodily symmetry which epitomize female beauty and which a variety of evidence shows is a genuine indicator of genetic fitness and a key indicator of reproductive potential.
Female concern for physical beauty as a reproductive asset is attested to throughout archeological history from the ochre and beads in Blombos cave ( p 94 ), ancient venus figures and jewelry at Dolni Vestonice to the mirrors and jewelry at Catal Hüyük. While male Paleolithic art focuses on the prowess of the hunt, female representations are of fecund anatomy as in the lunar Venus of Lauselle ( p 174 ). Notably the venus of Willendorff has been associated with the 'string revolution' of Elizabeth Barber (Adovasio et. al. R792 177-183) as she appears to be wearing a textile 'cap' rather than a head of hair. Needles were inveted by 37,000 BC (ibid 212) and weaving appears at Dolni Vestonice (ibid 181).
The significance in Homo sapiens of the unique features of female sexual evolution is enshrined in many of our founding archetypal myths, including the Fall from Eden in Genesis, where it is Eve's natural beauty which is tragically linked to her earthy temptation:
Eve was said to be so beautiful that no one could look upon her.
For her the sun and clouds would arc into a rainbow
the flowers would bloom where she walked
and the birds burst into spring song (Kabbala).
The relatively smaller reproductive investment of the human male in each offspring than the female favors polygyny, various of forms of which are common from hunter-gatherer bands through the Jews of Old Testament times to many modern cultures, including the Islamic world. A male will tend to seek to fertilize several females to broaden his reproductive potential, simply because he lacks the power for autonomous reproduction and must invest in mating strategy and less-direct child support. An astute female may in turn seek covert adultery to be fertilized by a highly-regarded, manifestly fit or histocompatibly exotic male who is not her immediate 'domestic husband' to seek the 'best of both worlds' - genetic and resource-bearing. Women prefer men with complementary histocompatibility (giving off a exotic pheromones) when ovulating, but revert to preferring familial antigens when on the pill (mimicking data on mice during pregnancy). The newly recognized VNO organ of smell appears to be specific in sensing for such physical nuances. The pattern is in this sense 'cooperative' between the genders as a reproductive strategy shared by humans and monogamous birds, in the prisoners' dilemma of sexual paradox, except when it is repressed, e.g. by draconian male suppression of female infidelity. Such 'moderate infidelity' is indicated by the existence of 'kamikaze' blocking sperm in humans, the intermediate physiology of human testes between the promiscuous chimp and polygynous but non-promiscuous gorilla, the sperm-retentive nature of female orgasm and the concealed estrus itself, which is clearly a form of 'evolutionary female empowerment' consistent with it evolving in a context in which female sexual choice has been an ongoing reality, putting the female in Matt Ridley's words 'one step ahead of the male'. It is also consistent with the privacy of sexual relations, which make it difficult to detect covert infidelity.
In hunter-gatherer societies, the male opportunist streak would have been far more easily satisfied by adultery than by polygamy. In most gatherer-hunter societies it is uncommon to find a man with more than one wife and very rare to find a man with more than two, but wherever adultery has been looked for, it is common. By analogy with monogamous, colonial birds, therefore, one would expect to find human beings practising either mate guarding, or frequent copulation. Richard Wrangham has speculated that human beings practise mate guarding in absentia. Men keep an eye on their wives by proxy. If the husband is away hunting all day in the forest, he can ask his mother, or his neighbour, whether his wife got up to anything during the day. In the African Pygmies Wrangham studied, gossip was rife and a husband's best chance of deterring his wife's affairs was to let her know that he kept abreast of the gossip. Wrangham goes on to observe that this is impossible without language. So he speculates that the sexual division of labour, the institution of child-rearing marriages and the invention of language - three of the most fundamental human characteristics that we share with no other ape - all depended on each other (Ridley R577 220).
Ancient beads and marked ochre (New Scientist 10 Apr 2004 8). Left: Ostrich shell beads Yoilangalani river Serengeti National Park (c 40,000 - 110,000) Centre: Scored ochre block. Blombos (c 77,000). Right: Pea-sized Nassarius kraussianus shells pierced and showing wear from leather thongs. Blombos cave (c 75,000) Similar shells have been found at Skhul in Israel dating back to 100,000 years (Henshilwood R309 , Holden R323 ).
Hunter-gatherers cared for first known ancient invalid
On a counterpoised tack, Chris Knight ( R383 ) and Camilla Power ( R551 ), ( p 77 ) have suggested that the lunar and menstrual cycles became locked into the strategic relationship between the sexes in terms of a meat for sex exchange in a real, or imputed 'sex strike' by the women, associated with inducing the men into resourceful hunting and with maintaining female reproductive choice over the men around 500,000 years ago, when brain size started expanding rapidly in the form of a phase of sexual withdrawal . This is in line with Catherine Key's Prisoners' Dilemma analysis ( p 34 ) of the shifting reproductive investments towards greater female commitment, given both increased risks and difficulty of delivery and longer child-rearing with a slowed neotonous infant growth pattern as part of an adaption to the larger brain size within the constraints of cervical delivery. Camilla Power ( R551 310) proposes that women extended any patterns of lunar menstrual synchronization by faking the signs. She suggests that menstruating women would have become a threat to other females by attracting much-needed male attention, particularly when menstruating women were rarer as a result of pregnancy and anovulatory demand breast feeding ( p 107 ). So women who were nursing and pregnant took control of the situation by feigning menstruation. What began as impromptu borrowing of one another's blood or using animal blood became ritualized culturally in the use of red ochre. She points out that the word 'cosmetics' comes from Greek, cosmos, or order. "In traditional cultures cosmetics are not mere frippery. They define who belongs to which group, who can touch who, and who can mate with who. The regularized use of cosmetics as a sexual signal could even have been the thing that marked off modern humans." So perhaps lipstick is not just the key to culture, but also to the origin of our species. Ian Watts' study of 74 sites in southern Africa dating from more than 20,000 years ago, including Blombos, reveals an explosion in the use of red ochre and other red pigments between about 100,000 and 120,000 years ago (Douglas R171 ). Findings in Zambia and the re-dating of Border Cave in South Africa may push the date of the earliest use back to 170,000 years ago in Zambia. Some have yet to be convinced about the symbolic purpose of ochre and say the use is rather to do with preserving animal hides. Chris Henshilwood suggests the shells were jewelry or for accounting and associated with peoples such as the San. Independently from the suggested link between ochre, menstruation and sexual control, the early appearance of cultural forms in cosmetic and jewelry suggests females had a formative role in the emergence of culture. Timothy Taylor ( R683 ) questions why ancient cosmetics should apply to women rather than men, since men like peacocks are the more competitive sex, but a simple argument based only on male reproductive competition ignores the manifest complexity of human sexual selection by both sexes.
Briffault ( R76 v3 572) sees the relationship between woman as danger, menstruation, and the moon as universal to our cultural origins:
"The maleficent, or more properly speaking, the dangerous and dreaded character which is ascribed to women extends ... to that celestial body which is everywhere intimately associated with women, namely the Moon. The tabu with which the menstruating woman is invested attaches to the cause of menstruation also." (583) The Moon is the regulator and according to primitive ideas the cause of the periodical functions of women. Menstruation is caused by the Moon; it is a lunar function , and is commonly spoken of as the 'moon'. It is frequently regarded as being the result of actual sexual intercourse between the Moon and women. ... The Maori expressly affirm that 'the moon is the husband of all women', and that their mortal husband is only as it were a subsidiary co-husband. The 'heitiki' which represents a foetus ... was said to have been given to the women by the Moon. The situation is similar with Soma the Moon God. In Persia the moon is keeper of the seed of the bull as the Moon and its crescent shape is associated with the bull's horns. Sin the Moon God is also a bull who sought to renew the seed of royalty eternally. The Moon is in this role primally male preceding its association with the Moon Goddess (592) .
The social pattern of overt monogamy and covert adultery is common to all socially-monogamous animals which gather together in close communities and have a degree of resource dependence on a male to assist in child rearing. Adultery is thus a biologically important contributor to the genetic diversity and genetic fitness of humanity. (Fisher R209, Ridley R577 , Watson R735 ). It should thus not be suppressed or exposed to genetic testing to the point where female reproductive choice becomes unraveled.
The two sexual hormones are also intimately interwoven ( p 347 ). Women also have circulating testosterone and have been found to become resilient to stress when given small traces of testosterone analogues and to respond to pornographic enticement with a testosterone burst of 80% over background, compared with a similar male burst of 100%. Complementing this, males require estrogen to be fertile ( p 349 ). Progesterone is likewise present in both sexes and has a pronounced daily fluctuation in men peaking in the evening when love-making is common (Scientific American Jan 94 103). Men also respond to female ovulation, with increased testosterone levels, although it is largely concealed, and the men may not consciously recognize they are doing this. It may even be that they are responding to the women's tendency to engage sex more often and passionately around ovulation. There are also indications that women prefer men with marginally more female characteristics, suggesting a Dionysian direction of human evolution, consistent with the more evolved (neotonous or child-like) female physique. The ironic exception is in mid ovulation, when they prefer the strong features of a fit high testosterone male.
The monthly mood swings experienced by many women may serve an evolutionary purpose, researchers say, by helping to get them pregnant. The brains of 15 women were scanned at different stages of menstruation as they played a game with hypothetical prizes of money at the end. During the follicular phase, both the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala showed higher activity both when the women were anticipating a reward and when the reward was delivered. The orbitofrontal cortex is associated with decision making, reward and emotion processing, and the amygdala mediates emotional reactions ( p 364 ). This means the women were probably experiencing greater feelings of reward during the first half of their menstrual cycles than during the second half (Menstrual mood swings may have a use after all New Scientist 29 Jan 07).
Written texts of all ages have the same drift when it comes to the midriff - they consistently describe women?s thin waists as attractive. The conclusion comes from an analysis of British, Indian and Chinese texts dating as far back as the first century AD. According to the researchers, the finding supports the idea that we are hardwired to prefer slender waists, which are linked to good health and fertility (The hourglass figure is truly timeless New Scientist 10 Jan 07).
Large-breasted, narrow-waisted women have the highest reproductive potential, according to a new study, suggesting western men's penchant for women with an hourglass shape may have some biological justification. Women with a relatively low waist-to-hip ratio and large breasts had about 30 per cent higher levels of the female reproductive hormone estradiol than women with other combinations of body shapes. If there are 30 per cent higher levels, it means they are roughly three times more likely to get pregnant (Barbie-shaped women more fertile 5 May 04).
Women take greater care over their appearance when they are at peak levels of fertility. A study working with a group of 30 women aged 18 to 37, took two full-body photographs of each woman, one close to ovulation when the woman was highly fertile, and one at a point of low fertility in the menstrual cycle. Volunteers were then invited to decide which of the two photos showed the woman trying to look more attractive. They chose the woman in her "high fertility" photo some 59.5 per cent of the time, more often than would be expected by chance (Hormones and Behavior, vol 51, p 40).
They say opposites attract and a couple's differences may be key to lasting happiness, according to a new genetic study of people in relationships. The study revealed that as MHC ( p 355 ) genetic similarities increased, it was the women who were the most dramatically affected. They were less sexually responsive to their partners, more likely to have affairs, and more attracted to other males, particularly during fertile days of their menstrual cycles, Garver-Apgar says. In relationships where MHC genetic differences were significant, these potentially relationship-splitting behaviours were either absent or greatly reduced. The fraction of MHC genes shared directly correlated to the woman's number of adulterous partners ? if the man and woman had 50% of the MHC genes in common, the women had a 50% chance of cheating with another man, on average. Men did not seem to be affected by genetics at all (Don't pair up with matching genes New Scientist 5 Jan 07).
As noted, Smuts ( R651 ) has suggested that females may have by evolutionary reliance on male resources, inadvertently promoted patriarchal control of the female. In patriarchally dominant societies women who give birth to more male offspring may have a better chance of reproducing their genes through high-born sons who have greater reproductive opportunities. Sex ratios in highly fed animals can reach 1.4 males to each female. Sexual bias in animals may be partly a result of a process of selective abortion, even sometimes of whole high-female litters. However, it turned out to be more the mothers rank in the social group which influenced the sex of their offspring. Valerie Grant discovered that mothers who subsequently had daughters rated 1.35 on a psychological dominance scale, but those who later had sons rated 2.26 - a highly significant difference, possibly mediated by testosterone levels. In studies of some feudal societies Laura Betzig and Sarah Hrdy have noted bias towards more males among elite class groups, while the peasantry have a compensating slight bias towards more daughters. This is reflected in patterns of marrying up in the Indian dowry ( p 288 ). The requirement for a 50:50 ratio of sons and daughters stemming from the collectively equal reproductive potential of each sex as a whole will lead to such compensation. Since the male inherits his rank, the female has a chance to marry up, but because she moves, she cannot carry her rank and family connections, with implications about the dowry in its varying forms (Ridley R577 ). There are also differential effects on a mothers life-span, with sons reducing life-span by 34 weeks, possibly because of testosterone immune reduction and the impact of a larger baby, and daughters extending it by 23 weeks. This is consistent with boys being favoured when mothers have better resources (Science 296, 1085).
The discovery of carvings on a snake-shaped rock along with 70,000-year-old spearheads nearby has dramatically pushed back the earliest evidence for ritual behavior, or what could be called religion. The finding comes from a cave in the Tsodilo Hills of Botswana, a mecca of sorts for the local San people, who call it the Mountain of the Gods. The 6m rock bears a striking resemblance to a snake, including a mouthlike gash at the end. Hundreds of small notches covered the rock. Entrants to the cave apparently made these markings to enhance the snake illusion by creating the impression of scales and movement. Snakes feature prominently in the traditions and the mythology of the San, sometimes called the Bushmen (Scientific American 1 Dec 2006).
A 2004 study by the US National Bureau of Economic Research, based on data from 86,436 births established that 51.5% of babies born to couples living together at the time of conception were boys, compared to 49.9% among parents who were not. Studying brothers and sisters, the study found that couples who were living together before conception were 14% more likely to have a male child than when they were not. There are reports dating back to the 19th Century of a lower percentage of boys being born to women who were not married. Studies in modern Kenya have found a similar trait among polygynously married women. Male embryos are less robust than their female counterparts, and so require a greater degree of nurturing through pregnancy if they are to survive to full term. It may be that a woman who is in a stable relationship may be in a better position to provide this care. Karen Norberg ( R504 ) notes "There are several possible mechanisms that could explain the effect. Factors operating at conception could include the mother's or father's hormone status, or the timing or frequency of intercourse; factors operating later in pregnancy could result in sex biases in risk of miscarriage." The natural bias of the sex ratio of about 106 boys to 100 girls may compensate for sex-linked diseases such as muscular dystrophy, which affect males through their single X-chromosome.
Sarah Johns ( R341 ) asked 609 first-time mothers, who had already given birth, to guess when they thought they would die. By subtracting the mother's age, she then calculated the number of years each woman thought she had left to live. As the number of perceived years left rose, so too did the chance that they had had a son. Every extra year on the clock increased the odds of producing a male by 1%. The finding backs up a 30-year-old hypothesis that suggests women can bias the sex of their unborn babies, to enhance the chances of their genes being passed on to future generations. Boys need more looking after than girls, the theory says. So when food is scarce and resources are low, females preferentially give birth to girls because they are more likely to live through the hard times. But boys are able to produce more offspring, so when resources are plentiful, mothers should be more likely to give birth to boys, to maximize the number of potential grandchildren. The research accords with other human and animal studies. Mhairi Gibson showed that rural Ethiopian women with low levels of nutrition are more likely to give birth to girls. As we have noted, this is consistent with the Trivers-Willard hypothesis of women biasing the sex of their offspring biologically to suit their reproductive prospects (p 30). However there is no evidence that genes can cause some mothers to conceive embryos exclusively of one sex or the other. Researchers at the ART Reproductive center Beverly Hills found that couples seeking pre-implantation genetic diagnosis ( p 401 ) to correct a run of one sex, produced embryos equally of both sexes (Independent).
Evolutionary adaptions, based on female choice are likely to have been central to human intellectual and cultural development, through the expanding social fluency required to adapt to gender paradox, despite the severe repression of 'deceitful' and 'polluting' behavior in females by virtually all patriarchal societies. Brain asymmetries usually associated only with human language have now been discovered in chimps, suggesting the adaptions leading to language go all the way back to the great ape ancestor. Language and tool-making are becoming less-likely candidates for distinguishing human evolution from the great apes. However maintaining a resourceful social and reproductive position in the face of covert sexual deceit requires astute judgement, sensitive 'intelligence', poetic eloquence, skilled craft, astute affection and all the diverse resourcefulness that language and tool-making can bring. All the trappings of culture and intellect come down ultimately to one genetic reality - reproduction - and acceptance, or affirmative choice, by the opposite sex.
Continuing reproductive asymmetry in human society is supported by the near uniformity of the human Y-chromosome in Africa. This is significant in the context of the putative origins of human diversity in Africa as evidenced by the African root of the 'mitochondrial Eve' - the earliest common female ancestor of modern humanity ( p 103 ). The male need to seek as many sexual partners as possible also explains why male mammals don't lactate and feed their young (Diamond R166 ). This process is enhanced by full internal fertilization and particularly uterine live birth, which breaks sexual symmetry completely at the outset. Male child-rearing occurs primarily in externally fertilizing species such as fish and amphibians, and in warm blooded nesting birds where two partners are required to ensure survival of the offspring, however it is essential for men to father their children in a world which is both culturally complex requiring all the astuteness both parents can muster to succeed and where maternal ambivalence is a necessary part of female choice given that we are a species in which the female has a higher risk and more massive investment than almost any other.
Reproductive bottleneck in Y-chromosome diversity began about 10,000 years ago and continued for several millennia (Karmin M et al. 2015 A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture (doi:10.1101/gr.186684.114).
In 2015, research into the comparative population diversity of maternal mitochondrial DNA and the male Y-chromosome led to an astounding contrast. Around 10,000 years ago, corresponding to the birth of agriculture, the diversity of the Y-chromosome underwent a collapse across vast areas on the human-colonized planet. There is no evidence this was a result of direct biological or genetic factors as there were no differences between differing Y-clades. The conclusion is that the effect was driven by cultural changes associated with agriculture in which powerful men were able to reproductively exploit large numbers of women and transmit their reproductive success on to their male heirs, squeezing the majority of males out of the reproductive race. Estimates of this phase of extreme reproductive polygyny suggest that for every reproducing male there were 17 reproductive females effectively making harems the predominant form of sexual relationship.
A member of the research team hypothesizes that somehow, only a few men accumulated lots of wealth and power, leaving nothing for others. These men could then pass their wealth on to their sons, perpetuating this pattern of elitist reproductive success. Then, as more thousands of years passed, the numbers of men reproducing, compared to women, rose again. In more recent history, as a global average, about four or five women reproduced for every one man, still a highly polygynous picture that leads into some of the great patriarchs of history from Ghengis Khan whose Y-chromosome continues to exist in 8% of men in 16 populations spanning Asia and some 0.5% of males worldwide (Zerjal, T. et al. 2003 Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72, 717-21) and Udayama who was said to keep 16,000 virgins behind flaming walls ( R577 , R735 99). Several other great founders of Y-chromosome lineages have been discovered (Callaway E 2015 Nature doi:10.1038/nature.2015.16767, Balaresque, P et al. 2014 Eur. J. Hum. Genet. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.285).
This comes as an ironical twist since it is assumed that agriculture was an invention of women coming out of their role as gatherers in gather-hunter societies and provides a new perspective on the societies of the planter queens where female deities appear to have been worshipped at the same time as this extreme form of male reproductive elitism. The other thing that is really stunning about this effect is that it has been repeated widely acros disaparate world cultures, from China through the Near East to Europe and even Precolombian America.
When three populations Khoisan from Africa, Mongolian Khalks and Papua New Guinea Highlanders were examined for the differences in age between the Y-chromosome Adam and the mitochondrial Eve, the ages of all three groups had a roughly 2:1 difference in age (SAN 73.6 kya vs 176.5 kya, MNG 43.6 kya vs 134.4 kya and PNG 45.5 kya vs 81.05 kya). These results are most consistent with a higher female effective population size skewed toward an excess of females by sex-biased demographic processes. They demonstrate that overall female reproductive populations sizes throughout the last 100,000 years of human evolution have been effectively polygynous by a factor of around 2:1.
Generally the Y-chromosome Adam is only about half as many generations back, because the much greater diversity of reproductive frequency among males quickly floods the population with a few successful genotypes. The mitochondrial Eve, the mitochondrial ancestor of all humans currently alive, has been traced to Africa some 140,000 years ago, with 80% of human diversity still present in African people. The Y-chromosome Adam has been found to be much younger. Roy Baumeister (Is There Anything Good About Men? Oxford Univ Pr.) notes: "Today's human population is descended from twice as many women as men. I think this difference is the single most under-appreciated fact about gender. To get that kind of difference, you had to have something like, throughout the entire history of the human race, maybe 80% of women but only 40% of men reproduced."
When three populations Khoisan from Africa, Mongolian Khalks and Papua New Guinea Highlanders were examined for the differences in age between the Y-chromosome Adam and the mitochondrial Eve, the ages of all three groups had a roughly 2:1 difference in age (SAN 73.6 kya vs 176.5 kya, MNG 43.6 kya vs 134.4 kya and PNG 45.5 kya vs 81.05 kya). These results are most consistent with a higher female effective population size skewed toward an excess of females by sex-biased demographic processes. They demonstrate that overall female reproductive populations sizes throughout the last 100,000 years of human evolution have been effectively polygynous by a factor of around 2:1. The human mating system has often been considered to be moderately polygynous, based on both surveys of world populations and characteristics of human reproductive physiology. The practice of polygyny, in both the traditional sense and via "effective polygyny" whereby males tend to father children with more females than females do with males - a common practice in many contemporary western cultures (Low B 2000 Why sex matters: a Darwinian look at human behavior. Princeton Univ. Pr.), would tend to increase the variance in reproductive success among males, thereby lowering their relative to females. This can have extraordinary consequences if male mating success is inherited patrilineally, as demonstrated in the above research on the Y-chromosome bottleneck (Wilder J, Mobasher Z and Hammer M 2004 Genetic Evidence for Unequal Effective Population Sizes of Human Females and Males Mol. Biol. Evol. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh214).
The Out of Africa model, although strongly supported by genetic data, has been challenged by the regional development hypothesis which itself postulates sexual exchange as the formative influence on the co-evolution of human genotypes across vast regions of the planet. The Y-chromosome in Africa is of particularly low variation, although the putative Y-chromosome ancestor has also recently been linked to Africa ( p 105 ). Part of the problem here is that the Y chromosome is suffering genetic minimization ( p 343 ).
Human sexuality is a complex, fluid and culturally-responsive mix of overt and covert strategies - of professed monogamy and concealed or expressed infidelity. While women, no matter the degree of repression, endeavour to exercise reproductive choice, men with the resources do so, practise polygyny, either by loving em' and leaving em', having kept women, parlor maids or, outside Christian influence, overtly polygynous marriages. Long-term partnership, serial monogamy, polygyny, sewing wild oats and covert affairs are central continuing motifs of human reproductive strategies in the complex prisoners' dilemma game of advertised monogamy to secure long term resourcing and concealed or expressed reproductive opportunity on the part of both sexes. Rather than perceiving monogamy, and fidelity to be righteous in conflict with unholy polygamy, strange affairs, amid deceit, we need to respect the subtlety and maturity of human reproductive choice as at the heart of the creative complexifying power of sexual paradox. Looking back towards our cultural emergence, the lessons if any are that imposing moral rules by force has if anything undermined a natural state of creative paradox evident in our founding tribal societies, replacing it with an often violent male dominance.
If we consider the likely effects of the out of Africa hypothesis, we would expect that founding African populations not subject to active expansion and migration would have greater genetic diversity and that the genetic makeup of other world populations would come from a subset of the African diversity, consisting of those subgroups who migrated. This picture is complicated by the evidence for one or more bottlenecks that reduced the genetic diversity of the surviving human population to 3000-10,000 breeding pairs around 70,000 years ago, which has been associated with the supervolcanic Toba eruption in Sumatra.
The Volcanic Winter/Weak Garden of Eden model proposed in Ambrose 1998 . Population subdivision due to dispersal within African and to other continents during the early Late Pleistocene is followed by bottlenecks caused by volcanic winter, resulting from the eruption of Toba, around 71,000 years ago. The bottleneck may have lasted either 1000 years, during the hyper-cold stadial period between Dansgaard-Oeschlger events 19 and 20, or 10,000 years, during oxygen isotope stage 4. Population bottlenecks and releases are both synchronous. More individuals survived in Africa because tropical refugia were largest there, resulting in greater genetic diversity in Africa.
Evidence on Human Evolution from Chimp and Human Genomes
The biology chapter ( p 328 ) contains background information on many of these ideas.
Goodman ( R248 ) compared sequences in 97 genes from both human and ape species. When non-synonymous DNA regions are compared, where there are strong selection constraints for unique function we have 99.4% identity to chimps and bonobos. When synonymous sequences are compared we are 98.4% identity. Figures are around 98.7% when general point mutations are considered (Ebersberger et. al. R180 ) and significantly lower at 94.6% when changes from insertions and deletions are taken into account (Britten R78 ). These appear to be important for regulatory changes in existing genes. When differences in gene expression, particularly in the brain are taken into account chimps and humans have a 10% difference of expression of such genes according to Svante Paabo.
A detailed study of comparable chromosomes, human 21 and chimp 22, ( R733 , R501 ) has exposed a complex evolutionary process during and since human-chimp speciation, with transposable elements playing a significant and possibly crucial role in the divergence between the species. The 1.44% divergence in single base substitutions is consistent with previous studies, but these changes are widely dispersed across genes, so that 83% of the 231 coding sequences, including functionally important genes, show differences at the amino acid sequence level. In addition there are 68,000 insertions and deletions causing significant changes to 20% of the proteins. The insertions are driven primarily by insertion of Alu and LINE L1 elements ( p 331 ), occurring more commonly in the human line, as well as LTR (long terminal repeat) and endogenous retroviral elements ( p 332 ). Random deletion events also occurred, resulting in net chromosomal shrinkage. Neither do conserved regions correspond to transcribed functional genes. The most strongly conserved corresponds to a 'genetic desert' containing no coding sequences for proteins, consistent with the regulatory role of other human ultra-conserved regions (Bejerano et. al. R53 ).
Gene regulation is also significantly different between the species, with 20% of the genes showing significant differences in their pattern of activity. 15% of 'CpG-islands', associated with gene regulation, also differ between the species (Ebersberger R180 ). Two genes, the human versions of which contain large sections that are missing in the chimp, NCAM2 and GRIK1, are both known to be involved in neural function. The effects of such changes can be seen predominantly in the regulation of brain genes particularly those to do with further cycles of cell division during development. Starting with a set of about 12,000 genes, Cáceres et. al. ( R97 ) found 91 that differed significantly in human and chimp brains. In 83 of these cases, the human brain had higher gene activity. In contrast, where genetic activity differed in heart and liver, human genes had decreased activity just as often as they had increased activity. However even subtle changes in a single key gene can have major effects. Ridley ( R580 36) notes that ASPM ( p 103 ), a large 10,434 'letter' gene contains 28 functional exon regions, of which numbers 16 to 25 contain isoleucine-glutamine repeats which seem to determine how many cell generations occur in brain development in the vesicles about two weeks after conception. Humans have 74, mice 61 and fruit flies 24, in proportion to the number of neurons in the adult brain of each. Significant divergences have also been discovered in microglial cell sialic acid receptor genes ( R334 ).
A detailed map of human evolution is emerging from comparison between the results of the human and chimp genome projects ( R117 ). The discoveries so far are summarized below:
The single nucleotide divergence between chimp and human is only 1.23% (35 million base pairs) of which 1.06% corresponds to fixed fixed divergence between the species once 14-20% of intra-speces polymorphisms are taken into account. The correspondingly higher divergence of the Y of 1.9% and lower of the X of 0.94% indicates the male mutation rate is 3-6 times the female rate. This mutational discrepancy between the sexes supports the necessity of female reproductive choice in all hominids, including humans.
CpG (cytosine-guanine) bases are prone to deamination to TpG and constitute the dominant form of chemical damage, causing 25.2% of mutations but only occurring in 2.1% of bases. Mutation rate variations between sexes are not CpG correlated because chemical damage is time related as opposed to replication errors from the 5-6 fold higher number of cell divisions in spermatogenesis.
Mutation rates also vary with location with 15% more near the ends of chromosomes, with higher local recombination rate, high gene density and high GC content. This effects the shorter chromosomes more significantly. Dark bands which are gene poor have a 10% higher mutation rate. Telomere regions have a higher rate rate in hominids than in murids, suggesting less selective pressure.
Insertions and deletions are rarer individually than point mutations but are larger, so 1.5% of the euchromatic differences are species specific, a larger difference than point mutations. Overall indel divergence is about ~45 Mb in each species or about 3% of the gemone dwarfing the single nucleotide divergence. Most are very small, but the total contribution is 73% from larger >80bp indels. Over a third of these come from repetitious micro-satellite and satellite sequences, a quarter are caused by transposable elements, with a residue coming from deletions in the other species. 8.3 Mb of these in humans contain 34 exon regions indicative of new genes.
The history of transposable elements ( p 332 ) differs significantly between the species. Endogenous retroviruses have died out in humans except for HERV-K with 73 human insertions (of which 66 have only the long terminal repeat remaining, indicating old insertions) This occurs also in chimps 45 insertions (44 LTR only) but chimps have other active ERVs. PtERV1 has over 200 copies over half of which are full length indicating active insertion. SINEs in particular Alu has been 3 times more active in humans (7000/2300 lineage specific insertions) mostly due to two new subfamilies (Ya5 Ya8), but baboons are 1.6 times higher still. Old Alu elements lie in GC rich gene-rich regions but newer ones are in AT rich gene-poor regions where LINEs also accumulate, consistent with L1-based retro-transcription. There is similar L1 activity in both species (~2000 insertions), as well as 200 human and 300 chimp processed LINE-related retrogenes (pseudogenes). SVA an Alu repeat with a CpG island and potential transcription factor binding sites occurs (~1000) in both species. 3 human genes show SVA insertions resulting in species differential transcriptions. There are also 612 human and 914 chimp Alu-Alu deletions, 26 and 48 L1 deletions and 8, and 22 LTR deletions, none involving exons of human genes in chimp. An Alu mobile element derived gene has been found in humans which encodes a neural small cytoplasmic RNA BC200. Conserved features of the active BC200a gene suggests that its RNA product has been "exapted" into a function of the primate brain, since the human-chimp divergence and provides a selective advantage to the human species (Martignetti and Brosius 1993 PNAS 90 11563-7). Humans have about 13 times as many RNA edits as non-primate species, including inosine insertions associated with Alu elements, as well as intron deletions (Holmes R325 ) and newly inserted exons (Ast R26 ), which may differentiate humans from other apes through alternative splicing of genes expressed in the brain ( p 102 ).
There are also larger scale inversions and fusions. Chimp chromosomes 12,13 now called 2A,2B fused to make human chromosome 2. There have also been pericentric inversions.
Orthologous proteins are very similar between the species, with 29% identical. Recombination is limited by a low cross-over rate with 1kb only having only ~1 crossover every 100,000 generations, or 2 million years.
Estimates of the effects of natural selection, neutral evolution and other factors can be gleaned by examining KA the amino acid substituting mutations, KS the synonymous mutations and KI the non-coding mutations. KA is 37% higher in the most distal 10 Mb than in proximal regions so careful averaging across the genome is needed. Both KA/KS and KA/KI are around 0.23 << 1 indicating significant purifying selection. This value is 35% greater than for murids (rodents) indicating either greater positive adaption or fewer evolutionary constraints. There is also weak purifying selection on silent sites in exons compared with introns In terms of gene evolution a KA/KS of 0.23 indicates 77% of amino acid substitutions are sufficiently deleterious to be eliminated by natural selection. 4.5% of human-chimp orthologues (585/13,454) have KA/KL>1 indicating strong selection, however because of the low divergence between the species, about half could occur by chance variation among genes. The high KA/KS for these genes also shows that 25% of amino acid substitutions contribute to the current human genetic load. The KA/KS for human polymorphisms of 0.20-0.23 is very similar to that for human chimp divergence, indicating little positive selection across the genome driving evolutionary divergence, because positive selection would cause many selective sweeps and reduce polymorphisms, indicating fewer evolutionary constraints in the hominid lines than in murids. X has KA/KL = 0.32 skewed high and low with higher selection on testis-related genes. The median is similar to autosomes indicating a skewed subset with vry high evolutionary selection. Many low values indicate greater purifying selection consistent with being genes expressed in the hemizygous single X state in males, and high values could also result from positive selection from adaptive hemizygosity of the X in males, particularly if a substantial proportion of these genes are recessive.
Genes involving disease resistance, reproduction and reproduction (seminal protamines and seminogelins), and nocioception (awareness of pain and toxic substances) stand out as rapidly evolving. Gene evolution is faster on rearranged chromosomes 1, 2, 5, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18. Rapidly evolving gene clusters are associated with immunity, host defense, chemosensation and inflammation. Hominid lines show increased divergence of genes associated with ion transport, neruotransmission, sound perception and reproduction by comparison with murids. Large gene families such as those involved in immunity and olfactory are harder to test but are also subject to accelerated divergence.
Six regions of low diversity have been noted, consistent with linked genes hitchhiking on strong selective sweeps in recent human history. In addition one region containing several high diversity-divergence scores contains genes noted for selective mutations, FoxP2 (involved in speech See Suite of chatterbox genes discovered Nature, DOI: 10.1038/nature08549), as well as CFTR (connected with asthma resistance). Other selective sweeps have also been discovered in recent human evolution putatively associated with brain size determining genes microcephalin and ASPM ( p 105 ).
Looking at regulators and genes which have been lost in the human lineage one prominent one removes a forebrain subventricular zone enhancer near the tumour suppressor gene growth arrest and DNA-damage inducible, gamma (GADD45G)11,12, a loss correlated with expansion of specific brain regions in humans. (McLean CY et. al. 2011 Human-specific loss of regulatory DNA and the evolution of human-specific traits. Nature 471/7337, 216-9).
Many brain genes are more strongly conserved than other genes, although brain evolution may be affected by new alternative splicing arrangements in a small subset of genes, and strong selective sweeps made by new highly selective genes. Gene conversion with a pseudogene for example in the human linehas altered sialic acid expression in brain tissue so that only human microglia express sialic acid.
One of the prominent genes essential to the majority of mammals which has been deleted in humans is the androgen regulator for penile spines. Penile spines which are accompanied by basal nerve fibres may have many functions including increasing male sexual sensitivity, reducing the length of female estrus, removing competitors sperm and many others. The authors point out that the loss correlates with the evolution of pair bonding in humans and that chimps and bonobos which do have neuro-sensitive spines have a very short copulation time like 5 to 7 seconds. Hardly enough to keep a woman happy (McLean C et al (2011) Human-specific loss of regulatory DNA and the evolution of human-specific traits Nature 71/7337 216-9.)
Human Nature, Gender Roles, Sexual Plasticity and Cultural Liberation
Anthony Giddens ( R239 ) has made the point that modern sex is characterized by the emergence of 'plastic sexuality' ( R683 266) - the detachment of sexual life from any biological or reproductive imperative ( p 396 ). We have already examined ( p 39 ) whether there is such a thing as human nature in the debate between the proponents of sociobiology in its various forms and those who 'espouse' the ultimate supremacy of culture. This debate has pitted an early wave of male-oriented sociobiologists with a genetically deterministic overview, against cultural feminists and defenders of the 'post-modern' sociological idea that culture takes us unilaterally beyond the confines of nature. The pendulum has again shifted with a more resourceful and flexible view of our evolutionary heritage as a set of genetic potentialities which are able to respond to changing circumstances in a dynamic society, just as the genetic basis of our brain is able to generate an organ capable of responding to all the diversity and contradictions that culture and nature bring forth.
Sigmund Freud once claimed "anatomy is destiny" ( R683 7). In writing "The Prehistory of Sex" ( R683 ) Timothy Taylor's retort is that "culture is freedom" and he has set out to refute the sociobiological thesis specifically to affirm the liberating effect culture has on sexuality. However the main emphasis of his idea of cultural freedom is the tacit acceptance of the 'sexual rainbow' of whatever social gender role a person cares to define for themselves in the pursuit of the pleasures of love - in particular the perceived liberations of homosexuality, transvesticism and sex-reversal.
This begs the question of the how the human species will continue to survive if we choose to define sexuality purely in social terms as 'gender roles' between consenting adults and neglect the integrating factor of reproduction and its manifestations in the complementary roles of woman and man, parenthood, family life and the extension of genealogy into relatedness generally, as a fabric of society, which carries us from generation to generation. It is this sense of ongoing relatedness that has given sex its meaning in all societies, and in turn given all human societies the ultimate resources in love and kinship which have sustained each as a living people with a sense of cultural identity and life direction.
The idea that culture is free ignores both the very coercive cultural restrictions many major world cultures have placed on sexuality and gender roles in defiance of nature to our detriment, and the blinding stereotypy of many forms of modern sexual variety, from hard-core porn to the kings and queens of drag, despite the healing effect of more liberal attitudes to sexual relationship and sensual pleasure, the exploration of exotic arts of love, from the Karma Sutra to the Scented Garden, and the capacity of us to see and feel the other gender in ourselves, rather than being starkly confined to iconic masculinity or femininity.
Young people will continue fall in love innately, as they have done since time immemorial, and will do so as biological beings, regardless of the enticements, or repressions, which cultures seek to impose. The power of falling in love and the intoxication of the love quest becomes ever more a light into which the moth will fly for life itself, even when faced with punishments as dire as death by stoning for adultery for any form of transgression. This is the emotional ground swell that sociobiology seeks to uncover so that we can better understand who and what we are as sexual beings. Our evolutionary heritage is our best defence and most trustworthy resource in the face of rapid social and cultural change. We are not cultural blank slates who can define ourselves and our sexual identities ad hoc without losing our relationship with nature and life itself.
We shall now investigate the cultural phase and show that in founding human societies, rather than clear motifs of sexual domination, a state of strategic paradox occurs, reflecting both the manifest complementarity between the sexes and the division of labour and it is this state of strategic paradox that has led to the explosion of social complexity we associate with the emergence of culture. The key to cultural emergence is a complex form of mutual sexual selection, in which the choices made by each sex upon the other are dynamically responsive to the social environment in which they are taking place, in a way which has facilitated all the stunning differences between us and the higher apes, from the sensual beauty of the female form to the mesmerizing enchantments of good music, art, myth, resourceful technical innovation and last, but not least, the sensual arts of love. Sex HAS become manifestly social, not just a reproductive process, and capable of a great deal of cultural diversity, but it is in the continued passage of the generations and the continuing dance of reproductive sexual choice between woman and man that all the characteristics of the 'sexual rainbow' find their genetic, social and cultural meaning and acceptance. The lesson, if any, from looking at our evolutionary heritage is that cultures will survive and succeed best when they resonate with the best in human nature and express it meaningfully in the span of life as a whole. We shall see in succeeding chapters that cultures have risen and fallen by either repressing sexuality and sexual diversity with dire punishments, or indulging every form of gratification the mind can hunger for without any limit to perversity. Seeking to discard human nature altogether in a cultural glasshouse is likewise a cul-de-sac.
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Name the vast South Korean conglomerate including car-maker which went bankrupt in 1999?
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<![CDATA[Restructuring South Korea's chaebol: A helping hand]]>
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Daewoo
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Graminoids are more commonly known as what plant form?
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Kelley School of Business, Indiana University, 1309 E. Tenth Street, Bloomington, IN 47405-1701, USA
b
Faculty of Business, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Avenue, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1
Abstract
Basic theory suggests that multinational enterprises (MNEs) succeed when they develop firm-specific advantages (FSAs). In
Korea, large MNEs, mostly chaebols, have built successful knowledge based FSAs. They are also utilizing scale economies based
on Korea’scountry-specific advantages (CSAs) in skilled labor and a supporting government. In the empirical work, we find that the
Korean MNEs use their FSAs to operate mainly on a home region basis, much like the world’s other large MNEs.
#2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Korea is home to a set of large firms, so called
chaebols, which can be classified as multinational
enterprises (MNEs).
An MNE is defined as a firm with
some foreign sales and some foreign production, where
the latter takes place in a wholly owned foreign
subsidiary (Rugman, 1981, 2006). In the list of the
world’s largest 500 companies, ranked by sales for
2001, Rugman (2005) found 12 Korean firms. In 2004,
there were 11 Korean firms in the list of the world’s
largest 500. These large firms are analyzed here as the
basic set which will determine the success of Korea in
developing MNEs.
The literature in international business analyzes the
growth and foreign expansion phase of MNEs. The
starting point of this theory of the MNE, (Rugman,
1981, 1996), is the proposition that an MNE goes
abroad to further expand on its firm-specific advantage
(FSA). The FSAs are proprietary to the firm. These can
be technology based, knowledge based, or they can
reflect managerial and/or marketing skills (Rugman &
Verbeke, 2003). The FSAs need to be distinguished
from Korea’s country-specific advantages (CSAs)
where the latter are available to all firms located in
Korea; in contrast FSAs are the capabilities of each
specific firm.
In this paper, we ask a question: what are the FSAs
and CSAs of Korean MNEs in the context of the
regional dimension of world business? The literature is
now recognizing the importance of broad ‘‘triad’’
regions in determining the sales of MNEs, where the
broad triad consists of the E.U., North America and
Asia Pacific. It shows that the largest MNEs have
developed FSAs and CSAs in their home region (Girod
& Rugman, 2003;Rugman & Verbeke, 2004;Delios &
Beamish, 2005;Oh & Rugman, 2006, 2007). Korean
firms have an incentive to become MNEs as the size of
the home market is relatively small to achieve scale
economies. Korean firms, like foreign MNEs, have
developed home-region oriented FSAs and CSAs in
large open economies, but their FSAs and CSAs are
different from those of foreign MNEs. We will show
www.socscinet.com/bam/jwb
Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–15
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 812 855 5415;
fax: +1 812 855 9006.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.M. Rugman).
1
A chaebol is a Korean business group. A business group is defined
as a gathering of formally independent firms under single common
administrative and financial control of one family (Chang & Hong,
2000). The firms in this paper are not chaebols, but most of these firms
are members of chaebols.
1090-9516/$ – see front matter #2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2007.10.003
here that Korean MNEs have home-region oriented
advantages coming from business-government rela-
tions, knowledge based capabilities, and group affiliated
benefits.
This paper deals with outward FDI as it analyzes the
FSAs and CSAs of Korean firms across all industries. In
a previous paper, Oh and Rugman (2007) analyzed the
entry strategies of foreign MNEs into Korea, i.e. inward
FDI. There is a strong regional element to both inward
and outward FDI across Asian economies as was also
found in Collinson and Rugman (2007). In the latter
paper, it was also argued that the orthodox theory of the
MNE, such as that using FSAs and CSAs, (Rugman,
1981, 2006), fully explains the activities of such
‘‘latecomer’’ MNEs as those from Korea and other
emerging economies in Asia.
Given the complexities of outward FDI, there are a
variety of alternative frameworks that could be used. One
is the so-called ‘‘double-diamond’’ approach, first
developed by Rugman and D’Cruz (1993) in a Canadian
context to explain the strategies of Canada’s MNEs
operating in the United States. It has been applied in Asia
(including Korea) by Moon, Rugman, and Verbeke
(1998). The double diamond framework, with its focus
upon dual management strategies for an MNE operating
across a small open economy connected to a geogra-
phically close but larger triad partner, is fully consistent
with the regional natureof MNEs explored in this paper it
is based on the regional framework in Rugman (2005).
We are confident that the orthodox FSA/CSA
approach of Rugman (1981, 1996), coupled with its
extension to the regional framework of Rugman (2005),
can provide valuable insights into the extent and
performance of Koreas’ MNEs. Consequently, we use
these frameworks to explore FSAs, CSAs, and the
regional nature of Korea’s firms. We do not adopt other
approaches, such as that of Khanna and Rivkin (2001)
on the role of business groups in development, nor the
scope and diversification approach recently so ably
summarized and applied to Asia by Peng and Delios
(2006).
2. The firm and country matrix of MNEs
There are two building blocks in a basic matrix used
in international business that we can utilize here to
analyze Korea’s MNEs. First, there is a set of firm-
specific factors that determine the competitive advan-
tage of an organization. We call these firm-specific
advantages (FSAs). An FSA is defined as a unique
capability proprietary to the organization. It may be
built upon product or process technology, marketing, or
distributional skills. Second, there are country factors,
unique to the business in each country. They can lead to
country-specific advantages (CSAs). The CSAs can be
based on natural resource endowments (minerals,
energy, forests) or on the labor force, and associated
cultural factors.
Managers of most MNEs use strategies that build
upon the interactions of CSAs and FSAs. They do this
so that they can be positioned in a unique strategic
space. The CSAs represent the natural factor endow-
ments of a nation. They are based on the key variables in
its aggregate production function. For example, CSAs
can consist of the quantity, quality, and cost of the major
factor endowment, especially natural resources.
Using Porter’s terminology, the CSAs form the basis
of the global platform from which the multinational firm
derives a home-base ‘‘diamond’’ advantage in global
competition (Porter, 1990). Tariff and non-tariff barriers
to trade and government regulations also influence
CSAs. Building on these CSAs, the firm makes
decisions about the efficient global configuration and
coordination between segments of its value chain
(operations, marketing, R&D, and logistics). The skill
in making such decisions represents a strong, manage-
rial, firm-specific advantage (FSA).
The FSAs possessed by a firm are based ultimately
on its internalization of an asset, such as production
knowledge, managerial, or marketing capabilities over
which the firm has proprietary control. FSAs are thus
related to the firm’s ability to coordinate the use of the
advantage in production, marketing, or the customiza-
tion of services (Rugman, 1981, 2006).
To help formulate the strategic options of the MNE,
it is useful to identify the relative strengths and
weaknesses of the CSAs and FSAs that they possess.
Fig. 1, the CSA/FSA matrix, provides a useful
framework for discussion of these issues.
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–156
Fig. 1. The CSA/FSA matrix. Sources: This figure was developed
from the analysis of Chapter 8 in Rugman (1981, 2006).
In Fig. 1, quadrants 1, 2, and 3 can incorporate the
three generic strategies suggested by Porter (1980): cost
leadership, differentiation, and focus. Quadrant 1 firms
are generally the cost leadership ones. They are
generally resource-based and/or mature, internationally
oriented firms producing a commodity-type product.
Given their late stage in the product life cycle,
production FSAs flowing from the possession of
intangible skills are less important than the CSAs of
location and energy costs, which are the main sources of
the firm’s competitive advantage. Quadrant 2 firms
represent inefficient, floundering firms with neither
consistent strategy, nor any intrinsic CSAs or FSAs.
These firms are preparing to exit or to restructure.
Quadrant 2 can also represent domestically based small
and medium-sized firms with little global exposure.
Firms in quadrant 4 are generally differentiated firms
with strong FSAs in marketing and customization.
These firms usually have strong brand equities. In
quadrant 4 the FSAs dominate, so in world markets the
home-country CSAs are not essential in the long run.
Quadrant 3 firms generally can choose to follow any of
the three generic strategies listed above because of the
strength of both their CSAs and FSAs.
It is useful to note the following two points. First, if
the firm has a conglomerate structure, such as in a
chaebol or a keiretsu, it should be more useful to situate
each division or product line individually, recognizing
that different units of the diversified firm would use
different generic strategies. Second, changes in the
trading environment, such as the EU 1992 single-
market measures, or the EU 1999 single currency, or the
United States–Canada Free Trade Agreement and
NAFTA, will affect the relative CSAs of the firm. To
the extent that CSAs are improved, the firms will tend to
move to quadrant 3, and, to the extent that the CSAs are
hampered, the firm or some of its product lines may
move to exit, as in quadrant 2.
3. The theory of MNEs in a Korean context
One of the unresolved problems facing the MNE in a
foreign country is that it suffers from a liability of
foreignness (LOF). From the viewpoint of the MNE’s
managers, foreign markets present risks as there are
social, political, and economic costs associated with
entry to unfamiliar markets. The LOF literature
suggests that the MNE has to make an investment in
learning about foreign markets. In general, this follows
a process of internationalization. The MNE goes to
nearby countries. The LOF thereby is consistent with
the empirical finding that the great majority of
international business is conducted by MNEs in their
home region.
The new insight that comes from this literature is that
we cannot analyze the role of MNEs in a purely
‘‘global’’ sense. Instead, the MNEs need to be analyzed
in a regional sense. We need to analyze the impact of
Asian MNEs, primarily Japanese ones (88 of the 121
largest MNEs in Asia are Japanese in 2001) on the rest
of Asia. Second, we can analyze the role of the 12
Korean MNEs themselves; we follow this approach in
the next section. We need to remember that 320 of the
380 of the world’s largest 500 MNEs (for which data are
available) have an average of 80% of their sales in their
home region (Rugman, 2005). Their distribution of
foreign assets is even more regionalized. We will
conclude that analysis of Korean MNEs is actually
about their regional sales and assets in Asia.
Considering the size of its economy, natural
resources, population, and land area, Korea is a
relatively small country but it has several very large
firms. Therefore, Korean firms have a greater motiva-
tion to develop international capabilities to exploit host
countries’ resources and markets than firms of similar
size in larger countries. Only Canada, China, France,
Germany, Japan, Netherlands, U.K., and U.S. have more
large firms listed among the world’s largest 500, and
these countries are all G8 countries except for China and
the Netherlands. The Netherlands is the only country
which has more large companies listed in the world’s
largest 500 but has a smaller GDP than Korea.
Korean firms’ FSAs and CSAs have changed rapidly
in accord with Korea’s rapid economic growth. In the
past, the FSAs of Korean firms built upon a set of CSAs
that included: the benefits of group affiliated behavior;
cheap and skilled labor; government subsidies for
exporting; government protection from foreign firms in
the domestic market; and collaboration between
government and firms. Today their FSAs are building
on an updated set of CSAs that includes: a knowledge
oriented economy; highly educated workers; advanced
infrastructure; and locational proximity to cheap labor
in South East Asian countries and China.
Lee and Miller (1996) find that Korean firms using
traditional technologies are able to succeed because
they obtain help from the government subsidy and
protection, and further claim that government inter-
vention is ineffective in industries using emergent
technologies because of competition. This implies that
government protection is not a strong CSA of large
Korean firms any more.
Even though the Korean and foreign governments
have banned the group affiliated behavior of chaebols
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–15 7
after the economic crisis of Asia in the late 1990s,
previous group affiliated behavior (e.g., cross-subsidi-
zation) of chaebols is a strong CSA in their home
market. Several Korean chaebols went bankrupt or
divided into legally independent firms, but the surviving
business groups stayed largely intact and solid (Chang,
2006). It is also shown that business groups in East Asia
will prosper in the case of market imperfections and that
Korean chaebols are a good fit with the Korean culture
(Chang, 2006). Therefore, the chaebol structure is a
type of CSA itself. Paik and Sohn (1998) show how it is
difficult to transfer such Korean management practices
to Mexico. They further argue that Korean management
systems have many distinct features in comparison to
Japanese ones. Therefore, we should carefully inves-
tigate the FSAs and CSAs of Korean firms.
4. The development of FSAs in Korean firms
What is the current status of FSAs of Korean firms
and what is the extent to which inward and outward FDI
have helped improve the FSAs of Korean companies?
Since improving technological capabilities is ultimately
an endogenous and accumulative process, which
requires substantial endogenous efforts (Kim, 1997;
Lall, 1987), relying solely on direct technology transfer
from joint venture partners is not sufficient for the
development of FSAs. Rather, the firms need to
internalize the benefits of knowledge creation, partly
shown by their R&D expenditures.
The R&D expenditures of the largest 10 Korean
firms account for 70% of total R&D expenditure of the
largest 550 Korean firms. The 10 firms include Samsung
Electronics, LG Electronics, Hyundai Motor, POSCO,
and KT (Korea Telecom), all MNEs listed in the world’s
largest 500. Except for SK, which ranked twelfth in
R&D expenditure among Korean firms, all Korea’s
firms listed in the world’s largest 500 are R&D oriented
manufacturing firms. The largest three Korean firms,
Samsung Electronics, LG Electronics, and Hyundai
Motor, make up 52% of total R&D expenditure of the
largest 550 Korean firms (KSTPI, 2003).
Nelson and Pack (1999) find that the successful
growth of Korea and Taiwan is due to technology
assimilation. They argue that individual firms had
strong incentives to improve their FSAs in efficiency to
enable them to export rather than to engage in rent
seeking in the domestic market. While Korean firms
have been using traditional or mature technologies that
are established, well understood, and less valuable to
advanced countries since 1960s, the set of Korean
chaebols has adopted emergent or developing technol-
ogies due to their growing R&D capacities. Those
emergent or developing technologies are valuable FSAs
(Lee & Miller, 1996). Advanced technologies are not
easy to adopt, and firms have to improve their R&D
capabilities by increasing in-house capability. Mathews
and Cho (1999) report that the success of the
semiconductor industry in Korea can be explained by
the technological learning of such latecomer firms. The
top tier firms, like Samsung Electronics and LG
Electronics, have reduced the appropriability problem
by securing their advanced R&D capability from
possible imitators. This is a type of internalization of
their FSA (Rugman, 1981, 2006).
A recent survey provides mixed evidence on the
success of Korean MNEs. Building on their FSAs,
Korean MNEs have invested in foreign countries to
promote exports (38.2% of total outward FDI); to use
low-wage workers (11.0% of total outward FDI); to
exploit natural resources (9.6% of total outward FDI);
and to circumvent trade restrictions (3.4%). These data
are for the five years, 2001–2005. But only 2.1% of total
outward FDI is for R&D purposes.
2
establishments of Korea’s largest three MNEs are in
R&D oriented facilities.
Thus, Korea’s MNEs appear
to develop FSA based on home country R&D, not on
asset seeking FDI.
Guillen (2000) finds that firms and entrepreneurs
create diversified business groups when they can
accumulate an inimitable capability to combine domestic
and foreign resources to enter industries quickly and cost-
effectively. Yet, chaebols find it hard to utilize group-
wide benefits particularly in well-developed foreign
markets. Formal and informal relational assets of group-
affiliated structure, such as trust, knowledge sharing, and
supply chain management, will remain as a strong FSA of
chaebols. Hitt, Lee, and Yucel (2002) claim that
relational networks represent important social capital
in Korea. Chang and Choi (1988) and Chang and Hong
(2000) find that group-affiliated firms extensively share
technological skills and advertising. Indeed, Samsung
Electronics has strong network advantages coming from
such affiliates as: Samsung SDI, Samsung Corning,
Samsung Electro-mechanics, etc. It is interesting that the
Samsung group and the LG group have recently restarted
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–158
2
The Export–Import Bank of Korea, The overseas investment
annual trends, 2005 (http://www.koreaexim.go.kr). The 15,578 cases
of official outward FDI are reported by Korean firms in 2001–2005
and the total amount of investments was US$25,236. Hyundai Motor
includes Hyundai Motor and Kia Motors.
3
Directory of Korean firms in foreign countries, 2005–2006. Kor-
ean Trade-Investment Promotion Agency (http://www.kotra.or.kr/).
their group-level recruiting system, which was suspended
in the early 2000s.
5. Related literature on other Asian MNEs
The World Bank (1993) categorizes eight Asian
countries into three groups: first, Japan; second, the
first-generation, newly industrialized countries (Korea,
Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore); third, the second-
generation, newly industrializing countries (Malaysia,
Indonesia, and Thailand). Even though those Asian
countries have experienced fast-growing and export-
oriented economic growth, they have different MNEs
based on their CSAs. Redding (2001) analyzes the key
CSAs of firms in the smaller economies of Asia: an
involved government; centralized structures of the
organizations; human capital; and social capital.
Rugman and Collinson (2006) examine the FSAs
and CSAs of Japanese firms by using several case
studies. The main conclusion of their work is that
Japanese MNEs build on the CSAs in their home region,
where their upstream FSAs are even more localized
than their downstream FSAs. Debrah, McGovern, and
Budhwar (2000) show that Singapore’s CSAs lie in
skilled labor, advanced technology, advanced physical
infrastructure, and advanced commercial infrastructure,
while Indonesia and Malaysia have advantages in cheap
(unskilled) labor and natural resources. The three other
first-generation countries (and Japan) have similar
advantages to Singapore.
Brouthers, O’Donnell, and Hadjimarcou (2005)
found that emerging market firms achieve a higher
level of export performance when they mimic the
product strategies of Western MNEs in triad nation
markets rather than when they enter emerging markets
or when they develop other product strategies in triad
nation markets. As supporting evidence, we note that
Korean MNEs have acquired foreign technologies (but
not really strong FSAs) by acquisition. For example,
Samsung Electronics acquired Harris Microwave
Semiconductor in 1993, and LG Electronics purchased
57.7% of the stock of Zenith Electronics in 1995.
Japanese firms are linked to firms in the new
industrialized Asian countries as markets for final
electrical and electronic products and as customers for
Japanese made components. The first generation newly
industrialized countries developed their technological
capabilities relying on Japanese firms’ FSAs. Korean
and Taiwanese electronic firms acquired technology
mainly through licensing and contracting arrangements
with Japanese firms such as Sony, Sanyo, Matsushita,
etc. in 1970–1980 (Hobday, 1995). Korea’s MNEs have
been building on their neighboring countries’ CSAs,
such as cheap labor in China, natural resources in South
East Asia, and advanced technology in Japan.
Peng, Lee and Wang (2005) hypothesize a positive
relationship between institutional relatedness and the
scope of the firm in the short run. The conglomerate
structure of the firm provides benefits in some
developing countries where a dense network of ties
exists with dominant institutions. That is the case in
countries such as Korea, Argentina, India, Israel,
Taiwan, etc. They further suggest that the geographical
scope of a firm needs to be studied under its appropriate
institutional framework.
We now relate this theoretical work on FSAs and
CSAs, applied to analyze Korean MNEs, to the data
available on the nature and performance of such Asian
MNEs. We shall conclude by examining the available
data on Korean MNEs.
6. The regional performance of Korean MNEs
The performance of the world’s 500 largest MNEs
has been examined in Rugman (2005). The world’s
largest 500 firms, ranked by revenues, account for
approximately 90% of the world’s stock of FDI. They
also account for over half of the world’s trade (Rugman,
2000). Recent research has shown that the vast majority
of these large MNEs operate on an intra-regional basis.
The geographic basis for the broad regions of the triad
are developed and explained in Rugman (2005). Of the
world’s largest 500 firms, a total of 379 provide data on
the geographic dispersion of their sales across the three
broad regions of the triad. The 75 MNEs from Asia have
an average of 77.9% of their sales in their home region.
This is somewhat above the average for the 379 MNEs
which is 74.6%. Otherwise the 75 Asian MNEs have an
average revenue of $27.4b which is only slightly less
than the average for North American MNEs ($28.8b)
and for European MNEs ($31.1b). In summary, the
regional performance of Asian MNEs parallels that of
the regional nature of business of their competitor
MNEs from North America and Europe.
In Table 1, a smaller set of 174 MNEs is considered.
These are the firms which fully report their sales in each
of the three broad regions of the triad. For example, the
45 Asian MNEs average 73.2% of their sales in their
home region; however, we can now see that they
average 16% of their sales in North America and only
7.6% of their sales in Europe. Again, this focus on home
region sales is paralleled by MNEs from North America
(which average 77.7% of their sales in the home region,
and 12.5% in Europe, with only 6.3% in Asia). The 58
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–15 9
European MNEs average 69.1% of their sales in their
home region, nearly 20% in North America and only
6.7% in Asia.
In Table 2, we identify the country home base of the
45 Asian MNEs providing data on their sales in each
region of the triad. This list is dominated by the 37
MNEs from Japan which average 74.6% of their sales in
Asia, 14.8% in North America, and 7.3% in Europe.
While there are 12 Korean MNEs in the dataset
analyzed by Rugman (2005), only two of them report
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–1510
Table 1
Triad sales of large firms (Units: Billions of US dollars, %)
Number of MNEs Average revenue Regional sales (%)
N. America Europe Asia Unidentified
Total 174 (500) 30.4 (28.0) 42.6 30.2 24.1 4.0
N. America 71 (219) 30.1 (28.5) 77.7 12.5 6.3 3.8
Europe 58 (159) 29.0 (29.0) 19.8 69.1 6.7 4.9
Asia 45 (122) 32.4 (25.8) 16.0 7.6 73.2 3.1
Source: Authors’ calculation based on Rugman (2005). Data are for 2001. Notes: Figures in parentheses are for the entire set of the largest 500 MNEs
in 2001. Only 174 MNEs report their regional sales for each of the triad regions.
Table 2
Regional sales of Asian firms (Units: Billions of US dollars, %)
Number of MNEs Average revenue Regional sales
N. America Europe Asia Unidentified
Total 45 (121) 32.4 (25.8) 16.0 7.6 73.2 3.1
Australia 4 (6) 13.9 (14.1) 21.9 7.2 68.8 2.1
Japan 37 (88) 35.9 (27.9) 14.8 7.3 74.6 3.3
Korea 2 (12) 26.3 (21.2) 21.2 5.4 69.0 4.5
Malaysia 0 (1) n.a. (17.7) n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Singapore 1 (1) 13.1 (13.1) 46.3 30.9 22.4 0.4
Taiwan 1 (2) 11.6 (11.2) 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0
China 0 (11) n.a. (25.0) n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Source: see source in Table 1. Data are for 2001. Notes: Figures in parentheses are for the set of 112 Asian MNEs and their totals by country. n.a.
stands for not applicable.
Regional sales of Korean MNEs, 2001 (Units: Billions of US dollars, %)
Company name Revenue Regional sales
N. America Europe Asia Unidentified
Samsung Electronics 36.0 20.8 18.3 60.6 0.2
Samsung Corporation 33.2 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
SK 33.0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Hyundai Motor 30.9 18.1 0.3 81.6 0.0
LG Electronics 23.1 23.6 11.7 60.4 4.3
Hyundai 21.7 24.2 10.5 56.3 9.0
LG International 19.5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Samsung Life Insurance 17.5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
SK Global 17.2 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Korea Electric Power 15.7 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
KT 12.3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
POSCO 10.2 2.9 0.0 91.9 5.2
Total 24.4 (22.5) 17.9 8.2 70.2 4.7
Source: 2001 Annual Report for each company: data are for 2001. Notes: Values in parentheses are for all 12 Korean MNEs in the largest 500 MNEs
in 2001. Only five of them report their regional sales. n.a. stands for not applicable.
their geographic sales across each region of the triad.
These two Korean firms, Hyundai and Hyundai Motors,
average 69% of their sales in Asia.
Only 12 Korean firms and 11 Korean firms appear in
the top 500 for 2001 and 2004, respectively (see
Tables 3 and 4 for the lists of companies). With the
exception of POSCO, Korea Electric Power, and KT, all
other firms can be categorized as members of chaebols.
The presence of Korean firms is at least as stable as the
other large 500 companies. Two Korean firms among
Korea’s 12 largest firms in 2001, that is 17%, were
unlisted in 2004, while 94 firms among the world’s
largest 500 firms were unlisted in 2004, that is, 19%.
It is important to note that four Korean trading firms,
Samsung Corporation, Hyundai, LG International and
SK Global, were listed in the world’s largest 500
companies. These firms make up 34% of the Korea’s
largest 12 firms’ revenue in 2001. In 2004, only two
trading companies, Samsung Corporation and SK
Global (Networks), were listed in the world’s largest
500 companies. They made up 9% of the revenue of
Korea’s largest 11 firms in 2004.
4
revenue of Samsung Corporation and SK Global came
from outside the trading segment in 2004. Over the
same time period, Korea’s international trade had
increased more than 60%: from US $292 billion to US
$478 billion.
Based on the annual reports of the Korean MNEs,
Table 3 reports data on the available geographical
dispersion of sales for the set of 12 Korean MNEs. Only
five Korean firms report their regional sales in 2001. In
Table 3, we can see that all five Korean firms are home
region oriented MNEs because they have more than
50% of sales in their home region, Asia-Pacific. Overall
these five large firms have an average of 70% of their
sales in Asia. The result is consistent with the results in
Rugman (2005), where the world’s largest 500
companies also have 70% of sales in their home region.
Hyundai Motor and POSCO have 82% and 92% of
their total sales in the Asian region. We presume that
other Korean firms in trading, energy, financial service
and utility industries have similar magnitudes of sales in
their home region because the data from the world’s
largest 500 companies show those industries to be highly
home-region oriented. Samsung Electronics can be
categorized as a near global MNE, because it has more
than 20% of total sales in North America and 18.3% of
total sales in Europe. Likewise, LG Electronics and
Hyundai are near bi-regionals because they generate
more than 20% of total sales in Asia and North America
but only have 10% of their total sales in Europe.
More recent data also confirm that the large Korean
MNEs are home-region oriented MNEs. In Table 4,
based on 2004 data, Samsung Electronics, Hyundai
Motor, and LG Electronics have diversified their sales
geographically but they still have more than 50% of
sales in Asia. Samsung Corporation and SK Networks
now report their regional sales data for 2004, and they
are home-region oriented MNEs like POSCO. The six
firms generate 71% of sales from Asia on average.
We also track their geographic dispersion of assets
for analyzing Korean MNEs’ upstream FSAs in each
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–15 11
Table 4
Regional sales of Korean MNEs, 2004 (Units: Billions of US dollars, %)
Company name Revenue Regional sales
N. America Europe Asia Unidentified
Samsung Electronics 71.6 23.2 21.8 54.6 0.5
Hyundai Motor 46.4 25.1 11.6 63.3 0.0
LG Electronics 37.8 25.2 15.6 51.2 8.0
SK 37.7 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Samsung Life Insurance 22.3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
POSCO 20.9 2.2 n.a. 93.8 4.0
Korea Electric Power 20.9 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Hanwha 15.4 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
KT 14.9 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Samsung Corporation 13.9 3.0 4.0 93.0 0.0
SK Networks (Global) 13.8 n.a. n.a. >82.0 18.0
Total 38.1 (28.7) 15.7 13.2 71.2 2.5
Source: 2004 Annual Report for each company: data are for 2004. Notes: Values in parentheses are for all 11 Korean MNEs in the largest 500 MNEs
in 2004. Only six of them report their regional sales. ‘‘n.a.’’ stands for ‘‘not applicable.’’
4
SK Global changed its Company Identity to SK Networks in
October 2003.
region. All large Korean MNEs have more than 90% of
assets in their home region of Asia. Rugman (2005)
defines downstream FSAs, or customer end FSAs, as
strengths deployed in activities with a direct interface
with the customers; they are required to achieve
successful market penetration. In contrast, upstream
FSAs are deployed in activities that lack this direct
interface but are critical to creating an efficient
internal production system. Rugman (2005) further
suggests and presents a re-conceptualization of
Bartlett and Ghoshal (1998) framework on ‘‘generic
roles of national organizations’’ in the MNE. We apply
our data to this framework in Fig. 2. The large Korean
MNEs’ strength of geographic scope upstream FSAs
lags behind their downstream FSAs, as with other
West ern MN Es. Oh and Rugman (2006) find that the
world’s largest 100 cosmetics companies also have the
same asymmetry between upstream and downstream
FSAs.
The existing literature on multinationality and
performance sometimes uses the number of foreign
affiliates as a measure of geographic scope (see, among
others, Errunza & Senbet, 1984;Kim & Lyn, 1986,
Morck & Yeung, 1991,Gomes & Ramaswamy, 1999;
Zahra, Ireland, & Hitt, 2000). Building on this, we
analyzed the number of foreign establishments and the
number of workers in regional triad markets to check
the robustness of our findings. This is reported for the 11
largest Korean MNEs in Table 5.
The results show that the number of foreign
establishments probably overstates the importance of
international strategy. The foreign establishments are
widespread through the world, but the employees
mainly work in the home region. The number of
establishments and employees in Europe is higher than
in North America. Overall the results from the number
of employees are consistent with our previous results
from regional sales.
These data show that Hanwha, KT and Samsung
Corporation appear to be exceptional cases. Hanwha
has 34% and 56% of its employees in North America
and Europe, while it only has 11% of its employees in
the Asia region, excluding Korea. Hanwha acquired
MGM Bearings in Hungary from another Korean
company, Daewoo, in 2003 and Universal Bearings of
Indiana, United States, in 1991. However, the total
number of employees in foreign countries is about 1000,
and it is less than 10% of total employees of Hanwha.
Indeed, Hanwha have more than 90% of its employees
in Korea, so it is a home region oriented MNE.
KT and Samsung Corporation have about 81% and
45% of their employees, respectively, in Europe,
excluding their employees in Korea. KT has 71% of
its employees working for NTC (New Telephone
Company) in Primorsky Krai province of Russia. KT
acquired NTC in 1997 and has about 80% of its stakes in
2006. Excluding NTC, KT has 54% of its employees in
Asia even excluding employees in Korea. NTC has
more than 50% of market share in the mobile telecom
market of Primorsky Krai province, and it is one of the
most successful foreign companies in that region. This
province is bordered by North Korea and China, and it
has a large Korean population. Indeed, Primorsky Krai
province was a part of Korea and China before the mid-
19th century. Many employees of NTC have graduated
from universities that were funded by several Korean
firms in the province. KT could easily transfer its CSAs
into NTC.
Forty percent of Samsung Corporation’s employees
are in foreign countries mainly working for Otelinox in
Romania. Samsung Corporation acquired Otelinox in
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–1512
Fig. 2. The FSAs of Korean MNEs. Sources: Annual Report of each firm—Data of Samsung Electronics, Hyundai Motor, LG Electronics and
POSCO are for 2004. Data of Hyundai are for 2001 (most recent available data). Geographic assets data for LG Electronics and SK Networks are
unavailable. Note: Adapted from Rugman (2005), page 198. Numbers for geographic scope are counted when sales in the region are larger than 20%
of total sales.
Jung-Ang Ilbo,2006.7.15 (Korean); Munhwa Ilbo, 2006.12.4 (Kor-
ean); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladivostok;http://www.zdnet.-
1997 from a Japanese company, Nisshin Steel Co., Ltd.
Samsung Corporation now holds 75% of Otelinox
social capital.
exploited and developed the Japanese seasoned FSAs of
Otelinox and delivered its CSAs to Otelinox. When we
exclude Otelinox, Samsung Corporation has 80% of its
employees in Asia excluding its employees in Korea.
We conclude that home-region oriented strategy is very
important from the perspective of performance as well
as the organization of MNEs.
7. Conclusions
Based on the foregoing theoretical and empirical
analysis, the following two major conclusions can be
drawn about the nature, extent, and future of Korean
MNEs.
First, the theoretical literature indicates that MNEs
expand abroad based upon a complex interaction
between FSAs and CSAs. The successful MNEs from
North America, Europe, and Japan, in general, expand
abroad in order to exploit FSAs which they have
developed in their large internal home markets. The
activities of their foreign subsidiaries, to an over-
whelming degree, tend to replicate for local distribution
the FSAs developed in the home market. This orthodox
explanation of MNEs was developed in Rugman (1981,
2006). Only to a minor extent do MNEs go abroad to
gain access to knowledge and technology. In this
respect, Japanese MNEs engaging in asset-seeking FDI
in North America are the main exceptions to the rule
whereby the knowledge and technology is usually
developed in the home market. Similarly, only a small
A.M. Rugman, C.H. Oh / Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 5–15 13
Table 5
Foreign operations of Korea’s large MNEs, 2005
Number of establishments (% of total)
N. America Asia Europe ROW Total
Samsung Electronics 15.7 34.7 27.4 22.1 100
LG Electronics 10.6 39.4 28.9 21.2 100
Hyundai Motor 22.5 34.7 32.6 10.2 100
SK 15.0 65.0 5.0 15.0 100
Samsung Life Insurance 25.0 62.5 12.5 0.0 100
POSCO 15.4 73.0 3.9 7.7 100
Korea Electric Power 14.3 75.7 0.0 0.0 100
Hanwha 11.1 66.7 22.2 0.0 100
KT 18.1 54.6 27.3 0.0 100
Samsung Corporation 6.0 52.0 24.0 18.0 100
SK Global 5.5 66.7 11.1 16.7 100
Average 14.4 56.8 17.7 10.1 100
Number of employees (% of total)
N. America Asia Europe ROW Total
Samsung Electronics 23.8 54.7 15.8 5.7 100
LG Electronics 9.5 74.8 7.9 7.8 100
Hyundai Motor 14.4 80.7 4.8 0.1 100
SK 8.2 87.1 1.8 2.9 100
Samsung Life Insurance 12.5 81.2 6.3 0.0 100
POSCO 34.6 64.4 0.4 0.6 100
Korea Electric Power n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Hanwha 33.5 11.0 55.5 0.0 100
KT 7.3 11.6 81.1 0.0 100
Samsung Corporation 5.1 47.8 44.6 2.5 100
SK Global 12.0 78.2 4.6 5.2 100
Average 16.1 59.1 22.3 2.5 100
Source: Directory of Korean Firms in Foreign Countries, 2005/2006. (KoreaTrade-Investment Promotion Agency, http://www.kotra.or.kr/).Notes:Asia
does not include Korea. 9.5% of establishments do not report their number of employees, and most of those establishments, 76%, locate in Asia.
Employees include both Korean and non-Korean. Actually, our measure of the foreign operations of Korean firms somewhat underestimates the values
for Asia. ROW stands for Rest of World. Average values are simple average values, not weighted average ones. ‘‘n.a.’’ stands for ‘‘not applicable.’’
6
set of Western MNEs go abroad to exploit natural
resources. These are MNEs in the energy, mining and
forestry sectors. They go abroad to exploit host country
CSAs, but retain proprietary control over managerial
and marketing FSAs, where the latter are identified with
their home countries. The implication of this for Korea
is that its MNEs are likely to develop by exploiting their
FSAs in R&D capability and other knowledge related
FSAs. In general, we find data suggesting that Korea’s
largest MNEs are now more R&D intensive. They are
moving in beyond a reliance on CSAs such as
government support and the group (chaebol) system.
Second, as Korean MNEs develop and go abroad their
primary geographic focus will be within the Asia Pacific
region. Their main competitors will be other Asian
MNEs based in Japan, Singapore, Thailand, China and
other Asian Tigers. The empirical evidence on the
performance on the world’s largest 500 MNEs, as
summarized in Rugman (2005), shows that the great
majority of these firms operate on an intra-regional basis.
Of the 380 firms providing data on geographic sales, the
largest set of 320 average 80% of their sales in their home
region. These firms have an even higher proportion of
their foreign assets in their home region. There are
extremely few ‘‘global’’ firms, and only three dozen bi-
regionals. The large Korean MNEs perform as well as
their Western competitors in international markets and
they tend to be as intra-regional as Western MNEs. We
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CitationsCitations32
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i don't know
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What trade uses a pattress or pattress box?
|
Wiki: Pattress - Google Groups
Wiki: Pattress
A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
switches. Pattresses come in metal and plastic, and in surface mount
and flush versions.
Metal recessed pattresses are used to mount sockets & switches flush
to a solid wall. A recess is chiselled out for the pattress to sit in.
Knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry. These are the most
common domestic pattresses.
Plastic surface mount pattresses are used for electrical accessories
that sit on the surface of walls. The pattress is [[screw]]ed in
place, and knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry, either
via the sides or the rear.
These are available in different depths. The shallowest ones are
suitable for light switches where no screw block connections need to
be made behind the switch. Deeper ones are usually used for sockets,
but fitting sockets into shallow patresses is often possible, if
tight, and light switches with a few screw block connections behind
them will need the deep ones too.
Plastic surface mounting patresses are the 2nd most common domestic
type.
Plasterboard boxes are used to flush mount switches etc to [[Sheet
Materials|plasterboard]]. The picture shows the position of the grips
before and after fitting.
Architrave pattresses are used with little architrave switches.
===Metal surface pattress===
[[image:Metal skt & pattress 754-7.jpg|thumb]]
Metal surface pattresses aren't very common in homes. They are used
with metal accessories, and are ideal for workshops (and other
environments) requiring particularly tough accessories.
===Twin single pattress===
Twin pattresses are designed to take two single accessories. These are
used when 2 different accessories in one position are wanted. These
are not the same size as a double pattress.
===Non-standard pattress===
Non standard pattresses are sometimes seen. These generally don't fit
standard sockets. They're designed to achieve some advantage, such as
styling or compact size.
3 way socket convertors use a pattress designed to [[screws|screw]]
onto the top of an existing single flush mount pattress. These turn a
1 way flush socket into a 3 way surface mount socket. Sometimes the
[[cables]] aren't long enough and need extending.
4 way socket convertors...
Grid switch pattresses are another type not often seen in homes. These
accept a number of accessories, which can be mixed at will in the one
pattress. Available accessories include various switches, dimmers, key
switches, indicators, etc. The accessories don't have any face plate,
a single full size faceplate is fitted last. MK is known for its grid
switch range.
[[Cables]] are often joined in pattresses, but their purpose is for
mounting switches and sockets. When a container is wanted only for
joining cables, a junction box is smaller & cheaper.
==Thermoplastic and Thermoset==
Plastic pattresses intended for mains use are made from thermoset
plastics, mainly white bakelite. These don't soften when hot, and act
as a fire resistant container.
Similarly sized pattresses intended for phone networks are generally
made from thermoplastics. These come in more than one size, the larger
of which fits mains sockets. These can be bent slightly by hand, so
are easily recognised. They offer no heat or fire protection and don't
meet modern safety requirements for mains use.
==Style & fit==
[[image:Pattress corner detail Egatube & Tenby 850-4.jpg|thumb|Egatube
vs Tenby]]
Different brands of pattress have different corner detailing, intended
to match their own brand of accessories. Standard pattresses, switches
and sockets of different brands can be freely mixed, but the
difference in corner detailing can make a minority of combinations
look wrong. If mixing brands its best to check they look right
together before buying.
Non-standard pattresses can't be expected to fit standard sockets.
===Metal accessories===
[[image:Socket metal misfit 807-6.jpg|thumb|Oops!]]
Many metal accessories for surface mounting are a different size to
plastic pattresses, and will look an eyesore if fitted to each other.
This problem doesn't occur with the various retrofit metal accessories
on the market designed to fit standard plastic pattresses (and
recessed metal ones).
[[Screws]] holding plastic pattresses in place should be done up until
they touch the pattress surface and no more. Any further tightening is
likely to break them.
Budget brand plastic pattresses can suffer a significant breakage rate
during installation, particularly if a fair amount of hole needs to be
made for [[cables|cable]] entry, or if the underlying wall is not
competely flat, or the installer doesn't appreciate their frailty.
===Earth connection===
Metal pattresses usually have an earth terminal for connecting to the
circuit earth.
A small minority of houses still have 2 core [[lighting]] circuits.
Metal pattresses or accessories should not be fitted to such circuits
due to the absence of anything more than functional insulation as
protection against shock.
Sometimes people fit them and borrow an earth from a nearby socket
circuit. This works but its not considered best practice, as there's
always the possibility of the socket circuit being decommissioned
later, leaving the [[lighting]] accessories unearthed.
Plastic pattresses and accessories are the only type recommended for
these circuits. However that doesn't imply that fitting them is always
safe; some [[Historic Mains Cables|historic rubber wiring]] is so
badly perished that moving the wires during fitting is sometimes a
sizeable risk. If perishing is limited to just the wire ends, sleeving
may be fitted to replace the function of the damaged insulation.
==See Also==
> A small minority of houses still have 2 core [[lighting]] circuits.
> Metal pattresses or accessories should not be fitted to such circuits
> due to the absence of anything more than functional insulation as
> protection against shock.
Some 1960s metal back-boxes had nylon inserts for the (4BA) screws.
The screws are thus insulated. They are fine as long as any
replacement switches are plastic and re-use the original screws.
It's also possible to buy fittings with plastic plugs which fit into the
screw holes thus insulating them. IIRC Some Wicks ones are like this.
--
*Growing old is inevitable, growing up is optional
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Sat, 23 Aug 2008 17:59:54 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
> For your perusal...
Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the online
OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online dictionaries.
There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass the salt, thank
you.
However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean a
multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article describes
I would call a "back box".
If you google pattress in the UK you get about 30,000 hits, some refering
to wall tie plates (the large metal plates used to spread the load on a
wall when ties are threaded through the building to stop it falling down).
--
A pattress is, IMHO, the plate used *behind* a switch, socket, sconce
(or similar). Typically early pattresses were wood, often had a
'sculpted' edge (to match the cornices :-) ) and were usually varnished.
Obviously, more recent usage has covered more things, but it is still
not a back box. And surely "pattress box" should only apply to a surface
mount box which could indeed be sensibly mounted onto a pattress - and
never a standard galvanised in-wall type?
AIUI, the pattress did the following:
o Covered up an unsightly hole in the plaster - much more difficult in
the days before Polyfilla. And to hide any future cracking imnmediately
around a hole in said plaster. Especially important as early
installations would very often have been into existing buildings and
minimising any requirement for redecoration would have been important.
o Allowed any suitable fixing to be used between the pattress and the
wall (and possible gave enough area for two screws which might not have
been possible with some of the small switches used in early
installations) - but left the fixing between the switch and the pattress
to be standardised.
o Stopped the edges of a small switch from digging into soft-ish plaster.
o Stopped the switch from being screwed onto an uneven surface where
it would be easy to overstress it as the screws are tightened or in
later use.
o Reduced the visual impact of a switch just stuck on the wall - it
must have looked very odd before they were common.
o Gave somewhere for cable to turn (if it was being surface mounted).
Given they were used for gas as well, it might have had specific
purposes in that context.
Your use seems to make perfect sense if you consider that people have
often been seen making extension cables with ordinary sockets/socket
boxes mounted onto a bit of wood.
Wow! - you can *still* get wooden gas pattresses:
Yet again - common words largely ignored by dictionaries. So many
trade-related words simply have not made it into them - even if they
exist in the OED database.
--
Hypothyroidism is a seriously debilitating condition with an insidious
onset.
> On Sat, 23 Aug 2008 17:59:54 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>
> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
> the salt, thank you.
>
> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean
> a multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
> describes I would call a "back box".
If you search the TLC Direct site for 'pattress' you get a list of surface
mounted boxes in various finishes, but no plasterboard or metal boxes. Dry
lining/plasterboard & metal are referred to as simply 'boxes' and respond to
the search for 'back box' or 'box'.
Search SF for 'pattress' and all types of boxes result.
I think the wiki should use the terminology in most common use, rather than
the absolutely correct terminology.
On Aug 24, 10:43 am, Rod < [email protected] > wrote:
> Dave Liquorice wrote:
You can still buy wooden electrical pattresses too.
Dictionaries are very useful tools, but are a bit overestimated imho.
Another example is 'anonymous' which dictionaries generally describe
as having no name, when usually it means declaring no name, which isnt
the same.
I'll do a bit more writing when I get the time, cheers everyone
NT
> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
> the salt, thank you.
> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean a
> multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
> describes I would call a "back box".
Yes - go into any wholesaler in London and you'd get a blank look if
asking for a pattress. And from my spell checker. ;-)
My opinion is it was those wood plates older surface mounted switches
were fixed to. So the nearest modern equivalent would be those rare
spacers which go between backing box and fitting - sometimes called
mounting frames.
I'd stick to backing box - that qualified by the material, size and type
will get you what's needed anywhere
Like metal flush 35mm 2 gang backing box
--
*A fool and his money are soon partying *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
> A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
As others already said, that's the wrong word. I think "back box"
is the most commonly used term, for both surface and flush fitting.
> switches. Pattresses come in metal and plastic, and in surface mount
> and flush versions.
> Metal recessed pattresses are used to mount sockets & switches flush
> to a solid wall. A recess is chiselled out for the pattress to sit in.
> Knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry. These are the most
> common domestic pattresses.
> Plastic surface mount pattresses are used for electrical accessories
> that sit on the surface of walls. The pattress is [[screw]]ed in
> place, and knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry, either
> via the sides or the rear.
Surface mount types are available in square or rounded corners to
match different wiring accessory styles.
> These are available in different depths. The shallowest ones are
> suitable for light switches where no screw block connections need to
> be made behind the switch. Deeper ones are usually used for sockets,
> but fitting sockets into shallow patresses is often possible, if
> tight, and light switches with a few screw block connections behind
> them will need the deep ones too.
That paragraph applies to all types, and wants to be at a higher
heading level.
> Plastic surface mounting patresses are the 2nd most common domestic
> type.
> Plasterboard boxes are used to flush mount switches etc to [[Sheet
> Materials|plasterboard]]. The picture shows the position of the grips
> before and after fitting.
> Architrave pattresses are used with little architrave switches.
and Klik lighting sockets.
> [[image:Metal skt & pattress 754-7.jpg|thumb]]
> Metal surface pattresses aren't very common in homes. They are used
> with metal accessories, and are ideal for workshops (and other
> environments) requiring particularly tough accessories.
For proper fitting of the wiring accessory, the back box and
accessory should be matched from the same range.
> ===Twin single pattress===
> Twin pattresses are designed to take two single accessories. These are
> used when 2 different accessories in one position are wanted. These
> are not the same size as a double pattress.
They can only be used with standard 86mm square accessories.
Other accessory styles won't fit.
Better to use the full terms Thermosoftening and Thermosetting.
[Just about to reboot computer to upgraded OS, so I'm sending
as far as I got -- might read the rest later]
--
"Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] > wrote in message
news:[email protected]...
>> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
>> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
>> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
>> the salt, thank you.
>
>> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean a
>> multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
>> describes I would call a "back box".
>
> Yes - go into any wholesaler in London and you'd get a blank look if
> asking for a pattress. And from my spell checker. ;-)
>
> My opinion is it was those wood plates older surface mounted switches
> were fixed to. So the nearest modern equivalent would be those rare
> spacers which go between backing box and fitting - sometimes called
> mounting frames.
> I'd stick to backing box - that qualified by the material, size and type
> will get you what's needed anywhere
> Like metal flush 35mm 2 gang backing box
>
The full OED defines pattress as "A wooden or plastic block attached to a
surface to receive a gas bracket, electric light switch, ceiling rose, etc.;
the base of a wall socket."
Dates back to 1886 according to the OED, when it was a block for mounting a
gas fitting. They quote 1969 A. J. COKER Electr. Wiring (ed. 7) v. 81
"Pattress boxes are also available to convert flush-type to surface
mounting"
I've certainly always believed a pattress was surface mounting and I've
never used the term to mean a flush mounting box. But then dictionaries
reflect usage they don't create it.
> I've certainly always believed a pattress was surface mounting and I've
> never used the term to mean a flush mounting box. But then dictionaries
> reflect usage they don't create it.
I think the problem is that the current pattress meaning is a regional
thing. So best avoided in an FAQ - unless fully explained. When dealing
with suppliers it's best to avoid jargon unless you're certain they'll
know what you mean.
*I wonder how much deeper the ocean would be without sponges*
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
> A pattress is, IMHO, the plate used *behind* a switch, socket, sconce
> (or similar). Typically early pattresses were wood, often had a
> 'sculpted' edge (to match the cornices :-) ) and were usually varnished.
or:
>> A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
>
> As others already said, that's the wrong word. I think "back box"
> is the most commonly used term, for both surface and flush fitting.
"Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back box,
pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as redirects to
the article.
> The full OED defines pattress as "A wooden or plastic block attached to a
> surface to receive a gas bracket, electric light switch, ceiling rose, etc.;
> the base of a wall socket."
>
> Dates back to 1886 according to the OED, when it was a block for mounting a
> gas fitting. They quote 1969 A. J. COKER Electr. Wiring (ed. 7) v. 81
> "Pattress boxes are also available to convert flush-type to surface
> mounting"
The etymology it gives is interesting too:
"Probably an alteration of classical Latin pateras, plural of
PATERA n. (compare quot. 1905 at main sense)."
And the entry for PATERA is:
patera, n
Plural pateræ, pateras. Forms: 16- patera, 18 pattera.
[< classical Latin patera broad shallow bowl or dish,
perhaps < the same Indo-European base as ancient Greek
{pi}{alpha}{tau}{gaacu}{nu}{eta} (see PATEN n.).
> I've certainly always believed a pattress was surface mounting and I've
> never used the term to mean a flush mounting box.
I agree entirely. I'd go further and say that the term should be
avoided altogether unless referring to the wooden blocks or moulded
mounting plates used in old wiring systems. For modern accessories
"flush mounting box" and "surface mounting box" are clear and unambiguous.
> But then dictionaries reflect usage they don't create it.
Yes but... (... but we probably don't want the Queen of Hearts defining
technical vocabulary.)
On Aug 24, 3:51 pm, John Rumm <[email protected]> wrote:
> Andrew Gabriel wrote:
> >> A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
>
> > As others already said, that's the wrong word. I think "back box"
> > is the most commonly used term, for both surface and flush fitting.
>
> "Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back box,
> pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as redirects to
> the article.
Yes, lets just be practical about it. Lots of diyers, tradespeople and
sellers call them pattresses, so pattress is a valid name for them.
Ditto backboxes, ditto wiring accessory boxes.
I could very easily be mistaken on this, but I thought the use of
'pattress' for moden backboxes was the result of the continuing to use
the word for the bit that goes behind a socket, even though today the
box shape of it is different to the old flat plates. Hence 'pattess'
describes 3 different things today - backboxes, the older little
wooden plates, and big structural loadpsreading plates - but for the
most part, electrical accessory backboxes.
I dont think any one particular term as an article heading is going to
be a winner, as none are in universal use, and all are terms in
widepsread use.
PS if anyone can supply a pic of an architrave pattress and 3 & 4 way
boxes, please do.
Just to add my 2p worth, I've always called them "Pattress Boxes". But
then, the guy who taught me was from Queensland - so it could be a
regional thing.
On Sun, 24 Aug 2008 10:57:43 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>> "Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back box,
>> pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as redirects
>> to the article.
> Yes, lets just be practical about it.
True but I think pattress is not widely understood or particularly clear.
> Lots of diyers, tradespeople and sellers call them pattresses, so
> pattress is a valid name for them.
I've never heard the word used in that way. B-)
From the wiki point of view and using the title in other articles
"Electrical accessory mounting boxes" is a bit of a handful and is a
plural so if the article that wants to use it is talking singular you have
to step through a hoop...
> I dont think any one particular term as an article heading is going to
> be a winner, as none are in universal use, and all are terms in
> widepsread use.
I think "Wiring Accessory Box" is the best as it says what it is in a
fairly generic way. Pattress really needs it's own page to describe the
old use as the mounting blocks for gas and electrical fittings, the use as
load spreading plates in building ties, etc, and a link to the Wiring
Accessory Box article. Redirects from "Back Box", "Flush Mounting Box",
"Surface Mounting Box" to, preferably the relevant section, of the Wiring
Accessory Box article would be useful.
--
> On Sun, 24 Aug 2008 10:57:43 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>
>>> "Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back
>>> box, pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as
>>> redirects to the article.
>> Yes, lets just be practical about it.
>
> True but I think pattress is not widely understood or particularly
> clear.
>> Lots of diyers, tradespeople and sellers call them pattresses, so
>> pattress is a valid name for them.
>
> I've never heard the word used in that way. B-)
Dave,
I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches etc
"patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my apprenticeship as
a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician and electrical supplier
in my neck of the country has called them that - and are still doing so.
Tanner-'op
> Yes, lets just be practical about it. Lots of diyers, tradespeople and
> sellers call them pattresses, so pattress is a valid name for them.
> Ditto backboxes, ditto wiring accessory boxes.
I most commonly come across the term pattress used only for surface
mounting boxes.
> I could very easily be mistaken on this, but I thought the use of
> 'pattress' for moden backboxes was the result of the continuing to use
> the word for the bit that goes behind a socket, even though today the
> box shape of it is different to the old flat plates. Hence 'pattess'
> describes 3 different things today - backboxes, the older little
> wooden plates, and big structural loadpsreading plates - but for the
> most part, electrical accessory backboxes.
I expect there is a regional variation, but its certainly not the most
commonly used of the terms.
> I dont think any one particular term as an article heading is going to
> be a winner, as none are in universal use, and all are terms in
> widepsread use.
Agreed - something generic for the article title would hence be best.
--
We were somewhere around Barstow, on the edge of the desert, when the
drugs began to take hold. I remember [email protected] saying something
like:
>I could very easily be mistaken on this, but I thought the use of
>'pattress' for moden backboxes was the result of the continuing to use
>the word for the bit that goes behind a socket, even though today the
>box shape of it is different to the old flat plates.
I see what you're getting at, but the pattress has always been just the
wooden plate and the term 'pattress box' refers only to the surface box
that would screw onto it. Lazy diction has led to a generation simply
calling them patresses, missing the 'box' off - this may be worse in
some parts of the country than others.
Best to stick with the proper, traditional terms - damnit, we need
standards these days.
"It's a moron working with power tools.
How much more suspenseful can you get?"
- House
> I see what you're getting at, but the pattress has always been just the
> wooden plate and the term 'pattress box' refers only to the surface box
> that would screw onto it.
There was an intermediate step between the wooden pattress and the
modern surface mounting box.
Originally wiring accessories for surface mounting had terminals open at
the back and were screwed to the wooden pattress. When the wiring regs
introduced the requirement for all connections to be enclosed in
fireproof material (12th or 13th edition?) many manufacturers introduced
moulded mounting plates (aka back plates or pattresses) that could be
used either on a wooden pattress or directly on a wall. Thus the wooden
pattress started to disappear. The next step was the introduction of
the surface mounting box as we now know it, enabling 'flush-mount'
wiring accessories to be surface mounted.
I guess this is how common use of the term pattress passed from the
wooden item to the surface mounting (pattress) box. There's no such
continuity with flush mount wiring accessories and their metal back
boxes, which were in use before the wooden pattress disappeared. That's
why using pattress to refer to flush mounting boxes only confuses the
issue and is quite wrong, IMHO.
--
> I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches etc
> "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
> apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
> and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them that
> - and are still doing so.
Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
and in other areas it's not used.
--
*What do little birdies see when they get knocked unconscious? *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
>> I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches
>> etc "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
>> apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
>> and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them
>> that - and are still doing so.
>
> Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> national and in other areas it's not used.
Perhaps we should use the terms in the Screwfix catalouge/web site? They
are national and seem to be becoming the modern day 'Bucks Book' if anyone
remembers that?
Yonks ago I was in the tool trade & customers would call asking for all
sorts of stuff. If there was any doubt they would refer to page so and so
in the Bucks Book. Everybody seemed to have one, even if they never bought
from Buck & Hickman.
We use the SF site like that here.
--
On Aug 25, 9:15 am, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches etc
> > "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
> > apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
> > and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them that
> > - and are still doing so.
>
> Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
> and in other areas it's not used.
The other terms are no more or less regional than pattress.
NT
> > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
> > and in other areas it's not used.
> The other terms are no more or less regional than pattress.
Perhaps you could tell me of a regional supplier's website where they talk
about pattresses as backing boxes?
And I'd be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land didn't understand
a 'flush metal 35mm two gang backing box'
--
*Aim Low, Reach Your Goals, Avoid Disappointment *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Mon, 25 Aug 2008 10:10:31 GMT, The Medway Handyman wrote:
> Perhaps we should use the terms in the Screwfix catalouge/web site?
Not a bad idea, they use "Mounting Box" as the generic title to cover
steel and drylining flush boxes under Home > Electrical > Switches &
Sockets > Mounting Boxes.
But surface boxes are lumped in amongst all the bits in Home > Electrical
> Conduit > Rigid Conduit.
>> I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches
>> etc "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
>> apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
>> and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them
>> that - and are still doing so.
>
> Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> national and in other areas it's not used.
Dave,
Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to me.
As for the standard of the "Wiki" write-up on that subject (and many others)
I will pass no comment.
Tanner-'op
> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the online
> OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online dictionaries.
1930s works on electrical wiring have it as 'pateras' and use it to
describe the wooden circular or rectangular block on which the accessory
was fixed.
> There was an intermediate step between the wooden pattress and the
> modern surface mounting box.
At one time, wooden boxes were used for flush mounting accessories, as
well as for the construction of surface fuse boxes and the like.
Owain
On Aug 25, 1:12 pm, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
> > > and in other areas it's not used.
> > The other terms are no more or less regional than pattress.
>
> Perhaps you could tell me of a regional supplier's website where they talk
> about pattresses as backing boxes?
>
> And I'd be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land didn't understand
> a 'flush metal 35mm two gang backing box'
'Pattress supplier' gives 3760 hits. 'Pattress' gives 29,800.
> And I'd be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land didn't understand
> a 'flush metal 35mm two gang backing box'
Indeed. I'd also be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land
didn't understand a 'flush metal 35mm two gang pattress'
I know it would be easy if all suppliers used one term, but they dont.
The Wiki can easily reflect that by using all the common terms.
NT
On Mon, 25 Aug 2008 17:37:31 +0100, Tanner-'op wrote:
> Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
> years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
> surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
> tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to
> me.
Ah but the wiki entry refers to flush as well as surface mount boxen...
--
We were somewhere around Barstow, on the edge of the desert, when the
drugs began to take hold. I remember Andy Wade
< [email protected] > saying something like:
>There was an intermediate step between the wooden pattress and the
>modern surface mounting box.
>Originally wiring accessories for surface mounting had terminals open at
>the back and were screwed to the wooden pattress.
Hah. I've come across some of those in in ancient installations. Another
common one here are Bakelite cover / ceramic body incomer 2P switches on
a distribution board. Still plenty of them in use here and were still
being fitted in the late 60s - although I think in those cases it was
the spark using new old stock to use it up.
--
"It's a moron working with power tools.
How much more suspenseful can you get?"
- House
> > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> > national and in other areas it's not used.
> Dave,
> Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
> years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
> surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
> tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to me.
It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter person
may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of it.
--
*Two many clicks spoil the browse *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Aug 25, 7:55 pm, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> > > national and in other areas it's not used.
> > Dave,
> > Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
> > years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
> > surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
> > tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to me.
>
> It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
> plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter person
> may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of it.
Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
Its also not hard to find counter staff that dont know what youre
asking for because they've never been in the business themselves, and
know nothing beyond what the catalogue says.
None of this establishes anything germaine.
NT
> > It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
> > plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter
> > person may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of
> > it.
> Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
I did when I first arrived in London to be met with blank looks. The term
was/is in use in Aberdeen, my home town. I subsequently brought up the
subject with both pro electricians and a pal who has been in the
wholesaling game all his life and probably knows more about it than most.
Of course he had heard the term and referred to it as 'northern'.
> Its also not hard to find counter staff that dont know what youre
> asking for because they've never been in the business themselves, and
> know nothing beyond what the catalogue says.
So therefore in an FAQ it's best not to use jargon. Use a term which is
universally understood. You can continue to call it a humgrommet or
whatever in private with consenting adults.
> None of this establishes anything germaine.
There are plenty of examples where jargon varies regionally. And 'shows
you up' if you use the wrong term. Which is not what a newbie needs when
visiting a wholesaler for the first time.
--
*In "Casablanca", Humphrey Bogart never said "Play it again, Sam" *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Tue, 26 Aug 2008 08:45:00 +0100 Dave Plowman (News) wrote :
> > Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
>
> I did when I first arrived in London to be met with blank looks.
It's certainly been used here for 40 years, though my first recollection
was to described the moulded round plate that you put under a batten
lampholder when not on a fireproof surface (per regs change mentioned
here previously)
On Aug 26, 8:45 am, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > > It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
> > > plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter
> > > person may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of
> > > it.
> > Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
>
> I did when I first arrived in London to be met with blank looks. The term
> was/is in use in Aberdeen, my home town. I subsequently brought up the
> subject with both pro electricians and a pal who has been in the
> wholesaling game all his life and probably knows more about it than most.
> Of course he had heard the term and referred to it as 'northern'.
>
> > Its also not hard to find counter staff that dont know what youre
> > asking for because they've never been in the business themselves, and
> > know nothing beyond what the catalogue says.
>
> So therefore in an FAQ it's best not to use jargon. Use a term which is
> universally understood. You can continue to call it a humgrommet or
> whatever in private with consenting adults.
>
> > None of this establishes anything germaine.
>
> There are plenty of examples where jargon varies regionally. And 'shows
> you up' if you use the wrong term. Which is not what a newbie needs when
> visiting a wholesaler for the first time.
So far we've got 3 choices:
1. Pattress - widely used, but as you've pointed out, not universal
2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
shortage of other things it can also mean
3. Electrical accessory wiring box - probably everyone would realise
what this is, but its simply too long for a wiki article title. It
also appears to cover other items such as junction boxes, and perhaps
even small CUs etc, its not an entirely clear name either.
Whichever term we use there will be various references to it in other
articles requiring links to this pattress article. Really there is no
winner here, there are issues with all 3 options. One plus of
'pattress' is that the history of the word and its DIY uses can be
included, both structural and historic electrical, so more information
would be there. Another plus, in common with backbox, is its short and
sweet.
The issues around the name(s) can be mentioned/discussed in the
article so no-one is left in confusion - that would be best whatever
title we use.
> 2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
> shortage of other things it can also mean
What - in electrical terms?
*When did my wild oats turn to prunes and all bran?
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Aug 26, 1:56 pm, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > 2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
> > shortage of other things it can also mean
>
There's nothing that limits it to electrical afaics, so its wide open.
And within electrical it might refer to a junction box, a small CU,
and assorted items that arent part of house wiring.
NT
On Tue, 26 Aug 2008 04:37:55 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
> So far we've got 3 choices:
>
> 3. Electrical accessory wiring box
>
> The issues around the name(s) can be mentioned/discussed in the
> article so no-one is left in confusion - that would be best whatever
> title we use.
How does the disambiguation feature of a wiki work? I've not played with
that at all.
> > > 2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
> > > shortage of other things it can also mean
> >
> There's nothing that limits it to electrical afaics, so its wide open.
Then the whole idea is pointless.
> And within electrical it might refer to a junction box, a small CU,
> and assorted items that arent part of house wiring.
Are these more obscure terms?
Plenty of electrical bits and pieces consist of a plate of some sort which
fits a box. But with all the JBs and CUs I've seen the 'guts' are in the
box rather than on the plate.
> NT
*I never drink anything stronger than gin before breakfast *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Aug 26, 5:44 pm, "Dave Liquorice" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> On Tue, 26 Aug 2008 04:37:55 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
> > So far we've got 3 choices:
>
> > 3. Electrical accessory wiring box
>
> > The issues around the name(s) can be mentioned/discussed in the
> > article so no-one is left in confusion - that would be best whatever
> > title we use.
> How does the disambiguation feature of a wiki work? I've not played with
> that at all.
Disambig can be either its own separate page or a section in a page.
In this case the latter seems more suitable, since its unlikely we'd
have a page for the other pattresses any time this year
When I get time I'll do all the work and re-draft the article
NT
In uk.d-i-y, The Medway Handyman wrote:
>Dave Liquorice wrote:
>> On Sat, 23 Aug 2008 17:59:54 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>>
>> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
>> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
>> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
>> the salt, thank you.
>>
>> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean
>> a multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
>> describes I would call a "back box".
>
>If you search the TLC Direct site for 'pattress' you get a list of surface
>mounted boxes in various finishes, but no plasterboard or metal boxes. Dry
>lining/plasterboard & metal are referred to as simply 'boxes' and respond to
>the search for 'back box' or 'box'.
That corresponds to my usage and the usage of people that I deal with
here in Cheshire. Surface fittings have pattresses. Flush fittings have
back boxes. It's a simple and useful distinction.
--
On Aug 24, 1:59 am, [email protected] wrote:
> For your perusal...
Hopefully the final draft now, with lots of input added...
'''Pattress''' usually means the box that sits behind electrical
sockets and switches, though it has other meanings too. Modern
electrical pattress boxes come in metal and plastic, and in surface
mount and flush versions.
==Uses of the word 'pattress'==
'Pattress' has more than one meaning in DIY. Its also a word whose
meaning has changed relatively quickly over time, resulting in
significant disagreement over which meanings are correct.
===History===
[[image:Socket_(__)_785-4.jpg|thumb|old wood pattress plate]]
Pattress is derived from the latin 'pateras' meaning a shallow bowl or
plate.
In the 1800s 'pattress' was used to mean the flat wooden plates that
gas lighting equipment was mounted on.
In the 1930s electrical accessories were mounted on wooden plates, and
these were mainly referred to as 'pateras.' The anglicised version
'pattress' gradually took over from pateras.
When wiring regs required electrical accessories to be housed in
fireproof containers, a box was used between the wooden pateras and
socket, instead of mounting it directly to the pateras. This was known
as a pattress box. Over time this became known as a pattress.
Today many trade and DIY people refer to any electrical backbox as a
pattress. There are also many that consider only surface mount boxes
to be pattresses, and many that don't call any type of backbox a
pattress. Unfortunately this is equally true of the other names for
these things, so we just have to be aware of the differing usage of
the term.
The electrical boxes used behind sockets and switches are variously
known as pattresses, wiring accessory boxes, boxes, and backboxes,
with none of these terms being universal.
===Non-electrical pattresses===
The word 'pattress' also describes flattish iron plates used for load
spreading, as used to tie houses with structural defects together.
==Pattress types==
Plastic surface mount pattresses are used for electrical accessories
that sit on the surface of walls. The pattress is [[screws|screwed]]
in place, and knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry,
either via the sides or the rear.
These are available in different depths. The shallowest ones are
suitable for light switches where no screw block connections need to
be made behind the switch. Deeper ones are usually used for sockets,
but fitting sockets into shallow patresses is often possible, if
tight, and light switches with a few screw block connections behind
them will need the deep ones too.
Plastic surface mounting patresses are the second most common domestic
type.
Plasterboard boxes are used to flush mount switches etc to [[Sheet
Materials|plasterboard]]. The picture shows the position of the grips
before and after fitting.
Architrave pattresses are used with little architrave switches.
===Metal surface pattress===
[[image:Metal skt & pattress 754-7.jpg|thumb]]
Metal surface pattresses aren't very common in homes. They are used
with metal accessories, and are ideal for workshops (and other
environments) requiring particularly tough accessories.
===Twin single pattress===
Twin pattresses are designed to take two single accessories. These are
used when 2 different accessories in one position are wanted. These
are not the same size as a double pattress.
===Non-standard pattress===
Non standard pattresses are sometimes seen. These generally don't fit
standard sockets. They're designed to achieve some advantage, such as
styling or compact size.
3 way socket convertors use a pattress designed to [[screws|screw]]
onto the top of an existing single flush mount pattress. These turn a
1 way flush socket into a 3 way surface mount socket. Sometimes the
[[cables]] aren't long enough and need extending.
4 way socket convertors...
Plastic pattresses intended for mains use are made from thermoset
plastics, mainly white bakelite. These don't soften when hot, and act
as a fire resistant container.
Similarly sized pattresses intended for phone networks are generally
made from thermoplastics. These come in more than one size, the larger
of which fits mains sockets. These can be bent slightly by hand, so
are easily recognised. They offer no heat or fire protection and don't
meet modern safety requirements for mains use.
==Style & fit==
[[image:Pattress corner detail Egatube & Tenby 850-4.jpg|thumb|Egatube
vs Tenby]]
Different brands of pattress have different corner detailing, intended
to match their own brand of accessories. Standard pattresses, switches
and sockets of different brands can be freely mixed, but the
difference in corner detailing can make a minority of combinations
look wrong. If mixing brands its best to check they look right
together before buying.
Non-standard pattresses can't be expected to fit standard sockets.
===Metal accessories===
[[image:Socket metal misfit 807-6.jpg|thumb|Oops!]]
Many metal accessories for surface mounting are a different size to
plastic pattresses. The screw spacing is the same, but the outer size
isn't. These are an eyesore if one type is fitted to the other.
This problem doesn't occur with the various retrofit metal accessories
on the market designed to fit standard plastic pattresses (and
recessed metal ones). It only applies to the traditional functional
metal sockets & backboxes.
[[Screws]] holding plastic pattresses in place should be done up until
the screwhead touches the pattress surface, and no more. Any further
tightening is likely to break the brittle plastic.
Budget brand plastic pattresses can suffer a significant breakage rate
during installation, particularly if a fair amount of hole needs to be
made for [[cables|cable]] entry, or if the underlying wall is not
competely flat, or the installer doesn't appreciate their frailty.
==Earth connection==
Metal pattresses have an earth terminal for connecting to the circuit
earth. A sleeved wire should be run from the socket earth terminal to
the backbox.
A small minority of houses still have old 2 core [[lighting]]
circuits. Metal pattresses or accessories should not be fitted to such
circuits due to the absence of anything more than functional
insulation as protection against shock.
Sometimes people fit them and borrow an earth from a nearby socket
circuit. This works but its not considered best practice, as there's
always the possibility of the socket circuit being decommissioned
later, leaving the [[lighting]] accessories unearthed. Hence its not
wiring regulations compliant.
Plastic pattresses and accessories are the only type recommended for
these circuits. However that doesn't imply that fitting them is always
safe; some [[Historic Mains Cables|historic rubber wiring]] is so
badly perished that moving the wires during fitting is sometimes a
sizeable risk. If perishing is limited to just the wire ends, sleeving
may be fitted to replace the function of the damaged insulation.
==Extension leads==
Surface pattress boxes are not designed for use on extension leads.
They have no cordgrip, and are brittle, which is not ideal for
portable use. Despite this they see fairly widespread use in extension
leads, so we will describe how to make these not-recommended leads as
safe as possible.
The main problem is the lack of cordgrip. There are 4 ways to
implement a cordgrip.
# Knockout 3 of the knockouts in a row on one side/top/bottom of the
pattress, and thread the lead through all 3 in a zigzag pattern. This
makes a fully effective cordgrip.
# The pattess box can be mounted on a piece of wood and a cordgrip
from a mains plug used to secure the lead inside the box. The 2 screws
go into the backing wood.
# Knotting the wire is sometimes used, but this is only partially
effective.
# A few surface pattress boxes do have cordgrips (eg Marbo).
Breakability can be reduced to some extent by mounting the pattress
box on a piece of chipboard that's larger all round than the box.
Chipboard and MDF are best as they're soft enough to reduce peak
impact forces.
> Yes - although you'll have to modify it somewhat. They have normal 2.5mm
> fixing threads - so if you wish to put it between accessory and backing
> box you'll need to drill them out. You may also need to remove the spare
> 'lugs' as these can interfere with some fittings.
> It will look a bodge, though.
For a start, the machine screws are M3.5 -- that is the normal variety
for electrical boxes
You're not usually expected to drill them out but rather to use one set
for mounting the spacer and the other set for mounting the accessory.
Of course that sometimes causes problems of orentation and fitting of
some accessories.
> > > Would you say that using one as a spacer for (say) a deeper accessory is
> > > legitimate?
> > Yes - although you'll have to modify it somewhat. They have normal
> > 2.5mm fixing threads - so if you wish to put it between accessory and
> > backing box you'll need to drill them out. You may also need to remove
> > the spare 'lugs' as these can interfere with some fittings.
> > It will look a bodge, though.
> For a start, the machine screws are M3.5 -- that is the normal variety
> for electrical boxes
> You're not usually expected to drill them out but rather to use one set
> for mounting the spacer and the other set for mounting the accessory.
Most will tend to get used with plaster depth boxes which have only two
fixing lugs.
And you're not 'expected' to use them for this purpose - they're for
mounting a standard accessory to trunking etc. Use as a spacing frame is a
secondary one.
> Of course that sometimes causes problems of orentation and fitting of
> some accessories.
Some boxes also have only one adjustable lug - which most would fit so it
can be used for horizontal fixing. See also my point about the large
plastic lugs at the top fouling some dimmers, etc.
--
*People want trepanners like they want a hole in the head*
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
> > And you're not 'expected' to use them for this purpose - they're for
> > mounting a standard accessory to trunking etc. Use as a spacing frame
> > is a secondary one.
> ah, well if you use the things designed for the purpose of extending a
> backbox rather than those designed for conduit, it all works much better
> - the same screws just fit through the unthreaded lugs on the extender
> and go into the original back box:
Right - never seen those. Not that I'd be looking for them anyway. ;-)
--
*If all the world is a stage, where is the audience sitting?
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
from "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] > contains these words:
> Some boxes also have only one adjustable lug - which most would fit so it
> can be used for horizontal fixing.
And many boxes have -- or at least in the past had -- no adjustable lugs :-(
> See also my point about the large
> plastic lugs at the top fouling some dimmers, etc.
Been there, done that, got the t-shirt. Often :-(
Whilst they may still be current catalogue items, I think we're dealing
with something which is largely a relic of the past. I dare say I could
probably find one or two in a box of old bits somewhere around my
storeroom, but then I could also find a few packets of mounting flanges.
Remember them? Used to use them on 4 lug single-gang metal back boxes.
Fix flange to box using two of the lugs, then fix box to skirting by
woodscrews through the face of the flange. A whole lot simpler ( and
easier to align) than screwing through the side of the box into the
thickness of the skirting. But then flange boxes became readily
available and the problem was solved in a different and simpler way.
|
Electrician
|
(At 2013) the 230m high Heron Tower is the tallest skyscraper of which historical financial city centre district?
|
Wiki: Pattress - Google Groups
Wiki: Pattress
A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
switches. Pattresses come in metal and plastic, and in surface mount
and flush versions.
Metal recessed pattresses are used to mount sockets & switches flush
to a solid wall. A recess is chiselled out for the pattress to sit in.
Knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry. These are the most
common domestic pattresses.
Plastic surface mount pattresses are used for electrical accessories
that sit on the surface of walls. The pattress is [[screw]]ed in
place, and knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry, either
via the sides or the rear.
These are available in different depths. The shallowest ones are
suitable for light switches where no screw block connections need to
be made behind the switch. Deeper ones are usually used for sockets,
but fitting sockets into shallow patresses is often possible, if
tight, and light switches with a few screw block connections behind
them will need the deep ones too.
Plastic surface mounting patresses are the 2nd most common domestic
type.
Plasterboard boxes are used to flush mount switches etc to [[Sheet
Materials|plasterboard]]. The picture shows the position of the grips
before and after fitting.
Architrave pattresses are used with little architrave switches.
===Metal surface pattress===
[[image:Metal skt & pattress 754-7.jpg|thumb]]
Metal surface pattresses aren't very common in homes. They are used
with metal accessories, and are ideal for workshops (and other
environments) requiring particularly tough accessories.
===Twin single pattress===
Twin pattresses are designed to take two single accessories. These are
used when 2 different accessories in one position are wanted. These
are not the same size as a double pattress.
===Non-standard pattress===
Non standard pattresses are sometimes seen. These generally don't fit
standard sockets. They're designed to achieve some advantage, such as
styling or compact size.
3 way socket convertors use a pattress designed to [[screws|screw]]
onto the top of an existing single flush mount pattress. These turn a
1 way flush socket into a 3 way surface mount socket. Sometimes the
[[cables]] aren't long enough and need extending.
4 way socket convertors...
Grid switch pattresses are another type not often seen in homes. These
accept a number of accessories, which can be mixed at will in the one
pattress. Available accessories include various switches, dimmers, key
switches, indicators, etc. The accessories don't have any face plate,
a single full size faceplate is fitted last. MK is known for its grid
switch range.
[[Cables]] are often joined in pattresses, but their purpose is for
mounting switches and sockets. When a container is wanted only for
joining cables, a junction box is smaller & cheaper.
==Thermoplastic and Thermoset==
Plastic pattresses intended for mains use are made from thermoset
plastics, mainly white bakelite. These don't soften when hot, and act
as a fire resistant container.
Similarly sized pattresses intended for phone networks are generally
made from thermoplastics. These come in more than one size, the larger
of which fits mains sockets. These can be bent slightly by hand, so
are easily recognised. They offer no heat or fire protection and don't
meet modern safety requirements for mains use.
==Style & fit==
[[image:Pattress corner detail Egatube & Tenby 850-4.jpg|thumb|Egatube
vs Tenby]]
Different brands of pattress have different corner detailing, intended
to match their own brand of accessories. Standard pattresses, switches
and sockets of different brands can be freely mixed, but the
difference in corner detailing can make a minority of combinations
look wrong. If mixing brands its best to check they look right
together before buying.
Non-standard pattresses can't be expected to fit standard sockets.
===Metal accessories===
[[image:Socket metal misfit 807-6.jpg|thumb|Oops!]]
Many metal accessories for surface mounting are a different size to
plastic pattresses, and will look an eyesore if fitted to each other.
This problem doesn't occur with the various retrofit metal accessories
on the market designed to fit standard plastic pattresses (and
recessed metal ones).
[[Screws]] holding plastic pattresses in place should be done up until
they touch the pattress surface and no more. Any further tightening is
likely to break them.
Budget brand plastic pattresses can suffer a significant breakage rate
during installation, particularly if a fair amount of hole needs to be
made for [[cables|cable]] entry, or if the underlying wall is not
competely flat, or the installer doesn't appreciate their frailty.
===Earth connection===
Metal pattresses usually have an earth terminal for connecting to the
circuit earth.
A small minority of houses still have 2 core [[lighting]] circuits.
Metal pattresses or accessories should not be fitted to such circuits
due to the absence of anything more than functional insulation as
protection against shock.
Sometimes people fit them and borrow an earth from a nearby socket
circuit. This works but its not considered best practice, as there's
always the possibility of the socket circuit being decommissioned
later, leaving the [[lighting]] accessories unearthed.
Plastic pattresses and accessories are the only type recommended for
these circuits. However that doesn't imply that fitting them is always
safe; some [[Historic Mains Cables|historic rubber wiring]] is so
badly perished that moving the wires during fitting is sometimes a
sizeable risk. If perishing is limited to just the wire ends, sleeving
may be fitted to replace the function of the damaged insulation.
==See Also==
> A small minority of houses still have 2 core [[lighting]] circuits.
> Metal pattresses or accessories should not be fitted to such circuits
> due to the absence of anything more than functional insulation as
> protection against shock.
Some 1960s metal back-boxes had nylon inserts for the (4BA) screws.
The screws are thus insulated. They are fine as long as any
replacement switches are plastic and re-use the original screws.
It's also possible to buy fittings with plastic plugs which fit into the
screw holes thus insulating them. IIRC Some Wicks ones are like this.
--
*Growing old is inevitable, growing up is optional
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Sat, 23 Aug 2008 17:59:54 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
> For your perusal...
Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the online
OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online dictionaries.
There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass the salt, thank
you.
However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean a
multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article describes
I would call a "back box".
If you google pattress in the UK you get about 30,000 hits, some refering
to wall tie plates (the large metal plates used to spread the load on a
wall when ties are threaded through the building to stop it falling down).
--
A pattress is, IMHO, the plate used *behind* a switch, socket, sconce
(or similar). Typically early pattresses were wood, often had a
'sculpted' edge (to match the cornices :-) ) and were usually varnished.
Obviously, more recent usage has covered more things, but it is still
not a back box. And surely "pattress box" should only apply to a surface
mount box which could indeed be sensibly mounted onto a pattress - and
never a standard galvanised in-wall type?
AIUI, the pattress did the following:
o Covered up an unsightly hole in the plaster - much more difficult in
the days before Polyfilla. And to hide any future cracking imnmediately
around a hole in said plaster. Especially important as early
installations would very often have been into existing buildings and
minimising any requirement for redecoration would have been important.
o Allowed any suitable fixing to be used between the pattress and the
wall (and possible gave enough area for two screws which might not have
been possible with some of the small switches used in early
installations) - but left the fixing between the switch and the pattress
to be standardised.
o Stopped the edges of a small switch from digging into soft-ish plaster.
o Stopped the switch from being screwed onto an uneven surface where
it would be easy to overstress it as the screws are tightened or in
later use.
o Reduced the visual impact of a switch just stuck on the wall - it
must have looked very odd before they were common.
o Gave somewhere for cable to turn (if it was being surface mounted).
Given they were used for gas as well, it might have had specific
purposes in that context.
Your use seems to make perfect sense if you consider that people have
often been seen making extension cables with ordinary sockets/socket
boxes mounted onto a bit of wood.
Wow! - you can *still* get wooden gas pattresses:
Yet again - common words largely ignored by dictionaries. So many
trade-related words simply have not made it into them - even if they
exist in the OED database.
--
Hypothyroidism is a seriously debilitating condition with an insidious
onset.
> On Sat, 23 Aug 2008 17:59:54 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>
> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
> the salt, thank you.
>
> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean
> a multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
> describes I would call a "back box".
If you search the TLC Direct site for 'pattress' you get a list of surface
mounted boxes in various finishes, but no plasterboard or metal boxes. Dry
lining/plasterboard & metal are referred to as simply 'boxes' and respond to
the search for 'back box' or 'box'.
Search SF for 'pattress' and all types of boxes result.
I think the wiki should use the terminology in most common use, rather than
the absolutely correct terminology.
On Aug 24, 10:43 am, Rod < [email protected] > wrote:
> Dave Liquorice wrote:
You can still buy wooden electrical pattresses too.
Dictionaries are very useful tools, but are a bit overestimated imho.
Another example is 'anonymous' which dictionaries generally describe
as having no name, when usually it means declaring no name, which isnt
the same.
I'll do a bit more writing when I get the time, cheers everyone
NT
> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
> the salt, thank you.
> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean a
> multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
> describes I would call a "back box".
Yes - go into any wholesaler in London and you'd get a blank look if
asking for a pattress. And from my spell checker. ;-)
My opinion is it was those wood plates older surface mounted switches
were fixed to. So the nearest modern equivalent would be those rare
spacers which go between backing box and fitting - sometimes called
mounting frames.
I'd stick to backing box - that qualified by the material, size and type
will get you what's needed anywhere
Like metal flush 35mm 2 gang backing box
--
*A fool and his money are soon partying *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
> A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
As others already said, that's the wrong word. I think "back box"
is the most commonly used term, for both surface and flush fitting.
> switches. Pattresses come in metal and plastic, and in surface mount
> and flush versions.
> Metal recessed pattresses are used to mount sockets & switches flush
> to a solid wall. A recess is chiselled out for the pattress to sit in.
> Knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry. These are the most
> common domestic pattresses.
> Plastic surface mount pattresses are used for electrical accessories
> that sit on the surface of walls. The pattress is [[screw]]ed in
> place, and knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry, either
> via the sides or the rear.
Surface mount types are available in square or rounded corners to
match different wiring accessory styles.
> These are available in different depths. The shallowest ones are
> suitable for light switches where no screw block connections need to
> be made behind the switch. Deeper ones are usually used for sockets,
> but fitting sockets into shallow patresses is often possible, if
> tight, and light switches with a few screw block connections behind
> them will need the deep ones too.
That paragraph applies to all types, and wants to be at a higher
heading level.
> Plastic surface mounting patresses are the 2nd most common domestic
> type.
> Plasterboard boxes are used to flush mount switches etc to [[Sheet
> Materials|plasterboard]]. The picture shows the position of the grips
> before and after fitting.
> Architrave pattresses are used with little architrave switches.
and Klik lighting sockets.
> [[image:Metal skt & pattress 754-7.jpg|thumb]]
> Metal surface pattresses aren't very common in homes. They are used
> with metal accessories, and are ideal for workshops (and other
> environments) requiring particularly tough accessories.
For proper fitting of the wiring accessory, the back box and
accessory should be matched from the same range.
> ===Twin single pattress===
> Twin pattresses are designed to take two single accessories. These are
> used when 2 different accessories in one position are wanted. These
> are not the same size as a double pattress.
They can only be used with standard 86mm square accessories.
Other accessory styles won't fit.
Better to use the full terms Thermosoftening and Thermosetting.
[Just about to reboot computer to upgraded OS, so I'm sending
as far as I got -- might read the rest later]
--
"Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] > wrote in message
news:[email protected]...
>> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
>> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
>> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
>> the salt, thank you.
>
>> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean a
>> multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
>> describes I would call a "back box".
>
> Yes - go into any wholesaler in London and you'd get a blank look if
> asking for a pattress. And from my spell checker. ;-)
>
> My opinion is it was those wood plates older surface mounted switches
> were fixed to. So the nearest modern equivalent would be those rare
> spacers which go between backing box and fitting - sometimes called
> mounting frames.
> I'd stick to backing box - that qualified by the material, size and type
> will get you what's needed anywhere
> Like metal flush 35mm 2 gang backing box
>
The full OED defines pattress as "A wooden or plastic block attached to a
surface to receive a gas bracket, electric light switch, ceiling rose, etc.;
the base of a wall socket."
Dates back to 1886 according to the OED, when it was a block for mounting a
gas fitting. They quote 1969 A. J. COKER Electr. Wiring (ed. 7) v. 81
"Pattress boxes are also available to convert flush-type to surface
mounting"
I've certainly always believed a pattress was surface mounting and I've
never used the term to mean a flush mounting box. But then dictionaries
reflect usage they don't create it.
> I've certainly always believed a pattress was surface mounting and I've
> never used the term to mean a flush mounting box. But then dictionaries
> reflect usage they don't create it.
I think the problem is that the current pattress meaning is a regional
thing. So best avoided in an FAQ - unless fully explained. When dealing
with suppliers it's best to avoid jargon unless you're certain they'll
know what you mean.
*I wonder how much deeper the ocean would be without sponges*
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
> A pattress is, IMHO, the plate used *behind* a switch, socket, sconce
> (or similar). Typically early pattresses were wood, often had a
> 'sculpted' edge (to match the cornices :-) ) and were usually varnished.
or:
>> A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
>
> As others already said, that's the wrong word. I think "back box"
> is the most commonly used term, for both surface and flush fitting.
"Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back box,
pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as redirects to
the article.
> The full OED defines pattress as "A wooden or plastic block attached to a
> surface to receive a gas bracket, electric light switch, ceiling rose, etc.;
> the base of a wall socket."
>
> Dates back to 1886 according to the OED, when it was a block for mounting a
> gas fitting. They quote 1969 A. J. COKER Electr. Wiring (ed. 7) v. 81
> "Pattress boxes are also available to convert flush-type to surface
> mounting"
The etymology it gives is interesting too:
"Probably an alteration of classical Latin pateras, plural of
PATERA n. (compare quot. 1905 at main sense)."
And the entry for PATERA is:
patera, n
Plural pateræ, pateras. Forms: 16- patera, 18 pattera.
[< classical Latin patera broad shallow bowl or dish,
perhaps < the same Indo-European base as ancient Greek
{pi}{alpha}{tau}{gaacu}{nu}{eta} (see PATEN n.).
> I've certainly always believed a pattress was surface mounting and I've
> never used the term to mean a flush mounting box.
I agree entirely. I'd go further and say that the term should be
avoided altogether unless referring to the wooden blocks or moulded
mounting plates used in old wiring systems. For modern accessories
"flush mounting box" and "surface mounting box" are clear and unambiguous.
> But then dictionaries reflect usage they don't create it.
Yes but... (... but we probably don't want the Queen of Hearts defining
technical vocabulary.)
On Aug 24, 3:51 pm, John Rumm <[email protected]> wrote:
> Andrew Gabriel wrote:
> >> A '''pattress''' is the box that sits behind electrical sockets and
>
> > As others already said, that's the wrong word. I think "back box"
> > is the most commonly used term, for both surface and flush fitting.
>
> "Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back box,
> pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as redirects to
> the article.
Yes, lets just be practical about it. Lots of diyers, tradespeople and
sellers call them pattresses, so pattress is a valid name for them.
Ditto backboxes, ditto wiring accessory boxes.
I could very easily be mistaken on this, but I thought the use of
'pattress' for moden backboxes was the result of the continuing to use
the word for the bit that goes behind a socket, even though today the
box shape of it is different to the old flat plates. Hence 'pattess'
describes 3 different things today - backboxes, the older little
wooden plates, and big structural loadpsreading plates - but for the
most part, electrical accessory backboxes.
I dont think any one particular term as an article heading is going to
be a winner, as none are in universal use, and all are terms in
widepsread use.
PS if anyone can supply a pic of an architrave pattress and 3 & 4 way
boxes, please do.
Just to add my 2p worth, I've always called them "Pattress Boxes". But
then, the guy who taught me was from Queensland - so it could be a
regional thing.
On Sun, 24 Aug 2008 10:57:43 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>> "Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back box,
>> pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as redirects
>> to the article.
> Yes, lets just be practical about it.
True but I think pattress is not widely understood or particularly clear.
> Lots of diyers, tradespeople and sellers call them pattresses, so
> pattress is a valid name for them.
I've never heard the word used in that way. B-)
From the wiki point of view and using the title in other articles
"Electrical accessory mounting boxes" is a bit of a handful and is a
plural so if the article that wants to use it is talking singular you have
to step through a hoop...
> I dont think any one particular term as an article heading is going to
> be a winner, as none are in universal use, and all are terms in
> widepsread use.
I think "Wiring Accessory Box" is the best as it says what it is in a
fairly generic way. Pattress really needs it's own page to describe the
old use as the mounting blocks for gas and electrical fittings, the use as
load spreading plates in building ties, etc, and a link to the Wiring
Accessory Box article. Redirects from "Back Box", "Flush Mounting Box",
"Surface Mounting Box" to, preferably the relevant section, of the Wiring
Accessory Box article would be useful.
--
> On Sun, 24 Aug 2008 10:57:43 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>
>>> "Electrical accessory mounting boxes" might be simplest, with back
>>> box, pattress, dry lining box etc defined within and perhaps as
>>> redirects to the article.
>> Yes, lets just be practical about it.
>
> True but I think pattress is not widely understood or particularly
> clear.
>> Lots of diyers, tradespeople and sellers call them pattresses, so
>> pattress is a valid name for them.
>
> I've never heard the word used in that way. B-)
Dave,
I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches etc
"patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my apprenticeship as
a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician and electrical supplier
in my neck of the country has called them that - and are still doing so.
Tanner-'op
> Yes, lets just be practical about it. Lots of diyers, tradespeople and
> sellers call them pattresses, so pattress is a valid name for them.
> Ditto backboxes, ditto wiring accessory boxes.
I most commonly come across the term pattress used only for surface
mounting boxes.
> I could very easily be mistaken on this, but I thought the use of
> 'pattress' for moden backboxes was the result of the continuing to use
> the word for the bit that goes behind a socket, even though today the
> box shape of it is different to the old flat plates. Hence 'pattess'
> describes 3 different things today - backboxes, the older little
> wooden plates, and big structural loadpsreading plates - but for the
> most part, electrical accessory backboxes.
I expect there is a regional variation, but its certainly not the most
commonly used of the terms.
> I dont think any one particular term as an article heading is going to
> be a winner, as none are in universal use, and all are terms in
> widepsread use.
Agreed - something generic for the article title would hence be best.
--
We were somewhere around Barstow, on the edge of the desert, when the
drugs began to take hold. I remember [email protected] saying something
like:
>I could very easily be mistaken on this, but I thought the use of
>'pattress' for moden backboxes was the result of the continuing to use
>the word for the bit that goes behind a socket, even though today the
>box shape of it is different to the old flat plates.
I see what you're getting at, but the pattress has always been just the
wooden plate and the term 'pattress box' refers only to the surface box
that would screw onto it. Lazy diction has led to a generation simply
calling them patresses, missing the 'box' off - this may be worse in
some parts of the country than others.
Best to stick with the proper, traditional terms - damnit, we need
standards these days.
"It's a moron working with power tools.
How much more suspenseful can you get?"
- House
> I see what you're getting at, but the pattress has always been just the
> wooden plate and the term 'pattress box' refers only to the surface box
> that would screw onto it.
There was an intermediate step between the wooden pattress and the
modern surface mounting box.
Originally wiring accessories for surface mounting had terminals open at
the back and were screwed to the wooden pattress. When the wiring regs
introduced the requirement for all connections to be enclosed in
fireproof material (12th or 13th edition?) many manufacturers introduced
moulded mounting plates (aka back plates or pattresses) that could be
used either on a wooden pattress or directly on a wall. Thus the wooden
pattress started to disappear. The next step was the introduction of
the surface mounting box as we now know it, enabling 'flush-mount'
wiring accessories to be surface mounted.
I guess this is how common use of the term pattress passed from the
wooden item to the surface mounting (pattress) box. There's no such
continuity with flush mount wiring accessories and their metal back
boxes, which were in use before the wooden pattress disappeared. That's
why using pattress to refer to flush mounting boxes only confuses the
issue and is quite wrong, IMHO.
--
> I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches etc
> "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
> apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
> and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them that
> - and are still doing so.
Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
and in other areas it's not used.
--
*What do little birdies see when they get knocked unconscious? *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
>> I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches
>> etc "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
>> apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
>> and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them
>> that - and are still doing so.
>
> Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> national and in other areas it's not used.
Perhaps we should use the terms in the Screwfix catalouge/web site? They
are national and seem to be becoming the modern day 'Bucks Book' if anyone
remembers that?
Yonks ago I was in the tool trade & customers would call asking for all
sorts of stuff. If there was any doubt they would refer to page so and so
in the Bucks Book. Everybody seemed to have one, even if they never bought
from Buck & Hickman.
We use the SF site like that here.
--
On Aug 25, 9:15 am, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches etc
> > "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
> > apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
> > and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them that
> > - and are still doing so.
>
> Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
> and in other areas it's not used.
The other terms are no more or less regional than pattress.
NT
> > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
> > and in other areas it's not used.
> The other terms are no more or less regional than pattress.
Perhaps you could tell me of a regional supplier's website where they talk
about pattresses as backing boxes?
And I'd be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land didn't understand
a 'flush metal 35mm two gang backing box'
--
*Aim Low, Reach Your Goals, Avoid Disappointment *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Mon, 25 Aug 2008 10:10:31 GMT, The Medway Handyman wrote:
> Perhaps we should use the terms in the Screwfix catalouge/web site?
Not a bad idea, they use "Mounting Box" as the generic title to cover
steel and drylining flush boxes under Home > Electrical > Switches &
Sockets > Mounting Boxes.
But surface boxes are lumped in amongst all the bits in Home > Electrical
> Conduit > Rigid Conduit.
>> I was told to call surface mounted boxes for sockets/light switches
>> etc "patress boxes" by electricians from the time I started my
>> apprenticeship as a chippie way back in 1964 - and every electrician
>> and electrical supplier in my neck of the country has called them
>> that - and are still doing so.
>
> Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> national and in other areas it's not used.
Dave,
Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to me.
As for the standard of the "Wiki" write-up on that subject (and many others)
I will pass no comment.
Tanner-'op
> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the online
> OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online dictionaries.
1930s works on electrical wiring have it as 'pateras' and use it to
describe the wooden circular or rectangular block on which the accessory
was fixed.
> There was an intermediate step between the wooden pattress and the
> modern surface mounting box.
At one time, wooden boxes were used for flush mounting accessories, as
well as for the construction of surface fuse boxes and the like.
Owain
On Aug 25, 1:12 pm, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's national
> > > and in other areas it's not used.
> > The other terms are no more or less regional than pattress.
>
> Perhaps you could tell me of a regional supplier's website where they talk
> about pattresses as backing boxes?
>
> And I'd be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land didn't understand
> a 'flush metal 35mm two gang backing box'
'Pattress supplier' gives 3760 hits. 'Pattress' gives 29,800.
> And I'd be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land didn't understand
> a 'flush metal 35mm two gang backing box'
Indeed. I'd also be most surprised if any wholesaler in the land
didn't understand a 'flush metal 35mm two gang pattress'
I know it would be easy if all suppliers used one term, but they dont.
The Wiki can easily reflect that by using all the common terms.
NT
On Mon, 25 Aug 2008 17:37:31 +0100, Tanner-'op wrote:
> Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
> years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
> surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
> tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to
> me.
Ah but the wiki entry refers to flush as well as surface mount boxen...
--
We were somewhere around Barstow, on the edge of the desert, when the
drugs began to take hold. I remember Andy Wade
< [email protected] > saying something like:
>There was an intermediate step between the wooden pattress and the
>modern surface mounting box.
>Originally wiring accessories for surface mounting had terminals open at
>the back and were screwed to the wooden pattress.
Hah. I've come across some of those in in ancient installations. Another
common one here are Bakelite cover / ceramic body incomer 2P switches on
a distribution board. Still plenty of them in use here and were still
being fitted in the late 60s - although I think in those cases it was
the spark using new old stock to use it up.
--
"It's a moron working with power tools.
How much more suspenseful can you get?"
- House
> > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> > national and in other areas it's not used.
> Dave,
> Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
> years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
> surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
> tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to me.
It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter person
may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of it.
--
*Two many clicks spoil the browse *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Aug 25, 7:55 pm, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > > Which would be fine for a regional FAQ. But unfortunately it's
> > > national and in other areas it's not used.
> > Dave,
> > Before retiring, I worked in several parts of the country over several
> > years - and on each job, a patress was... yes, a patress - which meant a
> > surface mounted switch/socket box (and that was understood by the local
> > tradesmen as well as us 'outsiders'. That seems pretty "national" to me.
>
> It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
> plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter person
> may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of it.
Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
Its also not hard to find counter staff that dont know what youre
asking for because they've never been in the business themselves, and
know nothing beyond what the catalogue says.
None of this establishes anything germaine.
NT
> > It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
> > plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter
> > person may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of
> > it.
> Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
I did when I first arrived in London to be met with blank looks. The term
was/is in use in Aberdeen, my home town. I subsequently brought up the
subject with both pro electricians and a pal who has been in the
wholesaling game all his life and probably knows more about it than most.
Of course he had heard the term and referred to it as 'northern'.
> Its also not hard to find counter staff that dont know what youre
> asking for because they've never been in the business themselves, and
> know nothing beyond what the catalogue says.
So therefore in an FAQ it's best not to use jargon. Use a term which is
universally understood. You can continue to call it a humgrommet or
whatever in private with consenting adults.
> None of this establishes anything germaine.
There are plenty of examples where jargon varies regionally. And 'shows
you up' if you use the wrong term. Which is not what a newbie needs when
visiting a wholesaler for the first time.
--
*In "Casablanca", Humphrey Bogart never said "Play it again, Sam" *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Tue, 26 Aug 2008 08:45:00 +0100 Dave Plowman (News) wrote :
> > Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
>
> I did when I first arrived in London to be met with blank looks.
It's certainly been used here for 40 years, though my first recollection
was to described the moulded round plate that you put under a batten
lampholder when not on a fireproof surface (per regs change mentioned
here previously)
On Aug 26, 8:45 am, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > > It's not recognised in any wholesaler I've used in London - and that's
> > > plenty. Of course if you add plenty of description a decent counter
> > > person may deduce what you mean - but many get annoyed by the use of
> > > it.
> > Did you ask them for a pattress? If not, how would you know.
>
> I did when I first arrived in London to be met with blank looks. The term
> was/is in use in Aberdeen, my home town. I subsequently brought up the
> subject with both pro electricians and a pal who has been in the
> wholesaling game all his life and probably knows more about it than most.
> Of course he had heard the term and referred to it as 'northern'.
>
> > Its also not hard to find counter staff that dont know what youre
> > asking for because they've never been in the business themselves, and
> > know nothing beyond what the catalogue says.
>
> So therefore in an FAQ it's best not to use jargon. Use a term which is
> universally understood. You can continue to call it a humgrommet or
> whatever in private with consenting adults.
>
> > None of this establishes anything germaine.
>
> There are plenty of examples where jargon varies regionally. And 'shows
> you up' if you use the wrong term. Which is not what a newbie needs when
> visiting a wholesaler for the first time.
So far we've got 3 choices:
1. Pattress - widely used, but as you've pointed out, not universal
2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
shortage of other things it can also mean
3. Electrical accessory wiring box - probably everyone would realise
what this is, but its simply too long for a wiki article title. It
also appears to cover other items such as junction boxes, and perhaps
even small CUs etc, its not an entirely clear name either.
Whichever term we use there will be various references to it in other
articles requiring links to this pattress article. Really there is no
winner here, there are issues with all 3 options. One plus of
'pattress' is that the history of the word and its DIY uses can be
included, both structural and historic electrical, so more information
would be there. Another plus, in common with backbox, is its short and
sweet.
The issues around the name(s) can be mentioned/discussed in the
article so no-one is left in confusion - that would be best whatever
title we use.
> 2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
> shortage of other things it can also mean
What - in electrical terms?
*When did my wild oats turn to prunes and all bran?
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Aug 26, 1:56 pm, "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> > 2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
> > shortage of other things it can also mean
>
There's nothing that limits it to electrical afaics, so its wide open.
And within electrical it might refer to a junction box, a small CU,
and assorted items that arent part of house wiring.
NT
On Tue, 26 Aug 2008 04:37:55 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
> So far we've got 3 choices:
>
> 3. Electrical accessory wiring box
>
> The issues around the name(s) can be mentioned/discussed in the
> article so no-one is left in confusion - that would be best whatever
> title we use.
How does the disambiguation feature of a wiki work? I've not played with
that at all.
> > > 2. Backbox - again widely used but not universal, plus there's no
> > > shortage of other things it can also mean
> >
> There's nothing that limits it to electrical afaics, so its wide open.
Then the whole idea is pointless.
> And within electrical it might refer to a junction box, a small CU,
> and assorted items that arent part of house wiring.
Are these more obscure terms?
Plenty of electrical bits and pieces consist of a plate of some sort which
fits a box. But with all the JBs and CUs I've seen the 'guts' are in the
box rather than on the plate.
> NT
*I never drink anything stronger than gin before breakfast *
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
On Aug 26, 5:44 pm, "Dave Liquorice" < [email protected] >
wrote:
> On Tue, 26 Aug 2008 04:37:55 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
> > So far we've got 3 choices:
>
> > 3. Electrical accessory wiring box
>
> > The issues around the name(s) can be mentioned/discussed in the
> > article so no-one is left in confusion - that would be best whatever
> > title we use.
> How does the disambiguation feature of a wiki work? I've not played with
> that at all.
Disambig can be either its own separate page or a section in a page.
In this case the latter seems more suitable, since its unlikely we'd
have a page for the other pattresses any time this year
When I get time I'll do all the work and re-draft the article
NT
In uk.d-i-y, The Medway Handyman wrote:
>Dave Liquorice wrote:
>> On Sat, 23 Aug 2008 17:59:54 -0700 (PDT), [email protected] wrote:
>>
>> Possibly not a word. At least my Concise OED doesn't have it (the
>> online OED is subscription) niether do a couple of other online
>> dictionaries. There is a wikipedia entry but that is wikipedia, pass
>> the salt, thank you.
>>
>> However I have used the word, so it does "exist" but I use it to mean
>> a multiple outlet flex mounted trailing socket. What this article
>> describes I would call a "back box".
>
>If you search the TLC Direct site for 'pattress' you get a list of surface
>mounted boxes in various finishes, but no plasterboard or metal boxes. Dry
>lining/plasterboard & metal are referred to as simply 'boxes' and respond to
>the search for 'back box' or 'box'.
That corresponds to my usage and the usage of people that I deal with
here in Cheshire. Surface fittings have pattresses. Flush fittings have
back boxes. It's a simple and useful distinction.
--
On Aug 24, 1:59 am, [email protected] wrote:
> For your perusal...
Hopefully the final draft now, with lots of input added...
'''Pattress''' usually means the box that sits behind electrical
sockets and switches, though it has other meanings too. Modern
electrical pattress boxes come in metal and plastic, and in surface
mount and flush versions.
==Uses of the word 'pattress'==
'Pattress' has more than one meaning in DIY. Its also a word whose
meaning has changed relatively quickly over time, resulting in
significant disagreement over which meanings are correct.
===History===
[[image:Socket_(__)_785-4.jpg|thumb|old wood pattress plate]]
Pattress is derived from the latin 'pateras' meaning a shallow bowl or
plate.
In the 1800s 'pattress' was used to mean the flat wooden plates that
gas lighting equipment was mounted on.
In the 1930s electrical accessories were mounted on wooden plates, and
these were mainly referred to as 'pateras.' The anglicised version
'pattress' gradually took over from pateras.
When wiring regs required electrical accessories to be housed in
fireproof containers, a box was used between the wooden pateras and
socket, instead of mounting it directly to the pateras. This was known
as a pattress box. Over time this became known as a pattress.
Today many trade and DIY people refer to any electrical backbox as a
pattress. There are also many that consider only surface mount boxes
to be pattresses, and many that don't call any type of backbox a
pattress. Unfortunately this is equally true of the other names for
these things, so we just have to be aware of the differing usage of
the term.
The electrical boxes used behind sockets and switches are variously
known as pattresses, wiring accessory boxes, boxes, and backboxes,
with none of these terms being universal.
===Non-electrical pattresses===
The word 'pattress' also describes flattish iron plates used for load
spreading, as used to tie houses with structural defects together.
==Pattress types==
Plastic surface mount pattresses are used for electrical accessories
that sit on the surface of walls. The pattress is [[screws|screwed]]
in place, and knockouts are provided for [[cables|cable]] entry,
either via the sides or the rear.
These are available in different depths. The shallowest ones are
suitable for light switches where no screw block connections need to
be made behind the switch. Deeper ones are usually used for sockets,
but fitting sockets into shallow patresses is often possible, if
tight, and light switches with a few screw block connections behind
them will need the deep ones too.
Plastic surface mounting patresses are the second most common domestic
type.
Plasterboard boxes are used to flush mount switches etc to [[Sheet
Materials|plasterboard]]. The picture shows the position of the grips
before and after fitting.
Architrave pattresses are used with little architrave switches.
===Metal surface pattress===
[[image:Metal skt & pattress 754-7.jpg|thumb]]
Metal surface pattresses aren't very common in homes. They are used
with metal accessories, and are ideal for workshops (and other
environments) requiring particularly tough accessories.
===Twin single pattress===
Twin pattresses are designed to take two single accessories. These are
used when 2 different accessories in one position are wanted. These
are not the same size as a double pattress.
===Non-standard pattress===
Non standard pattresses are sometimes seen. These generally don't fit
standard sockets. They're designed to achieve some advantage, such as
styling or compact size.
3 way socket convertors use a pattress designed to [[screws|screw]]
onto the top of an existing single flush mount pattress. These turn a
1 way flush socket into a 3 way surface mount socket. Sometimes the
[[cables]] aren't long enough and need extending.
4 way socket convertors...
Plastic pattresses intended for mains use are made from thermoset
plastics, mainly white bakelite. These don't soften when hot, and act
as a fire resistant container.
Similarly sized pattresses intended for phone networks are generally
made from thermoplastics. These come in more than one size, the larger
of which fits mains sockets. These can be bent slightly by hand, so
are easily recognised. They offer no heat or fire protection and don't
meet modern safety requirements for mains use.
==Style & fit==
[[image:Pattress corner detail Egatube & Tenby 850-4.jpg|thumb|Egatube
vs Tenby]]
Different brands of pattress have different corner detailing, intended
to match their own brand of accessories. Standard pattresses, switches
and sockets of different brands can be freely mixed, but the
difference in corner detailing can make a minority of combinations
look wrong. If mixing brands its best to check they look right
together before buying.
Non-standard pattresses can't be expected to fit standard sockets.
===Metal accessories===
[[image:Socket metal misfit 807-6.jpg|thumb|Oops!]]
Many metal accessories for surface mounting are a different size to
plastic pattresses. The screw spacing is the same, but the outer size
isn't. These are an eyesore if one type is fitted to the other.
This problem doesn't occur with the various retrofit metal accessories
on the market designed to fit standard plastic pattresses (and
recessed metal ones). It only applies to the traditional functional
metal sockets & backboxes.
[[Screws]] holding plastic pattresses in place should be done up until
the screwhead touches the pattress surface, and no more. Any further
tightening is likely to break the brittle plastic.
Budget brand plastic pattresses can suffer a significant breakage rate
during installation, particularly if a fair amount of hole needs to be
made for [[cables|cable]] entry, or if the underlying wall is not
competely flat, or the installer doesn't appreciate their frailty.
==Earth connection==
Metal pattresses have an earth terminal for connecting to the circuit
earth. A sleeved wire should be run from the socket earth terminal to
the backbox.
A small minority of houses still have old 2 core [[lighting]]
circuits. Metal pattresses or accessories should not be fitted to such
circuits due to the absence of anything more than functional
insulation as protection against shock.
Sometimes people fit them and borrow an earth from a nearby socket
circuit. This works but its not considered best practice, as there's
always the possibility of the socket circuit being decommissioned
later, leaving the [[lighting]] accessories unearthed. Hence its not
wiring regulations compliant.
Plastic pattresses and accessories are the only type recommended for
these circuits. However that doesn't imply that fitting them is always
safe; some [[Historic Mains Cables|historic rubber wiring]] is so
badly perished that moving the wires during fitting is sometimes a
sizeable risk. If perishing is limited to just the wire ends, sleeving
may be fitted to replace the function of the damaged insulation.
==Extension leads==
Surface pattress boxes are not designed for use on extension leads.
They have no cordgrip, and are brittle, which is not ideal for
portable use. Despite this they see fairly widespread use in extension
leads, so we will describe how to make these not-recommended leads as
safe as possible.
The main problem is the lack of cordgrip. There are 4 ways to
implement a cordgrip.
# Knockout 3 of the knockouts in a row on one side/top/bottom of the
pattress, and thread the lead through all 3 in a zigzag pattern. This
makes a fully effective cordgrip.
# The pattess box can be mounted on a piece of wood and a cordgrip
from a mains plug used to secure the lead inside the box. The 2 screws
go into the backing wood.
# Knotting the wire is sometimes used, but this is only partially
effective.
# A few surface pattress boxes do have cordgrips (eg Marbo).
Breakability can be reduced to some extent by mounting the pattress
box on a piece of chipboard that's larger all round than the box.
Chipboard and MDF are best as they're soft enough to reduce peak
impact forces.
> Yes - although you'll have to modify it somewhat. They have normal 2.5mm
> fixing threads - so if you wish to put it between accessory and backing
> box you'll need to drill them out. You may also need to remove the spare
> 'lugs' as these can interfere with some fittings.
> It will look a bodge, though.
For a start, the machine screws are M3.5 -- that is the normal variety
for electrical boxes
You're not usually expected to drill them out but rather to use one set
for mounting the spacer and the other set for mounting the accessory.
Of course that sometimes causes problems of orentation and fitting of
some accessories.
> > > Would you say that using one as a spacer for (say) a deeper accessory is
> > > legitimate?
> > Yes - although you'll have to modify it somewhat. They have normal
> > 2.5mm fixing threads - so if you wish to put it between accessory and
> > backing box you'll need to drill them out. You may also need to remove
> > the spare 'lugs' as these can interfere with some fittings.
> > It will look a bodge, though.
> For a start, the machine screws are M3.5 -- that is the normal variety
> for electrical boxes
> You're not usually expected to drill them out but rather to use one set
> for mounting the spacer and the other set for mounting the accessory.
Most will tend to get used with plaster depth boxes which have only two
fixing lugs.
And you're not 'expected' to use them for this purpose - they're for
mounting a standard accessory to trunking etc. Use as a spacing frame is a
secondary one.
> Of course that sometimes causes problems of orentation and fitting of
> some accessories.
Some boxes also have only one adjustable lug - which most would fit so it
can be used for horizontal fixing. See also my point about the large
plastic lugs at the top fouling some dimmers, etc.
--
*People want trepanners like they want a hole in the head*
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
> > And you're not 'expected' to use them for this purpose - they're for
> > mounting a standard accessory to trunking etc. Use as a spacing frame
> > is a secondary one.
> ah, well if you use the things designed for the purpose of extending a
> backbox rather than those designed for conduit, it all works much better
> - the same screws just fit through the unthreaded lugs on the extender
> and go into the original back box:
Right - never seen those. Not that I'd be looking for them anyway. ;-)
--
*If all the world is a stage, where is the audience sitting?
Dave Plowman [email protected] London SW
To e-mail, change noise into sound.
from "Dave Plowman (News)" < [email protected] > contains these words:
> Some boxes also have only one adjustable lug - which most would fit so it
> can be used for horizontal fixing.
And many boxes have -- or at least in the past had -- no adjustable lugs :-(
> See also my point about the large
> plastic lugs at the top fouling some dimmers, etc.
Been there, done that, got the t-shirt. Often :-(
Whilst they may still be current catalogue items, I think we're dealing
with something which is largely a relic of the past. I dare say I could
probably find one or two in a box of old bits somewhere around my
storeroom, but then I could also find a few packets of mounting flanges.
Remember them? Used to use them on 4 lug single-gang metal back boxes.
Fix flange to box using two of the lugs, then fix box to skirting by
woodscrews through the face of the flange. A whole lot simpler ( and
easier to align) than screwing through the side of the box into the
thickness of the skirting. But then flange boxes became readily
available and the problem was solved in a different and simpler way.
|
i don't know
|
Ingvar Kamprad founded what famous modern-day organization?
|
Ingvar Kamprad: IKEA Founder Entrepreneur Profile
By Scott Allen
Updated May 19, 2016
IKEA Founder Ingvar Kamprad made headlines in early 2004 when Swedish business magazine Veckans Affarer reported that he had surpassed Bill Gates as the world's wealthiest person. While IKEA's unconventional ownership structure makes this the matter of some debate, there is no doubt that IKEA is still one of the largest, most successful privately held companies in the world, with over 200 stores in 31 countries, employing over 75,000 people and generating over 12 billion in sales annually.
Born Entrepreneur:
Kamprad was born in the south of Sweden in 1926 and raised on a farm called Elmtaryd, near the small village of Agunnaryd. At an early age, he learned that he could buy matches in bulk from Stockholm and sell them at a fair price, but a good profit . He reinvested his profits and expanded to fish, seeds, Christmas tree decorations, and pens and pencils. At age 17, Kamprad's father gave him a nice reward for doing well in school. What did he spend it on? He founded IKEA.
The Birth of IKEA:
The name IKEA was formed from Kamprad's initials (I.K.) plus the first letters of Elmtaryd and Agunnaryd, the farm and village where he grew up . He continued to expand his business to a variety of goods, including wallets, watches, jewelery and stockings. When he outgrew his ability to call on his customers individually, he converted to a sort of makeshift mail order operation, hiring the local milk van to make his deliveries.
"The Greatest Mistake of My Life":
During his teens, Kamprad attended some pro-Nazi meetings . When this was uncovered in 1994, Kamprad said, "This is part of my life I bitterly regret...[A]fter a couple of meetings in pure Nazi style, I quit." In a letter to employees titled "The Greatest Mistake of My Life", he asked forgiveness, and he devoted two chapters to it in his 1998 book, The History of IKEA.
In an interview after its publication, he said, "Now I have told all I can. Can one ever get forgiveness for such stupidity?"
Focus on Furniture:
In 1947, Kamprad introduced furniture into the IKEA product line. The use of local manufacturers allowed him to keep his costs down. The furniture was a hit, and in 1951, Kamprad decided to discontinue all other product lines and focus on furniture. In 1953, the first IKEA showroom opened. It came about because of competitive pressures. IKEA was in a price war with its main competitor. The showroom allowed people to see it, touch it, feel it, and be sure of the quality before buying.
Competition Leads to Innovation:
IKEA has now become known worldwide for its innovative and stylish designs. Almost all IKEA products are designed to for flat packaging, which reduces shipping costs, minimizes transport damage, increases store inventory capacity, and makes it easier for customers to take the furniture home themselves, rather than needing delivery. But the original reason for it was competitive pressure from IKEA's competitors to their suppliers, who actually boycotted IKEA, forcing IKEA to do it themselves.
Good Design, Good Function and Good Quality, with Low Prices:
Kamprad's vision has been the driving force behind IKEA's succcess. IKEA hires its own designers, who have received numerous awards over the years . Kamprad believes that the company exists not just to improve people's lives, but to improve the people themselves. The self-service store design and ease of assembly of their furniture are not merely cost controls, but an opportunity for self-sufficiency. This vision is reinforced in their advertising and catalog, as well.
All In the Family:
Kamprad has been extremely shrewd in creating IKEA's organizational structure. It is owned ultimately by a Dutch trust controlled by the Kamprad family, with various holding companies handling different aspects of IKEA's operations, such as franchising, manufacturing, and distribution. IKEA even has an investment banking arm. Kamprad has repeatedly resisted pressure to take the company public, feeling that it would slow their decision-making processes that have allowed their phenomenal growth.
Frugality and Charity:
On the one hand, Kamprad has a reputation for being, well, "cheap" . He takes the subway to work, and when he drives, it's an old Volvo. Rumor is that when he stays in a hotel, if he feels the urge to drink one of those expensive sodas from the wetbar, he replaces it later with one picked up from a nearby convenience store. Yet IKEA has a long tradition of community outreach and philanthropy, with each store encouraged to support local causes, plus international sponsorship of UNICEF and others.
Continue Reading
|
IKEA
|
What is the main ingredient of the modern breakfast food and energy bar called granola?
|
maxolex | Individual Student Blogs for Organizational Theory
Individual Student Blogs for Organizational Theory
I. What is IKEA?
IKEA is a Swedish company that designs and sells ready-to-assemble furniture, appliances and home accessories. IKEA was founded in 1943 by 17-year-old, Ingvar Kamprad and its first furniture store was opened in 1958. Stores were opened in neighboring countries Norway and Denmark before the company opened in Switzerland (1973) and Germany (1974). After further expansion in Europe the first store was opened in The United States (Philadelphia in 1985). [1] The name IKEA is an acronym representing the founder’s first and last name (Ingvar Kamprad), his place of birth (Elmtaryd), and a village nearby (Agunnaryd in Southern Sweden). IKEA’s headquarters are nowadays in the Netherlands and with 349 stores in 43 countries (2014) and $37.25 billion worth of goods sold (2012) [2] it is today the world’s largest furniture retailer.
IKEA is known for its Scandinavian design furniture, which is often associated with its simplicity and for the eco-friendliness. When Ingvar Kamprad founded IKEA he wanted to bring “democracy” into the Swedish living rooms. When IKEA started to become a nationwide successfully operating company in Sweden in the 60s and 70s, Sweden was going through an enormous booming period. People moved to the cities for work, the cities and in particular the suburbs grew and living space was needed everywhere. As the cities grew the working and lower middle class did as well. Young worker families needed to equip their houses and apartments and Ingvar Kamprad was conscious about this. As IKEA refers to “Having a limited budget should not prevent people from creating a beautiful home, with practical and sensible furniture.” [3] This is what Ingvar Kamprad meant with democratic design.
[1] Loeb, W. for Forbes: IKEA Is A World-Wide Wonder. May 12, 2012.
[2] IKEA Group Yearly Summary FY12
[3] IKEA homepage: Democratice Design at IKEA.
II. Competition
IKEA’s products are often priced way below the competitors’. One way to achieve this is the earlier mentioned concept of delivering ready-to-assemble furniture, instead of fully assembled furniture. In addition, the firm is known for its attention to cost control, operational details, and continuous product development.
IKEA’s major competitors in the USA, the company competes directly with, are for example the powerhouses Home Depot and Lowe’s in some appliance and a few wood classifications. However IKEA’s strength is in furnishing the entire home while the others do not. IKEA is also good at making necessary adjustments to reflect local market tastes. One lesson learned in the American division was adjusting the size of the beds and sheets to conform to American standards.
III. Corporate Structure
IKEA has an intricate corporate structure, which means the company is not likely to go public. IKEA’s complicated corporate structure is believed to be designed in order to protect the Kamprad family from taxes and to avoid the possibility of a takeover of IKEA. On the top of IKEA’s corporate structure stands the Stichting INGKA Foundation, which holds IKEA’s equity. In 1984 Kamprad transferred 100% of his equity in IKEA to the foundation as an irrevocable gift.
Most of the operations, management of the stores, design and manufacture of furniture is run by a trust, INGKA Holding, headquartered in Delft, Holland. While most of the designs of IKEA products are made in Sweden, manufacturing has been outsourced to Poland, Russia, China and other Asian countries.
The INGKA Holding B.V. is the parent company for all of the IKEA Group companies and is governed by a supervisory board, of which Goran Grosskopf is the chairman; Ingvar Kamprad has the role of a senior advisor, while his son Matias is a member of the supervisory board.
The IKEA Group management is responsible for the IKEA Group companies and consists of 12 managers, of whom Anders Dahlvig is the President. The major IKEA Group Companies are the following: Swedwood, IKEA of Sweden, Purchasing and Supplies, Distribution, and other functions such as Human Services, IT and Communications. Swedwood is the name for the industrial companies that manufacture IKEA products. IKEA of Sweden, located in Älmhult, Sweden, employs the designers that design and develop the IKEA range of products that are sold in IKEA stores. The Purchasing and Supplies department maintains 41 Trading Service Offices in 30 countries, and has over 1350 suppliers in over 50 countries. The Distribution department oversees IKEA’s supply chain, which among others consists of 27 distribution centers and 11 customer distribution centers in 16 countries! [4]
Separate from the IKEA Group companies is Inter IKEA Systems B.V., which is the owner of the IKEA concept and trademark, and is the franchisor of the IKEA concept worldwide.
The last major part and point of sale is the IKEA Stores. The majority of stores are franchised through Inter IKEA Systems B.V. by INGKA Holding Group and regardless of the franchisee all IKEA stores pay 3% of sales to Inter IKEA Systems B.V. on an annual basis. To gain a better understanding of IKEA’s corporate structure it might be helpful to take a look at Appendix 2.
[4] Inter IKEA Group Organization: http://inter.ikea.com/governance/organisation/
IV. Corporate Culture
IKEA can be called a very personal organization, where employees feel like being part of a family. Further IKEA is a very dynamic and changing organization. This is very typical for a design oriented retail business, like IKEA, where customer tastes change quickly. Although the home furnishing industry is not as volatile as the fashion industry, IKEA has to respond quickly to customer preferences. To promote innovation and creativity IKEA’s management style is characterized to a high level by teamwork and participation and less by security and predictability. Summing up IKEA’s characteristics and its management style there are two concepts of corporate culture, which apply very well to IKEA: clan culture & adaptability culture. [5]
The Kamprad family is very focused on key values surrounding quality, heritage, market differences, customer loyalty, and sustainability. One way these values manifest are in the food service area. The family still controls the food service, making sure that Swedish meatballs, cream sauce and lingonberry jam is served in most stores. Their hands-on-approach ensures that the food is authentic and high quality, which is very important for the store’s image. Simultaneously reflecting respect for local tastes, most of the restaurants serve local food selections for breakfast often with a twist. For example, Swedish pancakes or French toast can be found on the menu in the United States.
One of the latest scandals, which shook IKEA heavily and damaged its corporate image severely was the “Swedish meatball scandal”. In IKEA’s famous “Køttbullar” or meatballs food inspectors found horsemeat, which was not supposed to be in the product. IKEA’s complex supply chain was partly made responsible for the contamination and IKEA’s management ensured stricter controls for the future. [6] The horsemeat scandal and more the complex supply chain are only one challenge. The next chapter will discuss the organization’s major challenges in the future.
[5] see Appendix 3
[6] Hjelmgaard, K. for USA TODAY: Horse meat found in IKEA meatballs. February 26, 2013.
V. Challenges
As the company grows bigger the employers get more diverse and it will be hard to maintain Swedish values in a global company. It is questionable whether IKEA will be able to keep that culture, which is referred to as being based on “Swedish small-town values” [7] , intact as it expands into ever more countries and ups its number of store opening. IKEA is operating in an overall very complex and more or less stable environment, depending on which region or country and depending which particular type of environment the focus lies on. Currently IKEA is expanding the most in locations and economies with more unstable environments, such as emerging economies, which offer great growth opportunities. Countries with a growing middle class like China, Brazil or India.
Another challenge for IKEA is the employee treatment, especially when it comes to employees who do not actually belong to the company but work for it, for example in one of the manufacturing plants. The problem is similar to that of sweatshops in the textile industry. For IKEA the challenge is that as a company, which claims to be environmental friendly with a family-like atmosphere, based on liberal and social Swedish values, it is even harder to fulfill those standards in a highly competitive business environment. Further IKEA wants to sell its products on the lower price limit, but somebody might need to pay the price.
A similar challenge arises when looking at IKEA’s sustainability profile. As a company that devours a massive amount of natural resources for its products (especially wood) and for the logistical part of the business (shipping = oil) it is a huge challenge to keep its sustainable image upright. IKEA therefore has a very strict policy for its sourcing. The pressure to source cheaply is always present, because IKEA products need to be cheap. But the pressure does not only come from inside and the competitors. IKEA is extremely dependent on the raw material market and its volatility.
[7] Richard Milne for Financial Times: Ikea faces cultural challenge as flat-pack empire expands. November 28, 2013
VI. Critical Evaluation
As mentioned earlier IKEA has a strong culture, which is based on Swedish values and further emphasizes creativity, adaptability and responsiveness. To promote innovation and creativity IKEA’s management style is characterized to a high level by teamwork and participation and less by security and predictability. Exactly this is what could be fatal for IKEA on the long run. The current strategy fits very well with growth and there is still a huge growth potential for IKEA in many markets. However at some point the growth rates will flatten or even stagnate and IKEA will reach its maximum size, where it will be necessary to conserve the state of the organization. It is questionable, whether the decentralized structure with flat hierarchies and a relatively lean top management in comparison with the total size of the organization, is suitable to do this.
As IKEA grows even more global and its employees become even more diverse it is also questionable to which extent the organization will be able to preserve its set of Swedish values from global influences or whether IKEA’s values become only a masquerade to demonstrate their “Swedishness” to the outside world, but without direct influence internally. It is possible IKEA will undergo a culture change in the future. The term culture change refers to “changes in the values, attitudes, expectations, beliefs, abilities and behavior of employees. Culture changes pertain to changes in how employees think; these are changes in mind-set rather than in technology, structure, or products”. [8] But will IKEA remain IKEA with a culture change? Or will the change even be necessary?
[8] Daft, R. L. (2010). Organization theory and design.
VII. Recommendations for Change
1.) A culture change: As mentioned above, it is possible that IKEA will undergo a culture change in the future. In case a culture change will be necessary the recommendation would be to maintain the innovative and creative character of IKEA on the product part, while adding a culture of stability and security on the corporate part, and finally still maintaining the Swedish values of the organization, because that is the core of IKEA. However, adapting a more global culture in general to be suitable as an employer to the broad and diverse spectrum of IKEA employees, should be the overall goal of the culture change.
2.) Implementing the culture change: A culture change might be necessary, but how to implement it? A top-down approach will not be very effective, because the top management is small and sits in Netherlands and Sweden. Neither is a bottom-up strategy because the lower level employees will most likely have a limited understanding of the culture change’s far-reaching consequences. Because of IKEA’s corporate structure, which is mostly divisional, a middle-out approach for the cultural change appears to be most suitable. In a divisional structure, mostly found in decentralized organization like IKEA, lower or middle level managers make decision. [9]
3.) Becoming even more sustainable: IKEA’s philosophy about furniture in general is that furniture is not made to last forever. This could be a way to explain why IKEA furniture is often of minor quality. IKEA looks at furniture more as kind of a fashion article, that will be in at some point and then will be out of fashion at another point of time. For sure IKEA provides a broad spectrum of timeless furniture products, but as peoples’ lives change, as they move, grow older, become parents, and change tastes, so do their requirements for home furnishing.
IKEA claims and hopes that people will change their furniture more often in the future as their lives gain velocity and mobility.
Logically this would mean that furniture would become a disposable article, which does not fit at all into IKEA’s sustainable image. So far IKEA only focuses on the sustainable way of producing and delivering its products, but on the other hand there is no direct way to get rid of it in a sustainable way or even more reintroduce scrapped furniture into the sourcing cycle. IKEA claims that 91% of materials used in their products were renewable, recyclable or recycled in 2012. [10] But what happens exactly to the products people get rid off in order to buy new things at IKEA?
IKEA could be the first home furniture producer that takes back old furniture and then use the resources to produce new furniture. It will be a difficult task to design this concept in order to make it work effectively and especially efficient. It is hard to imagine people would drive their old heavy sofa to IKEA, dump it into a container and then buy a new one. But IKEA, being a highly innovative organization, is definitely capable to come up with a solution for this problem.
[9] Sweet, S. (2011) Which is Best for Us? Top Down, Bottoms Up, or Middle Out
[10] IKEA Sustainability Report 2012
VIII. Conclusion
IKEA is a very fascinating organization that reported massive growth throughout its entire lifetime so far. With having around 130,000 employees world-wide, spread over several continents, IKEA is a global organization, despite its Swedish roots and still ambivalent Swedish values. As the organization continues to grow and new business opportunities open up in emerging markets IKEA is also facing new challenges. Many of those challenges address the treatment of IKEA’s employees and the establishment of a culture, which is accepted among employees throughout the entire organization and not only in Central Europe.
The price pressure, which IKEA is underlying, is another major challenge, because competitors are plenty and the raw material market is volatile. At the same time IKEA has to be careful in the ethical treatment of employees, that do not belong directly to the organization but a part of its supply chain.
Taking a look into the future it will possibly be necessary to implement a culture change. Maintaining the innovative and creative part of the business, adding a more stable and secure culture and holding on to the Swedish core values should be the objective of this change. The culture change should be implemented by a middle-out approach.
Finally IKEA has to become an even more sustainable organization, since sustainability almost became a core requirement. One way to accomplish that would be a system to effectively recycle old (IKEA) products and make new furniture of them.
References
Loeb, W. for Forbes: IKEA Is A World-Wide Wonder. May 12, 2012. http://www.forbes.com/sites/walterloeb/2012/12/05/ikea-is-a-world-wide-wonder/
Milne, R. for Financial Times: Ikea faces cultural challenge as flat-pack empire expands. November 28, 2013 http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/83389238-5819-11e3-82fc-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2vnINKdkS
Die Welt/Bloomberg: Selbst Kamprads Söhne sind schon Milliardäre. http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article125631279/Selbst-Kamprads-Soehne-sind-schon-Milliardaere.html
Sweet, S. (2011): Which is Best for Us? Top Down, Bottoms Up, or Middle Out http://www.i4process.com/iprocess4/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/TopDown_ BottomsUp_MiddleDown1.pdf
IKEA homepage: IKEA Group Yearly Summary FY12. http://www.ikea.com/ms/ sv_SE/pdf/yearly_summary/ys_welcome_inside_2012.pdf
Hjelmgaard, K. for USA TODAY. February 26, 2013. Horse meat found in IKEA meatballs. http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/02/25/horsemeat-scandal/1933037/
IKEA homepage: Democratic Design at IKEA. http://www.ikea-group.ikea.com/?ID=158&num=7
IKEA homepage: IKEA Sustainability Report 2012. http://www.ikea.com/ms/en_US/pdf/sustainability_report/sustainability _report_2012.pdf
Inter IKEA Group homepage: Inter IKEA Group Organization. http://inter.ikea.com/governance/organisation/
Daft, Richard L. (2010). Organizational Theory and Design, 10th ed. Cincinnati, H: South-Western College Publishing.
Appendix 1:
by maxolex
IKEA is a Swedish company that designs and sells ready-to-assemble furniture, appliances and home accessories. IKEA was founded in 1943 by 17-year-old, Ingvar Kamprad and its first furniture store was opened in 1958. IKEA’s headquarters are nowadays in the Netherlands and with 349 stores in 43 countries (2014) and $37.25 billion worth of goods sold (2012) it is today the world’s largest furniture retailer.
IKEA is known for its Scandinavian design furniture, which is often associated with its simplicity and for the eco-friendliness. When Ingvar Kamprad founded IKEA he wanted to bring “democracy” in the Swedish living rooms. When IKEA started to become a nationwide successfully operating company in Sweden in the 60s and 70s, Sweden was going through an enormous booming period. People moved to the cities for work, the cities and in particular the suburbs grew and living space was needed everywhere. As the cities grew the working and lower middle class did as well. Young worker families needed to equip their houses and apartments and Ingvar Kamprad was conscious about this. As IKEA refers to “Having a limited budget should not prevent people from creating a beautiful home, with practical and sensible furniture.” This is what Ingvar Kamprad meant with democratic design.
IKEA’s products are often priced way below the competitors’. One way to achieve this is the earlier mentioned concept of delivering ready-to-assemble furniture, instead of fully assembled furniture. In addition, the firm is known for its attention to cost control, operational details, and continuous product development.
IKEA in the E&E model
There are two major organizational goals an organization can strive for. Organizations often strive to be efficient and effective, however efficiency and effectiveness can be two rivaling dimensions. Therefore it often makes sense to prioritize one of the dimensions.
What is E&E?
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i don't know
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As at 2013 what country boasted the four most profitable banks in the world?
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Big four most profitable banks in the world
Big four most profitable banks in the world
by Mackenzie McCarty24 Jun 2013
Most Discussed
APRA clarifies stance on interest rate buffers
The regulator has also shed light on serviceability and questioned the use of tests such as the Henderson Poverty Index
Australia’s big four banks have been ranked most profitable in the world for the third year running, according to Bank for International Settlements (BIS) data.
Last year, the major lenders made better returns than banks in 10 other developed nations, including the US, Britain and Europe – and total profits this year are expected to exceed $26 billion.
The Swiss-owned BIS says pre-tax profits for the majors were equal to 1.18% of their total assets, putting Australian banks far ahead of other wealthy countries on the list. According to News Ltd, only lenders in the emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China are making better returns.
Consumer group Choice head of campaigns, Matt Levey, told News Ltd the figures undermined bank claims that that conditions are tough.
''It shows we have inadequate competitive pressure in that market. We still have don't have a situation where consumers are willing enough to look beyond the big four banks,” said Levey.
''These are institutions which enjoy a privileged position in the community. They are supported to a huge extent by government and taxpayers and in return I don't think we are seeing the amount of competitive pressure that we deserve to see.”
But Australian Bankers’ Association CEO, Steven Münchenberg, tells Australian Broker that the fact Australian banks are doing so well has less to do with inadequate competition – and everything to do with the nation’s economic situation.
“Banks are more profitable in countries that have stronger economies. It’s not surprising that banks in Europe, where there’s a recession, are less profitable than those in Australia or Canada. The Australian and Canadian economies are growing,” says M nchenberg.
“There is actually a lot of competition in Australia; there’s over 100 providers of mortgages and consumers are not afraid to exercise that choice.”
Furthermore, he adds, major bank profits, when measured by return on equities, are less than they were before the GFC.
“We’re always open to suggestions to improve the situation and we’re always open to sensible policy, but I don’t think there’s a lack of competition in Australia.”
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China
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What term refers to the off-putting banter directed by bowlers/fielders to opposing batsmen on a cricket pitch?
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The 20 Most Profitable Companies in the World
The 20 Most Profitable Companies in the World
Alexander E.M. Hess and Thomas C. Frohlich
Storm clouds form near a BP station in Alexandria, Virginia July 19, 2010. REUTERS/Molly Riley
More
With the recent release of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus, Apple is again the focus of the financial world. Already in its opening weekend, Apple ( AAPL ) sold 10 million iPhones, breaking its previous record.
With massive sales of cutting-edge, high-margin electronics, Apple is now the second most profitable company in the world. The only company with a higher profit is the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China. Based on data provided by FactSet on companies' net income before discontinued operations and extraordinary items for their latest fiscal year, these are the world’s 20 most profitable companies.
ALSO READ: America's Best Companies to Work For
Income from continuing operations -- which excludes extraordinary and discontinued items from earnings -- is an important indicator of the profitability of a company’s core business. By contrast, net income, the standard all-encompassing measure of profits, can include items that do not reflect underlying profitability of a business.
For example, Vodafone ( VOD ) had $17.7 billion in net income from continuing operations, making it the 18th most profitable company in the world. However, this did not include the sale of its 45% stake in Verizon Wireless to Verizon Communications. Had these figures been included, Vodafone would have been the most profitable company in the world.
Of the 20 most profitable companies, nine are based in the United States. These include two banks, Wells Fargo ( WFC ) and JPMorgan Chase ( JPM ); two energy companies, Exxon Mobil ( XOM ) and Chevron ( CVX ); and two technology giants, Apple and Microsoft ( MSFT ). Conglomerate Berkshire Hathaway ( BRK-B ) is also among the most profitable companies.
In all, four industries account for the majority of companies among the world’s most profitable. Seven companies are in the energy industry, led by Gazprom and ExxonMobil, the most of any sector. Six of the most profitable companies are banks, with four based in China, and two based in the U.S. Three telecom giants -- AT&T (NYSE: T), China Mobile ( CHL ), and Vodafone -- are also among the 20 most profitable companies by normalized earnings. Finally, Apple joins Samsung Electronics and Microsoft to make up the technology companies on the list.
Overall, six companies on this list are based in China. Each of these companies is majority-owned by the Chinese government. The two Russian companies among the 20 most profitable companies, Gazprom and Rosneft, are also majority state-owned.
Being majority-owned by the government can serve as either a drag on profitability or a boost. Perhaps nowhere is this more evident than with the big four Chinese banks. All four of these banks -- Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, China Construction Bank, Agricultural Bank of China, and Bank of China -- were among the eight most profitable companies in the world.
In order to determine the most profitable companies in the world, 24/7 Wall St. reviewed data on net Income before discontinued operations and extraordinary items, provided by FactSet. Data from FactSet is expressed in U.S. dollars, using the average annual exchange rate of local currencies against the dollar where applicable. However, different countries utilize different accounting standards, which can impact reported profits.
Information on company countries, industries and revenue is from S&P Capital IQ and is for the most recent fiscal year. Figures are translated by S&P Capital IQ using the effective exchange rate as of the end of each company’s fiscal year. Additionally, revenues cover only consolidated subsidiaries. Many large companies have unconsolidated affiliates and investments that meaningfully contribute to earnings.
ALSO READ: 10 States With the Best Quality of Life
We have also provided currency translations in certain cases. Where this is the case, we used the exchange rate at the end of a company’s fiscal year. Further, we also elected to remove Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac from consideration, since both entities are currently under the conservatorship of the Federal Housing Finance Agency. All profits earned by the firms go to the U.S. Treasury Department.
These are the 20 most profitable companies in the world.
1. Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Limited
> Net income from cont. operations: $42.7 billion
> Country: China
> Revenue: $89.4 billion
Read More
The Industrial and Commercial Bank of China is the world’s most profitable company, with a net income from continuing operations of more than $42.7 billion last year. However, the profitability of the bank is somewhat dependent on government policy. Notably, in 2010, ICBC marketed a trust product, called "2010 China Credit / Credit Equals Gold #1." The product was not explicitly guaranteed by the bank. However, after considerable government pressure, the company lent money to an asset manager to bail out customers from the product. Concerns about such shadow financing have been building in China for a long time. While ICBC is massive, with continued growth in assets, it has substantial exposure to such potentially risky products. These products, under certain scenarios, could weigh heavily on profits in the future.
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i don't know
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The Bugatti car logo features which reversed capital letter in a ligature with B, standing for the founder (Bugatti's) first name?
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April 2010 - Sports Car Market
Search This Issue
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BONUS Arizona Coverage: 1,719 sold, $120m, 202 Cars Rated Keith Martin's Sports CarMarket The Insider's Guide to Collecting, Investing, Values, and Trends FOUND Collier on the $365k Bugatti Immergé April 2010 1959 Lister Costin Jag Stuns at $1.1m 1,000-hp Aero Engine in 1931 Rolls, $451k www.sportscarmarket.com $26m GTO, $8m Cobra Daytona—The Market is Back! 300 Cars Damaged by the Scottsdale Storm: Who Pays?
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Sports CarMarket Keith Martin's The Insider's Guide to Collecting, Investing, Values, and Trends 52 Lister Costin Jag—Ex-Briggs Cunningham April 2010 . Volume 22 . Number 4 50 Mercury—Dream car, surprising price 38 Ferrari—The last V12 roadster IN-DEPTH PROFILES What You Need To Know FERRARI 38 2001 Ferrari 550 Barchetta—$156,750 / Gooding No “little boat,” but V12 topless fun. Steve Ahlgrim ENGLISH 42 1931 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Merlin Special—$451,000 / Gooding WWII aero engine meets a Phantom chassis. Simon Kidston ETCETERINI 44 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 Roadster—$364,700 / Bonhams What happens next to the Lady in the Lake? Miles Collier GERMAN 48 1952 Mercedes-Benz 220 Cabriolet B—$112,750 / RM Post-war car with a pre-war feel, in looks and craftsmanship. Donald Osborne AMERICAN 50 1954 Mercury XM-800 Dream Car—$429,000 / RM If ever there was a bargain concept car, this is it. Thomas Glatch RACE 52 1959 Lister Costin Jaguar Sports Racer—$1,100,000 / Gooding Big money for a sports racing special with all the best bits. Thor Thorson Cover photograph: Bonhams GLOBAL AUCTION COVERAGE 197 Cars Examined and Rated at Six Sales BARRETT-JACKSON 56 Scottsdale, AZ: The oldest—and largest—January auction sells 1,193 cars for $67.1m. Dan Grunwald RM AUCTIONS 70 Phoenix, AZ: RM's Biltmore staple gains an extra night and sells $19.7m, headlined by a $1m Aston DB4GT. Carl Bomstead GOODING & COMPANY 84 Scottsdale, AZ: $3.74m D-type Jag leads the week at Gooding's $34m auction. Donald Osborne SILVER AUCTIONS 98 Fort McDowell: High winds level tents, but Silver still sells 221 of 410 cars for $4m. B. Mitchell Carlson KRUSE INTERNATIONAL 108 Glendale, AZ: A pair of Duesenbergs highlight a $1.8m sale at the Renaissance Glendale Hotel. Lance Raber EBAY MOTORS 114 When one just isn't enough. Geoff Archer
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28 Legal Files—After the storm, who gets to pay? COLUMNS 10 Shifting Gears Real money reappears in the market Keith Martin 26 Affordable Classic Mazda Miata marks 20 years of zoom zoom Rob Sass 28 Legal Files Picking up the pieces at Russo and Steele John Draneas 40 Sheehan Speaks $26m GTO leads a string of world records Michael Sheehan 118 Bike Buys 750S America—the MV shafted by Count Agusta Ed Milich 130 eWatch 1908 Vanderbilt Cup replica stuns at $2,550 Carl Bomstead FEATURES 32 Cavallino: All the Ferraris come out to play 34 SCM Events: How we spent our winter vacation 36 Collecting Thoughts: John Dillinger's Model A 116 By the Numbers: Top 200 Arizona sales DEPARTMENTS 12 Crossing the Block / Auction Calendar 14 The Inside Line 16 Contributors 18 You Write, We Read 20 Display Advertisers Index 22 Time Pieces: Heuer Rally Clocks 22 Neat Stuff 24 In Miniature: 1964 Griffith Series 200 24 Book Review: Alfa Romeo Montreal: The Dream Car That Came True 68 Our Cars: 1970 BMW 2800 CS coupe 74 Glovebox Notes: 2012 Lexus LFA Supercar 106 Alfa Bits 115 Fresh Meat: 2010 Porsche 911 Turbo; 2010 Audi R8; 2008 BMW 135i convertible 120 Mystery Photo 120 Comments with Your Renewal 122 Showcase Gallery 126 Resource Directory
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Shifting Gears Keith Martin The Market Walks Tall declines in their annual New York sales. But on February 3, the market T spoke with an authoritative voice, as “Walking Man I,” a life-size bronze sculpture by Alberto Giacometti, was sold by Sotheby's for $104.3m, a world record for the most expensive work of art ever sold at auction. Sotheby's total for the evening was $235.6m. To put that in perspective, the combined Arizona total of BarrettJackson, Gooding, RM, Silver, and Kruse was $126.5m. Add that to the 2009 Monterey totals for Gooding, RM, Bonhams, Russo, and Mecum, $119.8m, and you have $246.3m. Sotheby's sold 31 lots to get to their total, the automobile auction companies sold 2,280 cars to get to theirs. The single most important element that sets the art market apart from So much tidier than the real thing wo years ago, the art market had cratered, with both Sotheby's and Christie's suffering huge year-over-year My retail sources tell me that once the engine is no longer the engine that came with the car—whether the engine is periodcorrect, a restoration restamp (that's a fancy word for fraud), or a properly installed crate motor such as a ZZ4 with aluminum heads— the value doesn't change much. Evidently, the Corvette world falls into two categories: completely correct and documented, at a premium price; and correct in every way but the engine, at a secondary price point. In this issue, Mike Sheehan writes about the buying and selling of two 250 GTOs, where the best-in-the-world GTO sold for a record-breaking $26m, and the collector car market is that of uniqueness. Especially with paintings, each work is one of one. It would be as if there were only one 250 Ferrari GTO, or one Ford GT40. In fact, what drives the pricing differential within, for example, the 250 GTO family are items of singularity. This GTO won the MOST races, making it one of one with that provenance. This Ford GT40 WON AT LE MANS in 1966, making it one of one with that as a part of its history. As you move down the pecking order of valuation, each variance from “the best of the best” reduces the market appeal of a car. Let's look at race cars. Not a factory team car? Knock. Won races but was crashed heavily, with many parts replaced? Knock. Didn't win anything? Knock. Was a backup car and never raced? Knock. Finally, the least valuable would be a racer built as a “continuation car” after the initial run ended. Who cares? I am often asked why it makes a value difference if, say, a 1963 Corvette Split-Window doesn't have its original engine, but instead has a period-correct one (one that was built during the same time period as the chassis, so might conceivably have been installed in the car in which it now resides). The answer is simple. Collectors are always looking for reasons to value one artifact higher or lower than another one. This differentiation has led to an entire army of appraisers, valuation experts, web sites, and even magazines like this one. Functionally, having a replacement 327-cubic-inch, 340-horsepower engine built in 1963, even if not the one originally installed in a car, makes absolutely no difference to the performance of the vehicle. (And if we want more performance, we can always install a later “crate engine” that incorporates modern technology—but improving the performance of vintage cars is an entirely different topic, and opens an entirely different can of worms.) Let's price a 1963 340-hp Corvette coupe, completely correct with a decent older restoration but without any Bloomington Gold or NCRS paperwork. It should bring around $60,000. Take the same car and replace its original engine with a period-correct one, not different in any way besides the engine stamping, and you can take at least $10,000 off the asking price. 10 the same seller bought a GTO with a lesser history and more stories, in the market-correct $16m range. In effect, the seller/buyer exchanged quality of provenance for $10m, and reportedly used the difference to buy a passel of vintage Ferraris. In fact, this “lesser” GTO will still get the owner into all of the exclusive GTO events the more expensive car did, so all he has lost is bragging rights. Shine over grime As we have noted before in SCM, the trend in collector car valuation is away from pretty and toward correctness and authenticity. But let's not be too quick to drink our own patinated Kool-Aid here. I would suggest that the old car market at large still prefers shine to grime, and fresh paint to faded. A large part of owning a collector car is the head turning it causes when you drive down the street, or pull up at an event. If you show up in an unrestored Maserati 3500 GT, at least 90% of an assembled audience is going to wonder why you don't replace the crappy old weathered paint job on your otherwise cool car, and give it some eyeball sizzle. Trying to explain to the casual car fan that a lackluster preserved car is really preferable to a fluffed and buffed restored one is a hopeless cause. Scottsdale This issue is devoted to Scottsdale, with our exclusive hands-on cov- erage of the auctions, plus John Draneas's insightful look at the insurance issues that are surfacing in the aftermath of the Russo and Steele winddriven disaster. As I went from auction to auction, I found a sense of confidence in the bidders that was missing a year ago. There was a sense that the market found its bottom last year, and that the new prices for cars are going to stick. There is still plenty of money around for best-of-the-best cars, and there is still no money around for the clones and fakes that shone so briefly three years ago. If you have avocational money to work with, I would suggest this is a very good time to buy the best quality merchandise you can. You'll get more usefulness out of your investment if you buy documented correctness rather than never-touched originality—you'll pay less, be able to drive more, and get more kudos from the gang. But if you are ready to move to a more thoughtful level of collecting, with all the pluses and minuses that entails, a no-stories original is what you should be looking to put into your garage, and what will ultimately have the highest long-term value. ♦ Sports Car Market
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Crossing the Block Jim Pickering Touted as the Midwest's largest all-indoor auction, this annual event usually draws over 250 consignments to the Rock Financial Showplace in Michigan. A heavy grouping of high-quality classics and American muscle will again be available, as well as a handful of exotics and several European sports cars. Generations of Bentleys at the Bonhams RAF sale Barrett-Jackson—Palm Beach 2010 Where: West Palm Beach, FL When: April 1–3 More: www.barrett-jackson.com Last year: 487/487 cars sold / $20m Barrett-Jackson's West Palm Beach event tends to be a little more relaxed than the annual Scottsdale auction, with around 500 cars crossing the block over three days. The Americraft Expo Center will again host for this year's auction, and the Speed Channel will be on site as always, providing over 18 hours of live auction coverage. An assortment of American muscle will be available, including a 1969 Camaro Z/28 in Hugger Orange. Mecum Auctions—Kansas City High Performance Auction Where: Kansas City, MO When: April 9–10 More: www.mecum.com Last year: 150/234 cars sold / $2.5m Around 400 consignments are expected at this spring's Kansas City sale, to be held at the Kansas City Convention Center. The auction will be broadcast live via Mecum's “Muscle Cars & More” television series on Discovery's HD Theater, and plenty of American muscle and classics can be expected. The Branson Auction Where: Branson, MO When: April 16–17 More: www.bransonauction.com Last year: 138/272 cars sold / $4m Barn finds will take center stage at the spring Branson auction, which this year celebrates 30 years of service to the collector. More than 20 barn-fresh collectibles will be featured, including rarities like a 1908 Maxwell roadster and a ropedrive 1904 Holsman with its original leather fenders. The sale promises to be big, with muscle cars, sports cars, and several high-end Full Classics rounding out the consignment list. 12 Bonhams—The RAF Museum Where: Hendon, UK When: April 19 More: www.bonhams.com Last year: 76/85 cars sold / $5.4m Bonhams's annual Royal Air Force Museum sale typically sees 75 consignments displayed under the wings of the museum's vintage warbirds. Featured is a 1962 Bentley S3 LWB with coachwork by Park Ward / Harold Radford, as well as a one-owner 1997 Bentley Continental T. The S3 is estimated at $55k to $62k, while the Continental is thought to be worth between $70k and $86k. H&H Auctions—The Pavilion Gardens Where: Buxton, UK When: April 21 More: www.classic-auctions.com Last year: 84/92 cars sold / $1.9m Headlining this annual Buxton sale at the Pavilion Gardens is a 1930 Lagonda 2-Liter Supercharged tourer supplied new to T.C. Mann and thought to be worth between $125k and $156k, as well as a 1932 Aston Martin International valued between $110k and $140k. Carlisle Auctions—Spring Carlisle 2010 Where: Carlisle, PA When: April 22–23 More: www.carlisleauctions.com Last year: 101/221 cars sold / $1.7m This annual spring event typically sees around 250 consignments cross the auction block, and it's known for having a good selection of affordable classics. This year's run list includes a 1936 Ford phaeton, a 1937 Chrysler Airflow, a 1941 Cadillac Series 60 4-door sedan, a 1955 Mercury Montclair, and a 1965 Buick Riviera. RM Auctions— Classic Car Auction of Michigan Where: Novi, MI When: April 24–25 More: www.rmauctions.com Last year: 121/252 cars sold / $2.1m Bonhams— Les Grandes Marques à Monaco Where: Monte Carlo, MCO When: April 30 More: www.bonhams.com Last year: 46/92 cars sold / $6.2m Returning to the Musée des Voitures du Prince in Monaco, this 21st annual event will once again feature a group of rare high-end collectibles. Headliners from last year's sale included a 1938 BMW 328 roadster at $507k, a 1990 Ferrari F40 LM Competition coupe that made $1.3m, and a 1966 Porsche 906 race car that achieved $782k. Worldwide Auctioneers— The Houston Classic Where: Seabrook, TX When: April 30–May 2 More: www.wwgauctions.com Last year: 68/106 cars sold / $5m Worldwide's annual auction at the Keels & Wheels Concours will feature over 110 cars, joined by a separate group of 74 highend no-reserve lots from the R.E. Monical Collection. Headliners include a 1963 Porsche 356 Carrera 2 cabriolet, a 1914 Packard 4-48 7-Passenger touring phaeton, and a 1934 Rolls-Royce PII Continental Roadster. ♦ Auction Calendar All dates listed are current at time of publication. Contact information for most auction companies may be found in the Resource Directory at the back of this issue. Please confirm dates and locations before attending any event. Email auction info to: [email protected]. APRIL MARCH 6—BONHAMS Oxford, UK 12—GOODING & CO. Amelia Island, FL 13—H&H Warwickshire, UK 13—KRUSE Huntsville, AL 13—RM Amelia Island, FL 15—SHANNONS Melbourne, AUS 19-20—BUD WARD Hot Springs, AR 20-21—ICA Gilbert, AZ 20—SILVER Portland, OR 22-23—BARONS Surrey, UK 24—BRIGHTWELLS Herefordshire, UK 26-28—RM Fort Lauderdale, FL 26-27—LEAKE San Antonio, TX 26-27—SANTIAGO Amarillo, TX 1-3—BARRETTJACKSON Palm Beach, FL 3—KRUSE Schaumburg, IL 8-9—TOM MACK Charlotte, NC 9-11—COLLECTOR CAR PRODUCTIONS Toronto, CAN 9-10—MECUM Kansas City, MO 10—ICA Amarillo, TX 16-17—BRANSON Branson, MO 19—BONHAMS Hendon, UK 21—H&H Buxton, UK 22-23—CARLISLE Carlisle, PA 24—CHEFFINS Cambridge, UK 24-25—RM Novi, MI 25—BONHAMS Stafford, UK 26-27—BARONS Surrey, UK 30—BONHAMS Monte Carlo, MCO 30-May 2— WORLDWIDE GROUP Seabrook, TX MAY 1—BUD WARD Tupelo, MS 1—ICA Dallas, TX 1—RM Monte Carlo, MCO 3—SHANNONS Sydney, AUS 8—BUD WARD Fort Worth, TX 8—BONHAMS & BUTTERFIELDS Carmel, CA 12—SILVER Spokane, WA 14-16—KRUSE Auburn, IN 19-23—MECUM Indianapolis, IN 22—BONHAMS Newport Pagnell, UK 22—ICA Tucson, AZ 22—MIDAMERICA St Paul, MN Sports Car Market
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Inside Line Stefan Lombard Send news and event listings to [email protected]. California Mille's 20th Anniversary Industry News ■ Barrett-Jackson has an- nounced that during its 39th annual auction in Scottsdale, the company auctioned 17 cars for various charities and, along with its ChildHelp Gala, raised nearly $4.5m. Top seller among them was a 2011 Ford Mustang GT glass roof pace car, which brought $300,000, while Darrell Gwynn's 1990 Coors Extra Gold top fuel dragster replica was sold and donated back twice to raise $410,000. www.barrett-jackson .com. Transitions ■ Ellen “Nellie” Jackson, matriarch of the Barrett-Jackson Auction Company and trailblazer in the collector car hobby, died Wednesday, February 10, in Scottsdale, Arizona, of natural causes. She was 90 years old. In 1971, along with late husband Russ and Tom Barrett, she helped create the Barrett-Jackson Auction Company and had been actively involved in its management since then. She is survived by her son, Craig Jackson, and 14 grandchildren, Shelby and Hunter Jackson. She was preceded in death by her husband, Russell Jackson, and son, Brian Jackson. Donations in her honor can be made to the Russ & Brian Jackson Cancer Research Fund, 400 E. Van Buren St., Phoenix, AZ 85004, or online at www .russandbriancancerfund.org. Events ■ The 46th annual Portland Swap Meet takes place April 9–11 at the Portland Expo Center. Presented by six area antique car clubs, the event is the largest auto parts swapmeet on the West Coast, with approximately 4,200 vendor stalls and over 50,000 shoppers each. Admission is $7 per day. www.portlandswapmeet.com. (OR) ■ The 20th Annual Bell Lexus Copperstate 1000 kicks off at Tempe Diablo Stadium on April 10, where the public can spend some time ogling the sheetmetal. Over the next four days, the route heads north to the Grand Canyon, then up to Page and the southern tip of Lake Powell, down through Flagstaff, Sedona, and off-the-beaten-path places like Strawberry and Payson, before concluding in Tempe. Participants can expect a police escort for all 1,000 miles to aid in trouble-free motoring, as well as full-time mechanics to keep the wheels turning. $5,550. www.copperstate1000.com. (AZ) ■ Also celebrating its 20th year is the California Mille. Host Martin Swig's grand event runs April 25 to 29 and promises to take participants over some of the best driving roads in the state, which coincidentally tend to be free of extraneous traffic. Add in terrific food, high-point wine and tall tales every night, and you've got a winning combination. The pre-1958 entries range from diminutive Porsche Speedsters to hulking Panamericana Lincolns. SCM Publisher Martin and his wife, Wendie, will be driving an Alfa and look forward to hanging out with fellow SCMers. $5,800. www.californiamille.com. (CA) ♦ Event Calendar 8-10—Classic Endurance Racing (FRA) www.classicenduranceracing.com 8-11—Techno Classica Essen (DEU) www.siha.de 9-11—46th Annual Portland Swap Meet (OR) www.portlandswapmeet.com 10-14—Copperstate 1000 (AZ) www.copperstate1000.com 11—Greystone Mansion Concours (CA) www.beverlyhills.org/greystone 15-18—Top Marques Monaco (MCO) www.topmarquesmonaco.com 19-24—Tour Auto Optic 2000 (FRA) www.tourauto.com 21-25—Spring Carlisle Swap Meet (PA) www.carlisleevents.com 23-25—Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este (ITA) www.concorsodeleganzavilladeste.com 25-29—California Mille (CA) www.californiamille.com 26-30—JCNA Western States Meet (CA) www.jcna.com Sports Car Market
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SCM Contributors YVO ALEXANDER has been writing about and photographing Ferraris for more than ten years, both for European and American magazines. A native of Amsterdam, he has worked all over the world and speaks several languages. These days, he runs his own company based in the Netherlands, which is active in supplying specialized products to the racing community. His personal collection includes two Ferraris—a 1962 250 GTE and a 1968 330 GTC. In January, he made his first trip to the Cavallino Classic, then spent a weekend in the pits at the Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona, attended the Speedway during preparations for the Daytona 500, and saw his first dirt track race at Volusia Speedway Park. His story about Cavallino appears this month on p. 32. CARL BOMSTEAD bought his first car when he was 14 and has owned at least a hundred since. While Full Classics are his poison, he can't ignore a good sports car or hot rod. His vintage automobilia collection includes hundreds of porcelain signs, mascots, oil cans, and several display cases full of automotive memorabilia. Bomstead has judged at Pebble Beach for the last 14 years and served as Chief Judge at the Kirkland Concours d'Elegance for its first three years. His articles have appeared in every issue of SCM for the last decade, and his regular “eWatch” appears on p. 130. In Scottsdale, he attended RM's Automobiles of Arizona event, and you'll find his coverage on p. 70. PAUL DUCHENE grew up in England and has been riding, driving (and mostly writing about) cars and motorcycles since 1958, when he bought a 1939 James Autocycle for $5. He's written for daily newspapers and magazines for 40 years, including the Chicago Tribune and New York Times, and has owned upwards of 200 cars and 30 motorcycles, most of which survived to be sold. His daily driver is a 1984 Cadillac Seville in Palomino Firemist, but on sunny days you'll find him grinning over the windshield of a 1968 Siata Spring. After seven years, he handed over the reins to SCM's Bike Buys column, and now concentrates full time on his role as Executive Editor. His story on John Dillinger's Model A Ford, which sold for $165k at Barrett-Jackson, is on p. 36 MICHAEL SHEEHAN is a Ferrari historian and broker with over three decades in the business. He operated a thirty-man Ferrari crash repair and restoration shop for over two decades. He has a passion for racing and has competed in the Mazda Pro Series, Trans-Am, IMSA GTO, and IMSA Camel Lite, and has three drives in the 24 Hours of Daytona and 12 Hours of Sebring. He is getting his pilot's license with his 17-year-old son, as he flies around the western U.S. to buy or consign Ferraris and Ferrari collections. His regular column, “Sheehan Speaks,” has been a part of SCM since 1993, and this month on p. 40 he tells us that the top of the Ferrari market is back in full swing. Sports Car Market Publisher Keith Martin [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 210 Art Director Kirsten Hegg [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 202 Executive Editor Paul Duchene [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 206 Managing Editor Stefan Lombard [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 203 Auction Editor Jim Pickering [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 208 Copy Editors Yael Abel, Kristen Hall-Geisler, Bill Neill Senior Auction Analysts B. Mitchell Carlson, Carl Bomstead, Paul Hardiman (Europe) Auction Analysts John Clucas (Australia), Daniel Grunwald, Jérôme Hardy (Europe), Chip Lamb, Norm Mort (Canada), Dale Novak, Phil Skinner Contributing Editors Steve Ahlgrim (Ferrari), Gary Anderson (English), Colin Comer (Muscle Cars), John Draneas (Legal), Donald Osborne (Etceterini), Jim Schrager (Porsche), Michael Sheehan (Ferrari), Thor Thorson (Race Cars) Contributors John Apen, Diane Brandon, Marshall Buck, Miles Collier, Martin Emmison, Paul Hardiman, Simon Kidston, Rob Sass, Steve Serio Operations Manager Jennifer Davis-Shockley [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 207 Senior Web Developer Jerret Kinsman [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 212 Information Technology/Internet Bryan Wolfe [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 215 Information Technology Mike Newkirk [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 214 Financial Manager Nikki Nalum [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 205 Strategic Planner Bill Woodard Print Media Director Wendie Martin [email protected]; 206.427.1652 Executive Producer, SCM Television Roger Williams [email protected] ADVERTISING Display Advertising Executives Tom Mann [email protected]; 877.219.2605 x 211 Cody Wilson [email protected]; 877.219.2605 x 213 Classified Advertising [email protected] SUBSCRIPTIONS Subscriptions & Marketing Coordinator Mary Artz [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 218 Subscriptions Coordinator Assistant Moira Blackflower [email protected]; 503.261.0555 x 216 To order new subscriptions or for questions about current subscriptions 877.219.2605, x 1; [email protected], fax 503-253.2234 M–F 9 am to 5 pm PST www.sportscarmarket.com CORRESPONDENCE Email [email protected] Customer Support www.sportscarmarket.com/helpdesk Fax 503.253.2234 General P.O. Box 4797, Portland, OR 97208 FedEx/DHL/UPS 401 NE 19th, Suite 100, Portland, OR 97232 The information in Sports Car Market magazine is compiled from a variety of reliable sources. However, we disclaim and deny any responsibility or liability for the timeliness, use, interpretation, accuracy, and completeness of the information presented. All material, data, formats and intellectual concepts in this issue © 2009 by Sports Car Market, Inc., Automotive Investor Media Group and Automotive Investor in this format and any other used by Sports Car Market magazine. Copyright registered with the United States copyright office. Canada Post Publication Agreement #41578525 16 PRINTED IN USA
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You Write We Read All letters are subject to editing. Please address correspondence to SCM, P.O. Box 4797, Portland, OR 97208. Fax 503.253.2234, e-mail: [email protected] Clipped Gullwings To the Editor: I read February article on the 1954 Mercedes 300SL AMG coupe by Miles Collier with quite a bit of interest (“German Profile,” p. 42), as at the same time there was a lively web discussion occurring regarding another of these cars—the 300SL Gullwing that was fitted with a current MB drivetrain and painted in camouflage for a Japanese designer. In comparison to that one (also done, I believe, by AMG), the car profiled in SCM looks positively restrained in character. If you have not seen the BAPE car, as it is called, I would urge that you do not, or else wait until you are having a particularly bad day to do so, as it is most suitable for viewing on a day that is already ruined by something else. Mr. Collier's discussion, though, is very much to the point. What is acceptable in modifying an irreplaceable and rare vintage automobile? He has commented in the past on what one ought to do when given the chance to own a car whose rarity and character make decisions of this kind significant ones. A reasonable point of view is that reversible changes are far more acceptable than permanent butchering of the type inflicted on s/n 0066; another plausible example might be the fitting of a 5-speed or 4-plus-OD gearbox to a Lusso, in which the original unit could be reinstalled if another owner so desired. An equally tenable point of view would be that automobiles that are perfectly usable in modern circumstances as originally built (such as the 300SL) should not be modified at all, which is my own strong feeling and I suspect that of many people who read this journal. If a car is deteriorated, it ought to be restored. If sound and in need of maintenance or repair, that ought to be done as well. But vintage cars should not be used as a canvas to illustrate the questionable taste or the lack thereof of certain individuals who wish to have the “look” of a vintage car while enjoying all the soulless efficiency of a modern 18 Mr. Collier's discussion is very much to the point. What is acceptable in modifying an irreplaceable and rare vintage automobile? A reasonable take is that reversible changes are far more acceptable than permanent butchering of the type inflicted on s/n 0066 vehicle. For the money spent to take 0066 to a point where it can never be an original car again, a copy of an original car could have been created and equipped with all the features that 0066 now so sadly displays. That would have preserved an original Gullwing for posterity and furthermore shown that the creators of such a car (AMG) were willing to give an original Gullwing its proper respect. I am reminded of the joke— not suitable for printing in its entirety here—about a dog. The punchline, which can be printed here, is, “Because he can.” The fact that someone has the ability to remake a 1954 Mercedes with a modern drivetrain and trimmings does not justify doing it. Quite the reverse, in fact; it is a triumph of shallow thinking over what ought to have been respectful stewardship. Regrettably, it's too late, now.—Jim Rosenthal, Annapolis, MD Dad's old Gran Sport To the Editor: Great to see the story on my father's old Alfa 6C 1750 GS (February, “Etceterini Profile,” p. 40). He owned this car before I was born in 1954, but I heard many stories about it. One was that his brother, my Uncle Art, drove it at high speed through a plowed field in Long Island, ruining all of the shocks. My father spent a lot of time at Zumbachs in NYC for repairs and to admire all the great cars that came through there. I remember him telling me that one of his Alfas of this period was badly crashed and Zumbachs had to make a chalk outline on the garage floor to lay the chassis on for straightening. I have a large amount of 35-mm negatives of his, some of which may be of this car. The negs are from the 1930s through the 1960s. Anyone interested in them, please let me know, as they should go to a good home.—Jon Stein, Wolcott, CT, [email protected] Porsche in plain sight To the Editor: I am a retired trial lawyer (Assistant U.S. Attorney for 22 years) and a car guy. Apropos of John Draneas's recent “Legal Files” column about the damage done by federal agents to a Ferrari F50 seized by the government from a drug dealer (February, p. 26), I handled a case I think you'll enjoy hearing about. In about 1990, U.S. Customs had received a tip that a wealthy car collector had recently imported an old Porsche race car and declared its value as $93,000. According to their source, the car (908/2) was worth more than $1 million. At the time, Customs agents found it unbelievable that an old race car was worth $93,000, much less $1 million, but someone told the agent in charge
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Ad Index Alan Taylor ............................................. 57 Aston Martin of New England .............. 109 Autobooks-Aerobooks .......................... 129 Automobilia Monterey .......................... 129 Autosport Designs ................................. 101 Barrett-Jackson ....................................... 25 Battery Tender/DBA Deltran ................ 125 Bonhams & Butterfields .......................... 21 Branson Collector Car Auction ............... 61 Carrera Motors ........................................ 35 Charles Prince Classic Cars .................. 103 Cheetah Continuation Collectible .......... 95 Chubb Personal Insurance ....................... 85 Classic Showcase .................................... 63 Classy Chassis ......................................... 69 Cobalt Automotive LLC ....................... 131 Collector Studio .....................................111 Columbia River Concours ....................... 81 Condon & Skelly................................... 109 Cosdel ..................................................... 71 Dana Point Concours d'Elegance ........... 73 DL George Coachworks .......................... 83 Driversource Houston LLC ................... 105 Equipe Watches ....................................... 23 European Collectibles ........................... 121 Exhibitions & Trade Fairs ....................... 89 Exotic Car Transport ............................. 125 F40 Motorsports .................................... 121 Fantasy Junction ...................................... 93 Ferrarichat.com ..................................... 113 General Racing ........................................ 75 Gooding & Company ................................ 2 Granite Digital ...................................... 119 Grundy Worldwide .................................. 99 Gullwing Motor Cars, Inc. .................... 105 Hagerty Insurance. .................................. 27 Heacock Classic ..................................... 37 Heritage Classics ..................................... 65 Intercity Lines ......................................... 41 JC Taylor ................................................. 47 JJ Best Banc & Co ................................ 123 Juniors House of Color ......................... 129 Keels and Wheels Concours ................... 77 Kidston .................................................... 11 Louisville Concours ................................ 79 Mac Neil Automotive ...................... 31, 121 Mecum .................................................... 91 Mercedes Classic Center ......................... 17 Miller's Mercedes Parts, Inc ................ 125 Motorcar Portfolio ................................ 113 Park Place LTD ....................................... 33 Paul Russell ............................................. 97 Plycar Transportation Group ................... 59 Poff Transportation ............................... 125 Porsche .................................................... 19 Portland Swap Meet .............................. 125 Putnam Leasing ....................................... 49 Reliable Carriers ..................................... 55 RM Auctions ............................. 7, 9, 13, 15 Ron Tonkin Gran Turismo ...................... 95 RPM Autobooks .................................... 129 Sotheby's Australia ................................. 67 Sports & Specialist Cars ......................... 99 Steve Austin's Great Vacations ............. 119 Symbolic Motor Car Co ............................ 3 The Finish Line ..................................... 121 The Masterpiece ...................................... 87 The Stable, Ltd. ..................................... 101 Ulysse Nardin Watches ......................... 132 Urban Art .............................................. 103 VeloceSpace ............................................ 97 Vintage Rallies ........................................ 93 VIP Transport Inc. ................................. 129 Watchworks ........................................... 129 Worldwide Group ...................................... 4 20 that he should run it by me, as I knew a lot about cars. I checked with a Porsche race car expert who knew of the car. He advised that it was built and raced in 1969 and its value was currently about $1.5 million. Through some more networking, I discovered that the car was, at that time, in the shop of a reputable local restorer, who was prepping it to run at that year's Monterey Historics. I then wrote up a Criminal Complaint and told Customs to seize the car. They grabbed it just as it was being loaded into a transporter headed to Laguna Seca. After the seizure, I told Customs this was a very valuable car and needed to be stored carefully. Looking for a safe storage site, I contacted a local Porsche shop, where I happened to take my BMW to be serviced. The owner, a German who had once raced an RSK Spyder, had a superb reputation for honesty and integrity. As it turned out, he also happened to work on a 356 owned by the owner of the 908. Despite that, he said he could put it up on jack stands, drain the fluids, prepare it for long-term storage, and cover it with tarps in a way that it would simply look like stacks of spare parts. That way, if the owner brought his 356 in for repairs, he would not have any idea it was right there under his nose. The shop owner gave me a monthly rate, which I convinced Customs to pay in order to avoid any possibility that the car might be damaged during storage elsewhere. The next day, the 908 owner and his lawyers filed a motion to have the car released immediately to avoid damage and improper storage. I assured the court that it was being well cared-for. The lawyers then told the judge that it must go to Monterey that weekend, as it was being driven by the founder and director of the Historics, Steve Earle, and that it was the “featured car” in a race event that was being staged for charity. While I had not yet been to the Historics, I suspected that was false. I checked on it with Earle, who said that the owner had simply asked him if he'd like to drive the 908 (which he did) and that it was certainly not the featured car at the races. The This car was not an Alpine conversion but one of the very scarce Tiger Mk IIs from 1966–67—one of only 633 produced. judge refused to release the car. During a ridiculous barrage of defense motions and personal accusations against me, including accusations that I had “ordered” the seizure because I wanted to drive a 908, it occurred to me the owner may also have not reported any profits from his numerous sales of Ferraris and Alfas over the previous few years. That was borne out when we obtained the tax returns. His accountant, when interviewed by an agent, revealed that because he knew the client was a car collector, he made it a point always to ask him, before preparing returns, whether he had sold any cars at a profit. The client/owner, he said, had told him he'd never made a profit. Knowing that was absolutely false, I added a few false tax return charges to the charge of false Customs declarations. Eventually, the guy pled guilty to tax fraud and agreed to pay the IRS all taxes owed plus interest and penalties (about $750k), plus about $75k to Customs to get his 908 back. But before he paid his fines to Customs, he demanded to see and inspect the 908 for damage and deterioration while under the care of Customs. When I told him where it had been stored, he immediately wrote the check and signed off on the delivery, telling us that if his own mechanic had stored it, there was no need for an inspection. The mechanic later told me that the owner had brought his 356 in for service several times while the 908 was sitting right next to his 356, and he'd never even asked what was under the tarps.—David Katz, San Diego, CA Tiger in a bear market To the Editor: Some collector, either very astute or just plain lucky, got himself one exceptional bargain with lot 725, a 1966 Sunbeam Tiger that sold at $23,004, at the Auctions America Raleigh Classic, in December of 2009, covered on p. 94 in the March issue. As Chip Lamb concluded about the 1966 Sunbeam Tiger, it was “a home run for the buyer,” for this car was not an Alpine conversion but one of the very scarce Tiger Mk IIs from 1966– 67—one of only 633 produced. These were built after the Chrysler takeover of Rootes Group and carry an eggcrate-style grille, painted headlamp rims, and a Ford solid-lifter 289 V8 in place of the previous 260 power, which gives this Tiger II a 36-hp boost. Bottom line: The car was bought for about 50 cents on the dollar.—Dave Brownell, East Coast Representative, Gooding & Company Errata On p. 12 of our 2010 Spring Auction Guide and p. 10 of our March issue, we incorrectly stated the pre-auction estimate of the 1938 Peugeot 402 Darl'Mat at Gooding's Amelia Island auction. The correct estimate is $650k– $850k. ♦ Sports Car Market
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Time Pieces by Alex Hofberg Heuer Rally Clocks Since the beginning of the automotive era, racers and spectators have shared the exhilara- tion of auto racing. Racers pitted their skills and their machines against other cars and against the clock, on surfaces ranging from goat paths to desert sand, open roads to closed circuits. Though timing is critical in any form of racing, the road rally brings the timing equipment inside the car, where it must be accurate, legible, and operable by a navigator—who may have the more difficult task in the car. The navigator in a traditional rally must be able to log starting time and elapsed time between any two checkpoints, as well as the cumulative time of the rally as a whole. He or she must be able to calculate the average speeds necessary to arrive at control points exactly on time. One of the biggest names in race timing equipment is the Swiss firm Heuer, whose history of watches and stopwatches is well-documented. In 1911, Heuer introduced a dash-mountable clock for aircraft or automobiles with a function that would allow both the telling of time and elapsed time up to twelve hours, known as the “Time Of Trip.” Though this clock was successful, it lacked a second hand, which was necessary for accurate race timing. In 1938, Heuer solved this problem by introducing a pair Details Production date: 1930s–1970s of clocks as a team, for the dash or a clipboard. One was the Hervue, an eight-day clock, and the other the Autavia, a sweep-second stopwatch, with recording hands for events up to twelve hours. At last, navigators could record the time a checkpoint was reached and the time it took to reach it. From that, average speed and other calculations could be made. The 1950s saw the beginning of the “golden age” of road rallying, and Heuer made rally timing clocks that included the Master Time, which featured an eight-day power reserve, and the Super Autavia, which featured both clock and stopwatch in one. Heuer also offered stopwatches, such as the Autavia and the Monte Carlo, with an easily read hour recording disk, allowing the elapsed time to be read at a glance. Sets marketed under the name Rally Master usually comprised a Master Time and a Monte Carlo mounted together on a chrome dash plaque. Later models were made in plastic cases, and Heuer introduced models with electronic movements. If this story prompts you to rush out and buy a nice set of period Heuer rally clocks, be aware they are hard to find and expensive. Prices range from $2,500 for single pieces to well over $6,000 for nice sets. Many of the items on eBay that seem like “deals” are unfortunately fakes or wannabes. And items for sale that sound real can be in foreign countries, which makes verifying authenticity difficult. Though the build quality of the clocks is quite good, hard use was likely and it can mean expensive repairs. For further information on Heuer, I recommend a wonderful web site, www.onthedash.com, which is a repository of Heuer knowledge, with volumes of interesting photos. ♦ Neat Stuff by Stefan Lombard Eat your heart out, Barris When it comes to carting your kiddies around the show-n-shine, it's nice to keep them comfortable. But let's face it, they should look good, too. Enter the Roddler by Kid Kustoms. With its Billet machined-aluminum chassis, teardrop fenders, chrome grips, wide whitewalls, and leatherette seat, never has a stroller looked so boss. And when junior's outgrown it, the Roddler easily converts into an equally cool Trike. The Roddler is $1,999 and comes standard in black, red, or white, but is easily customized. The trike kit adds $499, or a full Trike can be purchased separately for $999. www.kidkustoms.com. Suitable attire In today's Nomex-only rac- ing environment, take a step back and cool off in Suixtil race gear. During the 1950s and '60s, Argentina's Suixtil brand became a mainstay of motorsport, clothing everyone from Juan Manuel Fangio and Wolfgang Von Trips to Stirling Moss and Peter Collins. The name eventually faded away, but it's been revived and now recalls the great racing era of yesteryear. The Heritage Line faithfully re-creates the 100% cotton race pants and shirts, as well as the Pima cotton long-sleeve polo and cashmere navy sweater that made up the Suixtil look. Prices range from $75 to $280. www.suixtil.com. 22 Sports Car Market Market value for properly restored example: $7,000–$9,000 Best place to mount one: On the dash of a 1956 Alfa Romeo Giulietta Veloce SCM Five-Star Rating: Rarity: Durability: Parts/Service Availability: Cool Factor: Web: www.onthedash.com Recent eBay Sales: Dual Heuer Stop watches. Original Autavia: $2,375 (Feb. 6, 2010) 1970s Heuer Triple Set Dash Clocks: $565.55 (Jan. 27, 2010) Vintage Heuer Monte Carlo Stopwatch: $881 (Feb. 7, 2010)
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In Miniature by Marshall Buck 1964 Griffith Series 200 The original Griffiths have an awe-inspiring or frightening powerto-weight ratio, depending on how you view it, and their looks are described as attractive, or quirky. Powered by a small-block 289-ci Ford engine, these tiny monsters weighed in at 500 lb less than a 289 Cobra, which was Jack Griffith's target. With a miniscule 85.5-inch wheel- Model Details Production Date: 2010 Quantity: 454 combined, in two editions base, you needed to make certain of two things before you stuffed yourself into one: Don't do anything stupid behind the wheel, and have your life insurance paid up in case you do. Good things come in small packages. That saying holds true for SCM Five-Star Rating: Overall Quality: Authenticity: Overall Value: Web: www.automodello.com two 1:43-scale gems from Automodello, a new model manufacturer based in the U.S. The models were engineered and designed Stateside as well, though the actual pieces are produced in Asia. The two shown here are brand-new pre-production samples. Production models should be available by late March. The Griffith 200 is the first in the new range, and I'd say the company is off to a great start; I'm looking forward to the next release. Although a few other companies have made models of the Griffith 200 before, none were terribly accurate. But the powers that be at Automodello have put a great deal of thought and effort into their Griffith models. They are something that both Jack and Automodello can be proud of. This model also happens to be the first and only replica officially endorsed by Jack Griffith. Spend a little time with one of these models and you'll appreciate what's gone into it. Body shape perfectly captures the feel of the real auto, and numerous photo-etched details are applied, including two features I'm especially pleased with. The wire wheels are oh-so delicate and look just right. The compre- hensively detailed light tan interior has a correct three-spoke steering wheel with an expertly scaled thin rim. The dash is fully detailed, as are the door panels with separate door handles and window cranks which are slightly oversized, though you'd have to stare hard to realize it. Looking up at the hand-painted headliner, you'll see two sun visors. The color choices are refreshing and perfectly suited to the body shape. Each model comes mounted in a display case, along with a descrip- tion card about the real car. These are limited-edition, hand-built models, though not extraordinarily so. The standard edition in Regal Red has a run of 262 pieces priced at $95, and the Opalescent Silver Blue model is from the “Founders Edition,” limited to 192 numbered pieces, each accompanied by a certificate personally signed by Jack Griffith. Those are priced at $195. And by the way, 192 is the exact number of Griffith Series 200 cars Jack produced. Available from Automodello: 847.274.9645. Speaking Volumes by Mark Wigginton Alfa Romeo Montreal: The Dream Car That Came True By Bruce Taylor, Veloce, 208 pages, $50.37, Amazon There used to be an entire quarter-long seminar in the UCLA film school on “Citizen Kane.” It was a classic dissected, with detailed looks at the many groundbreaking achievements in Orson Welles's masterpiece, from story structure to the use of ceilings on sets, to Gregg Toland's cinematographic innovations. Last month I reviewed the motorbook equivalent to that seminar, Colin Comer's equally detailed and loving look at the cars from Carroll Shelby. This month, I have to say, before us is the motorbook equivalent of a seminar on “Porky's II: The Next Day.” Now, there is no denying author Bruce Taylor's love for the Alfa Romeo Montreal, that Miura wannabe showcased first at Expo '67 in Montreal and finally in production from 1971 to '75. There isn't even a quibble that the Montreal, loathed by one and all at introduction, has gone through a bit of Jimmy Carter-like reappraisal. Some in the motoring press have even come to like it. But an entire book? On the Montreal? The author compares the Montreal to the Lamborghini Miura, also designed at the same time at Bertone by 27-year-old Marcello Gandini. Only someone blinded by love would link the real beauty with her aesthetically challenged ugly sister. Oddly proportioned, sitting too high and louvered like a New Orleans bordello, the Montreal is also ill-handling and reportedly prone to bursting into flames (thanks to Spica fuel injection). Since there isn't much to say about the car, the book is mostly photographs. Lots of photographs. Of the Montreal. There are Montreals of every color, Montreals with every background, Montreals draped with all manner of crumpet, dressed and barely dressed. It's like sitting through a slideshow of your friend's vacation in New Jersey. And in the end, it's too much of a good thing, or in this case, a resoundingly mediocre thing. Provenance: Bruce Taylor, a retired CERN engineer, certainly has learned all there is to learn about Montreals, from concept to production to living with one, and has turned his hobby into a mini-empire, complete with a technical book on the car and a web site (www .alfamontreal.info). Fit and finish: Despite my overall disdain, the book is quite well done techni- cally, with well reproduced images, readable typography, and unassuming design. Drivability: Like any narrowly focused book, the audience is small and prob- ably devoted to the topic. My bleating aside, they probably won't be disappointed. But if someone isn't blinded by love of the Montreal, and I know you are out there, this is nearly automotive porn, or at least the notebook of a stalker. 24 Sports Car Market
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Affordable Classic Mazda Miata Zoom Zoom: The Miata Turns 20 Absolute dependability was demanded of the Mazda Miata— and delivered—making it suitable transportation for sports car lovers by Rob Sass world. It's difficult to think of a car more significant in the sports car pantheon that enjoys less respect from the masses. Often derided as a “chick car” by the clueless and insecure, the Miata is the only reason the twoseat roadster hasn't been consigned to the automotive fossil record, along with the dual-cowl phaeton and the landaulet. Mazda has an interesting, almost narcoleptic history in the auto world. They'll do T something utterly brilliant and then nod off for a decade or so—the original Cosmo coupe, the first- and third-gen RX-7, the Miata, etc. On the heels of its 1978 game changer, the RX-7, Mazda asked a group of automotive journalists what they should do next. The overwhelming response was a traditional roadster (unfortunately, there were more than a few votes for a rotary pickup truck as well). Initially, there was disagreement among the development teams as to the architec- ture of the proposed new sports car. One group advocated mid-engine, another pushed for front wheel-drive, and the last came down on the side of traditional front-engine, rear-wheel drive. Thankfully, the final group won out and had the good sense to use perhaps the seminal example of that type of sports car as their inspiration—the Lotus Elan. Rumor has it the Mazda development team purchased several fine examples of the little Lotus for evaluation purposes. Tom Matano, one of the Miata's designers, recalled later that on his team were former owners of a Triumph Spitfire, MG B, and Fiat spider in college days, all of whom remembered their cars fondly, “if only they had worked.” Much like the 1991 revival of Triumph motorcycles in the hands of British entrepreneur John Bloor, absolute dependability was demanded of the new model—and delivered—making it suitable transportation for sports car lovers who actually expected to arrive at their destinations. Styling reminiscent of the Elan Details Years produced: 1990–97 (first gen) Number produced: 215,364 Original list price: $13,800 (base car 1990) Certainly the styling of the first-generation, or NA, car was reminiscent of the Elan. The grille opening, pop-up headlights, and retro Minilite-style wheels all harked back to the Lotus, as did the 1.6-liter, twin-cam four. Where the two cars parted company in no uncertain terms were build quality, reliability, and comfort. The Elan was fragile, finicky, and prone to shedding SCM Valuation: $3,500–$6,000 Tune-up cost: $250 Distributor cap: $10 Chassis #: Driver's A-pillar and door jamb Engine #: Right side of block below cylinder head Club: Miatafun 5035 Glenwood Ave. Fontana, CA 92336 More: www.miata.net Alternatives: 1974–80 MG B, 1972–80 Triumph Spitfire, 1979–82 Fiat Spider 2000 SCM Investment rating: F+ 26 parts, where the Mazda was an inexpensively yet wellfinished, nicely screwed-together and altogether robust package. The Miata's convertible top was the best one seen since the Fiat 124 spider. Undo two latches, throw it over your shoulder, and that's that. The heater was effective, and even the optional a/c was fully integrated and worked quite well. The Miata moved much of the enthusiast commu- nity to near tears when it was introduced in the fall of 1989 for the 1990 model year. Few thought we would ever see a British roadster re-imagined as a competent and dependable yet utterly charming automobile. Colors were originally limited to red, white, and he Mazda Miata might hold the record for inverse relationships in the automotive blue, and several option packages included niceties like a/c, power windows, and headrest-mounted speak- ers. A nice removable hard top was offered, as was a slushbox, but mercifully, this proved unpopular. Few people were able to buy a 1990 Miata at anywhere near sticker price, as surging demand allowed dealers to tack on “ADP”—additional dealer profit. Base cars came with steel wheels, no power windows or power steering, and no a/c. The A and B packages added the various niceties missing from the base car. Along the way, various other option packages and new colors were introduced, including the R-type with stiffer Bilstein suspension, and a limited edition in British Racing Green and tan leather. For 1994, the engine was enlarged to 1.8 liters, with modest gains in performance. Early Miata drivers used the gearbox a lot The original 120-hp, 1.6 -liter was enough to power the 2,200 pound car to 60 mph in about nine seconds. Without an abundance of low-end torque, early Miata drivers used the gearbox a lot. Happily, it was a great 5-speed with suitably short throws and a nice direct feeling that was a byproduct of its conventional layout. Handling was neutral, brakes were more than adequate, and the ratios were well-spaced enough to make the Miata a decent highway car and a 120-mph performer. The wonderful thing about a used Miata is the fact that while it resembles a fragile British or Italian sports car, it has the same DNA as a Mazda 323 with 300,000 miles that some pimply faced kid is still using as a pizza delivery conveyance. With a modicum of care, Miatas are capable of high mileage and reliable long-term service. Things like power window switches and regulators can give trouble, timing belts should be changed every five years or 60,000 miles, and gearbox oil should be changed at the manufacturer's recommended intervals, along with coolant. Other than the usual woes of any 20-year old car, Miatas aren't particularly troublesome. At around $3,500 for a decent first-year car, it's hard to fight the urge to add a Miata to a stable of credit card cars. Many of us often cite character as a reason to suffer with a vastly inferior Triumph Spitfire or MG Midget for the same money as a Miata. I simply don't buy it. There is no surfeit of character in a Miata, and the passage of time has certainly thinned the ranks of early cars. Naturally, there is little chance of collectibility or appreciation in the near term. But it's also unlikely that the cost of ownership of a Miata will ever render one seriously underwater. And as long as there are sunny days, there will be buyers. ♦ Sports Car Market
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Legal Files John Draneas Who Pays at Russo and Steele? If the winds were unforeseeable, they would be considered an act of God, and neither the auction nor tent company would be liable for damages The Russo site on Wednesday, Friday, and Sunday (left to right) W ho would have thought that the wind could blow so hard? That turns out to be the multi-million-dollar question in Scottsdale. The big story from this year's Arizona auctions was not the market, but the weather. What was called the worst storm in 40 years—with estimated 80-mph winds—blew through the area on Thursday evening and destroyed two 800-foot tents at the Russo and Steele auction. “Breaking News” updates sent to SCMers included TV news and YouTube videos that showed the wind lifting the tents like runaway umbrellas. The tent fabric may have caused scratches and broken mirrors, but the major damage came from the aluminum tent poles crashing into, over, and through many of the hundreds of collector cars underneath. According to Russo and Steele President Drew Alcazar, the company was well aware that weather forecasts called for major rains, but not the gale-force winds. Crews were on-site to manage the water flow throughout the day. But when the wind picked up and the big tents started to flutter and sway, an evacuation was ordered to get people to safety. Fortunately, everyone exited the tents in time and there were no significant injuries. Aftermath photos of the damaged cars clearly show that people could have been killed. Police and firemen quickly closed the site to prevent injury, barring car owners from entering to inspect or remove their cars, or take precautions to protect them from further damage. Rain, wind, and hail continued to pelt the cars that were now exposed to the elements, some with their tops down. The site remained closed until early Saturday morn- ing. Clean-up followed at a Herculean pace, and auction staff did everything they could to protect the cars from further damage, including wrapping hundreds of them in plastic. The auction resumed on Sunday and was ex- 28 tended into Monday. Alcazar said that many consignors first pulled their cars from the auction, but as the auction restarted and progressed at such an encouraging pace, many re-entered their cars. Many of them sold at pre-auction estimated sales prices, including some that were sold in damaged condition—some with, and, amazingly, some without the caveat that they would be returned to pre-damaged condition as a part of the sale. McKeel Hagerty, President of Hagerty Collector Car Insurance Co., estimates more than 300 cars were damaged, of which at least 110 were insured by Hagerty. By any measure, this was a catastrophe. Hagerty expects that the claims will “test many contractual requirements in many directions.” We will have to wait and see how all that turns out, but in “Legal Files” style, we can take an advance look at the likely issues. Who's at fault? Insurers of the damaged cars have been working on claims since the storm, and they are taking to heart the opportunity to impress their policyholders with their service capabilities. Some owners want to leave their insurance carriers out of the picture, and expect that the auction company's carrier will handle the situation, but that isn't how insurance works. Each owner's carrier will administer the claim (which generally means settle with the owner of the affected car), and later decide whether to pursue claims against third parties who might be at fault. The obvious liability targets are Russo and Steele and the tent company, and Alcazar reports that there are multiple investigations under way. If it looks like the auction and/or tent company were at fault, the auto insurers will try to recoup their losses from them and their insurers. That process will likely be handled quietly, at least as long as the coverage is sufficient to cover all the losses. The wild cards are the car owners who didn't carry insurance. “Legal Files” reviewed the Russo and Steele consignment agreement, and it is very clear that the owner is expected to maintain insurance coverage on his or her car. Alcazar said he is amazed that, in spite of that, some of the sellers actually had no insurance coverage. The only way these owners can recoup their losses would be to establish liability on the part of the auction or tent company, and some may file suit. But filing such a lawsuit is a lot easier than winning it. The owner will be on his own with respect to his at- Sports Car Market
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torney fees, and will have only his individual loss at stake. In contrast, the insurers for Russo and Steele and the tent company will be at risk for all the losses, as any adverse determination could be used as proof by others. They will have ample motivation to defend as forcefully (and expensively) as necessary. Establishing liability The auction and tent companies are not automatically liable; rather, negligence will have to be proven. The auction company's obligation is only to take reasonable Consumer auto policies generally provide automatic coverage for new cars that you buy. That's probably easy enough for a $45,000 Porsche 993, but might be tougher for a $25 million Ferrari 250 GTO. Hagerty explains that their policies provide auto- matic coverage for new collector car purchases for 30 days. Jim Fiske, U.S. Marketing Manager at Chubb Personal Insurance, confirms that their policies do the precautions to protect the cars from reasonably foreseeable harm. Adverse weather is certainly foreseeable, but would that include winds this strong? Preevent weather forecasts will play a role in answering that question. The auction company is not expected to be an expert in tent design, and can probably leave that to a reputable tent company to handle. The auction company does have to pick a capable tent company, and Alcazar points out that Russo and Steele used the same tent company as all the other Arizona auction companies. The tent company would be obligated to select appro- priate tents for the site, capable of withstanding foreseeable weather conditions. Once again, the question will be if these winds were reasonably foreseeable. If the winds were unforeseeable, they would be con- sidered an act of God, and neither the auction or tent company would be liable for the damages. If the winds were foreseeable, then either or both might be found to be negligent. Pity the poor buyer About 100 cars had crossed the block before the winds came. About half were sold to happy owners, and had been moved back under the tents that later collapsed and suffered damage. What is your situation if you were the (temporarily) happy winning bidder? Under general legal principles, the car is sold, and title and risk of loss pass to the buyer, when the hammer falls. The Russo and Steele buyer's agreement makes that point quite clear. Obviously, the buyers didn't have time to call their insurance agents and buy coverage. Will their insurance carrier cover them anyway? April 2010 same, as will those of most “true” collector car insurance companies. Both caution that various consumer insurance companies have entered the collector car market with less sophisticated policies that must be individually reviewed. The critical second question is the amount of your coverage. Hagerty says that your purchase price will almost always establish the value of the car, reserving doubt only for highly unusual or suspicious situations. But if you have an actual cash value policy, your insurance adjuster will be well within his rights to suggest that you paid too much for the car, and they won't make the same mistake when they compensate you for your loss. It Was a Dark and Stormy Night… Even if you missed the 2010 Arizona Auctions, you probably heard the story of the “Storm of the Century.” It swept in from the Pacific, flooded Los Angeles, and still had three inches of water to dump on the Phoenix area—about a third of the Valley of the Sun's annual rainfall. The storm also brought tornado warnings and high winds on January 21, which played havoc with the tents at Russo and Steele's auction. As the sale was beginning Thursday night, witnesses reported two 800-foot tents were whipped away by wind gusts. One tent blew across the 101 beltway, blocking the road, and the other was shredded on site. Aluminum support poles and flapping canvas damaged about 200 of the 500 collector cars, a number of them with their tops down, which were stored in the tents. As the disaster began, around 6 pm, police and firefighters evacuated the area to prevent serious injuries. Rain and wind continued through the night and the next day, as Russo and Steele workers attempted to protect the cars with plastic. Dismayed owners were finally allowed back into the area on Friday morning, and insurance appraisers dealt with claims on the spot. The weather moderated Saturday and Russo and Steele cleaned up. The auction restarted Sunday and concluded Monday, with about 300 cars crossing the block. Damaged cars were often accompanied by guarantees of repair by the consignor, and the proceeds from the sale of several cars were donated to police and firefighters' charities by sellers grateful that the situation hadn't been worse. The same scenario almost played out in Fort McDowell at the Silver auction, but Mitch Silver ordered all the cars moved to another area before crews battled to save his tents, most of which collapsed. The only damaged car belonged to a consignor who had left and taken his keys. Crews repaired the damage and Silver's sale started Friday, only three hours late.—Paul Duchene 29
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Legal Files John Draneas company, and only if legal liability can be established. The cost of pursuing that claim may be impractical. No-sale no-coverage To end on a low note, say the car sold but the buyer refuses to pay for the now-damaged car (amazingly, Alcazar says that didn't happen at Russo and Steele). Your insurance company could take the position that it owes you nothing because you didn't own the car when it was damaged—after all, ownership and risk transfer to the new owner the instant the gavel falls. If the sale price is greater than your insurance coverage, you might be in a real tough spot. You can either cancel the sale and “reinstate” your lower insurance coverage, or spend the time and money suing the buyer to pay up. New meaning to “as is” No-sale tough deal Say your car failed to sell because the bidding didn't reach your reserve, or you offered it at no reserve but bought it back because the bids were too low (yes, that's illegal), then it suffered extensive damage. With an actual cash value policy, where the insurance company is free to debate the value of the car, you may be surprised to find that your reserve or buy-back can be a ceiling, but not a floor, to the value of the car when it comes time for the insurance company to write a check. After all, the market spoke about the “correct” value and you chose not to listen. Similarly, since you were willing to sell at your reserve, that can be an admission that the car was not worth more. Agreed value nightmares “Legal Files” has advised many times that agreed value policies are the way to go, but be careful that they accurately reflect the value of the car. Hagerty laments that “auto insurance is one of the least scrutinized transactions people enter into.” Fiske echoes that sentiment, suggesting that “most people know more about their cell phone contracts than their insurance contracts.” Many people simply don't remember what the amount of their agreed value policy is, as they often set it when they bought the car, sometimes many years ago. That can really come back to bite you. Say you have a Series I E-type that you insured for $50,000, under an agreed value policy, when you bought the car. You expected it to sell for $75,000, but before it even has a chance to cross the block, it suffered $50,000 in damage. Later, you discover that your agreed value is still the $50,000 you paid for the car. Under an agreed value policy, there is no negotiation about the value of the car—it is conclusively deemed to be the agreed value amount. You get a check for $50,000, and the insurance company now owns the damaged car. They sell it to someone for $25,000, who then spends $50,000 repairing it and making it back into a $75,000 Jaguar. In effect, you are sharing the loss with your insurance company; you lose the $25,000 of uninsured market value, and the insurance company loses only $25,000 after reselling the salvage. That loss sharing could have been avoided if you had been careful enough to adjust the agreed value as the car's value changed. Diminished value Several of the damaged cars appeared to be excellent unrestored, original examples. When they are repaired, they won't be unrestored any longer, and they may suffer from diminished value, which many insurance policies exclude. In those situations, damages from the diminished value can be recovered only from the auction and/or tent 30 Recommendations Obviously, the best answer for every one of the situa- tions cited above is insurance. The seller should have an updated agreed value insurance policy in force at all times. The buyer should be sure to have a policy in place before the auction that will cover any purchase. In both cases, it is best to place your coverage with a specialty carrier that knows collector cars and can provide proper assistance in making sure that you are properly covered. ♦ JOHN DRANEAS is an attorney in Oregon. His comments are general in nature and are not intended to substitute for consultation with an attorney. A Note From Drew Alcazar There simply could not be a more resounding testament to the rabid loyalty, passion, and devotion of the Russo and Steele client base than their Herculean efforts invested to overcome the tragedy of the Scottsdale weather. At Russo and Steele, we are most proud of our close personal relationships with our client base. In keeping with that principle, we unhesitatingly extended the option for all owners to elect to remain or withdraw their vehicles, regardless of condition, on Saturday, January 23. I personally greeted our clients on the auction block, along with a support team of staff and sponsors, including Hagerty Insurance, Reliable Carriers, and the City of Scottsdale's Fire Marshal. My message was, “Russo and Steele has always been ‘your' auction. Today, more than ever before, it truly is YOUR auction. We are here to help you any way we can, and the choice is up to you.” As sellers filtered into the once-pristine preview areas, the tireless efforts of the past 24 hours were clearly evident. The site was cleaned of debris, finally earning it the City of Scottsdale's Fire Marshal's approval as safe and secure. In addition, all the cars were wiped down and covered with plastic car covers, a display of the tremendous effort put forth by the detailers who worked through the night to make the best of a tough situation. The response was overwhelming. Amazingly, many cars received no damage, with some clients proclaiming, “My car looks better than when I checked it in!” This does not diminish the fact that many cars did receive varying degrees of damage; some minor scratches, some major losses, primarily to cars parked near the large center tent poles. Braced for the worst, and faced with the possibility of a mass exodus, Russo and Steele found that the last ten years of cultivating relationships paid huge dividends as clients returned to the office to add cars to the Run List. Damaged or not, the number grew. We added all we could to Sunday, and then extended the auction to Monday for the remaining 100 cars. It was very emotional for me to witness the brilliant showcase of spirit and tenacity as the Russo and Steele team, many of whom are volunteers, orchestrated one of the greatest comeback stories of our hobby. The response from our clients was equally amazing. In stunning examples of generosity, several clients donated 100% of the proceeds from the sale of their damaged cars to their selected charities, the Boys and Girls Clubs, Big Brothers–Big Sisters, and the Scottsdale Firefighters Fund. These stories are but a few of the extraordinary responses to what was a devastating situation. Our many clients who elected to remain in the auction, and the countless contractors, staff, volunteers, and family, all banded together to overcome the worst adversity ever faced by any auction company. I wish it hadn't happened, and I hope it never happens again, but I will always be proud of the tenacity and the loyal support of the many relationships forged by Russo and Steele over the past ten years. It is those relationships that make me look forward to the next ten years and beyond. Sports Car Market
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Event Cavallino Classic Palm Beach Cavallino Classic XIX The sound of 12-cylinder engines and the smell of oil and burned rubber delighted race fans, as old and new Ferraris were driven as they were intended by Yvo Alexander World's most expensive used car lot T his was my first visit to the Palm Beach Cavallino Classic, founded 19 years ago by John and Alicia Barnes, the driving forces behind the event as well as Cavallino magazine. With 400 Ferraris and their owners attending from all over the world, Cavallino 2010 was a six-day convention for Ferrari owners and classic car lovers alike, running from January 19 to 24 in Palm Beach, Florida. The two major events of the convention were track days at the new Palm Beach International Raceway (formerly Moroso Motorsports Park) and the highlight of the week—the Concorso d'Eleganza on the front lawn of the Breakers Resort Hotel. During the track days, drivers and their Italian machines raced on the historic and attractive circuit. In fairly nice weather, the wonderful sound of 12-cylinder engines and the smell of oil and burned rubber were a delight to all race fans present. Both old and new Ferraris enjoyed track time, and the cars were used for the very reason they were conceived. Significant racers such as a 1956 Ferrari 250 GT Tour de France, a 750 Monza, a 250 TR, several 250 SWB Competitions, a few 512 BB/LMs, an F40 LM, and many more classic Ferraris were put through their paces on the track. Many modern U.S.-based teams were also present, with racers like the 360 Challenge F1, the Challenge Stradale, and the more recent F430 Spider F1. Among the modern purpose-built race cars were a few rare but excellent 333 SPs while Preston Henn's highly impressive yellow Ferrari FXX blurred the line between corsa and stradale. The Concorso d'Eleganza was the pièce de résistance of the Cavallino Classic. Luckily the weather was absolutely delightful, perfect for the well-cared-for lawns of the Breakers. Cavallino is rightly regarded as one of the world's must-attend concours, especially for fans of the Prancing Horse. The atmosphere is relaxed, and people can walk around the impressive lawns of the Breakers gazing at the 150 immaculate Ferraris being examined and rated by the near-fanatical teams of concours judges. The Ferraris were divided into eleven different Details classes, based on age or tipo. A Silver Award required a minimum of 85 points, Gold Awards took 90 points, and the Platinum Award required 95 points. Platinum cars were considered for the Major 32 Plan ahead: January XX, 2011 Where: Palm Beach, FL Cost: Varies by event More: www.cavallino.com And this one here's your oil pressure... Sports Car Market Awards. These included Best of Show Competition Ferrari, which was given to the 1957 Ferrari 250 GT LWB TdF belonging to SCMers Joseph Barone and Vanessa Wong; and Best of Show GT, which went to the 1951 Ferrari 212 Export Vignale berlinetta owned by Brian Ross, another SCMer. The Cavallino Classic is a splendid event, but as a European, I had one caveat. I was amazed at the level of over-restoration of most Ferraris on display. Why restore a car that's more than 40 years old to a condition it never enjoyed when it left the factory in Maranello? In my opinion, cars should be allowed to grow old gracefully and show off their original personality. But that's part of the difference between the way Americans and Europeans view their collectible cars, and each approach has its fans. In terms of a sumptuous visual Ferrari feast, Cavallino is simply the best. ♦ Photos: Ara Gechijian
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Events SCM Tours Corvettes at Barrett-Jackson As a ferocious winter storm pounded Arizona, more than 300 Corvette enthusiasts packed into a 60-foot tent at Barrett-Jackson's WestWorld auction site in Scottsdale on Thursday, January 21, for the 3rd Annual Corvette Market Insider's Seminar. Emceed by publisher Keith Martin, the seminar featured lively discussions between the expert panelists, an extensive Powerpoint program, and questions from the audience. B-J President Steve Davis welcomed the over- flowing crowd and applauded the approach to Corvette provenance pioneered by Bloomington Gold and the National Corvette Restorers Society. The panel included the world's foremost Corvette Backstage at the Arizona auctions The subtitle of the magazine you're reading is “The Insider's Guide to Collecting, Investing, Values. and Trends,” and we here at SCM take that very seriously. Well, “seriously” is probably a strong word to use when it comes to us here, but nevertheless, it's what sets SCM apart from the rest of the pack. At the recent Arizona sales, we had a chance to give a fortunate group of SCM Platinum subscribers just that kind of insider's look at two of the most important desert auction venues. Both groups of 35 attendees walked the preview area of the sales with me at RM Auctions at the Arizona Biltmore and Gooding & Company at the Scottsdale Fashion Square. At the Biltmore we were joined by RM Auctions President Ian Kelleher and Specialist Don Rose, and in Scottsdale David Gooding, the eponymous founder of Gooding & Company, did the honors. During the tours, the SCMers were able to ask the people in charge why they chose certain cars for their sales, whether the catalog estimates refer to hammer or to the final price with commissions, how they manage to find cars to sell, and how “no reserve” vs. “reserve” decisions are made. Equally revealing was hearing Kelleher, Rose, and Gooding wax poetic not only about their star lots, but on some of the other lesser known, even quirky entries, such as the Orlebar Schneider LeMans Special at Gooding and the 1955 Astra coupe at RM. The SCM group was able to get past the catalog prose to what made cars such as these connect with the RM and Gooding staff, and it provided a deeper sense of why these cars should find their way into our garages. It was all part of a real insider's view—no scripts, no PR handlers—just one-on-one contact as only SCM can make it happen.—Donald Osborne For information about how to become a Platinum-level member of SCM, and to get invitations to exclusive events and all-access to the SCM database of over 100,000 collector car sales for just $99 a year, go to www.sportscarmarket.com. SCM Guides VIPs at Barrett-Jackson SCM kicked off its week in Scottsdale on January 19, when Publisher Martin and Editors Duchene, Lombard, and Pickering converged on Barrett-Jackson for a meet-and-greet with SCMer Dave Conlan, H-P regional sales manager, software division, and his friends in the Hewlett-Packard skybox. Auction Analysts B. Mitchell Carlson and Dan Grunwald joined us, and along with 30 VIP customers of H-P, we set off on a tour of some Barrett-Jackson highlights. Several of us spent a fair amount of time taking in the heavy-duty oddity of the 1952 Blastolene roadster and trying to predict its sale price. No one guessed $280,500. Mostly we just cruised the premium consignments and talked cars, which made it a perfect night for all the assembled gearheads and wannabe gearheads. Highlight of this particular night, however, was a trip up on the block. The whole group got into the action as a custom motorcycle consigned by racing legend Arie Luyendyk sold for $16,500. All of us at SCM enjoy the opportunities we get to spend time with subscribers, friends, and anyone else who'll listen to us, and we're already looking forward to the next opportunity to hang out with gearheads like you. And thanks to Conlan for adding SCM to the H-P agenda at Barrett-Jackson .—Stefan Lombard 34 Sports Car Market experts, and was divided into two hour-long sections. The first discussed when to preserve a car and when to restore it, and each panelist gave examples of difficult decisions. The second half was devoted to which Corvettes to buy, hold, or sell. Each panelist presented his recommendations and reasons, and then all seven chose their Corvette “Holy Grail”— the car they'd probably sell all their other cars to get. The Experts Panel included David Burroughs, the CEO of Bloomington Gold, the oldest and largest annual Corvette show; Roy Sinor, who has been the president of the NCRS national judges since 1996; Jim Jordan of County Corvette, one of the largest Corvette dealers; Kevin Mackay of Corvette Repair, a leader in NCRS- and Gold-standard restoration; Terry Michaelis of ProTeam Corvette, who has bought and sold 10,000 Corvettes in the past 37 years; Michael Pierce, #30 of over 4,000 NCRS judges nationwide; and Mike Yager, who has been involved with Corvettes since he founded MidAmerica Motorworks in 1974. Given that Barrett-Jackson sold 114 Corvettes, the relationship between B-J and Corvette Market is a natural one. The dramatically increased attendance at the CM Seminar is an indication of the increased interest in the high-end collectible Corvette market.—Paul Duchene
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Collecting Thoughts Dillinger's Model A When the Restorer is Public Enemy #1 The ill-considered restoration of the “Dillinger” Ford effectively scrubbed its history clean. It has no soul and no visible historical significance By Paul Duchene and businesses with steely resolve. Which sounds familiar, come to think of it. Dillinger's criminal career began with a robbery in 1924, which netted him eight years, but he didn't really get started until his parole in 1933. His crime spree lasted almost a year, in which time he amassed over $300,000 from about a dozen banks. That led to his being named Public Enemy No. 1 and the eventual formation of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, led by J. Edgar Hoover. The Dillinger gang fled to Florida, Texas, and Arizona, where they were captured and brought back to Indiana and jailed... but not for long. Dillinger escaped, reconnected with gang members Homer Van Meter and “Red” Hamilton and met “Baby Face” Nelson at the Little Bohemia Lodge, in Manitowish Waters, Wisconsin, on April 23, 1934. But the FBI had been tipped off and surrounded the place, led by Melvin Purvis. A gun battle broke out but the entire gang escaped. And here's where the Ford Model A What, no bullet holes? A s the newspaper editor says in the 1964 James Stewart western “The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance,” “This is the West. When the legend becomes fact, print the legend.” Certainly the two can become tangled over the de- cades, and artifacts involved in legendary crimes and escapades take on a life of their own. For example, the Bonnie and Clyde 1934 Ford Death Car (which still exists, by the way) toured county fairs in the 1940s and '50s, and again after the 1967 film of the same name, starring Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway, and was a huge hit. On a parallel course at other fairs were a number of fakes, copied from original shootout photographs by unscrupulous promoters, and doubtless the fakey-doo hulks still lurk in remote barns and garages. A similar and much rarer car (there's only one) just surfaced at Barrett-Jackson's Scottsdale auction in January and sold for a remarkable $165k. Its provenance is solid, but its path to the present is strange, and its restoration shows how the collectible car world has changed in the past few years. It's hard to imagine anybody repeating the process today. John Dillinger was famous at the same time as Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow, for the same reasons. He robbed banks across the central U.S. during the Great Depression, when banks were held in much lower esteem than the robbers, as they foreclosed on homes 36 coupe enters the picture. Dillinger, Van Meter, and Hamilton ran through the woods until they saw a cottage with a Model T outside. They asked to take it, but the old couple said it didn't run. Dillinger saw the Model A coupe next door belonging to Robert Johnson and the three men commandeered it. The next day the three robbers got into a gun battle with police in Hastings, Michigan, and Hamilton was mortally wounded. After several other shootouts in the next month, Dillinger went to ground in Chicago, where he would hide until betrayed by Anna Sage—the “Lady in Red”—a madam who was trying to avoid deportation. During this time, police had found Dillinger's stolen Model A in a side street, with numerous bullet holes and a bloodied interior. John Dillinger was killed on July 22, 1934, by G-Man Purvis outside Chicago's Biograph Theater, where “Manhattan Melodrama”—a gangster movie—was playing. The Model A Ford was eventually returned to Robert Johnson, who was reportedly so discouraged by its condition and connections that he pushed it to the back of the barn, where it sat for more than 50 years. At that point it was rescued and treated to a full restoration, photographed in detail, then repainted with the bullet holes filled in and the interior reupholstered. In its restored condition, the car starred in Michael Mann's 2009 movie “Public Enemies,” the most recent account of the Dillinger story, starring Johnny Depp as Dillinger and Christian Bale as Purvis. So here we have a Grade A historical artifact restored to a #3 condition driver with recent Hollywood history. At auction, it was surrounded by posters, in a tableau with armed manikins. And it sold for $165k, which is probably five times what it would have brought with no history. So far, so good. But the problem is the ill-considered restoration, which effectively scrubbed its his- tory clean. It has no soul and precious little visible historical significance. Who knows what it would have brought in its original “as found” condition? My guess is probably five times the $165k that was paid. That's something for restorers to ponder, along with anyone else who is contemplating vandalizing an archeological site. ♦ Sports Car Market
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Ferrari Profile 2001 Ferrari 550 Barchetta It's an incredible fair weather driver, with great acceleration, excellent handling, and none of the cowl shake inherent in many convertibles by Steve Ahlgrim Details Years produced: 2001 Number produced: 448 Original list price: $258,000 SCM Valuation: $180,000–$225,000 Tune-up cost: $6,500 Distributor cap: n/a Chassis #: Frame rail, passenger's side of engine compartment Engine #: Passenger's side where head meets block Club: Ferrari Club of America PO Box 720597 Atlanta, GA 30358 More: www.ferrariclubofamerica.org; www.ferrarichat.com Alternatives: 2010 Ferrari California; 1999 Lamborghini Diablo VT roadster; 1993 Aston Martin Virage Volante SCM Investment Grade: C Chassis number: ZFFZR52B000124293 celebrate Pininfarina's 70th anniversary and its long relationship with the marque. The renowned coachbuilder styled the car as a truly special Ferrari. A more stimulating and less rational car, it was exclusively intended for open-top motoring. The 550 Barchettas were powered by the same alloy, D 48-valve, four-cam engine as fitted to the berlinetta that could take the open car to a top speed of 185 mph. When introduced, the limited production was immediately sold to an elite group of Ferrari's most loyal customers. Since the Barchetta, there has not been another open-top V12 roadster, ensuring the car of a special status among Ferrari road cars. Presented here is a most exciting opportunity to acquire the 315th of only 448 550 Barchettas ever built. Finished in Rosso Corsa over a tan leather interior and fitted with the classic Scuderia shields, this open 550 looks the part of a limited-edition modern Ferrari and has the performance to match. This Barchetta was sold in Monaco in May 2002 and subsequently imported into the U.S. that September. Shortly thereafter, the striking Ferrari made its U.S. concours debut at the prestigious Cavallino Concours held at the Breakers Hotel in Palm Beach. As of 2003, the Barchetta had accumulated less than 200 miles and had relocated from Florida to the Chicago area. The 550 Barchetta is prized for its rarity, excellent condition, and distinctive design, and, in the care of its most recent owner, this Ferrari has seen little if any use. As a result, at the time of cataloging, this Ferrari V12 had yet to cover 1,000 miles from new. 38 isplayed for the first time at the 2000 Paris Motor Show, Ferrari's new 550 Barchetta followed in a long line of exclusive, open-top, front-engine V12s. The Barchetta was built to As its minimal mileage indicates, this Ferrari remains essentially in as-new condition. It displays excellent paintwork, a clean, largely unmarked interior, and tidy compartments. No mechanical work has been required; however, should its new owner wish to enjoy the 550's dynamic qualities, a service and inspection are encouraged. Many Ferrari enthusiasts are of the opinion that the 550 Maranello will be a true collector's piece in the years to come. The more exclusive version—the exciting Barchetta—will certainly lead the way for these wonderful Ferraris. Open-top, front-engine V12 Ferraris are among the most collectible post-war sports cars in today's market, so it would be entirely fitting for a Ferrari collector to have an outstanding example of the 550 Barchetta sitting alongside a 250 California, 275 GTS/4, and Daytona Spyder SCM Analysis This car sold for $156,750, including buyer's premium, at Gooding's Scottsdale Auction in Scottsdale, Arizona, on January 22, 2010. Ferrari propaganda announced the 550 Barchetta as a car to mark Pininfarina's 70th anniversary. Luca di Montezemolo, president of Ferrari, said, “I asked Sergio Pininfarina to present a design for a front-engined 12-cylinder Ferrari roadster that would capture the spirit of the classic road races of the past and cars such as the 166 MM, 250 GT California and 365 GTS/4 Daytona.” This lofty charge was answered with a choptop 550 Maranello. The Barchetta may be an impressive car, but it is hardly a California Spyder. The 550 Barchetta, or more correctly, the 550 Barchetta Pininfarina, was introduced with great fanfare. A carefully qualified group of potential customers Comps 2001 Ferrari F550 Barchetta Lot 205, s/n ZFFZR52B000124254 Condition 1 Sold at $173,938 RM, Maranello, ITA, 5/17/2009 SCM# 120492 2001 Ferrari F550 Barchetta Lot 160284613136, s/n ZFFZR52A610124163 Condition 1 Sold at $218,500 eBay Motors, 2/19/2009 SCM# 119748 2001 Ferrari F550 Barchetta Lot 213, s/n ZFFZR52B000124287 Condition 1 Sold at $186,300 Bonhams, Gstaad, CHE, 12/17/2006 SCM# 43812 Sports Car Market Photos by Pawel Litwinski © 2009 Courtesy of Gooding & Company
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was invited to a private party at the estate of di Montezemolo in Italy for the introduction of this new limitedproduction model. There was little disguise to the script and both sides knew the pitch; this was an insider's opportunity to get in on the Daytona Spyder of the future. The hype was high but the risk was low—the Barchetta could be a hit or it could end up as just another Ferrari. Either way, owning one was not a bad prospect. After viewing the car, the customers were allowed to place orders. As expected, the edition sold out immediately and only history will decide if the car was a smart investment or a just a fun purchase. Practicality be damned The name Barchetta is a bit of a misnomer for the car. A common interpretation of barchetta is “little boat,” and while the name may have fit the small, sparse 1950s-era barchettas, the 550 version was neither small nor sparse. The 550 Barchetta was, for all practical purposes, a convertible version of a 550 Maranello. It has the obligatory stiffened chassis and a sportier interior with leather-wrapped carbon fiber racing seats, carbon fiber trim, and some roll hoops. It also had some three-piece wheels that look overly sporty on the car and the ugliest top known to man. The top was both challenging to erect and offered only marginal rain protection. Ferrari's later Superamerica version of the 575M Maranello is a much more practical solution to the open top question, but then practicality was not the rationale behind the Barchetta. Despite my skepticism of Ferrari's motivation in building the car, the Barchetta is one cool ride. The open top adds zing to the 550's rather understated lines. The soft top may be a joke but a person who buys a Barchetta isn't buying it as a daily driver. It's an incredible fair-weather driver, with great acceleration, excellent handling and none of the cowl shake inherent in many convertibles. Even if history doesn't reward the 550 Barchetta the same status as it has the original 166 barchetta, the California spyder, or the Daytona spyder, it is still a significant car. Owners are rewarded with every sunny day ride, and it's only the owner who never uses his car that may regret his purchase. Result due to its gray-market history As an investment, a bet on a Barchetta has not paid out, but buyers, on the other hand, can hardly be called losers. Disregarding taxes and options, buyers put around $260,000 on their new toys. Nine years later, the market is just under $200,000 and seems to be holding. A $60k to $75k hit is a big number, but percentage-wise the Barchetta has fared better than most of its contemporaries. It may be the individually numbered plaque carrying Sergio Pininfarina's signature, rather than the car's virtue that determines the Barchetta's future, but I don't see it as a bad choice for a spot in the garage. The subject Barchetta's unusually low result can be attributed to it being a gray-market car. There's seldom a day when an as-new, well documented, American-market Barchetta can't be found for sale. Buyers are choosy and any kind of story will disqualify a car unless it is bargain priced. That's what happened here. Once the key is turned, this gray-market car is the equal of its American counterparts. While it will always have a lesser value, it still drives the same. The new owner bought in low so putting some miles on the car won't hurt him a lot. Hopefully he figures out he'll get more enjoyment from sunny day drives than any money he'll get by keeping the mileage low. ♦ (Introductory description courtesy of Gooding & Company.) April 2010 39
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Sheehan Speaks Michael Sheehan 250 GTO Sets Ferrari Record at $26m GTO, Corvette Grand Sport and Daytona Coupe all change hands and collectors at events like the Scottsdale A fter the doom- and-gloom of late 2008 and a painful 2009, dealers auctions, Cavallino, and Rétromobile in Paris are abuzz with the news of record-setting, toplevel trades. There's a lot of very specific info contained in this column, and you might wonder where it all comes from. In fact, I have been trading in the Ferrari market since 1974, and have been “trainspotting,” i.e. collecting chassis numbers and histories, all that time. In addition, all of us Ferrari chassis-number-chasers talk to each other (or, in to- day's world, email) constantly. Plus, web sites like anamera.com and barchetta.cc have up-to-the-minute postings about expensive collector cars that have sold. Of course, it's SCM's policy not to reveal the names of the participants in private transactions, unless they have already been identified in the press. So buckle your seat belt, and hang on. It's been a great ride for exotics the past few months. The market has launched In the last few months, over a dozen ultra-high-end Ferraris have changed hands. Two examples from the 1950s include the ex-Lorenzo Zambrano 166 MM Touring barchetta, s/n 0058M, and the ex-Manny Del Arroz 375 MM, s/n 0490AM, both trading in the $5m range. Both cars were stellar: s/n 058M is one of the most original barchettas in existence, while s/n 0490AM was an amazing barn find. When restored, it became one of few Ferraris to win its class with 100 points at Pebble Beach. All these were no-stories cars with bulletproof history Jumping to the 1960s, 250 GTO s/n 3943 has just sold for a Ferrari world record price of $26m; Ferrari 275 GTB/C s/n 9057 was sold after Rétromobile for $3.475m and 275 GTS/4 NART spyder s/n 11057 sold for $7m. Again, these were “no-stories” cars, with the GTO described by Ferrari historians as “bulletproof” in its race and ownership history; 275 GTB/C s/n 9057 was one of only twelve very light third series 275 GTB/Cs built; while all ten 275 GTB/4 NART spyders have “no-stories” histories. From the 1970s, Ferrari 512 M s/n 1030 sold for $2.9m, while 365 GTB/4C Daytona s/n 14437 sold for $3.5m. Both were excellent examples, with the 512 M described in Ferrari historian circles as “never crashed, no stories, with a well-documented race history,” while the Daytona is one of only five first series alloy-bodied Competition Daytonas. The ultimate car deal Looking further into the sale of 250 GTO s/n 3943, I believe this will be regarded as the best “car deal” of the year, if not the decade. Major collections were expected to come to market at distress prices in 2008–09, but only the Kroymans Collection did. A veteran mega-car dealer in the San Francisco area sold his 250 GTO to buy the Kroymans Collection for $23.6m—in essence he sold his bulletproof-history 250 GTO for a full market price of $26m to purchase a lesser 250 GTO, s/n 4757, for a deeply discounted number in the $15m–$17m range, plus 21 other collectible Ferraris from the Kroymans Collection for a distressed price of about $6.6m. 250 GTO s/n 3943, the best of the best The best long-term buy of all time? This author sold 166 MM s/n 0058M in November 1998 for a far more modest $1.2m, so the latest sale as mentioned above at $5m represents a serious long-term market improvement. Going longer term, the seller of 250 GTO s/n 3943 bought it in 1983 for $300k, so the sale of that car for $26m must be the best long-term buy of all time. This author knows 512 M s/n 1030 well, having sold it in April 1994 for $825,000, so the recent sale for $2.9m represents yet another long-term hold and great gain. As for the 275 GTB/4 NART spyder, in January 1998, s/n 11057 sold to the recent owner/seller for $1.5m, so his recent $7m sale represents another strong longterm gain. Using the few 275 GTB/4 NART spyders as ex- amples of appreciation indicators, we begin with the purchase of s/n 11057 for $1.5m in January 1998. Months later, in August 1998, John Moores's 275 GTB/4 NART, s/n 10691, sold at Christie's Pebble Beach auction to a Seattle collector for $2,092,500. There were no other sales until August 2005, when 275 GTB/4 NART s/n 9437 sold at Gooding Pebble Beach for $3,960,000. The latest sale of s/n 11057 at $7m has now redefined the ever-upward 275 GT/4 NART market, and the next sale will almost certainly be for more. As a car guy, I have to say that the best-of-the-best Ferraris beat the hell out of stocks, bonds, or real estate. Aston DB3S and Jaguar D-type set records Moving to the best-of-the-best British cars, Aston Martin DB3S Works team car s/n DB3S8 has traded hands at $7.2m, while Jaguar D-type Works team car s/n XKD603 has traded for close to $10m—both record prices. But again, look at the provenance. DB3S8 was a 40 Sports Car Market
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Works car, finishing 1st at Spa with Paul Frere driving, followed by runs at Le Mans, Sebring, Nürburgring, and Silverstone. Meanwhile, XKD603 was another Works car, with a 2nd at Le Mans in 1957 and races at Silverstone, Nürburgring, Reims, and more. To bring more tears to the eyes of those who wish they had bought classics many years ago, XKD603 was purchased by the recent seller in 1976 for a mere $14,400, yet another great long-term investment. Cobra Daytona, GT40, and Corvette Grand Sport join the party In the world of the best American iron, Shelby Cobra Daytona s/n CSX2601 has been sold to a collector in Argentina for $8m, GT40 s/n 1046 was sold for $9.2m, and Chevrolet Corvette Grand Sport s/n 002 was sold for $4.5m. The Cobra Daytona was the FIA Championship-winning car, finishing 2nd at Sebring and 1st at Monza, at Spa, at Nürburgring, and at Reims. GT40 s/n 1046 has the distinction of being the 1966 Le Mans winner, while Grand Sport s/n 002 is one of only two Grand Sport roadsters built, finishing 1st in class at Sebring in 1966. All these big sales were private treaty All of this represents a sea-change in pricing across the top end world of collector cars, from Ferraris to Astons to Jags to American iron. What is interesting is that every sale was a quiet private transaction. There is no lack of buyers at this level, most value their privacy, and very few owner-sellers are willing to take this level of exotica to auction and risk a low bid in front of the wrong audience that would diminish the value of their car. However, mere mortals can take comfort in upward movement in the low- to midlevel Ferrari market as well. In Scottsdale, 330 GTC s/n 11517 sold for a very impres- sive $374k at Gooding, and 250 PF Cab s/n 1803 sold for an equally impressive $797k at Russo and Steele. I believe we'll continue to see both auction sales and private sales grow steadily this year. There's new-found confidence in the collector car market, and buyers are speaking loudly with their wallets and wire transfers. Ferrari Historic Challenge bites the dust On a more somber note, on January 22, Antonello Coletta, the head of Ferrari Corse Clienti, announced the suspension of the Shell Ferrari Historic Challenge in Europe after 14 years. While a single event will be organized for historic Ferraris at the World Finals, the European Ferrari Historic Challenge is effectively dead. The North American Ferrari Historic Challenge opened as usual at the Cavallino Classic, but Ferrari North America has not scheduled any further events. Though there is no lack of vintage races, from the Mille Miglia Storica and Monterey Historics to the Le Mans Classic and Tour Auto, the Shell Ferrari Challenge was special, bringing out diehard Ferrari fans who will now surely miss it. And without question, the demise will seriously impact the value of the 430 Challenge cars that were already a hard sell, as now they have no exclusive parties at which to play. ♦ April 2010 41
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English Profile 1931 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Merlin Special I fired her up on the lawn, and to my surprise the most enthusiastic onlooker was an unfortunate chap whose entire picnic I had blown away by Simon Kidston Details Years produced: 1931 (modified in 1987) Number produced: 1 Original list price: n/a SCM Valuation: $451,000 on this day Tune-up cost: n/a Distributor caps: n/a (magneto) Chassis #: Plate on firewall Engine #: Engine block on left side Club: Rolls-Royce Owners' Club 191 Hempt Road Mechanicsburg, PA 17055 Experimental Aircraft Association EAA Aviation Center, PO Box 3086 Oshkosh, WI 54903-3086 More: www.rroc.org; www.eaa.org Alternatives: Any proper motor car with 20 more liters than necessary SCM Investment Grade: B Comps Chassis number: 64GX C hassis 64GX left Crewe as a standard Phantom II saloon, but in the late 1970s, Rolls-Royce collector Nicholas Harley of London decided to create a showcase of British engineering might. The restoration that ensued spanned approximately seven years, during which time the Phantom II frame was lengthened, reinforced and fitted with this lovely Gurney Nutting-inspired body constructed by Wilkinson's of Derby, and a 27-liter Mk I Merlin V12 engine was fitted, fed by two fuel pumps delivering 100 gallons per hour. Upon completion, the aero-powered Phantom II was tested at Donington Park, where is was pitted against a 1958 Vanwall Grand Prix car—amazingly, the RollsRoyce out-accelerated the racing car. In the 1990s, the Rolls-Royce made its way Stateside and, in 2000, it was sold to a well-known Florida collector. In 2007, this car was acquired by its current owner, who has since embarked upon a mechanical overhaul. When the car was first constructed, the tremendous torque and power caused transmission and clutch issues, so during the mechanical overhaul, the transmission was converted to a Jaguar unit with high-strength gears. In addition, the Merlin engine was tested and tuned. In 2008, following its meticulous rebuild, the Rolls-Royce was invited to the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, where it was displayed alongside a number of 20-plus-liter automobiles, earning the Rolls-Royce a class award. The Merlin remains in exceptional condition. Beyond its remarkable engine bay, one of the most evocative aspects of this car is its overwhelming instrument panel, which would not look out of place in a Spitfire airplane. 42 Unlike other examples of aero-engined automobiles, this Rolls-Royce stands apart in its impressive presentation and loyalty to original details. This Merlin-powered Phantom II is ready to draw crowds wherever it goes, and its new owner should be capable of experiencing the unbelievable feeling of piloting a WWII-era fighter plane down the road. SCM Analysis This car sold for $451,000, including buyer's premium, at Gooding's Scottsdale Auction in Scottsdale, Arizona, on January 22, 2010. With its Spitfire motor and a host of auction ap- pearances under its belt, it's tempting to call this car a frequent flier. Christie's sold it at Beaulieu back in July 1969 for $13,956 as a normal saloon (SCM #7326). RM sold it post-Merlin transplant at Monterey in '99 for $605,000 (SCM# 22226) and again in Florida at its Al Wiseman Collection auction in 2007, this time for $412,500 (SCM# 47743). Young oligarchs and sheikhs cruising the boulevards of Moscow and Dubai in their bling'd-up Veyrons may think they have a monopoly on 1,000 horsepower, but younger kids in a rather more demanding profession—RAF pilots—took it for granted 70 years ago. Often they were piloting one of history's great fighter aircraft, no fewer than 27 liters of Rolls-Royce Merlin engine stretching out past the gunsight in front of them and anything up to 2,000 horsepower at their bidding. England, home of the eccentric In fact, the Merlin didn't just power Spitfires, Hurricanes, and Lancaster bombers, it saw service in Sports Car Market 1927 Rolls-Royce P1/Hispano-Suiza V8 Lot 449, s/n S90PM Condition 2+ Sold at $133,500 Bonhams, Brookline, MA, 9/26/2009 SCM# 142643 1939 Lagonda Rapide V12 Tulipwood Lot 584, s/n 14095 Condition 1Sold at $451,000 RM, Monterey, CA, 8/17/2007 SCM# 46259 1934 Duesenberg SJ Boattail rebody Lot 2251, s/n 2159 Condition 2 Sold at $660,000 RM, Marshall, TX, 4/20/2007 SCM# 44873 Photos by Pawel Litwinski © 2009 Courtesy of Gooding & Company
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MTBs (motor torpedo boats) and tanks. So successful was the Merlin that 149,659 units were built, some 37,000 under license by Packard in the U.S. Lord Tedder, Marshal of the RAF and the man charged with development of aircraft during the Battle of Britain, attributed victory to “three predominant factors: the skill and bravery of the pilots, 100-octane fuel and the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine.” It's debatable, however, whether even the most inventive boffin would have thought of a Merlin as suitable power for a motor car. Thankfully, England is the home of the eccentric (“Mad Dogs and Englishmen,” as Noel Coward noted), and one man did. The catalog credits veteran English dealer Nick Harley—the man who bid $10 million for the Bugatti Royale at auction in 1987 and now enjoys life in his fortress-like retreat on the Côte d'Azur—with the creation of this “special-totrump-all-specials.” However, a quick call to Harley reveals there's more to the story. “In the early 1980s, I used to do business with the late Stephen Langton, sadly killed racing at Brands Hatch. Stephen was a quick driver of the ‘keep the foot firmly on the loud pedal and sort out the rest with the steering wheel' method. In fact, that's pretty well how he lived his life. On one visit, I was particularly smitten by a tow car he was building to trail his Lister to meetings. This device consisted of a Rolls Phantom II Continental chassis stripped and fitted with a Merlin aero engine at one end and a ball hitch at the other. The bits in between he was sorting out as he went along, Langton style. The ball hitch was clearly part of a farm gate. Alas, it was not to be, and in 1987 I phoned Stephen's widow Liz and bought the project.” It would take an hour to list the engineering solutions It took eight years and involved re-designing almost everything. “It would take an hour to list the engineering solutions,” Harley recalls, “but we did everything to Rolls-Royce standards and no detail was overlooked.” The chassis didn't need lengthening and the Merlin engine, he says, was a 1938-vintage Mk 3, not the less reliable Mk 1 as cataloged. “Ferrari restorer Terry Hoyle had an old boy working for him who'd served in the aero department at Rolls, and he rebuilt the engine. We tested it on Terry's dyno and it peaked at 1,200 hp with 1,350 ft-lb torque at 2,800 rpm. Terry still complains about his broken dyno.” “When we first fired the engine up in the car, we'd put the plug leads on the wrong way. The resulting explosion blew the exhaust system straight out the garage doors.” Plug leads re-ordered and much perseverance later, the aero-engined behemoth was developed into a car which actually worked. Harley took it on various tours before completing a road trip from New England to Amelia Island. At three miles per gallon (the trunk conceals a 55-gallon fuel tank), America and the Middle East are probably the only places someone could afford to run it. “At the concours, by popular request, I fired her up on the lawn to a huge round of applause. To my surprise the most enthusiastic onlooker was an unfortunate chap whose entire picnic I had blown away with the initial exhaust blast.” So was it a good deal at $451k? The concept of “specials” as we Brits call them is not dissimilar to the U.S. hot rodding tradition, and both are now accepted in collecting circles—as proven by this car's invitation to Pebble Beach. Usability is increasingly important in determining the appeal of a classic car, but again, while the Spitfire start-up routine might intimidate the novice collector (prime Ki-Gas on dash; petrol into manifold; hand-crank dash mag; expect a cloud of black smoke as it fires), it has at least shown it can be driven. Harley reports lapping Milbrook consistently at 120 mph, and the Vanwall story is true, by the way… The seller, a prominent Texas collection, was making room for recent acquisi- tions—their new Porsche 550 Spyder would probably fit under the hood of the RollsRoyce. The buyer, a young collector with a passion for cars and aircraft, had looked at it before and this time took the plunge. David Gooding told me this was the nicest aero-engined car he'd seen, and even though the price was 14% more than the car sold for at Tarpon Springs in 2007, I'd call it well bought. ♦ (Introductory description courtesy of Gooding & Company.) April 2010 Jay Leno Takes Off Aircraft-engined cars are rare, but one person who knows a bit about them is SCMer and NBC TV personality Jay Leno. He owns a Hispano V8 aircraft-powered 1918 Hispano-Suiza and a Rolls-Royce Phantom II that packs a 27-liter Merlin V12 Spitfire engine. When I asked him about the Merlin-powered machine, Leno lit up like Mr. Toad in “The Wind in the Willows.” “It's so stupid,” he exclaimed (with Leno, “stupid” is often a compliment). “It's got 1,806 foot-pounds of torque. That's real power.” Everything on Leno's Rolls is massive. The stainless steel fuel tank holds five gallons of oil and fifty gallons of gasoline. What's his fascination with aero-inspired cars? “It's the ultimate,” he says with glee. “After every big war, you could go down to the junkyard, pick up a surplus airplane engine, and go for the World Land Speed Record.” The starting drill would baffle a thief. You retard the ignition and crank an electric motor that pre-oils the engine. Then you switch on the fuel. Leno rapidly turns a handle on the dash. “This hand-operated magneto throws a shower of sparks into the combustion chamber,” says Leno. “First you switch on mag 1, then mag 2, now give it a shower of sparks. And now you're ready to spin the motor.” The Merlin begins to fire intermittently. “Both mags on, a little spark... and heeere we go.” There's a long rrrrhhhhh, followed by a bass whuffling noise, and the mighty Merlin bellows to life. It sounds like an old airplane. I shout out this observation and Leno hoots, “It is an old airplane!” We accelerate onto Interstate 5 with a rush. This is an astonish- ingly quick car. It's barely idling at 400 rpm in 60-mph traffic. There's an opening and Leno floors it in second gear. The wind whips our faces. “It's like having your house accelerate,” he shouts. I'm hooked. I ask where I could find one. “You don't ever see them advertised,” he explains. “All the good stuff is hidden away. You write to guys, and when they die, you hear from the widows. My wife is getting letters already. ‘If anything happens to Jay, I'd love to have that...'” “Some of these aircraft-powered cars aren't built very well,” Leno notes. “And they need to be well-sorted. A lot of times, when guys buy them, they can't handle their complexity and huge expense, and they're back on the market within a year.”—Ken Gross 43
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Etceterini & Friends Profile 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 Roadster It assumes a degree of historic gravitas, relevance, and romance that makes a “silicone-enhanced” Best in Show winner at Pebble historically weightless by Miles Collier Details Years produced: 1914–26 Number produced: 2,000 approx. Original list price: $1,607 (23,500FF) in 1925 SCM Valuation: $150,000–$400,000 Tune-up cost: n/a Distributor cap: n/a (magnetos) Chassis #: Right front engine bearer Engine #: Top of cam cover Club: Bugatti Owners' Club Prescott Hill, Gottherington, Cheltenham Gloucestershire, GL52 9RD More: www.bugatti.co.uk Alternatives: Any Lancia Aurelia from the Andrea Doria; the 35 hp Renault rumored to be in the Titanic's hold; any military vehicle from the Japanese fleet at the bottom of Truk lagoon. SCM Investment Grade: A Comps Chassis number: 2461 Engine number: 879 T his car has become one of the most celebrated of all Bugattis, having lain submerged beneath the waters of Lake Maggiore in Switzerland for more than 70 years. Its whereabouts had been known to the local dive club for years, but in February 2008 a tragedy occurred which led to its retrieval. Club member Damiano Tamagni was mugged and beaten so severely that he died. The club decided to raise the car and use the funds from its sale for a charity in Tamagni's name to address the issue of juvenile violence. But how did the Bugatti come to be in Lake Maggiore in the first place? Subsequent research has uncovered much of its history. On April 11, 1925, chassis number 2461 was registered in Nancy, France, in the name of Georges Paiva, with the number 8843N5. A small brass plate found on the car after its removal bears the name Georges Nielly, 48 Rue Nollet, Paris, but the registration plate is only partly legible, the last digits being RE 1. This registration was issued in Paris between May and June 1930, so perhaps Georges Nielly bought the car earlier in Nancy and had it registered in Paris. The French plates have remained on the car since then. The Bugatti chassis plate is missing, as is the enamel radiator badge, but the relevant chassis number is on the round boss on the right front engine bearer. The engine number 879 is on top of the cam box, the gearbox bears the number 964, the radiator is by Chausson and the carburetor is a Zenith, which is correct. The SEV magnetos are in the middle of the dashboard. There are indications 44 the body was modified, with fenders added, probably at the end of the 1920s. So far, the likely candidate for ownership in Ascona is Marco Schmuklerski, a Zurich-born architect who lived there in 1935–36. If he studied in Paris, it is possible he brought the car back from there but without paying any import duties. When he left Ascona, Schmuklerski stored the car in a builder's yard. But the Swiss authorities wanted their tax money, so the car was hidden in the lake at the end of a chain. However, that corroded and the car fell 150 feet to the bottom of the lake. It was discovered in 1967 by a local diver and finally, in July 2009, the car was finally rescued from its grave. SCM Analysis This car sold for $364,700, including buyer's premium, at Bonhams's Automobiles d'Exception Auction at Rétromobile in Paris, France, on January 23, 2010. Rarely does a paradigm-changing event occur in the automobile world. Yet as I will explain below, the sale of this artifact represents such a moment. Sports Car Market readers who read the catalog entry before the sale no doubt marveled at the $100k–$125k estimate for what is arguably a marine archaeology find. That the hulk should then make over $350,000 on the day is simply breathtaking. That price is, after all, the value of a decently running collector-grade Brescia Bugatti. Furthermore, the result could only have been achieved with at least two bidders; and, as it turns out, 1923 Bugatti Brescia Lot 741, s/n 1612 Condition 3 Sold at $240,529 Bonhams, London, UK, 4/30/2007 SCM# 45380 1921 Bugatti Brescia Lot 146, s/n 1339 Condition 2+ Sold at $184,300 Sportscar Auction, Geneva, CHE, 10/6/2007 SCM# 48153 1922 Bugatti Brescia Lot 199, s/n 1361 Condition 3+ Sold at $67,428 Bonhams & Brooks, Geneva, CHE, 3/5/2001 SCM#23952 Sports Car Market Photos: Bonhams
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both bidders are connoisseurs with worldwide recognition. When two great and experienced collectors struggle this fiercely, I don't see the sale as aberrant. Something is going on here. Let's look beyond a facile explanation involving “two nutters with battling checkbooks.” First instance of a post-modernist sensibility The subject lot represents the first instance of a buyer acting with a post-modernist sensibility that deconstructs the automobile as a rare archeological artifact. As many surmised before the sale, this automobile would go not to an “experiential” or use-oriented buyer with a desire to restore and drive, but rather to a “contemplative” buyer who would want the object “as is,” freshly raised from the depths of Lake Maggiore and looking like an artifact from a Spanish treasure galleon found by the National Geographic Society. Unless our subject car was literally to be given away, no restoration scenario imaginable could make any sense. Even if not to be restored, there is still another cost factor that may yet play a part: conservation. While fortunately submerged in fresh, rather than salt, water for 70 years, I can't help thinking that this car will require the same hugely expensive museum conservation regimen demanded by other recovered submerged relics, wherein technicians in white lab coats, latex gloves, and magnifying spectacles must meticulously inject the exhibit with hypodermic syringes of acrylic consolidant to prevent it from crumbling to dust. Therefore, only a museum, the archetypal “contem- plative buyer,” could possibly want this car as-is. Not surprisingly, after spirited bidding, the car was acquired by a developing museum in the L.A. area devoted to a fabulous collection of French coachbuilt cars. Here's the main point: This car was bought, not as another impeccable object for the museum, but as an archeological relic. In fact, its identity, beyond that of being a relatively elitist French automobile from the 1920s and '30s, had precious little relevance to the auction price. That is why, as an archeological object, its realized value exceeded the value of an intact, running Brescia Bugatti. How the Bugatti's VIN Got to Japan In an almost operatic twist, the Brescia Bugatti found in Lake Maggiore is not the only one with chassis number 2461. We've all seen it before: one chassis number, two identities. Especially with Bugatti's blue-chip car, the Type 35, this is not an isolated case. There can be various reasons: One of them is that the owner of a replica or unidentified car needs an identity to register his car. With a little bit of research and all the registers at hand, a car which has been scrapped can be identified and its chassis number “borrowed” for the bitsa or fake. It's not yet common practice to fake Brescias, since there were about 2,000 of them; it was the Bugatti produced in the highest numbers. Investigation on this car has brought up the following speculation in the Bugatti world, and the story is probably even true: The last owner of Brescia 2461 kept three things from the car—the papers, the radiator badge, and the chassis plate. The duplicate car, which is now in Japan, is definitely a real car, not a fake. Its real chassis number is 2761, identified by the engine number. But the chassis plate on the car most likely is the original plate from 2461. How is this possible? Well, the Japanese car lived in Switzerland in the years after the war, owned by a man named Hintermüller, not far from Ascona. It's possible that Hintermüller's car had no chassis plate; he got to know the ex-owner of the Bugatti in the lake and was simply given the 2461 plate to put on his car. That might sound too easy, but it could well be true, as the two numbers only differ by one digit.—Julius Kruta, Bugatti Head of Tradition April 2010 I see an emerging “reversion to the real” Second, the zeitgeist played its part here. A decayed industrial relic of past glory resonates in these turbulent times. Thus, I see emerging a “reversion to the real”—a reaction to the artificially enhanced, primped, detailed, and hence epistemologically confusing collector car of accepted practice. With this purchase, the buyer/curator wanted to show an irreproachably real object, an object connected to a distant past, hoary with age and decay. To that end, this artifact is a kind of memento mori for the collectible automobile from an age of excess. From the standpoint of the museum and its exhibits, I would suggest that this lot was bought to contrast with the rest of the collection in the most poignant and striking way possible. It stands as an eloquent reminder of the fate that awaits almost all examples of the automobile—the single most important technological object of the 20th century—absent the intercession of connoisseurs, collectors, and museums. There is little doubt that the Brescia will make a star- tling impact on the museum's visitors. They will spend substantially more time contemplating this object, and 45
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Etceterini & Friends Profile will engage with it more than any other single automobile in the collection. This relic assumes a degree of historic gravitas, relevance, and yes, romance that makes a “silicone-enhanced and airbrushed” Best-in-Show winner at Pebble Beach historically weightless. So, is it a good financial move to make an artificial reef out of our collector cars with the intent of dredging them up and selling them as priceless relics decades in the future? Probably not. Yet manifestly the romantic mystique of newly discovered treasure played an important factor in this transaction. Could our subject resell in five years for a similar price? I would say not. Shattering the long-standing valuation paradigm of automobiles as having to be “usable history,” this car has achieved apotheosis by becoming an archeological artifact from the modern industrial age. Consequently, it commanded a price typical of an archeological rarity. As a financial transaction: very well sold. As a cultural artifact: brilliantly bought. ♦ (Introductory description courtesy of Bonhams.) “Lady in the Lake” on Display in Los Angeles Peter Mullin, the California collector who bought the “Lady in the Lake” Bugatti at the Bonhams Rétromobile auction, plans to display it at the opening of the new 50,000-square-foot Mullin Automotive Museum in Oxnard, California, the first week in April. The 1925 Bugatti Brescia that was pulled out of Lake Maggiore on July 12, 2009, after 73 years will be the cen- terpiece of 100 exotic French cars, including the marques Delahaye, Delage, Hispano-Suiza, and Voisin, with bodies by coachbuilders like Chapron, Figoni et Falaschi, Vanvooren, Labourdette, and Saoutchick. The cars are part of his three-dimensional Art Deco Museum, encompassing the years 1918–41 and including furniture and art exhibitions. “Really great original artifacts send chills up your spine,” says Mullin, who admits his first challenge is to figure out how to display his newly acquired automotive Ondine. “I've been talking with experts,” he said. “The idea was to have it in a tank but I think water would further corrode it. If it were in glycol, then nothing could live in that and it would be a dead space. Miles Collier alluded to finding the proper fluid to cover the parts in a way that protects and preserves it, but doesn't destroy its soul. That will take more homework. “Miles put his finger on a trend that started in Europe, that there's nothing more beautiful than a prized piece of completely original art. The Pebble Beach Concours is moving toward that; someday a completely original car will win best of show. I think we're fast approaching the conclusion that a ground-up restoration of an original car—in addition to costing a lot of money—actually diminishes its value. “There's a nice comment in a European story which called this car too valuable to be restored. It feels like it has its own spirit, it exudes history, romanticism, charm, and intrigue. And it's been identified as having racing history, which adds to the provenance of what it once was.”—Paul Duchene 46 Sports Car Market
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German Profile 1952 Mercedes-Benz 220 Cabriolet B By the time the 220 came along, it was difficult to find manufacturers who had not eliminated separate fenders and running boards by Donald Osborne Details Years produced: 1951–55 Number produced: 977 (cabriolet B) Original list price: $4,490 SCM Valuation: $75,000–$110,000 Tune-up cost: $750 Distributor caps: $75 Chassis #: Tag on firewall, stamped on right front chassis rail Engine #: On left side of block below head Club: Mercedes-Benz Club of America 1907 Lelaray St. Colorado Springs, CO 80909 More: www.mbca.org Alternatives: 1952 BMW 501 cabriolet; 1952 Alvis TA21 drophead; 1952 Alfa Romeo 1900 cabriolet SCM Investment Grade: B Comps Chassis number: 0790652 to a letter sent by a previous owner to the vendor, this lovely example was owned from 1993 to 1998 by a gentleman in Wisconsin, who bought it from a party who found the car in a barn they had purchased. Upon acquiring it, he removed the body from the frame and restored both. He claimed to have never driven the car but only restored it cosmetically. In 1998, he sold it to a car dealer in southern Louisiana, who painted the car black (it had been red) and only drove it 42 kilometers over the next five years. In fact, it sat in his showroom, not for sale, but simply as a display car. Finally, in 2003, the vendor acquired the 220 cabrio- I let B with 36,363 kilometers showing on the odometer. Although it was cosmetically restored, he enjoys driving his cars and therefore elected to conduct a mechanical restoration on this car as well. He carried out as much work as possible on his own before sending the car to noted restorer Henry Magno of Massachusetts. Receipts totaling over $37,000 in mechanical work are available. As presented, the car is reported to run perfectly and drives wonderfully. The owner has driven the car about 3,500 kilometers since purchasing it and has won awards in every car show he has entered. The extensive list of desirable features include an original owners manual, sales literature, service manual, a Telefunken radio with multiple bands, and original Bosch lamps with halogen bulbs, which do not have sealed beam units behind the original lenses like so 48 ntroduced at Frankfurt in 1951, the Mercedes-Benz 220 series was available in sedan, coupe, and cabriolet variants. It was in production through August 1955, with only 997 cabriolet Bs built. According many other restored cars. The car also has a set of fitted luggage in the trunk, which is in excellent condition. Overall, it is described as being in outstanding condition with everything in working order. The lovely black exterior finish is offset by a burgundy interior with matching carpets. Thanks to properly executed restoration work, this Mercedes-Benz requires nothing to be driven and shown with pride. SCM Analysis This car sold for $112,750, including buyer's premium, at RM's Automobiles of Arizona Auction in Phoenix, Arizona, on January 22, 2010. The road back from the ruins of World War II seems, in retrospect, a quick and fairly painless one for Mercedes-Benz. Like its counterparts in Germany and Italy, much, if not all, of the company's manufacturing capacity had been destroyed in air raids. Add to that the need to make a splash in all-important export markets—some of which might be distinctly cool toward the products of a company so recently building armaments for an enemy government. However, forgiveness proved to be more forthcoming than might be assumed, and business was strong enough to more than pull Mercedes through. In fact, following the reintroduction of the pre-war 4-cylinder 170 in 1946, few would have dreamed that a mere four years later the company would be back in the luxury car business with the 300 sedan and four-door convertible, and back at the top of the motorsport heap a year later with the 300SLR. In the meanwhile, an important middle-class offering was necessary, so the 6-cylinder 220 model was 1952 Mercedes-Benz 220 cabriolet A Lot 23, s/n 1870120428552 Condition 1Sold at $109,247 Artcurial, Paris, FRA, 2/19/2007 SCM# 44559 1952 Mercedes-Benz 220 cabriolet A Lot 251, s/n 0343152 Condition 2+ Sold at $154,000 RM, Monterey, CA, 8/17/2007 SCM# 46459 1953 Mercedes-Benz 220 cabriolet B Lot 37, s/n 0120362651 Condition 3+ Sold at $52,464 Christie's, London, UK, 4/19/2005 SCM# 37905 Sports Car Market Photos: RM Auctions
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also inserted into the mix. The fact that 1951 saw the introduction of both the 220 and 300 was evidence of a very impressive comeback for Mercedes. The styling of the 220 is distinctly 1930s Along with a pre-war-based chassis, the styling of the 220 also was distinctly 1930s in feeling. By the time it came along, it was difficult to find manufacturers who had not gone over to an “envelope” design, eliminating separate fenders and running boards. All the American cars were so styled, and even in Europe the 1951 offerings from Alfa Romeo and Lancia featured sleek, modern bodies. For the 220, the only concession to the 1950s was fairing the headlights into the fenders. The 220 was well built, with a tubular frame and hand-finished body detailing closer to pre-war standards. As a result, they are extremely expensive to restore, especially the cabriolets with their complex lined and padded tops, delicate chrome-trimmed instruments, and generous interior wood décor. While the 220 has undeniable class, Mercedes style, and might be seen as the “poor man's 300S,” it's no autobahn burner. With 80 hp to drag 3,100 lb, its power-to-weight ratio compares quite unfavorably with that of the more powerful model. But the 220 can keep up with modern traffic and cruise at 75 mph–80mph, so it's not exactly a slug. It's not dissimilar to the case of the 190SL, which is a very enjoyable ride, provided you don't count on it being a little 300SL. Mercedes continued its pre-war policy of offering two versions of their open cars, called the cabriolet A and cabriolet B. They varied in passenger capacity and most obviously in the number of side windows. The former was a “two-window” two, or two-plus-two seat, model, while the latter was a “four-window,” four- or five-passenger car. Needless to say, the cabriolet A was by far the better looking of the two, with a dashing, sporty balance that the slightly ungainly cabriolet B could not match. Not well known and seldom seen outside Europe For years, all these early post-war Mercedes languished in the shadows of the un- disputed three-pointed “stars” of the 1950s—the 300SL, 300S, and 300SC, and even the 190SL. They are not well known and seldom seen outside of northern Europe. That has begun to change, with well-restored 220 and even 170S cabriolets appearing on the market from time to time. Strangely enough, three emerged at auction in January of this year, with two in the Bonhams Rétromobile sale in Paris, (where the cab A sold at $88,550 and the cab B did not sell) and this one, which sold in Arizona. A well restored or exceptionally preserved example of the more attractive cabriolet A has fetched prices at the $100k-plus level for a number of years, a reflection once again of their style and recognition of the restoration costs involved in making one right. This cabriolet B, with what seems to be a twelve-year-old cosmetic restoration, sold above the $88,550 achieved for the cab A in the Paris sale, in what seems to have been similar condition to this car. Our subject car sold near the end of the auction, and it appears to be a case of two determined bidders who waited the duration of a very long session in order to take this car home. And of course, once you've invested the time in waiting, there's no sense in going home without a car. We saw a similar situation at the Bonhams Quail Lodge sale last August, with two no-reserve Porsche 356s among the final lots. Convinced a steal was in the offing, a small group of dealers waited into the cooling evening, as the rapidly dwindling audience drifted away. The results? “Retail plus” sales for both cars. For all those who think they can handicap run list location and outcome, think again. Auctions have their own rules, and as always, remember that one sale does not a market make. This price, for this car, is yet another example of a vehicle that is bought above the norm, but the vehicle itself, due to the excellence of the restoration and the costs involved, more than justified the amount spent. For this car, I would call the deal fair for both sides. ♦ (Introductory description courtesy of RM Auctions.) April 2010 49
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American Profile 1954 Mercury XM-800 Dream Car Dream Cars of the '50s had gas turbine engines, aircraft-inspired shapes, radar guidance systems, nuclear powerplants, and more… by Thomas Glatch Details Years produced: 1954 Number produced: 1 Original list price: n/a SCM Valuation: $429,000 on this day Tune-up cost: $150 Distributor cap: $20 Chassis #: Brass plate on frame behind front left corner of bumper Engine #: Pad on upper front of engine near timing cover Club: International Mercury Owners Assn. PO Box 1245 Northbrook, IL 60065 More: www.mercuryclub.com Alternatives: 1953 Lincoln Indianapolis Exclusive Concept; 1951 Chrysler D'Elegance; 1954 Oldsmobile F-88 SCM Investment Grade: A Comps Chassis number: XM505555 called the Thunderbird and a full-size two-door hard top produced under the Mercury banner and called the XM800. Ford's head of design, George Walker, sent this project to the Mercury Pre-Production Design Studios, which was headed up by John Najjar. Initial designs for the XM-800 used sweeping lines I to present a streamlined profile, with lavish use of contoured chrome trim badges and a great deal of decorative gingerbread. That was until an up-and-coming designer by the name of Elwood Engel stepped in and lent his hand. He suggested a more subdued approach, softening the lines to provide a clean and elegant look. When the final design work was completed, Ford contracted Creative Industries of Detroit to build the car. The XM-800 would be based on a standard-production Mercury Monterey chassis and all of the body panels would be fiberglass. When the XM-800 debuted at the 1954 Detroit Auto Show, it was an instant success. It was hailed for its open use of glass in the greenhouse area, offering drivers and passengers an almost-360-degree panoramic view. So impressive was the final product that Benson Ford, who headed up the Lincoln-Mercury Division at the time, pushed for the XM-800's basic design to be added to the Mercury lineup and prompted literature of the day to note that this car had been “engineered for full volume production.” However, at about the same 50 n the 1950s, concept cars—often referred to as Dream Machines—were built to test new ideas. For 1954, Ford Motor Company fielded two new entries in the show circuit: a sporty little two-seater time as the XM-800 was developed, the company had decided that an entirely new line should be produced, which would become the Edsel. Under the hood of the XM-800, an experimental version of the new overhead-valve Y-block V8 was installed, reportedly 312 ci, with nearly 270 horsepower and backed up by a Ford-O-Matic automatic transmission. A number of promotional items were produced, including key-chain fobs and even a toy car in Post brand cereals, which is considered quite collectible today. During 1954 and into early 1955, the XM-800 made appearances at car shows and exhibitions across the country. It was also loaned out to movie studios and featured in the 20th Century Fox production “Woman's World,” starring Clifton Webb, Van Heflin, Cornell Wilde, Fred MacMurray, June Allyson, and Lauren Bacall. A number of styling cues on the XM-800 foreshad- owed future products. The greenhouse had a streamlined contour with a rakish wrap-around windshield featuring forward-canted A-pillars that would be seen in many 1957 models. Headlights were “frenched” into the fender with canted housings which would appear the next season on the Mercury line. Even the hood reflected new innovations, with a functional hood scoop that was both practical and stylish. Aerodynamic drag was reduced at the wheelwells with skirted front fenders front and rear. In 1957, after the XM-800's service had come to an end, it was donated to the University of Michigan's Automotive Engineering Lab to serve as inspiration for 1954 Dodge Firearrow III Lot 170, s/n 9999707 Condition 2 Sold at $880,000 RM, Phoenix, AZ, 1/16/2009 SCM# 119265 1952 Chrysler Thomas Special Lot 162, s/n C51834214 Condition 2 Sold at $715,000 RM, Amelia Island, FL, 3/11/2006 SCM# 41029 1954 Packard Panther Daytona Lot 277, s/n M600127 Condition 1Sold at $700,000 RM, Amelia Island, FL, 3/14/2009 SCM# 119919 Sports Car Market Photos: RM Auctions
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future designers. In the 1960s, the school sold the car at auction to a private individual. The owner of the car has been lost to history but he parked the car in a barn in central Michigan where he rented space for one year. Unfortunately, the farmer pushed the XM-800 outside and left it to sit in the elements until the mid-1970s. At that point a young car enthusiast was able to purchase it. The new owner hoped to restore the XM-800 and he proceeded to disassemble it. While his plans did not come to fruition, his actions did preserve the car from further deterioration, and it eventually ended up in one of the largest collections of concept cars—still unrestored—where it sat for 20-plus years. The car was then sold to the current owner, who was able to complete a frame-off, nut-and-bolt restoration. SCM Analysis This car sold for $429,000, including buyer's premium, at RM's Automobiles of Arizona Auction in Phoenix, Arizona, on January 22, 2010. Most post-war American concept cars were unbridled flights of fancy. From the impractical to the impossible, the Dream Cars of the 1950s had gas turbine engines, aircraft-inspired shapes, radar guidance systems, nuclear powerplants, and more. One of Ford's 1954 concept cars, the FX Atmos, had tailfins that stood nearly four feet tall, a glass bubble top right out of the Jetsons, and twin sharp spears projecting from the front bumper. They were intended for some highway of the future to control the vehicle by radio, but in reality would have skewered pedestrians. The 1955 Lincoln Futura was so extreme it was used a decade later on TV as the Batmobile. And then there are the stand-outs But out of this era of exuberance, a few designs stand out. The 1953 Motorama Corvette went into production almost exactly as shown. A year later, Ford's Thunderbird concept from the Detroit Auto Show was almost identical to the production version on sale that fall. The LincolnMercury News Bureau called the Mercury XM-800, also introduced at the '54 Detroit show, “the most advanced design in a car capable of going into volume production.” The design by John Najjar and Elwood Engel was so strong it influ- enced Mercury and Lincoln automobiles for the rest of the decade. And ten years later, Engel replaced Virgil Exner as Chrysler's design chief, partly due to his bold, clean design of the 1961 Lincoln Continental. Though the XM-800 was not drivable, it was built on a production frame and had a development V8 engine. When the last owner, Tom Maruska, restored the vehicle, he had to create an electrical system to make the car operable. Fortunately, Najjar was able to assist with the blueprints. Maruska drove the XM-800 for the very first time under its own power last year, and it was shown at the 2009 Meadow Brook Concours. The value question Concept cars are traditionally hard to value. Some design and engineering cars from the GM Heritage Collection were snapped up last year for just $20,000. Yet the 1953 GM Futurliner Parade of Progress bus sold for $4.3m in 2006, while the 1954 Oldsmobile F-88 sports car concept sold in 2005 for $3.2m. The strange and extravagant Boano-built 1953 Lincoln Indianapolis Exclusive Study coupe sold for over $1m, as did the pretty 1952 Chrysler D'Elegance coupe. So why would the XM-800 sell for a fraction of these prices? While the current market is strong enough for historic race cars of impeccable provenance, it seems it won't support a six-figure dream car. There's also an apparent GM bias, and comparable Ford and Chrysler models often sell for less. In this case, I believe the buyer got an important '50s design study at an absolute bargain price, especially considering that the car was reported sold on eBay in January 2009—unrestored— for $315,500 (SCM# 119411). I'm guessing the restorer is disappointed. Very well bought. ♦ (Introductory description courtesy of RM Auctions.) April 2010 51
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Race Car Profile 1959 Lister Costin Jaguar Sports Racer A problem with Listers is that virtually all of them were horribly abused in their “just old race cars” days by Thor Thorson Details Years produced: 1958–59 Number produced: 1958—17 (10 Jaguar) 1959—11 (2 Jaguar) Original list price: n/a SCM Valuation: $500,000–$750,000 Cost per hour to race: $1,000 Chassis #: Tab on front shock tower Engine #: On head between cams Club: Jaguar Clubs of North America 234 Buckland Trace Louisville, KY 40245 More: www.jcna.com Alternatives: 1953–55 Jaguar D-type; 1955–62 Devin SS; 1955–58 Maserati 300S SCM Investment Grade: B Comps Chassis number: BHL123 Engine number: LC12998 I n 1957, Brian Lister built his first Jaguar-powered sports racer, with which he achieved outstanding racing victories with the brilliant one-armed driver Archie Scott Brown. During this time, Lister's sponsor, British Petroleum, was seeking a team of large-displacement sports racing cars to rival Aston Martin and Ecurie Ecosse Jaguars, both of whom were sponsored by Esso. Lister seemed the obvious choice, and the first produc- tion “Knobbly” Lister Jaguar, so named for its unusual but effective body shape, debuted in 1958. The first two cars went to Briggs Cunningham to complement and, eventually, replace his older Jaguar D-type team cars. At the beginning of 1959, Lister initiated a restyl- ing of the already efficient Knobbly bodywork. Famed de Havilland aeronautical engineer Frank Costin was enlisted and began by revising the irregular formation of the Knobbly. Costin succeeded admirably in smoothing the coachwork but, surprisingly, the sleeker bodywork was less aerodynamic. Nevertheless, nine Costin Listers were built, two with Jaguar power and seven with Chevrolet V8 engines. BHL123 is arguably the most historically impor- tant of all the Listers. Originally purchased by Briggs Cunningham and prepared by chief mechanic Alfred Momo, BHL123's first competition outing was the 12 Hours of Sebring race in 1959 with Walt Hansgen at the wheel. BHL123 became the one to beat, and Hansgen drove the race car to four 1st place finishes at Virginia International Raceway, the Cumberland International races in Maryland, Bridgehampton Race Circuit, and Watkins Glen. Hansgen also achieved 2nd and 4th place finishes, capturing the 1959 SCCA C-Modified National Championship. 52 BHL123 has regularly challenged and frequently bested Ferrari Testa Rossas, Jaguar D-types, Maserati 300s, Aston Martins, and Devin Chevys at the Monterey Historic Races. BHL123 offers an exciting and authentic late 1950s driving experience with all the sights, sounds, and sensations of open-cockpit sports racing at speed. SCM Analysis This car sold for $1,100,000, including buyer's premium, at Gooding's Scottsdale Auction in Scottsdale, Arizona, on January 22, 2010. In all of vintage racing, there is no more desirable or collectible category of cars than the front-engined sports racers that ran in international and SCCA competition from the mid 1950s into the early 1960s. As a group, they embody beautiful shapes, wonderful sounds, and exhilarating performance combined in packages that, primarily due to the skinny, hard tires available in the era and the relatively primitive tracks on which they ran, are enjoyable for the amateur racing car driver. That said, there are at least four and possibly five distinct hierarchies that define the desirability and value of the various cars in the group. The top rank is limited to Ferraris. They have it all: beauty, exclusivity, exotic mechanical packages, huge international dominance, and a particular, almost feminine sexiness that makes men's knees and wallets weak. The second rank is made up of Ferrari's serious rivals for the Manufacturer's Championship—Maserati, Aston Martin, and Jaguar being the most obvious. They built complete packages, including engines and drivetrains, which gives a value the lesser cars don't have. The third rank is specialist manufacturers that used 1956 Lister Jaguar Lot 148, s/n BHL14 Condition 3 Sold at $120,012 Coys, Silverstone, UK, 7/24/1998 SCM# 15336 1959 Lister Costin Jaguar Lot 240, s/n BHL259 Condition 2Sold at $275,273 Bonhams, Sussex, UK, 9/1/2006 SCM# 43020 1959 Lister Costin Jaguar Lot 385, s/n BHL133 Condition 1Sold at $762,000 Bonhams, Sussex, UK, 6/22/2007 SCM# 45871 Sports Car Market Photos by Pawel Litwinski © 2009 Courtesy of Gooding & Company
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outside engines and drivetrains in professionally built chassis with proper alloy bodywork, ideally aimed at European competition. Of these, Lister is probably the best. The fourth rank involves production fiberglass bodies and American V8 engines (Devin), while homebuilts make up the bottom of the value range. As you descend through the range, the collector values decrease relative to what I call the “weapons grade” components. At the top, history, provenance, original engine and bits, etc. are hugely important to the value, while at the bottom it's whether you can get an entry and how much fun you can have with the big boys. Listers fit into the middle tier, where the two aspects are in balance. A great problem with Listers is that virtually all of them were horribly abused in their “just old race cars” days: Cars were wrecked, chassis were replaced (often without disposing of the old one), engines thrown away, nobody really kept records of what happened, etc. The result is that there are very few “pure” Listers in existence— most have some stories. This tends to keep owners or potential buyers from being too concerned with originality and more interested in going fast and having fun. Lister cars were robust, effective, and fast A brief history is probably in order here. Brian Lister was a very competent en- gineer who built himself a ladder-framed special with an MG engine in 1954. It was competitive, and over the years his company refined the concept with different engines (most notably Bristol) until they built a Jaguar D-type-engined version in 1957. That car, driven by Archie Scott Brown, was very successful and led to the big Lister sports racers in 1958 and 1959. The cars were not particularly sophisticated, being developments of the 1954 design, but they were robust, effective, and fast. The factory offered them with 3- or 3.8-liter D-type engines (European competition was limited to 3 liters in those days, so the 3.8 was primarily for U.S. use) or with Chevy V8s. The Chevy cars were all shipped to the U.S. without engines or transmissions; Jim Hall and Carroll Shelby installed them on arrival. The body design for the 1958 cars was effectively an alloy skin pulled as tightly over the components as was possible to reduce frontal area, with the result that the appearance was very bumpy, or “Knobbly,” thus the name. As mentioned in the catalog description above, in an attempt to remain competitive, Lister hired aerodynamicist Frank Costin to design a more slippery shape for 1959. Costin's theory was that a smooth shape mattered more than frontal area, but he was incorrect. The Knobbly had lower drag, and most people like that design better as well. V8 makes much more power than the Jag Listers come in four basic variants—Knobbly and Costin, Jaguar and Chevy. Most of the Knobblies used Jaguar engines; all but two of the Costins were Chevy powered. European competition in the era was strictly Jaguar powered, while America got some of the Jags and all of the Chevys. The V8 makes easily half again more horsepower than the Jaguar with about the same weight, so the Chevys are much faster than the Jags, but can be quite a handful. The Jaguar-powered cars are generally considered to be a better balance of power and handling, which makes them more user-friendly, if not quite as quick. European racers seem to prefer the Jaguar cars; American buyers tend toward (surprise) the Chevys. BHL123 crossed the auction block as one of the bet- ter, but certainly not the best, Lister Jaguars. On the good side, it was beautifully presented, the recent history and previous owner are well known and respected, and the history of BHL123 is impressive. But its ownership history in the earlier days is long and complicated, plus it makes no claim to an original engine or transmission. Listers have long fallen well short of $1 million, even in the crazy markets of the last few years, while this one sailed through, and the question is why? Maybe the previous cars weren't good enough? Maybe the market for Listers is changing, with the value dragged up by the first- and second-tier cars they run with? Maybe somebody just got carried away at an auction? No matter which applies, I'd say this car was very well sold. ♦ (Introductory description courtesy of Gooding & Company.) April 2010 53
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Market Reports Overview Arizona Auctions Total $126m Severe weather was a cause for concern, but almost every auction saw increases over last year's numbers by Jim Pickering year, the characteristic 65-degree sunny skies gave way to a massive storm that brought high winds and pounding rain, battering the auction sites for the better part of two days. However, when the rains cleared, 1,719 of 1,973 cars had sold at five auctions for a total of $126,491,309, and almost all of the events in the area saw comfortable increases from what was achieved in 2009. Russo and Steele got hit hardest by this year's storm: A On Thursday night, two of its 800-foot auction tents blew down on the consignments beneath them, causing hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage to the cars and sending debris across the 101 freeway to the north, closing it for several hours. Safety concerns drove local authorities to close down the auction site until Sunday morning, at which point Russo was up and running. However, as we go to press, Russo and Steele has not released any sales figures from the event, and coverage of the auction is not included in this issue. Barrett-Jackson was again on top in terms of gross numbers, with 1,193 no-reserve cars selling for a final total of $67.1m—a significant increase from last year's $61m from 1,075 cars. Auction Analyst Dan Grunwald noted several high-profile lots bringing big money, including a 1964 Shelby Cobra 289 that made $478k, and a 1929 Hamilton Metalplane, which was the high sale of the event at $683k. According to Barrett-Jackson, 40% of this year's bidders and 35% of this year's consignors were first-timers—more evidence of a rebounding economy. Gooding & Company returned to the Scottsdale Fashion Square for its third annual Arizona auction, where 115 of 125 lots sold for nearly $34m. The event was expanded to fill two days, and once again, Gooding sold SCM 1-6 Scale Condition Rating: 1: National concours standard/ perfect 2: Very good, club concours, some small flaws 3: Average daily driver in decent condition 4: Still a driver but with some apparent flaws 5: A nasty beast that runs but has many problems 6: Good only for parts 54 rizona is the place to be for car collectors in January, with most of North America's highprofile auction houses hosting flagship sales in the mild mid-winter desert climate. This $67,107,325 Sales Totals Barrett-Jackson, Scottsdale, AZ Kruse, Glendale, AZ RM Auctions, Phoenix, AZ Silver Auctions, Fort McDowell, AZ Gooding & Company, Scottsdale, AZ $33,990,250 the most expensive car of the week—a 1956 Jaguar D-type at $3.7m. Contributing Editor Donald Osborne noted that in all, seven million-dollar cars changed hands, and final totals eclipsed last year's $32.4m achieved from 84 of 101 cars. RM's annual “Automobiles of Arizona” event also saw the addition of a second evening of sales, billed as “The British are Coming!” In all, 150 of 168 cars sold for a $19.7m total, up from 2009's $18.2m from 106 of 127 cars. Senior Auction Analyst Carl Bomstead watched as all but six cars from the British evening sold, and he said several bargains were present, including a 1947 Chrysler New Yorker Highlander convertible that brought just $35,750. At the Fort McDowell Resort and Casino, Silver Auctions also faced collapsing tents on Thursday night, but the auction cars had been moved and none were damaged, and the company was able to get up and running by mid-afternoon on Friday. Senior Auction Analyst B. Mitchell Carlson found attendance to be up considerably this year, presumably due to Russo and Steele's closure across town, and by the end of the three-day sale, 221 of 410 lots had sold for a total of almost $4m, which was up slightly from 2009's 199 of 443 cars sold for $3.5m. Auction Analyst Lance Raber attended Kruse's annual Arizona event, this year held in Glendale, where 41 of 77 cars changed hands for a $1.8m total. Kruse has battled with bad press as of late, but there was money in the room, as evidenced by the high sale of a 1935 Duesenberg JN Rollston convertible at $777,600—a bargain price given the cost of the car's restoration. Finally, if you're the type of collector who can't have just one, Geoff Archer's eBay Motors report should have the perfect deal(s) for you.♦ Top 10 Sales This Issue (Land Auctions Only) 1. 1956 Jaguar D-type sports racer, $3,740,000—G&C, p. 86 2. 1959 Ferrari 250 GT Series I cabriolet, $2,145,000—G&C, p. 90 3. 1934 Duesenberg Model J Disappearing Top convertible coupe, $1,815,000—G&C, p. 94 4. 1932 Alfa Romeo 6C 1750 Gran Sport Series V spider, $1,540,000—G&C, p. 90 5. 1936 Hispano-Suiza J12 Type 68 cabriolet, $1,540,000—G&C, p. 92 6. 1959 Lister Costin Jaguar sports racer, $1,100,000—G&C, p. 86 7. 1965 Shelby Cobra 427 S/C, $1,028,500—G&C, p. 96 8. 1963 Aston Martin DB4GT coupe, $1,001,000—RM, p. 72 9. 1935 Duesenberg JN Rollston convertible, $777,600—Kru, p. 110 10. 1965 Ferrari 275 GTB coupe, $737,000—G&C, p. 92 1. 1930 Duesenberg Model J Willoughby sedan, $329,400— Kru, p. 110 2. 1947 Chrysler New Yorker Highlander convertible, $35,750—RM, p. 78 3. 1909 Packard Model 18 runabout, $104,500—G&C, p. 92 4. 1934 Brewster Ford town car, $77,000—RM, p. 76 5. 1959 Cadillac Coupe DeVille Raymond Loewy Custom, $161,700—B-J, p. 62 Sports Car Market Best Buys $1,762,074 $19,664,100 $3,967,560
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Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale, AZ 39th Scottsdale Collector Car Auction From its non-stop entertainment, to the auction of world-class automobiles, this is still the “800-pound gorilla” in the Valley of the Sun Company Barrett Jackson Date January 18–24, 2010 Location Scottsdale, Arizona Auctioneer Tom “Spanky” Assiter & Associates Automotive lots sold / offered 1,193/1,193 Sales rate 100% Sales total $67,107,325 High sale 1929 Hamilton Metalplane H47 Aircraft, sold at $683,200 The Ghostbuster special makes $88,000 Report and photos by Daniel Grunwald Market opinions in italics blend of automobiles, but this is still the only “all noreserve” sale of the bunch. The variety of cars (also buses, airplanes, and other M motorized items that defy description) has evolved through the years with the changing marketplace. Last year we saw the cars from the GM Heritage Collection, while this year the “Dillinger” Model A ($165k), the first 1966 Shelby Mustang ($247,500), and the Blastolene Watson Roadster ($280,500) were the talk of the town. This year could also be noted as “The Year of the Pickup Truck and the Microcar,” as many great examples of both were represented. Top seller was a 1929 Hamilton Metalplane H47, which wasn't even an automobile, but sold for $683k. This is not a completely new phenomenon; in 2006 the top seller was the GM Futurliner bus ($4.3m), and last year it was the Ford Tri-motor aircraft ($1.2m). The 1929 Hamilton airplane was followed by a 1964 289 Shelby Cobra, which found a new home for $478,500. Lots of honest, original older cars appear at Barrett- Jackson, and not all have two bidders intent on owning them. This is where “No Reserve” can work in the buyer's favor. Even on some of the high-level offerings, bidders know they have a chance to own a particular car 56 any car auctions now take place in the Phoenix area, following the lead of BarrettJackson, which started it all in 1971. Each auction has its own character and its own Buyer's premium 10% in the room, 12% on the phone, included in sold prices; waived on 17 charity lots without an unrealistic reserve price. At B-J, some of those dreams do come true, and the fact does not go unnoticed, as this year, according to Barrett-Jackson, 40% of the bidders were first-timers and 35% of the consignors were novices. This report would not be complete without a mention of the “Sunny Arizona” cli- mate this year. The rain was occasional on Tuesday, absent on Wednesday, drenching on Thursday, and lighter on Friday. That Thursday storm was accompanied by high winds, but the crew at Barrett-Jackson proactively circled the semi trailers and there was no damage reported. The storm may have kept some of the locals away, but the overall gate and the sales volume were up from 2009. Some last-minute changes were made to the parking because of flooding, but shuttle buses were on duty and the time and steps from the parking lot to the auction were actually reduced. An added treat this year for Corvette fans was SCM's sister publication, Corvette Market, conducting an Insider's Seminar on site. Completely sold out, with over 300 Corvette fanatics in attendance, it featured an all-star panel of Corvette experts who gave their buy-sell-hold picks for the current market. If you're a Corvette collector, read more about it in the next issue of Corvette Market. From the “Lifestyle Show” with its non- stop entertainment to the auction of worldclass automobiles, Barrett-Jackson remains the big draw in the Valley of the Sun, and everyone who likes old cars dreams of making the pilgrimage at least once. For six days and 1,193 cars, this is Mecca. ♦ Sales Totals $20m $40m $60m $80m $100m $120m 0 Sports Car Market 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006
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Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale, AZ ENGLISH #415.1-1959 AUSTIN-HEALEY 100-6 roadster. S/N BN4L072632. Black/red vinyl. Odo: 28,542 miles. Shiny black paint shows numerous flaws and several paint repairs on trunk lid. Body filler visible under the rockers. Some chrome weak, some shows well. Unusual heater delete car with triple SU carburetors. correct and key is problematic. Mechanicals seem to need a bit of love to make it start and shift smoother. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $44,000. Cosmetically, this looked good, and cute sells well here. A single carb and a single cylinder require patience, but I doubt it'll be used much anyway. Well sold. #420.1-1957 HEINKEL 200 coupe. S/N 311110. Red/white vinyl. Odo: 99,999 km. Very thick paint, good chrome bumpers. Dull side and rear plexiglass windows, scratched front glass, old and cracked weatherstripping in places. New seat, floor pan looks solid, headlights misaligned. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $27,500. surface cracks on steering wheel and some dash retouching. Solid body with original dimples at headlights and no rust in trunk at corners. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $33,000. A clean and honest car that I'd buy without reservation. The solid body and originality rather than a fluff-and-buff restoration made me confident in the quality here. I'd call this well bought. #51-1966 VOLKSWAGEN BEETLE Wrapped steering wheel over cracks, driver's seat torn on left side of seat back. Said to have original miles. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $40,700. Stated to have been raced in warm climates in its former life, and looked just a bit worn here. Sold price was commensurate with condition. #1611-1967 JAGUAR XKE convertible. S/N 1E14533. Red/black leather. Odo: 39,414 miles. Good hood gaps, driver's door and trunk fit a bit off, gas door sits high. Nice interior, miles said to be original. Paint and chrome Last seen at Christie's London sale in March '97, where it sold at $7,360 (SCM# 3472). They made a great airplane, and after Germany lost the war, they built these. Heinkels aren't seen often at auction, but microcars in general are showing surprising muscle in the market. Very well sold. #919-1958 BMW ISETTA 600 coupe. S/N 122747. Blue & white/gray cloth & vinyl. Odo: 58,728 miles. Lots of dust in paint, good chrome including bumper guards, some weak trim, dull taillights. Windshield wiper scratches show no obvious flaws. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $62,700. Some of the small restoration details seemed a bit weak and hurried, but you have to look closely to see them. Sold on the market for condition. GERMAN #52-1956 MESSERSCHMITT KR175 convertible. S/N 1669853. Blue & white/tan vinyl. Odo: 4,069 miles. An early KR175, of which only 10,000 were built (as compared to around 40,000 KR200s). OK paint and new clear canopy, handlebar doesn't look and trunk rack as well as wide whites and a Thermador window-mounted air cooler. Decked-out Beetles always seem to do well at B-J, and this one was no exception. Well sold. #441-1967 AMPHICAR 770 convertible. S/N 106523087. Blue/white vinyl/yellow & white vinyl. Odo: 530 miles. Much is original, with obvious recent repaint showing a few minor flaws. Large dent behind driver's door, sedan. S/N 116304596. Blue/cream vinyl. Odo: 77,777 miles. Nice paint with new fender welting and running boards. New interior, some chrome and trim pitted and dull, wiper arms painted. Missing a section of bright trim on windshield surround. Claimed California black plate car. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $18,700. Accessorized with roof rack, picnic gear, in windshield, some delamination also noted. Very clean engine, floor pans and frame rails look solid. Powered by a two-stroke 600-cc BMW motorcycle engine. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $33,000. If you want an Isetta, this is the one to get, as it has one more cylinder and one more door than the 300 model. They're sometimes called limousines, but that's stretching it a bit. Would make a great taxi if you're not in a rush. Well sold. #1532-1964 MERCEDES-BENZ 230SL convertible. S/N 1130421200185. White/blue leather. Odo: 67,892 miles. Nice paint with one noticeable chip on left rear fender. Very good chrome. Original seats with light patina, 58 some waviness on sides and trunk lid. Steering wheel cracked. Owner says it “runs like a top.” Cond: 3. SOLD AT $45,100. The owner also said that it floats, and that's probably a good thing. After rising as far as $124k at B-J in January '06 (SCM# 40359), the bubble has burst on these, but what would have been silly money ten years ago now seems fair. Such is the car business. Sports Car Market
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Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale, AZ ITALIAN #934.2-1989 FERRARI TESTAROSSA coupe. S/N ZFFSF17A8K0082377. Red/tan leather. Odo: 14,146 miles. Looks as it should for a 14,000-mile car. No paint chips, clean windshield, small stain on driver's seat. Clean throughout. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $78,100. Has peel, and prep flaws throughout. Several areas of heavy body filler evident. Broken and glued taillight lens, wipers unevenly set, grille misfit. Trim dented, seat torn. Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $7,700. Last seen at Barrett-Jackson's West Palm Beach sale in April '09, where it sold at $9,900 (SCM# 120221). These are unique and kind of sexy sport cars normally, but unfortunately this one was past its prime, and the restoration left much to be desired. The seller should be happy even at below the price paid in Florida. AMERICAN #1309-1930 FORD MODEL A coupe. CARFAX and an invoice for a recent full engine-out service, which is vital when buying a low-mileage Ferrari of this vintage. Sold at the top of the market, but it did have all the right boxes checked. JAPANESE #50-1972 HONDA Z600 coupe. S/N AZ6001017050. Yellow/black vinyl. Odo: 35,080 miles. Some wide and variable panel gaps, visible paint prep flaws on rear window surround. Comes with all registration papers had a choice, I'm sure he would have picked a V8, but John was in a hurry that evening. There was lots of interest and speculation about what this would sell for, and with the recent release of “Public Enemies,” I'm sure many would have anticipated a higher price. See the profile, p. 36. from new, including original dealer's sale receipt. Driver's door panel misfit, other interior bits OK. Engine detailed. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $27,500. This was said to be a totally rebuilt, rust-free car. I never see these at auction, but with this one selling at almost triple what most price guides say they're worth, I anticipate seeing them more often. Well sold. SWEDISH #15.1-1971 VOLVO P1800 coupe. S/N 184353032984. White/black leather. Odo: 60,470 miles. Newer white paint with overspray on some weatherstripping. Also chips, orange #711-1951 CROSLEY fire truck. S/N N/A. Red/black vinyl. Odo: 11,503 miles. Not really a fire truck, but rather a children's ride built from a chopped-off Crosley with a fabricated tandem trailer. Ladders are really grab bars that fold down on two bench seats. Cosmetically S/N A2980001. Black/black cloth. The Model A purportedly stolen by John Dillinger when escaping from Little Bohemia with the Feds on his tail. Fully—and sadly—restored with new paint and interior, detailed 4-cylinder engine. One bullet hole left in rear fender after the restoration. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $165,000. If he Odo: 62,292 miles. Shiny new paint with numerous preparation flaws, several runs on the left rear corner of the cab, and a handful of chips. All new chrome and oak bed, detailed engine, new seat cover and headliner. Steering wheel cracked, delamination on side and rear glass, no wipers. Shiny wide whites with some cracking. Window card states 235-ci engine. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $28,600. Cosmetically very pretty with a great color combination, but the paint let it down a bit up close due to what looked like hurried preparation. Trucks seem to be gaining steam in the market, and this one brought top money. #1292-1952 WATSON BLASTOLENE Custom roadster. S/N OR8O165. Polished aluminum/black vinyl. Odo: 2,198 miles. 1792-ci air-cooled V12 tank engine, Allison 4-speed automatic transmission. 160-inch wheelbase, 8,400 lbs. Some weld lines on aluminum nose pieces, body polished to a mirror finish. All nickel-plated suspension. Titled as a 1952 Watson Roadster. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $280,500. Huge everywhere, with 22.5-inch tires and 1.5-inch thick tie rods. It'll undoubtedly be the center of attention at any car show. Blastolene's B-702 roadster sold here in 2008 for $522,500 (SCM# 48531), so if you had to have it, this price seemed reasonable enough. #462-1953 OLDSMOBILE 88 coupe. S/N 538M92022. Mist Gray/blue/blue cloth. Odo: 29,054 miles. Newer paint, chrome and trim also look new. Original seats still have vintage plastic covers installed. Some delamination on right vent window, other glass still clear. Said to have original miles, and that's believable. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $25,300. A nice, mostly good with some wear and pitting visible on chrome parts and signs of light use since repaint. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $110,000. This reminds me of the Barrett-Jackson prime-time “Silly Money” show of a few years back. This was a usable curiosity that will no doubt make your kids happy, but it was very well sold at the price paid. #76-1952 CHEVROLET 3100 pickup. S/N 6KPJ9896. Cream & red/brown vinyl. 60 Sports Car Market
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Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale, AZ unrestored car with original low miles. Both the buyer and seller should be pleased. #699.1-1953 CHEVROLET CUSTOM wagon. S/N B53KO85771. Yellow/white & yellow vinyl. Odo: 3,656 miles. 350-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Two-inch chopped top, body modified into a 2-door wagon. Fair paint with some prep and panel fit issues. Good chrome, stickon fake wood trim lumpy. New two-tone bench undercarriage with dirt and oil. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $38,500. Most of the easy restoration work had been done, at least when it came to making it look good from 15 feet away, but there was still more to do. This is arguably the prettiest styling of the Mark Continentals, and the price paid here was within the correct range. #38-1958 OLDSMOBILE SUPER 88 4-dr sedan. S/N 588T04087. Red & white/red & white cloth & vinyl. Odo: 640 miles. 371-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Thick shiny paint, lots of good chrome. New headliner and interior. Many white/gold cloth. Odo: 41,639 miles. 390-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Like-new brocade interior and deep shiny chrome and paint. Built as a one-off custom by Raymond Loewy based on a '59 Cadillac, and featured in the 1959 Paris Auto Salon. Was built in France as a “personal use” car, and used by Loewy to tour Europe with his family. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $161,700. Like the style or not, this was a one-off with known history that had been built and owned by one of the great automotive designers of our time. A beauty, and I would call it a bargain at this price. #1263-1960 CHEVROLET CORVETTE convertible. S/N 00867S107757. Honduras Maroon & white/white canvas & maroon hard top/black vinyl. Odo: 1,264 miles. 283-ci 290hp fuel-injected V8, 4-sp. Numbers matching. One of 759 high-performance fuelies in 1960. Fitted with power windows, Wonderbar radio, seat interior. Fitted with power rack-and-pinion steering and disc brakes. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $27,500. Typical Barrett-Jackson steak and potatoes: an attractive woodie wagon custom complete with roof rack and surfboard. The details let it down, but much effort was put into the car, and it would be hard to build it for the money spent here. #1253.1-1954 KAISER-DARRIN road- ster. S/N 161001026. Red/black canvas/black leather. Odo: 3 miles. Very good red paint with new chrome, interior, and top. Beautiful chrome wire wheels with wide whitewall tires. details need fixing, but overall it looks like a great ten-footer. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $19,800. Someone who didn't care about two extra doors put a lot of work and love into this car. A fun family driver that the kids will love riding in... at least until they turn 17. #967.2-1959 CHEVROLET IMPALA 2-dr hard top. S/N F59S25480. Red/red cloth. Odo: 29,990 miles. 283-ci fuel-injected V8, 4-sp. Some visible paint chips and retouched areas, nice trim and chrome. Tinted glass with delamination visible on windshield and side glass. Said to be original mileage and “numbers Posi, and two tops. In the same family for 20 years, with seven years on the show circuit. Skillfully restored eight years ago, with engine blueprinted to 8,500 rpm and powder-coated frame. Seven NCRS Top Flight Awards and a Duntov award in 2009. Beautifully presented. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $181,500. A superior car in all respects, reluctantly offered by friendly and informed long-term owner who is facing eye surgery. Smacked through the high estimate by $50k, and still well bought. A benchmark car. Fitted with McCulloch supercharger. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $220,000. The bodies for the Darrin were made by Glasspar and were quite lightweight. Another white Kaiser was offered here as lot #1260.1, which made $101,200, but this was the better car of the two and was rarer with the supercharged engine. A new record for a Darrin at auction. #763-1956 LINCOLN CONTINENTAL Mk II 2-dr hard top. S/N 56C2344. White/ teal leather. Odo: 7,613 miles. 368-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Mid-level paint with chips and runs, rubthrough visible in various areas. Some trim a bit dull, some chrome pitted and showing repairs. New looking seats and carpets, original #1303-1963 SHELBY COBRA roadster. correct,” including fuel injection system. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $82,500. This very original '59 featured the super rare 290-hp fuel-injected 283 V8. Fuel injection was a one-year-only option on the Impala, available in 250-hp and 290-hp trims, and some sources put the number built at only around 55. This was a great car throughout, but it still sold for top dollar and then some. #1295-1959 CADILLAC COUPE DEVILLE Raymond Loewy Custom 2-dr hard top. S/N 59J088977. Gold & weak with some visible peeling, grille guard fit looks a bit off. Seats show light patina. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $401,500. This one had a great look, and it clearly had been driven and enjoyed. Small-block Cobras are getting more respect in the marketplace in relation to their big-block associates, and this one brought a market price. 62 Sports Car Market S/N CSX2091. Black/red leather. Odo: 29,689 miles. 289-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Paint aging a bit, with some overall light scratching and a few visible pinholes. Windshield surround chrome
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Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale, AZ #953-1963 PLYMOUTH SPORT FURY convertible. S/N 3431215395. Blue/blue vinyl/blue vinyl. Odo: 62,597 miles. 426-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, auto. Good paint with some panel edge chipping and some visible body filler. Wrinkles in side trim, deep scratches on right side window trim, most chrome still This probably spent most of its time at the drag strip in the '60s, and while the recorded mileage may seem low, it equates to quite a few quarter-mile passes down the strip. Still, someone got an excellent sleeper 409 at a market price. #1317-1964 SHELBY COBRA roadster. S/N CSX2281. White & blue/black leather. Odo: 6,892 miles. 289-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Several paint flaws, light chips on front from driving and enjoying in the Copperstate 1000. Fitted with Paxton supercharger, roller rockers, and aftermarket camshaft. Set up to be good. Restored interior with a couple of weak spots, some fit problems with steering wheel. Restoration completed in 2001. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $38,500. This car had no 426 hood ornament, and the catalog mentioned that the engine was a later addition. As a non-original Max Wedge convertible in decent overall condition, this price was in the right ballpark. #649-1964 CHEVROLET NOVA 2-dr hard top. S/N 40437N245967. Blue/blue cloth & vinyl. Odo: 366 miles. 283-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Well-restored basic Nova with good paint and panel gaps. New chrome and interior, fitted with a/c. Paint crack on left A-pillar. All new a competitive driver in the handling department as well. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $478,500. Participation in the Copperstate 1000 and the Barrett-Jackson Desert Classic should prove this car's reliability and drivability. The bidders liked it as well, and it brought a price within the expected range. #1542-1966 FORD MUSTANG convert- ible. S/N 6R08C124053. Red/Parchment vinyl/ Parchment leather. Odo: 61,610 miles. 302-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Rear deck lid fits high, panel gaps vary. Some trim shows age, but many new parts include a new 302 engine and a/c. Recently rebuilt as a mild custom with leather weatherstripping throughout. Steering wheel repaired and painted, undercarriage factory new. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $21,450. Probably market correct, but you couldn't restore it to this level for this price. A nice honest V8 Nova that hasn't been made into an SS. #1264-1964 CHEVROLET BISCAYNE 2-dr sedan. S/N 41211F263310. Azure Aqua/ aqua vinyl & cloth. Odo: 1,017 miles. 409-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, 4-sp. Said to be an all-original 1,017 mile car. Driver's door fits wide at front, paint and interior still look as they did from the factory. Fitted with tachometer, radio delete. Formerly of the Reggie Jackson Collection. A bare-bones sedan with only the options that make it go fast. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $60,500. Last seen at Mecum's Monterey sale in August '09, where it sold at $53,000 (SCM# 141981). interior and tasteful chrome in engine compartment. Bonded title, charity car. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $42,000. This charity car's proceeds went to the East Texas Crisis Center. Not quite factory stock, but the look was close. This was the hammer price, as Barrett-Jackson doesn't charge a buyer's fee on charity cars. This was on the high side of market for a car like this, but it's hard to argue when the money's going to a good cause. #968.1-1966 CHEVROLET NOVA SS 2-dr hard top. S/N 118376N16242B. Lemonwood Yellow/black vinyl. Odo: 2 miles. 327-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Fresh high-level restoration on an L79 SS Nova. New paint, chrome, and trim. Features the only 1966 engine block with a recessed oil filter and a dual snorkel air cleaner. Pleasing Lemonwood Yellow color, all tinted glass shows well. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $96,800. 64 Sports Car Market Detailed as factory-new everywhere. The L79 350-hp Nova was not the highest-horse muscle car GM ever produced, but it did offer a high power-to-weight ratio which made it the perfect street sleeper. If you had to have the best one out there, this was your car, and I can't fault the new owner for paying up to get it. #1306-1966 MERCURY COMET drag car. S/N N/A. Red & gold/black vinyl. 427-ci fuel-injected V8, auto. Ford “Cammer” SOHC 427 engine, lightweight one-piece body. One of five built, and this is the only one left. Some paint color runs on trunk and a few pinholes noted throughout. Painted graphics as on original. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $176,000. Weighs a total of 1,940 pounds. Very good condition for any car, much less a factory drag car. One of the original flip-top funny cars in 1966, and a decent buy for a vintage drag fan. #1302-1966 SHELBY GT350 fastback. S/N SFM6S002. White & blue/black vinyl. Odo: 39,375 miles. 289-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. The first 1966 production Shelby. Some crackle in right side quarter glass, correct side mirror and dash tach. Good paint and interior, chrome shows as-new. Fitted with correct 715 cfm Holley carb, 3.89 Detroit Locker rear end, and T-10M transmission. Period race history includes Road America, Black Hawk Farms, Mid Ohio, Road Atlanta, and Watkins Glen. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $247,500. A very significant
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Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale, AZ Shelby with tremendous history and excellent condition throughout. The 2010 SCM Price Guide values a standard '66 at between $110k and $150k, but there's only one first production car, and that, along with extensive period race history, made this a decent buy. #724-1967 CHEVROLET CORVETTE convertible. S/N 194677S104092. Marlboro Maroon/black vinyl/black vinyl. Odo: 51,250 miles. 327-ci 300-hp V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Numbersmatching two-owner car, documented restoration in 1988-89 to NCRS standards and with 3 Top Flight awards (local and national) since. AM/FM radio, power windows, Posi, tinted Yellow & black/black vinyl/black vinyl. Odo: 27,237 miles. 396-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Door gaps vary slightly, numerous body panels replaced with new sheet metal during restoration in 1998. RS grille with hidden headlights. Some minor paint flaws noted, but not many. Well detailed engine includes A.I.R. pump. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $55,000. Even though they're marketed as exact replicas, new replacement panels don't always fit right, and the ones here were slightly off in a couple of places. Compared to other sales in the market over the past few months, this was a strong price, but it was an RS/SS big-block in good colors. #444-1969 CHEVROLET CAMARO Z/28 glass. Excellent paint and chrome, good top fit. Tidy and typical all around, and was clearly looked after. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $57,200. Once again a chatty owner is a real plus. This was not a high-horsepower car, but it had been maintained, enjoyed, and sympathetically restored. A Long Island car that came a long way to find a new home, but the new owner should be happy. Considering the provenance, it was well bought. #1351-1967 CHEVROLET CORVETTE convertible. S/N 194677S103111. Rally Red/black/black vinyl. Odo: 18,046 miles. 427-ci 400-hp V8, 3x2bbl, 4-sp. Numbersmatching, with correct-dated replacement motor, Tri-Power, a/c, power windows, power brakes, Positraction, factory side exhaust, tilt/ telescopic column, speed warning, AM/FM radio, and tinted glass. Tank sticker, three coupe. S/N 124379L504420. Yellow & black/ black vinyl/black vinyl. Odo: 83,013 miles. 302-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. New paint and chrome, detailed engine to factory specs. Front edge of dash cracking, ill-fitting interior A-pillar trim. Fitted with Cowl Induction, tilt wheel, and bumper guards. Seat belts and door panels show some age, with worn through corner on driver's $48,400. The last year of the fastback body and the first year that the 440 was available in the Barracuda. Much rarer than a later 'Cuda 440, and cheaper as well. Well bought and sold. #990-1970 FORD MUSTANG Boss 302 fastback. S/N 0T02G115917. Yellow & black/ black vinyl. Odo: 28,248 miles. 302-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Paint a bit thick with some orange peel, but probably no worse than factory paint. New chrome, nice trim. Console shows some wear, seats look “as new.” Said to have documented original miles. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $90,200. A striking color and shiny paint on an original low-mileage Boss 302 means top dollar anywhere and anytime. B-J's Scottsdale sale was the best possible location for this car, so the high price paid wasn't unexpected. #1319.1-1970 CHEVROLET CHEVELLE SS 454 LS6 2-dr hard top. S/N 136370R220595. Green & black/green vinyl. Odo: 4,909 miles. 454-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Documented original-mile LS6 Chevelle with original bill of sale and window sticker. Looks to have had one repaint, but all chrome and door panel. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $51,700. This Camaro had great colors and many new parts, but the interior was a bit weak. The hard work was already done, and there were just enough details left to keep the new owner busy. A lesser car with good documentation and its original engine brought $72,600 at B-J's West Palm Beach sale in April '09 (SCM# 120176), so I'd call this a good buy. NCRS awards, complete documents. Just had painstaking $80k three-year frame-off restoration by Corvette Specialties in Oregon. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $137,500. A well-known Northwest car, originally bought by car dealer Ron Tonkin for his late wife. Highly optioned, always maintained, and restored once in 1988 and again just recently. Hard to fault, and even fitted with $500 N.O.S. seatbelts a week before the sale. Sold slightly under high book, but still well bought. #686-1968 CHEVROLET CAMARO RS/ SS 396 coupe. S/N 124378N440580. Butternut 66 Sports Car Market #941.2-1969 PLYMOUTH 'CUDA 440 fastback. S/N BH29M9B277863. Orange & black/black vinyl. Odo: 71,083 miles. 440-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Very good chrome and paint, some scratches in rear glass. Engine compartment looks factory throughout, interior clean and well fitted. Number 18 of 70 built, matchingnumbers engine and transmission. Fender tag and build sheet included. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT trim look original. N.O.S. Uniroyal tires. Slight variable gap on right door could well have been from the factory. Minor key scratching on side of steering column. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $99,000. Less than 5,000 original miles on a 1970 LS6 454 Chevelle says it all here. A fair sale all around on an exceptional example of GM's halo muscle car. #1283.1-1970 FORD MUSTANG Boss 429 fastback. S/N 0F02Z124194. Green/ black vinyl. Odo: 36,220 miles. 429-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. One small windshield chip,
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Our Cars 1970 BMW 2800 CS coupe excellent paint, chrome, and trim. Comes with Marti Report, window sticker, and build sheet. Awarded Concours Trailered Gold by the Mustang Club of America. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $275,000. The king of the hill in the 1970 Mustang field, and this car was always pretty special, with a huge option list. A top market price, but still bought and sold fairly. #406.1-1971 CHEVROLET CAMARO Owner: B. Mitchell Carlson, Senior Auction Analyst Purchase date: August 1997 Price: $8,000 Mileage since purchase: 20,000 km (12,400 mi) Recent work: Custom dual exhaust system. As a responsible auction reporter, I tend to sound the alarm about buying a gray-market European car when I come across one for sale. There are so many possible problems, including improper importation, inability to pass smog checks, and so on. So what did I go and do? I bought a gray-market BMW. Actually, it was more a case of wanting a specific car. Having been bought by the original owner from BMW's own Dealership Niederaustellung Berlin, right on the Kurfusterdam in West Berlin, it was privately imported into L.A. in 1974, then purchased by a St. Paul college professor in 1977. He sold it a local BMW Club chapter president in the late 1980s, from whom I bought it. While not perfect, this is one of the most rust-free E9s I've ever encountered. It's been waylaid for the last few years while I replaced the cylinder head. Yes, I know the flat-rate manual doesn't allow 3.7 years for that job, but sadistic German engineering also handicapped my heater core repair. I had it registered for the Iola Old Car Show in central Wisconsin last summer, since their special vehicle theme was Imports and Independents. Iola is usually the domain of domestic cars, so I figured it would be the only time I'd be appreciated. I also figured it would be the only 2800 CS out there, but a 3.0 CSi in matching Baikal Blue also appeared. While the coupe got me home, it wasn't trouble free. About 20 miles from home, the left rear wheel cylinder locked up and then puked its DOT 4 on I-94. Conservative driving, downshifting to slow down as much as possible, and taking the exit that's all back streets with no stop signs did get me home. Still, I've been meaning to do a 3.0 CS brake and rear suspension conversion— giving me fully vented rotors on all four corners—and I actually have all the parts for it. I also have a Getrag 5-speed from a 1981 528i to replace the 4-speed, so this will force my hand. I just hope it takes less than three years. But the BMW CCA National Meet is at Road America this year, so that should provide enough incentive. ♦ coupe. S/N 124871L502955. Orange & black/ black vinyl. Odo: 69,962 miles. 350-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. New chrome, trim misfit on rear glass. Deep scratches on driver's side glass, small stone chips in windshield. Well-detailed Several very small paint flaws, but otherwise is essentially still new, as most GNXs are. A few miles for fun, but then stored away for profit. #78 of 547 built. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $75,900. Last seen at Mecum St. Charles in October '09, where it failed to sell at $75,000 (SCM# 143052). This was one of several Xs available at this sale, with this one selling mid-range between the others, as it should have. The low range was $68,200, while the top GNX sold here for an amazing $104,500. #85-1989 CHEVROLET CORVETTE ZR-1 coupe. S/N 1G1YZ21J4K580004. Black/tan cloth. Odo: 344. 350-ci 375-hp fuel-injected V8, 6-sp. ZR-1 prototype. One of 84 press cars, none of which were sold to the public. Paint chipped and scraped, bodywork cracked at tail. Mismatched C6 wheels on front, correct ones inside along with battery cover panel. ZR-1 badges missing. Seats fairly clean engine and new interior. Said to be a California car. Z/28 options fitted. Originally painted Rosewood Metallic. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $55,000. A real Z/28? Proof of California heritage? A nice car, but some questions persist. The need to study the paperwork is essential prior to raising your hand—especially in this market. Well sold. #736-1974 PONTIAC TRANS AM SD 455 coupe. S/N 2V87X4N121858. White & blue/ tan vinyl. Odo: 50,104 miles. 455-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Well-applied paint, nice rubber bumpers. Said to be all original and numbers matching with original SD 455 engine, carburetors, heads, intake, transmission, and differential. with little wear, but clearly a victim of lengthy warehouse neglect. Probably hasn't seen the sun in 20 years. Cond: 4. SOLD AT $55,000. Quite a find, as most of these were used up, destroyed, or went to Europe for the same fate. Sold out of the GM Heritage Collection with the usual warnings about not being licensable. Scruffy and dirty, but real history, and unlikely to sell for less in future. Not cheap, but I say well bought. #77-2006 CHEVROLET CORVETTE Z06 Daytona Pace Car #2 coupe. S/N 1G1YY25Y865100048. Red, orange, yellow, & blue/black & gray leather. 7.0-L 505-hp fuel-injected V8, 6-sp. As-new, number two of three Daytona 500 Pace cars in 2006. Fitted with racing harness, fire extinguisher, strobe connections in rear, and Corsa exhaust. GM Fitted with a/c. Some age and dirt to original interior. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $51,700. A clean car throughout. The 455 was only rated at 290 hp, and although that doesn't sound like huge horsepower, it was as good as it got in '74. The last of the real muscle cars, and one of just 943 built in 1974. Market priced. #980-1987 BUICK GNX coupe. S/N 1G4GJ1174HP445143. Black/gray cloth. Odo: 4,609 miles. 3.8-L turbocharged V6, auto. Heritage car with disclaimer stating no street use and no warranty. Outrageous paint scheme will make you glad you're inside. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $72,600. The Daytona 500 is a big deal to NASCAR fans and this was basically a new car, though expensive. Certainly a conversation piece and wasn't just a static display. I see sunny days in the buyer's future. Go win some local shows and enjoy it. ♦ 68 Sports Car Market
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ Automobiles of Arizona Bargains included a 1947 Chrysler New Yorker Highlander convertible sold for $35,750 and a 1941 Ford Super Deluxe convertible for just $44,000 Company RM Auctions Date January 21–22, 2010 Location Phoenix, Arizona Auctioneer Max Girardo Automotive lots sold / offered 150/168 Sales rate 89% Sales total $19,664,100 High sale 1963 Aston Martin DB4GT, sold at $1,001,000 Buyer's premium 10%, included in sold prices Max Girardo works the Biltmore ballroom on a 1936 Packard, unsold at $390k Report and photos by Carl Bomstead Market opinions in italics while the RM cars were safely stored in the Biltmore garage, the dark, stormy surroundings certainly did not allow them to be presented to their maximum advantage. RM added an extra evening to its normal schedule T and presented “The British are Coming!” which consisted of 55 cars of obvious origin. A standard-bodied lightweight Aston Martin DB4GT sold during that session, and at $1,001,000 it was the auction's high sale. Also offered were bookend 1958 Aston Martin DB Mk IIIs—one a drophead coupe, the other a fixed head. The former realized $330,000 while the later was hammered sold at $275,000. The added day was a definite success, as all but six cars offered found new homes. Two other cars were offered membership in the Million-Dollar Club, but the invitations were declined. A 1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt concept car by LeBaron was bid to $1,175,000, but the owner was looking for more. It was one of five built, of which four remain. Two years ago, RM sold one of the others, which was stated to be “the best of the bunch,” for $1,320,000, and he Phoenix area is often referred to as the Valley of the Sun, but that was very much a misnomer the third week in January. The devastating effects of the wind and rain have been well chronicled, and I'm willing to bet the owner here was looking for something north of that. The welldocumented “Flip-Top” Shelby Cobra was bid to $1,450,000, but that offer was also refused. RM offered a number of other concept cars, including a 1996 Lincoln Sentinel styling buck that sold for $44,000 and an “as found” and rather tattered 1956 Chrysler Plainsman station wagon, which was a no-sale at $160,000. As a general statement, it appears the glitter attached to concepts has waned from its heyday a few years back. As at most every auction, there were “tomatoes and potatoes.” A couple of cars stand out as absolute bargains, including a very presentable 1947 Chrysler New Yorker Highlander convertible that sold for $35,750. A 1941 Ford Super Deluxe convertible that sold for $44,000—about half the high estimate— would also fit in that category. A striking 1934 Ford Brewster Town Car with its unique heartshaped grille sold for $74,250, which was about $100,000 less than the high estimate. In all, RM sold 150 cars for $19,664,100, which was a slight increase over 2009; however, the average sale was about $40,000 less than last year. Still, it would appear RM successfully attracted cars for which sellers had realistic price expectations in today's economic climate. And that always makes for happy buyers. ♦ $5m $10m $15m $20m $25m $30m $35m 0 Sales Totals 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 70 Sports Car Market
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ ENGLISH #249-1933 ROLLS-ROYCE PHANTOM II Continental Three-Position drophead coupe. S/N 74PY. Black/tan fabric/tan. RHD. One of twelve three-position drophead coupes by Gurney Nutting. Stunning styling with massive hood. Older restoration has been well maintained and still shows well. Very nice Gray leather. Odo: 70,959 miles. One of 85 drophead coupes produced. Recent restoration to a high standard, and stated to be numbers matching. Modern 5-speed transmission installed, but original 4-speed with car. Excellent panel fit, good paint shows some minor blemishes, stunning leather interior. Borrani wires a factory option. Tools, books, and records with car. An impressive presentation. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $330,000. This seller also offered a DB Mk III coupe in matching livery as lot 120, which realized $275,000. The drophead is rarer and more desirable, and I have no issue with the price paid. Together the pair would be stunning bookends. #134-1960 ASTON MARTIN DB4GT paint and brightwork, attractive tan leather with black piping. Complete with all books and records. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $528,000. A striking Rolls-Royce Phantom II with history from new. Sold for strong but well-deserved money. Expensive, but worth every cent. Kudos to both buyer and seller. #118-1951 ALLARD K2 roadster. S/N 91K1985. Red/black leather. Odo: 69,576 miles. Built in England by Sidney Allard. A Ford V8 was standard, but this example was equipped with a Cadillac V8 enlarged to 419 ci. Passenger's door fit off a bit, minor paint touch-ups throughout. Chrome Borrani wires, supple leather interior. One of only 119 K2s Zagato Replica racer. S/N DB4384R. Polished aluminum/black fabric. RHD. Rebodied as a Zagato GT in the early '90s, with unique polished alloy panels. Numerous concours and vintage racing wins, nose wears some road rash. Acceptable panel fit. Momo wheel vinyl. Odo: 20,606 km. Designed to carry a race car and provide track side assistance in Europe. Used as technical support vehicles in the U.S, giving product demonstrations and training. One of only eight thought to have survived, with two in the U.S. Six-cylinder Perkins diesel replaced with larger engine. Restored to BMC Competitions Department transporters livery. Decent paint and bodywork. Had B. Mitchell Carlson all excited. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $55,000. Would get all kinds of attention at the next British Field Meet. Sold well below presale expectations of $115k to $145k, so if this is your thing, it was very well bought indeed. GERMAN #268-1958 PORSCHE 356A Speedster. and Spartan racing interior. Attracts all kinds of attention. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $192,500. Sold at a fraction of the cost of a real DB4GT. A 2,300-pound car with 400 hp would certainly be a handful for all but the most skilled drivers. All things considered, this was well bought, and it will be welcome at most vintage events. TOP 10 No. 8 #129-1963 ASTON MARTIN DB4GT coupe. S/N DB4GT0175L. Red/black leather. Odo: 8,091 miles. The GT is a shorter, lightweight variation of the DB4. One of only six built, this was the last produced. Quality respray, mild wear on leather seats, rear screen and quarter windows done built. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $118,250. Last seen at Bonhams & Butterfields' Carmel sale in August '07, where it failed to sell at $85,000 (SCM# 46393). The Cadillac engine was a big plus. Sold mid-estimate, but I'll call it well bought, as K2s are infrequently offered and this was a well sorted example. A ticket to most every vintage racing event. #119-1958 ASTON MARTIN DB MK III drophead coupe. S/N AM30031402. Eng. # DBA1000. Elusive Blue/navy fabric/Dove in Plexiglas. Racing history not stated. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $1,001,000. Last seen at RM's Phoenix sale in January '07, where it sold at $1,265,000 (SCM# 44086). This time it sold mid-estimate, and I'd say it was a decent buy at that. More complete racing history would have added at least a couple hundred thousand to final price, so it's worth doing some research. #133-1963 BMC TECHNICAL SUPPORT van. S/N 144972. Red, white, & blue/black 72 rear badge not gold plated. Stated to be very quick. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $225,500. Speedsters are permanently in demand, even in this soft market for 356s, but here was a car that was painted the wrong color, had the wrong carbs, and had previous collision damage poorly repaired. You have to see beyond the bling of the repro hard top and repro Rudge wheels to look into the heart of this car—the body/chassis unit. Very well sold by about $75k. ITALIAN #203-1969 FIAT JOLLY beach car. S/N 110F2133317. Sand/brown & tan canvas/ wicker. Odo: 1 mile. Recent restoration by Ghia to a high standard, documented as factory correct by Registro Storico Fiat. Quality paint and brightwork, striped seat covers over wicker front seats. Cute as a litter of Golden Retriever puppies. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $55,000. One of Sports Car Market S/N 84791. Bali Blue/blue fabric/navy blue leather. Odo: 60,839 miles. Extensive restoration to highest standard. Numbers matching, Kardex certification. Fitted with matching hard top and Rudge-style wheels. Color not original to car. Hood fit off a bit at leading edge,
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ Glovebox Notes 2012 Lexus LFA Supercar A brief look at cars of interest that have passed through the SCM stable. 2. SOLD AT $325,000. A wonderful car for early tours. Early significant cars still bring strong money, although I'd bet this would have brought another $100k or so prior to the current economic troubles. I doubt you'll get passed by any other car from the era. Price: $375,000–$390,000 Work on the Lexus LFA started ten years ago with one mission: to be the best supercar ever. Did they succeed? I'd say yes. The LFA is Lexus's halo car, and it's even named as such—“L” for Lexus, “F” for Fuji, (home to Toyota) and “A” for Apex. Critics complained about the long lead time and styling of the LFA (and Nissan's GT-R is $300k cheaper), but one must see and drive the LFA to appreciate it. This is Toyota's 202-mph McLaren F1. Technically it's impressive, with everything from lightweight Torx-headed wheel bolts to four types of carbon fiber in the body tub and a computer-controlled titanium muffler. The 4.8-liter, 552-hp, 9,500-rpm redline V10 was designed with input from Toyota's F1 program and Yamaha. It's a 72-degree vee with a five-plane crankshaft and—impressively—it's smaller than the firm's 2.5-liter V6. It sits so low in the chassis that the tops of the cam covers are the same height as the top of the front tires, has a 48/52 weight distribution, and weighs 3,200 lb. Its center of gravity is less than 18 inches from the pavement, literally at the occupants' hip level when seated, and the aluminum sub-frame for the rear suspension weighs just 13 pounds. A few Homestead Speedway hot laps in the only LFA prototype in the U.S. (chasing Scott Pruett) showed just how well it all works. The LFA accelerates like its hair is on fire, has hand-of-God brakes, feels glued to the pavement, and makes intoxicating noises. Think F1 racer with a license plate. Lexus will only produce 500 bespoke cars as 2012 models, and the factory—not dealers—will decide who gets one. List price will be in the $375k–$390k range, and just 160 will be coming to the U.S., with a 24-month lease-to-own arrangement your only option. Roughly two-thirds will be payable up front, with one payment at the end, after which the car is yours. If you get selected and don't want yours, call me. Check out www.lexus-lfa.com for more.— Colin Comer ♦ these shows up at almost every major auction, but they are not usually finished to this standard. Fully priced, but not silly money. Call this one fair all the way around. Just the ticket for running out for more tonic and limes. #228-1971 FERRARI 365 GTB/4 Daytona coupe. S/N 14581. Rosso Rubino/black leather. Odo: 2,888 miles. Full restoration about four years ago, recent engine rebuild. Stated to be matching numbers. Well maintained, with only minor paint issues due to use. Attractive tan and Pilot Rays and cowl lights, dual taillights. Massive 154-inch wheelbase. The recipient of numerous awards over the years. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $506,000. A realistic price for an attractive but closed J Duesenberg. The boxy Arlington design does not appeal to all, but I'd call this deal fair all around. black leather interior with slight wear to bolster. Engine compartment clean and tidy. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $264,000. A strong Daytona that sold for strong but correct money. A blue-chip investment in the car world. This is something you can maintain and drive without losing a nickel—it's a lot more fun than a stack of stock certificates. A solid transaction all around. AMERICAN #263-1917 PIERCE-ARROW MODEL 66-A4 7-Passenger touring. S/N 67219. Twotone gray/black fabric/black leather. RHD. Odo: 2,862 miles. Large, powerful engine with patented signature “Bug-Eye” headlights. Well maintained by noted Pierce-Arrow experts. Minor fit and finish issues, fitted with wood artillery wheels and optional Johnson rims. One of the best cars available in the era. Cond: sidepipes, and chrome wheel covers. Older respray is still presentable. A handsome Duesenberg. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $550,000. Not quite a “bitsa,” but darn close. If it had been fitted with an authentic body and engine, the price would have been at least twice what was paid here. This buyer got the look at half price, but he'll have lots of explaining to do at every outing. #248-1933 AUBURN TWELVE convert- ible sedan. S/N 2148H. Gray & maroon/black canvas/gray leather. Odo: 475 miles. From the Richard and Linda Kughn Collection. Restored 74 Sports Car Market #297-1932 DUESENBERG MODEL J tourster. S/N 2534. Eng. # J356. Light green/ tan canvas/green leather. Odo: 61,239 miles. Replica Derham Tourster body thought to have been made by Ted Billings. Assembled from components from numerous Duesenbergs. Over the years owned by numerous wellknown collectors. Equipped with Pilot Rays, #264-1930 DUESENBERG MODEL J Arlington 5-Passenger club sedan. S/N 2261. Eng. # J232. Cream & tan/beige canvas /tan cloth. Odo: 15,243 miles. The only Model J Arlington Club Sedan built by Derham. Certified by the ACD Club, restored in the early '60s with recent cosmetic work. Dual
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ in early 2000, driven 300 miles since it was acquired. Attractive color combination, but a number of painted trim details are not correct. Very nice interior with correct gauges, Columbia rear end, Pilot Ray lights not connected. Excellent panel fit. Certified by the ACD Club. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $156,750. Last seen at RM's Detroit auction in September '03, where it sold for $214,500 (SCM# 36396), and at that time SCM stated the price was all the money and then some. It sold for a more realistic number here, but boy, were those 300 miles expensive... at $190 each, I sure hope they were enjoyable. #222-1934 BREWSTER FORD town car. S/N 18871195. Brewster Green/black vinyl/gray leather & fab- ric. Odo: 79 miles. One of 83 town cars built built by Brewster, and stated to be the prototype. Recent restoration to high standard. Cain veneer on rear panels, engine highly detailed, used a flowing fender line and wire wheels. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $209,000. Lincoln Model Ks represent an excellent value and sell for far less than comparable V12 Packards. The bold choice of livery here most likely held things back a bit, but the buyer now owns an excellent Lincoln at a fair price. #275-1935 AUBURN 851SC cabriolet. excellent paint and brightwork. Distinctive Brewster heart-shaped grille. The only Ford recognized by CCCA as Full Classic. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $77,000. A screaming deal at well below the $125k–$175k pre-sale estimates. Welcome at CCCA events, as well as most others, and it will always draw a crowd. Could have easily sold for another $50k without question. Very well bought. #289-1934 PACKARD SUPER EIGHT Dual-Cowl Sport phaeton. S/N 76129. Dark S/N 33891M. Maroon/tan fabric/tan leather. Odo: 19,947 miles. A well-restored example showing unmarked paint and chrome, but with Phillips head screws used on window trim. Excellent tan leather interior with correct dash. Equipped with Trippe Speedlights. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $137,500. The 851 was a “new” gray & black/black Haartz cloth/gray leather. Odo: 45,287 miles. Frame-off restoration in the late '80s, well maintained since with periodic cosmetic updates. Woodlite headlights and cowl lights, Lalique hood ornament. Stated to be an authentic dual cowl. Paint and brightwork show minor signs of age and use. One of the most desirable of all Packard body styles. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $192,500. The 1934 Dual Cowl was not mentioned in Packard literature. It's thought that only five were built, and of them, three remain today. The question that hovers over this one is how it was born. If it can be documented as one of the five, then it was very well bought. If not, I'd say it was well sold. #259-1935 LINCOLN MODEL K con- vertible coupe. S/N K3872. Yellow/tan fabric/ tan leather. Odo: 60,213 miles. Striking Brunndesigned Lincoln K convertible coupe. Bold color does not appeal to all and may not be an original presentation. Older restoration has been well maintained. The last year Lincoln quiet and smooth V12 engine. A wonderful tour car. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $123,750. Cadillac V12s represent an excellent value. They're a treat to drive on a CCCA CARavan with your companion in the lap of luxury in the rear passenger compartment. Well bought, but the market for these cars is shrinking. #216-1936 FORD CUSTOM roadster. S/N 181671177. Maroon metallic/white vinyl/ white & maroon leather. Built by Donn Lowe, featured in the February '08 issue of Street Rodder magazine. Fitted with '39 LaSalle grille and LED taillights. 286-ci Flathead fitted charger at less than $150,000 is a bargain, but even so, this was a market-correct transaction. #290-1935 CADILLAC V12 370-D town cabriolet. S/N 41871. Black/landau leather/ black leather & fabric. Odo: 73,654 miles. Coachwork by Fleetwood. Thought to be one of five built and one of two left on the road. Older restoration has been well maintained, won several awards in 2004 and 2005. Very nice paint and brightwork, luxurious interior, with Navarro heads and all the goodies. Holley 4-bbl, Weiand supercharger. Well maintained excellent paint and brightwork. Built to reflect the styling of early hot rods. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $132,000. A strong car that sold for correct money. Most customs have some detractors, but this one represented period iconic styling that appeals to most all. Well bought and sold. #262-1936 PACKARD SUPER EIGHT Gordon Buehrig design for Auburn. The SC was fitted with Schwitzer-Cummins supercharger and 2-speed Columbia rear end. With the exception of the boattail, Auburns have never received their due. Inexpensive when new, they have carried that tag ever since. A well-styled rumble-seat cabriolet with a super- 76 1404 Dual Cowl phaeton. S/N 941202. Eng. # 757345. Dark green/light green fabric/green leather. Odo: 4,615 miles. One of just two original-bodied examples thought to exist. Numerous Best in Class awards, including Pebble Beach, Meadow Brook, and Amelia Island. Also driven on several tours. Restored in the late '80s, maintained by Fran Roxas since. Cond: 1-. NOT SOLD AT $390,000. Sports Car Market
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ Cond: 1-. NOT SOLD AT $1,175,000. RM has twice sold Thunderbolt 7807976, most recently for $1,320,000 (SCM# 49585). It was stated to be the “best of the bunch” so another couple hundred thousand here may not have been unreasonable. One the other side of the coin, that was then and this is now, and where will the seller get more than was offered here? #209-1947 CHRYSLER NEW YORKER Highlander convertible. S/N 7058997. Black/black fabric/ This well-known, highly-documented Packard should have brought a number closer to $500k. I suspect the owner had seller's remorse, but I can't fault him for hanging on at this bid. #278-1940 LINCOLN CONTINENTIAL cabriolet. S/N H103330. Black/black fabric/ red leather. Odo: 35,216 miles. Single-family ownership for 30 years, quality older restoration. Wonderful red leather interior, plating dull and pitted, top worn. Taillight housings badly pitted, window trim scratched. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $74,250. 1940 was the first year for the “handbuilt” Continental, and only 350 cabriolets were manufactured that year. The red & blue plaid. Odo: 782 miles. Older restoration showing signs of age and use. Minor paint scratches and touch-ups, attractive Highlander interior. Engine bay clean and tidy. Loaded with options, fitted with Fluid Drive Herrington conversion surviving. Fresh restoration shows very well, with excellent wood and brightwork and only minor blemishes in paint. Comes with tool kit, books, and records. Several Best of Show awards. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $176,000. The four-wheel-drive conversion caused these woodies to sit up several inches higher than normal, which looks a bit odd. At RM's Nick Alexander auction in Monterey last August, a '46 Ford Marmon-Herrington sold for $247,500 (SCM# 141195). That car had a better restoration, but the Mercury is rarer. Well bought if “the only one” is your thing. #217-1949 FORD CUSTOM woodie semi-automatic transmission. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $35,750. This fell through the cracks and sold for a song compared to its $50k–$75k estimate range. The seller had reportedly turned down $50k a few months back, and I'd agree that it should be worth at least that amount. There's a buy at most every auction, and this was the one here. Very well bought. V12 engine can be a problem if underrevved while driving, as the original oil pump isn't up to snuff. There was no note of mechanical modifications, so that was a big question here. If that problem had been taken care of, then this was a decent buy... if not, the new owner had better be prepared to write a lot more checks. #281-1941 CHRYSLER THUNDERBOLT Concept convertible. S/N 7807943. Eng. # C30-1323. Green & copper/copper/ green leather. Odo: 108 miles. One of five Thunderbolt concept cars built, each slightly different. Four remain. The first American car with a fully retractable hard top. Aluminum body with copper plated brass trim, prototype three-speed Fluid Drive transmission. Luciteedged illuminated gauges. Recent restoration to high standard, shown at Pebble Beach and Amelia Island. First sold to actor Bruce Cabot. #251-1948 CHRYSLER TOWN & COUNTRY sedan. S/N 71003275. Eng. # C38150448. Maroon & wood/red Highlander plaid. Odo: 95,465 miles. Recent restoration has been well maintained. Long list of options including roof rack, fog lights, and dual spots. Most wood original, some uneven panel gaps, wagon. S/N 98BA342864. Black & wood/tan leatherette. Odo: 76,543 miles. Wood restored by Nick Alexander's facility, paint and other bodywork lacking. Crease on edge of hood, paint deteriorating on front fenders. Numerous other scratches and dings noted. Cool rack on roof. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $52,250. Woodies for '49 were only offered as two doors with Custom trim. The first stop should be the paint shop, as a decent respray will add a ton to this. Bought for a touch under the money, but that will even out with the bodywork and paint. #245-1952 MERCURY MONTEREY Special Custom convertible. S/N trunk sits a bit high. Excellent brightwork. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $104,500. The difference in values between T&C sedans and convertibles has been growing smaller in recent years. The market is appreciating the style and elegance of these sedans, and they are now priced accordingly. As such, there should be no issue with price paid here. #260-1948 MERCURY MARMONHERRINGTON woodie wagon. S/N 899A2201568. Maroon & wood/tan leatherette. Odo: 190 miles. Possibly the only 1948 Mercury woodie four-wheel-drive Marmon- 78 Sports Car Market 52L31291MA. Pebble Tan/white canvas/cream & orange vinyl & nylon. Odo: 4,524 miles. Attractive early '50s convertible restored some years back. Paint dull and in need of wet sand and buff, brightwork shows a few buffer marks on window trim. Engine highly detailed, newly installed top fits properly. Odd interior colors, but showing only minor wear. Will turn some
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ heads at your local show. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $49,500. Sold for realistic and market-correct money. In today's world, this is an entry-level collector car, and it can be used and enjoyed with no real financial exposure down the road. Fair all around. #254-1954 MERCURY XM-800 Concept coupe. S/N XM505555. White /bronze/white & bronze leather. 312-ci V8, 2-bbl, auto. Concept car based on a Mercury Monterey chassis. Rescued from a field in the mid-'70s. Fiberglass body, chrome-plated fiberglass brightwork. Recent restoration to good standard, side panels straight but door gaps wide at tattered. A unique one-off wagon, but needs everything. Cond: 4. NOT SOLD AT $160,000. The market for concept cars appears to be waning, and this one gets expensive when you factor in the cost of restoration. Holding out for more may be risky, as this was likely the best venue for such a car. #300-1956 PACKARD CARIBBEAN bottom. A historically significant automobile. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $429,000. Last seen unrestored on eBay Motors in January '09, where it was reported sold at $315,500 (SCM# 119411). Compared to other concept car sales in the past few years, this was a bargain. The F-88 Oldsmobile comes to mind at over $3m (SCM# 36957), and the XM-800 has more history. I'd call this well bought. See the profile, p. 50. #242-1955 ASTRA coupe. S/N WA94173298. Blue/white vinyl. 303-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Full custom built by Jay Everett in the early '50s, and very futuristic for the era. 1952 Olds Rocket V8, Lincoln automatic transmission. Restored to original configuration in detailing. Trim dented, left lower molding not properly attached. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $79,750. In 1955, Packard featured new fresh styling with its OHV V8. This car needed to have someone fix the little nits that the seller neglected, and once they're done, it'll have a much better look. These always draw a crowd, and for the price paid, the new owner has a good car that will be a hit at the next Packard meet. 2005 and featured in a number of car publications. No real issues, but has homemade look to it. Cond: 2+. NOT SOLD AT $120,000. Seller was looking for a number closer to $200k, but that wasn't going to happen here. To my eye, there are any number of more interesting choices for that same money. If it doesn't sell at a major auction in Arizona, where else do you take it? #257-1956 CHRYSLER PLAINSMAN Concept wagon. S/N 9999760. Bronze metallic/brown & white/brown leather. Odo: 50,354 miles. 440-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Designed by Virgil Exner with Chrysler's “Forward Look.” Used in Cuba and Australia. Replacement engine. In as-found condition, with poor paint and chunks of filler missing. Interior worn and 80 #266-1957 FORD FAIRLANE 500 Skyliner retractable hard top. S/N D7RW204883. Willow Green & white/white/ green vinyl & fabric. Odo: 20,682 miles. 312-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Stored in a barn for over 40 years. Comprehensive restoration completed in 2006, numerous awards since. Excellent paint with minor swirls, very nice interior. Only offered for three years. The top takes up most of the trunk space, so pack lightly. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $74,250. These always draw a crowd, as people marvel at '50s gimmickry. convertible. S/N 56991110. White, rose & gray pearl/white vinyl/tri-tone leather. Odo: 40,103 miles. 352-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, auto. Reversible seat cushion with leather on one side and cloth on the other. One of 270 built. Recent restoration, but no blanket underhood, along with incorrect paint feature missing, dash now split and interior worn. Windows delaminating, paint edgy. An interesting story. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $220,000. This was restored from parts from a number of different junkyards, so I have to question their origin. The price paid seems like a lot of money for a “Raindrop” that no longer functions, but compared to the 1958 owned and used by Harley Earl which sold at RM's Tarpon Springs sale in December '07 for $330,000 (SCM# 47748), it wasn't a bad deal overall. #241-1959 DESOTO ADVENTURER convertible. S/N M491100669. Black & gold/ black vinyl/gold vinyl & brocade. Odo: 46 miles. 383-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, auto. One of only 97 Adventurer convertibles produced. Fresh Concours restoration with recent AACA Senior First Award. Fitted with power steering, power brakes, power windows, power driver's seat, They go from hard top to convertible in 25 seconds, but they can be tough to repair when things go wrong. Price paid was in line for an example restored to this standard, and the first task will be to find someone who understands how the top works. The new owner will need them. #256-1958 CADILLAC ELDORADO Biarritz Raindrop Motorama convertible. S/N 58E013586. Blue metallic/white vinyl/blue leather. Odo: 8,310 miles. 365-ci V8, 3x2-bbl, auto. One of five Biarritz convertibles converted to “Raindrop” show cars, with a sensor on the rear deck to automatically raise the convertible top when it detected rain. Scrapped by GM, rescued in pieces from several different junkyards some years later and put back together. Raindrop swivel buckets, power top, and push-button TorqueFlite transmission. Correct bullet wheel covers. The last year for the true DeSoto, and about as good as it gets. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $225,500. A stunning presentation of a unique and desirable Adventurer. Expensive, but worth every penny. A year ago or so, I would have expected this to bring another $50k, so at this price, I'd call it well bought. Sports Car Market
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RM Auctions Phoenix, AZ #243-1959 CADILLAC ELDORADO Biarritz convertible. S/N 59E029563. Seminole Red/white vinyl/white leather. Odo: 209 miles. 390-ci V8, 3x2-bbl, auto. Top-ofthe-line model along with the Seville hard top, noted for the exaggerated fins. Only four options offered, all of which were installed here, including E-Z Eye glass, Autronic Eye, Grand National Senior. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $57,750. I'd have to think that the combination of a quality restoration, a rare engine, and a/c would have pushed this price more mid-range of the $60k to $80k estimates. The cost of restoration must have exceeded the selling price, so chalk this one up for the buyer. I'm willing to bet the seller was expecting more. a/c, and cruise control. Pneumatic suspension exchanged for conventional springs, which is rather common. A strong example of a like-itor-leave-it '59 Biarritz. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $220,000. Obviously two Cadillac fanatics had to have this and one would not give up until he owned it. Sold for over-the-top money, but this was one of the best examples I've seen in a while. If you want the best, you often have to dig deep. #304-1959 CHEVROLET CORVETTE convertible. S/N J9S108205. Frost Blue & white/white vinyl/turquoise vinyl. Odo: 39,876 miles. 283-ci 270-hp V8, 2x4-bbl, 4-sp. Offered with both tops, Positraction rear end, and Wonderbar radio. NCRS Top Flight and Bloomington Gold in early '90s, has been highly detailed. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $145,750. A 300F Achieved 144 mph at Daytona's Flying Mile in 1960. Chrysler “Letter” convertibles continue to bring serious money, and the recent market troubles have resulted in little if any downturn on them. Well restored and maintained examples tend to bring this kind of money, so this one was spot on. well maintained since. Minor signs of time, but still very presentable. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $121,000. Strong money for a 283/270 that was well past its prime. I'd think the high estimate would be all the money, but obviously two bidders had to have it. Well sold. #211-1960 FORD THUNDERBIRD con- vertible. S/N 0Y73J130019. Monte Carlo Red/ white vinyl/red leather. Odo: 91,280 miles. 430-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. One of 377 '60 T-Birds equipped with the 430-ci J-code “MEL” engine. Last year for “Square Bird” styling. Quality restoration with little to fault. Minor swirls in paint, excellent interior. Loaded with options including a/c and power driver's seat. AACA #265-1964 SHELBY COBRA 427 “Flip- Top” roadster. S/N CSX2196. Blue & white/ black fabric. Odo: 4,006. 427-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Developed and raced by Ken Miles. The only 427 designed and built by Shelby, as all Pak. Minor issues with paint include touchups and a few scratches. Brightwork just OK. Listed in the Shelby Registry. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $126,500. The Drag Pak adds about $20k to the value here. As such, the price paid was light by about that amount, so this one goes to the buyer—although not all favor the automatic. ♦ #250-1960 CHRYSLER 300F convert- ible. S/N 8403124419. Toreador Red/black fabric/tan leather. Odo: 680 miles. 413-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, auto. Cross ram induction, power swivel bucket seats, Astra-Dome instrument cluster. One of 248 300F convertibles built in 1960, and one of perhaps 80 still on the road. Older restoration with limited use since completion. Engine compartment clean but not Older restoration completed in the mid-'80s, now shows minor paint imperfections and brightwork buffer marks. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $632,500. Featured in a number of publications, including American Muscle Cars. How much did 20 years in the Chandler Collection add to this car's value? The price paid was in line with the market, so it wasn't a whole lot. #252-1970 SHELBY GT500 convertible. S/N OFO3R482817. White & blue/white vinyl/white vinyl. Odo: 7,790 miles. 428-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. The only triple white example known. Original Certicard, fitted with Drag others were done by Ford. Raced in GT class with Corvette Grand Sports, and its unique body configuration earned it the nickname “Flip-Top.” Has participated in numerous West Coast vintage races. Well maintained with extensive history. Cond: 2. NOT SOLD AT $1,450,000. If the price here is to be compared to a Grand Sport, then the final bid was on the light side. The seller's option is to wait for things in the market to turn around. How many vintage racers can drive a car this hairy without getting into serious trouble? #277-1967 SHELBY COBRA 427 road- ster. S/N CSX3281. Black/black leather. Odo: 377 miles. 427-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Documented in the Shelby Registry. Part of the Otis Chandler collection for 20 years. Features several S/C upgrades, including roll bar and 42-gallon tank. Fitted with chrome pipes and quick jacks. 82 Sports Car Market
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ The Scottsdale Auction For the third year in a row, Gooding sold seven cars for $1m or more and also claimed the week's high sale, this time with a $3.74m Jaguar D-type Company Gooding & Company Date January 22–23, 2010 Location Scottsdale, Arizona Auctioneer Charlie Ross Automotive lots sold / offered 115/125 Sales rate 92% Sales total $33,990,250 High sale 1956 Jaguar D-type sports racer, sold at $3,740,000 Buyer's premium 1956 D-type, $3.74m high sale of the Arizona weekend Report and photos by Donald Osborne Market opinions in italics from 101 in 2009, with 115 sold against 84 last year, and a 92% sale rate, up from 83%. For the third year in a row, the number of cars sold F for the benchmark $1m or more was the same, at seven. It was only in the dollar value of the high sale that 2010 dipped from last year. The $3.74m paid for the exKen Miles 1956 Jaguar D-type was shy of the $4.95m brought by the Ferrari SWB California Spyder in 2009. But the Jag was high sale for all the Arizona auctions, once again earning Gooding the crown. The sale featured what seemed to be more no-reserve lots than in the past, but they represented a rhythm in spacing, so that no period of no-sales could sap the room's energy. In fact, the first no-sale came at lot 41, a '31 Cadillac V16 Sport phaeton with a lovely older restoration in dull colors. Stopping on the block at $400k, it later changed hands for $410k with commission. Among star lots, the D-type bid quickly to $2m on its way to selling at the market-right $3.74m. The equally evocative ex-Briggs Cunningham Lister Costin Jaguar sold just under expectations at $1.1m. A car that drew lots of attention as the Saturday cover car was the 1959 Ferrari 250 GT Series I Pininfarina cabriolet. The bidding range was short—auctioneer Ross opened at $1m, slowly bringing the bidders along to $1.5m, at which 84 or their third sale in Arizona, Gooding & Company improved or equaled their measures, save one. Gooding added another day of selling, and in those two days they offered 125 cars, up point the phones came in and pushed it up to the hammer of $1.95m to a bidder in the room who paid $2,145,000 all-in. The first publicly sold cars from the late Houston attorney John O'Quinn's collection counted for just under $8.3m of the total realized. All 25 cars sold, mostly at 85%–90% of their recent purchase price—better than other investments in the same period. Notable lots included a stylish prototype Frua-bodied Maserati Mexico Speciale, seen at auction several times and a bit rough around the edges. It soared to an amazing $187k. Another Italian rarity was the OM Tipo 665 tourer. This older, driver-level example was a very good deal at $85,250 and a nice alternative to a Lancia Lambda or Bentley 3 Liter. The dramatic 1,000-hp, 27-liter, Merlin V12-engined 1931 RollsRoyce Phantom II sold at $451,000 and seemed the perfect antidote to poseurs in Bugatti Veyrons. The appeal of preservation manifested itself in the strong $660,000 paid for a long-parked '55 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Gullwing, which hopefully can be carefully recommissioned without losing its impressive originality. Among unsold lots, the 1962 Shelby 260 Cobra—the first Cobra to win a race—ran out of interest at $1.6m, a figure some felt could have seen it go. And the auction also manifested a weakness in the area of '40s and '50s Americana. Failing to sell were good examples of the '53 Buick Skylark, Cadillac Eldorado, and Oldsmobile Fiesta convertibles, as well as a rare '47 Ford Super Deluxe Sportsman. With the number of lots on hand, a two- day sale was a wise choice. More than 50 or 60 cars in a single session tests the endurance and attention span of audiences. That, together with consignors serious about selling, meant satisfaction for everyone involved. ♦ Sales Totals $5m $10m $15m $20m $25m $30m $35m 0 Sports Car Market 2010 2009 2008 10%, included in sold prices
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ ENGLISH #39-1927 BENTLEY 6½ LITER Sport coupe. S/N TW2713. Eng. # TW2716. Black/ green leather. RHD. Odo: 60,575 miles. Coachwork by Surbiton. Excellent panel fit, excellent paint and fabric on body. Chrome good, but overplating on radiator badge obscures detail. Wear on steering wheel boss is the only flaw in an otherwise very good interior. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $726,000. An original #165-1939 ORLEBAR SCHNEIDER LE MANS Special racer. S/N 0F11005. Eng. # 100E6520B. Red/black leather. RHD. Odo: 277 miles. Very good panel fit, good paint shows light polish scratches. Nice interior with Jaguar main gauges and beautifully trimmed seats. 1172 Ford engine with Elva head and twin SU carbs. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $72,600. Alloybodied English Ford-powered special. Begun body on spectacular and dramatic big Bentley coupe. Not handsome, but has great presence. Sold at RM Monterey in August '06 for $781k (SCM# 42743). Rated then as condition #2, it's had some tidying but unfortunately gone only 17 miles since. Bentleys should be driven, and hopefully this one will be now. Well bought. #18-1931 ROLLS-ROYCE PHANTOM II Merlin drophead coupe. S/N 64GX. Brewster Green/black canvas/black leather. RHD. Odo: 2,650 miles. Coachwork by Wilkinson in the style of Gurney-Nutting. Excellent panel fit, very good paint shows only minute flaws. Spotless bright trim, superb interior has been nicely broken in and features an excellent dashboard filled with switches and gauges for the monstrous 27-liter Merlin V12. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $451,000. Exquisitely done Merlin pre-war by an RAF officer, finished in the late '40s by Sidney Allard's brother. Run in competition in the U.K., sold to U.S. in the late '70s. Offered at Mecum's Elkhart Lake sale in July '99, where it was a no-sale at $19,500 (SCM# 20680). Considerably sorted, massaged, and freshened since. Absolutely wonderful. I'd call this well bought for rally and vintage race fun. #3-1954 ARNOLT-MG drophead coupe. S/N 26332. Eng. # 26658. Red/beige canvas/ beige leather. Odo: 28 miles. Good panel fit, unmarked chrome, very good paint shows light polish scratches. Well-done interior shows some soiling on front carpets, as well as scratches on dash top and seat adjusters. Fitted with original Motorola radio. A well-done older restoration on a mini GT tourer. Cond: 2-. in right sill. Cockpit very clean, underhood likewise. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $1,100,000. ExBriggs Cunningham. Beautiful in a purposeful way; characterful and important. All the right collectibility buttons were duly pushed. Well presented and well bought. See the profile, p. 52. aero engine-powered Phantom II. With over 1,000 hp, it makes a Bugatti Veyron seem effete. Shown at Pebble Beach Concours. The donor car, a Phantom II sedan, was sold at Christie's Beaulieu in July 1969 for $13,956 (SCM# 7326). Later, the aero car was sold by RM in Monterey in August ‘99 for $605k (SCM# 22226), then was offered again by RM in Tarpon Springs, FL, for $412,500 in December '07 (SCM# 47743). Has basically retained its value since, as well it might. Well bought and sold. See the profile, p. 42. 86 SOLD AT $143,000. A bespoke MG TC—a terrier in an Italian suit—and one of 36 drophead models built. Unless fitted with a supercharger, these cars are far more show than go. Sold at RM's Ponder Collection sale in Marshall, TX, in April '07, where it made $88,000 (SCM# 44890). While a non-supercharged TC is pretty slow, this one proved to have handily outperformed other investment instruments in the past three years. Well sold. TOP 10 No. 1 #16-1956 JAGUAR D-TYPE sports racer. S/N XKD528. Eng. # E20359. White & blue/blue leather. RHD. Odo: 16,165 miles. Very good panel fit, superb paint. Interior shows little wear and features proper matte crackle paint on dash. Engine compartment restored to show condition and looks excellent throughout. Ex-Ken Miles and Bobby Unser. Sports Car Market #30-1961 ROLLS-ROYCE SILVER CLOUD II drophead coupe. S/N LSWC596. Black/tan canvas/tan leather. Odo: 59,985 miles. Coachwork by H.J. Mulliner. Good panel fit, paint shows some stress cracks, a few touched-in chips, and light polish scratches. Generally good chrome, except for polish scratches and an area of fading on radiator shell. Redyed seats still supple, wood excellent with a few minor blemishes. HMV radio. Cond: Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $3,740,000. This D-type featured a well documented history and had been owned, and used, by some of the most important U.S. collectors and racers. Restored to a very high but not excessive level by a marque specialist, which shows quite well. Previously seen at RM's Monterey sale in August '02, where it sold for $924,000 (SCM# 28801). Even accounting for the cost of the current restoration, a four-fold increase in value in eight years isn't bad. And the car's been driven 3,600 miles in that time. Wonderful. TOP 10 No. 6 #23-1959 LISTER COSTIN JAGUAR sports racer. S/N BHL123. Eng. # LC12998. White & blue/black vinyl. RHD. Good panel fit, as per build. Good paint shows polish scratches and a small dent
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ 3+. SOLD AT $319,000. Ex-David Walters. U.S.-delivery Cloud II drophead, one of 75 LHD cars. A color change from Pearl White, as the car was when offered at Kruse Auburn in September '98, where it was a no-sale at $110k (SCM# 11850). Black no doubt suits it much better. Seems well cared for, but given the condition, the price was high. Well sold. #44-1984 ROLLS-ROYCE CAMARGUE coupe. S/N SCAYJ42A0ECX07948. Rose Metallic & beige/Magnolia leather. Odo: 35,175 miles. Excellent panel fit, very good paint and chrome. Interior remarkably clean for such a light color and only let down by clumsily repainted guide lines on control knobs. Pioneer multi-disc CD/cassette player fitted. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $35,200. One of just 530 of the tragically unloved and Interior practically unused. A brand-new DB AR1. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $170,500. A followup to the DB7 Zagato for the U.S. market. Based on the MSRP of $225,000, it's held value well. As an example of what to do with a $225k investment over seven years, it's better than Bear Stearns, and more fun to boot. Well sold. FRENCH #31-1931 BUGATTI TYPE 49 cabriolet. S/N 49427. Eng. # L327. Burgundy/burgundy canvas/burgundy leather. RHD. Odo: 28,279 km. Coachwork by Beutler. Excellent panel fit, smooth paint shows light polish scratches. Very good alloy and chrome trim, excellent interior. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $264,000. A Swiss-bodied unrespected top-of-the-line Rolls-Royce coupes of the '70s and '80s. They have yet to find their champions, either among RollsRoyce or Italian design enthusiasts. Superbly restored and presented, and a screaming deal at the price paid. #114-1989 ASTON MARTIN LAGONDA Series IV 4-dr sedan. S/N SCFDL01S4KTL13614. Black/Parchment leather. Very good panel fit, with immense gaps as per factory. Good paint shows evidence of a disagreement with a garage door on left front ender. Heavily creased and soiled driver's seat, f slightly wavy dash Type 49 that was elegant, conservative, and very well done by an SCMer. Seen at several major shows and still quite fresh. The styling would not be to everyone's taste, but I find it both subtle and attractive. A bargain at under the low estimate of $275k. Very well bought. #122-1938 BUGATTI TYPE 57C cabrio- top, excellent wood trim. Fitted with Sony CD changer/cassette stereo. Cond: 3-. SOLD AT $56,100. The later version of the Aston flying wedge, with a working dashboard and fixed headlights. Very evil-looking in black, this would be the perfect transport for The Green Hornet. Nicer than most, but very well sold at the price paid. #138-2003 ASTON MARTIN DB AR1 roadster. S/N SCFAE62353K800089. Gray metallic/red leather. Odo: 254 miles. Very good panel fit, excellent paint, unmarked wheels. 88 let. S/N 57584. Eng. # C15. Dark blue/brown leather. RHD. Odo: 27 km. Somewhat variable panel fit, good paint shows some prep flaws. Excellent bright trim and interior. Born as a T57 Stelvio cabriolet, chassis 57577. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $429,000. Well-done re-creation of the one-off Corsica-bodied T57S now owned by John Mozart. Shortened original chassis. wheel center emblem. Fitted with Becker Nurburg radio. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $242,000. Not the ultimate spec SC, but the sleeker roadster model rather than the more formal cabriolet. The over-20-year-old restoration had held up quite well, and for once, the estimates of $175k to $225k seemed low—it sold where it should and was still well bought. #144-1955 MERCEDES-BENZ 300SL Gullwing coupe. S/N 1980405500664. Eng. # 1989805500716. Ivory/red vinyl. Odo: 32,087 miles. Excellent panel fit, largely original paint could be polished to a shine and shows no dents or evidence of corrosion. Chrome generally good, with some pitting on headlight trim. Interior shows relatively little wear, with Sports Car Market good paint has light polish scratches, interior shows soiling as well as some wear on bright trim. Fitted with factory a/c. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $176,000. The last of the big Facels. In my opinion, red is not the best color for this car, but it certainly had presence. Sold exactly on the market. GERMAN #35-1954 MERCEDES-BENZ 300S roadster. S/N 0023853. Eng. # 0024553. Red/ beige canvas/brown leather. Odo: 62,948 km. Excellent panel fit, hood gap a bit wide at front end. Superb paint, very good chrome, interior has nicely broken-in seats and excellent wood trim. Some loss of finish visible on steering The Bugatti registry opines that this is 57577, rather than 57584, which is the number it wears, and there seems to be no disagreement. With a stock Stelvio selling in the $400k-$500k range, this seems to carry no penalty. It was lovely, but I'd rather have a real Stelvio. Well sold. #126-1963 FACEL VEGA FACEL II coupe. S/N HK2B100. Red/Parchment leather. Odo: 11,461 miles. 383-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Good panel fit, trunk lid is a bit high. Very
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ seats, some wear on dash top, and scratches on base plate of ignition switch. The 1959 New York Auto Show car. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $2,145,000. Ex-Bob Grossman. Absolutely stunning covered headlight Series 1 PF cabriolet, a car I frankly find more attractive than the California Spider. Originally delivered in red with white leather, changed to current scheme by Bill Kontes in the late '80s. It's a veteran of nine Colorado Grand rallies, so it should be sorted. Priced right, and a bargain at that. some open seams on driver's seat, light pitting on bright trim, and barn soil on floor mats. Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $660,000. U.S.-delivery Gullwing that was in the original owner's hands until 2009 and was off the road for 20 years. Quite wonderful and a perfect preservation candidate. The estimates proved to be right on, with a solid mid-range result that was totally deserved. ITALIAN #125-1928 OM TIPO 665 Supercharged tourer. S/N 26641. Black/beige canvas/brown leather & vinyl. RHD. Odo: 78,999 km. Very good panel fit, left rear door out at rear edge. Painted body, hood, and fenders good, showing only a few prep flaws. Fabric body panels show some lumps and bubbling underneath, brightwork needs a polish. Interior clean, but seats are a mixture of leather and vinyl, with somewhat jarring modern carpeting. Cord- Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $1,540,000. Ex-Ralph Stein and David Tunick. Well used, slightly tired, but with a great look overall—just the way you want to see one. All of the 6C 1750 Gran Sports are blue chip collectibles, but the fifth-series cars, with their disappearing tops, are arguably the most desirable as road cars. Sold in the market range... even a bit reasonably. #130-1956 MASERATI A6G/54 Berlinetta coupe. S/N 2117. Eng. # 2117. Metallic green/ green leather. Odo: 60,152 km. Coachwork by Allemano. Excellent panel fit, superb paint shows a few small flaws. Chrome nice, slight loss of enamel on nose badge. Very good interior shows only light traces of use and some #113-1964 ALFA ROMEO GIULIA 1600 spider. S/N AR379814. Eng. # AR0011212842. Red/black canvas/black vinyl. Odo: 76,903 miles. Good door fit, trunk and hood gaps a bit wide and variable. Paint shows light polish scratches, chrome shows light pitting on headlight bezels, interior has slight wear on transmission tunnel carpet. Replaced correcttype engine. A prize winner at the Alfa Romeo Owners' Club National Concours and a Class Winner at the Meadow Brook Concours. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $82,500. The shock of the day. wrapped steering wheel very soiled. Cond: 4-. SOLD AT $85,250. The OM marque had a 1-2-3 sweep of the first Mille Miglia in 1927. Consequently, they're well known in Italy, but a total mystery almost everywhere else. A great alternative to a vintage Alfa or Lancia and welcome in every event, especially the Mille Miglia Storico. Sold by Gooding at Pebble Beach in August '07 for $165,500, rated in 2- condition (SCM# 46534). It had seemingly not turned a wheel since and had deteriorated in storage. The price paid was right, but it was still a bargain for one already over here. TOP 10 No. 4 #141-1932 ALFA ROMEO 6C 1750 Gran Sport Series V spider. S/N 108143391. Eng. # 10814391. Dark red/brown leather. RHD. Odo: 20,786 km. Coachwork by Zagato. Very good panel fit, older paint faded and crazed in areas and shows chipping, flaking, and large areas of touch-up. Bright trim fair to good, with fading, pitting, and some nicks. Seats show a fake patina, faux patina on new tach face tacky. 90 Sports Car Market paint flaws on dashboard. Original Condor twoband “Elektronik” radio. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $429,000. A spectacular example of Maserati's first production model. The A6G/54 is almost unknown in this Allemano “series” version, and it's a shame. The detailing was exquisite and the shape was well balanced. The midestimate price was fair to both parties—just not to me, because I couldn't afford it. My favorite car of the Arizona week. TOP 10 No. 2 #118-1959 FERRARI 250 GT Series I cabriolet. S/N 1181GT. Eng. # 1181GT. Black/black canvas/ red leather. Odo: 47,595 miles. Coachwork by Pinin Farina. Excellent panel fit and paint. Very good chrome, except for some fading and pitting on taillight, window, and windshield trim. Very good interior has nicely broken-in Very well restored a decade ago for a demanding collector, this still presented very well. It attracted a great many suitors during preview, who thought they'd sneak it out the back door. Wrong. Selling at no reserve, it smashed the top estimate handily. This over-the-top price is usually seen for Mille Miglia-eligible Giulietta Veloces, proving that quality and presentation continue to pay dividends. Very well sold by a happy SCMer. #105-1965 LAMBORGHINI 350 GT coupe. S/N 0262. Eng. # 0205. Silver/white leather. Odo: 20,562 km. Very good panel fit, although trunk is a bit high at forward edge. Otherwise very good paint shows some very small areas of microblistering and a three-inch shrinkage split on driver's door. Very good chrome, except for pitting on door handles under plating. Interior very good and shockingly clean for white. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $269,500. The first production Lamborghini model, this example was formerly owned
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ by Victor Gauntlett, then chairman of Aston Martin. Very well restored, although some don't care for the interior color change from black to white. I thought it was very '60s and neat. Price was market-correct. Well bought and appropriately sold. TOP 10 No. 10 #160-1965 FERRARI 275 GTB coupe. S/N 07629. Eng. # 07629. Red/ black leather. Odo: 14,422 km. Very good panel fit, right door slightly out at rear edge. Excellent paint, very good chrome shows a bit of waviness under plating on left window frame. Interior is almost as-new. Fully restored in 1991. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $737,000. A shortnose GTB, beautifully presented and prepared. Since the restoration almost 20 years ago, it had obviously been very well maintained. The result was a very strong price—at least 15% higher than could have been expected. Well sold, but a very good example. #10-1967 MASERATI MEXICO Speciale coupe. S/N AM112001. Burgundy metallic/tan leather. Odo: 83,414 km. Coachwork by Frua. Excellent panel fit, well-applied older paint shows cracking, settling, and microblistering. Chrome good to fair, with fading, light pitting, and some areas of loss. Badly glued hood scoop trim detracts. Good interior is broken in but not worn, although window switches are loose. Reported to have a replacement engine. Fitted with Sony CD player. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $99,000. Giugiaro-designed hybrid, with Chrysler V8 power. One of 52. This car had great colors and an expensive, but not quite polished, restoration. It needed a little fettling to bring it up to its best, but it could not be restored for the price paid. Expensive, but a good buy nevertheless. #129-1968 FERRARI 206 GT Dino Alloy Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $187,000. The prototype Mexico, with a very 5000 GT-like Frua body. Formerly a part of the Alfredo Brenner Collection. Was sold at RM's Monterey sale in August '00 for $102k, rated as a 2 (SCM# 10094). Sold again by RM in Monterey from Brenner's Collection in August '03, this time at $77k, rated a 2- (SCM# 36146). Stored and neglected since, with only 25 km more on the clock, it had sunk to a 4+. The bidding shocked everyone as it made double its $75k low estimate. Quite well sold. #21-1967 FERRARI 330 Barchetta Replica roadster. S/N 6395. Red/black 92 Sports Car Market coupe. S/N 00160. Red/black vinyl. Odo: 80,842 miles. Good panel fit, some gaps a bit variable. Very good paint shows light polish scratches, chrome unmarked. Clean interior leather. Odo: 111,912 miles. Good panel fit, hood slightly off center. Very good paint and bright trim, Plexiglas windshield is cracked near mounting screws. Very good interior, with standard 330 instruments and nicely broken-in seats. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $151,250. A wellmade 166 Barchetta re-creation using 330 GT components. The frame was shortened and most proportions were right, but it seemed slightly large. Last seen at RM Phoenix in January '05, where it sold at $115k (SCM# 37501). Sure to be a blast on the road, it's been an entrant in multiple vintage rallies. If they'll accept you, why not? A solid mid-estimate result. Well sold, but not badly bought either. #34-1967 GHIA 450 SS convertible. S/N BS4057. Silver/black canvas/red leather. Odo: 134 miles. 273-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Good panel fit, left door out at rear and bottom edge. Generally good paint shows some areas of orange peel and microblistering. Excellent seats look as-new, dash panel shows some scratches. shows minor wear on left bolster of driver's seat. Replacement wood rim wheel. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $220,000. A nicely presented first-series Dino, with mileage believed to be original. Restored in 2008, and it still presented well. While there are many durability and power advantages to the later 2.4-liter Dino, the early alloy cars have a real following and command a premium. This was a strong price for a good car. SPANISH TOP 10 No. 5 #127-1936 HISPANO-SUIZA J12 Type 68 cabriolet. S/N 14018. Taupe & dark brown/beige leather/tan leather. RHD. Odo: 16,750 km. Coachwork by Saoutchik. Very good panel fit. Older paint presentable but shows stress cracking, checking, bubbling, and rubs. Good bright trim, interior somewhat worn and has soiled seats as well as some dryness in dashboard wood. Other wood trim shows well. Cond: 4. SOLD AT $1,540,000. Stated to be one of nine originalbodied open J12s extant. A tremendously charismatic car that's sleek, elegant, and sporty. Most agreed that once restored it would be a contender for high honors at Pebble Beach, but others just wanted to sort it and drive it as it was. Either way, it would be fantastic. Well bought and sold. AMERICAN #48-1909 PACKARD MODEL 18 runabout. S/N 9569. Green & yellow/ beige canvas/brown leather. RHD. Very good paint shows minor prep flaws. Brass trim very good, aside from some overplating that obscures details on headlights. Seats are redyed, but still supple. Excellent bulkhead and dashboard wood. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $104,500. Believed one of four extant. A stunning, sporty yet elegant early Packard, well
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ restored and appearing ready to run or show. Sold in May '08 at the Worldwide Group auction in Houston, TX, where it made $220,000 (SCM# 116846). Here it was offered at no reserve, and at half what it brought in Texas, I think it was one of the true bargains of the sale. Well bought. #110-1909 STANLEY MODEL R 20hp roadster. S/N 5003. Red, dark red, & black/red leather. RHD. Very good older paint heat soiled in front and shows various rubs, scratches, nicks, and some bubbling on hood. Very good brass trim. Cockpit clean and features fresh floorboards. Cond: 3-. SOLD AT $104,500. A Beach and Amelia Island. Offered at no reserve. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $258,500. One-off, designed and built by Frank Kurtis for noted West Coast enthusiast Tommy Lee. Very cool, with Cord fenders. Was sold in August '07 at RM's Monterey sale, where it brought $440k (SCM# 46254). At the time, it was considered in SCM to be “worth every penny.” That goes double here. Very well bought. sporty Stanley roadster, well restorsed and then clearly used. Was once believed to be one of five, but now the number is one of eight. Sold at Bonhams Brookline in May '03 in number 2 condition for $133k (SCM# 31055). It's clearly been enjoyed since then, and it's retained a good portion of its value. It should be used more, then restored again. Well bought. TOP 10 No. 3 #9-1934 DUESENBERG MODEL J Disappearing Top convertible coupe. S/N 2490. Eng. # J461. Black/ black canvas/black leather. Odo: 60,409 miles. Coachwork by Murphy. Excellent panel fit, smooth chrome, paint shows only the tiniest interior shows two small stress cracks in steering wheel. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $48,400. The single year of the Highlander as a stand-alone model. Long-term ownerships, with extensive documentation from new. High-level amateur restoration, very original and correct in feel, but not showy. Very well bought at well below the $75k low estimate—perhaps it was too subtle, or maybe the lack of CCCA status hurt. #154-1946 HUDSON SERIES 58 Carrier of flaws. Very good interior, except for some pitting in right wiper motor casting under paint. Superb wood trim. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $1,815,000. The price differential between the non-disappearing top and this model continues to grow. An excellent restoration, fresh and very appealing in triple black. Well bought and sold. #52-1937 KURTIS SPECIAL Tommy Lee speedster. S/N CA498528. Dark blue/brown leather. Odo: 291 miles. Excellent panel fit, smooth chrome. Good paint shows some small areas of wear, subsurface sanding marks, and polish scratches. Excellent interior, except for overpainted horn button. Ford based, with 4-cylinder Offenhauser engine. Shown at Pebble 94 Six 3/4-Ton pickup. S/N 3850185. Black/ green canvas/blue vinyl. Odo: 4,226 miles. Door fit off, other panel gaps OK. Good paint shows some minor prep flaws, chrome shows well. Very good interior with original radio and well-finished dashboard. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $44,000. A rarely seen Hudson commercial. #163-1940 CHRYSLER NEW YORKER Highlander convertible. S/N 6614233. Eng. # C263175. Ivory/burgundy canvas/Highland plaid cloth. Odo: 42,108 miles. Good panel fit, right door slightly out at rear edge, trunk slightly high on left side. Very good paint shows a few rubs at top of doors and small chips at edge of hood on fenders. Excellent chrome. Very good A very large truck, this one had been restored to a proper truck standard. This is the antithesis of the “belly button” collectible, and you'll never see yourself coming and going. Market price. #45-1948 CADILLAC SERIES 62 Custom cabriolet. S/N 48623707. Black & metallic purple/black & metallic purple leather. Odo: 29,743 miles. Coachwork by Saoutchik. Very good panel fit, except left door out at rear lower edge. Very shiny paint shows evidence of aging, with chips, some settling, and polish scratches. Extensive chrome trim very good, although some waviness is visible under plating in areas. Very good interior. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $649,000. Flamboyant French-bodied '50s Cadillac, one of two created by Saoutchik. Not for the shy or faint of heart. Frankly, in order to make these lines work, the car would have to add four feet in length or lose two feet in height—it's a chunky monkey. It resonated with at least two people at the sale, and they bid it firmly into well-sold land. #142-1957 CHEVROLET CORVETTE convertible. S/N E57S104016. Arctic Blue/ beige vinyl. Odo: 38,960 miles. 283-ci 283-hp fuel-injected V8, 4-sp. Good panel fit, as per factory. Paint shows some small flaws. Nice chrome and trim, interior shows some soiling on seats, scratches on dash from key fob, clumsy paint touch-up, and splits on door armrest. Past Bloomington Gold, NCRS Duntov Mark of Excellence, and multiple Top Flight prizes. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $103,400. Hot spec fuelie show car, now considerably mellowed. A no-sale back in September 1998 at Kruse Auburn (SCM# 13305) when it was painted rose and had a 3-speed transmission. 400 miles and four years later, it sold at Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale in January 2003 for $99,360, rated cond. 1- (SCM# 20053). 100 miles and seven years later, it's flat in value. Market priced. #159-1957 CADILLAC ELDORADO Brougham 4-dr sedan. S/N 5770096914. Red/stainless steel/red brocade & white leather. Sports Car Market
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Gooding & Company Scottsdale, AZ Odo: 28,267 miles. 365-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, auto. Very good panel fit, door gaps a bit uneven. Well applied paint shows small star cracks, touched-in chips, and some polish scratches. Extensive chrome generally good. Clean interior looks largely original, showing some wear on dash, carpet edges, and seat bolsters. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $115,500. Ex-David Walters. Super stylish top-of-the-line Cadillac, with a high-level older refurbishment that had now aged a bit. A very well presented car, but not finished in the best color. Seen at RM Hershey in October '07, where it sold for $110k and was rated a 2- (SCM# 47371). It's held its value since, and this sale was market right. #111-1958 DUAL-GHIA convertible. S/N 192. Eng. # D633I06704. Red/black canvas/ red & ivory leather. Odo: 406 miles. 383-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Excellent panel fit, very good paint shows only light polish scratches. Chrome shows minute defects, interior has soiling on seat cushion and two stress cracks on steering wheel rim. Fitted with Town and Country radio. Cond: 2. NOT SOLD AT $220,000. An expensively restored Dual-Ghia in arrest-me red. The debate rages over whether these lowproduction hybrids are worthy of coveting, but I think it's a no-brainer. They're not as sophisticated as a Facel Vega, which has a Euro-tuned chassis to go along with the Euro looks. The estimate range of $300k to $400k seemed a bit optimistic, while the high bid was a bit light. #47-1962 SHELBY COBRA 260 Competition roadster. S/N CSX2026. Red/ black leather. 260-ci V8, 4x2-bbl, 4-sp. Excellent panel fit, paint, chrome and bright driver's seat cushion. Thunderbird sequential taillights fitted at factory. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $418,000. The prototype supercharged Shelby GT, co-star with James Caan in the film “Red Line 7,000.” Very well preserved and presented. Sold at RM's Amelia Island sale in March '07, where it brought $528k (SCM# 44649). Assuming a net to the seller of $342k, he took a $186k haircut. But it was driven over 3k miles in the interim, so a good deal of fun must have been had, albeit at $61 per mile. Well bought. TOP 10 No. 7 #132-1965 SHELBY COBRA 427 S/C roadster. S/N CSX3021. Hertz Gold/black vinyl. Odo: 3,871 miles. 427-ci V8, 2x4-bbl, 4-sp. Very good panel fit as per factory build. Very good paint, bright trim nice aside from some loss on windshield post escutcheons and heavy pitting on rear view mirror. Good interior, with some pitting on bright trim and dry steering wheel wood rim. One of two delivered in Hertz Gold, and said to have interior has moderate wear on seats and door panels. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $85,250. The hot Callaway-developed and built Corvette— the only one built with an automatic. Used more than many, and formerly owned by Otis Chandler. The MSRP on the car was $225k, and all things considered, it's held a remarkable percentage of value. Used Callaway cars, provided they've not been totally abused, can be great performance values. Don't save it, drive it. ♦ 96 Sports Car Market trim. Some delamination on edge of windshield, some crazing on surface of wheels. Very good interior, one dent in transmission tunnel cover. The 1963 SCCA A Production winner. Cond: 1-. NOT SOLD AT $1,600,000. Last seen at RM's Phoenix auction in January '06, where it sold at $1,815,000 (SCM# 40682). One of four early 260 factory racers, and the first Cobra to win an event and a championship. Superbly presented, with an almost 20-year-old restoration in excellent shape. This was an important car, but it had not been driven by any big names. The 260 is an acquired taste, with most attention going to the 427s. Some felt the high bid should have done the job, but if the owner can hold on, more should be possible. #43-1965 SHELBY GT350 Supercharged Prototype fastback. S/N SFM5010. White & blue/black vinyl. Odo: 48,650 miles. 289-ci supercharged V8, 4-sp. Panel fit better than factory, very good paint and chrome. Somewhat perished rubber on right taillight base, very good interior shows a split seam on left side of been the last S/C still in the hands of its original owner. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $1,028,500. This car was reported sold at a Florida auction in January 2009 for $3.78m, but SCM could not confirm that sale, and it was listed here as still being a one-owner car, as it was then. It's no surprise that it remained unsold in the showroom for almost a year—the color was very much an acquired taste. However, as a period piece now, it works. Given its non-comp history, the price seemed in line. #4-1969 CHEVROLET CAMARO COPO coupe. S/N 124379N657861. Olympic Gold/green vinyl. Odo: 42,884 miles. 427-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Very good panel fit, as per factory. Excellent paint and chrome, very good interior. COPO-spec dog dish hubcaps, M21 4-speed, and power disc brakes. Engine compartment clean and correct. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $159,500. Rare COPO 9561 Camaro, documented by GM Canada and very well restored in a stunning color combination. Last seen at the Bonhams Quail sale in August '07, where it made $199,500 (SCM# 46278). Since that time, it has slid 20% in value, but a clone would have dropped 60% over the same period. Well bought. #146-1999 CHEVROLET CORVETTE CALLAWAY C12 convertible. S/N 1G1YY32G6X5126571. Metallic blue/blue & beige leather. Odo: 17,702 km. 5.7-L 440hp fuel-injected V8, auto. Somewhat variable panel fit, as per build. Very good paint shows a few minor flaws, including chips on door edges. All four wheels show curb rash. Clean
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Silver Auctions Fort McDowell, AZ Arizona in January While the storm took down most of Silver's tents at the Ft. McDowell Casino, the good news was that none of the cars were parked beneath them Company Silver Auctions Date January 22–25, 2010 Location Fort McDowell, Arizona Auctioneer Mitch Silver, Paul Baer, Gary Dehler, Matt Backs & Brian Marshall Automotive lots sold / offered 221/410 Sales rate 54% Sales total $3,967,560 High sale 2004 Maybach 62 limousine, sold at $179,280 Buyer's premium 8%, included in sold prices Damage was minimal at Silver, and they wasted no time getting their tents back up for Friday's auction Report and photos by B. Mitchell Carlson Market opinions in italics D espite all the big news about the “Storm of the Century” sideswiping Russo and Steele, this was also an eventful week for Silver Auctions. The Thursday night storm took down most of the tents Silver had erected outside the Ft. McDowell Casino. The good news was that only one of the cars was parked beneath them—Mitch and company had moved every consignment they had the keys for to the adjacent casino parking lots (hence the single damaged car). However, the main tent was blown down, and that created quite a mess for the vendors who were already set up inside it. On Friday, crews were on site to rebuild the tents, and by 3 pm the main tent was up, with the first car crossing the block an hour later. Despite the delay, Silver kept to the schedule and got 90 cars across the block by 9:30 that night. It was easy to see that Silver benefited from Russo and Steele's misfortune more than the other auction houses. With Russo closed Friday and Saturday, Silver had more bidders on site throughout both days. When the last dog was hung on Saturday evening, at least half of the chairs were still filled. 98 On the other hand, it was a venerable ghost town on Sunday with Russo back in action. Monday has traditionally been “Montana rules” run-what-you-brung day, but with Russo running full tilt playing catch-up, it was a more intense regular auction day for Silver, with hopes of keeping a few more bidders around, rather than the normal group of bottom feeders looking at one last chance to scoop a deal. And there were some good deals to be had. There was a large supply of C4 Corvettes on hand, most of which sold under the money. Keeping with the late-model used car theme, the top sale was a 2004 Maybach sedan, which was a no-sale out here last year. Indeed, there were several “frequent flyers” from last year, with quite a few of them changing hands this time around. While the overall take was slightly up from last year's big drop, the sell-through rate was up significantly— another sign that there may be some stability around the corner for the lower and middle ends of the market. To paraphrase the motto of the U.S. Postal Service: Neither rain, nor sleet, nor winds knocking down the tents shall keep Silver auctions from selling cars on their appointed rounds. Compared to this year, Silver's future auctions out in the desert should be a cakewalk. ♦ $1m $2m $3m $4m $5m $6m $7m 0 Sports Car Market Sales Totals 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006
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Silver Auctions Fort McDowell, AZ ENGLISH #303-1959 BENTLEY S1 saloon. S/N B223LFD. Light gold metallic & maroon/tan leather. Odo: 82,453 miles. Coachwork by H.J. Mulliner. Factory-optional a/c. Somewhat recent repaint sprayed on well enough but with lesser quality prep work. Original chrome and trim uniformly dull and almost without luster. Less-than-professional reupholstery work, with uneven seat back fit, exposed stapling across rear seat back, and poorly fitted kick panels. Heavier wear and shrinkage of original carpeting. Dull Bakelite finish on steering wheel and most dash knobs. Good original interior wood with several pieces refinished. Cond: 3-. SOLD AT $23,220. Last seen at the Leake auction in Tulsa in June '05, failing to sell for $18,500 (SCM# 38432). At that time it had a black paint job with issues, and now it's gold and maroon with issues. Five years and the cost of a respray later, the seller would probably have been better off leaving the car alone. #36-1963 JAGUAR XKE convertible. S/N 877605. Red/black cloth/black leather. Odo: 65,416 miles. Jaguar Daimler Heritage Trust certificate confirms original color combination of cream with red leather. Two years out of a highly competent marque-specialist, baretube restoration, with superb body prep and paint work. Panel fit no worse than original. hard top/red vinyl. Odo: 974 miles. Assembled in the U.K. in the mid 1980s for vintage racing, with FIA paperwork. Used extensively in the '90s for that purpose in Europe. Paint holding up rather well, with only some light rock chips and fading where front adhesive numbers plate was. Engine bay done up more for function than form, with tube headers, triple Weber DCOE side draft carbs, and braided steel lines. Interior fitted with roll bar and a pair of 5-point racing harnesses. Dashboard padding wavy, seat upholstery with moderate wear. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $140,000. Last seen at the Coys Nürburgring auction in August '91, selling for $72,688—half of what was bid here (SCM# 21486). At that time, it would have been relatively fresh, in addition to riding the roller coaster down in value after the 1989 boombust. Now with several races under its belt, it's doing well cosmetically, but we're back on the roller coaster again. This was as good of an offer as could have been expected on the car— especially at this venue. #343-1974 JENSEN-HEALEY convert- ible. S/N 19417. Black/black vinyl/black vinyl. Odo: 1,047 miles. Comes with both tops. Heavily buffed average quality repaint, rear badge missing. Serviceable brightwork, with a few light dings in bumpers. Built-up motor, now with a pair of Weber side-draft carburetors and neon blue ignition wiring. Fitted with newer exhaust system and Addco rear sway bar. end. Uneven door gaps, passenger's door mirror held together with blue masking tape. Dull finish on original basket-weave alloy wheels, moderate weathering and several small tears to cloth top coverings. Discoloring dashboard and console vinyl, heavily cracked seat leather. Heavier cracking also present on dashboard wood, with wooden door pulls all but gone. Heavily surface-rusted undercarriage, unkempt engine bay. Offered at no reserve. Cond: 4. SOLD AT $5,508. Let's see, with the seller's fee factored in, this was a couple of bucks north of what the owner could've made through Cash for Clunkers (and yes, a 1985 TVR did get embalmed with sodium silicate). Judging by this example, I can almost understand why that ill-fated car's owner gave it a death sentence. Almost. Lesson: Stay away from the government and just sell that dying specialty car at auction. #54-1995 ROLLS-ROYCE SILVER SPUR III saloon. S/N SCAZN02C5SCX55248. Black/black leather. Odo: 120,871 miles. U.S.spec car with Euro headlights. Full service record with recent servicing, recent fluff-and-buff especially evident on paint and chrome. Engine bay more of a wash-off, while undercarriage wasn't even touched. Wal-Mart-grade fisheye Authentically restored engine compartment, well detailed undercarriage has acquired some road dust. Only minute interior wear confined mostly to driver's side floor carpeting. Cond: 2+. SOLD AT $81,000. Claimed to have been awarded “the best Jaguar in Idaho.” Wow. What next, the Concours de Williston, North Dakota? The only red vehicles out there have Halliburton signage on the doors, and even with the top down you aren't going to haul too many well casings with an E-type. Still, seems to be a rather well-sorted Series I—and it had better be, having gone past the $75k reserve like the Empire Builder through Williston. #307-1963 JAGUAR XKE Lightweight Replica convertible. S/N 861113. Silver/silver 100 Reskinned seats and newer carpeting, rest of interior original and serviceable. Even the dash wood looks respectable. Sold at no reserve, with a title delay. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $5,400. While I'll defer to our own Paul Duchene for his $.02 on Jensen-Healeys (as a recovering former owner), I'd suggest that this one wasn't all that bad and maybe even a decent buy. Then again, the bar isn't set that high, either. At least with Webers there's less of a chance it'll turn itself into a barbecue grille. #340-1985 TVR 280i convertible. S/N TV9RF28P2FBDH1258. Silver/black cloth/red leather. Odo: 26,399 miles. Cracking original paint and peeling clear coat, especially on front mirrors stuck to outside mirrors. Minimal interior wear for miles indicated, moderate curb rash on alloy wheels and older tires. Cond: 3-. SOLD AT $24,000. Died on the block at $25k, with the auctioneer saying that it was going to take closer to $29k to get it sold. However, reality prevailed, and it was a post-block sale for less than $25k before the juice. A marketcorrect result, and no one wins or loses here unless the car starts to unwind before it gets to its new home. #103-1995 JAGUAR XJS convertible. S/N SAJNX2740SC195462. Dark blue metallic/navy cloth/cream leather. Odo: 91,617 miles. Original paint with significant polishing swirls—it almost comes off as being dull. Jaguar emblem missing from trunk lid, although adhesive residue remains. Alloy wheels Sports Car Market
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Silver Auctions Fort McDowell, AZ dull with heavy oxidation and notable curb rash. Light to moderate top weathering, interior wear about right for a 91k-mile car. Check Engine light and brake system lights stay on when car is running. Just a high-maintenance used car with a roof that folds. Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $7,560. While the six-cylinder has fewer maintenance issues than the V12, both are in a platform that has never been known for longevity or a trouble-free nature. Ford's smaller bits can only go so far. It was utterly amazing that there was strong bidding past the $6k reserve, and I have to think the seller tap danced all the way to the bank. GERMAN #548-1955 VOLKSWAGEN BEETLE sedan. S/N 10756831. Gray/red vinyl. Odo: 44,010 miles. Mileage claimed actual since new, said to be a one-owner car until recently. Retains documentation on everything done to original chrome and trim, with several dings in bumpers and ghastly oversized bumper guards. Reproduction seat upholstery, but remainder of interior is original. Carpeting has heavier wear along door sills. 40-channel CB fitted under dash. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $29,430. The owner, who was the daughter of the original owner, declared that all of the proceeds from this sale were to be donated to the Helena, MT, animal shelter. I doubt that affected the sale much, although it could be a convenient excuse for paying a bit over what it should've brought. #33-1971 MERCEDES-BENZ 280SL convertible. S/N 11304412020159. Light gold metallic/dark brown cloth & gold hard top/dark brown leather. Odo: 54,953 miles. Equipped with both tops and dealer-installed a/c. Good quality older repaint with some chipping on panel edges, claimed to have a new soft top. Good door and panel gaps, very solid door fit. Map pocket on driver's door has all but separated from door panel, but rest of original interior is a step above serviceable. Seat stuffing but reality set in on Monday, and it finally sold at this market-correct level. I don't see much of an upswing here unless VW makes a modern version, and considering that the New Beetle is about to become the Extinct Beetle, don't hold your breath. #363-1982 MERCEDES-BENZ 380SL convertible. S/N WDBBA45A1CB018447. Yellow/tan cloth & yellow hard top/tan leather. Odo: 16,512 miles. Sold new in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with most documentation since. Mileage claimed actual since new. Like-new factory paint and brightwork, with nary a bug it. Newer repaint with some masking overlap onto window seals. Retrofitted center-mounted stop lamp in rear window. Generally stock motor, although now with a degreed main pulley and modern ignition. Mostly original interior, but with some piecemeal replacement of seat panels. Heavier wear on original carpet along the pedals, heavier paint wear on steering wheel. Cond: 3-. NOT SOLD AT $15,000. Bought new in Hollywood, CA, by a teacher, and she kept it until she recently passed away four days shy of being a century old. Interesting as it was, this won't qualify for the Bloomington Gold Survivor Show top awards in June due to the repaint, so not selling it for this bid was a case of getting too entranced by a car's story to see the actual car. #324-1967 MERCEDES-BENZ 230SL convertible. S/N 10001281. Dark green metallic/green hard top & tan cloth/tan leather. Odo: 96,168 miles. One family, two person ownership from new. VIN tag removed from the original location under the hood and riveted to driver's door. Repaint several years old and showing a few larger chips, especially on wheelwell lips. Both types of tops. Presentable 102 has significantly deteriorated on passenger's seat. Interior wood could use a shot of polish, but is generally in good shape. Maintained but not cleaned engine and undercarriage. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $32,400. Was bid to a $29,750 no-sale on the block, but before the next car passed through, it was declared as a post-block sale. As a good (but not great) driver-grade car, this was further proof that any decent 280SL is now no less than a $25k car. #557-1973 VOLKSWAGEN THING convertible. S/N 1832492946. Yellow/black fiberglass/black vinyl. Odo: 9,100 miles. Fitted with an aftermarket Fiber Jet hard top. Average quality masked-off repaint both inside and out. Afrika Korps decals, with a certain political symbol removed, affixed to forward doors and trunk lid. Mostly new body seals, although glass masked off. Minor engine modifications, moderately tidy compartment. Possibly original seat upholstery showing some light wear plus more pronounced soiling and paint overspray mist. Grubby undercarriage, older replacement KYB shocks all around. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $7,750. This was first bid to a $9,600 no-sale, splat, nick, or scuff. The only perceivable wear to interior is the dealer accessory floor mats, which are moderately soiled. Topically cleaned engine compartment, and that's all it needed. Dustier-than-expected undercarriage. Cond: 2. SOLD AT $18,360. This car one-ups the last lower mileage 380SL I saw sell for $14,045 at Mecum's Kansas City sale in December '09 (SCM# 153222). While the miles were even fewer and the color was still a good one, this was still 560 money for a 380. #85-1986 PORSCHE 911 targa. S/N WP0EB0914GS160151. Guards Red/black panel/black leather. Odo: 59,074 miles. Original paint with a few light battle scars, paint on center of whale tail is starting to flake off. Dusty engine bay, a/c compressor does not have a belt. Declared to have the second gear synchro starting to go out, with no other notes or records of maintenance. Moderate seat wear, heavier carpet wear, chewed-up floor mats. Older aftermarket stereo system, all four speakers are missing their grilles. Sold at no reserve. Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $10,260. Typical of most Sports Car Market
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Silver Auctions Fort McDowell, AZ German manual transmissions, the synchros for second are the first to go. But it's hard to imagine someone ran through the synchro in just 59k miles, so perhaps we're looking at 159k? Either way, we can probably assume the car was run hard and ignored. Fair price all around—the seller gets to walk away without throwing money at it and the buyer gets what may be a nice project car at Visa money. Is this a great country, or what? ITALIAN #241-1986 ALFA ROMEO SPIDER 2000 Graduate convertible. S/N ZARBA5411G1043620. Red/black vinyl/black leather. Odo: 68,394 miles. El-cheapo older repaint has a bad case of acne. Several light dings throughout body, plus curb damage on front fascia. Passenger's Pininfarina badge held on with masking tape. Serviceable original top, F1-style paddle shift maybe, but not a typical slushbox. Half the fun of an NSX is to make F1 car noises at will, otherwise you might as well get one of the other Acuras on the docket (aside from an MDX). The reserve was cut loose when the bidding stopped, making a good payday for the seller. AMERICAN #453-1941 INTERNATIONAL K-1 Woodie wagon. S/N K112986. Bright green & wood/tan cloth/brown vinyl. Odo: 166 miles. Heavily coated with high-gloss varnish over all-original wood, bodywork refinished in a non-stock hue. Way too many parts chromed, such as front fascia and instrument cluster. No wiper arms mounted. 1936 Ford reproduction door hinge mirrors, all three seats reupholstered in generic vinyl. Good engine and engine bay paint detail, ad-hoc coolant overflow tubing routed along left side of radiator. Retrofitted electric fuel pump and modern seatbelts. Expertly reupholstered interior in modern synthetic velour. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $28,080. The consignor stated that “this car is as close to new as you can get.” Unfortunately, that was somewhat true, as in it's more like a 1987 Cadillac than a 1947 Cadillac. With modern velour instead of mohair and radials instead of bias ply tires, it loses the tactile feel of a 1947 Cadillac. Still, people like flash, and this car had it in spades. Bidders flocked to it like zombies, and there was ample interest in it even after the $25k reserve was passed. #391-1953 CHEVROLET CORVETTE Replica roadster. S/N 1C9AA1110K1369172. Purple & orange flames/black cloth/gray vinyl. Odo: 8,083 miles. 350-ci 350-hp V8, 3x2-bbl, auto. Built around a 1989 Classic Sports Cars replica, with a 1989 Chevrolet VIN. Triple deuce carbs protrude through the hood, modern power brakes and power steering. Flame paint job actually isn't too bad, peaked headlight bezels almost make it look like a swollen Bugeye but don't count on it to be water fast. Moderate interior wear commensurate with the claimed original miles. More than robust exhaust note due to the lack of a catalytic converter (a bit of a touchy issue, being a California car). Cond: 4. SOLD AT $2,600. Offered at no reserve. Depending on where this is headed, it'll likely need to have a cat installed before it can pass emissions and be registered. A market price considering its condition. JAPANESE #59-1992 ACURA NSX coupe. S/N JH4NA1266NT001085. Red/black leather. Odo: 43,921 miles. Front fascia slightly off hue to the rest of the bodywork, bottom right corner of rear fascia has about a 1-inch square patch of rubbed-off paint. Some polishing swirls noted with 12-volt alternator. Minimal undercarriage clean-up, new brake hoses and wheel cylinders. Cond: 2-. NOT SOLD AT $75,000. In 1941, all wood-bodied K-series trucks changed from having only brown sheet metal to any of six standard colors, although this light green was not one of them. In addition, the interior metal surfaces on all woodies continued to be painted brown and not body color, as was the case here. A slightly lesser example sold at MidAmerica's Blaine, MN, auction in May '07 for $79,500 (SCM# 45336) to the most over-the-top IH truck collector on the planet, so this bid was more realistic than the $100k-plus reserve. #272-1947 CADILLAC SERIES 62 4-dr sedan. S/N 8423400. Maroon metallic/red velour. Odo: 5,987 miles. Sparkling fresh repaint still degassing. Refinished cloisonné emblems, replated bumpers, and professionally polished trim. Fitted with modern retro-looking door frame peep mirrors. California black plate license with 2007 tags. Lightly brush-painted motor makes modern yellow spark plug wires stand out like neon tubing. Retrofitted with in finish throughout, moderate curb rash and scuffing on all but one of the wheels. Non-stock exhaust outlets, right hand unit dented. Interior wear as expected for the miles indicated. No attempt was made to clean up the undercarriage or the power train. New tires fitted. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $32,940. To me at least, it would be silly to have an NSX with an automatic. An 104 Sports Car Market Sprite from hell. Good upholstery workmanship inside, accented by a lot of billet aluminum components. Chromed fire extinguisher is the center armrest. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $24,000. One of the most prudent investment tips at the 2010 Corvette Market seminar was “never buy a Corvette with anything sticking through the hood.” Then again, this really wasn't a Corvette, so there you go. You've got to admit: If you really wanted to build a 1953– 54 street machine, you're best off using one of the replicas as a starting point. As it rolled off the block the first time, it was declared that it was “going to take about ten thousand more to get her sold.” #41-1956 LINCOLN CONTINENTAL Mk II 2-dr hard top. S/N C56R3784. Black/ black & white vinyl. Odo: 68,702 miles. 368ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Good older body prep and repaint, slight waviness to replated bumpers. Clunky door fit, but gaps are respectable. Doors once had edge guards on them. Left taillamp inoperative, driver's side quarter window won't go up. Light engine bay clean up, but
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La-Z-Bits by Geoff Archer (In 2008, a Minnesota man was arrested for drunken driving atop his motorized La-Z-Boy. Area police seized the “vehicle” then auctioned it on eBay in late 2009...) #150385696050-MOTORIZED CHAIR recliner. Black pleather/ dirty plywood. 10 Photos. Proctor, MN. “The DWI Forfeit Vehicle that has been reported by the news media worldwide and is being sold as-is with no warranties of any kind... Engine: Briggs and Stratton Model 19070 with electric start. Has front lights, rear tag light, radio, cup holder, rear roll bars and other custom options, but is missing the seat cushion. it's a long way from being detailed. Motor has either a slight lifter tick or a cracked exhaust manifold (both are not uncommon on Deuces). Light seat and floor carpet wear consistent with limited use. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $27,000. Seen the weekend before at Kruse Scottsdale, where it was reported as sold at $20,520 (SCM# 155136). Claimed to have been part of an estate, it was rerun on Monday to less than this slightly generous bid. Unless they are one of the few low-mile Survivor-type originals or an LCOC Emeritus award winner, Deuces aren't going anywhere fast in value—up or down—so trying to shift this pretty but soonto-be-scary one for $30k is going to be difficult. #80-1957 FORD THUNDERBIRD con- Not a street legal vehicle... can be pick-up at the City of Proctor, Minnesota Police Department.” 64 bids, sf 0, bf private. Cond: 3-. SOLD AT $10,100. APRIL FOOLS! With terrible handling, a high center of gravity, a wide wooden seat, a cupholder, and NHRA decals all over it... here is the answer to the question, ‘What is the opposite of an Alfa Romeo?' At 10x the nearest comparable sale, the high bidder turned out to be a deadbeat. Somebody outta call the cops... #280418884361-SEAT CUSHION. 4 Photos. Duluth, MN. “Custom seat fits on the world famous DWI Motorized Chair. Winning bidder will receive a genuine seat cushion and custom cover that fit the DWI chair, along with a personal note from Dennis L. Anderson himself.” $1000 Buy-It-Now price. 0 bids, sf 526, bf N/A. NOT SOLD AT $500. Listed one day after the DWI chair sold (without cushion), this real seat-of-the-pants marketing effort was not rewarded... likely because the opening bid was too greedy. #280416805135-2009 AUTOGRAPHED PHOTO. 1 Photo (duh). Proctor, MN. American flag-themed eBay background. “Autographed photograph of the world famous DWI Motorized La-Z-Boy style Chair. All proceeds go to Denny L. Anderson to help him pay his fines and legal fees. Dennis is a 62 year fit well. Underhood rather untidy, older door panel brightwork starting to discolor and separate. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $29,970. The reserve was passed at $27k. The seller emphasized that $47k worth of work had been done in the last seven years, and with more work to be done, he must have just become sick of tossing hundred dollar bills at it on a regular basis. If you like tinkering and know T-Birds, this was still fully priced... especially without a soft top. #364-1957 FORD THUNDERBIRD convertible. S/N D7FH211207. Red/tan cloth & red hard top/red vinyl. Odo: 85,142 miles. 312-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Interior left River Rouge in Colonial White. Options include power steering, power brakes, power windows, power seat, Town & Country radio, and both tops. Reproduction Kelsey-Hayes wire wheels, fresh radial wide whitewalls. More recent trim-off repaint, most chrome replated, some trim replaced. Soft top is non-stock tan canvas. copious quantities of wiring with crimp connectors spliced in. Runs out well enough to move under its own power. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $10,250. Re-run on Sunday as lot 505 to a $13,000 no-sale bid. This had the Deluxe trim package, which got you not only door panels but color keyed ones at that, plus color keyed seat upholstery and more brightwork inside and out. This bid was just further proof that forward control Corvair 95 trucks—especially Greenbriers and Rampsides—are outpacing the prices of all closed-body Corvair cars and are giving convertibles a run for their money. #251-1965 FORD MUSTANG GT Replica convertible. S/N 5R08A141243. Black & red/black vinyl/red vinyl. Odo: 57,739 miles. 289-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Originally Honey Gold with gold and white standard interior. High quality repaint, excellent door fit. Replated bumpers and all reproduction trim, including GT light bar. GT emblems added in place of Mustang emblems on bottoms of front fenders. Non-stock HiPo air cleaner, aftermarket cast aluminum valve covers, chromed export brace, and retrofitted with dual-chamber master cylinder. Heavier wear on reproduction carpeting, vertible. S/N D7FH250296. Light blue/white hard top/two-tone blue vinyl. Odo: 7,439 miles. 312-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Factory optional power steering. hard top only. Recent work consists of fresh brakes, gas tank, fuel lines, repaint, chrome replating, and upholstery. Most of the glass has been replaced. Fresh rebuilds of the engine, carburetor, generator, and steering box. Radio, speedometer, and tachometer still need work. Typical iffy door fit issues, other panels Almost concours engine bay with chrome hood latch hardware, modern upper radiator hose, and modern battery. Newer interior soft trim shows only scant wear. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $34,020. With all of the options on the car plus the repop out-of-era wire wheels, I naturally assumed it was a Resale Red special. However, this was a real Flame Red car from new. Kitted out the way most folks want a '57 T-Bird, it just kept getting bids once the consignor dropped the reserve at $29,250. Well sold. #75-1963 CHEVROLET CORVAIR 95 Greenbrier van. S/N 3R126S105034. White & red/red & white vinyl. Odo: 50,200 miles. Optional Powerglide automatic, 3.08 ratio highway differential, third row seat, and AM radio. Mileage claimed correct, California black plates with 2009 tags. Several-year-old repaint shows well. Period aftermarket West Coast mirrors, modern replacement license plate lamps, ceiling light assembly is dangling from housing. Light engine clean-up shows off old distinguished United States Navy Veteran. He defended our country so we can have our freedoms we enjoy. Recently Dennis was convicted of a DWI after accidentally crashing his now famous home made NHRA lawn mower powered La-Z-boy chair into a parked car.” 35 bids, sf 526, bf private. Cond: 1. SOLD AT $710. A creative way to capitalize on all the attention he was getting—the market obviously agreed. 106 Sports Car Market
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Silver Auctions Fort McDowell, AZ light wear on repop seats. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $25,110. About the only thing real about this pony was that it was indeed an A-code (4-bbl) 289 car. This includes the low original miles claim, as with restored cars this gets into the old George Washington's hatchet argument— with N.O.S. handle and head. The $20k reserve should've made anyone else wary, as a real deal car should've pulled down about $10k more. At least the final bidder will get a pretty driver. Sold well. #266-1969 CHEVROLET CAMARO Z/28 Replica coupe. S/N 124379L501586. Daytona Yellow & black/black vinyl/black vinyl & houndstooth cloth. Odo: 52,549 miles. 350-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. 3.73 Positraction axle, interior décor package with radio delete plate and center console. 1970 360-hp 350 engine fitted. High quality repaint, replated bumpers and newer replacement trim. Aftermarket Grant steering wheel and Hurst shifter. Light of the name—a top shelf trim package with pseudo wood. The reality of the selling price kind of snuck up on me when this was hammered sold, but generally original ones haven't popped up much lately, so the buyer's decision to pay up for an almost bone stock example was understandable. #362-1970 OLDSMOBILE 442 W-30 2-dr hard top. S/N 344870M175544. Light yellow & black/black vinyl. Odo: 518 miles. 455-ci V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Stock steel wheels with dog dish hubcaps on reproduction Polyglas tires. High quality older bare body restoration, decent panel gaps throughout. Authentically repainted, if not better than new, with only some combo is harder to find, but they surface occasionally also. In addition to the powertrain, the low mileage carried the day here, with the car selling about as well as one could expect. #73-1982 CHEVROLET CORVETTE coupe. S/N 1G1AY8788C5109751. Red/tinted panels/black leather. Odo: 43,959 miles. 350-ci 205-hp fuel-injected V8, auto. Factory options include rear window defroster, mirrored roof panels, power seats, power antenna, and electric sport mirrors. Recent repaint, with heavier original paint wear in door jambs wearing through to fiberglass in places. Front fascia is wear and soiling on modern reproduction interior soft trim. Cleanly detailed engine bay, but with some less-than-professional wiring, overpolished cast aluminum, and economy grade battery cables connected to economy grade battery. Cond: 2-. NOT SOLD AT $29,000. The consignor referred to this as an “undocumented” Z/28. Is that like undocumented aliens? In either case, don't have anything to do with them, since in the long run you'll eventually get into trouble. #51-1970 FORD RANCHERO Squire pickup. S/N 0A49F171139. Ivy Green Metallic/light green vinyl. Odo: 48,647 miles. 302-ci V8, 2-bbl, auto. Seller claims original mileage. California truck black plate, but without any tags. Fitted with period trailer hitch and modern alloy wheels, but has two Ford GT wheels with radials sitting in bed. Excellent trim-off repaint, with all new DiNoc Petrowood and trim. Chrome replated. light buffing swirls since. Brightwork starting to lose some of its luster, bare aluminum intake manifold has some fuel staining and exhaust manifolds have heavier flash rust. Engine bay presents well as-is, but would need a fluff-andbuff if it were to be shown. Light wear to reproduction seats and carpeting. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $57,240. Equipped with power-assisted nothing and minimal options, this W-30 meant business. For once, an Olds muscle car got some respect on the auction block. It had no problem surpassing the $50k reserve, passing it as fast as it would an SS 396 Chevelle. 25th Anniversary Replica coupe. S/N 1Z8748S404067. Two-tone #370-1978 CHEVROLET CORVETTE silver/tinted panels/oyster leather. Odo: 2,774 miles. 350ci 220-hp V8, 4-bbl, 4-sp. Left St. Louis in silver only, later painted to replicate a 25th Anniversary edition. Mileage claimed original. Equipped with the L82 motor, 4-speed, tilt/telescopic column, tinted roof panels, sport mirrors, and power windows. Good door and panel a slightly different hue than rest of car. GMspec panel and door gaps, aftermarket window tint film all around, chromed exhaust outlets. Moderate seat wear, heavier wear on steering wheel rim and door panels. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $11,070. While in good colors, this one was starting to get a little rough around the edges. Top money paid, as nicer cars are pretty easy to find for not a whole lot more money. The consignor was obviously well aware of this, and he cut the reserve loose when the bidding stopped. #98-2006 FORD MUSTANG Custom convertible. S/N AZ283016. Red/black cloth/ black leather. Odo: 19,381 miles. 4.6-L supercharged V8, 6-sp. Based on a Ford Mustang show car, and the first of six built to replicate it. Converted from a 2004 Mustang Cobra convertible. All traces of the donor car's VIN have been removed, and it has been assigned an Arizona VIN. Generally good panel fit and finish, heavily modified engine bay with much Excellent door and panel fit, with doors closing and latching without undue effort. Well preserved original interior, shoulder belts missing. Engine compartment needs minor detailing. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $17,280. Usually I see the GT flavor of early 1970s Ranchero pop up at action. In keeping with Ford's progression of trim, the Squire was akin to the wagon's use April 2010 gaps, engine compartment original and cleaned up well. Light wear to original upholstery, heavy wear to dealer accessory floor mats. Undercarriage dirtier than expected. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $14,580. Silver Anniversay was the hands-down most popular paint scheme for a '78 Corvette—almost three times more prolific than the cookie-cutter Pace Cars—so I'm not sure why this dude decided to turn his far rarer all-silver car into a Anniversary car. Sure, an Anniversary edition with the L82/4-speed polished billet aluminum and a Kenny Bell supercharger. Twin Supertrapp end-cap mufflers located in center of rear valance. Stock Mustang steering wheel and dash, custom center console and reupholstered seats. Cond: 2-. SOLD AT $44,280. Some of the uninformed in the crowd were wondering why this wasn't at Barrett-Jackson, thinking that this was a Ford prototype. Being a limited-run car, this does seem to be an appropriate venue to sell it—and it did sell quite well. But you could do just as well by getting a 2002–05 T-Bird and modifying it for less than what this sold for. Ah, but that's the price for (relative) exclusivity. ♦ 107
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Kruse International Glendale, AZ Glendale Collector Car Auction High sale was a 1935 Duesenberg JN Rollston convertible at $777,600 but the rest of the story is the amount of time this car stayed on the block Company Kruse International Date January 16–17, 2010 Location Glendale, Arizona Auctioneer Dean Kruse Automotive lots sold / offered 41/77 Sales rate 53% Sales total $1,762,074 High sale 1935 Duesenberg JN Rollston convertible, sold at $777,600 Buyer's premium 8%, included in sold prices Custom Thunderbird roadster, unsold at $110,000 Story and photos by Lance Raber Market opinions in italics dium, but given Kruse's recent highly publicized challenges, more than a new look might be necessary. A recent article in the Arizona Republic newspaper K gave a scathing account of past business practices, citing numerous unpaid sellers, numerous lawsuits, and even the lack of a current business license in Arizona—not exactly the way to build buyer confidence. But Kruse claims to have turned things around, and the only way to show the world that things have changed is one car at a time, as they cross the block. The auction was slow to get started, but eventually 41 of 77 cars sold for a total of $1,762,074. The combination of a down economy, that lack of buyer confidence, and high reserves made for a slow sale. The carpeted floor of the exhibit hall had runners of plastic taped down to avoid oil spills, and the fact that no cars could be started led to some levity, with crews of pushers grunting and slipping trying to move the heavier vehicles onto the auction block. The high sale was a 1935 Duesenberg JN Rollston convertible at $777,600, but the rest of the story is the amount of time this car stayed on the block. 108 ruse kicked off the 2010 auction season with a new and improved look on January 16–17. The new venue was the Renaissance Glendale Hotel, just next door to the University of Phoenix sta- The pleas of the entire auction staff were almost embarrassing as they begged for higher bids. I'm sure the proceeds from the sale of this car, said to be from Kruse's own collection, would go a long way in helping with the mounting cost of continuing this business, but six or eight cars could have been sold in the time spent with the gavel hung poised, then finally hammering to a telephone bidder in Houston. The history of this car stated that more than $1 million was spent in the restoration, and if that's true, someone in Houston got a bargain. The cars for sale were difficult to report on—and I'm sure to bid on as well— because auction numbers were often missing until just before the sale and few cars had fact sheets giving pertinent history. The Kruse auction may have a shaky fu- ture in Phoenix, as Maricopa County records show that Arizona and Phoenix have filed liens against Kruse to reclaim $89,000 in unpaid taxes and penalties, stretching back to 2005. The company's rating with the Better Business Bureau is an F, the result of 38 filed complaints, including 23 which are recorded as having received no response. Hercules himself might have trouble picking this company up again. But if anyone can do it, Dean Kruse and company are the ones, as they have risen Phoenix-like from the ashes, time and time again. Let's hope they pull another rabbit out of the collector car hat here. ♦ $1m $2m $3m $4m $5m $6m 0 Sales Totals 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 Sports Car Market
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Kruse International Glendale, AZ AMERICAN #732-1912 MITCHELL RUNABOUT roadster. S/N 24289. Light green/black cloth/ black leather. RHD. Brass Era auto in stunning condition with perfect wood and brass throughout. Took a 3rd place at Pebble beach in 2004, and is still just as nice as it was then. Cond: 1. NOT SOLD AT $90,000. This car has been making the circuit looking for a buyer trim. Reported to have $1.5m invested in its restoration, and claimed to be one of only 48 ever made. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $329,400. The reserve was dropped after what seemed like an eternity on the block, bringing spirited bidding both from the phone and on the floor. A stunning buy, as the successful bidder may be able to double his money in the not-too-distant future. for a couple of years, and it's reported to be the only one of its kind in existence. Last seen at Worldwide's Auburn sale in September '09, where it failed to sell at $200k (SCM# 142614), and seen before that at Kruse Phoenix in January '09, where it returned to its seller at $380k (SCM# 119475). $90k wasn't even close to what the seller wanted, and he was right in taking it home. #766A-1923 FORD T-BUCKET roadster. S/N 1D34319C0L0. Purple/black cloth/black vinyl. 350-ci supercharged V8, auto. A welldone plastic-bodied T-bucket that shows good attention to detail. Even includes an extra keg fuel tank for extra range. Spartan throughout, covers. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $777,600. This car sat on the auction block longer than any I've ever seen at any auction. After testimonials from experts to try to raise the price, the reserve of $1.4m was finally lifted and a phone bidder from Houston was the new proud owner at this bid. A no-brainer investment. Well bought. with coil-over rear suspension and originalstyle leaf spring in front, Weiand supercharged single-carb small-block Chevy fitted with chrome headers and braided steel hose dress up kit. Nice paint and top. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $9,720. A lot of time and effort was spent building this hot rod, and it looked like it would make an excellent nice-weather rod. I'm sure it would smoke the back tires with ease, and $9k wouldn't build you another. A bargain. #735-1930 DUESENBERG MODEL J Willoughby sedan. S/N J368. Gray & black/gray cloth/black leather. Odo: 13,165 miles. Coachwork by Willoughby. A museum car that probably will never see the road again. Excellent paint, chrome, and 110 #741-1936 LINCOLN AERO-MOBILE convertible. S/N K6056. Blue & aluminum/ brown leather. Half car and half airplane reportedly built by Howard Hughes, and it's bizarre enough to fit the reclusive genius. Side door reveals camera mount to facilitate movies while being driven. Cond: 2. NOT SOLD AT $170,000. Like a giant boattailed speedster TOP 10 No. 9 #740-1935 DUESENBERG JN Rollston convertible. S/N J570. Maroon/tan cloth/maroon leather. Odo: 44,688 miles. Coachwork by Rollston. A museum-quality stunner in all respects, and comes with an appraisal for $2.5m. Every part authenticated as being Duesenberg—even the headlight Continental kit and wide whitewalls. Engine compartment not detailed well, with plenty of rattle-can paint noted. Cond: 3-. SOLD AT $30,240. This car looked good from 20 feet, but some masking issues in the door jambs detracted up close, and the door sills were original and worn. Well sold considering the detail work still needed. #778-1956 LINCOLN CONTINENTAL Mk II 2-dr hard top. S/N C56R3784. Black/ black & white vinyl. Odo: 66,697 miles. 368ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Older paint and bodywork fair, all chrome starting to look dull. Looks to be a low-mile car that was stored in a garage waiting for the market to rise. Rust is starting crossed with a limo, and then polished to a gleaming shine. Reportedly purchased in June '09 at the Leake auction in Oklahoma for $1.08m dollars (see the SCM profile, October 2009, p. 42), and although Hughes cars tend to bring a premium, this bid seemed closer to reality. #796-1956 FORD THUNDERBIRD con- vertible. S/N P6FH311204. Blue/white/blue & white vinyl. Odo: 54,897 miles. 312-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Body smooth and appears solid, panels fit well. Paint shows a few minor issues, chrome without visible flaw. Fitted with to sneak in all over the car, with door sills and hinges starting to bubble, and all the weather stripping needs to be replaced. Interior worn as expected, but all of it looks to fit together in a nice old original driver. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $20,520. The Mk II is rumored to be one of the most difficult Lincolns to fix, and this one certainly had a few needs. The No Reserve sign helped to drag the price up to $20k, and that was a bit more than I expected. #736-1959 CHEVROLET APACHE pickup. S/N 0920804723. Blue & white/white steel/black vinyl. Odo: 22,006 miles. 350-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. A '59 pickup with modern running gear, power steering, and power brakes, but with a rubber mat on the floor just like when new. Fitted with visor over windshield Sports Car Market
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Kruse International Glendale, AZ and shiny new chrome all around. Engine compartment dingy. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $19,980. It seems as though trucks are gaining some ground in the collector car world, with quite a few of them coming to auction in recent months. This was another show car from 25 feet, with all the effort being spent on the exterior. Underhood, a handful of spray-painted bits looked out of place, and maybe the new owner will finish the job. At the price paid, this was a decent deal for both parties. #750-1961 FORD THUNDERBIRD Custom roadster. S/N 1Y712114618. Polished aluminum/clear bubble top/red leather. 351-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Hand-formed aluminum body looks like something out of a Batman movie, only shiny. Astounding detail, all panels appear dent free. Excellent fit and finish throughout. Bubble top fits perfectly and is scratch-free. Cond: 1-. NOT SOLD AT $110,000. The only flaw I found here was that the builder painted the dual batteries silver, and acid fumes broke down the paint and made it peel. Otherwise, even the engine compartment was shiny alloy, and it too was almost perfect. The build cost was likely higher than this bid, but I'm not sure where the seller will find more in this market. #710-1966 DODGE A100 van. S/N 1962078057. Green/green cloth. Odo: 14,345 miles. 170-ci slant-6, 1-bbl, auto. An exMountain Bell service truck with a fair body and a quick repaint. Ladder rack missing, but owner says she has it and will supply it. Typical merchant van with windows only on the right hand side. So homely that a buyer would have to have something odd in mind. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $5,250. Probably rare, but who cares? The owner says she wanted $12k, but at that price, she'll own it for an eternity. A worn out, slant-six powered commercial vehicle just isn't at the top of most collectors' lists, and the bidding died at an expected level. #1004-1968 PONTIAC LEMANS con- vertible. S/N 237678P142676. Black/black cloth/black vinyl. Odo: 4,759 miles. 350-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Black body and paint fairly well done, including front end and trim. Panel fit just OK, engine compartment shows some chrome April 2010 111
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Kruse International Glendale, AZ aftermarket additions and could use a good detailing. Aftermarket seat covers ripped on driver's side, worn hinges let doors sag. Cond: 3-. NOT SOLD AT $12,250. This looked like a dressed-up driver with lots of missed details. There's a whole winter's worth of work left to make it nice, and the buyers knew it, stopping the bidding at just over $12k. #1017-1968 CHEVROLET CAMARO RS coupe. S/N 124378L307216. Purple & silver/black vinyl. 565-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. A well-appointed drag car. Body and paint well done, panel gaps decent, engine compartment as expected in a big-buck racer. All wires and hoses carefully routed and secured, making for a sanitary project. Seller reports a 1/4 mile time of 9.60 seconds at 138 mph, and motor has 400-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Body and paint well done, with all correct Road Runner decals in place. Some new chrome, some original worn pieces, panel gaps as varied as expected for an early '70s Mopar. Tidy overall, with some aftermarket bits fitted under the hood. Cond: 3+. SOLD AT $25,380. A relatively nice example of a period muscle car, despite a few missed details. This wasn't a show car, but if you wanted a stunning driver that would make the baby boomers drool, this was your car. A bargain at the price paid. #1001-1972 CHEVROLET CHEVELLE only six passes on a complete rebuild. Cond: 2. NOT SOLD AT $14,000. Drag race cars without good history don't have a huge following in the current market, and this car was weakly bid against the seller's expectation of around $30k. This bid was obviously under the build cost, so the seller was right in holding out for more. #728-1968 CADILLAC DEVILLE con- vertible. S/N F8158070. Black/white cloth/ red leather. Odo: 68,825 miles. 472-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Claimed original miles, fitted with California black plates. Nice body, fair repaint with correct red pinstripes. New convertible top fitted, original fair chrome still shows reasonably well. Engine compartment and chassis of a driver, with much detailing needed. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $8,424. The original interior was in good shape for a car from 1968, and it pointed to a probable past of being garaged in California. However, the engine compartment showed every minute of the car's age, and some quick paint touch-ups didn't help. A good cleaning will probably bump up the value a bit when it comes time to sell. Well bought. #749-1972 PLYMOUTH ROAD RUNNER 2-dr hard top. S/N RM23P2R295839. Blue & black/black/vinyl/blue vinyl. Odo: 8,804 miles. 112 package shelf. Fitted with power steering and brakes. Cond: 3-. NOT SOLD AT $20,000. It looked as though the restorer spent his money on the motor and a new paint job, leaving the details to the next owner. The car was a good driver that really only needed a couple of days worth of work to be brought up a level, and all things considered, I'd say the bid was in the ballpark. #1016-1974 PLYMOUTH DUSTER 2-dr hard top. S/N VL29C4G149038. Yellow & black/black vinyl/black vinyl. Odo: 70,618 miles. 340-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Amateur repaint with original chrome and all the right decals. Often dented aluminum trim fair, inside original but in good shape overall, vinyl top shows well. Fitted with Cragar wheels on BFG Radial T/A tires. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $8,000. This had a really nice look to it, but once the hood was opened, it was obvious that the new paint did not match the original, and someone got loose with a couple cans of black spray paint to freshen the engine compartment. Some SS 2-dr hard top. S/N 1D37J2L543746. Red/ black vinyl/black vinyl. Odo: 91,505 miles. 350-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Fair body and paint showing only a few minor issues throughout, brightwork mostly original and takes away from more recent paint. Worn interior needs a few details attended to, speakers installed on of dirt. Chrome original, top new, interior in good original shape showing only light aging and wear. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $13,176. This car appeared all original and undetailed under the hood, but it looked like the paint was a bit fresher. Not a bad driver-quality low-mileage example of a big GM convertible, but it's going to require some hefty detail work before it can bring any more than this price. Well sold. #1018-2007 SHELBY MUSTANG GT fastback. S/N 12HT82H675289164. Black/ black vinyl. Odo: 4,500 miles. 5.4-L fuelinjected V8, 5-sp. Condition as expected for a 4,500-mile Shelby GT. Paint and body flawless, period aftermarket parts were lurking around the engine compartment, but I would have expected this to bring a bit more. The seller was right to wait for another day. #751-1975 OLDSMOBILE DELTA 88 Royale convertible. S/N 3N7T5X129939. Yellow/white cloth/white vinyl. Odo: 21,839 miles. 455-ci V8, 4-bbl, auto. Body and panel fit better than average for a 21,000-mile car, paint shows some orange peel and visible specks interior and underhood basically as-new. Cond: 2. NOT SOLD AT $38,000. This car looked like it had been attacked by a decal salesman. The seller got on stage and bragged that the car was signed twelve times by Carroll Shelby, and that when on the track, it would stay with any GT500 he found. Even so, this bid was all the money, and he should have taken it. ♦ Sports Car Market
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Keith Martin's Guide to Car Collecting, Second Edition, will be your one-stop resource for collecting. ALL COPIES SIGNED BY THE AUTHOR! The updated edition includes over 300 pages of insider information about the collector car market, with tips and insights you simply won't get anywhere else. It includes everything, from the top 1,000 prices of collectible cars, to collector car legal advice, to picking out your best first Ferrari or Porsche. It's a must read. If you order from SCM, your book will be shipped by priority mail WITHIN 24 HOURS of the receipt of your order. Keith Martin's Guide to Car Collecting, Second Edition, signed by the author: $30, including priority shipping anywhere in the U.S. ($40 outside the U.S.). A limited number of signed and numbered copies, from an edition of 250, are available. Includes instant digital download of the complete book. $45, including shipping anywhere in the U.S. ($55 outside the U.S.). sportscarmarket.com/kmoc2
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eBay Motors Online Sales Two-fers You might not make money, but you sure could have fun trying to put Humpty Dumpty back together again Report by Geoff Archer Market opinions in italics C ar guys are suckers for a deal, especially when there's a parts car included. But despite what your math teacher told you, two isn't always greater than one. Condition inferred from seller's descriptions; cars were not physically examined by the author. All quoted material taken from the eBay listings. (sf=seller's feedback; bf=buyer's feedback) #200343278334-1965 SUNBEAM ALPINE (2) roadster. S/N B9403228. Red/black/black. Odo: 41,189 miles. 24 Photos. Toms River, NJ. “Series IV (project and parts) with rare automatic transmissions. The project car is a fully functional running and driving car that is road registered in New Jersey as a Classic; it is in need of restoration. The parts car has been sitting outside under a cover for about 7 years. It had a recently rebuilt automatic transmission and ran when parked. Both cars have wire project that just might have some upside (given enough time and sweat equity). Slightly well bought. #280381857600-1965 TRABANT KOMBI (2) wagon. S/N N/A. White/gray. 16 Photos. Olympia, WA. “These cars are offered as ONE unit, and will not be sold separately. Car A is in good order. There is a fully opening sun roof.” Clean interior.“Car B, though it runs well, is best suited as a parts car. The body made of Duroplast, a composite of cotton, wool waste and polymer. The edges of both doors have a tiny curl and wheels, hardtop in need of restoration is offered for sale with the cars.” 15 bids, sf 10, bf 258. Cond: 4-. SOLD AT $3,000. Fair deal for a big project with no hope of a financial return. That said, if I were 20 years younger—and a New Jersey high school senior—I would have been freaking out about this auction. Not only would I have misperceived an opportunity, but I would have also felt like it was my duty to the universe at large to ‘save' all lost-cause project cars I encountered. Isn't it convenient how the smug hindsight of middle age so often justifies inaction? #260334282860-1960 VESPA 400 (3) coupe. S/N N/A. 2 baby blue and 1 mint green/. 4 Photos. Costa Mesa, CA. “There were 35,000 of these great cars built by Piaggio from the Vespa scooter family. Amazing top speed of 50 MPH with the 393cc 2 stroke air cooled engine that will easily give you a possible 50 MPG! As you can see we have three cars. There is body rust, some missing parts, one door loose, and one has no motor. Yes, one of the motors turns over by hand, it may run. I did not try. Two of the cars are US import one is European. There 114 are boxes of take off parts.” 8 bids, sf 770, bf 98. Cond: 5+. SOLD AT $7,600. How could you ever rationalize this purchase? Sure, $2,533 is reasonable enough for each complete project car, but $7,600 for three of them? If you waited long enough I'll bet you could find a nice #3+ example that needs nothing for this kind of money. And isn't that what you want in the end? Well sold in terms of units if not price. #170345923834-1961 FACEL VEGA FACELLIA (2) roadster. S/N A158. Primer/ black/black. 17 Photos. Naples, FL. “(2) Facel Vegas Facellia F2. The 1961 Facel Vega is complete all parts are there, drive train, trim, etc. but rusty. Front grill is like new. All stainless steel can be polished to look like new. Car has clean should be replaced if you do not wish to turn this into a parts car. Price includes hundreds of parts.” 3 bids, sf 0, bf private. Cond: 3. SOLD AT $1,750. In the American south, an all-you-can-eat buffet is simply called an “allyall,” and a two-forone sale is, well, a “2fer.” Although this sale was in the opposite corner of the lower 48, either of those contractions would make a fine personalized plate for these Trabis. Car A went for about half price, with Car B and the Communist car part allyall coming along for free. #220398090613-2008 DUCATI HYPERMOTARD (2) motorcycle. S/N ZDM1YACP48B006075. Red/black seat/. Odo: 715 miles. 14 Photos. Lakeway, TX. “You are buying one motorcycle and you get the other one absolutely free, no charge. Both basically stock, with some minor updates like turn signals, brake levers, carbon fiber covers etc. These bikes are my buddies and my personal bikes, we just roll and clear Florida Title. The other one is a 1959 Facel Vega Facellia F1 rolling chassis without motor, gear box or interior. Has very rare Hard Top with plexi window.” 8 bids, sf 18, bf 786. Cond: 5-. SOLD AT $4,050. The mother of all multiples? Finally, an interesting restoration around and pop wheelies and what not. Both bikes have good rubber all the way around, and both have had the 600 mile services. There's not a scratch on either bike. Full factory warranty. 2nd gear wheelies, all day long.” 1 But- Sports Car Market
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Online sales of contemporary cars. It-Now bid, so 22160, bf 39. Cond: 1-. SOLD AT $16,000. There are very few of these 2008s available used in the U.S. Maybe that simple supply-and-demand issue explains the fact that they were fully priced here? At $8,000 each, there was no volume discount whatsoever. #250424242694-1969 CHEVROLET CAMARO (2) coupe. S/N N/A. Blue & primer/ blue vinyl. 10 Photos. Northport, NY. X11 code might mean SS, but probably means ‘style group.' “Gray primer car is in rough condition needs a lot of metal work... has a Chevy 350 and turbo 350 tranny has most interior pieces, windows and regulators etc 10 bolt rear. blue car Fresh Meat 2010 Porsche 911 Turbo needs nose and a passenger floor plan... has new rockers, rear valance, car is solid... have a few parts what u see in the pics is what I got.” 18 bids, sf 53, bf 1. Cond: 5. SOLD AT $4,011. A shop class special. With all the parts and panels still being made for these iconic cars, you might not make money, but you sure could have fun trying to put Humpty Dumpty back together again. Being bid $500-plus over the reserve validates that logic. Fair deal for both parties. #160328953935-1993 CHEVROLET CAPRICE (2) sedan. S/N 1G1BL5379PR121842. White/blue velour. Odo: 180,000 miles. 24 Photos. Cisco, TX. “Retired police cars from taylor county sherrif's office. Both cars are a little dusty however they run perfect with no leaks anywhere and have 60lbs of oil pressure, a/c both work great blowing very cold. They are equipped with heavy duty everything from tranny to alternator... one has 245000 electric cars, (truck bed models.)” Paint crazed and sun-faded. “Just as the cars were when we picked them up at airport, all running condition, but need tweeked here and there... One parking light, two seat bottoms, part of a steering column, small dash piece, one of the ignition keys, all missing. One could be used as parts for other two. Or most likely all three can be up and running.” 1 Buy-It-Now bid, sf 286, bf 87. Cond: 4. SOLD AT $3,900. A very funny phrasing error has the seller accidentally suggesting a classic supply and demand problem: “Here is project for right person... Not too many of these in existence.” My thoughts exactly. Maybe ten years from now there will be lots of techie car enthusiasts who repair and modify old electrics, but today there just aren't many. So, while selling them Aretha Franklin style (‘Think, think, think, you think...') wouldn't normally be my prescription to maximize, it's probably the best tactic right now. #180359205493-1971 DINALPIN A110 (2) coupe. S/N 000415. Blue/black vinyl. 16 Photos. Morelia, Mexico. A nice looking pair of Mexican-built Renault Alpines. The coupe has the right color, stance and rims for rallying, whereas the cabrio (a rare one-year model) is bone stock with hubcaps on steelies. Both cars are very clean, but the engine bays look well used. 100% feedback seller wants to meet on the Mexican side of the U.S. border. $75k Buy-It- Date sold: 01/30/2010 eBay auction ID: 160397839291 Seller: Woodhouse Porsche, Omaha, NE, www.woodhouse. com Sale Type: New car with 7 miles VIN: WP0AD2A93AS766151 Details: Black/black leather, Sport Chrono Package, dynamic cornering lights, limited-slip differential lock, Porsche Ceramic Composite Brakes Sale result: $166,005, 14 bids, sf 31, bf private MSRP: $166,005 Other current offering: Auto Palace LLC USA, Pittsburgh, PA, www.auto-palace.com, asking $154,205 for similar black car without PCCB. 2010 Audi R8 Date sold: 01/27/2010 eBay auction ID: 250570722432 Seller: Potamkin Auto Gallery, North Miami Beach, FL, www.potamkinautogallery.com Sale Type: Used car with 1,834 miles VIN: WUADNAFG2AN000604 Details: Gray/gray. 5.2L FSI V10, 6-speed manual, quattro, navigation Sale result: $123,777, 1 bid, sf 12, bf private MSRP: $146,000 (base) Other current offering: Audi of Pembroke Pines, FL, www.audipembrokepines.com, asking $166,995 for blue car with 697 miles. 2008 BMW 135i Convertible one has 180000 both bodys are near perfect, no rust anywhere, good tires and spares. drive them anywhere.” 1 Best-Offer bid, sf 275, bf 226. Cond: 4+. SOLD AT $2,500. Cloth patrol car interiors baking in the Texas heat can only sing Lynyrd Skynyrd to me: “Ooh that smell. Can't you smell that smell? Ooh that smell.” Thus I say the price was right for status (not a supervisor's car), dirty condition, and high mileage. “... There's too much coke, and too much smoke...” Now you sing the chorus. #180331293496-2002 FORD THINK (3) pickup. S/N 1FABP215520107404. Blue & gray/gray vinyl. Odo: 2,000 miles. 10 Photos. Rancho Mirage, CA. “Three ‘Flight Support' April 2010 Now price. 4 bids, sf 275, bf 141. Cond: 3. NOT SOLD AT $36,100. BringaTrailer.com played host to a maelstrom of posts about this auction. Alternating volleys of NAFTA member country nationalism and quasi-racist generalizations painted a picture (a Frida Kahlo mosaic?) of why these cars came up short. Adventurous, “eat some carnitas tacos off a street cart, and pick up some percocets at a farmacia – you in the convertible and your attorney with the coupe,” or paranoid, “meet him on the Mexican side of the border, give him the cash, and he goes ‘adios, amigo,'” these bidders want at least a $25k discount for the importation hassle. ♦ Date sold: 10/22/2006 eBay auction ID: 120521908087 Seller ID: gt2gt700 Sale Type: Used car with 20,605 miles VIN: Black Sapphire /taupe leather/taupe soft top, Steptronic, Premium Package, gray poplar trim, warranty through 01.16.13 Sale result: $25,101, 37 bids, sf 15, bf private MSRP: $39,100 (base) Other current offering: Fields BMW Volkswagen, Daytona Beach, FL, www.fieldsbmwofdaytona.com, asking $36,995 for similar 2008 with 16,165 miles. ♦ 115
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ArizonA recAp ■ by the numbers Top 200 Cars Sold in Arizona* Charlie Ross (right) hammers sold the 1956 Jag D-type, high sale of the week at $3.74m with commission included RANK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 116 SOLD PRICE MODEL $3,740,000 1956 Jaguar D-type Sports Racer $2,145,000 1959 Ferrari 250 GT Series I Cabriolet $1,815,000 1934 Duesenberg Model J Disappearing-Top Convertible Coupe $1,540,000 1932 Alfa Romeo 6C 1750 Series V Gran Sport $1,540,000 1936 Hispano-Suiza Type 68 J12 Cabriolet $1,100,000 1959 Lister Costin Jaguar Sports Racer $1,028,500 1965 Shelby Cobra 427 S/C Roadster $1,001,000 1963 Aston Martin DB4GT Coupe $825,000 1930 Duesenberg Model J Convertible Berline $777,600 1935 Duesenberg JN Rollston Convertible $737,000 1965 Ferrari 275 GTB Coupe $726,000 1927 Bentley 6½ Liter Sport Coupe $683,200 1929 Hamilton Metalplane H47 Serial #65 Airplane $660,000 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Coupe $649,000 1948 Cadillac Series 62 Custom Cabriolet $632,500 1967 Shelby Cobra 427 Roadster $605,000 1937 Delage D8 120 Drophead Coupe $561,000 1931 Stutz DV-32 Speedster Phaeton $550,000 1932 Duesenberg Model J Tourster $528,000 1934 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Henley Coupe $528,000 1933 Rolls-Royce PII Continental 3-Position Drophead Coupe $522,500 1957 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Roadster $506,000 1930 Duesenberg Model J Arlington 5-Passenger Club Sedan $500,500 1932 Buick Series 90 Town Car $478,500 1964 Shelby Cobra 289 Roadster $451,000 1931 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Merlin Special $429,000 1938 Bugatti Type 57C Cabriolet $429,000 1956 Maserati A6G/54 Berlinetta $429,000 1965 Aston Martin DB5 Coupe $429,000 1954 Mercury XM-800 Dream Car $429,000 1963 Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud III Drophead Coupe $418,000 1965 Shelby GT350 Supercharged Prototype Fastback $410,000 1931 Cadillac 452A V16 Sport Phaeton AUCTION & LOT G&C, #16 G&C, #118 G&C, #9 G&C, #141 G&C, #127 G&C, #23 G&C, #132 RM, #129 G&C, #109 Kruse, #740 G&C, #160 G&C, #39 B-J, #1307 G&C, #144 G&C, #45 RM, #277 G&C, #13 G&C, #139 RM, #297 G&C, #123 RM, #249 G&C, #157 RM, #264 G&C, #134 B-J, #1317 G&C, #18 G&C, #122 G&C, #130 RM, #132 RM, #254 RM, #247 G&C, #43 G&C, #41 RANK 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 SOLD PRICE MODEL $407,000 1962 Aston Martin DB4 SII Coupe $401,500 1963 Shelby Cobra 289 Roadster $385,000 1929 Rolls-Royce Phantom I Ascot Tourer $385,000 1933 Chrysler CL Custom Imperial Dual Windshield Phaeton $374,000 1968 Ferrari 330 GTC Coupe $357,500 1934 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Continental Sedanca Drophead Coupe $352,000 1909 Pierce-Arrow Model 48SS Great Arrow 7-Passenger Touring $330,000 1958 Aston Martin DB Mk III Drophead Coupe $329,400 1930 Duesenberg Model J Willoughby Sedan $325,000 1916 Pierce-Arrow Model 66-A4 7-Passenger Touring $319,000 1961 Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud II Drophead Coupe $319,000 1966 Aston Martin DB6 Vantage Coupe $302,500 1935 Cadillac Series 40 Fleetwood Imperial Convertible $300,000 2011 Ford Mustang GT Glass Roof Coupe $291,500 1931 Chrysler CG Imperial Roadster $291,500 1971 Ferrari 365 GTB/4 Daytona Coupe $286,000 1970 Plymouth Hemi Superbird 2-Door Hard Top $280,500 1952 Watson Roadster Custom by Blastolene $275,000 2008 Ford Mustang FR500S Fastback Race Car $275,000 1970 Ford Mustang Boss 429 Fastback $275,000 1939 Packard Twelve Convertible Sedan $275,000 1958 Aston Martin DB Mk III Coupe $275,000 1962 Aston Martin DB4 Race Car $275,000 1930 Rolls-Royce Springfield Phantom I Salamanca by Hibbard $269,500 1965 Lamborghini 350 GT Alloy Coupe $264,000 1931 Bugatti Type 49 Cabriolet $264,000 1971 Ferrari 365 GTB/4 Daytona Coupe $258,500 1937 Kurtis Tommy Lee Speedster $253,000 1967 Ford Mustang Custom Fastback $253,000 1925 Bentley 3 Liter Tourer $253,000 1940 Packard Model 1807 Convertible Sedan $253,000 1959 AC Ace Bristol Roadster $253,000 1930 Cadillac V16 2/4-Passenger Convertible Coupe AUCTION & LOT G&C, #164 B-J, #1303 G&C, #145 RM, #295 G&C, #148 RM, #258 G&C, #173 RM, #119 Kruse, #735 RM, #263 G&C, #30 RM, #139 B-J, #1265 B-J, #1295.1 G&C, #156 G&C, #29 B-J, #1289 B-J, #1292 B-J, #1027 B-J, #1283.1 G&C, #20 RM, #120 RM, #123 RM, #306 G&C, #105 G&C, #31 RM, #228 G&C, #52 B-J, #1287 G&C, #112 G&C, #7 RM, #126 RM, #276 *Does not include Russo and Steele, which has not reported prices as of this printing Sports Car Market
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RANK 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 April 2010 SOLD PRICE MODEL $247,500 1956 Chevrolet Bel Air Custom Convertible $247,500 1966 Shelby GT350 Fastback $242,000 1954 Mercedes-Benz 300S Roadster $239,250 1941 Lincoln Zephyr Custom 3-Window Coupe $231,000 1970 Plymouth 'Cuda 2-Door Hard Top $226,240 1970 Oldsmobile 442 W30 Convertible $225,500 1956 Cadillac Maharani Special Motorama 4-Door Hard Top $225,500 1959 DeSoto Adventurer Convertible Coupe $225,500 1958 Porsche 356A Speedster $220,000 1937 Cord 812 Phaeton $220,000 1954 Kaiser-Darrin Supercharged Convertible $220,000 1958 Chevrolet Corvette 350 Convertible $220,000 1968 Ferrari 206 GT Dino Coupe $220,000 1959 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz Convertible $220,000 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz Raindrop Motorama Convertible $214,500 1966 Shelby GT350 Fastback $214,500 1970 Ford Mustang Boss 429 Fastback $209,000 1936 Packard 1404 Super Eight Dual-Windshield Phaeton $209,000 1935 Lincoln Model K Convertible Roadster $203,500 1930 Packard 740 Custom Eight Sport Phaeton $203,500 1962 Porsche 356 Carrera 2 Coupe $200,000 1990 Coors Extra Gold Top Fuel Dragster Replica $200,000 2008 Chevrolet Corvette Coupe Limited Edition $198,000 1966 Chevrolet Corvette LS3 Custom Convertible $198,000 1937 Cord 812 SC Phaeton $198,000 1937 Cord 812 SC Sportsman Convertible Coupe $198,000 1931 Packard 840 DeLuxe Eight Sport Phaeton $194,700 1957 Chevrolet Corvette 283/283 FI Convertible $192,500 1971 Plymouth Hemi 'Cuda 2-Door Hard Top $192,500 1939 Chrysler C-24 Custom Imperial Parade Phaeton $192,500 1933 Packard Model 1004 Super Eight Coupe Roadster $192,500 1956 AC Ace Roadster $192,500 1961 Aston Martin DB4GT Zagato Replica Race Car $192,500 1934 Packard Super Eight Sport Phaeton $192,500 1937 Packard Twelve Convertible Victoria $187,000 1967 Maserati Mexico Speciale Coupe $187,000 1969 Ford Mustang Boss 429 Fastback $181,500 1960 Chevrolet Corvette 283/290 FI Convertible $181,500 1937 Rolls-Royce Phantom III Cabriolet $181,500 2003 Saleen S7 Coupe $181,500 1967 Shelby GT500 Fastback $180,200 1932 Ford Custom Show Roadster $180,200 1956 Chrysler Custom 2-Door Sport Wagon $179,280 2004 Maybach Limousine 4-Door Hard Top $176,000 1966 Mercury Comet Funny Car $176,000 1955 Chevrolet Nomad Custom 2-Door Wagon $176,000 1970 Ford Mustang Boss 429 Fastback $176,000 1963 Facel Vega Facel II 2-Door Hard Top $176,000 1948 Mercury Marmon-Herrington Station Wagon $170,500 1965 Chevrolet Corvette 327/365 Convertible $170,500 2003 Aston Martin DB AR1 Roadster $170,500 1956 Aston Martin DB2/4 Mk II Coupe $170,500 1993 Jaguar XJ 220 Coupe $169,400 2006 Ford GT Coupe $168,000 1968 Shelby GT500 KR Convertible $168,000 1930 Ford Model A “John Dillinger” Coupe $167,200 1955 Chevrolet Corvette Roadster $165,000 2006 Ford GT Coupe $165,000 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz Convertible $165,000 1955 Chevrolet Bel Air 2-Door Post $165,000 1959 Aston Martin DB Mk IIIB Coupe $162,400 1970 Plymouth Superbird 2-Door Hard Top $161,700 1967 Chevrolet Corvette 427/435 Convertible $161,700 1967 Chevrolet Corvette 427/435 Convertible $161,700 1959 Cadillac Coupe DeVille Raymond Loewy Custom $161,700 1968 Shelby GT500 Convertible $159,500 1967 Shelby GT500 Fastback AUCTION & LOT B-J, #1286 B-J, #1302 G&C, #35 B-J, #1261 B-J, #1285 B-J, #1269 RM, #253 RM, #241 RM, #268 B-J, #1250.1 B-J, #1253.1 B-J, #1278.1 G&C, #129 RM, #243 RM, #256 B-J, #1266 B-J, #1283 G&C, #162 RM, #259 G&C, #153 G&C, #15 B-J, #1247 B-J, #1318 B-J, #1248.1 G&C, #36 RM, #285 RM, #274 B-J, #1257.2 B-J, #1313 G&C, #149 G&C, #115 RM, #135 RM, #134 RM, #289 RM, #244 G&C, #10 RM, #282 B-J, #1263 G&C, #102 G&C, #24 G&C, #103 B-J, #1310 B-J, #1311 Silver, #312 B-J, #1306 B-J, #1315 B-J, #1319 G&C, #126 RM, #260 B-J, #1259 G&C, #138 G&C, #119 G&C, #38 B-J, #1059 B-J, #1278 B-J, #1309 B-J, #1332 B-J, #1236.1 B-J, #1258 B-J, #1325.1 RM, #124 B-J, #1270 B-J, #1267 B-J, #1271 B-J, #1295 B-J, #1323.1 B-J, #1033 RANK 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 SOLD PRICE MODEL $159,500 1967 Ford Mustang Fastback $159,500 1970 Oldsmobile 442 W30 Convertible $159,500 1969 Chevrolet Camaro COPO Coupe $159,500 1948 Chrysler Town and Country Convertible $159,500 1973 Ferrari 246 GT Dino Coupe $159,500 1947 Ford Super Deluxe Sportsman Convertible $156,750 2001 Ferrari 550 Barchetta $156,750 1933 Auburn Twelve Convertible Sedan $156,200 1968 Shelby GT500 KR Convertible $154,000 1953 Packard Caribbean Convertible $154,000 1931 Aston Martin 1½-Liter International 2/4-Seater $154,000 1961 Jaguar XKE SI Convertible $151,250 1967 Ferrari 330 Barchetta Replica $150,700 1967 Chevrolet Nova 2-Door Hard Top $150,700 1957 Chevrolet Bel Air Custom Pro 57 2-Door Hard Top $150,700 1969 Chevrolet Camaro COPO Coupe $148,500 1961 Chevrolet Impala SS Convertible $148,500 1989 Ferrari Testarossa Coupe $148,500 1969 Chevrolet Camaro Trans Am Race Car $148,500 1933 Lincoln KB Panel Brougham $145,750 1940 Packard 110 Station Wagon $145,750 1960 Chrysler 300F Convertible $143,000 1935 Ford 3-Window Custom Coupe $143,000 1968 Shelby GT350 Fastback $143,000 1956 Chevrolet Bel Air Convertible $143,000 1969 Chevrolet Corvette 468 Custom Convertible $143,000 1954 Arnolt-MG Drophead Coupe $143,000 1936 Cord 810 Convertible Coupe $140,800 1934 Ford Custom Woodie Station Wagon $140,250 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz Convertible $137,500 1958 Chevrolet Impala Convertible $137,500 1966 Chevrolet Corvette 427/450 Convertible $137,500 1970 Plymouth Hemi Superbird Custom 2-Door Hard Top $137,500 1933 Chrysler Imperial Sedan $137,500 1992 Ford Thunderbird NASCAR Race Car $137,500 1967 Chevrolet Corvette 427/400 Convertible $137,500 1955 Facel Vega FV1 2-Door Hard Top $137,500 1960 AC Aceca Bristol Coupe $137,500 1935 Auburn 851 SC Cabriolet $137,500 1929 Packard 645 Deluxe Eight Dual Cowl Phaeton $134,200 1969 Chevrolet Camaro Z/28 Coupe $132,000 1940 Packard 110 Custom Convertible $132,000 1966 Chevrolet Corvette 427/425 Convertible $132,000 1936 Ford Custom Roadster $132,000 1950 Mercury Convertible $130,000 2009 Dodge Challenger SRT Richard Petty Serial #0001 $129,250 2001 Bentley Azure Mulliner Convertible $128,800 1930 Cadillac 353 Convertible $128,800 1958 Chevrolet Impala Convertible $126,500 1967 Chevrolet Camaro Custom Coupe $126,500 1961 Chevrolet Corvette 283/245 Convertible $126,500 1999 Shelby Series 1 Convertible $126,500 1954 Jaguar XK 120M Roadster $126,500 1963 Rolls-Royce Phantom V Limousine $126,500 1937 Ford Custom Convertible $126,500 1970 Shelby GT500 Convertible $124,020 1969 Ford Mustang Mach 1 Fastback $123,750 1935 Cadillac V12 Town Cabriolet $123,750 1963 Ford Galaxie 500 Factory Lightweight $123,750 1957 Jaguar XKSS Replica by Temporo $123,200 1967 Chevrolet Corvette 427/435 Coupe $121,000 1957 Ford Thunderbird “E” Convertible $121,000 1961 Chevrolet Corvette 283/315 FI Convertible $121,000 1966 Oldsmobile F85 Deluxe 442 2-Door Hard Top $121,000 1935 Auburn 851 SC Sport Coupe $121,000 1999 Bentley Continental SC Coupe $121,000 1959 Chevrolet Corvette 283/270 Convertible AUCTION & LOT B-J, #1260 B-J, #1276 G&C, #4 G&C, #108 G&C, #6 RM, #261 G&C, #33 RM, #248 B-J, #1288 B-J, #1328.1 RM, #138 RM, #286 G&C, #21 B-J, #738.1 B-J, #1261.1 B-J, #1321 B-J, #1252.1 B-J, #1333 G&C, #167 G&C, #26 G&C, #151 RM, #250 B-J, #1252 B-J, #1253 B-J, #1256 B-J, #1269.1 G&C, #3 RM, #283 B-J, #994 RM, #239 B-J, #1009 B-J, #1245.1 B-J, #1255 B-J, #1265.2 B-J, #1266.1 B-J, #1351 G&C, #11 RM, #142 RM, #275 RM, #279 B-J, #1245 B-J, #1245.3 B-J, #1260.2 RM, #216 RM, #302 B-J, #1277 RM, #128 B-J, #1250.2 B-J, #1342 B-J, #734 B-J, #1041.1 B-J, #1324 G&C, #37 G&C, #147 RM, #299 RM, #252 B-J, #1008 RM, #290 RM, #287 RM, #137 B-J, #1314 B-J, #991 B-J, #1005 B-J, #1039 G&C, #1 RM, #127 RM, #304 117
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Bike Buys MV Agusta America MV Agusta 750S America—Shafted by the Count The old story is that Count Agusta wanted to handicap privateers who might have used chain-driven, 4-cylinder MVs against him on the track by Ed Milich M lowed, V Agusta emerged after World War II as a premier competitor in grand prix motorcycle racing. Prior to the war, the company made airplanes, but Italy's impoverished economy in the late 1940s prompted it to manufacture cheap two-wheeled transportation in order to survive. However, racing pursuits foland with them dozens of World Championships with riders like Giacomo Agostini, Mike Hailwood, Phil Reed, and John Surtees. Fueled by the wealth and power of its patron, Count Domenico Agusta, MV Agusta was recognized for race-bred machines with a penchant for exquisite design. The 4-cylinder production MVs derived from almost two decades of prior factory racebike development. The first 4-cylinder production bike—the 600 Four—arrived in 1965 and was displayed at the Milan motorcycle show. The MV's DOHC design predated its similar Japanese competition (notably, the Kawasaki Z1) by around seven years. Development of this model continued until 1980, when displacement reached 789 cc, and the design had evolved into the organic, aesthetic majesty of the 750 Sport America. Not born to race It's worth noting that the MV production models were never intended as racers or even café racers. Rather, they were meant as “standards”—exclusive, gentlemanly bikes to be used for everything from errands to weekend rides to touring. To this end, the MV fours originally used a relatively complicated shaft drive. The old story is that Count Agusta wanted to handicap privateers who otherwise might have used his machines against him. But the shaft drive really may have been intended to eliminate the messy roller chains of the era. The MV four motors are all oversquare, with bore Details Perfect MV Agusta Owner: Orders wine and motorcycle parts in Italian with equal fluency. SCM Five-Star Rating Fun to ride: Ease of maintenance: Appreciation potential: Attention getter: Years produced: 1969–77 Number produced: 1,865 approx. Original list price: $3,500 approx. in 1971 SCM Valuation: $60,000 Tune-up cost: $100 DIY Engine: 600 cc (1966–70); 743 cc (1970–75); 789 cc (1975–80) Transmission: 5-speed, wet clutch Weight: 539 lb dry Engine #: Right side, near distributor Frame #: On frame rail under seat Colors: Black; red/blue/white; red/white/ silver More: www.mvagusta.it; www.mvownersclub.co.uk SCM Investment Grade: A 118 increased from 58 mm to 67 mm over time, while stroke remained 56 mm. Engine bottom ends are built-up units with roller mains, needle bearing crank journals, and one-piece rods. Twin overhead cams are driven from the crankshaft by a removable gear set. Unlike Japanese machines, the cylinder barrels use four separate castings. The cylinder head is a single casting, with two valves per cylinder. The 5-speed transmission is a cassette-style unit that can be removed completely via a side panel. The starter and generator systems are combined into a single belt-driven unit located under the transmission. The cylinders are fed by four Dell'Orto carbs, and ignition is via Bosch automotivestyle distributor. Early bikes used a Grimeca four-leading-shoe front brake and then eventually Scarab brakes. Compared to its later Japanese 4-cylinder competition, the MV is a stiletto of a machine; it's both lighter and better handling. The bikes are slightly hefty at 530 lb, but handling is very competent and top speed is around 130 mph. Sensible upgrades will significantly improve the performance and enjoyment of MV fours. Legendary MV factory race tuner Arturo Magni has produced a number of excellent performance-oriented upgrades over the years. Magni's tank, bodywork and fairing kits replicate many of the period factory racing pieces. Magni's chain conversion kit fixes the cumbersome shaft drive assembly by replacing the entire engine side casting and the rear differential. This highly recommended upgrade lightens the machine greatly and enables easy gearing changes. Magni's gracefully sculpted racing exhaust systems also beautifully complement the MV's lines. The dry clutch kit, EPM light alloy and magnesium wheels, and other racing-inspired components are still available from the storied Italian tuner (www.magni.it). Big improvement over the '60s bikes As gaudy as the early 1970s 750 America looks, it was a huge improvement over the 1965–70 MV 600 Four. These were black and clunky, with the heft (and jumbo headlight) of a Munch Mammut, a stepped cruiser seat, and the chrome tank/rubber side panels treatment of a 1960s Honda Hawk. Indeed, only 135 were sold. The 750S America reversed all that with a red, white, and blue color scheme and giant, bulbous red seat. I'd argue that the definitive machine is the 750S America of 1975–1980, which features a sculpted tank and bodywork and a fully realized design, not to mention more displacement and better brakes. While the early bikes are rare oddities, the later ones gradually became handsome and usable. With such low production numbers, it is difficult to categorize common problems on these machines. Southern California SCMer Cory Muensterman has used his '75 750 Sport as an errand runner and weekend blaster for the entire seven years he's owned it, with a minimum of issues. Some final drive failures have been noted, and such a case would be an excellent opportunity to upgrade to the simpler Magni chain system. Bottom ends on these machines are very stout. Any MV Four owner who does not initially speak Italian would be advised to take some lessons, if only to order parts from the homeland. Soon after the release of the 750S America, the MV Agusta motorcycle division disappeared. Count Agusta, the guiding force behind the company, had died in 1971, and it seemed that the last ambitious design of the 750S America was also a last economic gasp. It wasn't until the Castiglioni brothers—the force behind Cagiva— resurrected the company in 1997 that the Agusta name re-emerged, further cementing the monumental status of the MV Agusta 4-cylinder production machines. For more history, check out www.mvagustausa.com. ♦ Sports Car Market
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“The best Corvette magazine out there!” —Terry Michaelis, President, Pro Team Corvette Subscribe Today! One Year Corvette Market (4 issues), plus bi-weekly Corvette Insider's email newsletter, $29.95. Subscribe online at www.corvettemarket.com or call 877.219.2605 x 204 Vintage Advertising Prints 13" x 19"; Just $15.95. Available online at www.sportscarmarket.com
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Mystery Photo Answers Comments With Your Renewal Thanks for an entertaining Multiple National Corvette Ruination Society and Bloomington Orange Winner. —Lorrie Peterson, Brooks, GA RUNNER-UP: Chris Bangle channels his childhood dreams of Harley Earl.—Gary Francis, Chico, CA SCMers beware! Those are NOT factory-correct C1 wheels! Bid with caution.—Kick Wheeler, New Milford, CT If you think about it, there's a reason why this Mako Barracuda is one of one.—Erik Olson, Dublin, CA From the manufacturer of aftermarket products whose slogan reads, “Like the smell of gasoline, we make bolt-on stuff some people kinda like.”—Troy Giles, Delafield, WI This early Larry Shinoda ex- ercise was promising enough for GM bigwigs, and would later become the much vaunted Opel GT for 1968.—Glen Burger, New York, NY Hatchvette job.—Lawrence J. Gitman, La Jolla, CA With all those years of success Oscar Meyer had with its Weiner Mobile, the folks at Orange Julius thought, “Why not us?”—Billy Hufnagel, Placentia, CA The new MTV series “Pimp My Vette” was fortunately dropped after one pilot and one build.—Bob Peterson, Brooks, GA Great glasswork, Enrique. Mind if the 'Vette Club guys come over and do a parts hunt in your dumpster?—Daniel Brenzel, Menlo Park, CA The Corvette C1.5, in ZOrange Metallic.—Norman Vogel, San Francisco, CA Whatever it is, it probably rhymes with orange.—Dan Faustman, Elk Grove, CA Butterface.—Pete van Hattem, SeaTac, WA Because she knows a highly decorated car when she sees one, Lorrie Peterson wins a soon-tobe-collectible official SCM cap. ♦ This Month's Mystery Photo publication.—Dave White, South Boston, VA Keep on keepin' on.—James P Dawson, Columbus, OH I look forward to this publication every month.—Todd Legeer, East Rochester, NY Thoroughly enjoyable.—Ken Nicks, State Road, NC I can't get enough; please double the content.—Steve Moseley, Wayzata, MN I find your coverage of the low end of the market (sub $15,000) the most interesting and certainly the most attainable—so I'm sure that is a large part of the appeal. You read those and find yourself thinking, “Wow if I had only been there, I could own that!” More barn find stories would be welcome.—S.J. Hotze, St. Louis, MO. Ah yes, the “If only” game. We find ourselves playing that game at least five times a week around the office.—KM Great publication; keep up the good reporting.—John Linfesty, Santa Monica, CA Great mix, great read, and to those who don't like the motorcycle section, don't read it.—Antonio San Martin, Elmendorf, TX I'd like to see more copy and auction results about non-sports cars from the '40s, '50s, and '60s.— Marc Zuckerman, Bryn Mawr, PA Keep up the good work. I enjoy the columns of opinion about various cars and technical reports on common repairs.—Robert Hurt, Washington, DC Don't change a thing. Great magazine.—Brian Balladares, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA Keep up your analysis on market growth on “realistic” values, as well as those $1m-plus Ferraris.—Bill Coffin, Evergreen, CO. The last 18 months have certainly kept us on our toes, but it's nice to see some light at the end of this economic tunnel.—KM Still loving the magazine. I love the articles on cars under $50k. And the fright pigs that are included.— William Hockett, Spokane, WA Continue your honest and some- times courageous writing.—Jim Green, Shawnigan Lake, British Columbia, CAN Keep reporting the facts on our industry. Opinions are for politicians. However, if you want to start pumping Austin-Healeys, have at it.—Patrick Lind, Iowa City, IA. I wondered why there was an extra $5 bill included with your renewal!—KM Look forward to it every Response Deadline: March 25, 2010 Our Photo, Your Caption Be the author of the most accurate, creative, or provocative response and receive a Sports Car Market cap. Ties will be arbitrarily and capriciously decided. Fax your response to 503.253.2234; email: [email protected]; snail mail: Mystery, P.O. Box 4797, Portland, OR 97208-4797. Please include your name and contact information. Send us your mystery photo. If we use it, you'll also get an official SCM cap. Email photos at 300 dpi in JPEG format. 120 month… keep up the good work.— Oliver Seligman, Forest Hill, NY Less foreign and more U.S. antiques. Alfa Bits is really getting old, now just recycled words.— Murray D. Stahl, Rochester, NY And thanks to all of you for your thoughtful comments and your renewals.—Keith Martin ♦ Sports Car Market
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SCM Showcase Gallery Sell Your Car Here! Includes SCM website listing. Showcase Gallery Full-Color Photo Ad Just $44/month ($66 non-subscribers) Text-Only Classified Ad Just $15/month ($25 non-subscribers) 4 ways to submit your ad: Web: Visit sportscarmarket.com/classifieds-post.php to upload your photo (300 dpi jpg) and text, or text only. Secure online Visa/MC payments. E-mail: Send photo (300 dpi jpg) and text, or text only, to [email protected]. We will call for your VISA/MC. Fax: Attention Showcase, to 503.253.2234 with VISA/MC. Snailmail: Showcase, PO Box 4797, Portland, OR 97208-4797, with VISA/MC or check. 25 words max, subject to editing. Deadline: 1st of each month, one month prior to publication. Advertisers assume all liability for the content of their advertisements. The publisher of Sports Car Market Magazine is not responsible for any omissions, erroneous, false and/or misleading statements of its advertisers. balanced, port-matched, ccd, etc. Excellent driver. All mods, modern AC, Blaupunkt sound. A superior example. $34,500. Call/email Richard Hollander for details. 816.506.7711 or richardhollander@ mindspring.com (MO) 1969 McLaren M6GT Prototype S/N 1980421002702. Quality restoration. Euro headlights, big brakes, fitted luggage, manual pack. Ready to be used and enjoyed $560,000. Fantasy Junction, [email protected]; www.fantasyjunction.com. 510.653.7555. (CA) 1962 Porsche 356B T6 Twin Grille Roadster S/N BMR M6GT-1. Only factory built M6GT existent. Road going CanAm car. Ex-Bruce McLaren. Rarest McLaren ever offered for sale. $975,000. Fantasy Junction, [email protected]; www.fantasyjunction.com. 510.653.7555. (CA) English 1967 Austin-Healey 3000 Mk III rallys, tours, or just for weekend cruising. $75,000/ offer. Matthew L. deGarmo Ltd. 203.852.1670. Web site: deGarmoLtd.com. 1967 Jaguar XKE convertible 1964 Triumph Herald convertible Exceptionally well restored, rare, matching numbers example. HPC engine. Certificate of Authenticity. Tools. Records. $180,000. Fantasy Junction, sales@ fantasyjunction.com; www.fantasyjunction.com. 510.653.7555. (CA) 2006 Porsche Cayman S 3800 miles. Balsat black metallic/sand. Carbon interior, PASM, Chrono+, PCM, htd seats, rear wiper, clear bra, more. No winters. Perfect $38,500. [email protected]. 1964 VW Beetle Convertible Late production, Matching numbers, BHIHT certificate. Very original, low mileage. Fresh restoration by marque specialist, Fourintune Garage (WI) $85,000. See more at www.fourintune.com or call 262.375.0876 1936 Bentley 4¼ Liter Aero Sports Saloon 4.2L open two seater. Absolutely mint. In Jaguar club 20 years, complete with 5 each spoke wheels extra. Removable top and car cover included. New paint (maroon) and good (black) leather interior. No rust. $75,000 (set). Call 360.730.1424 and ask for Skip. Email [email protected] (WA) 1960 MG A 1600 Original paint, 100% complete. New high quality tan interior. New top, tires, and exhaust. Good driving car. Fresh paint would make this a lovely car. $6,900. Call John at 505.660.7777. (NM) French 1988 Citroën 2CV Charleston A one of a kind design by the coachbuilder Gurney Nutting, this car was featured in the book “Speed and Luxury, The Great Cars” by noted car expert Dennis Adler. Shown at the Pebble Beach Concours in 1995 and at the National Rolls-Royce Meet. One of the most unique Derby Bentleys ever built. Contact Charles Crail at 805.568.1934 or www .charlescrail.com 1963 Jaguar XKE 3.8 Coupe Black plate California car restored to true 100% factory correct concours condition. All matching numbers, original colors of Bahama blue, white interior, white top. All original books, tools. A flawless car, fully sorted to drive as new. $39,000/Offer. Matthew L. deGarmo Ltd. 203.852.1670 Web site: deGarmoLtd.com. 1995 restoration with 1800 motor and five-speed. Very good paint, top, upholstery, documentation. No rust, no problems, no vices. A joy to show/drive. NM car. $24K firm. Don Holle, 505.281.7460. 1971 Jensen Interceptor II 14,000 original miles. Original paint, interior, tires, everything! Absolutely the best 2CV you'll ever see. Runs perfectly, needs nothing. Looks great, runs great. $25,000.00. Call Bill Young at 707.939.8173 or email [email protected]. (CA) German 1960 Mercedes-Benz 300SL A spectacular California car finished in black with black leather. All matching numbers. Original books, tools, spare, jack. Perfect mechanicals, gorgeous cosmetics. Ready to perform flawlessly on 48,000 summer miles; 2000cc injected; 5 speed; leather; FM-CD Player; Power Windows; New cover; Pirelli tires; overall excellent condition $9,500.00. email: [email protected] Located: Kennebunk, Maine. Over 100K invested. Rotisserie resto. Second owner, total 68,000 miles. Massive power-blueprinted, The world's largest collector car price guide basedon over 500,000 sold transactions from . Updated weekly. www.collectorcarpricetracker.com For the collector who needs to know what things are selling for, right now. Take your free test drive today. 122 Sports Car Market Italian 1986 Alfa Romeo Spider Veloce
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SCM Showcase Gallery 2001 Ferrari Barchetta 550 1953 Siata 208S 1965 Chevrolet Corvette coupe 1964 Oldsmobile 98 convertible S/N BS523. Ex-Steve McQueen. Fully restored. Epifani engine. Eligible for events world class events. Original manuals. $1,295,000. Fantasy Junction, [email protected]; www.fantasyjunction .com. 510.653.7555. (CA) 2,500 miles. Car is absolutely immaculate. Tour de France Blue with interior blue leather. Car was featured at the New York Guggenheim Museum. It was the chosen car by Ferrai to celebrate 50 years of partnership between Ferrari and Pininfarina. Featured at the Rosso Ferrari magazine in October 2001. Car has been since maintained in climate controlled garage. $230,000. Contact jdemacedo@ msn.com or George at 770.367.4415. 1973 Iso Grifo 1 of 1,500 produced. Titanium gray with saddle brown. Nardi wood wheel plus special aftermarket features. All records. Exceeds showroom condition and never in the rain. Less than 2,800 miles! $20,000 firm. Call David at 828.368.0133 or 828.512.7901. (NC) ZF 5 Speed, A/C. Only 34 built with 351 cu in Ford Cleveland V8. Subtle restoration on RUST FREE body 06-08. Only 21,000 original miles. History documented from new. Drive anywhere or show it! $220,000.00. Serious enquiries to : isogrifo@gmx .de; [email protected]. 1955 Lancia Aurelia Spyder America American 1964 AC 289 Cobra Good title. Chopped, windshield in place, Nova sub, new fenders, chrome, gauges, etc. Needs completion. Choice -327, R4, or Allante engine and chassic. $13,500. Call Terry at 330.544.0242. Approx. 29 exist of the RHD model of the 59 built. This is a lightweight all Aluminum body in excellent condition ready for restoration. Will make great vintage racer or rally car. Chassis in good restored shape. No Rust. Engine out and dissembled. Needs all internals for rebuild, Pistons, valves, etc. Dual Webber Carbs. “Nardi”. Like new Borrani Wires and correct Michelin X400 tires. Seats covered in cream leather and good condition. Some parts already chromed. Gauges in good condition. Suspension and brakes rebuilt. New seals and bearings. Some missing parts. $375K as is or $575K restored in choice of color combo. Contact [email protected] or phone: 506.8817.3057. (Costa Rica) 1973 Maserati Bora A very well documented car with one owner from new until 1999. 49,000 original miles; Mechanically all original; paint and leather redone per factory original. Fully serviced, fully sorted. A great car for show or touring. Comes with original top and side curtains. Call for details. Matthew L. deGarmo Ltd. 203.852.1670. Web site: deGarmoLtd.com. 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz Convertible Yellow/blk, second owner for 29 yrs, 15k on full rebuild and restoration, non-numbers matching, show winner, Asking $48.8k, details at www .classicpromenade.com or call 951.325.8590 or 951.440.0412. (CA) 1935 Packard 1201 Convertible Victoria Dietrich Body In the right color. One of 815 manufactured. 365-ci V8 Tri-power triple carb, Sabre wheels. It's all there. Same owner for many years. Older restoration still showing well, 2-. $90,000. Contact Ben at 503.913.6024. 1949 Chevrolet DeLuxe 3800 7000 miles from new and in absolutely superb condition. Always maintained to the highest standard for a great driving experience. All hydraulics perfect. Dark blue metallic, white interior, documented service. $95,000. Matthew L. deGarmo Ltd. 203.852.1670. Web site: deGarmoLtd.com. Brilliant Red Finish with tan leather interior. This massive rare classic is powered by a 320ci Straight eight flathead engine with a 3-speed manual transmission. Call about restorations. $135,000 Contact Greg at 440.668.2556. (OH) Panel, museum piece. Frame-off restoration. Radial tires, oak bed, radio, correct seats, rare trim, 70 miles. $47,500. Call 208.659.8258 or email [email protected]. 124 1970 Mustang BOSS 302 Just off rebuild by renowned Bill Andrews of HRE Motorcars. New 660HP NASCAR drive train. Street legal, show winner. Comparable CSX 427R lists for $300K. Black exterior, 370 CI, 660HP engine, Jericho NASCAR 4-speed transmission, Fiberglass body with aluminum hood, doors, trunk and interior. Appraised for $130,000; sell for $95,000. Contact [email protected] or 914.912.0526. (NY) 1968 Shelby GT500 KR convertible Japanese 2002 Mazda Miata Special Edition Very rare original car, hydraulic brakes, runs good. Best of show awards. $52,000. Contact Bill King at 425.487.0077 or email picturesqueland@aol. com (WA) 1941 Ford Convertible A true concours quality recreation with mind blowing, pavement ripping performance. A really spectacular car with all fiberglass coachwork, true show quality paint; 500 hp V8, Ford top loader, Jaguar independent rear suspension. Super low miles. Will sell for a fraction of cost new. Please call for details. Matthew L. deGarmo Ltd. 203.852.1670. Web site: deGarmoLtd.com. 1965 Hi-Tech 427R Cobra 327/300 4 speed. Unrestored,owned since 1981, documentation, POP, original manuals. $79900.00. Email Terry at [email protected] or call 250.658.2395 1934 Dodge Woodie On frame restoration, no rust. Perfect chrome, stainless, restored to stock. #2 car. $22,500 OBO. Call 314.434.8822 (MO) 1965 Cobra by Unique Motorcars 1 of 183. Professional rotisserie restoration, auto trans with only 11,476 original documented miles.$190k. Large collection of Boss and Shelby Mustangs available, for more information on this Shelby and the entire collection please contact Sean Mossgrove at 616.856.2395 or moosespeed@ hotmail.com. Race IROC Z-28 SCCA Camaro Road Race Car The most car you could possibly buy for the money. Fresh race eng., Muncie 4-speed, full cage, flame out fire system, fuel safe cell, full race suspension, PBR brakes, new harness and net ect., ect. Price reduced to $6,500! Too much to list- Track/race ready! 805.466.1015 or [email protected]. Sports Car Market
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Then, in 1967, the car returned to the factory to be converted to disc brakes and, later the same year, was imported from Italy to the US by Lt. Stephen Lambroff, an officer in the US Navy. Unfortunately, the car suffered minor damage in shipping. On March 8th, 1984, Lambroff, having kept the car for a remarkable 17 years, then sold it to Cecil R. Delcher, who was President of the Gulf Harbors Sea Forrest Association in Odessa, Florida.
In 1989, the brakes, engine and transmission were rebuilt. In 1996, it was acquired by Xavier Beaumartin, who was President of Beaumartin Group, leader of the wood impregnation industry in France and a resident of Bordeaux, France. While in his hands, 0979 GT was repainted from red to metallic silver grey. On June 28th, 1998, the car was shown by Beaumartin during the Club Ferrari France meeting at Dijon-Prenois, France.
Three years later, on March 20th, 1987, Delcher sold 0979 GT to Glen Kalil of Palm City, Florida. Kalil fitted the car with 250 GT engine no. 4607 GT. Later, an original engine was located and installed which, by internal number, is the correct engine type for 0979 GT. On November 23rd, 1988, Kalil sold the car to Mike Sheehan’s European Auto Sales, Inc. of Costa Mesa, California.
In 2000, the car was sold to Heiko Seekamp, owner of an advertising and multi-media agency in Bremen, Germany. On September 2nd, 2001, 0979 GT was shown by Seekamp at the Concours d’Elegance at Paleis Het Loo in Apeldoorn, The Netherlands.
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In 2006, the Ferrari was sold by Seekamp to the current owner, who maintains a prominent Italian collection. 0979 GT has been used very sparingly ever since and is in the company of some of the best and most desirable and historic Ferraris. RM Auctions has had the pleasure of inspecting and test driving 0979 GT and can report that the vehicle performed well without any problems on the 40-mile test drive in Italy. In addition, a recent inspection at Ferrari’s Classiche center has confirmed that the engine’s internal number is correct for the car. The paintwork is excellent with no apparent imperfections, and all of the brightwork presents
extremely well. The contrasting red leather interior with red carpets is also very good and shows very little signs of use. 0979 GT is ready to be shown or driven at events or rallies, where it will make a great entrant and alternative to the more expensive California Spider. The Pinin Farina Series I Cabriolet is a superb coachbuilt alternative to it, and many are just as pretty. Looking at the roster of owners of the Ferrari Pinin Farina Series I Cabriolet, it is obvious that this is a car for the most knowledgeable and discerning of Ferrari collectors – those who collect the rarest and the very best.
Please note import duty of 2.5% of purchase price, including the buyer’s premium is payable on this car if the buyer is a resident of the United States. 138
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1955 Jaguar D-Type SPORTS RACER Despite the overwhelming success of the Jaguar C-Type at Le Mans in 1953 – where C-Types finished first, second and fourth – Jaguar designed and developed a new car to maintain its supremacy on the track. The car was purposebuilt with a specific goal from the outset: to continue to win Le Mans for Jaguar. Appropriately called the D-Type, it quickly became famous as one of the most successful Le Mans racing cars of all time, considered by many to be the ultimate sports racer of the 1950s. As related by marque expert Terry Larson in the March 2008 edition of Sports Car Market, while Jaguar designer Malcolm Sayer was directed to maintain a stylistic resemblance to the XK 120 with the C-Type, he was allowed to make full use of his background in aerodynamics and aviation on its successor. As a result, the D-Type was “often referred to as an ‘aircraft on wheels’ with an allenveloping body, a hump behind the driver’s head and a tail fin for high-speed stability.” The D-Type’s cutting-edge design was based on a central monocoque-type body structure, with a front sub-frame supporting the engine, front suspension and steering system, while the rear sub-frame mounted the rear axle and suspension. The engine was initially a 3,444 cc sixcylinder variant of the basic DOHC XK design with drysump oiling, producing 275 bhp. The dry-sump oil system
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greatly benefited the D-Type’s handling by allowing the engine to be placed low within the front sub-frame, which also allowed for a much-reduced frontal area to enhance high-speed air penetration, in addition to providing more reliable engine lubrication. The gearbox was a four-speed, fully synchronized design. The front suspension featured independent torsion bars and unequal length wishbones, while a live axle setup, trailing links and a torsion bar brought up the rear. Disc brakes were fitted both front and rear. Finally, the engine and chassis were covered in a lightweight, aerodynamic body shell. The resulting D-Type was first entered into the 1954 Le Mans 24-hour race with a four-car “works” team, including the prototype. Despite problems with fuel system contamination, the D-Type driven by Duncan Hamilton and Tony Rolt fought back heroically, finishing just one lap down behind the winning Ferrari. The D-Type returned for 1955, with the “long nose” variant powered by a large-valve engine, which placed first overall with legends Mike Hawthorn and Ivor Bueb sharing driving duties. In 1956, just one of the three works entries finished, placing 6th overall. However, the private Ecurie Ecosse team prevailed to take first place overall, with Ron Flockhart and Ninian Sanderson at the wheel.
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Chassis No. XKD 558 Engine No. E2064-9 Specifications:
Jaguar may have retired from “works” racing after the close of the 1956 racing season, but the D-Type, in the hands of privateers, achieved the D-Type’s crowning glory in 1957, taking five of the top six places, including first and second overall achieved by Ecurie Ecosse. Despite this illustrious record, the D-Type was rendered obsolete by rule changes limiting engine displacement to 3.0-liters for 1958.
showroom before being sold in October 1957 to James Rattenbury, who actively raced the car in numerous events. He won his first known outing on the 20th of that month at Abbottsford. He returned to Abbotsford in March the following year, winning the race outright. For the remainder of the year, he competed in seven additional races, winning one and finishing on the podium three more times. At Ellensbury Airport in September, the car had been modified with a longer 95inch wheelbase, deDion rear axle, Thornton differential and Hillborn fuel injection. 1959 was equally successful for him. He entered eight races, winning twice and finishing on the podium twice as well. In fact, he was also running in first place at Deer Park in September before a crown and pinion broke.
Est. 275 bhp, 3,800 cc dual overhead camshaft in-line six-cylinder racing engine with wide-angle cylinder head, three dual-choke Weber carburetors, independent front suspension with unequal length wishbones, torsion bars, telescopic dampers, anti-roll bar, rear suspension via live axle, trailing links, torsion bars, telescopic dampers, and four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 90.6"
Estimate: $2,000,000 – 2,750,000
Chassis no. XKD 558 When new, the D-Type offered here, chassis XKD 558, was finished in cream and originally supplied to Oxford Motors in Vancouver, British Columbia and used for occasional sprint demonstrations at Abbotsford Airport. It spent some time in the Plimley Motors
Offered from the collection of Jerry and Kathy Nell A racing icon and one of the most desirable Jaguars in existence Complete with original engine and well-documented history
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XKD 558 is pictured here at Westwood in 1961, after it was first purchased from Jim Rattenbury by Starr Calvert, who raced the car in over 20 events, with many first and second place finishes.
For 1960, Shelton first appeared with a new Roots-type blower, finishing in 2nd place overall on the tenth of April. In fact, he would finish second in all three additional races he entered until May. He didn’t finish at Shelton in June, however, after a spin in the rain on the main straight. In April 1961, the D-Type was sold to Starr Calvert of Seattle, Washington, who drove XKD 558 in 21 events, achieving many wins and podiums in the process. Most notably, he and XKD 558 won the Bardahl Trophy at Pacific Raceway during this period. The car suffered a crash at West Delta Park, after which it was rebuilt, reappearing in 1964 with a 7-liter Ford V8 engine, a Borg-Warner transmission and wide Chevrolet-type racing wheels. In
this configuration, the D-Type achieved some additional successes until it was sidelined by an accident in September of 1964 at Westwood, British Columbia. It should be noted that early newspaper reports from Starr Calvert’s Westwood race crash in 1964 indicated that XKD 558 had been virtually destroyed. Grim reports were published in two books, including Philip Porter’s Jaguar Sports Racing Cars, which was first published in 1995 and revised in 1998. Porter wrote, “September 1964, Westwood British Columbia, crashed, lopping trees 20 ft. above the ground (according to a local newspaper report), seriously damaging car on landing and suffering a carburetor fire; remains said to be spread on hillside many years later.”
XKD 558 was originally supplied to Oxford Motors in Vancouver and spent some time in the Plimley Motors showroom, used for occasional sprint demonstrations. 142
Starr Calvert racing our D-Type at the Rose Cup Races in Oregon on June 11, 1961. Sitting on the front row of the starting grid, XKD 558 was competing against Stan Burnett’s Chevrolet Special and Jerry Grant’s Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa (0704 TR).
However, after additional research, Mr. Porter has corrected the original description: “It seems the phrase (describing the accident)…may be a little exaggerated. When writing ‘Jaguar Sports Racing Cars’, I acknowledged the late Andrew Whyte as a source of much valuable information, but it seems that this greatly respected Jaguar historian may have used a little license on this occasion.” In a letter dated July 28th, 1999, former Lynx employee Chris Keith-Lucas reported: “The condition (of the car) did not square with the rather lurid press reports about it flying through tree tops, and so on. It was consistent with the condition related to Paul Skilleter by the late Roger Woodley, who saw the car after the accident,
and said that the body was very battered, with the door torn off, and a lot of general damage.” In addition, it should be noted that well-used racing cars in the early 1960s often got hit, rolled over or endured collisions. By the middle of the decade, a good and complete driving D-Type that was only a few years old would often sit unsold on a used car lot with an asking price of $5,000 to $6,000. Consequently, if these racing cars were damaged in an accident, it was common to refer to them as “destroyed,” “damaged beyond repair” or other doom-and-gloom descriptors, simply because the modest cost of damage repair would have been higher than the actual value of the car at the time.
Some years later after the 1964 crash, Keith-Lucas had worked on the car. He said that although the car was badly damaged indeed during the Westwood mishap, it nonetheless retained its original monocoque, sub-frame, gearbox (the original Moss box could not possibly have been mated to the 7-liter Ford V8), suspension, brakes, steering and even much of its original sheet metal. Only the lower portion of the monocoque was re-skinned. A new long-nose bonnet was installed; the original short- nose panels were retained at Lynx and were later reinstalled on XKD 558. The engine had become separated from the car, however, and as a result, a correct 3.8-liter engine was rebuilt by Terry Larson of Arizona and fitted during the car’s rebuilding process. As confirmed by the current owner, the original engine of XKD 558 was found, by Mr. Walter Hill, being used in a boat in Florida. Hill bought the engine and restored and mounted it on the stand that it sits on to this day. Mr. Hill eventually sold XKD 558’s original engine to the current owner in 2005, complete with carburetors, cylinder head and other components for $75,000. During the car’s restoration, the car was sold to Philippe Renault of France, who kept the car until 1987 before
selling it to Rick Cole in California. Cole then sold the car to noted collector and enthusiast Harley Cluxton in 1988. Cluxton sold it one year later to Chris Mann of the UK. Mann returned the car to Lynx to have its original shortnose bonnet restored and refitted. In April 1994, Mann sold XKD 558 via Terry Larson of Arizona to Eduardo Baptista of Mexico, who kept and vintage-raced the car for several years until the late 1990s. Next, it passed through RM Classic Cars Inc., which in turn sold XKD 558 to the current owner in 1998. The ownership chain of XKD 558 is sound and unbroken. Careful corrections to its early racing career and its post-crash state in 1964 have been made possible by the careful research and fastidious recordkeeping of its very knowledgeable and discerning owner, Kathy Nell, who has owned the car with her late husband Jerry for the past decade. Serious Jaguar collectors in every respect, the Nells are one of a limited few to have owned a C-Type, D-Type and XK-SS – the holy grail of desirable Jaguar collector cars. XKD 558 is also accompanied by its originally installed racing engine and original chassis plate. This is without exaggeration one of the most enduring, exciting and rare legends in the history of motorsports.
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1938 Jaguar SS Coupe Coachwork by Graber (Wichtrach, Switzerland) When SS Cars introduced the 1938 Jaguar models, the company raised its own bar significantly. The new Jaguars sedans maintained the family resemblance, but there was a new stiffer boxed chassis, an all-steel body replaced the wood/steel combination and a new 125 hp, 3.5-liter OHV engine was introduced as an option to the trusty 2.5-liter unit. The motoring press was suitably impressed, with the staff of The Motor not believing their eyes when they conducted their road tests. Both they and the staff of The Autocar achieved a 101.12 mph top speed in the SS 100 OTS (Open Two Seater), right down to the same decimal points. To put that in perspective, the SS 100 was little slower than 1949’s XK120 up to 60 mph and only two seconds slower over the ¼ mile. Both magazines also made much of the docile nature of the car, with The Motor noting, “it handles as well as it looks.”
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From the first, the Jaguar was a driver’s car, with a classical elegance that resulted in very little visible change until the Mark 1V of 1948. Americans in particular liked the big sedans, especially with the 3.5-liter, 6-cylinder engines, wood-panel interior and leather upholstery. The cars were also reliable and easy to maintain, and the spectacular fitted toolkits seem to have been little needed. During World War II, for example, Greta Lyons’ own 1936 2.5-liter sedan – which the factory still owns – was examined in detail with 65,000 miles on it. When tested, the car “returned 20 mpg, used virtually no oil, cornered most satisfactorily, the steering was firm and without appreciable lost movement and the Girling brakes were found to be excellent – light to operate and decisive when wanted to be so.”
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Chassis No. 30182X Engine No. M-229 E
One-off coupe built by Swiss coachbuilder Hermann Graber From the collection of Kathy and Jerry Nell Underwent $270,000 frame-off restoration in 1994 Awards at Pebble Beach, Meadow Brook and JCNA, with 99.96-100 points
Specifications:
125 hp, 3,485 cc OHV six-cylinder engine, dual SU carburetors, Moss four-speed manual gearbox, solid front and live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, four-wheel mechanical drum brakes. Wheelbase: 120"
Estimate: $500,000 – $700,000
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Chassis No.30182X as seen in some period shots. Credit: Terry McGrath
An even stronger recommendation came from a 21 yearold student in Belgium, whose family had bought a Jaguar sedan in 1936 and absolutely thrashed it all over the Continent – 30,000 miles in under two years. Writing an unsolicited letter to The Autocar in 1938, he concluded, “I never expected such quality and resistance to wear at the price. I have no connection to the SS company, but I think it would have been an ingratitude not to recall the pleasure we have had with this car.” The writer was Paul Frere, who would go on to become a Jaguar works driver, Le Mans winner and noted journalist. He died in 2009 at age 91. While there were 1,065 3.5-liter saloons, 241 drophead coupes, and 118 OTS built before World War II, closed coupes are much rarer, and except for one SS 100 built by Jaguar itself, they were coachbuilt to special order. Such is the case with Gerald and Kathy Nell’s coupe, which was shipped as a bare saloon chassis to Hermann Graber, at Wichtrach, near Berne, Switzerland, in May 1938. Graber bodied several Jaguars, but Kathy Nell, who is Swiss, went by the Graber’s garage with her relatives and learned more of the story of this one. RM has also learned additional information about this car from Terry McGrath and his forthcoming book, The A to Z of Coachbuilt Jaguars. According to his research, Graber fitted the SS saloon chassis with a two-door, two-
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window, five-seater coupe body for one Monsieur Michel Dionisotti of Geneva. It is believed to have been finished in black over grey with a grey leather interior and builtin radio. It has two pull-down occasional seats in the back and also has a door for skis. He paid 2,000 CHF on June 10th and was invoiced the balance of 4,200 CHF on August 22nd, 1938. The car was ultimately dispatched to Grand Garage in Switzerland. On March 31, 1949, the car was registered in Switzerland as a “Limousine Coupe” to Enterprise de Grads Travaux S.A. of Lausanne, as supported by the license plate number “VD13203” where “VD” signifies the canton of Vaud, of which Lausanne is the capital. In 1953, the car was registered to “Labhart Thelma Violet” of Geneva but was eventually believed to have been purchased by a Canadian serviceman who returned to Canada with it. By May 1956, it was owned by Brian Metcalfe of Ontario before eventually being purchased by Frederick Corp, who drove it until 1963, when he put it into storage. Some time after 1972, it was sold to Greg Baker of Windsor, Ontario. In late 1977, it was purchased by Richard Van Rozeboom of Fresno and registered in California. Dave Martin of California purchased the car in 1986, then sold it to David Gill of Chicago in 1987, who commissioned its restoration. The car was dismantled, and restoration began but was halted.
Chassis No.30182X as sketched by Graber. Credit: Terry McGrath
Kathy and Gerald Nell purchased the car in 1990. When RM Auto Restoration restored the car in 1994, they asked the Nells if they’d like some sloppy welds cleaned up, where Graber had extended the frame at the rear. The Nells asked the car be kept original “and we got dinged for that at Pebble,” Kathy Nell said with a laugh. In fact, one of RM’s employees cancelled his retirement plans to work on this car after hearing that Kathy was Swiss and that Jerry had once promised her, “If the Swiss ever make a car, I’ll buy it for you.” Henri stayed on to finish the car, and Kathy notes how helpful he was, as he had previously restored other Graber-bodied cars. The Nells bought the car in pieces but were able to amass substantial records, and they were lucky to find
previous owner Fred Corp, who confirmed that it had been his car. Corp was instrumental in the correctness of the restoration. The car was returned to as-new condition at a cost of $270,000, with the exception of being painted royal blue instead of the original black and gray. This coupe was shown at the Meadow Brook Concours in 1994 and won the Designer’s Choice Award. It was JCNA National Class winner in 1995 and competed in seven JCNA shows from 1995-99, scoring 99.96-100 points. It also won a ribbon at Pebble Beach and won at Eyes On Classics and Masterpiece of Style and Speed. The Graber Coupe remains a unique masterpiece of understated elegance.
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1966 Ferrari 275 GTB/6C Alloy Berlinetta In many ways, the Ferrari 275 GTB is often lauded by enthusiasts and the media as the last of the “classic Ferraris.” Conceived and executed under the guidance of Enzo Ferrari himself, the 275 GTB was introduced at the 1964 Paris Auto Show and marked a natural evolution from its immediate predecessors, the 250 GT SWB Berlinetta and Lusso. It was also by far the most advanced
road-going Ferrari produced at the time of its introduction, and it served as a production test-bed for several notable engineering advances. Designed by Pininfarina and executed by Scaglietti, the 275 GTB was an especially organic but aggressive and purposeful design. Named number three on Motor Trend’s list of the 10 greatest Ferraris of all time, many enthusiasts have been drawn to its instantly recognizable looks alone, before opening its hood or even settling into the driver’s seat. The 275 was considered by many to have been the finest production Ferrari ever built, combining the strong pedigree of its legendary road-racing forebears with sufficient creature comforts and a new fully-independent rear suspension to produce a superlative high-speed, longrange GT car. The engine was based on the race-proven Colombo-derived V12, now displacing 3,286 cc to produce 280 bhp with the standard triple Weber carburetor setup and 300 bhp with the optional and desirable set of six Weber 40 DNC/3 dual-choke carburetors.
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Lot With its sensuous lines, covered headlights, long hood, short rear deck, neat Kamm tail, abbreviated bumpers, low oval air intake, “egg crate” grille, and limited brightwork highlighting the 275 GTB’s purposeful design, it literally suffers from no “bad angle.” In particular, its long, slim nose and four sideventilation louvers per side gave it a sharklike appearance, a theme that could also describe its ample performance. With their advanced chassis, four-wheel independent suspension and ideal weight distribution, the 275 series, and the 275 GTB in particular, represented what many enthusiasts believe to be among the last true
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dual-purpose GT cars, equally suitable for both road and competition use. With the final evolution of Ferrari’s relatively small-displacement Colombo V12 under its hood, the 275 GTB was an extraordinarily revhappy machine, even by Ferrari standards. In a period road test, legendary Hollywood star and automobile enthusiast Steve McQueen described the smooth action of the fivespeed manual transaxle as “like sliding a knife through butter.” It helped get the most out of the Colombo’s enlarged 3,286 cc displacement. Weighing merely 1,200 kg, the 275 GTB easily accelerated from rest to 60 mph in a scant 6.3 seconds.
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Chassis No. 08233 Engine No. 08233 Specifications:
300 bhp, 3,286 cc Tipo 213 overhead camshaft V12 engine, six Weber carburetors, Tipo 563/1015 five-speed manual gearbox in rear-mounted transaxle, Tipo 563 chassis, four-wheel independent suspension with A-arms, coil springs and telescopic shock absorbers, and four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 94.5"
Estimate: $1,100,000 – $1,300,000
From the collection of Mr. Reggie Jackson An original alloy-bodied, long-nose, six-carburetor example Iconic Pininfarina styling, Scaglietti-crafted body
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Today’s collectors divide the 275 GTBs into the early (shortnose) and late-production (long-nose) cars. As with many things Ferrari, the reality is not so simple. While highvolume carmakers produced endless quantities of nearly identical cars, Ferraris were still built – to an astonishing degree – by hand. As improvements were devised, they were incorporated into production, often with the very next car in the production sequence. In other cases, features from earlier production would appear on later cars, to the delight of their owners and to the consternation of Ferrari historians and marque experts. The changeover to a longer-nose body design, which was introduced at the 1965 Paris Salon with production beginning in early 1966, was the result of the alarming incidence of frontal lift at high speeds caused by the short-nose setup. While the 275, whether in GTB or GTS form, featured near-perfect weight distribution by virtue of its innovative rear-mounted five-speed transaxle, another common point of differentiation among 275 GTB variants is in their driveshaft configuration. The earliest cars were fitted with an open Hotchkiss-style, normal U-joint and driveshaft setup, the perfect alignment of which was crucial to
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avoid vibrational tendencies. Unfortunately, this driveline setup could become misaligned over time, and sorting it out required skill and special training. Ferrari therefore switched to a driveshaft and constant velocity (CV) joint setup with a center bearing, referred to as the “interim” setup, which made the driveshaft alignment process much simpler. Ultimately, Ferrari switched to an enclosed torque-tube driveline. Chassis no. 08233 This particular 275 GTB/6C, chassis 08233, has one of the most desirable specifications available – a lightweight aluminum-alloy body, the sleek long-nose configuration and six Weber dual-choke carburetors. The alloy-bodied cars are, aside from the pure competition cars, the most desirable variants of the 275 GTB series. The body was fully constructed by Scaglietti in lightweight aluminum, like the competition cars, to save weight and thereby improve performance. With its lightweight alloy body and six-carburetor setup, this car easily has the same performance capabilities as the next evolution of the 275 range, the GTB/4.
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Chassis 08233, the original left-hand drive example offered here, was ordered by official Ferrari dealer M.G. Crepaldi S.a.s. of Milan, Italy, with alloy bodywork and six-carburetor induction, on November 23rd, 1965. Its long-nose body was originally finished in Argento (silver grey) with Nero (black) leather upholstery, and it was equipped with the aforementioned “interim” driveshaft arrangement. In March 1966, 08233 was delivered in Milan to its first owner, who was named Toninelli. During the early 1970s, the car was exported from Italy to the US. A succession of owners followed, including Norman M. Thomson of Santa Barbara, California and Don Young (also of Santa Barbara) in the late 1980s. It showed about 41,000 original miles. In fact, the car remained in sunny, dry California thereafter, owned by Dr. Henry Kleinberg of Woodside. In 1993, following a full restoration, Scott Cote of Los Gatos showed the car at the FCA’s Palm Beach National Meeting and Concours, where it placed third in class.
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Recent Years S/n 08233 was acquired in November 1993 by its current owner, Hall of Fame Major League baseball player Reggie Jackson, in whose collection it has resided ever since. Mr. Jackson has owned over 500 investment-grade collector cars over the past 40 years, including some of the most rare and desirable Ferraris, a NART Spyder, Daytona and Lusso included. The car has been maintained in this exclusive company for the past 17 years. He speaks very highly of this particular car and its performance, stating “It is one of the best cars I’ve ever owned.” The engine was rebuilt by marque expert Patrick Ottis in 2000. The car continues to present very well, and it is believed the outside fuel filler was added in the late 1980s. The combination of its lightweight alloy body, long-nose design and six-carburetor specification renders this 1966 275 GTB/6 a perpetually desirable Ferrari, the likes of which are very rarely offered at public auction. With the hope that “it goes to a wonderful new home,” the Ferrari has been comprehensively and professionally detailed in Mr. Jackson’s ownership and in preparation for sale.
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1934 Packard “Myth” Custom Boattail Coupe The Art of Fran Roxas An incredible blend of the finest elements of the customcoachbuilding and hot-rodding traditions in one stunning package called “Myth,” the car offered here represents a truly unique “what if” scenario and emphatically answers the question. Some years ago, Fran Roxas, the legendary restorer and expert coachbuilder, noted that while the LeBaron-bodied cars represented the ultimate expression of the “Senior” Packards of the Classic Era, particularly the boattail speedsters, phaetons and coupes, a boattail coupe was never offered. Captivated by the seductive vision of a LeBaron-style Packard boattail coupe many years later, Roxas began quietly planning the epic project that brought “Myth” to its beautifully sculpted reality. In 1996, Roxas engaged Strother MacMinn to create a series of line drawings for the car. MacMinn, a former head of the transportation department at the Art Center College of Design, was uniquely qualified for this assignment. Beginning his automotive career under Franklin Hershey at the Buick studio of GM’s Art & Colour Section in 1936, MacMinn quickly gained fame for his role in GM’s trendsetting Opel Kapitan program during 1938, which remains an advanced and unqualified automotive design benchmark today. Due to Roxas’ workload at his Pebble Beach-winning Vintage
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Motor Group, the drawings, along with renderings by a student of MacMinn, remained on his desk for a while, but his vision would not be denied for long. Of course, Roxas’ facility already had a number of suitable parts for the project, including a set of 1950s-vintage Kelsey-Hayes wire wheels, as well as a Packard V12 short-block. California’s Scott Knight, a highly respected fabricator and coachbuilder in his own right whom Roxas has often collaborated with since the 1970s, revised MacMinn’s drawings and, with his son Dave, began work on the custom chassis and stunning all-steel custom coachwork, completing the job in approximately 18 months. To produce the beautiful bodywork, the Knights utilized groundbreaking computer-based technology, thereby eliminating the need for traditional body bucks. A number of chassis components were fabricated by a shop near Roxas’ Chicago facility, and among them, the suspension components were traditional Packard-type items, with the exception of a subtly dropped tubular front axle and a set of modern four-wheel disc brakes.
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Chassis No. 902405
All-steel bodywork in LeBaron-style Boattail Coupe An epic build under multiple Pebble Beach winner Fran Roxas Design by noted classic era designer Strother MacMinn 500 cu. in. Packard V12 power, GM four-speed automatic Subject of August 2010 Collectible Automobile feature
Specifications:
500 cu. in. modified Packard V12 engine with three Weber two-barrel carburetors, GM 4L60E four-speed automatic transmission, custom-fabricated chassis, dropped tubular front axle, 9-inch Ford rear end with four-link rear suspension, and four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 122"
Estimate: $400,000 – $600,000
Offered Without Reserve
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For power, the Packard V12 engine, already displacing a mammoth 445 cubic inches from the factory, was punched out to 500 cubic inches in the finest hot-rod tradition. A custom intake manifold was fabricated, mounting three dual-choke Weber carburetors, along with custom-built exhaust headers feeding the spent exhaust gases into four mufflers. In addition, a pair of finned aluminum highcompression cylinder heads was built especially for “Myth” using an original set of Packard V12 high-compression heads as a pattern. The resulting V12 engine sounds remarkably similar to a Ferrari V12, with a startling exhaust note. It is considerably more powerful than stock and provides an appropriate nod to Enzo Ferrari, who is reported to have long admired the Packard V12 and had used it as a design benchmark for his own legendary V12 engines. The relatively tall Packard V12 engine presented a number of engineering challenges to ensure proper clearance under the low hood. Cleverly, the distributor shaft was shortened to meet this height requirement. Continuing to blend the old with the new, a modern GM 4L60E four-
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speed automatic overdrive transmission was skillfully mated to the Packard V12, capably handling its strong power output and broad torque curve with a perfect blend of performance, economy and relaxed cruising potential. With its long hood, ultra-low sweeping roofline, teardropstyle fenders, rear fender skirts and boattail rear deck, the coachwork of “Myth” remains true to the more recent drawings and renderings by Strother MacMinn and his student. However, its flush modern headlights and tiny taillights, which crown the peaks of the front and rear fenders, as well as the customized bumpers and Packard grille shell, provide a glimpse of what a Senior Packard might have looked like today, had the company survived. The low-cut and split windshield, echoing those used by LeBaron in the 1930s, was custom-built for use on “Myth” and features a neat, Art Deco-inspired spear motif at the center. The stunning exterior finish, comprising 2008 Lexus Tiger Eye Mica and 2005 Bentley Orange Flake Metallic, also provides an appropriate dash of sporting Classic Erainspired flair.
Inside the snug passenger compartment, “Myth” is built and trimmed in a manner akin to a blend of 1930s-vintage closed Bugattis, 1950s GT cars and modern-day ultra-luxury sports cars, with a few Packard components included for good measure. The actual 1934-vintage Packard dash panel has been slightly modified and contains a jewel-like dash insert with a full complement of Stewart-Warner gauges. A leather-wrapped, 15-inch banjo-style Packard steering wheel and a console-mounted floor shifter greet the driver. Leather-covered bucket seats, a vertically mounted AM radio, power windows, a Duesenberg-style chronograph and a set of custom-fitted luggage round out the purposeful yet elegant interior.
Blessed with drivability and performance capabilities belying its regal proportions and Classic Era design origins, “Myth” stands just 49.5 inches high, weighs a svelte 3,500 pounds and has near-perfect weight distribution. It comes complete with a leather-bound book documenting the four-year build process that was recently completed. A thoroughly integrated and triumphant automotive statement, “Myth” has become reality, and indeed, it continues to be a wonderful testament to its inspired creators.
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1954 Ferrari 375 MM Berlinetta Coachwork by Pinin Farina One cannot help but assume that Enzo Ferrari saw Ettore Bugatti as his role model. Despite their difference in age, both were racing contemporaries, with Ferrari dominating GP racing until the advent of Ferrari’s almost unbeatable and legendary 6C and 8C Alfas were lead to victory by Enzo under the banner of Scuderia Ferrari. Both men built companies whose strategies revolved around superb engineering and whose clients were largely gentlemen racers – in Bugattis case during the pre-WWII years and, in Ferrari’s case, after the war. In both cases, a large part of the profits generated by car sales were used to fund a works racing program. And both men knew that the lessons learned on the track could be used to improve the road cars. As was the case with Bugatti, Ferrari’s focus was always on the technologically advanced Grand Prix cars, and like Bugatti, he was cognizant of the opportunity to apply the
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lessons learned in Grand Prix racing, spreading out the high cost of GP car and engine development to the intense and intimidating sports cars. It was not solely about technological development. Sports car racing of the day also earned starting and prize money for the factory, and there was a constant queue of sports racer customers, waving dollars, lira, francs, pounds and pesos, standing outside the factory gate. Each year, more and more of it. The 375 MM While the demand for Ferrari’s sports racers was plentiful, the 375 Mille Miglia was an example of a Ferrari that was not for the faint of heart. Regardless of money, what was most essential in owning a 375 MM was the innate ability
Lot and skill to drive in spirited competition that made these monstrous sports racers so powerful and simultaneously so challenging. The 375 Mille Miglia descended directly from the 4.5-liter GP formula and the big engine that Aurelio Lampredi designed for it. Successful from inception, it was natural to tune the engine down a little, adapt Ferrari’s typical two-tube frame and solid rear axle suspension, wrap a two-seat body around it and go collect some more starting and prize money, while selling some cars to keep the Scuderia in operation. Typically bodied by Pinin Farina, the 375 MM was both the factory’s team car and a favorite of wellheeled customers. The 375 MM’s Lampredi engine was an allalloy beauty with seven main bearings, single overhead camshafts with roller followers
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and hairpin valve springs and dual magneto ignition. It breathed through a trio of beautiful four-choke Weber 40IF4/C downdraft carbs, a rare instance at the time of Ferrari giving a single carb choke to each cylinder. In 375 MM form it delivered 340 horsepower. The four-speed fully synchronized gearbox was mounted to the engine, driven by a multiplate clutch. Everything was built for strength and reliability. The 375 MM’s chassis was conventional Ferrari, based on two parallel oval tubes in a welded ladder structure. Front suspension was independent by parallel unequal-length A-arms with a transverse leaf spring, sway bar and Houdaille hydraulic shock absorbers. The usual Ferrari solid rear axle with semi-elliptic springs, Houdaille shocks and parallel trailing arms (for location and taking braking and acceleration loads) was both well proven and reliable.
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Chassis No. 0416 AM Engine No. 0416 AM Body No. 12558 Specifications:
340 hp, 4,522 cc single overhead camshaft V12 engine, four-speed manual transmission, independent front suspension with transverse leaf springs and lever action shocks with rear live axle, twin lever shocks and twin leaf springs and four-wheel drum brakes. Wheelbase: 102.3"
Estimate: $5,000,000 – $6,000,000
The fifth of only seven examples Professional restoration, outstanding condition and matching numbers Never raced, most certainly one of the most original racing Ferraris Known history, including prominent collectors and movie stardom Ferrari Classiche certification
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S/N 0416AM The fifth of only seven examples built with the 4.5-liter engine, 0416AM was delivered new to Rome and always used as a road car. A matching numbers car, it retains its original coachwork, engine, and major drivetrain components. It is finished in its original color combination of Max Meyer light gray with brown leather interior. Professionally restored, the car remains in outstanding condition. A number of features distinguish 0416AM from others of the series, including seats that adjust both fore, aft and side to side, the lack of rear intakes for brake cooling in the door sills, front and rear bumperettes, fuel filler in rear fender with smaller engine hood and separate access port for the radiator cap. Roster of Keepers Completed by Carrozzeria Pinin Farina on July 8th, 1954, s/n 0416AM was delivered new by the factory to Inico Bernabei Auto, the official dealer in Rome, who sold the car to the first owner, Cavaliere Tommaso Sebastiani of Rome.
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In the early 1960s, the car was exported from Italy to the US. In 1965, it was acquired by Detroit, Michigan Ferrari enthusiast Carl Bross, owner of the Orange Blossom Diamond Ring Company (and 500 MD s/n 452AM, also offered in this sale). Bross kept the car until his death in 1969, when it was sold to Kirk F. White Motors, Radnor and Villanova, Pennsylvania. In October of that year, it was advertised in the Kirk F. White Newsletter, selling a short while later to dealer John Delamater, of Indianapolis, Indiana.
At the end of 1969, 0416AM was sold by Delamater to Ken Hutchison of Barrington, Illinois. He showed the car April 23rd-25th, 1971 at the 8th Annual Ferrari Club of America meeting held at the restaurant “Chez Paul” at the Glenwood in Chicago, Illinois. In 1986, s/n 0416AM was sold by Hutchison through Peter G. Sachs and Swiss dealer Charles Gnädinger to Engelbert E. Stieger of St. Gallen, Switzerland, for his Turning Wheels Collection, where it would reside for the next 16 years alongside some 30 of the most important Ferraris in the world, including a Ferrari 250GTO, California Spiders and a BB/LM to name just a few. Finally, on January 17th, 2002, Stieger sold the car to the current vendor, where again the car joined a very important Europeanbased Ferrari collection and once again became one of the collection’s crown jewels. Shows and Events In 1956, while in the hands of the first owner, the car was featured in the classic Italian film La Fortuna di Essere Donna (“The Fortune of being a Woman”) starring Sophia Loren and Marcello Mastroianni and set in Rome.
On August 11th-14th, 1988, the car was displayed by Stieger during the 16th Annual AvD-Oldtimer Grand Prix at the Nürburgring in Germany, but it was not raced. On April 7th, 1990, 0416AM was driven by Stieger during the Club Ferrari Suisse 20th Anniversary meeting at Montreux, Switzerland, race #48. On May 2nd-5th, 1991, the car was driven at the Mille Miglia Storica by Stieger-Stieger, race #186. Steiger displayed the Ferrari during the 4th Annual Automobiles Classiques et Louis Vuitton Concours d’Elegance at Parc de Bagatelle, Paris on September 7th-8th, 1991, winner of the Prix du Centre International de l’Automobile (Prix de la Passion). The Ferrari was driven by Patrick Stieger during the Grand Prix of Erlen, in Erlen, Switzerland, on October 12th-13th, 1991, using race #24. The next event was a track event driven by Stieger during the Ferrari Owners Club Switzerland meeting at Pierre Bardinon’s racetrack, Mas du Clos, in France. Then, on October 9th-10th, 1993, the car was driven by Bernhard Berner during the Grand Prix of Erlen using race #186.
On August 26th-27th, 1995, 0416AM was shown by Stieger during the 3rd Raduno Internazionale Ferrari at Ascona, Switzerland. Next, the car was shown by Stieger during the 50th Anniversary of Ferrari at Rome and Maranello on May 31st-June 8th, 1997, wearing entry #34. From February 14th-22nd, 1998, the Ferrari was displayed by Stieger during the Motor Classic Show “100 Years Ferrari” at Messe Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland. On August 22nd, 1998, the car was displayed by Stieger during the Ferrari Days Ostschweiz at Altenrhein, Switzerland. Finally, on September 26th-27th, 1998, 0416AM was shown by Stieger during the Loris Kessel Ferrari Days Ticino at Campione d’Italia. Summary As its name suggests, the 375 Mille Miglia was intended for the open roads and high speed circuits of European races. Predictable handling, robust construction and long, long legs were its attributes. The 375 MM showed just how well Ferrari had conceived and developed it, winning frequently in 1953. These cars were superbly developed and solidly engineered and are today among the most important and coveted of Ferrari’s classic fifties sports racers, combining big power with steady, predictable handling and rock solid reliability.
It is certainly an unusual choice as a road car. The tremendous power output, huge torque curve, and light flywheel gives the car a snarling feel. This instantaneous throttle response, combined with a stiff and quick acting clutch, leaves no doubt about the design purpose of the car. Its natural environment is the track, and it knows exactly what to do when it gets there. In this light, it is remarkable that 0416AM has never raced, and this – combined with its Ferrari Classiche certification – makes it almost certainly one of the most original of all racing Ferraris. It is nonetheless an exceptional Ferrari that combines the brawny performance of the 375 MM with Pinin Farina’s very pretty coachwork. 0416AM will be a welcome participant at the most enjoyable and important events where its eligibility is ensured by both its pedigree and rarity. Although it has never turned a wheel in anger, there is no doubt that it certainly could. As a result, it will be an important dual purpose addition to any collection. One of the most outstanding racers of the time, it is also an exhilarating vehicle for enjoying the open road – especially those long stretches where its seemingly inexhaustible Ferrari horsepower revs seemingly without limit.
Please note import duty of 2.5% of purchase price, including the buyer’s premium is payable on this car if the buyer is a resident of the United States.
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1931 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Close Coupled Coupe Coachwork by Park Ward & Co. Rolls-Royce made the announcement in September 1929 that the Phantom I chassis would be discontinued. Following Sir Henry Royce’s staunch belief in evolution not revolution, the company decided it was time to replace the PI with a more refined, updated chassis and an improved engine with cross-flow cylinder head for better breathing. Rolls-Royce debuted this new chassis, known today as the Phantom II, the following month at the London Olympia Motor Show. Of particular note were the PII’s rear springs, which were underslung. A considerable reduction in ride height was the result of the new rear spring layout, especially when combined with the PII’s new lower frame; the total reduction was on the order of nine inches, lending itself to more modern and sleek body designs. While most coachbuilders evolved from the carriagemaking trade, Park Ward was formed by W.H. Park and C.W. Ward just after the war with the clear intention of manufacturing coachwork for motor cars. The result was a product more suited to automobile bodies. Less than a year later, the new firm received their first commission for a Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. Quality alone, however, doesn’t guarantee economic success, and by 1924, the
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partners faced financial difficulties which they resolved by taking outside capital and changing the name to Park Ward & Co. One day by sheer coincidence, Frederick Henry Royce spotted a motor car with a Park Ward body parked by the side of the street. The perfect work and well-designed details impressed him. He immediately ordered H.I.F. Evernden to contact the coachbuilder Park Ward. The timing could not have been better as Park Ward again was nearing bankruptcy. In the same year, Captain Cuthbert W. Foster, heir to the Bird’s Custard fortune, commissioned Park Ward to build a body for his newly acquired Bugatti Royale. Rolls-Royce’s appreciation led to a number of orders which helped Park Ward bridge their difficult financial situation. The co-operation between the coachbuilder and the motor car manufacturer worked very well. Numerous bodies for prototypes, so-called experimental cars, were made. In 1930, Rolls-Royce motor cars were counting for more than 90% of Park Ward’s production. Two years later a contract was signed to build several bodies in series, as a sort of standard body, for Rolls-Royce. This enabled customers
Lot to take complete Rolls-Royce motor cars with coachwork by Park Ward directly from the showroom if they found design and interior to their liking. The arrangement became mutually beneficial but evolved into complete dependence, and in 1939 Rolls-Royce took over Park Ward. According to Rolls-Royce factory records, chassis number 195GY was delivered to none other than Mr. T.A. Roberts, the Chairman of Park Ward Coachbuilders, for his own use as well as demonstration purposes. If it were possible for the master craftsmen of these famous works to lavish any more attention to detail on their charges, this is a car over which they would have taken extra care. The chassis card notes that the long chassis was specified for close coupled coupe coachwork, an unusual yet very attractive combination. It was also noted as having been set up for
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continental use and fitted with extra Hartford shocks, with special attention “to be given to performance,” with accessories including a full set of polished wheel discs, including four road wheels, twin rear-mounted spares and a sporting rear-mounted trunk. The Close Coupled Coupe coachwork (body number 5301) is amongst the most stylish fitted to the Phantom chassis. The view down the long bonnet from the drivers seat in conjunction with the car’s clean profile, the short cabin area, rows of louvers and the twin spares on the trunk all combine to give an impression of speed and lightness to the chassis. The impression the car made driving through the streets of London in the early ’30s, pulling up outside the most exclusive addresses in Mayfair and Belgravia, can only be imagined. Indeed, Mr. Roberts lived in Devonshire House in the heart of Mayfair,
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Chassis No. 195GY Engine No. 5301 Body No. QT55 Specifications:
158 bhp, 7,668 cc overhead valve inline six-cylinder engine with twin ignition (coil and magneto), four-speed transmission, semi-elliptic leaf spring and solid axle front suspension, semi-elliptic leaf spring and live axle rear suspension, and four-wheel self-equalizing servo assisted brakes. Wheelbase: 144"
Estimate: $500,000 – $600,000
Delivered new to T.A. Roberts, Chairman of Park Ward One of the most handsome PIIs built Long chassis with stunning and very sporting close-coupled coachwork Excellent provenance and detailed documentation
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and the car no doubt attracted admiration whenever it was parked outside. Successive keepers included its purchase in 1935 by a Mr. R.F. Cartwright of Banbury, who retained the car before selling it in 1946 to Mr. Geoffrey Frank of Shropshire. It then went to a Mr. W.D.L. Raw in 1954 before making its way to the United States, after having been purchased by Mr. Randy Stetson. In the 1980s, 195GY was treated to a comprehensive restoration. The work focused mainly on cosmetics as the car was at that time in good mechanical order. Two subsequent owners used the car quite extensively, with the result that in 2003 an extensive professional mechanical restoration was commissioned by Bryan Richmond-Dodd with Hofman’s of Henley, a noted Rolls-Royce restorer. Detailed documentation attests to the extensive nature
of the work undertaken, copies of which accompany the sale. The total cost of the work was in excess of €100,000, which was well over $200,000 US at the time. Having returned to the UK in the late 1990s, this elegant and desirable car has been much admired, and the restored coachwork is resplendent in dark green and black, with polished wheel discs adding further to the impact of its imposing profile. A very sporty coupe with step-plate running boards, dualmounted rear spares and polished discs make this one of the most handsome Phantom IIs built. With its continuous and complete roster of keepers and documentation including factory and maintenance records, the car has excellent provenance. Equally suited to use on touring events or concours competitions, this Phantom II will still stop traffic and draw admiration wherever it goes, just as it has throughout the last seven decades.
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1949 Delahaye Type 175 S Roadster Coachwork by Saoutchik The Delahaye Chassis Emile Delahaye, a brilliant industrial engineer in France, built his first motor car in 1895 which was subsequently placed on display at the Paris Auto Salon. Production was on a small scale, but the cars bearing his name were soon appearing at racing events and proved both reliable and competitive. In 1901 poor health resulted in the sale of the company, which also resulted in a move to a new factory in Paris. Continually expanding, Delahaye established itself as a builder of reliable and robust trucks, fine automobiles, industrial engines and special service vehicles. Following a relatively lackluster period from the late 1920s through the early 1930s, Delahaye saw a revival of its fortunes beginning around 1933 and continuing until the outbreak of war.
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Based on a new series of four- and six-cylinder cars, the new models were headed by a sporting machine designated the 135. It featured independent front suspension and a higher output engine than the normal six-cylinder car. One of these new models was sent to MontlhÊry where it set a ream of new records, including seven new world records, and maintained an average speed of 110 mph. Racing successes followed as well, including the Alpine Cup and several Grands Prix events. For 1936, a new triple-carbureted engine produced 160 bhp, and it was this car that swept second through fifth places at that year’s French Grand Prix, losing first to a Bugatti. A Delahaye won the prestigious Monte Carlo Rally in both 1937 and 1939. The 135 was the basis of Delahaye racing cars that followed, which culminated with a victory at Le Mans in 1938.
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Chassis No. 815023 Engine No. 815023
Believed to have been the 1949 Paris and 1950 New York Show Car One of only 51 of this chassis originally built Now re-united with its original engine (see text) Amelia Island and Pebble Beach award-winner
Specifications:
165 bhp, 4,455 cc naturally aspirated overhead valve inline six cylinder engine, four-speed electro-mechanically actuated Cotal Preselector gearbox, Dubonnet coil spring front suspension, De Dion rear axle with semi-elliptic springs, and four-wheel hydraulic finned alloy drum brakes. Wheelbase: 116"
Estimate: $4,000,000 – $6,000,000
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At the same time, Delahayes were winning top awards at concours d’elegance with striking Art Deco coachwork from Europe’s most renowned craftsmen at Figoni et Falaschi, Chapron, Saoutchik, Franay, de Letourner et Marchand and other notable firms. Prewar development continued with the design and introduction of a new V12 racing engine, followed by the Type 165, a street car based on a refined version of the racing car. Unfortunately, the clouds of war were gathering, and development of passenger cars came to a halt.
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After the war, Delahaye introduced a brand-new design, the 175, a four-and-a-half liter six-cylinder design based on a new block with a seven-bearing crank. Output ranged from 140 bhp to 185 bhp for the sport models. It was Delahaye’s first left-drive chassis and was planned to compete with the Lago Record. The chassis was also state-of-the-art, featuring a Dubonnet front suspension and a De Dion rear axle with drive-shafts passing through the side rails of the frames. The brakes were hydraulic, with twin master cylinders and finned alloy drums. The gearbox was an electromechanically actuated unit by Cotal.
A longer wheelbase 180 model was offered, and although the more popular of the two Delahayes offered, it found few buyers in Europe that could afford such extravagance at this time. Production ceased in 1951 after just 150 units – a mere 51 were of the 175 S version. Saoutchik The renowned coachbuilding firm of Saoutchik was formed in 1906 in a Parisian suburb known as Neuilly-sur-Seine by Jacques Saoutchik, a Ukrainian-born cabinetmaker. The quality of his work was exceptional, and his coachwork was respected for its workmanship and the quality of its fittings and finishes. However, it is not for this quality of work that he is remembered today but rather for the art and style of his designs. Where permitted by the client, his lines were daring, embellished with as much trim as possible and creating an outrageous visual effect that emphasized the lines of the coachwork. His unique ideas were the product of his fertile mind. Never accused of copying others, it was soon his competition that sought to emulate him.
Just as a lion’s natural habitat is the African Savannah, Saoutchik saw his hunting grounds as the concours d’elegance events of the time. Patronized by the wealthiest of Parisians, these events followed the annual social “season,” from the banks of the Seine in Paris to the south of France, the Bordeaux regions and back again. Although the postwar period saw a dramatic decline in the demand for such exuberant coachwork, it was in many ways the high point of his work; for proof of this one need look no further than s/n 815023. Constructed on the magnificent 175 S chassis, the car’s svelte coachwork managed to minimize its bulk, with the result that the car looked slim and elegant while providing grand touring comfort for four. The astonishing cost of such truly bespoke coachwork finally sounded the death knell for the art form. Although Jacques Saoutchik passed the torch to his son Pierre in 1952, the great firm finally closed its doors in 1955.
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The opulent Delahaye as pictured when new.
Of the Delahayes constructed after the war, this majestic roadster was probably the most extravagant. Built for the re-emerging concours circuit, Saoutchik was responsible for its extreme body which borrowed styling cues from many earlier cars – Saoutchik’s and others. Using the French curves of the thirties combined with more modern baroque ornamentation, Saoutchik conveys a sense of drama and movement with this design. With four completely enclosed wheels, the car is best seen in profile where its beautiful lines can be clearly seen. On the contrary, the car’s façade is brighter and more elaborate. Provenance: s/n 815023 One of the socialites who frequented the French Riviera in the early postwar era was an English movie star named Diana Dors. She was considered one of the blond bombshells of the period (along with the American “three
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Ms” – Jayne Mansfield, Mamie Van Doren and Marilyn Monroe). Her looks were most similar to Marilyn Monroe’s, and she played similar parts. Her acting skills were well respected, although her looks seemed to relegate her to parts that played upon her other attributes – the quintessential comedic “dumb blonde.” Financially, she did extremely well, ordering this lovely Delahaye when she was just 17 years old, and at age 20, she became the youngest registered owner of a Rolls-Royce in the UK. According to critics, her best work came in 1956 when she played a murderess in Yield to the Night. She was a regular in horror films as well, including The Amazing Mr. Blunden, The Unholy Wife, and The Sorcerer’s Apprentice. Incidentally, a likeness of her appears on the cover of the Beatles’ Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album.
Photography: Darin Schnabel
According to Dors, before she died, she had managed to hide away more than £2 million in various banks. Eighteen months before her death, after her diagnosis with ovarian cancer, she gave her son Mark Dawson a sheet of paper, which she told him was a code that would reveal the whereabouts of the money. At the same time, she told her son that her widower, Alan Lake, had the key that would crack the code. Sadly, Lake committed suicide only five months after Dors died, leaving Mark Dawson a code that was now evidently unsolvable.
Many doubted the story, and the code sheet certainly didn’t appear to be anything out of the ordinary. Her son persevered and hired an expert who recognized the encryption as a form of the Vigenere cipher, which would require a ten character decryption key. Ultimately, the encryption experts were able to work out the key “DMARYFLUCK,” which stood for Diana Mary Fluck, Diana’s real name. They were then able to use the decryption key to decode the entire message. While it was clearly linked to bank statements found in Lake’s papers, no money was ever found, and to this day her encrypted fortune remains the object of many amateur cryptographers.
Presumably during Ms. Dors’ ownership, this remarkable Delahaye won top honors at the Grand Castle du Bois de Boulogne in Paris, the Monte Carlo Concours and Coup de l’Automobile in San Remo. By the seventies, the roadster had made its way to Colorado where its owner decided that maintenance issues resulting from the race-spec engine and Dubonnet suspension had become a problem. As a result, he decided to remove the offending components and fit a front-wheel drive engine and drivetrain from an Oldsmobile Toronado. For nearly thirty years, the original engine and car would remain separated. The vendor recognized the significance of the car’s original configuration and decided to commission Fran Roxas, a leading restorer, to undertake a comprehensive restoration beginning in the early 2000s. While the original suspension had been previously installed, a replacement motor was located and restored and reinstalled to perfection. The painstaking care taken during the restoration and the determination to get all the details exactly correct resulted in a process that consumed many years. Upon completion of the work in 2007, this seminal example of Saoutchik’s work was restored to its original glory. It seems fitting that the car’s first debut was at one of the world’s leading concours d’elegance events, and its return to glory was similarly prestigious – at the 2007 Pebble Beach Concours d’Elegance. Just a few months later, the car, and its magnificent restoration, were honored again, winning People’s Choice at the prestigious Amelia Island Concours d’ Elegance.
In spite of the completion of the restoration, the owner never forgot the issue of the non-matching engine. With only 51 cars built, it seemed likely that the original engine would someday turn up – and sure enough, it did. Several months prior to its sale at this auction, the vendor followed a lead and successfully located the original engine and acquired it in order to reunite it with the car. While neither rebuilt nor reinstalled, the engine is fairly complete and does accompany the sale. Summary As is the case with most landmark examples of the coachbuilder’s art, much of this Delahaye’s beauty is evident in the details, such as chrome accents that highlight the curves, the embedded turn signals or the small strips which flank the sides, adding grace, length and a sense of speed while cleverly hiding the door handles. The graceful façade was inspired by the Narvals produced just a year earlier. The astonishing interior is remarkably contemporary, incorporating a stylized eagle’s head on each door panel and bracketing an expansive dash panel that seems aircraft inspired with its rows of knobs and stunning transparent Lucite steering wheel. With the coachbuilt era long over in the United States, and very little of it remaining in the U.K., France, and Italy, s/n 815023 represents one of the very last examples of its kind – a true coachbuilt car, designed and built to satisfy one woman’s vision. It is a one-of-a-kind example in every respect and can easily lay claim to being the most outstanding, extravagant and beautiful postwar coachbuilt car in existence.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1932 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Henley Roadster Coachwork by Brewster The early history of Rolls-Royce in America is inextricably intertwined with that of the Brewster & Co. coachworks, which contributed some of the most elegant, sporting and attractively proportioned bodies fitted to any Rolls-Royce. At the turn of the 20th century, Brewster was the preeminent American coachbuilder. Willie Brewster began building automobile bodies in 1905 in New York City, and in 1911, he expanded to larger premises in Long Island City, New York. By 1914, he became a Rolls-Royce agent, importing chassis from England and building bodies for his well-established clientele. Then in 1925, Rolls-Royce bought the company, making Brewster its primary supplier of coachwork in America. Eventually, well over 400 Springfield-built Rolls-Royces were Brewster-bodied. Phantom I production continued in Springfield after the Phantom II was introduced in England in 1929, but the Springfield Phantom I was phased out in 1931 in favor of the Derby-built, left-hand drive Phantom II. The Phantom II offered a more refined, updated chassis and an improved engine with a cross-flow cylinder head for better breathing, with the engine now mounted in unit with the transmission. Chassis improvements included hydraulic shocks and semi-elliptic springs front and rear.
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A considerable reduction in ride height resulted, lending itself to more modern and sleek body designs. In 1930, the Rolls-Royce of America operation in Springfield knew it was in trouble. The magnitude of the Depression was obvious, and the Springfield manufacturing operation was closed, with Brewster now becoming an importer-distributor for Rolls-Royce in the US. The problem was that the new Phantom II, as introduced in Britain, was not suitable for the US market, because it did not have many of the advanced features of the final Springfield-built Phantom Is. For example, the Springfield Phantom I was left-hand drive, had thermostatic shutters, a complete “one-shot” chassis lubrication system, easier-maintained chrome-plated brightwork, smaller and more stylish 20-inch wheels, a carburetor air cleaner and a silenced intake system. Springfield agreed to buy 200 left-drive Phantom IIs if the British factory would make all the improvements necessary for the US market. Derby agreed and went through a full experimental program to develop the improved Phantom II for the American market. Two experimental chassis were built at Derby – 24EX and 25EX. Both were tested
Lot in France, and then Ernest Hives, head of the Experimental Department, took 25EX to the US for evaluation there, arriving in October of 1930. The result of the development program was a delightful car with an improved top speed, a lower chassis and quieter operation than the sophisticated Springfield-built Phantom I. In fact, the improvements inspired Derby to incorporate all of them (except left-hand drive) into all Phantom IIs, commencing with chassis JS1. The first deliveries of the leftdrive Phantom II chassis began in the spring of 1931. The Brewster coachworks was ready with its designs for the new Phantom II chassis when it arrived. While some of the designs were warmed-over Phantom I body styles, some were indeed fresh. The first of the new
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designs were represented by the Newport Town Car for traditional chauffeur-driven use and the Henley Roadster for the ownerdriver. The contract for 200 left-drive cars from Derby was never fulfilled, but 116 were sold in North America and six more in Europe. While sales were limited, these cars are recognized among the most desirable of all Classic Era Rolls-Royces. AJS 278 is the seventh of nine Henley Roadsters built. It was delivered new to Mrs. E. L. Fox of Red Bank, New Jersey. Sold new on December 10th, 1932, it was reportedly used by her husband until his passing in 1937. Mrs. Fox apparently didn’t like to drive, so in 1938, she contracted Bohman & Schwartz to build a new limousine body for her Rolls-Royce chassis. The result, a striking formal sedan, is illustrated on page 147 of De Campi’s book Rolls Royce in America.
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Chassis No. AJS 278 Specifications:
120 bhp 7,668 cc inline six-cylinder engine, four-speed manual transmission, solid front axle with leaf-spring suspension, live rear axle with longitudinal leaf springs, and four-wheel servo-assisted drum brakes. Wheelbase: 150"
Estimate: $500,000 – $750,000
Striking Henley coachwork by Brewster Fascinating provenance from new Mechanical sophistication with unmatched sporting elegance One of the most enduring motoring icons of the 20th century
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In 1948, Mrs. Fox’s original Henley Roadster was remounted on a right-hand drive Phantom II chassis which had originally carried a Park Ward body. This car became well known in the classic car club from the late 1950s through the 1970s. Finally, this car was purchased by Dale Powers of Florida in 1989. Brewster, as did many coachbuilders, stamped the body number in many places, with the result that he was quickly able to identify the car as AJS 278. Powers then began an exhaustive search for the original chassis, which he was able to locate as part of an estate in Minnesota which was being liquidated. He was able to buy the car, remove the body, and remount the original Henley roadster body, restoring the magnificent RollsRoyce to its original configuration. As it turns out, the original body was in exceptional condition and to this day retains all its structural woodwork. In fact, the only new fabrication required was
to make a set of rear fenders, as the originals had been replaced in order to fit the Bohman & Schwartz body to Mrs. Fox’s Rolls-Royce chassis. After assembling the car, Dale Powers traded it to Mark Smith of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, who later sold the car to Fred Weber of St. Louis, Missouri. Weber completed the cosmetic restoration, which remains in excellent condition today, finished in triple black. Later, the car was purchased by John Groendyke of Enid, Oklahoma, then acquired from Groendyke by the late Mr. John O’Quinn in 2003. It has remained in his esteemed collection since. The interior upholstery features smart maroon piping, while the dash remains good and includes all the proper controls and equipment. While some pitting is in evidence on a few minor pieces, the chrome bumpers are good, and the engine bay is clean and proper. A highly sought-after Rolls-Royce model with incredibly beautiful lines, this Brewster-bodied Phantom II Henley Roadster is without doubt one of the most elegant, sporting and desirable automobiles of the Classic Era.
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1956 Ferrari 250 GT Coupe Coachwork by Boano Enzo Ferrari’s passion was building racing cars, but by 1950 he had come to the conclusion that exclusive road-going coupes and convertibles would have to be constructed by the company. There was demand from wealthy followers of Ferrari on the track, and construction of road cars would help fund the racing effort. Early cars were bodied by such coachbuilders as Vignale, Ghia of Turin and Touring of
Milan. Ferrari believed that the success of the scuderia on the racing circuits of the world would attract a customer base for high performance luxury cars. He was right. Early Ferrari road cars were built in very small numbers, usually to special customer order, and there was no attempt at standardization. A significant change occurred in 1954 when the Pinin Farina-designed Ferrari 250 Europa GT was launched at the Paris Show. It was Ferrari’s first true production model and the foundation for all of Ferrari’s future 250 models. The second series of cars, again designed by Pinin Farina, was unveiled at the Geneva Salon in March 1956. Pinin Farina only produced the first few prototypes of this car. At this time the Turin-based coachbuilder was in the process of building a new, much larger production facility, but until it was completed the company would not have the required space to build cars in the quantities now required.
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Lot The work was given to another studio, Carrozzeria Boano, headed by former Stabilimenti Farina, Pinin Farina and Carrozzeria Ghia designer, Mario Felice Boano. Boano built 67 cars which had slight styling changes to the five cars that Pinin Farina had made, the most notable being a lower wing line. Boano joined Fiat in 1957 as head of design, and Ezio Ellena, Boano’s son-in-law, took over production under the banner of Carrozzeria Ellena. Again there were minor cosmetic changes, in particular a higher roof which prompted the use of the terms “high roof” for the Ellena and “low roof” for the Boano. To add to the confusion, the first few Ellena-bodied cars were identical to the “low-roof” Boanos.
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As records show, on July 16th, 1956, the chassis frame for this Boano-bodied 250 GT, s/n 0543 GT, was sent from the factory to Carrozzeria Boano to begin the production of this car. After completion, the car was delivered new in late 1956 to Autoval SA, a dealer in Paris, France. From there it was exported to the United States where it reappeared in 1958 with Chuck Sweeney of Santa Barbara, California and Bill Woodward of Hawaii, both of whom also co-owned Elliott Forbes Robinson’s race car. It was subsequently raced by Robinson in 1958 at race #78 in Palm Springs, California on April 13th, race #77 at Dillingham Field in Hawaii on May 11th, in Santa Barbara on June 1st, and again in Santa Barbara on race #777 on August 31st.
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Chassis No. 0543 GT Specifications:
240 bhp at 7,000 rpm, 2,953 cc single overhead camshaft V12 engine, three Weber 36 DCF carburetors, four-speed manual gearbox, independent front suspension with A-arms and coil springs, live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 102.4"
Estimate: $550,000 – $650,000
One of only 64 examples produced Known history from new An attractive “low roof” coachbuilt Boano in stunning colors
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After its short racing career, s/n 0543 GT was sold to a Mr. Bentley in Vancouver, Canada. It passed through several more hands, all the while remaining in Canada, until it was sold in 2006 to J.B. Durham of Dallas, Texas. It was shown in August by Mr. Durham at the 2006 Meadow Brook Concours d’Elegance in Rochester, Michigan. It was sold the following year to the current owner, a noted collector and enthusiast. In this collection, the car has kept company with some of the most exclusive and desirable collector cars.
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Originally painted silver grey with a tan interior, the Ferrari 250 GT Boano offered here is the 56th example built and sports a beautiful black finish while retaining its correct tan interior. Benefiting from a concours-quality restoration that is only a few years old, the paint and brightwork still remain in exceptional condition as the car has only been driven sparingly and has been maintained to the highest standards in climate-controlled storage. Offered from a respected southern collection, this Boano with a known history from new would be welcome at any show and invites close inspection from any discerning Ferrari collector.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1930 Stutz Model M Supercharged Coupe Coachwork by Lancefield Stutz’s racing and sales successes continued through World War I, but by 1919, Harry C. Stutz lost control of his company to a Wall Street syndicate whose financial machinations ultimately led to the de-listing of Stutz from the New York Stock Exchange. Harry Schwab of Bethlehem Steel, whose mismanagement nearly led to the marque’s demise, then acquired the company. Salvation came with the arrival of Hungarian-born Frederick E. Moskovics, a veteran of Daimler, Franklin and Marmon. He had, as the saying goes, gasoline in his veins and proved it with the introduction in 1926 of the Stutz Vertical Eight, an engineering and stylistic tour de force that included a SOHC inline eight-cylinder engine, hydrostatic brakes, safety glass and worm drive for a lower overall profile. It was the progenitor of the Model M, surely the most European of US automotive designs of the era.
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This particular Stutz is even more European than most, having been originally sold by the company’s main UK dealer, Warwick Wright Ltd. of London, who also supplied the supercharged cars for Stutz’s famed assault on the Le Mans 24-hour race in 1929. It is also one of just two supercharged Stutz motor cars known to exist. This car’s one-off, dramatic coachwork is by Lancefield of London, with design trademarks including low and streamlined “gun-turret” tops, “helmet” wings, teardrop step-plates instead of running boards and many lovely louvers along the lower-body chassis covers. A perfect period image of the Lancefield Coupe was rendered in the November 22nd, 1929 edition of the renowned UK motoring magazine, The Autocar. The earliest owner(s) of this stunning example is unfortunately not known, however the Lancefield Coupe was an
Lot important part of the astonishing Vermontbased Stutz collection of the late A.K. Miller and remained unrestored for decades while in his ownership. At the estate auction, a well-known West Coast collector became the Lancefield Coupe’s new owner. An exceptional restoration ensued, and the Stutz was refinished in the attractive original color scheme of black with red. The owner then entered it in the 1997 Beijing-Paris Motor Challenge, a grueling 45-day event. The restoration was literally hours old with no test miles registered on the odometer when the car was shipped to China. Nonetheless, the Stutz performed valiantly until a lack of critical spare electrical parts forced a reluctant withdrawal from the event.
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Next, the Lancefield Coupe was invited to the 50th Anniversary edition of the Pebble Beach Concours d’Elegance, where its stunning style and rakish appearance attracted great attention. There, it was so well prepared that the judges awarded it Best in Class, along with the Briggs Cunningham Award for the most exciting car present, as chosen by a special committee of judges. Following that, it was consigned to RM’s Auto Salon & Auction held in New York City on September 23rd, 2000, where noted collector Skip Barber of Connecticut acquired it. As a former racing driver and the operator of the race driving school that bears his name, Mr. Barber drives his cars regularly on the challenging secondary roads of northern Connecticut. When he first took delivery of
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Chassis No. 31312 Specifications:
Est. 185 bhp, 325 cu. in. inline eight-cylinder engine with single overhead camshaft and supercharger, four-speed manual gearbox, semi-elliptic leaf springs front and rear, and four-wheel drum brakes. Wheelbase: 134.5"
Estimate: $500,000 – $700,000
One of just two supercharged Stutz motor cars known to exist Owned long-term by famed Stutz collector A.K. Miller Comprehensively sorted by prior owner Skip Barber Multiple award-winner, including Best in Class at Pebble Beach
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the car, it looked and, in fact, was concours-level in its appearance, but Barber subjected the car to a thorough mechanical sorting to ensure that its driving dynamics matched its stunning appearance. The gearbox, clutch, steering, starter motor, electrical system and other items were identified for rectification after many of Barber’s test drives. Accordingly, the car was sent to Holman Engineering in Springfield, Massachusetts during 2003. George Holman, a mechanical engineer, is a well-known Stutz expert and has raced a Stutz Black Hawk Speedster in VSCCA events. The supercharger was completely rebuilt with modern internals and fitted with a rebuilt proper carburetor. The remainder of the mechanical work was completed by Holman between 2003 and 2005, with the car now performing strongly, exactly as it should. The Lancefield Coupe continued its winning ways in 2006, with the car earning Best of Show at the Greenwich Concours.
In the summer of 2006, the Stutz joined the private collection of the late Mr. John O’Quinn. A unique classic and a true thoroughbred indeed, the Lancefield Coupe remains virtually flawless and equally welcome at international concours, tours and vintage rallies. Its spectacular body design, powerful supercharged engine, rarity and careful ownership make it perhaps the most significant Stutz motor car in existence, as well as an unparalleled object of pure desire. As the description in the 1996 A.K. Miller auction catalog correctly predicted, “This striking motor car holds the potential to become one of the premier entrants on the international Concours d’Elegance circuit.” Now that the restoration is complete, the Pebble Beach prizes have been won and the mechanicals have been expertly sorted, those words still ring true today.
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1958 Ferrari 250 “Pontoon Fender” Testa Rossa It’s hard to think of any sports racer as passionate and fiery as the 1958 Ferrari Testa Rossa. From its lithe form and pouncing pontoon fenders to an exhaust note that’s been compared to the sound of staccato magnificence, the 250 TR is simply the iconic 1950s Ferrari by which all others are to be measured. In the late 1950s and well into the early 1960s, Ferrari’s “Testa Rossas” were raced by a plethora of various drivers who even now, some 50+ years later, still stand out as some of the all-time greatest individuals to ever take to the track. The names tell it all: Luigi Musso, Olivier Gendebien, Jean Behra, Pedro Rodriguez, Wolfgang Von Trips, Lucien Bianchi, Joachim Bonnier, Paul Frere and Willy Mairesse. Americans included World Champion Phil Hill, Dan Gurney, Carroll Shelby and Masten Gregory, along with Britons Mike Hawthorn and Peter Collins.
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This was truly a perfect example of “man, moment and machine.” As the 1950s ended and gentlemen racers began to be replaced more and more by dedicated professionals, Ferrari provided a common tool by which both, for a short period of time, were judged as equals. Today those fortunate few who have had the chance to put one of these amazing machines through its paces will quickly explain that the car is truly a sum far greater than its individual components. Maserati’s 450S was more powerful, and Aston Martin’s DBR1 had cleaner aerodynamics. Nonetheless, the TR as a whole easily eclipsed and stands far out, above and beyond any of these other contemporary Sports Racers. Add to the fact that even a driver of limited capability and experience can use with near frequency and abandon the Testa Rossas capabilities in real-world tours, rallies and races. One can see why the few that are left are so sought out by collectors the world over.
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Chassis No. 0738/TR Engine No. 0738/TR
One of only 21 Ferrari “Pontoon Fender� Testa Rossas built Sold new to Brazilian Jean-Louis Soares, of the Scuderia Lagartixa Well known and carefully documented history from new Colombo-designed three-liter, 300 hp, SOHC V12 matching numbers, original engine Comes with race-prepared Ferrari Classiche spare 250 TR Engine
Specifications:
300 hp, 2,953 cc SOHC V12 engine, six Weber 38 DCN carburetors, four-speed manual transmission, independent front suspension by double wishbone and coil springs, rear live axle and telescopic shocks, four-wheel hydraulic, self-adjusting, finned, drum brakes. Wheelbase: 92.5"
Estimate: Available Upon Request
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Testa Rossa literally translates to Red Head – taken from the red-painted cam covers on the first four-cylinder 500 Testa Rossas. This was done as a tribute to the Ferrari engineers who had achieved nearly 100 bhp per-liter with their new client Sports Racer. Today, the twelve-cylinder 250 TR is among the most valuable sports cars in the world. Even during the midst of one of the worst economic recessions of this era, RM had the pleasure of selling 0714/TR at its Leggenda e Passione auction in Maranello, Italy in 2009 for $12.4 million – a world record for a car at auction. Aside from being one of the most beautiful automotive designs of all time, the prices paid for Pontoon Fender Testa Rossas were also earned by their incredible competition
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record. The 250 Testa Rossa and its derivations won four Le Mans Championships and four World Constructors Championships. In all, they won 10 of 19 championship races between 1958-61. Designer Sergio Scaglietti famously called them “Formula 1 cars with fenders.” There were only a total of 34 different variations of Ferrari’s legendary Testa Rossa, including prototypes and the 330 TRI/LM. All had even-numbered chassis numbers, indicating they were built for competition. The most famous and well-known configuration is the pontoonfendered design of which there are 21. With only 21 built, these are rarer even than the highly-valued 250 GTO, of which there are 36.
Pontoon Fenders The engineering, or more appropriately the “reverseengineering,” of the “Pontoon Fenders” came about over a very short period of time beginning in late 1956 when Ferrari’s lead drivers voiced their complaints about fading brakes when up against Aston Martin and Jaguars fitted with the latest in disc brake designs. Enzo Ferrari was never one who liked to be told what to do and resisted throwing away the proven designs of their latest Grand-Prix derived, alloy and magnesium competition drum brakes. He voiced his concerns to his main body builder, Sergio Scaglietti, who realized there was little point in arguing with the “Il Commendatore” despite the flaws in his thinking. Enzo reasoned the main fault was the inability for the brakes to stay cool and shed heat. He further reasoned that there was far more frictional surface area in the drum design versus that of the then available disc brake calipers and un-vented rotors being offered by Girling and Lockheed. Theoretically, with more surface area, drum brakes should be better so long as the heat could be removed from them. Scaglietti set his people to the task, and the results, although a bit backwards from an
engineering stand point, were introduced to international motoring media in November of 1957 at Ferrari’s annual press conference. As expected, the critics grumbled about the lack of innovative technology used on the car, but this was all lost in the attention that was received by the dramatic bodywork that Scaglietti’s team created. This was automotive design at it’s finest – it was edgy and aggressive, yet had the sporting elegance and style that only the Italians were capable of. “Red Head” V12 As with any Ferrari car, the engine was the source of its life. The Testa Rossa was no exception, and it was fitted with the three-liter, single-overhead cam, V12 engine designed by Colombo, which had an 8,000 rpm redline. It was heavily modified from its street origins; plugs were moved outside the cylinder banks to make space for separate intake ports and the six gurgling Weber 38DCN carburetors which were mounted on top. The heads now had four bolts per cylinder instead of three. Compression was raised to 9.8:1, and the engine produced a direct 300 hp, powering the 1,759-lb car to 100 mph in only 16 seconds, with a top speed of 167 mph.
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Chassis no. 0738/TR This car, 0738/TR, has had a long and colorful history spanning three continents and nearly a quarter-century of active racing in period and modern-era events. It was raced intensively in Brazil from 1958-67 and almost constantly in Europe since 1997. 0738/TR was ordered new by the Official Central and South American Ferrari Concessionaire Carlos Kauffman in Caracas, Venezuela, for Brazilian Jean-Louis Soares, who lived in Sao Paolo. Soares immediately went racing. His three-man team, Scuderia Lagartixa, was comprised of himself, Chico Landi and Luciano Della Porta. They would race 0738/TR 14 times in the next two-and-a-half years. The “Scuderia Lagartixa” (pronounced Largatisha) was a professionally run gentleman’s driving “stable” with its
name being sourced from one of the local lizards often seen in the brush and on the sides of buildings native to the area. They were both quick and nimble but also regarded as a bit slippery, and Soares, Landi and Della Porta felt it was a fitting description of their combined driving styles. Landi took the starting flag on June 22nd, 1958 at the Cinquentenario da Imigracao Japonesa at Interlagos, Brazil carrying #82 and placed 7th. Its next outing was in Rio on September 28th at the Festival do Desporto at Barra da Tijuca, when Jose Gimenez Lopes finished 2nd. Lopes drove it again on November 30th at Interlagos and finished 4th.
The Ferrari 250TR competing in Brazil. The No. 82 car is the 0738 chassis piloted by Jose Gimenez Lopes and No. 46 (3rd from left to right) the chassis 0716 of Celso Lara Barberis in photo dating 30/11/1958 at Interlagos, Brazil. Photo Credit: Napoleao Ribeiro / Paulo Peralta
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Famous Brazilian racing pilot, Chico Landi, testing 0738/TR in three various tests at Interlagos, Brazil in 1960. Photo Credit: Napoleao Ribeiro
Only ten days later on December 10th, 0738/TR was back at Barra da Tijuca, this time driven by Jean Louis Lacerda, who finished 7th. This was the last time the car would carry #82, as when Lacerda took the wheel at the Circuit de Pirajui on April 5th, 1959, it would be as #8. He scored the car’s first win at that event. On May 31st, Lacerda was back at Interlagos, but this time he was a DNF. He must have learned the Rio circuit of Barra da Tijuca on his first appearance, because his next visit on July 27th, 1959 saw him finish 1st. The third team member, Luciano Della Porta, got his turn behind the wheel at Interlagos on January 10th, 1960. He wasn’t as successful and finished 9th, carrying #79. But he persevered, and only a week later on January 17th, he scored a 7th place at Rio. He continued to improve, finishing 3rd at Piracicaba on March 13th, then 2nd at Brasilia on April 23rd. Back to Interlagos on June 12th and Della Porta was 5th. On September 9th, Della Porta and Chico Landi teamed up in the 500-km race at Interlagos and finished 2nd. The team’s last race was back at Barra da Tijuca in Rio on November 5th, 1960, again as #79, when Della Porta and Aquinaldo de Goes Filho DNF’d.
When the team sold 0738/TR to Giorgio Moroni in 1961, it was promptly shipped to Modena, Italy, where, with the assistance of Piero Drogo, it was re-bodied as a GTO-style coupe by his firm and sent back to Rio. In a sport that demanded innovation and new design, Moroni rationed that he could give 0738/TR this perceptibility by commissioning sleeker styled body-work, therefore preserving its ability to stay in competitive racing longer. The reality was, however, that the car was left untouched underneath and that this was purely a visual exercise. Della Porta gave 0738/TR its first outing as #79 at Interlagos on October 11th, 1964 and managed a credible 16th Overall. The car took nine months off and then was driven by Camillo Christofaro at Barra Tijuca on September 19th, 1965. Carrying #18, he won the Gran Premio IV Centenario. Taking advantage of this result, Moroni sold 0738/TR to Claudio Klabin. A year later in 1966, Klabin traded 0738/ TR to mining magnate Paulo Cesar Newlands for an Alfa Romeo 2000 Berlina!
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From Silverstone and Brands Hatch to Monza, Monte Carlo and the Mille Miglia, 0738/TR has been extremely competitive in its modern racing career around the globe, winning many of the events its participates in. Here it is pictured at Spa-Francorchamps, the challenging and historic Belgian racing circuit. Photo Credit: Tim Scott
Newlands may not have had much experience, but he knew what to do with 0738/TR. He went racing. He placed 16th at Jacarepagua on June 4th, 1967. His enthusiasm was rewarded at Petropolis on July 30th, when he claimed 1st place overall among a highly competitive field. Quite an accomplishment for a car that was manufactured almost a decade earlier! Returning to Jacarepagua on August 6th, he was back to 16th. Newlands sold 0738/TR to an unnamed American in Rio in 1969; he kept it until 1975, when it was acquired by Camillo Christofaro, who had won his first race in the car in Rio ten years earlier.
DK Engineering. RS Panels meticulously hand-formed a completely accurate alloy body and then painted it yellow with a green nose band, in honor of its Brazilian heritage.
0738/TR in recent years
Sir Paul Vestey drove 0738/TR in the 1990 Mille Miglia, making it one of the very few 250TRs to ever participate in that famed event. He later drove the car at Goodwood’s Festival of Speed in 1994 and in the Italian Classic meeting in Italy in 1995. In October that year, however, Vestey found a Ferrari 330/P4 he could not live without and traded 0738/TR to Symbolic Motor Car Company of La Jolla, California.
For more than 10 years, Christofaro carefully stored and preserved this wonderful Ferrari. Although a bit dusty and faded, the car remained incredibly original barring the replacement Berlinetta bodywork. In 1986, famed collector, dealer and car hunter “extraordinaire” Colin Crabbe struck a deal with Christofaro and brought 0738/ TR back to England. It changed hands in 1988 to American Bob Rubin, but he sold it a year later to Ferrari collector Sir Paul Vestey in England. Under the watchful eye of Sir Paul in 1989/1990, 0738/ TR was painstakingly and carefully returned to its original configuration by the marque specialists at David Cottingham’s
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It cannot be overemphasized enough how original and unmolested this Ferrari was prior to restoration. An incredible cache of period photographs, documents and correspondence, along with detailed reference photos that were taken at the time the work was performed, document just how correct this Testa Rossa was under the replacement bodywork.
0738/TR went on the road, first to the 1995 London Motor Show, then to the 1996 Retromobile event in Paris and finally to Techno Classica in Essen, Germany. In July 1996, 0738/TR entered its current ownership and immediately that fall was registered to participate in the Colorado Grand. Since then, it has been very busy indeed.
During its current ownership, 0738/TR has been actively campaigned in all of the great historic races organized around the globe. Throughout these races, it has consistently been one of the most competitive cars on the grid and has outright won many of the events. In May 1997, it raced in Monte Carlo before appearing at the 50th anniversary of Ferrari in Rome and racing at the Historic races at Silverstone in July. In May 1998, 0738/TR was driven at Ferrari days at Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium, at the Shell Historic Ferrari races at Dijon-Prenois in France in June, and at the Historic races in Silverstone in July, when it was damaged in a crash. After being repaired in England, 0738/TR was back racing again at the Goodwood Revival event in September 1999, then back to Spa in May 2000 and on to the Shell Ferrari challenge at Le Mans in June. The Goodwood Festival of Speed followed in June, the Goodwood Revival again in September and the Shell Ferrari races that year in Hockenheim, Germany, where it was 1st in the drum brake class. 0738/TR finished the year in October at the Ferrari/Maserati challenge at Mugello, Italy.
The 2001 racing season started at Brands Hatch in the Ferrari/Maserati race in July but ended shortly thereafter in a race accident in Tunis. Tony Merrick repaired the car in time for the Spa Ferrari days in April 2002, followed by another Ferrari/Maserati race at Brands Hatch, then one at the Nßrburgring in Germany in September and the finals in Misano Adriatico in Italy in October. The team even found time to compete in the Le Mans Classic! 2003 Ferrari/Maserati racing began at Spa with a 7th place, then Monza in May where 0738/TR was 6th. Donington Park yielded 5th and 3rd place finishes in June, and in Mugello in October, it was 3rd twice. The 2004 season shaped up the same way, with 3rd and 4th in Donington Park in September and an appearance at the finals in Monza in October. In January 2005, 0738/TR raced at Moroso in Florida and then at Pau, France in May where it won its class. June’s Spa races saw a 2nd in class.
Please note import duty of 2.5% of purchase price, including the buyer’s premium is payable on this car if the buyer is a resident of the United States.
Summary Ownership of one of these rare and beautiful Testa Rossas means so much more than just owning a car made by the prancing horse marque. They are as coveted as GTO ownership and guarantee access into any concours or racing event on the planet. But beyond that, they represent the essence of what car manufacturing is all about; the harmony between sculptural beauty and performance to provide that exhilarating experience that one can only achieve by getting behind the wheel and turning the key.
“This fabulous machine doesn’t like to be driven slowly. Shunting backwards and forwards at pottering speeds isn’t its bag but, once free of the stop-start stuff, the Ferrari’s true character emerges. It’s the car’s flexibility that astounds: it just picks up and goes, regardless of gear.
An RM Auctions specialist recently had the opportunity to test drive 0738/TR and reported that it is on the button and ready to race. “The sound note from the four exhausts is unlike anything you will ever hear and the view of the menacing front fenders from the cockpit is leagues beyond that of any automobile which has ever been produced.”
In addition, 0738/TR also comes with a Ferrari Classiche 250 TR spare engine that has been expertly prepared to racing specifications by Pearson Engineering in the UK. Currently equipped with its original matching-numbers engine and with over a half-century of competitive racing to its credit, this is unquestionably one of the most desirable sports racing cars in existence. Testa Rossas seldom come to market. In the past decade, just three have been made available for purchase. Even more important is the fact that despite having replacement coachwork, 0738/TR is arguably one of the most correct and authentic of those that survive. The entire essence of what Ferrari stands for is captured within this single car – for the capable Ferraristi this opportunity surely cannot be missed!
Richard Heseltine also drove the car for the upcoming September 2010 issue of Thoroughbred & Classic Cars Magazine and wrote the following:
Whatever you’ve read about the Pontoon Fender Ferrari, whatever the great and the good say about it is true: it really is as toweringly great as legend says.”
Note: Please see auction office for access to these photos and other related items.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1913 Rolls-Royce 40/50HP Silver Ghost Open Tourer Coachwork by H.J. Mulliner “Anything appertaining to automobile mechanism which issues from the works at Manchester under the direction of that finished and talented engineer, Mr. Ed Royce, is certain to attract the immediate attention of the motoring world.” Thus read the December 1906 issue of The Autocar in its report of the new 40/50hp six-cylinder Rolls-Royce engine having just debuted at the London Motor Show. It would come to power a motor car later known as the Silver Ghost for the next eighteen years. The legendary Rolls-Royce model first introduced in 1906 was not initially referred to as a Silver Ghost but rather the 40/50, referring to its 40 taxable horsepower and 50 real horsepower. The first 40/50 to bear the name Silver Ghost was actually the thirteenth chassis
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to be built. It featured an aluminum body by Barker with silver-plated exterior fittings and a sliver-plated brass plate bearing the name “Silver Ghost.” The name stuck and Silver Ghosts became known not only for their incredible reliability but also for their virtually silent operation, smoothness and absence of vibration. Simply stated in a 1911 company catalog: “The Rolls-Royce Car is bought by people who will have the best and nothing but the best.” The company unabashedly claimed “The Best Car in the World” as its mantra. Production would continue in England through 1925 and in America at Rolls-Royce’s Springfield facility from 1921-1926. At the time, no car was built better; its excellence was achieved by a painstaking dedication to detail unique in the automotive industry.
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Chassis No. 2517
Rolls-Royce Foundation documentation Once owned by the Maharaja of Patiala and formerly in the Richard Solove collection One of the most sought-after Rolls-Royce models
Specifications:
48.6 hp, 7,428 cc (429 cid) inline L-head six-cylinder engine, three-speed transmission, live axle front suspension with semi-elliptic springs, live axle rear suspension with cantilever leaf springs. Wheelbase: 143.5"
Estimate: $1,000,000 – $1,500,000
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The thirteenth chassis built became a demonstration car for Rolls-Royce, having been first put to the test in a 2,000-mile trial under the supervision of the Royal Automobile Club. During this test, the car recorded a figure of better than 20 mpg on the road between London and Glasgow – quite astounding considering the size of the vehicle with such a large engine (7,036 cc). The car was next entered into the Scottish Reliability Trials. Unfortunately, the Rolls had to make an unscheduled stop at 629 miles caused by a faulty petrol tap shaking shut. The car continued to run flawlessly day and night following the trials, resting only on Sundays, until 15,000 miles had been covered; thus, 14,371 miles had been covered without an involuntary stop, setting a new world record. The car was then dismantled under
the supervision of the R.A.C. with all parts reported “as new.” A Silver Ghost simply didn’t wear out, especially when compared to its contemporaries. Rolls-Royce boastfully proclaimed, “The quality will remain when the price is forgotten.” Total Silver Ghost production was approximately 5,000 cars, including staff cars and armor-plated combat versions which saw service during WWI. Most memorable are the comments of Colonel T.E. Lawrence (a.k.a. Lawrence of Arabia) who said the value of a Rolls in the desert was “above rubies.” When asked in all the world what he desired personally but could not afford, his reply was a Rolls-Royce “with enough tires and petrol to last me all my life.”
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Chassis no. 2517 Rolls-Royce Foundation records indicate that chassis no. 2517 was first delivered on December 18th, 1913 to the Maharaja of Patiala. Maharaja Bhupinder Singh ruled over the state of Patiala in northwest India from 1900 to 1938. An extravagant and very wealthy leader, he is best remembered for his involvement in sports, namely polo and cricket. He was captain of the Indian national team. He reportedly had one of the world’s largest collections of medals, built a monorail system in his province and was even the first man in India to own an airplane. A colorful life, to say the least!
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The Maharaja bought his first Rolls-Royce (chassis no. 1697) in 1911 and subsequently was to purchase a further 25 cars from Rolls-Royce. This car, 2517, was his sixth Silver Ghost, and he took delivery at the age of only 22. Indian Maharajas enjoyed almost limitless wealth and consequently lavished enormous amounts of money not only on their palaces but on their fleets of motor cars. When ordering a Rolls-Royce, one not only stipulated the type of coachwork but all the accessories and options to go on the car, such as, in this case, £2 for a tool roll (the equivalent of nearly £400 in today’s values) and £7 for extra jump seats. One also stipulated the finish of the brightwork, the choices being brass, nickel (German
Silver) or silver. In the case of 2517, it was indicated on the build sheet that the wheels were to be nickel-plated and that the car was to have a London-to-Edinburgh style dashboard and bonnet. When found in India in 1970, the car was absolutely complete and original, but it was in poor condition due to the ravages of time and the fact that it had been left on an open porch for twenty years in Calcutta. The car was purchased by Charles Howard, at that time a noted connoisseur antique dealer. He undertook a lengthy and extensive restoration by Jonathan Harley, regaining the car’s former glory. According to Fasal’s The Edwardian Silver Ghost, it was fitted with new coachwork at the time in the style of the original.
The car is finished in a period-appropriate green with black fenders and undercarriage. The interior is upholstered in complementary tan leather with varnished wood trim. Nickel brightwork adorns the exterior as well as five plated wire wheels, which add to the car’s sporting appearance. While the undercarriage is nice and shows little evidence of use, 2517 is an older restoration that has developed a lovely patina. Considered by collectors to be one the most sought-after of all Silver Ghost models, this magnificent example of an Edwardian tourer would be a spectacular addition to any collection of early automobiles and the envy of any Rolls-Royce collector.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1938 Talbot-Lago T150-C Lago Speciale Teardrop Coupe Coachwork by Figoni et Falaschi After taking control of Automobiles Talbot in 1935, Anthony Lago renamed the Suresnes, France-based enterprise Talbot-Lago. He immediately hired an engineer named Walter Brecchia, and together they created the first Talbot-Lago, based on a Talbot-Darracq three-liter Type K78. Brecchia’s next engine proved brilliant. Based on the six-cylinder K78 block, displacement grew to four liters, and a new cylinder head dramatically improved breathing and volumetric efficiency. The hemisphericalhead design featured a valvetrain actuated by a low-set camshaft with crossed pushrods, acting through both long and short rocker arms. The engine developed 140 hp, and initially, it breathed through twin Solex carburetors.
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A consummate salesman, Lago persuaded French racing great René Dreyfus to manage his new Talbot-Lago race team. Dreyfus delivered in June of 1936 at the French Grand Prix at Montlhéry, when Lago asked him to “stay ahead of the Bugattis for as long as you can.” All three Talbot-Lagos finished in the top ten, running toe-to-toe with the Bugattis before mechanical problems slowed them near the end. The next year, Talbot-Lagos placed first, second, third and fifth at the 1937 French Grand Prix. Victories continued with a win at Tourist Trophy races at Donnington Park and a first place in the 1938 Monte Carlo Rally. While the Talbot-Lago racing cars were outclassed by the omnipotent German Mercedes-Benz and Auto-Union GP cars during the late 1930s, the Talbot-Lagos were uncannily reliable and often finished surprisingly well.
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T150-C However, Anthony Lago’s greatest achievement remains without doubt the Talbot-Lago T150-C chassis, with the “C” standing for competition – a clear reference to the car’s racing success. Features such as a large capacity oil pan, punched handbrake lever, a dual braking system, and a higher compression ratio were taken directly from the racing program. Two versions were offered. The first, designated SS (taken from the English phrase “Super Sport”) referred to a short-wheelbase (2.65 m) chassis, designed for elegant two- or three-place coachwork.
A second, somewhat longer (2.95 m) chassis was also offered, called the “Lago Speciale.” Mechanically identical to the SS, it was intended to accommodate more luxurious coachwork. In fact, the weight difference was just 130 kg, and the performance of the new four-liter engine was great enough that many owners raced their Lago Speciales as well. Both chassis offered exceptional handling, a result of the car’s independent front suspension with its advanced geometry, along with light weight and excellent brakes.
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Chassis No. 90034 Specifications:
170 bhp (rated 140 bhp), 3,996 cc six-cylinder engine with hemispherical combustion chambers and triple Stromberg carburetors, Wilson four-speed pre-selector transmission, independent front suspension with transverse leaf spring, leaf spring and live axle rear suspension, and four-wheel drum brakes. Wheelbase: 116.14"
Estimate: $3,500,000 – $4,500,000
1948 24 Hours of Spa class winner The only long-wheelbase Lago Speciale Teardrop Coupe in existence Stunning Figoni et Falaschi coachwork, the pinnacle of French streamlined design Unbroken provenance from new
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Figoni et Falaschi Racing success certainly enhanced the appeal; it was this demand, combined with Lago’s collaboration with Joseph Figoni and Ovidio Falaschi and their Figoni et Falaschi coachbuilding firm, that would lead to the creation of what many believe are the most beautiful cars ever built. There is little doubt that the era of exuberant French coachwork precipitated a tidal change in automotive design. Gone were the largely functional forms of the twenties and early thirties, replaced by the fanciful curves and sensuous lines that ushered in the era of the automobile as art. Although others were versed in the style to one degree or another, it was the Parisian firm of Figoni et Falaschi that is widely regarded as the innovator of the new look.
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Prominent among the Figoni et Falaschi-bodied TalbotLagos was a series of coupes, the first one commissioned at the request of a French businessman, M. Jeancart, resulting in what many believe was Figoni’s most important and successful design: the so-called Teardrop or “goutte d’eau” coupes. It is believed that just sixteen were built, with two slightly different body styles. The first car, in what is now known as the ‘Jeancart’ design after the name of its first owner, was a beautiful aerodynamic coupe with a long streamlined rear. Five were built, either on the short C-SS chassis or on the Lago Speciale, with one car built on a T23 chassis.
Freddy Damman speeds into the famous Eau Rouge turn and goes on to a class win at the grueling 24 Hours of Spa in 1948
Above and below freddy Damman’s Talbot is seen at speed and in the pits at the 1948 24 Hours of Spa
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Chassis 90034 Most notable in this series are chassis 90101, the car that finished third at Le Mans in 1938 as part of the Chinetti Team (90106), and the example offered here, chassis 90034, which finished first in class in the 1948 24 Hours of Spa. Both shared external front lights for racing in the night, a split windscreen and the absence of rear spats in an effort to increase ventilation to the rear axle and brakes. Both were clearly constructed and intended to race. The others were built in the ‘New York’ style, named after the car shown at the New York Auto Salon in 1937. Except for one car on a T23 chassis, these were all T150-C short-chassis cars. Whether in the ‘Jeancart’
or ‘New York’ style, all these hand-built cars show minor differences, based on the original owner’s requirements. Two cars in the ‘New York’ series had fully skirted front fenders, and headlamp treatment varied. Some with recessed headlamps were transformed to the bullet design early in their life. Perfectly proportioned, these Teardrop Coupes represent the pinnacle of the French streamlined design movement, combining race-bred technical competence with a brand-new design inspired by aerodynamic efficiency directly linked with advances in aviation. Most Teardrops were designed to accommodate two people, but a few cars, including 90034, could accommodate three. While all Teardrops were quite unique, chassis 90034 may well be the most unique of all. It is the only example built on the longer Lago Speciale chassis – some 30 cm, or 11.8 inches, greater than the SS. One can safely assume that the intent was to create a superb grand touring car; the result, embodied by this example, superbly meets the criteria.
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In the world of important French cars, provenance is second only to design, and 90034 stands as one of the best of the Teardrops, having a continuous history from new, a commendable and unique competition record, and no history of fire, accident or deterioration. Furthermore, all the car’s major components remain intact and together.
It is important to consider that with Schumann being a race driver, and given his close relationship to both Dreyfus and Chinetti, 90034 was undoubtedly a highly specialized order. One look at the Teardrop’s exquisitely detailed dashboard shows an array of gauges, most of which are indicative of a race-bred motor car with a competitive purpose. The Schumann Talbot-Lago was fitted with an extraordinary number of accessories and one-off features, from the radiator to the exterior lighting and full-size sliding sunroof.
Ordered new by Antoine Schumann, 90034 was commissioned as the wealthy Parisian banker’s replacement for his Figoni-bodied Bugatti Type 50. Schumann’s Bugatti was a team car that he had purchased directly from the factory. Schumann, known to have been a close friend of none other than Pierre-Louis Dreyfus, naturally chose a Talbot-Lago. Another interesting friend of Schumann was legendary race driver and automotive entrepreneur Luigi Chinetti.
The Schumann Talbot was given Figoni production number 738, a number that can be found on the car in numerous places even today, as all of its stamped components remain intact and original. It was delivered to Schumann finished in a handsome shade of dark blue, as confirmed by both Figoni records and previous visual inspection.
Chinetti was always a fan of the T150-C. So much so, that during an interview in Automobile Classique, Chinetti rated the Talbot-Lago T150-C on par with the 2.9 Alfa Romeos he had known so intimately. Chinetti was the only official sales agent for the Talbot-Lago Figoni Teardrop Coupes throughout Europe. At an astounding price of 165,000 francs, the Lago Speciale ordered by Antoine Schumann represented one of the most expensive automobiles in 1938.
While it is clear that the Lago Speciale has been repainted as many as five times, it is remarkable that the original dark blue could still be found in the panel fittings of the fenders and other areas, including behind the dashboard and inside the glove box prior to its restoration. It is so rare to see this aspect of a car’s originality, and to find it on something as significant as this Teardrop Coupe speaks volumes to the Talbot-Lago’s integrity and provenance. Obviously, as the car was fully restored these areas are no longer present.
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Sadly, Antoine Schumann was killed while serving in the French army. The Talbot had likely been hidden away during the war and was largely forgotten in light of the circumstances. The next owner was Freddy Damman, a young racing enthusiast who purchased the Talbot in 1947. Damman repainted it in light grey and prepared the Lago Speciale for its racing debut at the 1948 24 Hours of Spa. Driven by Damman and co-driver and mechanic Constant Debelder, 90034 took first in class. Freddy Damman, in all his years as an automotive enthusiast, retained only one significant motor car for any length of time: the 1938 Talbot-Lago T150-C Lago Speciale. His daughter related that it was this specific Talbot that he loved the most, and while various Ferraris and other Talbots came and went, 90034 remained the centerpiece of his collection for approximately 30 years. The Talbot remained with Freddy Damman and the Damman family for decades before being sold privately in 1979. It then passed through the ownership of renowned film producer and industrialist Michel Seydoux before being sold at auction in 1981. The purchaser was an avid motoring enthusiast and private collector who retained the
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Lago Speciale for 23 years. Research reveals that by this point, the Talbot had been repainted in a two-tone black and burgundy. Later the car went to all black, nevertheless remaining entirely complete and having still not been fully restored. While in his ownership, it is understood that the Talbot was featured in a film, requiring transportation to Mexico. While there, the owner drove the Talbot daily. The next owner fell in love with the car at first sight. An avid motoring enthusiast and collector of important cars, he intended to restore it for Pebble Beach or to display as a piece of fine art. Following acquisition, the engine received a light mechanical restoration, including a set of freshly rebuilt valves. On a previous road test in 2005, the Talbot proved to be an absolute delight to drive. Fitted with the correct Wilson four-speed pre-selector gearbox, 90034 was noted to be a tremendously exciting car to drive. The driving experience, especially given its pure unrestored form, was likened to stepping back in time. That year, 90034 joined the collection of the late Mr. John O’Quinn, who embarked on a comprehensive restoration following his successful purchase.
The Talbot was restored to perfection by RM Auto Restoration, and now finished in a lustrous black with a beautifully matched textured tobacco leather interior, its appearance is even more impressive. Mechanically, the car was treated with equal attention to detail, leaving nothing untouched. A new radiator and core was fitted, everything synced to mechanical perfection and, as a testament to its excellent original condition prior to the restoration, even the original wood trim was retained and refinished. The results are simply outstanding, and the car is fully eligible for showing at the world’s most prestigious concours, including Pebble Beach, Amelia Island and Meadow Brook, having never been publically seen in its current fully restored condition. There is no question that the 1938 Talbot-Lago T150-C Lago Speciale is a masterwork of Art Deco design. Its proportions and sweeping stance are a wonderful representation of the pinnacle of prewar French creativity and imagination. Crafted at the very height of Art Deco design in 1938, it is, like all significant works of art, virtually unmatched in its beauty, without peer or parallel.
Its appearance and availability marks only the second time this Talbot has been offered publicly since 1981. Its history is continuous and uncontested since 1938, and its provenance is impeccable, while its mechanical and cosmetic condition are as excellent as one could possibly hope for in a car of such substance. Without argument, it truly remains one of the most stunning cars in the world today.
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1959 Ferrari 250 GT LWB California Spyder The 250 GT Pinin Farina Spyder Towards the end of 1957, when the Ferrari 250 GT Pinin Farina Cabriolet went into production, a prototype for another open-top car appeared, aimed squarely at the U.S. market. It was called the Ferrari 250 GT California Spyder and was thought by many aficionados to be one of the most beautiful cars ever to come out of Maranello – a view still held by many to this day. The California Spyder’s development was spurred on by the recognition that Stateside buyers wanted a fast, sparsely equipped convertible Ferrari sports car, the convertible counterpart of the Tour de France berlinettas. Whether it was Luigi Chinetti or John von Neumann who first pointed this out to Ferrari is immaterial. What is important, however, is that Ferrari responded with the California Spyder.
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These open cars were quite different in concept and execution to their PF Cabriolet counterparts. The Pinin Farina Cabriolet was based on the Pininfarina Coupe, a luxurious gran turismo. The California Spyder was a much sportier car, based on the dual-purpose berlinettas also designed by Pinin Farina, though built in small numbers in Modena by Carrozzeria Scaglietti, which was partly owned by Ferrari. The procedure was described by Ferrari in their official history and catalogue as a simple one: “Pinin Farina prepared the prototype, which was then sent to Maranello to be inspected by Enzo Ferrari. Although the final decision was naturally his, the dealers also had an important say in the matter and were often called in to give their opinions.” Scaglietti would then take over: “His job was to produce the set number of ‘reproductions’ of the model and to equip himself for the task on the basis of the systems in use at Maranello, which was far more ‘artisan’ in approach than those used by Pinin Farina.”
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Chassis No. 1489 GT Engine No. 1489 GT
One of only 50 built Delivered new to Prince Vittorio Emanuele di Savoia Matching numbers Multiple awards, including Platinum Award and Pebble Beach class win
California Spyder production began in 1958, and some 11 examples had been built by the time it was announced as a separate model in December 1958. All told, 14 California Spyders were built during 1958, with the remaining 36 cars built between 1959 and 1960, including at least three fitted with alloy bodies; they were constructed to full competition specifications. Certainly in the case of the 250 GT California Spyder, Ferrari’s two US distributors did have serious input in the design of the new car. Luigi Chinetti, who set up the first, and for a while the only, Ferrari dealership in the US, later had all the territory east of the Mississippi
River, which amounted to about half the country. Luigi Chinetti was also the founder of NART – the North American Racing Team, the racing arm of Chinetti’s distributorship. The other influential distributor was the Austrian-born John von Neumann, whose racing and dealership interests were based out of California. Both Chinetti and von Neumann recognized a gap in the market for a higher performance open-top car in America that was not filled by the luxurious 250 GT Cabriolet. It seemed obvious to base this car on the 250 GT Berlinetta (Tour de France), which lacked a convertible version.
Specifications:
240 bhp, 2,953 cc, overhead-camshaft alloy block and head V12 engine, with four-speed gearbox, independent front suspension via A-arms, coil springs and telescopic shocks, and rear suspension via live axle, semi-elliptic springs and hydraulic shocks, and four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 102.4"
Estimate: $2,500,000 – $3,250,000
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The Tour de France was originally known as the 250 GT Berlinetta. The Tour de France nickname was added after the car’s domination of the legendary and grueling ten-day French event, in which the car’s performance, reliability and durability made it a success. In the end, 14 California Spyders were built during 1958, with the remaining 36 cars built between 1959 and 1960, including at least seven fitted with alloy bodies, constructed to full competition specification. When the 250 GT SWB (short wheelbase) Berlinetta was launched, it was followed shortly thereafter by the corresponding SWB California Spyder, which was introduced at Geneva in March 1960. By the time production came to a close, a total of just 106 California Spyders had been built, 50 of them on the LWB chassis. One California Spyder was entered by NART at Sebring early in 1959 and driven by Richie Ginther and Howard Hively. It finished ninth overall (behind four Testarossas and four Porsche RSKs) and won the GT class. Le Mans in 1959 conclusively demonstrated the performance of the California Spyder as the NART-entered, alloy-bodied car driven by Bob Grossman and Fernand Tavano finished fifth overall.
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Chassis no. 1489 GT The original left-hand drive LWB California Spyder offered here, s/n 1489 GT, was completed by the factory on September 19th, 1959 as the 32nd of 50 examples that would ultimately be built and was delivered new to its first owner Prince Vittorio Emanuele di Savoia of Italy, resident in Geneva, Switzerland. Born in 1937, Vittorio Emanuele has led quite a colorful life and is the only son of the last King of Italy, Umberto II. He has lived most of his life outside Italy, primarily in Switzerland, following the referendum of 1946, whereby the Italian people voted in favor of a republic. He has worked in a variety of professions, from banker to aircraft salesman and was famously married to Swiss heiress and water skier Marina Ricolfi-Doria. By 1962, 1489 GT was offered for sale by German racing driver and car dealer Wolfgang Seidel in Dusseldorf. The car was owned by Dr. Hans Hardt of Waldernbach, Germany in the mid-1960s before it was exported to the United States in 1968.
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Mrs. Ellis Little of Greenfield, New Hampshire owned the car in 1970, and it has remained stateside ever since. It is known to have been in Philadelphia in 1980 at Mark Smith’s Old Philadelphia Motorcar Corp. before being restored two years later at Bob Smith Coachworks in Gainesville, Texas. At that time, it was converted to covered headlight specification and repainted black with a red stripe and red leather interior. In 1992 Smith showed the car during the 27th Annual Ferrari Club of America National Meeting in the Washington, DC area, where it placed First in Class Three. Collector Anthony W. Wang then showed the car at the exclusive
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Pebble Beach Concours d’Elegance later in the year, where it again placed first in its class (Class M – Ferrari Custom Coachwork through 1964). The car continued to participate in a number of events, including the Blackhawk Collection invitational at Danville, California and the third annual Colorado Grand in 1991. Anthony Wang sold the car to RM Classic Cars Inc. in May 1998. While in RM’s possession, the car attended the 1998 FCA National Meet in Toronto, Ontario, where it was involved in both the track day and the concours, at which it won a gold award.
In September of 1998, Richard Sirota, another noted collector from New York, acquired the car and brought it to the Cavallino Classic in Palm Beach the following year, where it won the coveted Platinum Award. In fact, Sirota also participated in the Colorado Grand in 1999. One year later it was sold to a very prominent collection in Japan and later shown in 2004 at The Quail – A Motorsports Gathering in Carmel Valley. Noted enthusiast Enrique Landa purchased the car in 2006, brought it back to The Quail the same year and, once again, participated in the Colorado Grand.
The current owner has enjoyed the car since the summer of 2008. It has fulfilled its objective in providing sunny afternoon drives, trips to concours and shows and is certain to fulfill those same for its new owner. Few cars are as perpetually desirable, timelessly gorgeous and rarely available as a Ferrari California Spyder. This is one of the finest examples we’ve ever offered.
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1971 Lamborghini Miura SV When the 1971 Geneva Auto Show opened, the vaunted Lamborghini Miura was five years old, and the SV, the final and best version, bowed. The chassis was stiffened, and in the coming months a split sump oil system would be introduced to separate the engine and gearbox fluids, to the benefit of both.
Most visibly, headlight “eyebrows” disappeared, the rear track was widened and the fenders flared. The rear suspension wishbones were extended 1.5 inches and moved to the top of the frame instead of beneath it. In addition, the rear tires grew from seven inches to nine inches wide, and the wider fenders covered them. With horsepower bumped to 385, the suspension changes also made the Miura more stable, and at 179.8 mph, it could claim to be the fastest production car in the world. Unfortunately, perhaps, the revolutionary Countach was also introduced at the Geneva show, so the Miura’s achievements were somewhat overshadowed. Nevertheless, anybody who bought a Miura SV then can rejoice in the decision today. It is not only very rare but also extremely valuable. There was – and still is – something of a glow over the Miura. It was such an emotional project, a vehicle of passion, so to speak. The three designers who brought it to life in 1966, Giampaolo Dallara, Paolo Stanzini and Bob Wallace, were all in
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Lot their 20s. Dallara and Stanzini were recent engineering graduates, while Wallace was an expert Maserati mechanic. They were also fans of Colin Chapman and his lightweight unitized bodies and fascinated by Eric Broadley’s Lola, which had evolved into the enormously successful Ford GT 40. What they brought to the mid-engined GT concept was an Italian sensibility and the ability to take something already small and make it even smaller and more sophisticated. For example, turning Giotto Bizzarini’s engine sideways in the frame created a complex problem: how to position the clutch and transmission behind the block in such tight quarters?
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The answer was to create a single casting directly anchored to the engine and an integral part of it. The chassis was aircraftquality construction, with two side-rail boxes connected to a broad central tunnel and boxed trapezoid arms stretching out to the suspension. Look at a diagram – it’s still mighty impressive. The last part of the puzzle was the body, and after dismissing Pininfarina because of its ties to Ferrari, Lamborghini hired Bertone and 25-year-old Marcello Gandini got the job. His sinuous design was both menacing and exciting, and both front and rear “clamshells” opened to illustrate just how brilliantly compact the whole design was. By the way,
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Chassis No. 4942 Engine No. 30668 production No. 661 Specifications:
385 hp, 3,929 cc DOHC transverse V12 engine, 4 Weber three-barrel carburetors, five-speed manual transaxle, independent front and rear suspension by coil springs and unequal length wishbones, four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase 98.4"
Estimate: $800,000 – $900,000
One of 150 Miura SVs (Spinto Veloce) built between 1971-73 Yellow, black leather interior, designed by Marcello Gandini 385 hp, 3,929 cc DOHC transverse V12 engine Superb photo documented restoration The world’s first “supercar”
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the Miura name came from a savage race of fighting bulls raised in Spain for the bullring by Don Eduardo Miura – the equivalent of rodeo stock contractors the Christensen Brothers in the US. The Lamborghini Miura was immediately THE supercar to have, and 465 P400s were sold between 1966 and ’69, many to the rich and famous. The first car was sent to the 1966 Monaco Grand Prix and planted in front of Monte Carlo’s Hotel de Paris the night before the race. Late at night, Ferruccio Lamborghini had to push through a crowd to start the orange car to show a friend, at which point the crowd multiplied ten-fold. When Bob Wallace drove GP legend Louis Chiron around the track before the race, the triumph was complete.
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A further 138 “S” models followed in 1969-71, with better brakes, stiffer frames and more efficient cooling (for the passengers). There were 148 “SVs” built between 1971 and ’73, although one was reportedly constructed for Canadian multi-millionaire Walter Wolf as late as 1975. Not bad for a car that was seen as a publicity project that might sell 50 units… Road & Track magazine road-tested a Miura “S” in April 1970, recording 168 mph and .85 g on the skid-pad, their highest number yet. They also couldn’t resist a chortle: “we were cruising along at a sedate 120, enjoying the scenery, when all of a sudden there was a Porsche 911S behind us, flashing its headlights and telling us to get out of the way. Normally, polite souls that we are, we’d
do just that. But not in the Miura S; instead we shifted down two gears and left the 140 mph Porsche a speck in the rear view mirror.” That brief example told the readers a lot about the Miura, and R&T also included the usual technical and performance statistics. Our subject car, #4942, was built on October 6th, 1971 and delivered new to German importer H. Hahn in yellow with a black leather interior. It is believed to have gone directly to Japan, where it was featured in the Japanese magazine Supercars’ tracking testing in 2004. While the number of owners in Japan is unknown, it’s clear #4942 was always a running car and not left to mummify in an air-conditioned mausoleum.
Sometime after the magazine article (in which, by the way, #4942 appears to be an incorrect pale yellow), the Miura was sold to a new owner who wanted it restored. The engine and gearbox were removed, and the yellow paint was stripped. The car was painted orange but covered with plastic before it had cured properly, and the finish was ruined. The restoration was halted at that point, and the car was sold to a Rancho Santa Fe collector “as is” in 2007. The car was found to be extremely sound, with a mostly original interior, black leather seats with blue inserts and a black vinyl dash. The paint was what might be described in England as a “curate’s egg” – very good in parts. When the body was stripped, the original color was found in the
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door jambs, and it is in that correct deep yellow that the car has been repainted. The trim was all there, though some had been removed and was in boxes, along with the engine and transmission. On the basis that nobody wants a partially restored 180 mph supercar, the Miura was stripped to its constituent parts and completely rebuilt. More than 400 photos documented the restoration, which took more than a year. The chassis was restored and found to be rust-free. The engine numbers are correct and original to the car, and the engine was rebuilt from the ground up, as was the ZF five-speed transmission and limited-slip differential, Girling ventilated disc brakes, and suspension. The electric system was replaced with new components. The interior was restored and has been upgraded to be full
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leather – not just the seats – which was an option when the car was new. The car sits on its original Campagnolo magnesium wheels, shod in Avon tires. The restoration of this car was performed to better-thannew standards and without regard to cost. The head restorer aimed for a 100-point car, but concedes it is a couple of original hardware pieces away from that, which would be worth tracking down. Nevertheless, the car won Best in Class at the 2009 The Quail: A Motorsports Gathering, a very competitive class and thus a superb result that speaks for itself. Since its restoration, this Lamborghini P400 SV Miura has been driven only 788 trouble-free kilometers. Many thousands lie ahead of it.
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1938 Delahaye 135MS Sports Cabriolet Coachwork by deVillars Delahaye Delahayes have always been remarkable automobiles, but Delahaye’s history began well before the dawn of the automobile with the establishment of M. Brethon’s machine shop in Tours in 1845. In the 1880s or ’90s, Emile Delahaye acquired Brethon’s operation and began experimenting with gasoline engines. He built his first automobile in 1895, and in 1896, he drove one of his automobiles to sixth place in the Paris-Marseilles-Paris race. They were interesting, quick, responsive and often astonishing to look at. Adventuresome in their engineering, these early Delahayes drew many comparisons to the better-known Benz automobiles. Emile had great reserves of ingenuity, however, not finances. This resulted in his selling of the company to the Desmarais family, who recognized Emile’s vision and continued to expand on it throughout the rest
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of the company’s history. In 1898, Delahaye took in two partners, Leon Desmarais and Georges Morane, and moved to a factory in Paris. To organize and manage the new operation, they hired Charles Weiffenbach. “Monsieur Charles” would remain at the helm of Delahaye through two World Wars and the next fifty-five years, guiding Delahaye after Emile Delahaye sold his interest in 1901. The post-World War I recession hit Delahaye hard, exacerbated by a glut of war surplus US trucks which decimated Delahaye’s truck market. It survived, aided by a marriage of convenience with Chenard et Walcker and F.A.R. Tractor, but as the Depression took hold a few years later, a change in its business plan was needed. Monsieur Charles – some say at the urging of Ettore Bugatti – initiated a drastic change in Delahaye’s product strategy to create a performance image.
Lot
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Chassis No. 60123 Engine No. 60123
The deVillars show car for 1938 Salon Gorgeous light deVillars coachwork with 160 hp chassis and outstanding performance Multiple awards including Best in Class at Pebble Beach
The Model 135 Launched at the 1935 Paris Salon, the Type 135 would prove to be Delahaye’s mainstay for the rest of its lifetime. Historian David Burgess-Wise describes it as “the keystone of the survival plan which Delahaye, one of France’s oldest car manufacturers, had drawn up to cope with the crisis-hit Thirties.” In fact, it survived into the Forties and Fifties. The 135 featured a new chassis, designed by engineer Jean-François, with welded box-section side members and pressed cross members welded to a ribbed floor. The engine
was a 3,557 cc OHV six, as used in the earlier Type 138, from which the transverse leaf spring independent front suspension was also carried over. The Type 135 was a delight with its spirited and lively chassis, independent front suspension, light steering, and normally fitted with a buttery-smooth Cotal electromagnetic gearbox. In racing form, the 135 series was a fierce competitor, taking the first six places at the 1936 Marseilles race, a second at Le Mans in 1937 (the 1936 race was cancelled), and first, second and fourth place at Le Mans in 1938.
Specifications:
160 hp, 3,557 cc inline overhead valve six-cylinder engine, Cotal electro-mechanical four-speed gearbox, independent front suspension with transverse leaf spring, live rear axle with quarter elliptic springs, and four-wheel assisted mechanically actuated Bendix drum brakes. Wheelbase: 114"
Estimate: $1,000,000 – $1,250,000
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In 1938, a new, top-of-the-line model of the Type 135 was introduced at the 1938 Paris Salon, the MS (Modifiee Speciale). Its power plant was a thoroughly updated version of the existing 3.5-liter six-cylinder engine. A larger cylinder head and bigger valves improved breathing, and horsepower was increased to 130 hp. With proper gearing and slippery coachwork, it could reach an incredible top speed of 110 mph. Fitted with triple carburetion, output rose again to an astonishing 160 bhp. Competent as the 135 may be, it is the coachwork that defines a Delahaye. The greatest artists of the time created some of their best work on Delahaye chassis; Figoni et Falaschi, Henri Chapron, Letourner et Marchand, Saoutchik, Guillore, Franay, and Graber were just a few whose art graced Delahayes. However, if one coachbuilding firm deserved special distinction, it would have to be deVillars – not by volume but rather by beauty.
deVillars Frank Jay Gould, an American expatriate and scion of the legendary Wall Street financier Jay Gould, had taken up residence in Nice, where he owned and operated the Palais de la Méditerranée, a grand hotel conceived and executed to cater to the financial and social elite of the time. At the same time, Gould recognized a need among his wealthy friends for repair and service of their automobiles, and a business that would evolve into deVillars as a coachbuilder was added to the firm’s repertoire. The company was named after a good friend Dorothy, ex-wife of Roland de Graffenreid deVillars and established in 1932 at 53-55 Boulevard de la MissionMarchand in Courbevoie. Built to have a capacity of 25 bodies per year, deVillars’ output never came close to that figure.
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Nonetheless, the firm’s clientele reflected Gould’s social connections, including Mme. Louis Arpels, Louis Breguet, Ali Khan, and Prince Gourielli, husband of Helena Rubenstein. The caliber of the firm’s work was also reflected in the chassis chosen to receive deVillars’ coachwork, including Rolls-Royce, Cadillac V16, Mercedes 500K, Bentley, Hispano-Suiza, and Delage, along with, of course, Delahaye. The firm’s work was highly regarded, with elegant lines, flowing curves and subtle shapes. Waiting at deVillars was a design originally penned for Duesenberg and later adapted for the Mercedes 500K. It was not until it was redrafted for the Delahaye that the beauty of this coachwork became apparent. Without the bulk of the Duesenberg or the Mercedes-Benz, the car, which had seemed imposing, was now svelte, the grace of its curves perfectly suited to the lower lines of the Delahaye.
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S/N 60123 A singularly beautiful design, s/n 60123 incorporated a flowing body envelope that was enhanced by a delightful body-side sweep. Its lack of running boards, accompanied by bright trim on the rocker panels and fender edges, gives the car its modern look. The raked “vee” windscreen and close-coupled two-passenger cabin results in a stunning and highly sporting appearance. It is important to note that while it is not difficult for a convertible to be made to look good with its top up, the reverse is much more difficult to accomplish. In the case of s/n 60123, this was accomplished with the disappearing top that neatly avoids the bulky top stack so often seen at the time. The inspiration for the design is said to have been the Alfa Romeo Flying Star, a landmark design executed by the house of Touring in Milano. The result exceeded expectations, and s/n 60123 took pride of place on the deVillars stand at the 1938 Salon, where it received international attention.
Another important advantage to the slim and elegant lines of s/n 60123 is that the result is one of the lightest bodies of its kind. Combined with the new 160 bhp chassis, the end product is a level of performance seldom, if ever, found outside the race track. Long thought lost, s/n 60123 was discovered by a French enthusiast in the 1970s, who elected to undertake a thorough restoration to the French standards of the day. The work was carried out by Andre LeCoq, one of France’s leading shops, and the restoration was recognized by a Best in Show award at Bagatelle. The vendor acquired the lovely Delahaye in 2000 and immediately commissioned a comprehensive restoration by highly respected Chicago area restorer Fran Roxas. The body was completely stripped and removed from the chassis which was then fully disassembled to the last nut and bolt.
a further testimonial to the quality of deVillars’ workmanship. The chassis was blasted and painted, and each component – springs, axles, shocks and steering mechanism – was repaired as needed and refinished. The drivetrain was fully rebuilt, including the engine and accessories. A specialist was engaged to rebuild the Cotal gearbox, with the result that it shifts beautifully. Few realize how strong these transmissions were – they were the choice of most French racing drivers at the time. The restoration was completed in 2003, and the results were magnificent, with invitations received from virtually every major concours d’elegance, including both Pebble Beach, where it won its class, and Amelia Island. Provenance, performance and appeal. Above all else, one thing about this 1938 Delahaye 135MS to which both the learned collector and the neophyte will agree – it is absolutely gorgeous.
Although the body proved remarkably solid, several minor repairs were made to both the structural woodwork and the sheet metal. Door fits were exceptional for the period,
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1967 Ferrari 275 GTB/4 Berlinetta Perhaps the most handsome street-going Ferrari ever built, the Ferrari 275 GTB coupe maintained an iconic family silhouette through its four-year production. But Enzo rang in changes thick and fast throughout the cycle, and the final 275 GTB/4 – for four cams – is the one to find. With 0-60 in 5.9 seconds, a 14.5-second quarter mile at 100 mph and top speed of 165 mph, performance is mind-boggling even by today’s standards. Designed by Pininfarina and built by Scaglietti, it was clear that fresh thinking was evident at the 275 GTB’s October 1964 introduction. Low and menacing, the new coupe was accompanied by a rather bland GTS Spyder, as if mother had forced it to take its sister to the dance. But both cars had independent suspension all round, with a de Dion rear axle, for the first time. The five-speed transmission had been shifted to the rear axle as well, resulting in 50-50 weight distribution. Although designed as a street car, the 275 GTB evoked the 250 GTO racing
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coupes, a point which was noted by a Car & Driver writer sitting in his host’s car late one evening after dinner: “You sit very low, wrapped in a round, firm bucket seat that reclines very sharply – arms and legs out straight, head cocked. The shift lever is close by, but on top of the driveline tunnel and unusually high. All of the controls are extremely light and positive, while the instruments are large, legible and well-placed. There is a very definite WWII fighter feeling...” And all this before he drove it. The writer’s enthusiasm wasn’t dampened on the road, and he found even when the car was driven hard, “winding it tight in all five gears, throwing it hard into corners, trying to disturb its composure,” the 275 always did as it was bidden and did it so well “that the driver’s gaffes were kept secret.” Other writers were equally complimentary, and 440 buyers plunked down $13,900 for a 275 GTB, when a Corvette Stingray cost $4,233.
Lot Formula One driver Jean-Pierre Beltoise took a 275 GTB/4 on a de-restricted French Autoroute in 1967, an experience recounted in the French magazine l’Auto-Journal. Beltoise covered 46 miles in 23 minutes – including stopping to pay tolls. He commented that the journey was “in complete safety and the greatest comfort, without once having to use the brakes hard and carrying on a normal conversation with my passenger.” Beltoise was even more complimentary in summation. “It is first and foremost a serious and comfortable gran turismo, but it retains the lineage of a race car, in the response of the engine and the quality of the handling. The 275 GTB/4 is one of the greatest automobiles created in our times,” he said. The 275 GTB might have been meant for the street, but lots of owners went racing. The
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factory offered aluminum bodies and then built 12 lightweight cars meant for the track. These had six Weber carburetors instead of three, dry sump engines, big fuel tanks and altered frames. Racing lessons transferred to the next variation of the 275 GTB when the nose was lengthened and the air intake diminished to reduce front-end lift at high speed. A single 25-gallon gas tank was replaced by two 12-gallon tanks and the rear window enlarged. Valve seals were installed to reduce the exhaust smoke that had been a hallmark of Ferrari V12s up to that point.
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Chassis No. 10387
The second series cars of 1966 united the engine and the rear-mounted transaxle through a rigid torque tube, which eliminated the vibrations that had plagued earlier cars. A handful of racing GTB/Cs were also built,
Specifications:
300 hp, 3,286 cc DOHC V12 engine, six Weber carburetors, five-speed manual transaxle, independent front and rear suspension by coil springs and wishbones, four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 94.5"
Estimate: $1,000,000 – $1,200,000
Superb, low mileage example with known history First four-cam, dry-sump V12 engine fitted to a Ferrari street car Designed by Pininfarina, built by Scaglietti 0-60 in 5.9 seconds; ¼ mile in 14.5 seconds at 100 mph; top speed 165 mph
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with thinner aluminum panels and plastic windows. One of them won its class at Le Mans in 1966 and was 8th overall.
was the 365 GTB/4 Daytona, and while it was powerful and purposeful, it lacks the grace of the earlier car and the instant frontal recognition.
That Fall, the 1966 Paris Auto Show saw all the improvements in place in the GTB/4, which also replaced the old SOHC heads with DOHC heads, such as had been part of F1 racing Ferraris since the early 1950s. The new GTB/4 had six Weber carburetors and a dry sump engine with a 17-quart capacity and a raised center section in the hood to accommodate the new motor. The GTB/4 would only be in production for 18 months with about 300 cars built, but as they say, the last examples of any model are always the best sorted.
The car offered here is 275 GTB/4 chassis no. 10387. It was built in September 1967 and delivered to its first owner, a Mr. Bertuzzi, in Italy in October of the same year. It made its way to the U.S. in the early 1970s and next appeared advertised in the New York Times on July 13th, 1975, described as red with a black leather interior, new paint, new engine and other extras.
The cancellation of the 275 GTB/4 has been hotly debated in the years since, and there’s no doubt the model hit a sweet spot in terms of size and performance. But in 1967, Ferrari was facing two threats to his market position, and they both came from America. The first issue was the upcoming 1968 emissions regulations, which were going to strangle his engines. And the second was Ford, still smarting from its failure to buy Ferrari and building the GT40. Clearly, Enzo needed a bigger weapon. The result
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The car disappeared from the market place for 14 years, apparently in the happy ownership of Michael Greenblat of Muttontown, New York, who finally advertised it in the Ferrari Market Letter, volume 14, number 4 in February 1989. It was described as a recent restoration, including engine, brakes, paint and chrome, showing 49,000 miles. In December 1989, #10387 was advertised again in the Ferrari Market Letter, volume 14, number 26 by Berlinetta Motorcars of Huntington Station, New York. The engine was described as rebuilt 7,000 miles ago by F&F Motorcars and the car as repainted two years ago
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and showing 50,500 miles. The reader may conclude this was on consignment, as the ad reappeared in January 1990. By March 1990, Michael Greenblat was again his own agent, advertising #10387 in volume 15, number 5 of the FML, as a 90-point plus show car, with recent lacquer paint, that was absolutely perfect mechanically. In December 1990, Carroll F. Cook, of KEA Classic Cars in Nanuet, New York, advertised #10387 in FML volume 15, number 26, noting recent paint and describing it as mechanically excellent. Ryuzo Kyoki next offered #10387 in the FML in February 1991 and again in March, also competing in the 27th Annual Ferrari Club of America National Meet and Concours at Tyson’s Corner/Summit Point, West Virginia and Washington, D.C. In May 1994, #10387 was shown at the Reading, Pennsylvania Ferrari Concours by Wayne Carini. The next
record of it is in Japan, where the car won First in Class Three on April 8th, 1995. By May 2006, #10387 was back in the US. Since 2006, its current owner has cared for and driven it sparingly. More recently, the current owner fitted new Borranis and tires all round. New carpets were also fitted to the interior, and he invested great effort to make sure that the perfect alignment of all panels was reached. Over 43 years, #10387 seems to have received consistent care and has been enjoyed by a couple of long-term owners. It has clearly been well maintained and is a relatively low-mileage example of a late 275 GTB/4, with the most desirable improvements. If you’ve read any of the late 1960s road tests and want to see what all the fuss was about, this could be your opportunity.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1911 Mercedes 38/70 hp Seven-Passenger Touring Samuel Pomeroy Colt, nephew of the famous arms manufacturer, was born in Paterson, New Jersey in 1852. Called “Pom” by family and friends, he became aide-decamp to Governor Henry Lippitt of Rhode Island and was given the honorary rank of “Colonel.” He founded the Industrial Trust Company, a commercial bank later part of
New England’s Fleet Bank that eventually merged into the Bank of America. A lawyer, he was appointed receiver of the National Rubber Company, reorganizing it and merging it with other companies he had acquired to form the United States Rubber Company, ancestor of today’s Uniroyal. Col. Colt also dabbled in politics, representing his home city of Bristol in the Rhode Island legislature. He was elected Rhode Island’s Attorney General in 1882 and ran unsuccessfully for Governor as a Republican in 1903. A progressive politician, he advocated for child labor laws and advanced the cause of property rights for women. While planning a European tour in 1911, Col. Colt ordered a new 38/70 hp Mercedes through the New York agency. A well-equipped chassis, it was fitted with a hill-holder, exhaust cutout, tools and instruments. It was then consigned to Parisian coachbuilder Vanvooren for installation of a seven-passenger touring body.
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Lot Carrosserie Vanvooren was founded in 1910 by Achille Vanvooren. Its fame would come years later, under the proprietorship of M-J Dasté and his partner Guillemet, at which time it was renamed Dasté & Vanvooren. The firm became a licensee for Weymann fabric bodies, and Dasté later patented his own flexible technique for body construction. After Dasté left to head Hispano-Suiza, Vanvooren became the de facto supplier of “house” bodies for that marque. Bodies were also supplied to Bugatti, Rolls-Royce and Bentley, notable among them the Corniche prototype designed by Georges Paulin in 1939. Bombing raids during World War II damaged the factory, and postwar revival was brief, comprising mainly Delahaye bodies from 1947 to 1950. The Colt family arrived in Paris in June 1912, accompanied by their chauffeur, J.
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Floyd Heustis. They took delivery of the car and completed the planned Grand Tour. The Mercedes was left behind in France when the family returned home, to be used on future visits. In 1914, Col. Colt returned to Europe, but his trip was cut short by the outbreak of war. The car was requisitioned by the French Army for staff use. After the war, it was returned to Vanvooren for refurbishment, then shipped to America for use at the Colt family residence in Rhode Island. Visit rmauctions.com to view all photos.
Col. Samuel Colt died in 1921, but the Mercedes remained with his family until 1937. Chauffeur Heustis drove it frequently in Bristol’s renowned Fourth of July parade, the oldest continuous independence celebration in the nation. That year, Ralph Kinder, a local florist, managed to buy it from the Colt family’s former secretary for $100. Kinder in turn sold it
Photography: Darin Schnabel
Chassis No. 13496 Engine No. 95319 Specifications:
38/70 hp, 9,852 cc inline T-head four-cylinder engine, four-speed manual transmission with double chain drive, solid front axle and live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, and two-wheel mechanical brakes on transmission jackshaft and rear axle. Wheelbase: 138.7"
Estimate: $500,000 – $600,000
Impeccable provenance with continuous history Ordered new by Col. Samuel Pomeroy Colt Massive Franco-Teutonic touring car Pebble Beach trophy winner with excellent documentation
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to Ralph Pewsey, a fellow car collector and early AAA racer. After Pewsey’s death, it was acquired by Webster Knight II. After Knight’s passing in 1967, it was purchased by Ohio collector B. Scott Isquick, and while in his possession, the car suffered the misfortune of a fire in the early 1970s, but Twinsburg, Ohio restorer Dale Adams ministered to it for some 12,000 hours to bring it back to original condition. The engine block had cracked but was repaired and baked with ivory vitreous enamel. In the process, it was bored out slightly, adding nearly an additional liter to its original 8,950 cc displacement. A retrofitted electric starter was removed at that time. A brass-bound varnished wood tool box from the left running board was reunited with the car after a four decade absence. The Mercedes then became part of the Otis Chandler collection in California, before being acquired by the late Mr. John O’Quinn at the Chandler auction in 2006.
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Without question one of the most outstanding aspects of this Mercedes is the simple fact that it remains one of the most powerful, mechanically impressive of all chain drive Brass Era Touring cars. The T-Head engine delivers over 70 horsepower, making it one of the largest motors of its time, not to mention rare, and in 1911 few cars could compare with the combination of power, speed and sophistication that this Mercedes would have offered. Col. Colt’s Mercedes remains outstanding in all aspects. The paint, wood and brass are all in excellent condition, and the buttoned black leather upholstery is nearly perfect. The wheels and whitewall tires are superb. The recipient of AACA Senior National First honors, the AACA Cup for an outstanding restoration of a pre-1921 vehicle, the Mayor’s Trophy at the Louis Vuitton Concours in New York City and the coveted Ansel Adams Trophy at the Pebble Beach Concours d’Elegance, this mighty Mercedes remains the perfect contestant for the world’s most prestigious shows.
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2007 Ferrari FXX Evoluzione Although he had many sports car building philosophies, Enzo Ferrari’s ultimate legacy is perhaps his simplest: for a machine to best reward its driver by providing tactile feedback and blistering performance on the open road, it must have a direct link to its racing heritage. Of course, Enzo Ferrari was hardly the first to suggest this notion of utilizing competition experience to develop road cars. He was quickly indoctrinated into the theory of consumer sports car production early on in his days racing Alfa Romeos through winding street courses linking tiny villages scattered throughout Italy and Europe. Yet it is arguable that Enzo’s car company remains the only automaker to produce in volume a genuine sports car that is so clearly inspired by competition on a closed course. Ferrari prides itself on applying what it learns on a race course to its products.
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The Enzo It was fitting, then, that the engineers at Ferrari chose Enzo himself as the namesake for their most ambitious and advanced project ever: a high-performance, 12-cylinder, mid-engined berlinetta so closely linked to the automaker’s success in Formula One racing that it could be called a competition car for the street. Wrapped in angular Pininfarina-penned bodywork aimed more at aerodynamics than impressing show-goers – although it manages to do that, too – the Ferrari Enzo boasts technology lifted directly from the company’s Formula One efforts. Building on four consecutive years of Formula One World Championships, Ferrari transitioned away from the approach it had taken with the GTO, F40 and F50 that came before it.
Lot Pininfarina was commissioned to create an angular, aerodynamic shape that would inspire future high performance Ferraris. The Enzo clearly departs from the flamboyance of the F50, the aero-inspired wedge profile of the F40 and the voluptuous curves of the GTO. It stands on its own, yet it is uniquely Ferrari and clearly linked to the latest Formula One race cars. Ferrari’s engineers sought to create a driving experience and interface inextricably connected to the Formula One cars then driven by Michael Schumacher. With a top speed of 350 km/h (217 mph), it was essential that the Enzo’s aerodynamics keep it properly planted to the road. Ferrari Gestione Sportiva, the automaker’s competition arm, sought a high degree of down-force that would still offer
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flexibility for the numerous driving conditions which production Enzos would encounter. Unlike a dedicated Formula One racecar, the Enzo would not come with a dedicated pit crew to help optimize the car for differing road conditions. Thus, the engineers created a series of active, mechanical spoilers that would automatically engage at certain speeds and work directly with the Enzo’s three-mode stability control system for maximum grip at all speeds.
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The Enzo’s 12-cylinder engine heralded a new generation of flagship powertrains for Ferraris. Ostensibly based on the architecture of the award-winning and highly-vaunted V8 that powers the Maserati Quattroporte, the V12 nonetheless proved its merit on its own.
Chassis No. ZFFHX62X000142163
Ferrari’s most exclusive, highest performance production car One of only 30 ever built In the care of the Risi Competizione racing team from new Evoluzione upgrades to 860 bhp
Specifications:
860 bhp, 6,262 cc twin overhead cam V12 engine, four valves per cylinder, Bosch Motronic ME 7 integrated digital electronic fuel injection, F1-type coiled sump lubrication, six-speed paddleshift F1-style transmission, four-wheel independent front and rear suspension with wishbones, coil springs, anti-roll bar and telescopic dampers, carbon ceramic brakes with anti-lock. Wheelbase: 104.3" Estimate: $1,800,000 – $2,400,000
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The cylinder head, with its pentroof-like combustion chamber and four valves per cylinder, is clearly derived from the company’s Formula One technologies. Meanwhile, the Enzo’s V12 uses a wraparound lubrication sump that incorporates the main bearings and a specific oil recovery circuit to increase lubrication efficiency. Bosch Motronic ME7 engine management helps produce an impressive 110 horsepower per liter from the 6.0-liter V12. For drivers, however, one of the most obvious Formula One connections is the car’s gearbox. The semi-automatic F1 transmission tells its drivers when to select gears thanks to LED lamps mounted on the steering wheel. Although some owners complained of “abrupt” shifting during “normal” driving, the transmission’s 150 millisecond gear changes earned it a solid reputation on the track. The blistering Enzo would prove the gateway into a much more advanced series of engineering projects. Fully living
up to Enzo’s mantra, the sports car named after him has spawned a handful of variations aimed at enhancing the automaker’s performance development credentials. The FXX Project Using the Enzo as its base, the FXX took the concept to another level. Just 30 were built, each kept under Ferrari’s close supervision and sold only to owners who would use them at select race tracks carefully selected by the automaker. Powered by an up-rated 6.3-liter variant of the V12 that powered the standard Enzo, the FXX was rated at 790 horsepower, and its upgraded aerodynamics package increased the top speed to 227 mph. To best take control of the power, the FXX utilized an even faster-shifting Formula One transmission aimed solely at closed course use.
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From Ferrari’s standpoint, the FXX’s most important technological innovation was its integrated data monitoring telemetry. While a “big brother” system of collecting performance information would hardly be acceptable for a street vehicle, the 30 FXX “test subjects” – including Michael Schumacher himself – were undoubtedly delighted to be included in Ferrari’s product development process. Nearly 40,000 kilometers of closed course use were logged during the FXX research period. Evoluzione Yet the FXX only proved a stepping stone to the most aggressive production Ferrari ever delivered to consumers: The FXX Evoluzione. Ferrari integrated everything it learned during the FXX project into the FXX Evoluzione. Never before was Ferrari’s street car development so integrated with its competition department. The second generation Evoluzione version is Ferrari’s most advanced GT car ever, built with an 860 horsepower V12, a sequential gearbox that can perform shifts in just 60 milliseconds and a curb weight of just over 2,500 pounds. The FXX Evoluzione goes from zero to 60 in 2.8 seconds – an extraordinary, virtually unbeatable time.
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Virtually no part of the FXX has been left untouched by the Evoluzione kit. Changes start in the engine bay, where the 6.3-liter V12 engine now develops a staggering 860 horsepower at 9500 rpm – 1000 rpm higher than before. Shifts are even faster at 60 milliseconds, versus 80 milliseconds for the old gearbox, and new gear ratios have been optimized for the new state of engine tune. A new traction-control system also has been developed, which offers the driver on-the-fly adjustment through nine different settings, all controlled via a switch on the center console. The system was designed to be more responsive to individual driving style, allowing the car to adapt to the driver rather than vice versa. Ferrari says another advantage to the redesigned traction control, when paired with new front suspension geometry, is decreased tire wear. The Brembo brakes and Composite Ceramic Material discs have also been redesigned to double pad life. The last big-ticket change is to the bodywork of the FXX. The Evoluzione kit adds a new rear diffuser and rear flaps, which increases aerodynamic efficiency by 25 percent as well as rear down-force – both good ideas on a car able to exceed 200 mph.
The FXX Evoluzione on offer The Evoluzione we have the pleasure of offering here has participated in only three Ferrari sanctioned and organized track events. It has had just one owner from new. At the last of these events at Mugello, the car suffered a minor off; the owner had already decided to upgrade the car to Evoluzione specifications at Ferrari’s Corse Clienti division after the event, and the car was sent to the factory for the upgrade. The Evoluzione kit effectively transformed the car into a stage 2 FXX with upgraded specs, including a major boost in horsepower. The car has been in the care of Risi Competizione, the famous Houston, Texas GT Racing team, for its entire life and has been stored at the race team’s workshop.
Included with the FXX are the Technical Documentation manual, two sets of wheels and the official FXX Programme container, which contains the fueling rig, data acquisition instrumentation, tools, electronic cables and other equipment necessary to run this very sophisticated racing car. The opportunity to acquire a Ferrari FXX is truly an opportunity unlikely to be repeated. The original 30 owners were all hand-picked by Ferrari and were each dedicated Ferrari clients and enthusiasts. Thus, changes in ownership are rare, much less at auction. This car offers the best of FXX ownership – Evoluzione upgrades, limited use and maintenance by the high-end, race-winning outfit of Risi Competizione. This is the ultimate mount for the weekend racer!
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1953 Ferrari 212 Inter Coupe Coachwork by Carrozzeria Vignale By 1951, Ferrari was sufficiently established to concentrate part of his production directly towards customers who would pay handsomely for an exclusive road-going car. He realized that with the prestige his Colombo V12-engined racing cars had achieved, he could sell very elite road cars, the sales of which would hopefully help underwrite Scuderia Ferrari’s racing activities.
The 212 Inter was the newest road model in the continual evolution of the marque at the time. Contemporary performance tests gave 0-60 mph times of nine seconds, en route to 100 mph in 22.5 seconds. Several 212 Inter and Export models proved successful in international competition, particularly in 1953 when Ferrari won the Tour of Sicily, the Coppa Inter Europa at Monza, the Tourist Trophy, the Tour de France and the Carrera Panamericana in Mexico. By this time, Ferrari’s most prolific body supplier was Carrozzeria Vignale. In 1953, a stunning new design on the 212 Inter chassis was debuted by the brilliant Turinese coachbuilder, later known as the “Geneva coupe.” This shape was both superbly proportioned and startling in its originality, including such jet-age styling elements as a low, rakish roofline and elegant tailfins. In 1947, the year in which Enzo Ferrari built the first car to bear his name, Carrozzeria Vignale won the second prize in a design competition held in conjunction with the Turin Auto Show and was soon receiving direct commissions from both Fiat and Lancia.
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Lot Enzo Ferrari and Alfredo Vignale shared a consuming passion for their work, each insisting upon final approval of even the most seemingly insignificant details. Although Touring of Milan bodied most early Ferrari road cars, by 1953 Vignale had essentially replaced them as the carrozzeria of choice. The precise reasons remain unproven today, but many observers believe that Touring designs had become safe and predictable, no longer able to win prizes at the high-profile international auto shows of the era. Enter Vignale and its star young designer Giovanni Michelotti. A master stylist, Michelotti later came to be regarded as the father of the trademark ovoid “egg crate”-type Ferrari grille. Alfredo Vignale turned out to be just the man to transform Michelotti’s inspired concepts into concrete designs. Together they gave
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Ferrari a more aggressive and distinctive look than either Touring or Ghia had. Alfredo Vignale liked to describe himself as an artist in metal. For him, each new Ferrari chassis was analogous to the sculptor’s block of marble, a new challenge to his ability to give concrete form to his flights of fancy, which he brought to life with a subtle blend of metal, glass and chrome. As such, there were no two Vignale Ferraris styled exactly alike, and the six Geneva coupes were no exception. One of the most attractive of the Geneva coupes, this is the last Ferrari 212 Inter bodied by Carrozzeria Vignale. It is one of very few with all-alloy construction and left-hand drive. It also has the factory three-carburetor setup, with horsepower equaling the sports racers of the era.
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Chassis No. 0289 EU engine No. 0289 EU Specifications:
165 bhp, 2,562 cc V12 engine, triple Weber dual-choke carburetors, independent front suspension with unequal-length wishbones with an anti-roll bar and transverse springs, rigid rear axle with parallel trailing arms and semi-elliptic leaf springs, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 102.4"
Estimate: $650,000 – $750,000
The last of six “Geneva Coupes” by Vignale Multiple Mille Miglia Storica entries
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Sold new to Alfred Momo in New York, it remained in the U.S. until 2002 when it was sold to an enthusiast in Japan. A small roster of American owners includes well known Ferrari collectors and authorities such as Richard Merritt and Steve Barney (who ran it in the Mille Miglia Storica in 1986 with co-pilot Gerald Roush). In 1991, the car was invited for display on the lawn at Pebble Beach with a group of historic racing cars and was often seen at the Monterey Historic races in subsequent years. The 212 became very well known on the West Coast, also participating in touring events such as the Colorado Grand and the Wine Country Classic. After treating the Ferrari to a comprehensive restoration, the previous Japanese owner ran the car in the Mille Miglia four times, each successfully with no mechanical problems whatsoever. A new grille was fabricated to accommodate a pair of flush-mounted, auxiliary driving
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lights. In addition, the front seats were replaced during the restoration, and the originals are available. In its current ownership, the car joined a sizable collection of some of the most desirable collector cars and was always properly maintained by professionals. Today this 212 remains in excellent overall condition, finished in classic Rosso Rubino with tan hides. Vignale may be considered the most glamorous of the early Ferrari coachbuilders, and the Geneva coupes are among the most handsome of the Vignale designs. This lovely example was built to the rarest, most desirable specifications, has proven event history and will certainly be welcome at virtually any classic motoring event in the world. Vignale history courtesy of Marcel Massini, taken from his book Ferrari by Vignale, published by Giorgio Nada Editore S.r.l.
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1965 Strale Daytona 6000GT Prototype (Iso Daytona) Giotto Bizzarrini, often referred to as “The Father of the Ferrari GTO,” was one of the engineers who left Ferrari during the infamous “Palace Revolt” of 1961. He first joined the ATS concern, later joining Renzo Rivolta’s Iso company, where he played a key role in the development of the Iso Rivolta GT production car. Iso also put in a strong showing in competition, not least of all at Le Mans, where the number one car finished fourteenth in 1964 and ninth in 1965. These Le Mans cars shared a similar mechanical specification to the road-going vehicles, particularly their basic chassis design and strong, powerful, American-built powertrains. The car offered here began its life as an Iso Rivolta GT “stradale.” After suffering an apparent crash early on, it was acquired by exotic car dealer Carlo Bernasconi of Milan, who commissioned a prototype for an Iso-based,
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dual purpose competition GT with the body shape to his own design, from master engineers and coachbuilders Neri & Bonacini of Modena (Nembo). Its mechanical specification is similar to the Le Mans Isos developed by Bizzarrini, but the lightweight alloy body takes its cues from the Ferrari GTOs and the landmark 250LM, with the addition of some delicate Iso-inspired detailing. The result was undeniably dramatic, beautiful yet purposeful. Originally known as the “Nembo II” (the first Nembo was a Ford-powered competition GT, with looks tied more closely to a Bizzarrini), it was conceived as a prototype for a series of production cars to be marketed as the “Strale Daytona 6000GT.” The new car made its public debut at the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, where it was greeted with great excitement by the national audience, and featured in the
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Chassis No. IR 330039
An Iso Rivolta-based period prototype A/k/a “Iso Daytona” or “Nembo II” Lightweight alloy construction by Neri & Bonacini of Modena (Nembo) Track-ready, fully sorted with numerous upgrades by Canepa Design FIA and FIVA documents included
Specifications:
490 hp, 327 cu. in. Chevrolet Corvette V8 engine, four Weber 48 DCO 2SP dual-choke carburetors, Borg-Warner T10 four-speed manual transmission, independent front suspension with unequal-length double wishbones and coil-over shock absorbers, de Dion rear axle with four-bar radius arms and Watts linkage, and Dunlop four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 96" Estimate: $550,000 – $750,000
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August, 1966 issue of Road & Track. The article mentions that Bernasconi was taking orders to be filled in three months at a cost of $9,500 US per copy, with advertised Chrysler 383 power for the production versions. Alas, it is believed that only two Daytonas were built, of which chassis 039 was the first. The Daytona remained in the personal collection of Bernasconi until 1991, when it suffered flood damage in Florence. Rescued by William Binnie from its long term storage, it required a full restoration, which was entrusted to renowned Italian racecar specialist Paul Lanzante in the UK from whom the car carries a photographic record detailing the enormity of the task. Ultimately rechristened the “Iso Daytona,� (the name by which it is known and titled today), the rebuilt car demonstrated its performance capabilities winning the 1997 Italian National Hill Climb Championship in the GT Prototype Class, followed by a seventh-place finish at the 6 Hours of Spa in 2000. The Daytona was sold in 2000 to its current owner, a west coast American collector and racer, who eventually had
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a second full restoration commissioned. Some attractive exterior detail modifications were made at this time, such as the addition of a functional hood scoop for cooling purposes and an outside fuel filler cap for safety and convenience on the track. Canepa Design was commissioned for extensive chassis work that included many suspension upgrades to perfect the handling (a Canepa specialty), which features reengineered geometry and corner-weighting. New 9-inch wide Campagnolo rear wheels were installed, running Good Year Blue Streak 600x15 tires. The suspension was lowered via newly fabricated and adjustable spring perches to provide a period-correct ride height. New rear trailing arms with relocated shock mounts, to accommodate the new wider rear wheels, were fabricated along with new roller-spline axles. Custom double-adjustable Koni shocks were designed to work with the new spring rates and lower ride height, while the rear suspension links and Watts link pick-up points were optimized for the new ride height. On the front suspension, the proper pre-load was set for all pivot points and keyed in.
The Chevrolet Corvette V8 engine was completely rebuilt by Ron Shaver, and a crossover Weber manifold with four 48 DCO 2SP Weber carburetors was added, pushing output to 490 hp. A new Borg-Warner T10 gearbox was installed, and the rear differential was rebuilt. Inside, the roll bar was redesigned and hidden, while new tan and black quilted leather upholstery was installed, along with additional gauges in an attractive binnacle, and the side windows were changed from sliding to a pull-up system, more typical of the period. The Daytona made its next debut at the Monterey Historic Races at Laguna Seca in 2004, where a notable fan of the car’s design, none other than Phil Hill, autographed a door panel. The engine has since been dyno-tuned, the Weber carburetors re-jetted and a full pre-race service performed and maintained to the present day. As a result, the Corvette V8 produces genuine 490 hp and 434 ft-lbs of torque. The car
has been track-tested on numerous events and is presented in race-ready condition, capable of besting competitionspecification Corvettes and 289 Cobras. In addition, the car comes with a complete second set of wheels and tires (FOB Washington state). A comprehensive document book containing period articles and restoration details and photos will be available for review at the auction site, as will its FIA paperwork and FIVA card, authenticating the identity of this strikingly interesting car. With its Iso, Bizzarrini and Nembo DNA (“nembo” means “up in the sky” in Italian, a common reference to “Superman”) this historic and unique dual-purpose GT, resplendent in Bizzarrini Rosso livery, is ready to continue its successful historic competition career or perhaps make an immensely satisfying and thrilling return to the road for any of the popular rally/tour events such as The Colorado Grand.
Photo Credit: Bob Dunsmore
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From the collection of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1928 Hispano-Suiza H6C Convertible Sedan Coachwork by Hibbard & Darrin As the name implies, Hispano-Suiza was a cosmopolitan marque, with Swiss and Spanish origins and a parallel manufacturing base in France. The Swiss engineer Marc Birkigt had designed the Barcelona-built Castro, which became the basis for the first Hispano-Suiza of 1904. Birkigt then embarked on a range of well-built T-head fours,
of which Spain’s King Alfonso XIII became enamored. By 1913, overhead cam engines were introduced, but with the outbreak of World War I, Hispano-Suiza turned to aircraft engines, under the direction of Birkigt with the hands-on engineering by Louis Massuger, who was also of Swiss descent. Rather than machining cylinders out of steel, as was the contemporary practice, Massuger and Birkigt developed a cast aluminum design with thin steel liners, which made the engine stiffer, lighter and easier to build. The initial design was a water-cooled V8 with shaft-driven overhead camshafts. This A8 engine was eventually built in France, Britain, Italy, the United States and Spain. After the war, however, Spanish automobile developments were overshadowed by those of a new factory in France, which had opened in 1911. Most significant of these was the H6 of 1919. Described by
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Lot British historian T.R. Nicholson as “the last word in advanced transport for the rich,” it was powered by an overhead cam six of 6.6 liters. Following from the proven aircraft practice, it was cast in aluminum with steel liners. A fixed-head design with two valves per cylinder, it featured a sevenmain-bearing crankshaft with full-pressure lubrication. A light, rigid chassis resulted in excellent performance, and servo-assisted brakes with finned aluminum drums assured quick stops. It was succeeded by the H6B in 1921.
The H6C, a more sporting model, arrived in 1924 and was built alongside the H6B. With a larger, 7.9-liter engine, it was capable of 110 mph. The prestige of Hispano-Suiza was not derived from performance alone. Much of its renown came from the bodies which graced its chassis, created by the likes of Franay, D’Ieteren, Proulx, Pourtout, Henry Binder and Labourdette. Characterized by individuality and elegance, they attracted celebrities, nobility and royalty, not to mention the wealthy bourgeoisie. Notable among these bespoke bodies were the creations of Hibbard & Darrin.
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Chassis No. M1120900 Engine No. 320104 Body No. 4150 1R Specifications:
160 bhp, 7,983 cc SOHC inline six-cylinder engine, three-speed manual transmission, solid front axle and live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, and four-wheel servo-assisted mechanical drum brakes. Wheelbase: 133.3"
Estimate: $350,000 – $450,000
Iconic cosmopolitan marque Distinctive body design by Howard Darrin Formerly of the Arturo Keller Collection
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Hibbard & Darrin resulted from the collaboration of two American designers, Thomas Hibbard, a founder of LeBaron, and Howard “Dutch” Darrin, an ingenious entrepreneur from New Jersey. Introduced by a friend, they immediately hit it off and ended up in Paris in 1923 selling Minervas. Sensing a market for luxury bodies on upscale chassis, their company, Hibbard & Darrin, arranged with Van den Plas in Brussels to build them. Subsequently, the construction was shifted to D’Ieteren Frères, but when business improved significantly, Hibbard & Darrin established their own shops on the periphery of Paris, while designing and selling cars from a prestigious location on the Champs-Elysées. By this time, the chassis included Mercedes-Benz, Packard, Stutz and HispanoSuiza as well as Minerva.
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This Hispano-Suiza H6C carries a distinctive body style designed by Darrin himself. Sometimes rendered as a dualcowl phaeton, its hallmark is a snug-fitting convertible top with an inverted triangle between the front and rear doors. This took the form of a flap of canvas from the top itself, rather than the metal post used by most convertible sedans, and had the virtue of being easily snapped upwards when an “open-side” configuration was desired, with side windows fully lowered. Purchased privately by the late Mr. John O’Quinn, the car had been in the esteemed collection of former Pebble Beach winners Arturo and Deborah Keller. Though an older restoration, this car has aged quite well. The paint retains a good shine, with only minor cracks at the front fenders
and shroud panel beneath the grille. All brightwork is in good condition, and the dark brown canvas convertible top is in excellent shape. The seats are upholstered in creamcolored leather. All interior wood trim is in excellent condition, and its contrast with the aluminum instrument panel is stunning. The chocolate brown carpets are nicely accented with cream piping.
Dual whitewall side-mount spares on chrome wire rims highlight the exterior, while the engine compartment is correctly and artistically detailed. The polished aluminum firewall acts as a virtual mirror to the impressive engine. This car represents the best in Continental motoring with a dash of New World inspiration in its coachwork.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1937 Studebaker “Extremeliner” Woodie Custom by POSIES Ken “POSIES” Fenical’s “Extremeliner” is an Art Deco, wedge-shaped woodie influenced by the mid-1930s Cord 810/812 and Lincoln Zephyr. Sporting a unique look and delicious proportions, it took the custom world by storm, winning countless awards and redefining the custom car movement’s direction. Every design element challenges the viewer, representing nothing short of a milestone custom. Fenical began with the headlights, grille and front fenders from a 1937 Studebaker, but after carving up those components and then adding countless freshly fabricated details, the result leaves virtually none of the longgone South Bend, Indiana marque’s heritage. Instead, this remarkable effort takes customizing into a realm previously reserved only for concept cars.
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Development of the “Extremeliner” began in 1994. The process took five years to complete. POSIES says he was influenced by Andre Dubonnet’s streamlined “Xenia” coupe of 1937, which was built in France on a Hispano-Suiza chassis. However, there are many Art Deco influences at play here as well, from cars as diverse as the Cord 810/812 and the Lincoln-Zephyr, as well as the Figoni et Falaschi-bodied Delages and Delahayes of the late 1930s. That said, this car is completely unique, exemplifying POSIES’ inimitable style. Thom Taylor, hot rodding’s premier artist, produced a series of detailed sketches that helped POSIES and his talented crew execute a creation that broke every mold and helped underscore just how sophisticated contemporary customs have become.
Lot A one-off tubular steel frame became the Extremeliner’s foundation. That curvaceous unibody, with its steel framework and 20-gauge steel panels, was entirely handmade at POSIES, along with the aluminum hood and fender skirts. The exterior panels were initially hand-fashioned of wood to make molds, which were then cast in fiberglass and painstakingly wood grained to simulate the real thing. All the exterior panels were blind-mounted from inside, and then the fasteners were covered with jute and bamboo interior materials. The carpeting is sisal, while the upholstery is tan leather with an ostrich graining. It is exotic, to be sure, but this car is fully usable and strikingly beautiful. Glaspro, of Santa Fe, California, fabricated the window glass. Incredibly, there is not a flat piece of glass, or for that matter a straight line, on the entire car. The editor of Street
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Rodder magazine, Brian Brennan, called the resulting car “a study in radiused curves.” Inside, there’s a three-bar steering wheel, a custom, multi-slotted and layered center console, VDO instruments, Teas Design seats, Vintage Air, a full-on Alpine/Kicker stereo system, and accoutrements that complement the deco feel. Other deco influences include the grille bars, decorative tri-bar wings on the steering wheel, hubcaps and fender skirts, the long, gracefully tapered skirts themselves and the winged bumpers. Hella lamps in front and custom taillights on winged stands help light the way. Famed Parisian coachbuilders Joseph Figoni and Ovidio Falaschi would recognize the intent of this custom, and we think they would approve. The running gear is totally state-of-the-art; the power plant is a ’94 Corvette 350-cu. in.
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Chassis No. SW108116PA Specifications:
400 bhp, 350 cu. in. Chevrolet LT-1 V8 engine, modified GM 700-R4 automatic transmission, custom tubular chassis, independent front suspension and live rear axle, four-wheel coil-over shocks, and hydraulic front disc, rear drum brakes. Wheelbase: 116"
Estimate: $175,000 – $250,000
Built by Ken “POSIES” Fenical A world-famous Art Deco-inspired custom creation 1994 Chevrolet Corvette LT-1 power, GM automatic
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LT-1 V8 with Edelbrock valve covers and an Edelbrock/BBK 58-mm throttle body and Corvette catalytic converters, fitted with a Deltrans 700-R4 automatic transmission. The independent front suspension features coil-over shocks and 11-inch disc brakes, while a Currie-modified Ford nine-inch rear end mounts drum brakes. A Mustang II rack and pinion steering unit provides control, while custom 17-inch front and 16-inch rear wheels mount BF Goodrich Comp T/A radial tires. The slanted radiator is a custom Walker unit. A fiberglass, designer engine cover is visible when the multi-layered hood is raised. The dramatic PPG paint finish, called “Luminescence Gold Razzleberry,” was a first when it was applied to the Extremeliner. The unusual shade complements this car’s marriage of light and dark wood graining, and its lightinduced changeability lends a sense of movement to this car, even when it is at rest. The Extremeliner’s exaggerated yet perfectly defined shape epitomizes the essence and timelessness of Art Deco design.
Although it started with a familiar silhouette, that of a long-roofed two-door station wagon, the visual presence of the finished Extremeliner has been stretched and curved into an artistic exaggeration of the wood-bodied genre. The extreme windshield rake, the sweep of the flowing fenders and door panels, the tapered lights and the repetitive horizontal wing theme work to intrigue the onlooker, then please the eye repeatedly as the viewer discovers more exquisite details. Extensively featured in virtually every rodding magazine and lauded and celebrated at the top custom car shows, the Extremeliner truly represents the high-water mark of the custom car scene during the 1990s. Its provenance and collectability today are unquestioned. Without doubt, Ken “POSIES” Fenical is one of the acknowledged masters of contemporary custom-car design and execution. The fortunate buyer of the Extremeliner will own a one-of-a-kind, award-winning car and one of POSIES’ finest creations.
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1966 Shelby 427 Cobra Shelby’s Big Block Cobras Although the 289 Cobra was well proven in competition, by the mid-sixties it was becoming clear that something was lacking. Every year, more power was needed to stay competitive, and Ford’s 289 had reached its reliability limit at around 380 or 390 hp. One of the Spark Plugs of the mighty 427 Cobra was racing driver Ken Miles, who had designed, built and raced many lightweight “specials” – one-off cars, usually with powerful engines. Miles thought the idea of a Cobra with an even bigger engine might work. If there was any doubt about the need, it was eliminated when the Shelby team arrived in Nassau for Speed Week in 1963 and were confronted with Chevrolet’s new Corvette Grand Sports, which were more than nine seconds a lap faster than the Cobras! Although Carroll Shelby had been promised a new aluminum block version of Ford’s 390 engine, internal resistance developed from the NASCAR faction inside Ford, and he was forced to make do with the cast iron 427. Although reliable at 500 hp, the engine was so much heavier that a complete redesign of the chassis was required to ensure that the car would handle properly. The result was a new chassis with bigger main frame tubes, five inches wider and with coil springs all around. With
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the help of Ford’s engineering department, the necessary work was done, and the 427 Cobra was introduced. Big Block Cobras were eligible for Production Competition in SCCA (Sports Car Club of America) Regional and National Racing. By 1964 the SCCA had evolved a method of selecting their national champions. The winner in each geographic division was pitted against all of the other winners for a final shoot-out at the end of each season. This was called ARRC or American Road Race of Champions. “427” powered Cobras raced in SCCA’s top class called “AP” (A-Production), and Shelby’s powerful snakes totally vanquished the opposition, mostly Big Block Corvettes, for several years beginning in 1964. Usually taking all three podium spots, drivers like Ed Lowther, Sam Feinstein and Hal Keck always figured prominently in the standings, but it was a young and quick Fresno, California driver named Dick Smith who impressed the media by winning three back-to-back A-Production ARRC’s (1965, 1966 and 1967) in his #7 427 Cobra. Shelby’s big block cars were never mass-produced – at least by Detroit standards as just over 300 were built, including 260 street cars, 23 full comp cars and 27 SC (semi-comp) Cobras.
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Chassis No. CSX 3265
Two owners from new “No stories” history with multiple awards Original Holman Moody 427 side-oiler producing well over 550 bhp Less than 11,000 miles from new
Specifications:
550+ bhp, Holman Moody prepared 427 cu. in. side oiler high riser V8 engine with dry sump lubrication, four-speed Ford “Top-Loader” transmission, four-wheel independent suspension and Girling disc brakes. Wheelbase: 90"
Estimate: $675,000 – $800,000
Early History of CSX 3265
CSX 3265 – Recent History (1985-2010)
The Cobra offered here was billed by Shelby to Downey Auto Center in Downey, California on October 19, 1966 with a cost of $6,145. In August 1967, Harold Everett bought #3265 through a Texas dealership and had it delivered to Wells, Nevada. Initially Everett raced the Cobra with minor modifications, including a roll bar, in local SCCA regionals along with a Formula Ford. (The performance contrast of his two racing machines boggles the mind!)
The current owner’s story of how he acquired this Cobra makes for interesting reading:
In the 1970s, Everett dismantled the car in preparation for a conversion to full blown A-Production racing specification. He had over the years acquired a Holman Moody side oiler, dry sump 427 engine, fully adjustable front and rear suspension systems, a 22 gallon ATL fuel cell and many other period OE Shelby racing parts. Sadly, Harold Everett succumbed to injuries suffered in a motorcycle accident before his Cobra project was completed. In July of 1983, Everett’s widow offered the car for sale: “1966 Cobra 427, original owner, 10,000 miles, disassembled, too much new to list.” The present and second owner managed to purchase CSX 3265 in 1985 and, following a lengthy restoration, has now enjoyed the car on Road and Track events and for Shelby American Automobile Club (SAAC) shows for the past quarter century.
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“All my life I’ve wanted a Cobra – well at least after I saw one in 1963 at age 10. By the time I was licensed to drive, Cobras had evolved into serious Big Block Beasts, but my wallet had not achieved as much muscle as the car, so an acquisition continued to elude me. My hopes were however revived when I heard rumors of a 427 now owned by the widow of a man who had bought it new in 1967. My friend Dean Gayton, an SCCA Chattanooga region official, knew the widow, and a visit to see the car was arranged. Following directions, I found the property where Harold had brought CSX 3265 home to “roost” – in a chicken coop! After my eyes adjusted, I helped to pull back the old tarp, revealing her magnificent curves, now in bare aluminum. The seats and original interior were still in place and in good condition, but the driver’s seat held an odd-shaped rather heavy container. Seems that Harold’s widow had honored his first love by placing an urn containing his ashes in the driver’s seat! Hmmmmmmm. I had found my Cobra and one I could afford to restore in a manner that would respect Harold Everett’s original vision.”
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A New Life for CSX 3265 The meticulous restoration process, which the second and present owner undertook, consumed some eighteen years and was finally completed in 2003 when he displayed our Cobra at the 28th Nashville, Tennessee SAAC Show. The best testimonial to the quality of the restoration and attendant upgrades is likely the unusual official results of that weekend – not only was CSX 3265 awarded 1st in the 427 Comp Cobra Class, but it also won Best Cobra Overall of the entire show! In order to create a true “dual purpose” Cobra – equally home on the road or proficient on open track days – many normal upgrades were incorporated. These include a total change to Grade 8 fasteners throughout as well as improvements to the suspension, brakes and fuel systems. (Please ask an RM Car Specialist to review the car’s files for a detailed list of the work.) The blue-printed, balanced and carefully assembled original Holman Moody 427 engine, now developing in excess of 550 bhp, deserves a mention. It is a dry sump 278
side-oiler with high riser of standard bore with Le Mans rods, Hank the Crank shaft, forged pistons, Comp Cams solid lifter cam and Harland-Sharp roller rockers. Oiling is by an OE 14 quart dry sump system with an oil cooler remote dual filter and is pre-oiled by an Accusump, hidden under the dash. The original high-rise heads (C4AE-6090F) are filled by a custom 850 CFM double pumper Holley carburetor. The original 4-speed top-loader is hooked to a Lakewood bell housing, Hayes comp clutch assembly and aluminum fly-wheel. As a low mileage example still showing less than 11,000 miles from new, CSX 3265 still retains its factory original body panels, most of the interior, all chrome, head and tail lamps, wiring harness, Serck radiator and cooling fans, transmission shifter and linkage, 3:31 rear end gear and even the soft top frame, top, wind wings, side curtains, tonneau cover and jack. Painted in the correct 1965 427 Cobra color of Lincoln Silver Mink, a purchase of CSX 3265 offers a lucky new caretaker an exciting entry to a diverse variety of collector car venues.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1936 Mercedes-Benz 540K Special Cabriolet The spiritual descendent of the legendary Mercedes-Benz SS/SSK, the 540K was introduced in October of 1936 as the successor to the remarkable 500K. With more than 180 hp available, they were advertised as the fastest regular production automobiles in the world. Highly advanced for the time, they also benefited from some of the most striking coachwork of the prewar era. No other automobile company has so consistently lead the field, literally from the very beginning of the industry. Credited with the first production automobile, no company has been in production longer. Steady improvements meant that by the first decade of the 20th century, Mercedes’ racecars were dominant worldwide. On the street, the massive cars had no equal for sheer elegance, power and speed. By 1922, a supercharged six-liter engine was married to a shortened wheelbase. The result was considered the fastest touring car of its day, producing an outstanding 160 horsepower with the supercharger engaged. The S-Series followed, soon developed into the SS and SSK models. More than any other, it was this series of supercharged six-cylinder cars that established Mercedes-Benz’s international reputation.
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In its fully developed form, the supercharged 7.1-liter engine of the SSK could reach a staggering 300 hp, powering its lightweight streamlined coachwork to an unheard-of 147 mph. The overwhelming performance of the SSK resulted in many victories for Mercedes-Benz, and perhaps the most important of these were Rudolf Caracciola’s wins at the 1931 Mille Miglia and German Grand Prix. By the late 1920s, the S, SS, and ultimately the SSK chassis were proving to be the engineering masterpieces of the time. Few today remember that it was the legendary Dr. Ferdinand Porsche who developed the dominant characteristic of the engines – their superchargers. Responsible for all engineering for Daimler from 1924 until 1929, he laid the foundation upon which the eightcylinder cars would be built. Following the merger between Daimler and Benz in 1926, a brilliant young engineer named Hans Nibel joined the company. He was named joint Chief Engineer, along with Dr. Porsche, before being named Technical Director of Daimler-Benz AG in 1929 after Dr. Porsche’s resignation.
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Chassis No. 130913
Complete with known history from new One of only 419 540K chassis built and a very rare Special Cabriolet example Supremely desirable and beautifully styled supercharged Mercedes-Benz
Specifications:
180 bhp, 5,401 cc overhead-valve, inline eight-cylinder engine with driver-activated and gear-driven supercharger, twin updraft pressurized carburetors, four-speed manual transmission, independent wishbone and coil-spring front suspension, independent swing-arm rear suspension, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 128"
Estimate: $1,100,000 – $1,300,000
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It was under Nibel’s direction that the eight-cylinder cars were designed. Although it is difficult today to guess at the motivation at the time, it seems fair to suggest that the SS had been successful not only on the track but in the coachbuilder’s galleries. The factory coachworks at Sindelfingen had already earned a reputation for top-quality workmanship – perhaps the best in Europe. Luxurious, well trimmed, and smartly designed, they were well suited to a top caliber chassis. Clearly, there was more money to be made in catering to the carriage trade, and that probably triggered the desire for a more refined chassis, albeit one that would preserve Mercedes-Benz’s reputation for engineering excellence. The first result, introduced in 1933, was the 380, a supercharged overhead-valve inline eight-cylinder engine. Power output was modest at 90 bhp naturally aspirated or 120 bhp with blower engaged, but its refinement and smoothness revealed its potential. With its attractive Sindelfingen-built coachwork, 157 chassis were built. Performance was acceptable, if not outstanding, particularly with the heavier and more-luxurious coachbuilding that customers demanded.
Advent of the 500K and 540K Recognizing the need for more power, in 1934 Mercedes-Benz introduced the 500K (“K” for Kompressor, which is German for supercharger). With power increased to 100 bhp or 160 bhp with the supercharger engaged, the cars were finally among the fastest grand touring cars of the time. Even though the 380 had been supercharged, the K designation and new external exhaust left no doubt about the car’s very special chassis. A total of 342 cars were built before the introduction of the 5.4-liter 540K in 1936. Although similar in many respects to the 500K, the new 540K offered even more power: 115 bhp naturally aspirated or an impressive 180 bhp with the blower engaged. A 12-inch increase in wheelbase to 128 inches improved ride quality and gave the master coachbuilders at Sindelfingen the freedom to create even longer and more elegant bodylines. According to Jan Melin in Supercharged Mercedes-Benz 8, just 419 540K chassis were built before production ended in 1940. Eleven cataloged body styles were created for the 540K and carried out by Sindelfingen, with each one a masterpiece of the coachbuilder’s art. The new longer wheelbase allowed the hood to be extended, and this, combined with the raked V-shaped radiator and external exhaust pipes, gave the car its undeniable visual presence. Long sweeping fenders, gently skirted, added to the visual impression of length, while chrome accents highlighted the lines and add a sparkling elegance.
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Chassis 130913 as pictured when new in Jan Melin’s authoritative book.
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Although Sindelfingen built a variety of Cabriolet bodies, designated “A” through “D,” a handful of special bodies were also built. The example offered here is one of the most striking of these. Chassis 130913 The original owner of s/n 130913, William A. Burden, took delivery in Paris, although Mercedes-Benz factory records indicate the car was shipped to New York. There are several possible explanations, but the most likely of these is that the car was ordered through the New York agency but then diverted to Paris at Burden’s request. Mr. Burden was the patriarch of an established and very wealthy East Coast family with the grandest homes in New York City and relationships to other established families, the Vanderbilts included. In a letter written in 1969 by Burden to the car’s second owner, Herbert Jaffe of Woodbury, New York, Burden relates that he “drove it abroad for several summers, then brought it to the United States.” He goes on to describe the other Mercedes-Benz models he had owned before buying the 540K, including a Model K, Model S, SS, SSK, and 770! Even more interesting is Burden’s explanation of the car’s striking styling. His intention was to “produce something that would give an effect similar to the racing Mercedes
of that period,” but as one can see from the car, the results were somewhat different. Nonetheless, the MercedesBenz is truly remarkable. With its skirted rear fenders and fully disappearing top, it is very sleek looking, while the car’s unique and graceful radiator shell and twin rear spares give the body a French-influenced European flair. The prior owner acquired the car from Roy Jaffe in 2005 before it joined a large private collection in 2007. Today, it continues to benefit from the comprehensive professional restoration that was commissioned by Mr. Jaffe and completed by LaVine Restorations of Nappanee, Indiana. Mechanically, the restoration included a comprehensive rebuild of the original Roots-type supercharger, and in addition, the chassis, suspension, steering and braking systems were restored with all parts either reconditioned or replaced. Particularly notable is the high quality of the paint, chrome and trim, and during restoration, the original coachwork was found to remain in remarkable condition. All bright trim was properly repaired, straightened as needed and triple plated. The interior trim and the convertible top were expertly tailored, using the original upholstery pieces as patterns. The result is an exquisite example of one of the most important of all Mercedes-Benz automobiles, the legendary 540K. More importantly, it stands as a singular example of the influence an important client could have on the design of a special car.
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From the estate of Mr. John M. O’Quinn
1933 Pierce-Arrow Twelve Convertible Sedan This stately 1933 Pierce-Arrow Twelve was reportedly sold new in Hollywood and purchased by famed screen star Carole Lombard, who tragically died in a 1942 TWA plane crash. In 1944, it was acquired by Mr. Richard Riggs, who moved to Portland, Orland, putting the car into longterm storage during which time it passed to his nephew, Mr. Samuel Merrell.
Noted enthusiast and Pierce-Arrow marque historian Mr. Pat Craig acquired the car from Mr. Merrell in 1998 and embarked upon a comprehensive professional restoration to the highest possible standards. As a noted PierceArrow authority, he determined that this LeBaron-bodied Convertible Sedan is the sole remaining example of its kind today. The prior owner acquired the Pierce in January 2004 and immediately furthered its overall mechanical fitness and driving experience. Cosmetic improvements included repairs to the finish in high-stress areas, correct mirrors were installed on the dual metal side-mount covers, and the rear-mounted trunk was freshened. The cowl, which had developed slight cracking, was also fully repaired, as were the hood panels, ensuring their overall proper fitment. Other cosmetic work included attention to the running boards and sill plates, which were returned to concours condition.
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Lot Mechanical work began with a thorough inspection followed by a major engine overhaul; the water jackets were removed, cleaned, polished and refitted with new gaskets, following a thorough rebuild of some of the engine’s interior components. New cylinder heads were installed, while most of the hoses, screws, brackets and rubber lines were replaced with correct replacement parts. The radiator was completely removed and refreshed, the wiper motors were fully rebuilt, and the carburetors were disassembled and fully rebuilt as well. The exhaust system was removed and repaired to like-new condition, as was the thermostat and all vacuum lines.
Though previously restored, the Pierce was elevated to even higher standards. Displayed at the 2005 Greenwich Concours d’Elegance, it won Best American Open Car, followed by similar results at Radnor Hunt and the Burn Prevention Concours. In early 2006, it joined the O’Quinn Collection, and without question, it remains one of the most impressive Pierce-Arrows in existence. Its striking interior is unmatched, and with its wonderful provenance, recent meticulous ownership, four registered owners from new and incredible rarity, it is simply one of the most important Pierce-Arrows in existence.
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Chassis No. 355091 Specifications:
175 bhp, 462 cu. in. L-head V12 engine with three-speed manual transmission, four-wheel leaf spring suspension, solid front axle, live rear axle and four-wheel drum brakes. Wheelbase: 139"
Estimate: $300,000 – $400,000
Originally owned by Hollywood actress Carole Lombard Formerly owned by noted Pierce-Arrow specialist Pat Craig The only known surviving example of its kind
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1938 Jaguar SS100 3.5 Roadster The Jaguar SS100 was one of the first cars to carry the Jaguar name, although at the time it was just a nameplate; it wouldn’t become the corporation’s umbrella brand name until after World War II. But more important, it was the car that elevated the parent company from relative obscurity – just one of many small volume British carmakers struggling in near anonymity – to a purveyor of some of the most stirring sports cars of the pre-WWII era. The SS100’s combination of rakish good looks and sports car responses made for instant popularity, and orders began piling up in the Coventry works. There was just one asterisk. Although the car’s performance credentials were impressive, there were those – Jaguar leaders William Lyons and Bill Heynes prominent among them – who thought a little more power would make the SS100’s pace measure up to its looks. As was true of Jaguar’s great post-WWII sports cars – the XK 120, 140, and 150 – the numerical portion of the alphanumeric name was supposed to indicate the car’s top speed potential. Thus, the SS100 should have been capable of 100 mph or more. But it wasn’t. 95 mph was tops, and its 0-to-60 mph times were merely adequate at about 12 to 14 seconds.
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Accordingly, Lyons, Heynes, and engineer Harry Weslake went back to work on the engine. When the redesign was complete, very little remained of the old Standard Six. The new cylinder bore was increased from 73 mm to 82 mm, and stroke was stretched from 106 mm to 110 mm, expanding displacement from 2,664 cc to 3,486. Valve diameters expanded, connecting rods were made from high-strength steel alloy, and the crankshaft turned in sturdier main bearings. Although the compression ratio was reduced from 7.6:1 to 7.2:1, and the engine’s peak output rpm diminished slightly, the gain in output was dramatic – 125 horsepower versus the 102 of the earlier engine (referred to as a 2.5-liter, although its displacement was actually higher). And of course, more power meant more speed. Allied with a new transmission, driveshaft, and differential, the 3.5-liter six was capable of propelling the 2,660 pound SS100 to 60 mph in just over 10 seconds – a contemporary road test by Autocar Magazine reported 10.4 seconds, very brisk for the day, and the car was finally capable of topping 100 mph. The new engine was also offered in SS sedans, but it was the sports car that was the company’s star. Unveiled at the 1937 London Auto Show, the 3.5-liter SS100 quickly demonstrated its upgraded performance in a variety of
Lot competitive venues, including Brooklands, the Alpine Trials, and the Welsh, RAC, and Monte Carlo Rallies. In all, 190 2.5 SS100s left the Coventry factory; 3.5-liter production reached 118 cars before the Coventry works was changed over to military work making aircraft components. There was also a handsome SS100 Coupe, created for the 1938 London Motor Show at Earls Court. It was one of the show’s stars but never went beyond prototype status. The SS100 offered here, chassis number 39058, was delivered new to J. Martin and was then imported to the United States in 1958, where it was sold in 1962 to Frank Logreco of Malibu, California. A restoration of the car was started in 1965; the car was stripped to bare metal but never completed, and the car sat in storage… and sat, and sat some more, until it was found and sold two years ago by the Logreco family to the current owner.
A true “barn find” example, this SS100 Jaguar has been completely untouched since 1965 and was virtually unseen until the current owner took it to a British car show at Woodley Park in California a few months ago. Known to the SS100 registry since its inception in 1971, this car also comes complete with a Jaguar Heritage Certificate that indicates that it has a matching-numbers chassis and body with a correct 3.5-liter engine. Amazingly, a set of new left-side fenders were procured during the 1960s (believed to be factory NOS), as well as a set of side curtains, and both accompany the sale (FOB, California).
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Chassis No.
Sporting a truly magnificent patina, it is a very nearly complete car and offers a rare and remarkable opportunity to purchase and undertake the first restoration of a true “time warp” original example. Recently featured in Thoroughbred and Classic Cars Magazine as a true barn find, this Jaguar warrants further inspection from not only Jaguar collectors but any collector car enthusiast, as it is quite possibly unique as the only non-restored SS100 Jaguar known.
39058 Body No. 4946 Specifications:
125 bhp, 3,486 cc overhead valve inline six-cylinder engine, twin SU carburetors, four-speed manual gearbox, independent front suspension with semi-elliptic leaf springs and friction shocks absorbers, live axle rear suspension with semi-elliptic leaf springs and friction shock absorbers, four-wheel mechanical drum brakes. Wheelbase: 104"
Estimate: $200,000 – $250,000
One of only 118 examples produced Untouched since 1965 – a true “barn find” example In the SS100 Registry since its inception in 1971 Complete with a Jaguar Heritage Certificate Matching numbers chassis and body
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1961 Mercedes-Benz 300 SL Roadster After a successful four-year production run, the MercedesBenz 300 SL Gullwing Coupe was retired in 1957. With a peerless racing pedigree to match its innovative design and top speeds approaching 150 mph at a time when most saloons struggled to break 100, it remains one of motoring’s undisputed icons and the stuff of legends.
For 1957, however, Mercedes introduced the 300 SL Roadster at Geneva, stating, “The 300 SL Roadster is our response to the demand in many countries for a particularly fast, comfortable, open sports car. This automobile offers a wide range of technical achievements for even greater driving safety and motoring comfort as well as a high standard of practical everyday value for touring in real style.” Perhaps Mercedes had understated the true sporting nature of the car, as it was based in no small part on the Gullwing that preceded it, bearing the same engine and mechanicals as its older brother. There were certain differences of course. Stylistic changes from the Gullwing included larger front fenders, revised headlamps, a smaller grille and a chrome strip running down each side of the car. Since the 300 SL Roadster lacked the strength and rigidity offered by the Gullwing’s roof, Mercedes engineers redesigned the car’s chassis to maintain its structural integrity, rendering it slightly heavier.
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Lot Additional power was gained by including a higher-performance camshaft and increasing the compression ratio, offsetting the weight penalty of the Roadster. While the aerodynamics of the Roadster were not as favorable as those of the Gullwing, it could still nudge 155 mph with the right gearing, and for many years, it remained one of the world’s fastest road cars. The Roadster additionally benefited from a redesigned rear suspension, utilizing an improved single-joint swing axle rear suspension with two coil springs and a third ‘compensation’ coil spring to reduce swinging movements. This redesign greatly improved the 300 SL’s handling, which formerly included a tendency to over-steer on high-speed corners.
This wonderful example from 1961 was purchased new in Newport, California and spent most of the intervening years in Coronado, California. Approximately 10 years ago, the current enthusiast-owner acquired it from Paul Russell in Boston, Massachusetts. Since it was already a beautifully running and driving car, the 300 SL was purchased with the intention to be driven and enjoyed first and then restored later. Accordingly, it was shipped to the new owner’s home in Florida, and soon after, it was serviced, had the belts and hoses changed, and was entered into the New England 1200 classic rally, as well as driven from Florida to New England and back – a total of 3,800 miles. It performed flawlessly. Next, the 300 SL was driven in the
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Chassis No. 9804210002869 Specifications:
250 bhp (SAE), 225 bhp (DIN), 2,996 cc SOHC inline six-cylinder engine with Bosch direct fuel-injection, four-speed manual gearbox, independent front suspension with upper and lower A-arms and coil springs, independent rear suspension with swing axles and coil springs, and four-wheel hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 94.5"
Estimate: $500,000 – $575,000
A beautifully maintained and well-sorted example Stunning, timeless design Benefiting from many upgrades and extensive documentation
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Florida 1000 classic rally, running through Northern Florida and Southern Georgia, again performing as it should and accumulating another 1,750 miles. Ageless Automotive of Deerfield Beach, Florida then performed a full cosmetic restoration. There, the body of the SL was completely stripped and refinished in factoryoriginal silver, while Ageless Upholstery reupholstered the interior in original colors with new blue upholstery and a new blue convertible top. The SL was sent to Hjeltness Restorations in Escondido, California, where Jerry Hjeltness, a noted 300 SL expert, installed one of his expertly engineered air-conditioning systems, with the beautiful installation including factory-appearing machined under-dash outlets and a condenser discreetly hidden beneath the driver’s side doorsill. Best of all, this neat installation can easily be reversed, should the new owner desire to return the car to its stock configuration. While the car was with Hjeltness, all the mechanical systems of the SL were completely gone through as well. In addition, a number of other thoughtful upgrades were made to improve the driving experience, including the
careful installation of insulation to shield the cockpit from engine and transmission heat, a new removable console to house a modern radio and a new wiring harness for enhanced electrical-system reliability. Fastidiously prepared, properly cared for and even used for enjoyable local driving in Florida in addition to its many long-distance tours, this great 300 SL Roadster was recently described by the current owner as a “lovely, lovely car.” In addition to its timeless style and peerless driving dynamics, it is also complete with an extensive file of paperwork, as well as maintenance, restoration and 300 SL Registry documents. An extra set of floor mats and interior carpeting as well as the original radio are included with the sale of the car as well. Every collection should have a 300 SL. Particularly in the roadster variant, they were – and remain today – brilliant sports cars, at once quick, agile and, above all, stunningly beautiful. Clearly the vendor’s proper care and thoughtful upgrades have resulted in a car that combines strong mechanical condition with lovely cosmetics and wonderful drivability.
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1953 Jaguar XK120M Fixed Head Coupe Created originally as a public relations effort to showcase Jaguar’s design efforts and all-new XK engine in a difficult postwar market, the XK120 was designed to be a handcrafted exotic limited to just 200 units. However, demand was so great after its 1948 release as a roadster that it was put into regular production. A dramatic fixed head coupe arrived in 1951 to complement the roadster; 2,680 were produced, all powered by Jaguar’s then-new high-performance six-cylinder twin cam motor. Numerous track and road victories attest to the XK120’s welldeserved reputation.
Painted in a striking gloss black over Magnolia hides, the 1954 Jaguar XK120 Fixed Head Coupe offered here is a multiple award-winning example of one of Jaguar’s most impressive vehicles. It has been recognized by Jaguar’s North American office and was displayed at the company’s headquarters in Irvine, California for two months in 2005. Featured in the program for the 2004 Cranbrook Concours d’Elegance in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, the Jaguar also won the coveted Judge’s Choice award at a 2003 marque gathering in Phoenix. It has also been used as an advertising car in vehicle detailing firm Zymol’s 2005 campaigns. In addition, the XK120 was the first Americanowned car to ever be featured on the cover of Jaguar Heritage Magazine. Brought to its current condition under the supervision of noted Jaguar expert Bill Richert, this XK120 was treated to a stunning in-depth restoration consisting of expertly laid acrylic paint and beautifully completed Connolly
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Lot leather. Underhood, the Jaguar’s engine bay has been finished to an especially high level, and it includes meticulously polished aluminum detailing. Lightly and tastefully modified by a highly knowledgeable and respected Jaguar enthusiast, this XK120 coupe represents its current owner’s vision of what would have been an early pre-production concept car had the coupe been unveiled alongside the roadster in 1948. As such, it features special one-off wheel covers, sculpted headlamps
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from a C-Type and license plate lamps from a D-Type, among other Jaguar-correct features. The result is a unique but incredibly subtle creation that could either dazzle Jaguar faithful or be returned to factory correct at the next owner’s demand. At once instantly recognizable yet painstakingly and uniquely detailed throughout, this XK120 Fixed Head Coupe is truly a one-of-a-kind masterpiece awaiting center stage in any collection.
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Chassis No. 680795 Engine No. FI00ICU Specifications:
180 hp, 3,442 cc twin overhead cam inline six-cylinder engine with four-speed manual transmission, front independent torsion bar suspension and semi-elliptic leaf springs in the rear, four-wheel drum brakes. Wheelbase: 102"
Estimate: $100,000 – $120,000
Breathtakingly restored Multiple awards Artistically and elegantly modified to reflect Jaguar’s heritage
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1937 Cord 812 “Sportsman” Convertible Coupe In 1929, E.L. Cord, who once controlled the Checker and Yellow cab companies, Duesenberg, Lycoming, Stinson Aircraft and American Airways among a portfolio of 156 companies, took Auburn to the next step with the introduction of the Cord Front Drive, now commonly known as the L29. With its distinctive, sporting appearance and great performance for its price, it provided the basis for a new medium-priced front-wheel drive car from Cord – the 810. Designed by Gordon Buehrig, this clean and unadorned coffin-nosed, retractable headlight design would create a standard by which cars are still judged today. Powered by a Lycoming-built V8 engine, it was a sensation at its November 1935 introduction at the New York Auto Show, so much so that Cord could not meet demand. The 1937 Cords, designated 812, were little changed cosmetically from the 1936 810 models, and only about 200 of these very attractive Convertible Coupes were built during the two year lifespan. Often referred to as the “Sportsman” even though that designation was never used by Cord, its aptness is apparent from the stylish and sporting look of the car, aided by its folding top that completely disappears under the rear deck panel. Benefiting from a concours-quality restoration that was completed in 2003, the 1937 Cord 812 Sportsman offered here received its Category 1 ACD certification on
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August 29th, 2003. A CCCA National First Prize (Primary Division) awarded in 2005 is a testament to the quality of the restoration, which is documented with pictures and receipts in a dossier that accompanies the car. Remaining in exceptional show-quality condition and with only 76,881 actual miles, this Cord is resplendent in its color combination of tan (with a hint of green), dark green leather interior and a lovely dashboard, steering wheel and carpets. Sporting a tan canvas top with dark green piping, this example also features an AM radio, fog lights, a clock, heater, stainless steel exhaust, and the proper BF Goodrich wide whitewall tires. Complete with the original serial number plate and a correct Cord replacement block, this car is reportedly in excellent running and driving condition. Designated as Full Classics by the CCCA, the 810/812 Cords are remarkably advanced cars to drive and fully capable of modern highway cruising at relaxed engine speeds. The example offered here combines the benefits of open air motoring and a concours-quality awardwinning restoration.
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Chassis No. 1231F
Less than 77,000 actual miles CCCA National First Prize Winner – Primary Division – 2005 One of approximately 200 “Sportsman” Convertible Coupes built Concours quality restoration completed in 2003 Finished in attractive colors and complete with the original serial number plate
Specifications:
125 hp, 288.6 cu. in. Lycoming L-head V8 engine, Stromberg dual-downdraft carburetor, four-speed manual transmission, front-wheel drive, independent front suspension with dual trailing box-section swing arms and transverse leaf spring, tubular steel rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 125"
Estimate: $200,000 – $250,000
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Chassis No.
1969 Mercedes Benz 280SL Roadster
11304412011319 Specifications:
180 bhp, 2,778 cc single overhead camshaft inline six-cylinder engine, Bosch fuel injection, four-speed automatic transmission, independent front suspension with coil springs and anti-roll bar, rear suspension by single low-pivot swing axles with trailing arms and coil springs, four-wheel vacuum-assisted hydraulic disc brakes. Wheelbase: 94.5"
Estimate: $45,000 – $55,000
The Paul Bracq-designed Mercedes Benz 113 series succeeded both the 190SL and the 300SL and made its public debut at the 1963 Geneva Auto Show. The first model, the 230SL, was a comfortable, well-equipped and compact two-seat sports touring machine that provided better performance than the 190SL. Instantly recognizable by virtue of their unique and strong detachable hardtop design, the cars were colloquially known as “pagodas.” A very successful design, the 113 series remained in production for nine years with nearly 49,000 examples built, and it remains a favorite among today’s collectors. Without a doubt, the most desirable and drivable model of the series is the 280SL, with its robust 180-horsepower single overhead camshaft six-cylinder engine. Purchased at Mercedes Benz of Hollywood on Sunset Blvd. in November 1968, this 280SL roadster has remained in California its entire life and carries with it records all the way back to the original owner.
Offered Without Reserve
A California car with known ownership from new Recent and thorough mechanical service Equipped with both the hard and soft top
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Finished in Signal Red with a tan leather interior and a matching tan canvas convertible top, this example also comes equipped with its matching red Pagoda hard top. Featuring an automatic transmission, Bosch fuel injection, and power steering and brakes, it has a period correct Becker radio and the original Mercedes gas cap, keys and tool kit. Purchased by the current owners in San Jose in 1990, it was used as a family car and enjoyed for a few years on the occasional weekend drive. It was put into dry storage a few years later and stayed there until 2009 when it was taken out and received several mechanical updates, including rebuilding of the fuel injection pump, fuel injectors, and fuel supply pump by Bosch of San Francisco. Additionally, the starter and the injection pump thermostat were rebuilt, and a new transmission filter kit was installed. All fluids, gaskets, seals and spark plugs were replaced along with the rear suspension trailing arm bushings. It also received a complete chassis lubrication, and the car was fitted with period Phoenix 14-inch tires with a ¾-inch whitewall. Showing 129,000 original miles, this pristine classic has an immaculate undercarriage and a fully detailed engine compartment and, given its age, remains an excellent overall example that would be ideal for a nice leisurely drive down the PCH.
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Chassis No. E57S102794 Specifications:
1957 Chevrolet Corvette Fuel-Injected Roadster Although the Corvette remained virtually identical in appearance to the prior model, the big news for 1957 came in the form of the enlarged 283-cubic inch small block V8 engine, destined to become a performance icon. The highest specification benefited from a Rochester mechanical fuel injection unit, a compression increase and a highlift mechanical camshaft, good for 283 horsepower. As a result, the 1957 Corvette famously became the first American production car to develop one horsepower per cubic inch of displacement. Just 1,040 Corvettes were equipped with the “fuelie” option for 1957, and they were capable of acceleration from zero to 60 mph in just under six seconds, en route to top speeds exceeding 130 mph. This 1957 Chevrolet Corvette Fuel-Injected Roadster is finished in white with silver coves and a red interior and features the extremely rare and desirable highperformance 283 bhp V8 engine that is equipped with Rochester fuel-injection. It currently comes equipped with a four-speed manual transmission for driving pleasure, however, the original three-speed used for
NCRS judging still accompanies the car, as do all the restoration records and receipts from its body-off restoration in the early 1990s. In the same ownership for the past seven years, the current owner reports that he has replaced the top, interior, radiator, windshield rubber, tires, and trunk mats and that the car remains in excellent running and driving condition. Receiving a top score of 99.2, this example is the recipient of multiple NCRS “Top Flight” awards including one at the NCRS Nationals meet last year as well as multiple “Best in Class” and “First Place Awards” at other concours and car shows. The paint and brightwork remain in exceptional condition. All in all, this is a very well presented example with the added benefit of rarity and the desirability of fuel injection.
283 bhp, 283 cu. in. V8 engine with Rochester mechanical fuel injection, four-speed manual transmission, independent front suspension with unequal-length A-arms and coil springs, live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 102"
Estimate: $90,000 – $120,000
Offered Without Reserve
One of just 1,040 fuel-injected examples built One of only 713 with the high-performance 283 bhp/283 cu. in. V8 Recipient of multiple NCRS “Top Flight” awards
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Chassis No. 121 040 85 01571 Specifications:
120 bhp, 1,897 cc inline four-cylinder engine with single overhead camshaft, dual Solex carburetors, four-speed manual transmission, independent front suspension with coil springs, swing axle rear suspension with coil springs, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 94.5"
Estimate: $60,000 – $70,000
1958 Mercedes-Benz 190 SL Roadster The Mercedes-Benz 190 SL was introduced at the 1954 New York Auto Show and generated rave reviews. Just 25,881 cars were built from 1955 through 1963. In 1955, Road & Track described the 190 SL as a classic sports touring machine that appeared to be going 60 mph while still sitting in your driveway. This 1958 190 SL Roadster was carefully restored as originally delivered in a fouryear process that was completed in May 2010. Bodywork included the removal and repair of all rusted body panels, followed by replacement of the original Glasurit Daimler Silver Grey paint with an identically matched PPG two-phase Metallic Silver finish. The car’s underside was refinished in an original 169 Grey. Atlanta’s R. Rabon furnished the red leather interior upholstery, as well as the new carpeting and convertible top,
Offered Without Reserve
Four-year restoration by marque specialists to original specifications Sale includes optional and desirable hardtop Approximately 100 miles since restoration
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while Superior Chrome of Houston, Texas restored the grille, bumpers and brightwork. North Hollywood Speedometer restored all instruments, including the clock. Mechanically, the 190 SL’s original engine is cradled within a tidy engine bay. It is well sorted with excellent compression noted in all cylinders during testing. The Solex carburetors were rebuilt by Will Samples of S & S Imports in Dallas, Texas. Helmut Holder of Houston, Texas installed new brakes and a rebuilt brake booster, as well as performing a rebuild of the rear end assembly. Other details include the application of original-specification yellow zinc coating to the fuel lines and associated fittings, while the 190 SL’s sub-frame, bug screen and bumper rails have been powdercoated in semi-gloss black. The hard top, which is painted but not restored, will also be made available to the purchaser for the cost of packing and shipment. Beautifully restored and presented with only about 100 miles since restoration, this 190 SL example is outstanding in every respect with classic Mercedes-Benz styling and a thorough restoration by marque specialists.
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Chassis No. 877784 Engine No. R6785-9
1963 Jaguar E-Type Series I Roadster Launched in March 1961, the Jaguar E-Type caused every bit the commotion as its predecessor, the XK120, in the late-1940s. The reason was simple. A sexy, sumptuous body backed by a proven XK engine and mechanicals – all for just $5,500. The new E-Type shared many styling and technical details with the Le Mans-winning mid-1950s D-Type racer while offering long-distance comfort for two, a lively and tractable engine, modern creature comforts and reasonable, if limited, luggage space. Both coupe and roadster body styles were available with styling courtesy of aerodynamicist Malcolm Sayer under the watchful guise of Sir William Lyons. A fullyindependent front and rear suspension (via double wishbones with front torsion bars and rear coil springs) and chassis-mounted differential were also firsts for a production Jaguar. Considered the most desirable among collectors, this Series I Jaguar offers a fourspeed manual Moss gearbox, the requisite toggle switches on the dash and distinctive covered headlights. In addition, this car has been updated with late-Series I comfortable bucket seats, center console and armrest.
Marque specialist Classic Showcase completed a restoration of this beautiful example several years ago, including bodywork, proper fit, and paint color-sanding and buffing. The engine, transmission, suspension and many systems were rebuilt or restored as needed. Brightwork, upholstery, rubber seals and a new convertible top were installed. The car features its original engine, and the body is painted a spectacular combination of Opalescent Silver Gray with black top and interior. Five chrome wire wheels are included. Updates and services have been recently performed so that its new owner is certain to enjoy campaigning and touring this highly collectible Series I E-Type.
gearbox No. EB6050JS Specifications:
265 hp, 3,781 cc (230.6 cid) inline DOHC six-cylinder engine, four-speed manual transmission, four-wheel independent suspension, Dunlop four-wheel disc brakes. Wheelbase: 96"
Estimate: $115,000 – $130,000
Desirable Series I E-Type with covered headlights Original matching numbers engine Originally restored and recently serviced by marque specialist Classic Showcase
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Chassis No. 13335600 Specifications:
141 bhp, 320 cu. in. inline eight-cylinder engine, three-speed sliding gear manual transmission, independent front suspension with unequal-length A-arms and coil springs, semi-floating rear axle with coil springs, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 126"
Estimate: $120,000 – $160,000
1938 Buick Century Estate Wagon
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In 1938, Buick offered a diverse model line including the Series 40 Special, Series 60 Century, Series 80 Roadmaster and the Series 90 Limited. Examples like the handsome Buick Estate Wagon offered here, while certainly very attractive and functional, were never made in large quantities. Consequently, a wonderfully restored original example such as this is one of only a handful in existence today. Showing only 48,000 miles on the odometer, which are believed to be original, its distinctive body was custom-built by the Joseph Wildanger Company of Red Bank, New Jersey using a steel Fisher body, combined with the very elegant and refined wooden coachwork seen here, to produce one of the most attractive limited production Buicks of the 1930s.
Believed to be a 48,000 original mile example Limited production, custom-built by the Joseph Wildanger Company Formerly part of the Richard and Linda Kughn Collection
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Noted collectors Fred and David Weber were responsible for the Buick’s complete and beautiful restoration before it formed part of the highly respected Carail Collection of Richard and Linda Kughn until 2003. Since then, the car has been given a mechanical service and was always carefully stored and used sparingly. Very attractive brightwork, wide whitewall tires and brown leather bench seats complement the rich maroon exterior finish and beautifully finished wooden bodywork. The car continues to present very well and remains in excellent condition. One particularly interesting feature on this car are the roll-up windows at the rear – a feature rarely seen on woodies of the era. This 1938 Buick Century Estate Wagon is a very handsome example that is perfect for enthusiasts who appreciate the distinctive wood-bodied motor cars of the prewar era. It combines the stylish good looks and robust mechanicals of a Buick Century with beautiful period construction by a skilled and highly professional wooden coachwork specialist.
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Chassis No. MAW3L723140
1959 Morris Minor Traveller Station Wagon The Nuffield Organisation, which built Morris cars, was one of Britain’s leading car manufacturers following the end of the Second World War. While production of the prewar Eight and Ten continued, the allnew Minor and Oxford were introduced in late 1948. A low-priced car offering many features of higher-priced automobiles, the Minor was the English counterpart to the VW Beetle, with over 1.5 million examples built by the time production ceased in 1971. The Minor was designed by British automotive legend Alec Issigonis, who went on to enduring fame for his innovative Mini. With rack-and-pinion steering and an independent front suspension with torsion bars, the Minor quickly gained acclaim for its precise handling and excellent driving dynamics, which belied its “economy” market position.
overall package as “one of the best buys in the growing small car field…as easy and delightful to drive as it is economical to operate and maintain.” The Traveller Estate Wagon model, with its unique varnished Ash external framing and practical side-hinged rear doors, joined the Minor range in 1954. This lefthand drive example from 1959 is offered from a prominent California-based private collection and benefits from proper care and storage, as well as the occasional drive. The red exterior finish and wooden rear-body framing are perfectly complemented by the interior’s tan upholstery and carpeting, while the dash has been fitted with a modern stereo unit. Chic and cheeky, this Traveller is indeed a great example of the immensely successful Minor.
Specifications:
37 bhp, 948 cc BMC A-Series four-cylinder engine with overhead valves, four-speed manual gearbox, independent front suspension with wishbones and torsion bars, live rear axle with long semi-elliptic leaf springs, and Lockheed four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 86"
Estimate: $30,000 – $40,000
Offered Without Reserve
The Minor was refined and improved over its lengthy production cycle and continued to impress the motoring press, with Auto Sport Review describing it as “one of the easiesthandling, best-cornering, most convenient small cars on the market.” In 1956, Motor Trend described the Minor’s engine as a “happy sounding little buzz bomb” and the
Landmark Alec Issigonis design heritage Offered from a prominent California-based collection Cheeky and chic, with enduring appeal Sophisticated design, simple to maintain and operate
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Chassis No. ghnl2101755 Specifications:
93 bhp, 1,622 cc overhead valve inline four-cylinder engine, four-speed manual transmission, front-wheel disc brakes and rear-wheel drum brakes. Wheelbase: 85"
Estimate: $35,000 – $45,000
1962 MGA Mark II 1600 Roadster The MGA Mark II was the last of the MGA series. Assembly started April of 1961 and ceased June of 1962 with a total production of 8,719 units in both roadster and fixed head coupe configuration. Visually, the Mk II was distinguishable from previous MGA models by various body detail changes. The vertical bars in the front grille assembly were recessed at the bottom, adding much depth to the grille, and a new taillight cluster, borrowed from the Mini, was fitted to comply with new lighting regulations. However, the most noteworthy change was the installation of BMC’s 1,622 cc inline four-cylinder engine. This cast in block engine offered an increase in horsepower of 13 percent over previous MGA models, as well as a 12 percent gain in torque. All this was achieved by a displacement increase of only 34 cubic centimeters.
Offered Without Reserve
Fully restored Maintained in excellent condition Low mileage since restoration
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The beautiful Iris blue Mk II roadster presented here, with a blue interior and white piping, was the recipient of a three-year frame-off, fully documented restoration performed by a marque specialist to exacting standards. The frame and all suspension components were powder-coated and reassembled with grade-eight NOS hardware. The engine and transmission were professionally rebuilt to superb standards while virtually every mechanical system on the car was replaced. The MGA’s restoration was completed a short time before its sale to the current owner in 2006. At that time, the car had only logged break-in miles. Following the acquisition of the car, the owner has maintained the car’s exceptional condition and has only driven it about 700 to 800 miles in the best of weather. It even placed second overall in an all-MGA show. This car represents one of the most desired and sought after MGA models, as it was one of the last cars made in 1962. It is ready for street use, collection display and all around fun and enjoyment.
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Chassis No. K111L11361
1970 Subaru 360 Police Car The first serious attempt at automobile production by Japan’s Fuji Heavy Industries, the Subaru 360 was aimed at entry-level buyers. Designed to conform to the “kei car” formula, which grants concessions and exemptions to very small vehicles, the 360 was, at its introduction, among the smallest cars in the world. While ideal for the Japanese market, the concept proved unpopular elsewhere in the world, where larger cars are the norm. Entrepreneur Malcolm Bricklin, later renowned for his ill-fated gull-wing automobile, acquired the United States franchise and ordered about 10,000 cars. Despite an exemption from many regulations because of the car’s light weight, the venture proved unsuccessful with the cars being virtually unsalable and thus very rare in today’s market. A rapid course correction with larger cars and a different importer helped Subaru capture the generous share of the import market it enjoys today. Restored in 1979, 1989 and 1995 by its second owner, and in 1999 by the third, this Subaru 360 is outfitted as a New Zealand police car. Painted in the archetypal blackand-white pattern, it has a multi-color police light bar on the roof, siren, front bumper push
Specifications:
25 bhp, 356 cc two-stroke inline twin-cylinder engine, four-speed manual transmission, torsion bar independent front and rear suspension, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 70.9"
bar and New Zealand police decals on the doors. It is fitted with a two-way radio and comes complete with a lock-up rack for a rifle on the dashboard and two “bobby” police hats. A folder of pertinent records is included in the sale. Equipped with a new battery in April 2010, it runs and drives well with an odometer reading of slightly less than 7,500. Almost certainly the only New Zealand police Subaru in the United States, this car is guaranteed to turn heads wherever it goes.
Estimate: $15,000 – $20,000
Subaru’s first U.S. import New Zealand police equipment Head-turning automobile
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Buyer information BIDDER REGISTRATION Clients interested in purchasing a particular lot at auction are required to register to bid in order to participate. RM Auctions offers a variety of different bidding methods for maximum client convenience and discretion. We strongly encourage clients considering bidding on a particular lot to contact one of our knowledgeable auction specialists in advance of the sale. Our specialists can answer any outstanding questions and provide a detailed condition report, arming clients with the necessary information to bid knowledgeably and confidently. Advance Bidder Registration RM Auctions provides advance bidder registration for clients who plan to attend and wish to avoid onsite lines. To take advantage of advance bidder registration for this sale, download the advance bidder registration form on our website (www.rmauctions.com) and fax it to +1-310-861-0874. $200US – Includes an official auction catalog and admission for two to the previews, auction and reception. Requirements include a valid photo ID (driver’s license or passport identification) and a credit card or $2,000US cash deposit. A bank letter of guarantee is required should you choose to pay for any purchases with a personal or company check. Telephone Bidder Registration Prospective telephone bidders can register to bid by completing the telephone bidder form (located on the following page) and faxing it to +1-310-861-0874. Please call 24 hours in advance of the sale to confirm receipt of your telephone bid. RM Auctions is not responsible for errors, omissions or late-arriving bids. Please provide the telephone number(s) at which you can be reached during the sale. An RM Auctions representative will contact you during the auction three to five lots before the lot(s) you wish to bid on and will execute the bidding on your behalf in the auction room. Telephone bids are not accepted on any lots with a low estimate below $2000US. Please note, there is no fee to register to bid as a telephone bidder. Absentee Bidder Registration Clients who are unable to attend the sale may submit advance bids by completing the absentee bidder form (located on the following page) and faxing it to +1-310-861-0874. Please call at least 24 hours in advance of the sale to confirm receipt of your absentee bid. An RM Auctions representative will bid on your behalf until your bid is sufficient to purchase the lot or your maximum bid is reached. Bids submitted in foreign currency will be converted to US dollars using the rate available on the day of the sale. Should two absentee bidders place identical maximum bids, the bidder whose bid form was received first shall take precedence. Please note, there is no fee to register to bid as an absentee bidder.
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ONLINE Bidder Registration Clients who are unable to attend the sale but would still like to participate on the day of the auction via a remote location may log on to our website www.rmauctions.com, click the BID LIVE button found on the homepage and follow the instructions. It is advised that you register as an internet bidder at least 48 hours in advance of the sale to ensure enough time for your registration to be approved and to receive your login credentials. Please note, a credit card authorization of $5,000US will be applied. Bidding Increments Under normal circumstances, the auction estimate of the lot being auctioned will determine the minimum increment the auctioneer will accept according to the following schedule: Estimate (Up to) Minimum Increment $1,000.00.....$50.00 $5,000.00.....$100.00 $10,000.00.....$250.00 $25,000.00.....$500.00 $100,000.00.....$1,000.00 $250,000.00.....$5,000.00 Above.....$10,000.00 Please note, it is up to the auctioneer’s discretion to accept bids outside of what is being asked for during the live auction. Due to the fast pace of live auctions, occasionally multiple bids are submitted simultaneously. In this instance, it is the auctioneer’s sole discretion as to which bid he chooses to accept. Auction Estimates Auction estimates are prepared by our staff in advance of the sale, giving consideration to the history, condition and rarity of the vehicle and taking into account recent sales of comparable vehicles. Estimates do not include buyer’s premium or applicable taxes. Catalog Deletions Arrival of consigned vehicles is not controlled by RM Auctions and it is possible that one or more lots may not be present for the sale. Bidders are advised to check shortly before sale time for updated information. Accuracy Although every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this catalog, such information is provided by the seller and may not be verified by RM Auctions prior to the sale time. Any additional information or corrections known at sale time will be announced by the auctioneer. Buyers are advised to rely upon their own inspections as all sales are made on an “as is, where is” basis. RM Auctions accepts no responsibility for the condition of any items offered.
Thousands of Exotic, Luxury, and Collectible Cars for Sale. On sale at newsstands everywhere. www.duPontREGISTRY.com
ABSENTEE/TELEPHONE BIDDER REGISTRATION FORM
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SPORTS & CLASSICS OF MONTEREY • AUGUST 12 -14 , 2010 Portola Hotel & Spa and Monterey Conference Center, Monterey, california th
th
Please indicate whether you are bidding by telephone or absentee (written) bid:
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Please indicate your interests:
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(please note, telephone bids are not accepted on any lot(s) with a low estimate below $2000 US)
Are you registering as an individual o or dealer o? Note: All dealers must supply a copy of their dealer license and resale tax certificate at the time of bidder registration. Please enter the name as you would like it to appear on the bill of sale and title (where applicable): _______________________________________________________________________________________
Agent Name (if you are registering as a dealer): ____________________________________________
o
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Absentee and telephone bidding are services provided by RM Auctions for your benefit and RM Auctions cannot be held responsible for errors or omissions with respect to the bidding process. By submitting these bids, you have entered into a binding contract to purchase each lot if your bid is successful. If your bid is successful, you are to pay the purchase price, including the buyer’s premium and sales tax, if not otherwise exempt. It is your responsibility to provide proof of exemption from sales tax at the time of registering to bid.
Card No. __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Expiration Date _____ / _____ Name on Card __________________________________________________________
Lot No.
Lot Description
Maximum Bid
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ For telephone bids, please indicate the best numbers to reach you at on the sale date(s): 1) _____________________________ ii
2)_ ____________________________
I ACKNOWLEDGE THAT I HAVE READ AND UNDERSTOOD AND AGREED TO THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS OUTLINED ABOVE AND ON PAGE TWO OF THIS DOCUMENT AND THAT BY PARTICIPATING IN TELEPHONE BIDDING, RM AUCTIONS HAS THE RIGHT TO RECORD ALL TELEPHONE CALLS. Signature_______________________ Date__________________________ Please note, to verify receipt of your bidder form please call +1-818-456-6470 in advance of the sale to ensure your bid has been received. RM Auctions will confirm all registered telephone and absentee bids received prior to 24 hours in advance of the sale.
Please return this form to the attention of Julie Millson One Classic Car Drive, Blenheim, ON Canada N0P 1A0 Fax: +1-310-861-0874 Email: [email protected]
INVESTMENT TIP? May we suggest precious metals.
INVESTMENT COMPARISON 2006-2010 You know a good investment when you see one. According to Hagerty’s Cars That Matter Blue Chip Index, over the last three years, the values of 25 of the most sought after collector vehicles outperformed real estate and the stock market. Hagerty can customize a policy that can cover your growing portfolio with global coverage and individualized, Private Client Services geared to the serious collector. Call us when you’re ready to insure your latest precious commodity.
100% 75% 50% 25% 0% -25%
PROTECTING THE WORLD’S FINEST COLLECTIONS
-50% 2006
Hagerty’s Cars That Matter Blue Chip Index Price of Gold Per Ounce
2009
Dow-Jones Ind. Avg. Median US Home Price
COLLECTION MANAGEMENT • GLOBAL COVERAGE • AUTOMOBILIA COLLECTIONS • CORPORATE ENTITIES • MUSEUMS • DEALER COLLECTORS
Buyer information continued Buyer’s Premium Automobiles – 10% commission will be added to the final bid of each automotive lot purchased. All Other Lots – 15% commission will be added to the final bid of each lot purchased. Please note, the above buyer’s premiums apply to onsite, telephone, absentee and online bidding. Payment Information As a successful bidder, arrangements must be made to deposit funds in the amount of ten percent (10%) of your maximum bid(s). These funds will become a non-refundable deposit until full payment is received. Payment by credit card is not an available option for automotive lots, except as a security hold until full payment is received. Payment by credit card may be used for non-automotive lots with a final invoice not exceeding $2,000US. Payment must be received by the first business day following the sale by way of certified funds. Payment options include: • Certified check/Money order • Wire transfer • Personal or company check (accompanied by a bank letter of guarantee) • Cash (reported as per US government requirements) No lot will be released from the auction premises without payment in full, in good, cleared funds by RM Auctions.
wiring instructions Please wire funds in US dollars to: Comerica Bank 500 Woodward Ave Detroit, MI 48226 Please credit the account of: RM Auctions, Inc. Account No. 1851856292 Routing No. 072 000 096 Swift Code No. MNBDUS33 Sales Tax RM Auctions is responsible for the collection, payment and reporting of sales. All buyers who qualify for sales tax exemption must provide copies of their dealer license and resale tax identification. Collection and Removal All purchased lots must be removed from the auction location on the first business day following the sale. For assistance with transportation, please see the Recommended Services section on page iv.
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up to the amount of _________________ and drawn on account number________________________ (Amount Guaranteed) (Customer’s Account Number) No stop payments will be issued. This Letter of Guarantee is for the purpose of the purchase of automobiles or other property by our customer in connection with the Sports & Classics of Monterey auction held August 12th 14th, 2010. If further information is required, please feel free to contact our office. Sincerely, _____________________ (Bank Officer’s Signature and Title) ___________________________(Bank Officer’s Home Telephone Number if Available) ___________________________(Customer’s Signature)
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RECOMMENDED SERVICES INSURANCE
Shipping
Insurance needs can be met with our official classic car insurance sponsor, Hagerty Insurance. Representatives will be present onsite. For further information, please contact:
Automotive Lots Representatives from Reliable Carriers and Passport Transport will be onsite to assist clients wishing to transport an automobile purchased at auction. For further information, please contact:
Reliable Carriers, Inc. Call 877-744-7889 or visit www.reliablecarriers.com Hagerty Insurance Hagerty Insurance is the premier source for information about the collector car hobby. For more information on enhancing your collector car ownership experience, call 800-922-4050 or visit www.hagerty.com.
Passport Transport Call 800-325-4267 or visit www.passporttransport.com Non-Automotive Lots It is the buyer’s responsibility to either collect purchases onsite or to arrange shipment of goods. RM will assist with arrangements on behalf of the buyer, at the buyer’s request and expense. It is the buyer’s responsibility to obtain estimates for any large items or lots of high value that require professional packing and insurance.
terms and conditions of purchase Please ensure that you have read and understood these terms and conditions prior to bidding at this or any RM Auctions, Inc. sale. 1. All sales are final. No bidder may retract a bid made during the sale for any reason. 2. Payment of ten percent (10%) of the purchase price (minimum $1,000US) is due immediately upon the auctioneer’s declaration of sale. The balance is due in full on or before 5:00 pm of the next business day following the auction sale. All payments must be in the form of cash or certified funds unless other arrangements have been approved in advance. Cash payments will be reported according to U.S. Federal government requirements. 3. All sales are “as is” and “where is”. Bidder is responsible for inspections and verification of condition, authenticity, and completeness of any vehicle purchased. No warranties or representations of any type whatsoever are made by RM Auctions, Inc. Statements printed in catalogs, brochures, signs, window cards and verbal statements made by auctioneers or auction staff are representations made by the seller and RM Auctions, Inc. has no obligation to verify or authenticate any such claims or representations. Any announcements made at the time of sale supercede any earlier printed information.
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4. Buyer is responsible for all risk of loss or damage immediately upon purchase of the vehicle or item. All vehicles or items purchased must be removed from the auction site at the buyer’s expense immediately following the sale. If not removed by the end of the day following the sale, RM Auctions, Inc. will remove the vehicle or item with all costs of moving and storage to be paid by the buyer. 5. Final bid price does not include buyer’s premium or applicable taxes on each lot purchased. Buyer is responsible to pay all city, state or other taxes due for which the buyer does not qualify as exempt. Proof of exemption is buyer’s responsibility. 6. Buyer’s premiums are as follows: a ten per cent (10%) commission will be added to the final bid of each vehicle purchased. A fifteen per cent (15%) commission will be added to the final bid of each lot of memorabilia purchased. 7. All terms of sale posted on the auction premises, printed in sale brochures or forms, publicly announced or otherwise published are incorporated herein by reference.
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Dreams on Tour within the Sound of Music Area Once in a lifetime – drive a vintage car by yourself. Package including accommodation from € 898,– per person in a double room. Hotline: +43 (0)6229 2253 2560 Booking Code: Dreams on Tour
Life is a collection of experiences. Let us be your guide. The Luxury Collection Hotels & Resorts in South Europe Explore the collection at luxurycollection.com or contact your travel professional.
Completing the ultimate automotive experience with an international array of exhibitors featuring the finest in luxury items to complement the motoring lifestyle. Rare Collectibles • Historic Automobilia • Petromobilia • Books and Literature • Original Poster Art • and Posters Fine Art and • Photography Restoration Services • Garage Supplies • Pebble Beach • Concours Merchandise Luxury Items for the • Motoring Lifestyle
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Whether your prized possession is your daily driver, a vintage classic, a 60’s muscle car or a modern exotic you can depend on Passport Transport to give you the premium service it deserves. Passport Transport has been delivering vehicles for over 40 years, has an experienced fleet of drivers and the best equipment in the industry. The First and Final Name in Enclosed Auto Transport.
Our Transporters Feature: • • • •
Fully enclosed trailers to protect against road hazards and the weather Lift gates for horizontal loading Soft tie wheel straps that allow natural movement during transit Air-ride suspension
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Custom House Plaza,
Monterey State Historic Park Did you know that Monterey is one of the most important historical areas in Western North America?
Set your next special occasion in Memory Garden, Cooper-Molera Garden or Custom House Plaza. Shop for unique books and great gift items at Cooper-Molera Museum Store. Become a State Park Volunteer and help share this fabulous history. To book a special guided tour contact Michael Green at (831) 649-7136 or [email protected]
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RM Auctions & The Rotary Club of Monterey
Two Driving Forces For Our Community
For over a decade, the members of the Rotary Club of Monterey have provided thousands of hours of assistance to the operations of RM Auctions’ annual Sports & Classics of Monterey auction. In return, RM has generously donated over $300,000 to the club; assisting many nonprofit groups and charitable organizations.
Local programs such as the Monterey Peninsula Rotacare Clinic, which provides free medical treatment to the neediest and most vulnerable in our community, and the Rotary International’s Polio Plus program, which is working to eradicate polio worldwide.
Thank you RM Auctions for your continued generosity and partnership with the Rotary Club of Monterey to help improve the quality of life here on the Monterey Peninsula, and around the world.
www.montereyrotary.org
November 13, 2010 • Gainesville, Georgia
Offered without reserve
The Robson Collection: over 25 years of dedicated collecting has resulted in this remarkable collection of muscle cars, rounded out with icons of the fifties and a superb selection of Henry Ford’s original flathead V8s. Single-digit examples dominate the muscle car selection, where a combination of ultra high specification and very low production result in many rare examples. In many cases they are also, quite simply, the best of the best. One thing’s for sure: many of us will never again have a chance to buy cars like these.
O f f e r i n g t h e Wo r l d ’ s F i n e s t M o t o r C a r s +1-519-352-4575
+44 (0) 20 7851 7070
www.rmauctions.com
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AUBURN AUCTION A L A BO R DA Y T R A D I T I ON
Auburn Fall Classic Car Auction
September 2-5, 2010
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1931 Lincoln Model K Dual Windshield Phaeton
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INDEX • Thursday, August 12 • Friday, August 13 • Saturday, August 14, 2010 Year, Make & Model Day Lot
Year, Make & Model Day Lot
1850 (c.) “Boothill Express” Custom Show Rod............................................ Fri....... 262 1963 1/2 Ford Galaxie Holman & Moody NASCAR Race Car.....................Thurs.... 136 1953 Allard J2X Vintage Racing Car.............................................................. Fri....... 230 2003 Aston Martin DB AR1 Zagato Roadster................................................ Fri....... 210 1952 Aston Martin DB2 Vantage Drophead Coupe....................................... Fri....... 256 1963 Aston Martin DB4 Series 5 Vantage GT Coupe................................... Sat...... 340 1968 Aston Martin DB6 Coupe Superleggera.............................................. Sat...... 310 1966 Aston Martin DB6 Vantage Coupe........................................................ Fri....... 265 1984 Aston Martin Lagonda Saloon............................................................. Sat...... 318 1955 Astra Coupe.......................................................................................... Fri....... 270 1933 Auburn Twelve Custom Phaeton Sedan............................................... Sat...... 336 1956 Austin-Healey 100M “Le Mans” Roadster........................................... Fri....... 274 1964 Austin-Healey 3000 BJ8 MK III........................................................... Sat...... 322 1930 Bentley 4.5-Liter “Birkin Blower” Le Mans Replica............................ Sat...... 321 1951 Bentley Mark VI Drophead Coupe........................................................ Fri....... 264 1953 Bentley R-Type Drophead Coupe.......................................................... Fri....... 254 1886 Benz Patent Motor-Wagen Replica...................................................... Fri....... 215 1964 Biscuter 100 Runabout......................................................................... Sat...... 301 1974 BMW 2002tii......................................................................................... Fri....... 282 1939 BMW 328 Roadster.............................................................................. Fri....... 242 1960 BMW 600............................................................................................. Sat...... 307 1961 BMW Isetta 300 Export Cabriolet........................................................ Sat...... 304 1931 Bugatti Type 51 Works Grand Prix Racing Car..................................... Sat...... 343 2003 Bugnotti by Deco Rides......................................................................... Fri....... 271 1938 Buick Century Estate Wagon............................................................... Sat...... 381 1954 Buick Skylark Convertible..................................................................... Fri....... 278 1928 Cadillac “Al Capone” Town Sedan....................................................... Fri....... 225 1949 Cadillac 60 Special Fleetwood Sedan.................................................. Fri....... 272 1959 Cadillac Series 62 Convertible.............................................................. Fri....... 212 1949 Cadillac Series 62 Convertible Coupe.................................................. Fri....... 269 1960 Chevrolet Corvette................................................................................ Fri....... 268 1963 Chevrolet Corvette “Pilot Line” Sting Ray Roadster............................. Fri....... 248 1963 Chevrolet Corvette Fuel-Injected “Split Window” Coupe.................... Fri....... 279 1962 Chevrolet Corvette Fuel-Injected Roadster........................................... Fri....... 222 1957 Chevrolet Corvette Fuel-Injected Roadster.......................................... Sat...... 378 1957 Chevrolet Corvette Roadster................................................................. Fri....... 207 1953 Chevrolet Corvette Roadster................................................................. Fri....... 239 1958 Chrysler 300D Coupe............................................................................ Fri....... 209 1933 Chrysler CL Imperial Dual Windshield Sport Phaeton......................... Sat...... 331 1960 Chrysler Imperial Crown Convertible.................................................... Fri....... 267 1949 Chrysler Town & Country Convertible................................................... Fri....... 273 1964 Cooper Ford “King Cobra”...................................................................Thurs.... 137 1937 Cord 812 “Sportsman” Convertible Coupe.......................................... Sat...... 376 1984 Daimler Double Six Long-Wheelbase Saloon...................................... Fri....... 237 1935 Delage D8-105 Sports Coupe.............................................................. Sat...... 334 1938 Delahaye 135MS Sports Cabriolet...................................................... Sat...... 362 1949 Delahaye Type 175 S Roadster............................................................ Sat...... 353 1970 DeTomaso Mangusta............................................................................ Fri....... 258 1934 Dodge Deluxe DR Coupe....................................................................... Fri....... 206 1958 Dual-Ghia Convertible........................................................................... Fri....... 251 1931 Duesenberg Model J Convertible Sedan.............................................. Fri....... 249 1933 Duesenberg SJ Riviera Phaeton.......................................................... Sat...... 341 1964 Ed “Big Daddy” Roth Road Agent......................................................... Fri....... 263 1949 Ferrari 166 Inter Coupe......................................................................... Fri....... 257 1953 Ferrari 212 Inter Coupe by Vignale...................................................... Sat...... 366 1958 Ferrari 250 “Pontoon Fender” Testa Rossa.......................................... Sat...... 357
1956 Ferrari 250 GT Coupe........................................................................... Sat...... 355 1959 Ferrari 250 GT LWB California Spyder................................................. Sat...... 360 1958 Ferrari 250 GT Series I Cabriolet......................................................... Sat...... 346 1960 Ferrari 250 GT Series II Cabriolet........................................................ Sat...... 327 1964 Ferrari 250 GT/ L Berlinetta.................................................................. Fri....... 240 1967 Ferrari 275 GTB/4 Berlinetta................................................................ Sat...... 363 1966 Ferrari 275 GTB/6C Alloy Berlinetta.................................................... Sat...... 349 1965 Ferrari 275 GTS.................................................................................... Sat...... 325 1989 Ferrari 328 GTS..................................................................................... Fri....... 281 1969 Ferrari 365 GT 2+2............................................................................... Sat...... 324 1971 Ferrari 365 GTB/4 Daytona................................................................... Fri....... 231 1971 Ferrari 365 GTB/4 Daytona Spyder...................................................... Sat...... 344 1954 Ferrari 375 MM Berlinetta................................................................... Sat...... 351 1959 Ferrari 410 Superamerica Series III Coupe.......................................... Sat...... 335 1954 Ferrari 500 Mondial Berlinetta............................................................ Sat...... 342 1966 Ferrari 500 Superfast........................................................................... Sat...... 339 1979 Ferrari 512 BB/LM Competition Berlinetta........................................... Fri....... 260 1993 Ferrari 512 TR........................................................................................ Fri....... 228 1972 Ferrari Dino 246 GT............................................................................... Fri....... 235 1973 Ferrari Dino 246 GTS............................................................................. Fri....... 234 2003 Ferrari Enzo........................................................................................... Fri....... 238 2007 Ferrari FXX Evoluzione......................................................................... Sat...... 365 1989 Ferrari Testarossa.................................................................................. Fri....... 275 1960 Fiat 600 “Multipla” Taxi....................................................................... Sat...... 308 1929 Ford “Hi-Boy” Hot Rod........................................................................Thurs.... 115 1932 Ford “Hi-Boy” Roadster.......................................................................Thurs.... 110 1940 Ford Deluxe Convertible Coupe..........................................................Thurs.... 153 1937 Ford Deluxe Roadster..........................................................................Thurs.... 144 1932 Ford Deluxe Three Window Coupe Hot Rod......................................... Fri....... 221 2001 Ford EX Concept..................................................................................Thurs.... 128 2001 Ford Explorer Sportsman Concept......................................................Thurs.... 119 2001 Ford F150 Lightning Rod Concept.......................................................Thurs.... 118 1957 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner Retractable Hardtop.................................Thurs.... 108 1955 Ford Fairlane Crown Victoria...............................................................Thurs.... 103 2000 Ford Focus Kona Edition Concept.......................................................Thurs.... 117 2001 Ford Forty Nine Concept.....................................................................Thurs.... 130 2006 Ford GT................................................................................................Thurs.... 102 1931 Ford Hot Rod “Ol’ Jiggles”..................................................................Thurs.... 106 1950 Ford Italmeccanica IT160 Coupe.........................................................Thurs.... 111 1932 Ford Model 18 Deluxe Roadster.........................................................Thurs.... 114 1932 Ford Model 18 Phaeton.......................................................................Thurs.... 149 1931 Ford Model A Deluxe Roadster...........................................................Thurs.... 156 1903 Ford Model A Rear Entry Tonneau......................................................Thurs.... 116 1935 Ford Model CX Saloon........................................................................Thurs.... 101 1907 Ford Model K Five-Passenger Touring................................................Thurs.... 139 1906 Ford Model N Runabout......................................................................Thurs.... 105 1927 Ford Model T “The Black Widow”......................................................Thurs.... 150 1909 Ford Model T Aluminum-Bodied Touring Car......................................Thurs.... 112 1911 Ford Model T Tourabout......................................................................Thurs.... 104 1966 Ford Mustang FIA Racing Car.............................................................Thurs.... 107 2004 Ford Mustang GT-R Concept...............................................................Thurs.... 134 2000 Ford Prodigy Concept..........................................................................Thurs.... 123 1932 Ford Sedan Delivery............................................................................Thurs.... 146 1958 Ford Skyliner Retractable Hardtop......................................................Thurs.... 152 2005 Ford Sport Trac Adrenalin Concept.....................................................Thurs.... 120 1948 Ford Super Deluxe Station Wagon.....................................................Thurs.... 155
v
INDEX • Thursday, August 12 • Friday, August 13 • Saturday, August 14, 2010
vi
Year, Make & Model Day Lot
Year, Make & Model Day Lot
1942 Ford Super Deluxe V8 Station Wagon................................................Thurs.... 142 2003 Ford Supercharged Thunderbird Concept...........................................Thurs.... 132 1932 Ford Three-Window Hot Rod Coupe...................................................Thurs.... 148 1957 Ford Thunderbird #98 Factory Racing Car “The Battlebird”...............Thurs.... 135 1932 Ford Tudor Custom Sedan...................................................................Thurs.... 151 2001 Ford Urban Explorer Concept..............................................................Thurs.... 122 1935 Ford V8 1/2-Ton Pickup Truck..............................................................Thurs.... 145 1963 Goggomobil TL-400 Transporter Van................................................... Sat...... 306 1928 Hispano-Suiza H6C Convertible Sedan by Hibbard & Darrin.............. Sat...... 368 1972 Honda 600 Taxi...................................................................................... Fri....... 201 1972 Intermeccanica Italia Spyder................................................................ Fri....... 219 1955 Jaguar D-Type...................................................................................... Sat...... 347 1962 Jaguar E-Type Series I Roadster........................................................... Fri....... 232 1963 Jaguar E-Type Series I Roadster.......................................................... Sat...... 380 1967 Jaguar E-Type Series II Roadster......................................................... Sat...... 314 1972 Jaguar E-Type Series III Convertible..................................................... Fri....... 208 1973 Jaguar E-Type Series III Convertible.................................................... Sat...... 317 1972 Jaguar E-Type Series III Coupe............................................................ Sat...... 316 1948 Jaguar Mk IV Drophead Coupe............................................................ Sat...... 323 1937 Jaguar SS 100 Roadster...................................................................... Sat...... 338 1938 Jaguar SS Coupe................................................................................. Sat...... 348 1938 Jaguar SS100 3.5 Roadster................................................................. Sat...... 373 1953 Jaguar XK120 Fixed Head Coupe........................................................ Sat...... 328 1953 Jaguar XK120M Fixed Head Coupe..................................................... Sat...... 375 1957 Jaguar XK140 Drophead Coupe........................................................... Sat...... 315 1957 Jaguar XK140 Roadster........................................................................ Fri....... 276 1955 Jaguar XK140 Royale Fixed Head Coupe............................................. Fri....... 217 1959 Jaguar XK150 S 3.4 Roadster.............................................................. Sat...... 329 1954 Kaiser-Darrin......................................................................................... Fri....... 229 2004 Kirkham Motorsports Shelby Cobra 427 S/C Replica.........................Thurs.... 109 1938 Lagonda LG6 Drophead Coupe............................................................. Fri....... 253 1989 Lamborghini Countach 25th Anniversary Edition................................. Fri....... 233 Lamborghini Diablo Styling Prototype.................................................. Fri....... 204 1989 Lamborghini LM002.............................................................................. Fri....... 214 1971 Lamborghini Miura S............................................................................ Fri....... 261 1971 Lamborghini Miura SV......................................................................... Sat...... 361 1978 Lamborghini Silhouette......................................................................... Fri....... 259 2004 Lincoln Aviator Concept......................................................................Thurs.... 125 1962 Lincoln Continental “Bubbletop” Kennedy Limousine........................Thurs.... 140 2002 Lincoln Continental Concept...............................................................Thurs.... 127 2002 Lincoln Continental Concept Shell......................................................Thurs.... 126 1946 Lincoln Continental Indy 500 Pace Car...............................................Thurs.... 143 1956 Lincoln Continental MK II...................................................................Thurs.... 154 1933 Lincoln KB Custom Dietrich Convertible Sedan..................................Thurs.... 138 2004 Lincoln Mark X Concept......................................................................Thurs.... 133 2001 Lincoln MK9 Concept..........................................................................Thurs.... 129 2005 Lincoln MKS Concept..........................................................................Thurs.... 124 2003 Lincoln Navicross Concept..................................................................Thurs.... 121 1968 Lola T-70 Mk III GT Coupe.................................................................... Sat...... 332 1962 Maserati 3500GT Vignale Spider......................................................... Sat...... 309 1967 Maserati 4.7 Ghibli Coupe.................................................................... Fri....... 236 1968 Maserati Ghibli Coupe.......................................................................... Fri....... 211 1911 Mercedes 38/70 HP Seven-Passenger Touring................................... Sat...... 364 1958 Mercedes-Benz 190 SL Roadster......................................................... Sat...... 379 1958 Mercedes-Benz 190SL Roadster........................................................... Fri....... 244 1960 Mercedes-Benz 220SE Cabriolet.......................................................... Fri....... 224
1969 Mercedes-Benz 280SL Roadster.......................................................... Sat...... 377 1952 Mercedes-Benz 300 Cabriolet D.......................................................... Sat...... 313 1961 Mercedes-Benz 300 SL Roadster......................................................... Sat...... 374 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Coupe.............................................................. Sat...... 320 1957 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Roadster.......................................................... Sat...... 319 1936 Mercedes-Benz 540K Special Cabriolet.............................................. Sat...... 371 2003 Mercury Messenger Concept.............................................................Thurs.... 131 1950 Mercury Station Wagon......................................................................Thurs.... 157 1963 Messerschmitt KR-200 Kabinenroller.................................................. Sat...... 305 1938 MG SA Tickford Drophead Coupe......................................................... Fri....... 247 1949 MG TC Roadster................................................................................... Sat...... 312 1953 MG TD Roadster................................................................................... Fri....... 283 1962 MGA Mark II 1600 Roadster................................................................ Sat...... 383 1951 Mochet CM-125 Luxe.......................................................................... Sat...... 303 2003 Morgan Plus 8 Roadster....................................................................... Fri....... 280 1963 Morris Minor Traveller Station Wagon................................................. Fri....... 202 1959 Morris Minor Traveller Station Wagon................................................ Sat...... 382 1953 Nash-Healey Le Mans Coupe............................................................... Fri....... 266 1960 NSU Prinz III Coupe.............................................................................. Sat...... 302 1957 Oldsmobile Custom “Golden Star” by John d’Agostino....................... Fri....... 216 1961 Oldsmobile Custom Convertible “Aladdin” by John d’Agostino.......... Fri....... 220 1934 Packard “Myth” Custom Boattail Coupe............................................. Sat...... 350 1938 Packard Eight Convertible Victoria........................................................ Fri....... 223 1933 Packard Twelve Coupe......................................................................... Sat...... 345 1938 Peugeot 402 Special Roadster............................................................. Sat...... 337 1917 Pierce-Arrow Model 66 A-4 Seven-Passenger Touring........................ Fri....... 250 1933 Pierce-Arrow Twelve Convertible Sedan............................................. Sat...... 372 1970 Pontiac GTO Convertible....................................................................... Fri....... 245 1957 Porsche 356A Speedster...................................................................... Sat...... 326 1963 Porsche 356B Super 90 Coupe.............................................................. Fri....... 277 1965 Porsche 356C Cabriolet........................................................................ Sat...... 311 1973 Porsche 911 Carrera RS (Factory Remanufactured Special)................ Sat...... 330 2008 Porsche 911 Carrera S Coupe............................................................... Fri....... 226 2000 Porsche 911 GT3R................................................................................. Fri....... 252 1967 Porsche 911 Targa................................................................................. Fri....... 205 1988 Porsche 959........................................................................................... Fri....... 243 1913 Rolls-Royce 40/50 HP Silver Ghost Open Tourer................................. Sat...... 358 1931 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Close Coupled Coupe..................................... Sat...... 352 1932 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Henley Roadster............................................ Sat...... 354 1937 Rolls-Royce Phantom III Sedanca deVille............................................ Sat...... 333 1967 Shelby 427 Cobra.................................................................................. Fri....... 241 1967 Shelby 427 Cobra................................................................................. Sat...... 370 1967 Shelby American Can-Am Cobra Group 7...........................................Thurs.... 141 1964 Shelby Cobra USRRC Roadster............................................................. Fri....... 255 1965 Shelby GT350 Fastback.......................................................................Thurs.... 113 1968 Shelby GT500 KR Convertible.............................................................Thurs.... 147 2006 Spyker C8 Spyder.................................................................................. Fri....... 227 1965 Strale Daytona 6000 GT Prototype (Iso Daytona)................................ Sat...... 367 1937 Studebaker “Extremeliner” Woodie Custom by POSIES..................... Sat...... 369 1953 Studebaker Custom “The Kart Hauler”................................................. Fri....... 213 1930 Stutz Model M Supercharged Coupe.................................................. Sat...... 356 1970 Subaru 360 Police Car.......................................................................... Sat...... 384 1938 Talbot-Lago T150-C Lago Speciale Teardrop Coupe............................ Sat...... 359 1951 Triumph Mayflower Saloon................................................................... Fri....... 203 1948 Tucker 48 Sedan................................................................................... Fri....... 246 1958 Watson Sprint Car................................................................................. Fri....... 218
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The term forensic refers to investigative technologies and sciences in relation to?
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Forensic Science legal definition of Forensic Science
Forensic Science legal definition of Forensic Science
http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Forensic+Science
Related to Forensic Science: forensic psychology
Forensic Science
The application of scientific knowledge and methodology to legal problems and criminal investigations.
Sometimes called simply forensics, forensic science encompasses many different fields of science, including anthropology, biology, chemistry, engineering, genetics, medicine, pathology, phonetics, psychiatry, and toxicology.
The related term criminalistics refers more specifically to the scientific collection and analysis of physical evidence in criminal cases. This includes the analysis of many kinds of materials, including blood, fibers, bullets, and fingerprints. Many law enforcement agencies operate crime labs that perform scientific studies of evidence. The largest of these labs is run by the Federal Bureau of Investigation .
Forensic scientists often present Expert Testimony to courts, as in the case of pathologists who testify on causes of death and engineers who testify on causes of damage from equipment failure, fires, or explosions.
Modern forensic science originated in the late nineteenth century, when European criminal investigators began to use fingerprinting and other identification techniques to solve crimes. As the field of science expanded in scope throughout the twentieth century, its application to legal issues became more and more common. Because nearly every area of science has a potential bearing on the law, the list of areas within forensic science is long.
Forensic Medicine and Psychology
Forensic medicine is one of the largest and most important areas of forensic science. Also called legal medicine or medical Jurisprudence , it applies medical knowledge to criminal and Civil Law . Areas of medicine that are commonly involved in forensic medicine are anatomy, pathology, and psychiatry.Many law enforcement agencies employ a forensic pathologist, sometimes called a medical examiner, who determines the causes of sudden or unexpected death. Forensic toxicologists, who study the presence of poisons or drugs in the deceased, often help forensic pathologists. Forensic odontologists, or dentists, analyze dental evidence to identify human remains and the origin of bite marks.
Forensic medicine is often used in civil cases. The cause of death or injury is considered in settling insurance claims or Medical Malpractice suits, and blood tests often contribute to a court's decision in cases attempting to determine the Paternity of a child.
Forensic Science in the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Since its establishment in 1932, the FBI Laboratory has been a world leader in the scientific analysis of physical evidence related to crime. From its location in the J. Edgar Hoover FBI Building, in Washington, D.C., the laboratory provides a wide range of free forensic services to U.S. law enforcement agencies. The laboratory is divided into several major departments: the Document Section, Scientific Analysis Section, Special Projects Section, Latent Fingerprint Section, and Forensic Science Research and Training Center.
The laboratory's Document Section examines paper documents, ink, shoe and tire tread designs, and other forms of evidence related to a wide variety of crimes, including forgery and Money Laundering . It performs linguistic analysis of documents to determine authorship. It also evaluates the validity and danger of written threats. Its Computer Analysis and Response Team recovers evidence, including encrypted information, from computer systems—evidence that is crucial to the prosecution of White-Collar Crime . The Document Section also maintains files of bank Robbery notes, anonymous Extortion letters, and office equipment specifications.
The Scientific Analysis Section has seven divisions: Chemistry Toxicology, DNA Analysis/Serology, Elemental and Metals Analysis, Explosives, Firearms-Toolmarks, Hairs and Fibers, and Materials Analysis. This section's analysis of blood, semen, and saliva assists the investigation of violent crimes such as murder, rape, assault, and hit-and-run driving. Its research also provides insight into many other crimes, including bombings, Arson , drug tampering, and poisoning.
The services provided by the Special Projects Section include composite sketches of suspects, crime scene drawings and maps, videotape and audiotape analysis and enhancement, and analysis of electronic devices such as wiretaps and listening devices.
The Latent Fingerprint Section examines evidence for hidden fingerprints, palm prints, footprints, and lip prints.
The Forensic Science Research and Training Center offers classes to law enforcement officials from the United States and other countries. These classes cover DNA analysis, the detection and recovery of human remains, arson and bomb blast investigation, and many other topics.
To better perform its research, the laboratory maintains files on many kinds of physical evidence, including adhesives, ammunition, paint, and office equipment. The laboratory also provides experts who will furnish testimony on the nature of the evidence.
The laboratory publishes the Handbook of Forensic Science to explain its forensic services to law enforcement agencies. The handbook outlines procedures for safely and effectively gathering evidence from crime scenes and shipping it to the laboratory for analysis.
Mental health and psychology professionals have contributed a great deal to the legal understanding of issues such as the reliability of Eyewitness testimony, responsibility for criminal behavior, and the process of decision making in juries. These professionals include those with a medical degree, such as psychiatrists, neurologists, and neuropsychologists, as well as individuals without a medical degree, such as psychologists.Mental health professionals are frequently consulted in civil and criminal cases to help determine an individual's state of mind with regard to a crime, the validity of testimony before a court, or an individual's competence to stand trial or make a legal decision. Their input may also be vital to legal procedures for deciding whether to commit a person to an institution because of mental illness, or to allow a person to leave an institution for those who are mentally ill.
Forensic neuropsychology is a specialized area of forensic medicine that applies the functioning of the nervous system and brain to legal issues involving mind and behavior. Equipped with an improved understanding of how the brain works and influences behavior, neuropsychologists have increasingly been asked to provide testimony to courts attempting to determine whether a criminal act is a result of a nervous system dysfunction. They also testify as to the reliability of witness testimony given by Victims of Crime , the competency of individuals to stand trial, the likelihood that a condition of mental retardation or brain injury predisposed an individual to commit a crime, the possibility that an individual has verifiable memory loss, and various aspects of dementias and other brain disorders caused by AIDS, head injuries, and drugs, alcohol, and other chemicals.
In civil cases, the work of neuropsychologists has been used to determine whether a defendant's wrongdoing caused a plaintiff's injury. In family courts, neuropsychologists assess brain damage in children who have been physically abused.
Forensic psychologists provide expert testimony that touches on many of the same areas as that given by forensic psychiatrists and neuropsychologists. In addition, psychologists consult with the legal system on issues such as correctional procedures and crime prevention. In 1962, a U.S. court of appeals issued an influential decision that established the ability of a psychologist to testify as an expert witness in a federal court of law (Jenkins v. United States, 113 U.S. App. D.C. 300, 307 F.2d 637 [D.C. Cir. 1962]). Before that time, expert testimony on mental health was largely restricted to physicians.
Other Areas of Forensic Science
Forensic engineers provide courts with expertise in areas such as the design and construction of buildings, vehicles, electronics, and other items. Forensic linguists determine the authorship of written documents through analyses of handwriting, syntax, word usage, and grammar. Forensic anthropologists identify and date human remains such as bones. Forensic geneticists analyze human genetic material, or DNA, to provide evidence that is often used by juries to determine the guilt or innocence of criminal suspects. Forensic phoneticians deal with issues such as the validity of tape-recorded messages, the identification of speakers on recorded messages, the enhancement of recorded messages, the use of voiceprints, and other aspects of Electronic Surveillance .
Further readings
Federal Bureau of Investigation. 1994. Handbook of Forensic Science. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Genge, N.E. 2002. The Forensic Casebook: The Science of Crime Scene Investigation. New York: Ballantine Books.
Hollien, Harry. 1990. The Acoustics of Crime: The New Science of Forensic Phonetics. Plenum.
Marriner, Brian. 1991. On Death's Bloody Trail: Murder and the Art of Forensic Science. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Vacca, John. 2002. Computer Forensics: Computer Crime Scene Investigation. Hingham, Mass.: Charles River Media.
Valciukas, José A. 1995. Forensic Neuropsychology: Conceptual Foundations and Clinical Practice. Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth.
Weiner, Irving B., and Allen K. Hess. 1987. Handbook of Forensic Psychology. New York: Wiley.
Cross-references
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Law
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The 'morna' is the national music and dance style of which central Atlantic archipelago island nation?
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What is Forensic Document Examination
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What is Forensic Document Examination?
The term "forensic" means simply, "having to do with the law." Document Examination, as an established field of scientific study, came into being early in this century as a means of identifying forgery and establishing the authenticity of documents in dispute. It grew out of the need of The Court to be able to correctly evaluate document evidence. It has been stated that "Forgery was practiced from the from the earliest times in every country where writing was the medium of communication" (The Law of Disputed and Forged Documents, J. Newton Baker). It was especially profitable in those earlier times of general public illiteracy. For the reason that most of an examiner's work involves some form of handwriting problem, the field is sometimes referred to as "Handwriting Identification" and the practitioner as a "Handwriting Expert". Albert S. Osborn , with the publication of his book Questioned Documents in 1910, is rightfully credited with laying the foundation of this field of forensic examination.
Definition of a Document
A document may be broadly defined as anything that bears marks, signs, or symbols which have meaning or conveys a message to someone.
Scope of Document Examination
Identification and deciphering of indented writing
Comparisons of inks and identification of type of writing instrument
Handwriting Identification
Handwriting identification is based on the principle that, while handwriting within a language tends to be alike to the degree that we can meaningfully read it, there are individual features that distinguish one person's writing from that of another. Just as no two people are exactly alike, the handwritings of no two people are exactly alike in their combination of characteristics. There are, of course, natural variations within the handwriting of each individual. These variations must be closely and carefully studied by the examiner, so that he can distinguish between what is a "variation" and what is a "difference".
The examiner must also be cognizant of the differences between "class characteristics" and "individual characteristics". Class characteristics are those which are common to a group such as a particular writing system, family grouping, foreign language system, or professional group. Individual characteristics are those which are personal or peculiar letters or letter combinations, which, taken together, would not occur in the writing of another person.
Handwriting identification is a comparison study requiring authenticated specimens of known handwriting from the individual(s) concerned. These are closely compared to the handwriting characteristics exhibited by the questioned writing in order to determine authorship. Like must be compared to like: printing to printing and cursive to cursive, with comparable letters, letter combinations, words, and numerals.
Forgery
Below are the classes of forgery commonly encountered:
No attempt is made by the forger to imitate the genuine signature of the person purportedly signing the document.
There is an attempt to imitate the genuine signature by some method of tracing of a model signature.
There is a freehand attempt to simulate the genuine signature from a model.
The document and the purported signer are fictitious.
A "cut & paste" job wherein a genuine signature, or copy thereof, is transferred from some authentic source to a fraudulent document.
Other disputed signatures include those which are genuine but which were disguised, or written in some illegible manner, by the writer for the purpose of later deniability; and signatures which, though genuine, the author either has no memory of executing or is unwilling to accept as genuine.
It is possible for the document examiner to identify a document or signature as a forgery, but it is much less common for the examiner to identify the forger. This is due to the nature of handwriting in that, while the forger is attempting to imitate the writing habit of another person, the forger is, at the same time, suppressing his own writing habit, thereby disguising his own writing.
In attempting to either disguise one's own writing or imitate that of another, the briefer the body of writing the easier it is to continue the disguise. As the writing becomes more extended, the greater the probability that one's own subconscious habit will intrude itself into the disguise attempt.
There are no reliable methods of predicting from the writing whether the author was male or female, or right-handed or left-handed.
Identification of Typewriters and Checkwriters
With regard to typewriters, questions arise as to whether a series of documents were prepared on the same typewriter; what make/model of typewriter was used; or when was the typed document produced?
Typewriters are identifiable as to make and model by means of class characteristics such as manual/electric, fabric ribbon/carbon film ribbon, typebars/daisywheel/ball element, typeface design, and so on. Machines may acquire individualizing characteristics to varying degrees due to use or misuse, damage, and general wear. The degree of success in a given case will vary with the type of machine with which the examiner is faced.
Check writers, also known as check protectors, may be identified as to manufacturer by its mechanism and typeface design, and individualized by accidental characteristics resulting from damage and wear and tear.
Identification of Indented Writing
Indented writing is an imprint which may be left on the underlying pages when the top sheet of paper is written upon. This impression of the writing is influenced by pen pressure and thickness of the paper. Indented writing is very useful as a form of connecting evidence, such as tying a robbery note to a writing pad recovered from a suspect. Classically, indented writing was identified and deciphered by means of low angle oblique light and photography. More recently, an instrument known as an Electrostatic Detection Apparatus, or ESDA, is now used to produce a visual image of the indented writing on transparency film. This procedure is non-destructive, and rather non-detectable.
Detection and Decipherment of Obliterations and Alterations:
These examinations are performed in order to detect whether a portion of a document has been altered, some portion rendered not readily visible, or some text added. If an obliteration/alteration is identified, then the method is determined and described, and if possible the text of the obliterated entry deciphered. Instruments such as a Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) assist in this study. The VSC allows the examiner to examine the document through infrared illumination using an infrared sensitive CCD camera as a detector. The image is examined by viewing on a monitor, and digital image processing through a computer. This is very useful in ink differentiation.
Qualifications of a Forensic Document Examiner
A Forensic Document Examiner must have a sound basic education through the baccalaureate degree. The typical t raining period is two years of study and practical experience in an established questioned documents laboratory where the examiner trainee studies the basic literature, completes study projects, becomes familiar with the role of forensic sciences in general and questioned documents in particular as they relate to the legal system.
It should be understood that questioned documents is a valid and legitimate field of study as a discipline in forensic examinations and identification. It is not to be confused with "graphologists" or "grapho-analysts" who claim the ability to assess personality traits of a person from their handwriting. Whether the claim is valid or not, the association of these individuals with handwriting has caused some of them to claim sufficient expertise to determine whether or not a signature is genuine.
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” إﺗﺼﻞ واﺳﺄل ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺰﻓﺎف“
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Dear Readers… Dhari Al-Muhareb Editor-in-Chief
Jameel Arif
Abeer Al-Abduljalil Managing Editor
Kinda Al-Faris
November has become Movember again! I am sure you have noticed, November has become Movember and sane and stylish men have been growing all kinds of odd, furry protuberances under their noses for this month. It’s an annual, month long event in aid of “changing the face of men’s health”. The idea is to encourage men to go to the doctor more in order to help with earlier detection of cancer, depression and other illnesses. To know more about it, don't miss to read our special article by Dr. Nazia on page 26.
Claudia Farias
Talking about Movember, our cover personality Dr. Tareq Burezq is also an active supporter of good health and promoter of Movember. I am sure you would have noticed it from his mustaches that he has grown specially for this cause and our cover. I would like to thank him personally for believing in me and accepting to come out in a totally different look for our cover. I also would like to thank Mr. Bader AlEissa - Marketing & PR Manager at Asnan Tower for his believe in CityPages and without his support, this cover would have not been possible.
Tanya Burns
The last couple of weeks have been busy for all of us. We were happy to see the positive reader feedback on our new look and design, and also saw a rise in readership. Thank you for all your incredible support!
Executive Editor
Muhammed Altaf Sr. Sales Manager
Content Supervisor Creative Director Graphic Designers Mohammed Syed Khaled Al-Enezi Contributing Team Khaled Al-Zawawi Abdulaziz Al-Khamis Abdalla AlMuzaini Layla Harmony Abrar Al-Zenkawi Maha Al-Rashed Ahmed Al-Ragum Mohammad Al-Sharrah Ali - DJ RAVEN Nadia Al-Jazzaf ARTRONAUTS Nadia Al-Hassan ASAMA Perfumes Nada Soliman BirthKuwait Nada Faris Dr. Nazia Nausheen Reshmi Revi Faisal Al-Dhofari Sarah Al-Hajji Huda AlSaleh Zahra Ashkanani Hussain Jassim Zahra Taqi Khaled Al-Amiri Photography Team Abdulaziz AlSoraya Abdulaziz AlShayaji Ahmad Emad Antonio O. Alcantara I Eric O. Fabro Natalia Sitcai Shahbaz Hussain Bulk Distribution Team V. Rajan S. V. Gopal
Corporate Copies and Subscriptions Distributed through:
In our Exclusives section, we profile 15 of the most inspiring and respected men in Kuwait. These men are inspiring visionaries, who represent Kuwait on a global stage. We catch up with them, as they share details about their latest projects and also tell us some things you may not have known about them before! Bringing this section was not easy and would have not been possible without the help of our new team member - Khaled AlAmiri. He himself is very inspiring and his work will speak for himself. I also would like to thank other team members who worked in bringing out this feature; Kinda AlFaris and last but not the least the special assistance of Jarrah Al Khalifa. Last but not the least – I am excited about our latest fashion shoot in collaboration with Harvey Nichols, featuring our own boys Abdulaziz AlKhamis and Hussain Jassim, photographed by the talented Andre Shirazi. Our next issue is very special to me as we complete our 4 successful years and we are already busy planning some big surprises and amazing features to be introduced from 2014, so stay tuned. Till then, enjoy this issue!
Jameel Arif General Manager & Editor
[email protected]
Cover Photoshoot by: The amazing team at: Seventy Seven Studio Instagram: @seventyseven_kw
DISCLAIMER
Extra care has been used to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this magazine. However, the publisher will not accept responsibility for errors and omissions in the publication. In addition, the views expressed in this magazine are not necessarily those of the publisher. Photos have been altered to comply with the Laws of Kuwait. All rights reserved. No part of this publication including pictures, articles, artworks, and overall design may be reproduced, copied, transmitted, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, or translated in any language in any form or means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without the written permission of the editor or the publisher. Copyright © November 2013
CityPages accepts unsolicited ar ticles (1000 words or less) in English or Arabic. Submissions may be sent to:
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in .rtf, .pdf, .doc, and .docx format. CityPages will notify the author upon acceptance but will not entertain inquiries.
Dear Readers,
Dear CityPages readers,
Hello Movember!
What a lovely month it’s been so far, the weather is cooling off and people are more likely to spend their days outdoors now. November is the month when the climate finally switches to winter, and although our winters are usually quite mild and pleasant, I have my suspicions that this year will be slightly colder than usual.
We at CityPages are here to support Men's Cancer Awareness as we did our part in spreading the awareness on Breast Cancer last month. We have assembled a very special issue this month with the amazing cover by Dr. Tareq Burezq. I am sure you will love it too! November 14 is World Diabetes Day and we will also be playing our part in spreading the awareness on early detection and urging you to change your lifestyle to stay away from Diabetes. I also hope you will love our special feature this month bringing you 15 inspiring men in Kuwait. We take pride in bringing such lively and unique content for our readers. I had a wonderful experience doing my segment - Life of a Diva at Violet Skin Boutique and our team photographer Faith AlFahad has shot some amazing photos. Make sure to flip to page 63 and have a look at it. We were recently amongst the lucky ones to attend and participate in the highest comedy show in the world organized by AlGas Events and AlHamra Tower. It was an amazing event. You can see photos of the event on page 152. And there’s a lot more in this issue: a Review of International Optique Co., our food tasting at Maharani Restaurant, and plenty of gift ideas for men. Sweet November we have special feelings for you with the perfect weather and perfect time to start thinking of our new plans for 2014! Till next issue!
This winter advent has inspired all types of activity, and we have not been short of places to go, events to attend and people to see. It’s also great weather for marathons and they have been going strong, as proven by the growing number of participants every year. Welcome to the Men’s issue, seeing it is “Movember” prostate cancer awareness month, so we as CityPages who consider it crucial to support every good cause are dedicating this issue to men and are proud to be featuring our pick of the 15 most inspiring men in Kuwait, hats off to you all; I have met a few, interviewed a few (such as Farid Abdal who managed to change my perception on life in just a few hours) and am honestly, very inspired. Our awesome team AbdulAziz Al Khamis aka Wikedz and Hussein Jassem are featured in their own spread this month, modeling for Harvey Nichols, photographed by the talented Andre Shirazi. Not only are my talented colleagues contributors to our pages, but handsome enough to model in them too. Catch them inside. Last but not least we are also bringing attention and awareness to Diabetes, as International Diabetes Day is on the 14th of November. This is an issue close to my heart, and I and many others am very grateful to the effort of the Dasman Diabetes Center and our government for paying extra attention to this preventable disease. Stay healthy, stay safe.
Abeer M. Alabduljalil
Photographer: By the amazing team at Seventy Seven Studio @seventyseven_kw
CONTENTS
58 AUTOMOTIVE 136 AirStream 138 Below Zero Ice Driving
ART
48 Out of Kuwait Arts Exhibition
BEAUTY
60 Healthy Skin=Beautiful Skin 62 What Your Nose Can't Know
ENTERTAINMENT
104 November Movie Releases 107 Top Music Charts
FASHION
124 ZOUCH Fashion 126 Fashion News
NOVEMBER 2013 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 47
114 FEATURE
20 Get Re-Inspired! 56 Know Your Birthstone 67 CityPages 15 Inspiring Men 2013 105 WADJDA - A Saudi Movie 106 Movies About Cancer
FITNESS
36 What Makes a Personal Trainer? 38 Did Cavemen Wear Weight Belts?
FOOD
50 Maharain - Food Review 52 Diary of a Nutritionista
HEALTH
23 VBAC Facts? 25 Foods for Healthy Eyes 26 Prostate Cancer 28 ما هو مفهوم للحريه؟
130 INTERVIEW 30 44 54 58 114 130
Dr. Tareq Burezq In the Living Room Lounge with KINDA Street Chic! by Laly & Hussain Jassim
Typical Mryiam Huda Alanizy Patrick Dempsey
KIDS
28 REGULARS 142 145 155 162 166
Asnan Live
Events Press Horoscopes Homework for Grown-Ups
REVIEW
40 International Optique 63 Life of a Diva - Violet Skin Boutique
118 Harvey Nichols Kuwait
LITERATURE 108 110 111 113
Fame in the Adriatic by Nada Faris November Book Releases CP BookClub by Nada Soliman Short Stories by Nadia AlHassan
TECHNOLOGY
99 BBM BlackBerry Messenger 100 Cool New Gadgets
FEATURE
Zahra Taqi
Certified Professional Coach President of Milestones Coaching
As always, I would love to hear back from you so please feel free to drop me a line on my email: [email protected] or find me on FB: http://www.facebook. com/MilestonesCoaching or twitter: @ MilestonesCoach
The seasons are changing, winter is slowly making its way back and there are only a few weeks left of the year. What does that mean to you? Well, now is a great time for you to review your goals of the year, what did you set for yourself to do last January? It is sometimes too easy to focus on what we have NOT done, so before I go any further let me stress on one thing; goals are meant to inspire us, to keep us going, and to give us that spark we need. Reviewing our goals should not be about beating ourselves up, rather a time to learn and move on. You know that the next few weeks are going to whiz by and New Year’s Eve will be here before you know it, so I invite you now to look at your progress and refocus on what is really important to you. May be the goals you did not accomplished are not the things you really care about? May be these goals are not aligned with your own values? Thinking about all of these things is by far better and more beneficial than just blaming yourself for
Get Re-Inspired! why you failed to reach those goals. If you are on track with your goals – lucky you! You did a great job! If you feel like your goals somehow got away from you, that's OK! The reason I ask you to look back is to give yourself a chance to celebrate your success, and applaud yourself for all the hard work you committed to that enabled you to get to where you are today. This can be done simply by making a list of all your accomplishments this year and acknowledging your progress. To help you with your review, here is an example of what you can do to help you refocus: 1.“What are my 3 biggest priorities for the rest of the year?” 2.“Are the goals still inspiring? What might need to change?”
3.“What could I do to make sure the goals get completed easily?” Now, if you feel you are behind on your goals, here are the questions that you should ask yourself and hopefully the answers will help you move forward: 1.“What are my 3 biggest priorities for the rest of the year?” 2."What could inspire me AND is reasonable to accomplish this year?” 3.“What is the MOST important thing I want to complete?” 4.“What do I need to let go of to ensure I achieve my goals?” Goals are important. They help us create the life we want and we can get satisfaction and temporary happiness from achieving them. But, when we are too focused on goals, striving to achieve them, we are merely pursuing happiness. It is at that moment that we stop enjoying the journey and happiness becomes a destination, instead of always being with us. “Happiness is a butterfly, which when pursued, is always just beyond our grasp, but which, if you will sit down quietly, may alight upon you.” ~ Nathaniel Hawthorne
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HEALTH
Sarah Paksima
VBAC Facts Are you pregnant again after a previous cesarean? Before you decide whether to have a repeat cesarean or try for a normal delivery, get the facts, and make an informed decision.
Sarah Paksima is a Board Member of BirthKuwait and a Doula, Childbirth Educator.
Myth: “Once a cesarean, always a cesarean.” Fact:The National Institute of Health (NIH) stated at the NIH Consensus Development Conference on Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC) that, “VBAC is a reasonable and safe choice for the majority of women with prior cesarean.” The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concurred with these findings, and added that “most” women with one prior cesarean and “some” women with two prior cesareans are candidates for VBAC.
BirthKuwait is a non-profit organization operating as part of The Voluntary Health Association. For more information, visit their website: www.birthkuwait.com or Instagram: @birthkuwait
that first time moms are at risk for complications that are equally serious to uterine rupture and occur at a similar rate such as placental abruption, cord prolapse, and shoulder dystocia.
Myth:If I have any of the following, I am not a candidate for a VBAC: Twins, vertical incision, a large baby, 40+ weeks pregnant. Fact:ACOG states that the above conditions are NOT contraindications for a VBAC. The following conditions are contraindications for a VBAC: a “T” or “J” incision, a prior uterine rupture, or a previous surgery on the upper uterus.
Myth: Doctors and hospitals in Kuwait are not trained to handle the serious complications that might accompany a VBAC. Fact:Any hospital with a labor and delivery unit has protocols in place to respond to obstetrical emergencies. The same guidelines used to manage complications arising from any vaginal birth (including placental abruption, cord prolapse, or shoulder dystocia) are used to address uterine rupture in VBAC moms. This is because most complications involve one or both of the same two problems: oxygen loss to the infant and/or maternal bleeding. Hospitals and obstetrical doctors are trained to handle these rare events.
Myth:VBAC after one cesarean has a high risk of uterine rupture. Fact:The risk of uterine rupture after one cesarean is about 0.5%-1%, depending on factors. Keep in mind
Myth:To be prepared for an emergency cesarean, epidurals are required in VBAC moms. Or, others claim that VBAC moms can’t have epidurals because it will “obscure” the pain of uterine rupture. Fact: According to ACOG, epidurals may be used in a VBAC and evidence actually suggests that epidurals do not mask uterine rupture-related pain. Myth:There is a high risk of either baby or mom dying during a VBAC. Fact:The risk of maternal mortality is very low whether a woman plans a VBAC (0.0038%) or an elective repeat cesarean (0.0134%). Limited evidence, because of the rarity of uterine rupture to begin with and the varying circumstances that surround uterine rupture, suggests that there is a 2.8-6.2% risk of infant mortality when a uterine rupture occurs. Myth:Repeat cesareans carry fewer risks than a VBAC Fact:The most serious cesarean-related complications become more likely after each successive cesarean These
complications include placental abnormalities such as placenta accreta which carries a 7% maternal mortality rate and a 7% maternal mortality rate and a 70% hysterectomy rate. After two cesareans, the risk of accreta is .57% similar to the risk of uterine rupture after one cesarean. So a woman who has opts for a second cesarean is merely trading the risk of a uterine rupture after one cesarean, for placenta accreta after two. Myth:If your hospital doesn’t offer VBAC, you have to have a repeat cesarean. Fact:Howard Minkoff MD reiterated at the 2010 NIH VBAC Conference that “Autonomy is an unrestricted negative right which means a woman, a person, anybody, has a right to refuse surgery at any time.” ACOG concurred that “restrictive VBAC policies should not be used to force women to undergo a repeat cesarean delivery against their will.” Myth: Most VBACs are not successful. Fact: Women who attempt a planned VBAC have an overall success rate of 74%. It is important for women who are pregnant after a cesarean to accept that there is no risk free option. Each woman should consult with her husband, doctor, and childbirth educator to determine which risks she is more willing to tolerate, as she is the one who has to live with the outcomes. If you have more questions, see VBACfacts.com. For local support, go to www.BirthKuwait for a list of childbirth advocates. November 2013
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Sahara Kuwait Resort Welcomes Guests “our concept of hospitality is to exceed the level of satisfaction that our guests expect when they are in all the resort’s facilities.” Hassan Bayerli General Manager
The
Kuwait
Resort
welcomes guests and visitors to an atmosphere of luxury and privacy in the vast green golf course view lined up with flowers to add more beauty. The team invites the guests and visitors to enjoy the premium lifestyle experience at Sahara. The Golf, The academy for golf education, the luxurious villas with unique green view and privacy, the fitness center and Spa, swimming pools, Jacuzzis, sauna and tennis and squash courts, while restaurants in the Resort offer exquisite cuisine according to quality standards in addition to the facilities available in meetings/events rooms that are equipped up to date.
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Foods For Healthy Eyes
Erika Habig
Erika Habig is an optometrist and contact lens specialist at International Optique. She studied at the Beuth University of Applied Sciences in Berlin, Germany and has a Bachelor of Science degree in Optometry and Dispensing Optics.
We’ve all heard that carrots promote eye health, and it's true! Beta-carotene, a type of carotenoid responsible for the orange color of carrots, is a precursor of vitamin A, which protects the retina and our vision. However, good eyesight is not just about beta-carotene. Several other vitamins, minerals and antioxidants are vital for healthy eyes.
Greens
Leafy greens such as spinach and kale are packed full of lutein and zeaxanthin. These powerful antioxidants are the best help to reduce the onset of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and cataracts. Spinach and kale should be part of every salad you eat! Broccoli, peas and avocados are also excellent sources of these antioxidants.
Colorful Fruits and Veggies
Carrots, tomatoes, cantaloupe and pink grapefruit are excellent sources of vitamins A and C. These colorful foods are also full of carotenoids, including lycopene, which may slow the progression of cataracts.
Berries and Citrus Fruits
Vitamin C-rich fruits, like oranges, papayas, lemons and strawberries, help support blood vessels in the eye and reduce the risk of cataracts and age-related macular degeneration. Apricots and blueberries are also loaded with beta-carotene. These delicious foods make great healthy snacks and strengthen the immune system and your vision.
Fish
Tuna, salmon and sardines contain lots of omega-3 fatty acids, which may help in the prevention of eye diseases and dry eye syndrome. If you don't eat seafood, you can get a good supply of omega-3s by using fish oil supplements or taking vegetarian supplements that include flaxseed oil and black currant seed oil.
Healthy Oils
The risk of retinal diseases can be reduced by the use of oils low in saturated and trans fats, such as olive oil. When buying olive oil, look for extra virgin oil for the additional antioxidant boost it provides.
Nuts
Increase your eye health with omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin E contained in pistachios, walnuts, almonds and peanuts. Vitamin E may also hinder the development of age-related macular degeneration. Sunflower seeds and hazelnuts are also good sources of vitamin E.
Eggs
Like leafy greens, egg yolks are an excellent source of lutein and zeaxanthin. The yolk is also a prime source of zinc, a mineral that is essential to eye health. Proper
amounts of zinc may improve night vision and the prevention of cataracts and agerelated macular degeneration. Vitamin supplements are also available; however it is advisable to consult your ophthalmologist before purchasing these. Next time you go to the supermarket, be sure to stock up on these eye-friendly foods. Although they won’t reverse the need for prescription eyewear, they can help keep your eyesight from getting worse. Besides, eating well benefits your overall lifestyle and health, not just your vision. November 2013
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HEALTH
Dr. Nazia Nausheen
Prostate Cancer Dr. Nazia Nausheen is a Certified Medical Doctor. She also holds a Masters Degree in Business, Specializing in Sales and Marketing. Disseminates valuable information in her extensive medical seminars and workshops. Readers should look forward to her regular articles on women health and other general health related issues.
What All Men Must Know
As we at CityPages celebrate Movember this month, I am dedicating my article to Prostate Cancer which is the most common cancer in men. African-American men have the highest rate of prostate cancer in the world. Men with family histories of the disease are also at greater risk. In addition, the risk for prostate cancer increases with age. It most often appears after the age of 50. The prostate gland is part of the male reproductive system. It produces semen, the fluid that carries sperm. The prostate gland is found below the bladder and in front of the rectum. Normally, the prostate is about the size of a walnut. As a man gets older, the prostate often becomes enlarged. Here I bring you some important information that all men must know about prostate cancer and take measures to avoid or cure it.
What is Cancer of the Prostate?
Prostate cancer is a cancer that starts in the prostate gland. Cancer causes cells in the body to change and grow out of control. Most types of cancer form a lump or a growth called a tumor. If there is a cancerous tumor in the prostate, a man may not know it. Most cases of prostate cancer develop very slowly. However, in some men, it can grow quickly and spread to other parts of the body. What Causes Prostate Cancer?
While the exact causes of prostate cancer are not known, certain risk factors have been linked to prostate cancer. A risk factor is something that increases a person's chance of getting a disease. Aging is the greatest risk factor for prostate cancer. Family history also plays a role. If a man's father or brother has cancer of the prostate, his risk is two to three times greater than average. Diet may also be a factor. Men who eat large amounts of animal fat, particularly fats from red meat, may face a greater risk of prostate cancer than men who eat less animal fat. What are the Symptoms Of Prostate Cancer?
Often, there are NO symptoms in the early stages of prostate cancer. If symptoms DO occur, they can vary, depending on the size and exact location of the lump or the growth in the prostate. Since the prostate surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine and semen, any change in the prostate can cause problems with urination and ejaculation. However, similar symptoms can be caused by a number of things, including an infection or a non-cancerous condition called benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). If a man has any problems with weak or interrupted flow or pain while urinating,
painful ejaculation, blood in the urine or semen, or, a nagging pain in the back, hips or pelvis, he should see a health care provider or an urologist to find out what's going on. A health care provider may order tests to determine the cause of the symptoms. What Type of Exam is Used to Detect Prostate Cancer?
Your health care provider may feel for any unusual lumps or growths on the prostate by pressing on it or using a gloved finger inside the rectum (digital rectal exam or DRE). Your health care provider may also order a blood test. This blood test measures the level of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a protein that is produced by the prostate. Higher than expected levels of PSA may mean that a tumor is present. However, high PSA levels may also be caused by an infection or an enlarged prostate. Talk with your health care provider about the tests that are right for you. What Happens if They Find Something?
If your health care provider finds something suspicious, more tests may be needed. Often, the problem may be just an enlarged prostate or a simple infection. Further tests, including urinalysis, blood tests, x rays, ultrasound or a biopsy, may help diagnose your problem. Your health care provider may refer you to an urologist or other specialists for some of these tests and for any needed treatments. What if I am Told That I Have Prostate Cancer?
You should get a second opinion before undergoing any treatment. Seek advice from a specialist (urologist, surgeon, radiologist or oncologist) who has extensive experience in the diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. Not all treatments work for everyone. However, you have the right to know all the choices you have and to play an active part in treatment decisions. What is the Treatment?
The earlier prostate cancer is detected, the more options that are available. Surgery, radiation therapy (either external beam or internal seed implants), hormone therapy or some combination of these are all commonly used. Depending on your age and condition, and your wishes, your health care provider may recommend only that you be watched and tested several times a year. Some urologists feel that, for men over age 70, the risks of surgery or radiation treatment outweigh any benefits. Therefore, they recommend "watchful waiting". If you are younger and in good health, your health care provider will be more likely to recommend that the cancer be treated. Any treatment may have side effects. Talk with your health care providers about your treatment options. Make sure you understand the risks, benefits and chances of success.
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ما هو مفهوم للحريه؟
Licensed Clinical PsychotherapistUniversity Of Auckland-New Zealand. -Life Skills Trainer. Al-osra Center 23717997
هل هي ان اتخلى عن الضوابط واتصرف كما اريد واقول انا حره ،،،او اكسر القوانني واقول كل ما اريده او اجرح االخرين بكالمي واقول انا لي حرية الرأي،،،برايك هذه هي احلريه؟!؟ احلريه هو ان نتحرر من اجلهل وان نتعلم ولكي نتعلم فنحن بحاجه الى قوانني واسس وضوابط،،،، احلريه هو ان نتحرر من الفقر والظلم ولنتخلص من الفقر والظلم ونعيش بسعاده وراحه فنحن بحاجه الى اسس وقوانني وضوابط حتى النجاح يجب ان نتعرف قوانني الصعود على سلم النجاح.... اذن ال حريه بدون قوانني وضوابط،،،واذا كان هناك حريه بدون قوانني وضوابط فهذي تعتبر فوضى وليست حريه...وهناك شعره بني احلريه والفوضى .....وهذا احلاصل اليوم كل مانراه هو فوضى حتت مصطلح
(انا حر وهذه حريتي) من حق االنسان ان يعيش حرا ً ال مستعبدا ً ...وان تكون حرا ً في االختيار والقرار وان تعرف حقوقك وواجباتك اوال ً وال تتعدى على حريات وحقوق االخرين كثيرا ً مانسمع كلمة (انا حر) وتتردد كثيرا ً بال وعي ولألسف ايضا ً يرددونها االزواج الناضجني بال معنى انت حر فعالً لكن هل تنادي بحريتك فقط عندما يتعلق االمر مبصاحلك فقط وتهضم حقوق من حولك بدون وعي بإختصار احلرية اخالق وتعامل وواجبات ووحقوق وضوابط وقوانني
citypageskuwait.com
INTERVIEW
Dr. Tareq Burezq Helping to achieve a smile that you have always desired
Dr. Tareq Burezq is a prosthodontist and a cofounder of Asnan Tower – the biggest dental center in Middle East. His experience and the recognition of his peers have set Dr. Tareq apart in the dentist community. His ongoing extensive educational pursuits, constant review of the latest technologies, and lengthy tenure of 14 years delivering aesthetic and functional results have contributed to the solid reputation of his prosthodontic practice. He truly believes that striving for excellence is an important part of professionalism in any job. Here he tells CityPages about his achievements and some common challenges that he faces in his practice.
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INTERVIEW
Can you please briefly introduce yourself to our readers? I am Dr. Tareq Burezq, a prosthodontist working full time at Asnan Tower. I truly believe in the motto: if you love what you do, you never have to work a day in your life. Here at Asnan Tower I love every day! And this is because I am surrounded by colleagues I trust and respect. We work as a team to create beautiful smiles every day. I am very proud of being a cofounder of Asnan Tower. Our goal is to bring the highest standard and quality to our patients. We strictly apply US standards in every aspect of our work i.e. facilities, materials, and treatment. We work hard at applying our knowledge to properly treat our patients. Please tell us about your education? • Certificate of Specialization in Cosmetic Dentistry and Implants - Harvard University, United States of America. • MA in Medical Sciences - Harvard University, United States of America. • Doctor of Dental Surgery - University of Missouri, USA. • Bachelor of Arts and Science - University of Missouri, USA. • Member of Board of Dentistry - USA. • Certificate of Honor in Cosmetic Dentistry - College of Cosmetic Dentistry, USA • Fellowship of the International College of Dentistry, USA. • Fellowship of American College for Medical Sciences and Cosmetic Dentistry. • Master of Emeritus in Dental Science - American College of Medical Sciences and Cosmetic Dentistry. • Member of the American College of Dental Aesthetics. • Member of the American Academy of Cosmetic Dental. • Former dentist at Amiri Hospital. • Assistant Professor at University of Kuwait, 2006 2010. • Secretary General Dental Association, 2007 - 2011.
What about your mustaches? We have heard that you have grown them specially for this interview, why is that? Yes, I have specially grown my mustaches to show my full support for Movember which is a worldwide fund-raising campaign that encourages men to grow mustaches in the month of November to raise money and awareness for men's health issues. I urge all men to get a regular check-up as early detection can save lives. I am a strong supporter of healthy living.
"The most challenging aspect early on in my career was to apply the knowledge i gained at university to build a reputation amongst my peers"
How long have you been practicing dentistry? 14 years
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citypageskuwait.com
Having a cosmetic procedure of any kind is a big decision – how do you help your patients through the first step? We first need to understand what the patient wishes to achieve at the end of his treatment and then see if we can meet his expectations and if not we need him to understand what results to expect. How has the technology in cosmetic dentistry improved over the years? New technology has made cosmetic dentistry faster, more aesthetic, longer lasting, and more natural. Tell us of your most difficult case so far? Dealing with teeth is the easy part. It is a puzzle that can be solved given the right tools and time and by following the proper treatment plan. The hardest part is dealing with the patient who has unrealistic expectations. Tell us of your achievements and awards? • Certificate of Honor from the College of International Dentist, USA • Certificate of Honor in Cosmetic Dentistry from the College of Cosmetic Dentistry, USA • Fellowship of the International College of Dentistry, USA. • Fellowship of American College for Medical Sciences and Cosmetic Dentistry. • Master of Emeritus in Dental Science from the American College of Medical Sciences and Cosmetic Dentistry. Your message for our readers: Take care of your teeth because they will last you a lifetime and remember that prevention is the best cure so brush and floss every day and visit your dentist biannually.
What areas of dentistry does your practice cover? Prosthodontics is the dental specialty pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment planning, rehabilitation and maintenance of the oral function, comfort, appearance, cosmetic and health of patients with clinical conditions associated with missing or deficient teeth. What is cosmetic dentistry? Cosmetic dentistry is generally used to refer to any dental work that improves the appearance of a person's teeth, gums and/or bite giving them an improved smile.
Being known as a top cosmetic dentist and a clinician who is passionate about progressive dentistry, what were some of the early successes and challenges you faced early on in your practice? The most challenging aspect early on in my career was to apply the knowledge I gained at university to build a reputation amongst my peers. But first, with the help of God and second, by working hard and continuing to strive for excellence, I was able to meet my goals and gain the reputation I am proud of today.
What advice do you have for new dentists who want to become the next Dr. Tareq Burezq? Work hard. Strive to be the best. Accept challenges. Do not fear failures. Do not stop the learning process. Dr. Tareq is wearing a CANCER Face Watch to support Cancer Patients. Buying 1 Cancer Face Watch supports 8 Cancer Patients. Show your support by buying a Cancer Face Watch today, available at all outlets of Elements Watches and Accessories
Your message for the CityPages team: Smiling is understood in every language.
Photographer: By the amazing team at Seventy Seven Studio @seventyseven_kw
INTERVIEW
Certified Professional Trainer
1.Your Personal Trainer should be certified.
Reshmi Revi is the Education and Personal Training Manager for MultiWorks and an IFBB Bikini Competitor. A Certified Personal Trainer (CPT), Reshmi holds a Bachelors of Communication Studies Degree from the Auckland University of Technology. A fitness enthusiast, she welcomes your queries and comments at [email protected]. Follow her on Twitter & Instagram @Q8MissFit.
What makes a Personal Trainer?
Would you hire an individual who isn’t qualified as an architect to design and build your house? Chances are, your answer to that would be a resounding “no” Hence, why would you get someone who isn’t academically qualified to design and help you build the body you want? When choosing a Personal Trainer, it is appropriate to ask them what their qualifications are. One of the biggest challenges we face in Kuwait is fitness education. Around the world, personal trainers are required to complete a couple of mini courses each year to keep them on their toes. We professionals call this CPD courses or ‘Continuing Professional Development’ courses to ensure our fitness knowledge is always up to date and not stagnated. Again, you are within your rights to ask your potential trainer what courses he or she has done.
2.Getting you inspired and off the ground! I’ll be the first one to admit that I sometimes will bark at my clients in their sessions. However, I am confident to say that my clients enjoy their workouts despite me growling at them. Why? Because I listen. Find a trainer who’ll listen to your fitness goals and tailor your program specifically for you. Find a trainer with whom you can connect and have great rapport with. Your trainer should be able to empathize with you and inspire you to want to achieve your fitness goals. Most importantly, a great trainer would want feedback from you. We’re not Gods. We don’t have degrees in mind-reading. Sometimes clients and trainers might not agree on the exercise prescription in question. Trainer wants the client to do a certain exercise because it will benefit the client. Client doesn’t want to do the workout because it might be mundane. A great trainer will ask for feedback and hence tweak the program and find a happy middle ground that will satisfy both parties.
3.Friends with benefits? I can say that I have become real good friends with some of my clients. However, there is no friendship during their personal training session. For that whole 60minutes, it’s me working them to the ground and being hard on them should they not deliver. I understand that over time, most individuals tend to have great rapport with their trainers as they probably see them more frequently than they do with their friends. However, if you find that you’re chatting more and not working enough with your trainer, you need to address the issue. If it doesn’t change and there’s still a lot more chatter than blood, sweat and tears, then perhaps it is time to find another trainer as you both have become very comfortable with each other.
4.Variety is the spice of life
In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the heroine once professed “What’s in a name, that which we call a rose, by any other name would smell as sweet.” By that declaration, Juliet was simply stating that regardless if her Romeo was a Montague or not, he would still be her chosen one (well, we all know how that worked out…) So what do tragic Shakespearean plays have to do with fitness? Well, my question to you is this: “What makes Personal Trainer?” The biggest challenge Kuwait faces in the fitness industry today are individuals who are willy-nilly labeling themselves as Personal Trainers. I mean, if I woke up one day and decided that hey, I want to be a pilot and as such, I am not going to pilot school but instead I am going to rock on up to the airport and try to fly a Kuwait Airways airplane, what do you think would happen to me? Why, I’d probably be arrested and institutionalized for my behavior. Hence, if you’re thinking about investing in your health and are wanting to get a Personal Trainer, here are some guidelines to help you with your search:
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Great trainers will keep you on your toes. If you’re a beginner and are new to the fitness game, a great trainer will show you proper execution of the exercise and most importantly tell you why it is beneficial to you. If you’re an intermediate or advance in the fitness game, a great trainer will always make each and every session different. Why pay good money to work out with a personal trainer and do the same routine that you can probably do on your own? I hit the gym 7 days a week and nonetheless, I work out with a trainer once a week. Despite the fact that I train really intensely on my own, my trainer always finds new and fantastic workouts that are challenging and push me to my limits.
5.Walk the talk. Here’s a question to ponder on: If you were at a social gathering and suddenly the topic of fitness came up, would you take health and fitness advice from someone who didn’t look healthy? If your answer is no, here’s another query: Would you take advice from a trainer who didn’t look the part? Your personal trainer should as one says, walk the talk. If they’re spouting health and fitness advice, they should look the part. With the boom of social media and especially Instagram in Kuwait, you can easily see what your trainer gets up to. If they don’t adhere to healthy eating and train poorly, then how are they suppose to get you into shape when their fitness and health isn’t up to par? One may say that their knowledge makes them qualified personal trainers. However, if they aren’t applying what they know to help their health and wellbeing, how are they suppose to help you?
FITNESS
Maha AlRashed
CHEK Certified Exercise Coach
Did cavemen wear weight belts? Being that this month’s issue is all about Movember, I thought I’d touch a little on things I see men doing at the gym. It’s great to see that so many men are taking responsibility by being more conscious of their health and wellbeing. Don’t get me wrong; going to the gym is one of the toughest things to do when you aren’t motivated, a gym can be very beneficial for the body or very dangerous. Not to say that all men training at the gym are doing so badly, but I feel that this would be the platform for me to express the need to drop the frequently used weight belt and work on muscles that is your natural weight belt called your core! When I say core, I don’t mean the six pack abs that everyone is training, I mean 4 muscles that are part of your inner unit, your diaphragm, transverse abdominus, pelvic floor and spinal stabilizers. The inner unit is used to stiffen and stabilize your spine. Now try this, you are going to lift weights, you squat to pick up those weights, you don’t have your weight belt on, you inhale by letting your belly drop, exhale by drawing your belly in and lift! Just by doing that you would have simply activated your core,
and all 4 muscles have been woken up and activated. The amazing thing about the human body is its interconnectedness. When you activate your pelvic floor, your spinal stabilizers, diaphragm and TVA are automatically activated because they are neurologically connected. By training with a weight belt you are detraining your inner unit and weakening them. If you are a weight belt user, pay attention next time you use a weight belt, your natural reflex when bending to lift would be to let your belly push against the belt which goes against the natural function of your muscles. Now don’t get me wrong, I’m not saying that weight belts are the worst thing to ever happen, what I’m saying is that they really don’t prepare you for what happens day to day. Picture this, you are hanging out with your family at home, and your little brother, nephew or whoever loses their balance and is about to fall over, you turn to catch them before they hit the ground, you may have succeeded in breaking their fall, but at the same time you did something to your back that you can’t get out of bed at worst and at best your walking funny for a couple of days. Research has shown that isolation exercises are a new thing, but we are all cavemen/cavewomen aren’t we? That doesn’t mean that this isolation exercises are bad, it just means that these exercises make us strong in that particular exercise and nothing else really. So doing a million and one crunches a day makes you great at doing crunches, but could you visualize our ancestors while running away from a tiger or in my case an angry camel would bust into a couple of hundred crunches to make sure that his/her six pack wasn’t fading away? I believe that to be highly unlikely! They didn’t need to do crunches because their abs were toned from doing integrated functional movements while having proper activation of their core muscles.
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International Optique
Providing total eye care experience for the whole family
International Optique is commended for offering quality service since 1978. Established by a German Optometrist, Rolf K. Habig, with a vision to achieve the highest standards in quality eye care with the mission to give its customers the ultimate experience in eye care and create a new culture in eyewear fashion. His highly qualified Optometrist daughter April Habig, who joined international Optique in 2002, gave International Optique a fresh approach and down- toearth positivity that has developed long lasting relationships with many happy clients over the years. From a dedicated team of just 4 people to a committed lineup of 69 professional in 15 years is an impressive achievement. International Optique offers the service of qualified and trained staff at every level. Each of their new staff member has to go through their ‘in-house training’ for at least 2 years at the main branch. They have a centralized operating system and an efficient home delivery service with 9
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delivery vans at their disposal. At International Optique you will find everything from funky shades and opticals to the best in international brands is available to suit the customer’s wide range of diverse personalities. International Optique wants its customers to rely on them for the latest trends in eyewear, but also find the friendly staff to be a familiar face they look forward to seeing for years to come. International Optique honors its commitment to bring quality, value pricing and excellent customer service. Located at the mezzanine floor of Central Plaza, the main branch of International Optique is a one-stop shopping destination for eyewear. It has 6 sections: Gallery, Kids Optical Boutique, Contact Lens Center, Eye Wear Center, Low Vision Aid Center, and Hearing Aid Studio. The burgundy and beige interior, furnished with
REVIEW
imported Italian furniture looks elegant and comfortable. Their Eyewear section has 6 testing rooms, all fitted with the latest technology and a separate area for ladies where they can sit, relax and can be consulted in privacy. Their central workshop is equipped with sophisticated machines and managed by highly trained professionals. Their expert opticians and European qualified Optometrists continue to nurture a standard of care that their discerning customers appreciate and validate, by sharing their experience with family and friends. Their return clients know about their unrivaled designer eyewear collections and attentive customer service delivered by the most knowledgeable people in the optical industry. Apart from their ‘Main Branch’, International Optique has five more branches at AlMuthanna Complex, Arraya Mall, Souk Sharq, Hilton Resort, and Al-Kout mall.
Gallery Gallery is the place where customers can view different sunglasses and sports glasses designs and try them on. One section of gallery carries a huge inventory of sunglasses from wearable funky glasses to fashionable high end brands. In general there are 50 - 60 brands displayed. They offer unique styles and niche brands providing their customers with a large variety of choices compared to other opticians around. They have famous designers like FEB 31st, Chanel, Tom Ford to name a few as well as they specialize in niche products like handmade November 2013
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REVIEW
wooden frames, buffalo horn frames, and plastic frames. Being strong advocates for eye protection while participating in sporting activities, they stock a wide selection of prescription and non-prescription sport frames in the other section of the gallery. These specialized frames might not be fun or fashionable but they are essential for safety. Sports glasses come with special rubber pads to protect eyes and nose bridge. Goggles for military, scuba diving, shooting and swimming are also available here. To accommodate client's every need related to eye care, International Optique also provide various accessories like gadgets from France, leather cases, fancy cases for kids, chains, floating cords, and fancy cords for ladies.
Kid’s Optical Boutique International Optique became pioneer in Kuwait by opening the first optical shop for kids. Their Kid’s Optical Boutique has the largest collection of frames for infants up to 12 years’ of age. They provide a large variety of high-quality, durable and fashion forward frames. Though eye testing for kids is not performed at International Optique as per Ministry of Health regulations, but their certified opticians work oneon-one with you and your child to give the best advice on how to use glasses and which frames are suitable for a particular prescription to ensure that the selected style is best suited for facial characteristics, prescription requirements and your child’s unique personality. Their opticians bring you and your family professionalism, years of training and experience to ensure correct measurements and proper frame fit.
Contact Lens Center Their Contact Lens Center is a spacious place where their clients can sit, relax and their queries can be answered. In addition, there are two testing rooms where comprehensive eye exam by one of their licensed Optometrists, will determine which contact lenses are most compatible with your eyes and can fit your individual contact lens types to suit your correction and needs. They have highly trained professionals, who have experience in fitting patients with post lasik, irregular corneas and other complicated cases. In addition to the wide range of contact lenses in stock to be dispensed right away, they also have a very efficient ordering system means that they can order any type of lens which might not be available locally. International Optique offers not only popular brands like Johnson & Johnson, Acuvue, Focus and Ciba Vision but also carries exclusive products like Mark Ennovy contact lenses for Bifocal and Toric contact lenses.
Eye Wear Being owned by a family of Optometrists, curating their eyewear collections is a passion that they love to share with us. They search the world for styles and designs that they know will be perfect for an individual’s unique face and their skilled opticians help you through every step of the way, beginning with frame selection to the fitting and dispensing of your eyewear. International Optique has an unrivaled stock of frames in Kuwait. Apart from the high end fashion brands like Cartier, Lindberg, David Yurman, ChromeHearts, Fendi, Oliver Peoples and Christian Dior, they have an exclusive partnership with brands like Mykita, Dita, and Barton Perreira.
Hearing Aid Studio International Optique has a separate department for people with hearing problems. They have qualified and well trained team who has expertise in hearing devices and latest technology from Siemens that can help improve a patient’s hearing. At
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REVIEW
Hearing Aid Studio, they do hearing screening, hearing evaluation, and hearing aid fitting. They also offer home services to the people unable to reach their Hearing Aid Studio. Customized ear plugs are also available here and are used for swimming to decrease chances of ear infections and for shootings or concerts for noise reduction.
Dental Loupes Surgeons and dentists need magnifiers for their practice and International Optique made it sure that it has everything for everyone’s needs. Not only that they can produce customized dental and surgical loupes but they also offer repairing services.
Low Vision Aids International Optique is a leader in the Middle East in providing an extensive collection of Low Vision Aids. These Aids can help people with very low vision due to eye diseases like macular degeneration. From Simple devices to CCTV’s that can increase the magnification up to 75 times are available to suit every person’s needs. November 2013
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with Wessam Tariq AlSenafi and Fajer Tariq AlSenafi
Elementwo Airbrush make-up
Tried and tested in The Living Room Lounge with make-up hoarder Kinda Al Faris The new generation of HD make-up has hit our shores, via a group of girls who are firm believers that make-up should be flawless and sanitary. I couldn’t agree more so when I was invited to try out this not so novel concept of applying flawless everyday make up I was excited since the only time I was ever near an airbrush was when I was in Art School. The idea of airbrush make-up is not new; it was first invented for use in 1925 by the makeup artists who were working on the Ben Hur movie, which was composed of a large cast whom all needed to be made up in the quickest time possible. Jumping forward some almost ninety years later, airbrush make-up is still being used in the film and music industry as the preferred method of make-up application because it creates a more even coverage, that is sheer enough in consistency not to highlight the flaws which can now be seen on high definition television and print.
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INTERVIEW
Airbrush make-up has moved into the mainstream, and can now be used by individuals at home to obtain the same professional results. There are even different formulas depending on how much coverage one needs. The water based formulas are the standard for daily use, and since they can last between 12-24 hours they are an ideal option for anyone requiring their make-up to last, such as for the office, or if involved in fashion modeling or photography as well as television. The second formula is the silicone based one, is even longer lasting and is another option for long-wear, as it is a non fading formula however, a thicker formula and is considered the heavy coverage option of the two. There are two types of airbrushes, dual and single action, which are nothing more than a personal choice for those using the airbrush but the single action brush is ideal for home use. This doesn’t mean that one can’t master both types. The array of color option is surprisingly very good, with shades to suit every possible skin tone, and more since they can be mixed to match any color one desires. One can even use the pigment as eye shadows, blush, lipstick and even eyebrows. The colors are sold in color corresponding kits, with each kit consisting of three skin tones, a blusher tone, and a bronzer shade. There are also separate bronzer, blusher, contour and pigment kits available to purchase for make-up artists who work with a variety of skin-tones, and who also need the pigment for other uses such as special effects. My experience was a pleasant one, I had a mini – makeover done by the lovely Fajer Al-Senafi who is a Certified Makeup Artist and is brought into the business by her sister Wessam who is the official authorized distributor of a particular brand called elementwo. She gave me a step by step demonstration starting with foundation which came on flawlessly, and was the perfect color match for my skin. November 2013
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INTERVIEW
She explained that airbrush make-up should be layered and so I received a round of approximately five layers. The second surprising step was my favorite part of the demonstration, as I was shown how to contour and highlight my features, and I received some invaluable tips which I will carry on with. Last but not least was the blusher application which I was very pleased with. All in all the whole process took about twenty minutes. The photos will speak for themselves and I have already tried to cajole our Chief Editor into buying the airbrush sets for us CityPages gals who glam up various times a month to attend events, and have our pictures taken. (No such luck, as was the case when we also requested wardrobe [read: shoe] allowance). All in all the airbrush application technique is quite straightforward, and anyone can learn how to use the machine. There is also the guarantee that you can use it to put on your make-up in five minutes or under, as demonstrated quite well by one of the sisters and that is when I was sold on the idea that I had to have one.
The airbrush is priced starting at KD 75/- and comes with a color kit. However, there are various other corresponding tools one can purchase to really take the look one step up. For more information or to purchase an elementwo airbrush system log on to www.kuwait-elementwo.com, follow them on instagram @elementwo4u, or whatsapp them on +965 51139800.
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ART
British Council holds an Arts exhibition ‘’Out of Kuwait’’ for Kuwaiti Artists for the first Time in the UK British Council Kuwait is holding ‘’Out of Kuwait’’ Exhibition from 14 November 2013 until 23 November 2013 at Edge of Arabia in London. The private opening on November 13 will be attended by the 13 artists from Kuwait as well as British Council personal and art specialists in the UK. ‘’ This exhibition is the UK debut show of 13 emerging Kuwait artists who all work in a direct response to living in Kuwait and their work explores the Kuwait landscape in its broadest and most expansive sense. Through a wide variety of means these artists are excavating Kuwait’s social, economic and cultural identity, along with their own interpersonal relationship to the Kuwait’s very particular history.’’ Says Prof. David Rayson Head of Painting – Royal College of Art. Over the past year, Alia Abdal, a graduate from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and David Rayson, organised a series of residency seminars and presentations, also supported by Freya-Douglas Morris, Emanuel Rohss and Laura Fitzgerald- three Masters Degree students from the Painting Programme at the Royal College of Arts in the UK. Visits were organised with the artists to key places unique to the landscape and social make up of Kuwait. They included visits to the desert, the Kuwait City souks, the fishing harbour, the Hamra Tower, shopping malls, Kuwait University and meetings with artists in their studios. Reem Dawani, Arts Project Manager at British Council Kuwait explained “The works presented reflect the trans-disciplinary platforms which group members come from , creative and academic disciplines, hence the varied mediums of expression featured in the art works. I am grateful for the commitment and efforts these artists have shown throughout the course of the project." This exciting young group of Kuwait artists utilise a broad range of traditional and contemporary materials and processes, to reflect their relationship to the history of Kuwait as well as new technologies. These ways of working will be represented in the exhibition. The majority of these artists also staged a dynamic exhibition at the MOMA Gallery in Kuwait in October 2012, and – with the support of the Edge of Arabia Organisation – this exhibition will be a great opportunity for these artists to exhibit ‘’Out of Kuwait’’ for the first time in the UK. Edge of Arabia is an internationally-renowned initiative developing an appreciation for contemporary Arab art and culture. Following its launch in London in 2008, this independent platform has produced landmark exhibitions in Riyadh, Berlin, Istanbul, Dubai, Jeddah, and twice at the Venice Biennale. Over 200,00 people have visited its exhibitions and over 10,000, 000 have come into contact with Arab art through its publications, websites and a highly successful international PR campaign. This exhibition is supported in Kuwait by The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters (NCCAL). The
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Zahra Almahdi Diagram of False Archiving 2
Thuraya lynn HOUSE OF CATS
Thuraya lynn HOUSE OF CATS
Amani Al Thuwaini
Mona Al qanai The Rhumb Line
Aziz Alhumaidhi Unravelling without Moving
Roa Alshaheen The HERD
Council works to foster creativity and cross-cultural interaction. NCCAL’s scope of work involves supporting artists, developing cultural infrastructure and maintaining cultural centres in different governorates across Kuwait, encouraging intellectual production, preserving heritage and tradition and promoting cultural tourism. Contemporary Art Platform (CAP) is a non-profit organisation and cultural centre based in Kuwait, focusing on contemporary and new media art. CAP aims to increase the local and regional visual culture by providing art exhibitions. The first Arts exhibition that led to “Out of Kuwait” was held at CAP in October 2012. “Out of Britain” was attended by 3000 visitors over a period of a month. The Royal College of Art is the world’s most influential postgraduate university of art and design. Specialising in teaching and research, the RCA offers the degrees of MA, MPhil and PhD across the disciplines of fine art, applied art, design, communications and humanities. There are over 1,200 masters and doctoral students and more than a hundred professionals interacting with them – including scholars and leading art and design practitioner, along with specialists, advisors and distinguished visitors. November 2013
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CityPages goes
FOOD Tasting
Maharani‘s soaring standards are a life time opportunity for any Indian Cuisine Lover Indian culture is known for its richness and diversity all around the globe. One important part of this culture is its food which is recognize and praised all over the world. Kuwait is no exception as ever since the Indian cuisine was first started for Kuwaiti food lovers, it was immediately recognized and became the most sought after food. Till today this cuisine has established its firm roots for its taste and variety. CityPages decided to bring for its readers an Indian food review and for this the destination was the Maharani Restaurant. This restaurant is part of the Qoot Food Group who also owns Qasar Al Agha and Koji restaurants which we brought to you earlier. Maharani restaurant is currently having four branches so we decided to visit its Salmiya branch for this purpose. Located in Salim Al Mubarik Street, Maharani occupies a very nice location. When we entered into the restaurant we were had a pleasant surprise that the whole floor belonged to Maharani Restaurant, providing spacious place for its guests. We were warmly greeted by our hosts, who were ever ready for the service. We were provided with the options of cabins or open area but as we were there to bring all the features of this restaurant so we decided to sit in the open area to have a better view and feel of the restaurant. Although for families and those seeking privacy, the cabins are spacious and clean. Menu was presented and the host was waiting for our choice. Just like its name “Maharani� the menu was also Royal and had a lot of variety and we were in a thought process that what to have and what to leave.
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FOOD Tasting
But honestly speaking, each and every dish was a special one and leaving anything was not justice but we had to make the selection so we ordered for Seafood Soup and Sweet Corn Soup at the start. Then for the main course, Maharani Combo, Chicken and Mutton Biryani Boneless along with Chicken Tikka and Tandoori Shrimps were ordered. The waitress took the order with a smiling face and we started waiting for our turn. The atmosphere in the restaurant was fabulous. The lighting and the music combination was having a calm and soothing effect make this trip more enjoyable. Within no time the food was served and we were amazed at the speedy service but no wonders it was "Maharani Restaurant" so everything was bound to be in time. The food was not only delicious but also it was providing the traditional Indian taste. Every dish was better than the other and it was hard to stop the hands. The most interesting thing about Maharani Restaurant’s menu is that along with Indian cuisine, it also offers you the variety about Lebanese and Japanese food as well. This is something amazing that under one roof while enjoying Indian cuisine you can also think about ordering some other international tastes as well. We at CityPages highly recommend our readers to have a visit of this spacious restaurant with wonderful tasty and mouth watering food. It's four branches are located in Farwaniya, Fahaheel, Salmiya and Kaifan. Just visit your nearest one and enjoy the food of your life. November 2013
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Sanaa Abdul Hamid Clinical Dietetics and Nutrition, Msc Blogger: www.fit-n-fancy.com Instagram: Sanaa_dietitian
Diary of a
nutritionista
Portion Problems & Portion Perfections Living in Kuwait cannot be compared to life in any other country. The comfort and luxuries one can experience here are far beyond what one can dream of in a western country. But common grounds are met when it comes to lifestyle related health problems, for example obesity. Kuwait is not far behind United States in terms of overweight and obesity rates. The World Health Organisation has ranked Kuwait second in the world in obesity rates. What happened here? We all wonder, but to be honest if you look closely at certain trends, it is pretty evident what has gone wrong here. Let’s look at portion sizes in particular. The average portion size food available to us has grown over the past 20 years and so has the sizes of people’s bellies. Larger food portions encourage us to eat more without even realising the excess calorie intake. To put things into perspective, when McDonald’s first started their food chain in 1955, the hamburger weighed around 1.6 ounces which equates to about 45 grams, and today it weighs about 8 ounces (225g). Let’s look at the difference in calories then (20 years ago) and now : wFrench Fries was about 210 calories --> now they are around 820 calories wFizzy Drinks was about 85 calories --> now they are around 250 calories wPopcorn at the cinema was about 270 calories --> now they are around 630 calories w2 slices of pizza was about 500 calories --> now they are around 850 calories wA cookie (1.5 diameter) was about 55 calories --->
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now they are 275 calories (3.5 diameter) wA coffee with full cream milk and sugar was about 45 calories --> now they add up to 350 calories Along with the increase in food portions, there has been an increase in the standard size of dinner plates at restaurants. Almost 20 years ago, a standard plate was about 10 inches. Today the plates are about 12 inches. While the restaurant business in Kuwait is booming, the health status of people is deteriorating. Did you know there are 4783 restaurants currently operating in Kuwait? And with the Kuwait's lifestyle that revolves around dinning at restaurants, it is important that we know what appropriate portions look like. It would be very inconvenient if one had to carry a weighing scale around to measure correct portions.
Making sense of portion sizes
Put aside your measuring cups and scale and follow these easy tips and learn how to 'eyeball' or use everyday items or even your own hands to estimate portions of different food groups. l1 piece or 1 cup of Fruit ≈ the size of a tennis ball or size of your fist l1 cup vegetables ≈ the size of a fist l85 gram of Chicken/meat/fish ≈ size of a deck of cards or about the size of your palm
l1
cup of Milk/yoghurt ≈ the size of a fist gram Cheese ≈ size of your thumb l1 cup Dry cereal ≈ the size of a fist l½ Pasta/rice ≈ the size of light bulb l1 medium potato ≈ the size of a small computer mouse l1 slice of bread ≈ the size of a cassette l¼ cup almonds ≈ one handful l1 tablespoon peanut butter ≈ thumb or the size of a golf ball l1 teaspoon cooking oil/sugar/butter ≈ the size of thumb tip l30
5 tips for achieving portion perfection
1. When eating out either order an appetiser or share a main meal with your friend. 2. Always share your desserts 3. When eating at home, eat off a 9 inch plate 4. At home, fill ½ your plate with cooked vegetables or salad vegetables, ¼ with lean protein sources ( e.g. chicken, eggs, meat, fish) and the remaining ¼ with whole-grain starches or potatoes/sweet potato /corn 5. Slow down and chew your food slowly. Give your stomach time to register it is full. It usually takes around 20 minutes for your brain to signal to your stomach that you are full.
INTERVIEW
t e e r St c! Chi
n Jassim
& Hussai by: Laly
Introducing Yehya Baqer
About Yourself: I am 24yrs old and graduated from Liverpool John Moores University with a Pharmaceutical degree. I am interested in travelling, sports and food.
The Outfit: T-Shirt - Express Shirt - Banana Republic Shoes - Next Pants - H&M
Favorite Designer: Dolce and Gabbana
Favorite place to shop in Kuwait: Avenues mall
Favorite Brand: River Island
Must haves this season: Scarves, jumpers and jackets
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Kuwait has currently been growing in terms of individuals, with unique fashion and sense of style. Laly and HJ head out about town to discover the trend setters among you.
INTERVIEW
t e e r t S ! Chic
sim
H by: Laly &
Introducing Kauthar Kadri
About Yourself: I am16 years old and a high school student. I love learning about Psychology and knowing more about modeling. At home I would paint, write, or play video games! and of course I'd be working hard for University.
The Outfit: Dress - H&M Shoes - Jessica Simpson high heels
Accessories: Bracelet - Vintage Bag - Chanel
Favorite Brand: For bags Louis Vuitton, while for dresses and other stuff I like Zara, River Island, H&M and of course Brandy Melville.
Favorite Brand: Tom Ford
Favorite place to shop in kuwait: Avenues Mall November 2013
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ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
By: Oussama T. Hussein
Having finished his studies in computer science in mid 90s, he discovered that he also has a great passion for diamonds and jewelry. Osama decided to go to America where he studied gemology in one of the highly recognized university in terms of gemology GIA. He obtained 8 diplomas throughout his gemology study itinerary and he was lucky enough to immediately work for a pioneer of jewelry in the Middle-East, Mr. Robert Mouawad in Saudi Arabia. His career at Mouawad lasted for around 5 years during which he learned that passion and ambition are the only ways to succeed in the world of jewelry. He moved after that to Qatar and then to Dubai where he had the chance to work in one of the biggest companies of jewelry and watches --Swatch Group International. Osama was appointed as the Regional Brand Manager for MENA and India region of a unique brand called Leon Hatot, an exclusive diamond brand that made a lot of success. He moved to Kuwait a couple of years ago, where he was once again lucky to work with Kallista Holding Company which is in fact one of the biggest Joailliers in Kuwait and practically amongst few jewelers that have their own factory and make their own designs. He is the brand manager at Kallista Holding and takes care of developing existing products and new products as well in addition to his managerial role that is to maintain the great image of the company in all ways and to get its customers better services. The jewelry and diamond field is a very sophisticated yet exigent and demanding, it necessitates a lot of hard work and ambition and great skills to keep update with everything going around you and to give your customers the perfect product that will just make them feel special and unique.
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ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
NOVEMBER BIRTHSTONE IS TOPAZ Hello Friends! Happy November! Here is a fun little snack of knowledge for you! Especially for your friends with a November Birthday, or a loved one born in November. Topaz is the accepted birthstone for November. Blue topaz is the accepted anniversary gemstone for the 4th year; and Imperial topaz for the 23rd year of marriage. Most people think of topaz as a transparent golden yellow gemstone. However, this gemstone occurs in a variety of hues such as orange-yellow, red, honeybrown (dark sherry), light green, blue, pink, and even colorless. Orange-red “Imperial” topaz and pink colors are rare and most valuable. The name topaz is derived from the Greek word meaning “to shine” and also implies “fire”. The magic and romance of Topaz goes back many thousands of years. It holds the distinction of being the gemstone with the widest range of curative powers. It supposedly cooled tempers, restored sanity, cured asthma, relieved insomnia and even warded off sudden death. Topaz is said to make its wearer invisible in time of emergency. Also, it proved the loyalty of associates by changing color in the presence of poison. Additionally, the Greeks felt it gave them strength. Topaz is found mainly in Brazil, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and China. As part of the normal fashioning process, most brownish to sherry brown Topaz are heated to produce a permanent pink color. Certain types of Topaz are irradiated and heated to produce shades of blue. Citrine is often used an alternative to Topaz because it appears in many of the same colors as topaz. Unlike Topaz, citrine is readily available and inexpensive even in large sizes.
Tropical zodiac Sign
Mr. Oussama is wearing a CANCER Face Watch to support Cancer Patients. Buying 1 Cancer Face Watch supports 8 Cancer Patients. Show your support by buying a Cancer Face Watch today, available at all outlets of Elements Watches and Accessories
Dates
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INTERVIEW
Meet our new team member, Mryiam, a cultivated, unique and eclectic Kuwaiti interior designer currently pursuing her studies in Architecture in England. Her segment ‘Typical Mryiam’ will be a guide to our young readers from fashion to life style. She will share her insights on social problems and dealing with the challenges that one might face while living abroad. In other words, typical moments that typical meem goes through and her opinions based on them. A great addition to our stable of writers, we look forward to sharing Mryiam’s posts with you every month in her section.
Please introduce yourself to our readers: My name is Mryiam, I am 20 years old, and an interior design graduate continuing my studies in Architecture in England.
religions which to me is very interesting because you get to learn so much just by talking to people, and what's more interesting is that most of the stuff here are self service, such as grocery shopping! which I am completely not used to!
What is the last thing you do before sleeping and the first What are you currently doing and what made you land in the thing after waking up? UK? I am currently studying in the UK. It is mainly for my studies to be honest, which is the reason why I ended up landing in the UK.
I wish that I could have an every day routine! But as an architect student I don’t! Life is hectic! Usually I am at the library doing work, or blogging, and in the morning I usually check my phone and email!
We are so excited to have you as a part of the CityPages team! Are you an early bird or a night owl? Tell us what will your new segment "Typical Mryiam" offer to Early Bird! our readers? I am excited too! Well, my segment is basically going to be like a guide to my readers, from fashion to lifestyle. Advices, social problems, living abroad, it's basically typical moments that typical meem goes through! And my opinions based on them.
How do you like living and studying in UK? I really enjoy it, as much as its tough and hard in some ways, it has changed me in so many ways, and I am very grateful to have this opportunity.
What do you miss the most about Kuwait? I miss my family the most, and the gatherings we have around each other!
What are your hobbies? Shopping is my hobby as well as my favourite sport! Yeah sport! I run during sales all over the place, Photography, anything that deals with art and expression.
Tell us of some interesting things you discovered in the UK? Living abroad makes you interact with all kinds of people from different cultures and
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What are some of your future plans? I have always been a planner, like 10 years ahead kind of planner, but I have stopped doing that. It's nice to have goals, but I have stopped planning because things change even when you don’t want them too, I am taking baby steps for now, and going with the flow. My main goal is just to complete my degree and make the most of being abroad.
Some tips for the youth who are preparing to go study in the UK? Set your goals straight, know what you want, and be prepared for it. As long as you know what you want, nothing and no one can break you or take it away from you. Always be ambitious, always remind yourself why are you here, and what are you doing here. Keep it positive as much as you can, it will get hard, and tough some days, but I promise you its worth fighting for.
And finally, your message for our readers: Always smile no matter how hard it gets. Be grateful, never complain, some people would wish for half of what you have.
INTERVIEW
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We all know how badly our skin gets affected by sun, external and internal agents or generally gets old specially after summer holidays. Most women start complaining about dehydration and blotchy skin. To avoid this kind of skin problem I advice my customers to use protective products to avoid having brown spots or dehydration characterized by fine lines, light desquamation. This period of the year (autumn, winter) is the best to profit from a good and deep treatments especially the blotchy skin. As we know the treatments of blotchy skin is effectuated by a kind of products which contain a specific ingredients like alpha hydroxyl acids vitamins and antioxidants. In our spa we have special treatments for face and body as well. Before giving any prognosis about the skin the beautician should effectuate a good cleansing face and diagnostic to decide the perfect treatment. What is the advantage of AHA? (Alpha Hydroxyl Acid): AHA is a skin ingredient made from milk, sugar cane, fruits… Glycolic acid sugar cane. Citric acid (lemon). Malic Acid (green apple) Lactic acid (milk, red fruits, honey)….. Kojic acid (certain type of mushrooms) etc… They have an exfoliating effect completely natural. They allow to gently eliminate the cornel pellicule, to smooth down the skin grain and to activate cells replacement, increase cellular turnover, promote collagen synthesis. AHA reactivates the formation of collagen and increase the hydration of the epidermic superficial layers. The improve the skin structure, shading off wrinkles, dramatically reduces the appearance of
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= Healthy Skin Beautiful Skin final lines due to facial expressions, wrinkles and prevents and reserves the signs of aging. This blend of AHA, vitamins, antioxidants and growth factors and active ingredients derived from plant stem cells and other organic reign protects against free radical damage, restore hydration. In the same way the skin becomes softer, thinner, cooler, smooth and elastic. We should not forget that the first aim and effect of this treatment is to lightening the skin or enhance skin clarity and diminishes acne lesions and reduce the dark marks…. In Kuwait our weather is mostly hot, so we have to use this kind of products very carefully. We have many kinds of face treatments depending of the skin type, age and intensity of skin. Since we start using products with AHA I would like to advice that we should follow some procedure or advice to avoid any problem or skin reaction….. -The beautician should give you a product to prepare your skin one week before the first deep treatment with AHA.
-Don’t expose your skin to any source of hotness or radiance: sunrays, sauna, steam, hot blow dry, laser….. -Stop using your products 3 days before any usual facial treatment like: facial wax, bleaching, sheer, peeling etc… -Start using the cream progressively. -The light peel off with AHA can be used for all kind of skin after a good diagnosis from the beautician. We can go for one session a week and keep maintenance with daily cream at night. Morning the customer should use a total sun block to protect the skin from sunrays. We should not forget that some beta hydroxyl acid ingredients is only used by the dermatologic doctors. Their effects are very deep and strong. Body Treatment We have many different treatments for body. To obtain a good result we usually advice our customers to start her program with bleaching Moroccan bath.
ENTERTAINMENT
Steam, peeling, and specific mask with special products contain active ingredients to diminish the darkness in the sensitive area….. Under arms, bikini, knees, breast…. and prepare the skin for active ingredients. After this session we give her a special cream or lotion to use it at home. After 5 days she will have her next session with AHA. This session will be organized depending of the skin intensity reaction or minimum after 15 days. We can have a very good result but to be honest and logic we can not remove the darkness but we can ameliorate and attenuate the maximum. We need at least two months to obtain a good result. Be sure that the skin needs always hygienic treatments to maintain its freshness During the AHA treatment avoid using deodorant spray or perfumed products. After shower make sure that you dry well the skin. Don’t leave it wet. Avoid any kind of metallic contact or friction. New Layla Harmony!!! It is a tan machine: it helps the bride or any customer to obtain a perfect whitening result at the same day.
We use a special whitening solution. We spread it on all over the body. We concentrate on the sensitive and dark area and the result can be seen at the same moment. The customers can buy the product and use it every day to prolong the whitening effect. It is a kind of spray for face and body. It helps to illuminate the skin. In the salon the spray machine tan solution is more strong and thick. No side effects, very natural and no allergic reaction. All our products and AHA treatments are generally safe when used in the recommended dosage and on regular basis. The customer should respect and follow the beauty instructions and advice to avoid any complication and obtain perfect result.
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The creative method gave ASAMA Perfumes the time and the opportunity to craft fragrances while working with the highest quality ingredients in a bottle and using Arabic and Western scents as a unique concept point for the fragrances. They welcome your comments at pr@ asamaforever.com. Follow them on Instagram and Twitter @ASAMAPerfumes
What your Nose Can’t know
Shopping for a perfume made far off the firmed path can be a rewarding adventure. The perfume shopper often feels as though a certain perfume is tailor made for him or her and it seems even more if exactly none of him or her other friends are wearing it. Whether you're shopping in a mall or sitting at home, there is no right or wrong way to determine the best perfume to buy, but you better try only one perfume at a time, or if you feel the need to sample many perfumes, bear in mind to give your nose a break, sniff coffee beans or have piece of mint to clean your sense of smell. On a first attempt, one can detect the entire components of a certain fragrance, and in the world of perfumes, it is known that each and every essence contains base notes, middle notes and top notes. Usually, the open notes of a fragrance are fleeting in some way, and on the same time it is the first to be lost in when the perfume dryies down. Let us take the jasmine and citrus as an example here, they both have notes that seem to evaporate with time, and in the next few hours their middle notes will begin to be less prominent. The scent remains here at the end of the day exposing the aroma's basic notes, (usually vanilla or musk with this example) and at the end of the day, a well balanced perfume will retain its composition even after hours of wear.
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When testing a perfume it is advised to not give an opinion after a sniff or two, as it is better to wait on the perfume to dry down a bit on your skin, or even keeping it for a while. Remember, there is no need to choose favorite perfume, most of perfume lovers are not related to one signature scent, and can use many. Here is a tip, when next time one of those super brands releases a new cologne, visit Basenotes.com or Makeupalley.com, as these two sites shed the light through its community forums, reviewing fragrances. So simply read through these boards to have a basic idea of what those hot new perfume brands have recently unleashed. FYI: Just like the clothing, perfumes industry is a fashion. Some perfumes are more appropriate by season. For example, Bond No.9 unisex is for sunny summer sea shores, while Tom Ford Black Orchid Serge is appropriate for winter nights in front of burning woods. In this matter don't turn your nose up at gorgeous perfume because it seems too heavy or too light for a particular time of the year, If you like it but feel you had to wear it after the weather gets cooler, just put it on your perfume wish list.
REVIEW
citypageskuwait.com
REVIEW
Violet Skin Boutique - Show Off Your Skin! This month I have an exclusive place for DIVAS, where you can go and get the most equisite skin care and can show off your skin! I went and discovered the Violet Skin Boutique in Kuwait and gathered some interesting information for you and tried their amazing service myself. The VIOLET story begins 35 years ago with a focus on both BEAUTY and WELLNESS. With a philosophy based on natural health and vitality, Violet has designed a full menu of luxury award winning treatments for face & body to address all types of skin conditions. Violet products are freshly hand-made in small batches from one of kind mixtures of the finest rare organic ingredients, such as Sea Buckthorn Oil & wild Rose syrup in combinations used to stimulate regeneration and preserve youth. Violet creams and signature cold and dry masks are rich in life-enhancing vitamins and minerals, provide miraculous difference in revitalizing skin tone, natural regeneration, healthy glow and beautiful skin complexion. Violet Mkhitaryan - the president and founder of Violet Skin Boutique saw a need for natural skin care products that would serve a variety of skin conditions, she started making her own products based on ancient Eastern European recipes and now she is the leading aesthetician in Boston winning the Best of Boston award for four years including 2013. Seeing a need in Kuwait for products and services like this the Kuwait franchise was opened in April 2012. Here in Kuwait they take pride in their franchise with having one of the best aestheticians in the region, Laina Merchak, who has also worked in the field for 20 years making her own natural products and using her own techniques for facials. At Violet Kuwait Laina works with her clients to get young, glowing, beautiful, flawless skin WITHOUT makeup. They also provide them with tips and products to maintain the result effortlessly at home. Their focus is not only on skin care but for the body, hair and nails also. The goal is to make their clients feel confident about their skin and to always have that real, all natural glow all the time.
Photographs by: Faith AlFahad
Violet Skin Boutique Kuwait is located at Bnied AlGar Block 1, Street 86, Building 67. You may call them at: 99900434 to fix your appointment or follow them on Twitter or Instagram at @VioletKuwait
November 2013
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MEN IN KUWAIT 2013
We live in a region where “no” seems to be the only answer to any question involving change. Some acquiesce and let it go, while others realize that no cannot answer any question that begins with why. Why are we using old religious texts as an excuse when religion itself told us that we must adapt our laws to the current time? Why are we speaking about the glorious Arab past like we have no future? Most importantly, why have we forgotten the potential significance of each positive action? Each human is only one out of seven billion. This number may seem insignificant in comparison, but that is not true. An old African proverb reminds us, “If you think you’re too small to make a difference, try sleeping in a closed room with a mosquito”. The fifteen men that we have chosen in this issue are the men with stories that inspire us to change. They teach us that with enough dedication and commitment we can all transform our dreams into realities.
Interviews conducted and written by: Khaled Al Amiri and Kinda Al Faris Special thanks for the assistance of: Jarrah Al Khalifa, Abdulaziz Al Khamis, and Hussain Jassim
November 2013
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
Fareed Abdal
Fareed Abdal is a genuine modern day sage, whose abundance of wisdom if shared with someone has the power to change their life. More than an artist and an architect; he is a visionary who views the world from a more unique vantage than most. Currently he is a renowned calligraphy artist, whose work is very highly regarded, and a professor of Architectural studies in Kuwait University. His serried collections, inspired from reading, experiences, sounds, emotion, poetry, vantage point, and the Holy Quaran are all channeled through Arabic script and lean toward a modern abstract form. He was born in Kuwait and studied Architecture at the University of Wisconsin, on a government scholarship awarded to a core group of talented Kuwaiti youth with the condition being that upon returning they were to apply their knowledge and qualifications to the development of Kuwait. Upon completion of his MA in Architecture, he and his wife came back to Kuwait and set up a joint architectural firm, where they took on various commercial and residential contracts. After having completed various projects Fareed found that his calling had changed and decided to give up architecture for expression via calligraphy. This art of writing was taught extensively in schools during his childhood, and he had always had a passion for the form. This inner directive, a personal shift, was instigated from the disillusionment he faced during his career as an architect. “Architects with an artistic background don’t survive in this field, the rigid corporate minded ones do. There were many instances where the intended message or functionality of my projects was diminished due to the tampering of the aesthetic aspect of my designs. Whereas, working with calligraphy frees me to express and interpret. Aesthetics are the cousin to ethics. People worship words without the depth of meaning, without interpretation or reflection, words are taken as purely literal. Words become rigid. Words became my weapon to break this conception.” “If you think it, feel it, then ink it. My life is my practice arena, and my artwork is evolving. When there are no more discoveries to make, that is when I’m finished.” When asked that existentialist question which fuels our everyday lives, and pushes humankind to the ends of the earth and even beyond for answers is summed up quite simply by Fareed, who’s reply is “we need the answer to cope with our preoccupation with our ego, this preoccupation has us asking the unnecessary questions, and leaves us in a perpetually anxious state. However if we were to observe nature, we’d realize simply that the rose is there to add to beauty, and the bee exists to provide us with honey, we ought to simply slow down and enjoy the riddle of life, and express ourselves with purpose instead of being driven by the need to control”. Fareed would like for the ego to take a back seat to other more positive sentiments of the psyche, where he is sure that societies will then be able to more aptly lean towards a more peaceful existence. He believes deeply in the concept of nature, and refers to it time and again. Having faith that all is already mapped out, he hopes to live his life with the sole aim of staying unconditionally content. The concept of control has not entered Fareeds realm, for this artist’s purpose is forever ingrained. To view some of Fareed Abdals art log on to www.FareedAbdal.net November 2013
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Bassam Al Khaldii The location could not have been any more appropriate. Bassam Al Khaldii spoke of his dreams and ambitions on the rooftop of Al Tajari Towers as we stood there overlooking Kuwait’s skyline. Most people would have seen nothing other than gorgeous architecture and beautiful lights in the night sky, but he was different. As Bassam stood there peering over the array of buildings he was looking at something entirely different, he was looking at the future. Being a tenant of the twenty-fifth floor of an elite building at the early age of twenty-five is an impressive accomplishment and we have a feeling that this is just the beginning for him. Yet, just like any other success story, it wasn’t easy. Kuwait, like many other Arab countries, is a country of tradition. Tradition comes with the knowledge of history, and, sometimes that knowledge can breed the fear of change. Paradoxically, an important lesson that history has to teach us is that those who remain stagnant during tides of change are destined to remain behind and fail. As a diplomat’s son, Bassam had the privilege of visiting many countries and meeting many successful political figures. This way of life expanded the way his mind worked. Every business was a puzzle. Bassam would stare at companies and analyze their components: the products, the organizational structure, and the business itself. It wasn’t long before he saw a product and prophesized its success in Kuwait. At the age of 19, Bassam proposed his idea to his father. Conveniently, Bassam’s father had a close friend who happened to be a German millionaire. The meeting was scheduled and everything was about to change for Bassam, or so it seemed. Instead of meeting to discuss how to bring the product to Kuwait, the sole purpose of the meeting was to discourage him for starting this venture. Bassam’s father explained to him that this product didn’t suit the Kuwaiti market and that it wouldn’t sell there. Bassam, knowing that his father is his biggest supporter with only the purest of intentions, dropped the subject and carried on with his life. Three months later he saw the product selling at a local convenient store in Kuwait. This fueled him to think of other ideas. Bassam’s second business proposal was turned down by his family, as was the third. Yet, Bassam wasn’t discouraged. He understood that every no was a challenge, a challenge to come up with an idea that would not fail. This type of mentality and his father’s encouragement to only settle for the best is what made him become the success that he is now. Bassam admitted, “Whatever small success I have right now or in the future is because I failed so many times for so long. The grace of God and the unyielding support of my family and friends is what allowed me to use my failures as lessons and not reasons to give up”. Like many other current inspirational figures, Bassam is a ripple of change in a region stagnant with tradition.
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Photographer: Abdul Rauf from Moonlight Stuidos
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
Photographer: Abdul Rauf from Moonlight Stuidos
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
citypageskuwait.com
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
Ahmed Al-Reshaid There is a vision, a way of life, which you can only attain when you have lived your life abroad. Visiting countries can be mind opening, but living amongst different nationals and learning their mother tongue is life changing. Ahmed Al-Reshaid has that aura about him. We could feel the lively atmosphere as soon as we entered his boutique. He rushed to greet us in a horizontally striped Calvin Klein polo tucked into his navy pants; clearly influenced by the casual, yet elegant, Italian style. Ahmed gave us a quick tour of Ora boutique and showed us his favorites. The walls were lined with hand selected, contemporary pieces imported straight from Italian designers. Each designer was specifically chosen because of their story as well as their work, and Ahmed was chosen for this article for similar reasons. Fashion is more than just apparel. Each stitch has a purpose, a word from a story that the designer wants the world to know. Every designer seems to have something to say and saturated markets are now overflowing with stories that want to be heard. Yet, many ideas are old and unoriginal with no new twists. The current struggle as a boutique owner is to find the creations that are relevant and resonate well with its audience. Kuwait has always been a trendy country and an ideal site for consumerism, making it an extremely competitive market. Ahmed decided to introduce luxurious contemporary fashion to the Kuwaiti market. It was a complete risk to create an Italian boutique, especially a boutique that focuses on a style that isn’t yet mainstream in Kuwait. Entering an already established market with a completely new fashion style, without personal financial backing or professional retail experience, meant that everything he was doing was a complete risk. Disregarding the risk, Ahmed decided to follow his instincts. He explained that, “It’s what you feel and I believe in energy”. Just like we care about the designers as much as their products, we care about the shopping experience as much as what is being sold at the boutique. The experience and energy of Ora is what allowed him to succeed and to sell his products at one of the most elite malls in Kuwait. Ora is Italian for contemporary energy and current events, and the boutique is just that. Ahmed spends most of his time at the store chatting with clients and making them feel like friends. Whether clients came with friends or decided to shop alone, Ahmed made sure to make them feel comfortable enough to ask for his opinion and advice. Ora was once a thought and it is now a reality. Odds were against him and nothing came easy, yet Ahmed’s hard work and commitment fabricated Ora from a thread of belief into a successful boutique in mall with prestigious brand names. Ahmed’s message is one for the dreamers, “If you can dream it, you can do it”.
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Mohammed Ashkanani It all starts today. There are countless events and seasons that remind us of the person that we strive to become, the chiseled body that we would like to obtain. So we stare at the mirror and carve the body that we desire and tell ourselves that we are finally going to achieve our goal. Yet, like always, that goal gets replaced somewhere along the line by our other priorities. Mohammed Ashkanani gives that extra push that we all need. The first thing that he’ll makes you lose before your weight is the idea that maybe one day you will accomplish what you have always set out to do, because your attitude is what will shape you. Mohammed used to watch the Olympic games as a young boy and would dream of becoming like them. The swimmer that could race the waves, the gymnast with feline agility and grace, and the runner that could fly on ground were all heroes in his eyes; heroes that he would strive to become. So Mohammed transformed his little white room into a stadium and started training to become like the athletes on T.V. When the stadium reverted back into the little white room, Mohammed decided to share his dream with his dad and to join a sports club to get official training. Sport after sport, he tried them all. It wasn’t long until Mohammed was chosen to officially represent Kuwait as he competed for water polo in the Qadsiya Club and the Kuwaiti National team. After gaining a considerable amount of experience and trophies, Mohammed Ashkanani became the champion that he desired to be. The people that he surrounded himself with and the attitudes that they exhumed all contributed to his accomplishments as an athlete and champion. Mohammed admits, “When you’re around positive people you will be positive and when you’re around negative people you will be negative”. Now that Mohammed has reached the goals that he had previously set for himself, he has taken the initiative to help others reach the goals that they couldn’t quite grasp themselves. He has set up countless workshops and booths at hotels offering his personal training service for clients at the convenience of their homes or offices. The booths, however, are just the beginning for him. Working along with a team of nutritionists and personal trainers, Mohammed is planning on launching his own business that will cater to individuals’ personal goals and specific nutritional needs. There are many gyms and diet centers in Kuwait, but perhaps the reason that obesity is still on the rise here is because those facilities only offer the tools for fitness and not the inspiration or drive that is essential for weight loss and health. Mohammed has taken his personal skills and talents and found a way to benefit society. There is no longer a reason to procrastinate your health and fitness. It all starts today.
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John Peaveler Borders are man made lines that protect people with common culture, religion, and traditions to peacefully practice what they want with the freedom of governing themselves without outside interference. For centuries, different countries and civilizations have committed acts without considering the consequences that travel beyond the confines of their borders. Deforestation, pollution, and toxic dumping have altered nature and wildlife beyond repair. People should no longer think of themselves as citizens of a predefined border but as humans in a borderless world. Yet, no matter how selfless one person can be, it is hard to attempt to fix problems in lands that do not accept you as its own. John Peaveler, an ex- airman of the American air force, is fighting hard to repair the ill environmental practices that Kuwait is currently committing. John was never the vegetarian or animal activist that he is now and he definitely didn’t come to Kuwait with the intention of educating corporations, and citizens alike, on how to properly rescue and shelter animals. After finishing his military service, John found himself back in Kuwait as a contractor in a military base. There were three dogs that would journey to the base that he worked on and since John was one of the few Americans on that base, he decided to seek their companionship. The dogs would return every night hoping that John would feed and care for them like the night before. One night, however, one of the dogs came with no intention of leaving after her nightly feeding. She came to give birth. John and his colleagues soon found themselves taking care of eleven puppies and three dogs. Shortly after, another dog gave birth. Taking care of eighteen dogs on a military base was not an easy task, nor was it allowed. John snuck the dogs into an abandoned warehouse and took care of them there. That was the only option. He explained, “The base was so isolated and I couldn’t just sit there and watch them die”. John never raised puppies and didn’t know what to do but he decided to teach himself. When the base commander found out about John’s actions, he told him that he had 48 hours to get rid of the dog situation. There weren’t many animal shelters in 2001 to help him with his situation and John didn’t even know how to start his search. John somehow stumbled on Animal Friends (now known as K’s Path) and its founder Ayesha Al Humaidhi. Animal Friends was nothing more than h beams and an idea in progress at the time. After helping Ayesha build makeshift fences, his eighteen dogs were the first to be sheltered there. John quickly found himself balancing his time as a contractor and an animal caretaker. After a while, John decided to work on rescuing animals as full time job. Ayesha and John worked alongside each other for many days and fell in love in the progress. Together, John and Ayesha are managing K’s Path and attempting to shelter and rescue the neglected and abused animals of Kuwait. Their hard work and commitment to solving environmental issues in Kuwait, starting with rescuing and preserving wildlife, is what attracted major companies like K.O.C. to seek their service. John’s selflessness and commitment to saving the environment is truly an inspiration for us all.
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Bader Al Bassam Bader Al Bassam is a truly exceptional, gifted artist and photographer who genuinely suffers for his work. Dark, brooding, seemingly detached yet incredibly humble he is the epitome of what we recognize as the very typical traits of great artists past, similar to those who lived and breathed their work, who were either driven to madness or became critically acclaimed in their time, who evolved stylistically, and left behind some of the worlds most coveted and recognized work. Bader falls into that realm previously inhabited by those same artists in qualities such as temperament, dedication, technique and finally by the art he has beautifully created but is never satisfied with. Creation to him is a painful process, which he describes as a vicious cycle likening it to “drinking water from the sea, I can never be satisfied as I attempt to quench my thirst - that is what the process is like for me”. Born in Kuwait, Bader was raised just like any other of his peers; his path diverged much later to the one less taken. Although his calling was apparently innate it didn’t materialize until after experiencing a taste of the good life first. He served in the Navy for five long years, and during his days on duty in isolation confided that he would think so deeply so as to develop splitting headaches. “I would sit and think for hours, I had these questions and no answers to them”. Once out, he sought distraction by becoming a professional rally car driver, and rode his Ducatti motorbike around town. In an unexpected turn of events Bader injured his leg, and stayed in hospital for thirty five days, and was forced to spend a year in a wheelchair recovering from his accident. This is when he started pondering life again and started expression through art and photography. Incredibly intelligent and wise as a man twice his age, Bader is a renaissance man who probably can’t enjoy idle chit chat with someone of average IQ, and neither should he because in all likelihood there wouldn’t be too much to common ground. He swims in the opposite direction of this tide, and it would take great patience and commitment to be able to decipher the language that he speaks. Yet once a person is there, if he lets you in, it can be a rich and fulfilling learning experience. He will ask and answer the existential questions, he will talk in great depth about not only art but also about mathematics, astronomy, physics, and his knowledge only grows richer by the day. Bader is an insatiable reader and now would much rather spend his cash on the things that he derives inspiration from, referring to his art he states “I love to read and have spent so much money on experiments in my work, I need to develop and grow from these experiments, and my art comes along in its own time, allowing me time to sit and really calculate my steps”. His thirst for stimulation has sent him off the beaten path to countries such as Russia, Cuba and Yemen where he spent his days roughing it outdoors. At one point his work was seen by the Dupliss brothers and he was personally invited to fly to the US to create art for an art film project they produced. These experiences enriched him in ways the average traveler may never experience. His mood dictates the mediums that he utilizes, yet his style remains as modern-abstract, he is one of those who naturally lays down order and composition making sense within chaos quite exquisitely, but only a trained eye can tell. He uses various mediums on canvas and cleverly first started painting with coffee instead of paint. He has invented techniques using mixed media and he hopes to incorporate more organic material in upcoming projects. He uses coal, acrylics, oils, and will be creating still lives on canvas. His photography is just another tool of expression which when noticed produced an invitation to meet the inner circle of the Bolshoi ballet troupe where he was allowed to photograph some of the world’s highest trained ballerinas in some of the most magnificent black and white shots ever captured by a Kuwaiti photographer. Bader Al Bassam will one day be recognized as one of the most prolific artists of this era. When asked where he envisions he will be in twenty years he thinks very long and hard and replies “in a place God knows, but it’ll be a beautiful place.” Not once did he utter the word fame, recognition or fortune, but rather states “if you wish for beauty you’ll get beauty, for if you believe in something you’ll manifest it.” That’s all what he wants for himself.
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Photographer: Natalia Sitcai from Moonlight Stuidos
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
citypageskuwait.com
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
Sameer Dahan A company named after your family is no longer just a source of income, it becomes a legacy. It becomes a representation of who you are and what you offer to the world and Dahan only offers the best. An impressive portfolio of over 600 companies and stores in malls like Avenues and Marina makes Dahan one of the best fit out companies in Kuwait, and possibly the region. We all have a calling, a passion that resonates with our existence. Some may discover that raison d’etre at a very young age and some can carry on for an entire lifetime without discovering their purpose at all. Sameer is one of the lucky few that always knew what he wanted to do. Sameer would accompany his father to worksites ever since he was young and witnessed what a job in electronic mechanical engineering involved. Instead of taking a stroll and simply observing the work environment, his father insisted that Sameer takes this as an opportunity to learn. By the age of sixteen, Sameer accumulated enough experience to be considered a professional welder and craftsman. After graduating from high school, he pursued an education as an Architect in Lebanon. His degree, combined with his experience and overall knowledge about the industry allowed his salary to jump from 250 K.D. to 4,000 K.D. per month in only a year and half. This amazing accomplishment gave him the courage and ambition to ask for more responsibility as well as the opportunity to buy shares in the company that he worked for. After being denied any sort of ownership, Sameer decided to create his own company and work for himself. He made sure that the clients he chose would look well on Dahan’s portfolio and that the clients were competent enough to work with. Sameer’s intuition and skill quickly accelerated Dahan’s presence in the industry. “In 2001, people in Kuwait didn’t think about hoarding (the opening soon sign),” Dahan explained. It wasn’t required for a contractor and fit out company to advertise on them, but Sameer decided to do it nonetheless. This created a trend and now every opening soon sign is accompanied with artwork and advertisements to pique the curiosity of any person who happens to pass by. His quality service and customer satisfaction allowed him to invest in different industries and to expand Dahan’s scope of work. He confesses that, “The most difficult thing in my life is to maintain what I have. I don’t want it to go higher, I just want to keep [Dahan] where we are”. The reason for his success is that he continues to offer the exact same quality work and dedication as he did the first day he started the company. Sameer’s advice to business owners is, “Don’t live on your past, do things as if you’re working on your business today”.
November 2013
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Dawood Marafie Vice chairman and C.E.O. of Shiraa Co., board member of the Kuwait National Fund for Small and Medium Enterprises Development, board member of Association of Small and Medium Enterprises of Kuwait, and board member of the Union of Leaders and Entreprunuers for the Arabian Gulf Cooperation of Small and Medium Enterprises are current, and certainly impressive, titles of Dawood S. Marafie. The titles represent more than just his success; they reveal his passion. Dawood is a firm advocate of entrepreneurship and has ensured to provide support, both financial and emotional, for the people that have nothing but a good idea. Just as he realized his dreams, Dawood spends his time making sure that others have the opportunity to do the same. It all began the day that Dawood received a phone call from his friend Arafat Shihab. The idea was spontaneous and the decision was impulsive; Dawood agreed nonetheless. Entering the living room and greeting your family in a McDonalds uniform is a funny joke, but his father didn’t find it funny that the uniform was actually for his newly attained job. It was both unheard of and socially unacceptable for a Kuwaiti to work in the service industry at the time, but it was something that Dawood really wanted to do. His father was enraged that Dawood made such a decision without consulting him and ordered him to quit. Dawood told his father that he would, but secretly pursued his new career at McDonalds. His friends didn’t offer him support either; they ridiculed him for an entire week. Dawood’s strong resolve and belief that he wasn’t doing anything wrong began to make a dent in Kuwait’s mentality towards working in the service industry. It wasn’t long before the same friends that mocked him asked him to put in a good word for them at McDonalds so they too could get hired. After a year and a half at McDonalds, Dawood decided to venture in a new industry. Switching from company to company in the following years, he realized that he would rather spend his time and effort on building something himself instead of working for someone else. That was the beginning of Shiraa and Dawood’s commitment towards supporting entrepreneurships. Dawood was also involved in the creation of five other startup companies under Shiraa as well as two personal companies. According to Dawood, the key to success is: “Being friendly with your employees”. Working at McDonalds allowed him to see expatriates as colleagues and friends instead of just laborers. This mentality is what differentiates him from other Kuwaiti business owners. Treating his employees as friends is the secret of his low turnover rate and their high morale. Dawood makes sure he visits the kitchens and places where most of the staff is so that he could see what the employees do personally and that they could see him as more than just a boss in an office. Prejudice is a common problem in the GCC and Dawood is one of the many that are currently trying to eradicate its influence in the Middle East. His message is one of equality and fair treatment.
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Mohammed Ismail Al-Shebani Kuwait is as infamous for its food as much as its oil reserve. With over 5,000 restaurants (excluding bakeries) and a healthy economy, Kuwait has become the center for food. Food trends come and go but one thing will always remain: the Arab sweet tooth. Bakeries and dessert businesses have been steadily on the rise ever since the era of Red Velvet and there is no forecasted decline. Fierce competition from both local and international bakeries makes it extremely crucial to have an edge or even an infamous best seller. Chocoloteria, Mohammed AlShebani’s personal creation, has both. University is a highly anticipated time for every young adult because of the aspect of freedom and independence. Amidst all that excitement we forget about the things that we are sacrificing in our plight for knowledge: food, free housekeeping, and, well food. As soon as we settle into our apartments and run out of extra money to spend on takeout, that is when we remember to call our mothers. The question that quickly follows the small talk is “How do you cook that dish that I love?” The longer that we study, the more comfortable we feel with experimenting with ingredients and cooking the food that we love and Mohammed AlShebani had plenty of time to experiment. With a bachelor in Mechanical Engineering and two masters abroad, Mohammed had enough time to become an experienced cook. Yet, it wasn’t enough for him. After completing his second masters, Mohammed decided to enroll in Le Cordon Bleu to learn the art of cooking from a world-renowned culinary school. After learning the basics of cooking, Mohammed discovered his passion for desserts. Mohammed confesses, “ [I] found myself being more attracted to desserts, as it was the most challenging aspect in cooking”. The culinary degree gave Mohammed all the skills that were required for any chef, down to techniques for kitchen management and meal optimization. All that experience gave Mohammed the courage to start his own business. After discussing his aspirations with his sister, they decided to start the venture. In 1998, Chocolateria became one of the first home-based businesses in Kuwait. Mohammed and his sister decided to create a high-end gourmet dessert and catering business. High quality ingredients and elegantly crafted pastries made their confections and desserts the perfect companion for any event and occasion. They started with selling the cake that he created from scratch for his graduation project for Le Cordon Bleu: The Suicide Cake. The cake was such a success that it established Chocolotaria as the premium gourmet desert business that it sought out to be. Graduating from a culinary school and creating a desert and catering business was not what Mohammed envisioned for himself when he pursued a career in engineering, but it something that happened nonetheless. Having a degree does not stop us from pursuing our other passions or developing our new talents. Being able to deviate from his initial plan into something better was the key ingredient for Mohammed’s success and, perhaps, it could be yours too.
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Abdullah Al-Enezi He couldn’t wait for it to be over, at least that’s how Abdullah acted during the photo shoot. It didn’t seem natural for him to stay still in certain poses or to even pose at all. So I dissected his outfit and tried to analyze him even further. Nothing he wore screamed for attention…or even asked for it. Yet, he was here for a reason and the reason was his art. One look at the wall he spray-painted and I understood why he was selected for this piece. The letters wrestled for their space and the colors danced with them in synchronous harmony. The passion was evident and the talent was clear. Abdullah Al- Enezi is one of the pioneers of street art and a contributor to the current art movement in Kuwait; an inspiration for aspiring artists in Kuwait to pursue their own forms of expression. Abdullah has been practicing his street art for nine years and admitted that it wasn’t easy. His parents didn’t accept his artistic expression and even banned him from pursuing his passion at a certain point. They urged him to paint landscapes and buildings instead of spray painting on them. Yet, his passion was too strong to deter. When asked how he dealt with that dilemma, Abdullah quoted one of his idols Banksy: “Parents will do anything for their children but let them be themselves”. The struggle with street artists, especially in Kuwait, is the distinction of graffiti from vandalism. This distinction, along with Abdullah’s dedication and commitment to street art, is the reason that his parents eventually warmed up to the idea. Now that Abdullah has defined himself as an artist, he is comfortable enough to show his work to the public. His father even encouraged him to open up a shop to sell his art. Successful street artists require street names and his name is Nizzy7th, or Niz for short. Nizzy(or Niz) are both derived from his last name, Al Enzi. The 7th is his homage to his other idol, Saber. It represents the seventh letter of the alphabet G: G for God and Graffiti. Another representative feature of Niz’s work is the color purple. Abdullah believes that purple compliments many different colors nicely, which is why it is usually an accent, if not the main hue for his artwork. Abdullahs’s artwork and creative talents have been recently acknowledged in the Kuwaiti art scene. He just teamed up with Visual Therapy and is planning on selling his pieces there, alongside other local artists. Selling his work is a great step for his career, but a successful career in street art is not the reason that Adullah is pursuing this form of art. He explains, “I am doing this, because it’s my passion and I love doing it. It would be amazing if I actually become a success, but I won’t stop if I don’t”. Niz’s message is a message of expression and originality. In a world where it is so simple to copy art and to stay safe, Abdullah encourages artists to express themselves without sacrificing their creativity to the boundaries set by society.
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Mohammed Ebrahim Fear is an emotion that is in every human being. It is a feeling that is subconsciously triggered when any thinking creature is faced with the unknown. The ones who venture in the darkness and explore regions that others avoid are not immune to fear, but better able to handle it. Starting a business is like walking in the dark. Many people choose to shy away and to stay with what is safe, but entrepreneurs and innovators are the risk takers that believe there is greatness in the unknown. Mohammed Ebrahim ventured in the preverbal darkness and came back with a bright idea that has the potential to illuminate many minds in Kuwait. Mohammed was always involved in event planning, but he began organizing them in University. As president of the business club in G.U.S.T., Mohammed threw an average of fifteen events per year. After holding so many events and participating in countless seminars, he came up with the idea of doing it professionally. With no long-term plan in mind, Mohammed established Al Gas Events in order to form a reputation as a professional event planner. The real world, however, proved to be much more difficult than university. Al Gas Events wasn’t able to organize all the events that Mohammed had in mind, causing him to fail countless of times. Mohammed stated, “If I were to judge my company on that year alone, I would consider it a failure”. Yet, he didn’t judge his company on his failures, he judged it by its potential, which is why he persevered. Every failure became a lesson and every event became easier to organize than its predecessor. Mohammed decided to expand his company into organizing seminars, so he added “Speakers House” as an additional service for the company. As a Speakers House, Al Gas was in charge of bringing in world-renowned inspirational speakers. The downside of organizing seminars is having a limited amount of time to actually listen to the speakers that were being hosted. Fortunately, even listening to fifteen minutes of a speech could change a life. The fifteen minutes that changed Mohammed’s life were during Bryan Tracey’s presentation. This motivational speaker and business coach exclaimed, “ If you’ve done something, don’t think about what went wrong, ask yourself how to make it better. Just doing that makes you one step closer to finding the solution”. Mohammed took those words to heart and began to analyze his events. After careful consideration, he realized that what was missing was proper planning. Applying this technique to every seminar and event is what allowed Al Gas to grow and to start turning a profit. This profit gave him the courage to venture into a new industry: the talent industry. Al Gas Events signed “In Your Face”, a comedy act with three male comedians, as its first clients. The success from their stand up acts proved that there was a void in the Arab market for such performances. The success of this new talent act is attracting performers and other talents to Al Gas Events. He came a long way in two years and there is no prediction of how fast or how large the company will continue to grow, but what we can assume is that it will continue to inspire many minds in Kuwait.
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Abdullah AlMaraghi There is always that one child that just can’t sit still; the one that is bursting with energy and constantly moving around. Abdullah AlMaraghi was one of those children. Abdullah’s father noticed that his eight-year old child was incredibly active. Instead of letting him exhaust himself by playing like regular children, his father decided to take him to his friend that instructed Judo. That decision changed Abdullah’s life forever. Judo was a great outlet for Abdullah’s energy and his technique was certainly impressive for his age. Under careful consideration from his instructor and after two years of training, Abdullah entered his first Judo competition in Kuwait. The competition he entered at the age of ten proved to be the beginning of Abdullah’s reign as Judo champion of Kuwait. He also won gold medals abroad: eight in the Gulf tournament, three in an Arab tournament, and three in a tournament of West Asian countries. Abdullah has dreamt of competing in the Olympics, but knew that it would be difficult to pursue. One day an official from the Kuwaiti government approached him, due to his incredible talent and winning streak, and awarded Abdullah with the chance of becoming the first Kuwaiti athlete to represent Kuwait in Judo at the Olympics. They provided him with a strict training schedule for the following four years. Abdullah genuinely thought that his dreams were about to come true. Unfortunately, due to administrative and managerial problems in the sports committee, the whole plan was scratched. The reason that Abdullah wishes to receive professional training and to receive greater recognition as a professional athlete is so that he could make his country proud; yet his country obstructed him from doing so. Devastated as he was, Abdullah decided to keep on training and representing Kuwait the best he could. However, because sports in Kuwait are perceived as hobbies and not careers, the financial supplement earned by Kuwaiti athletes is considered nothing more than discretionary. Abdullah, like most Kuwaiti athletes, was forced to find another method to support himself financially while pursuing his passion. As a result, he simultaneously continued his studies—juggling his time between school and Judo—and graduated university with a degree in the Arabic language. Instead of pursuing a career in education, Abdullah decided to join the military. This decision made sense to him because he grew up in a family of military men and it was always something he aspired of doing as a child. Joining the military proved to be a great decision for Abdullah because he was able to use his fitness to further his career as well as develop and practice his Judo skills. The military hosted several martial arts competitions and Abdullah made sure to compete in Judo every chance that he got. Glowing with pride, he explained, ”Each competition that I competed in had competitors from fifteen to twenty different countries and only the winner get’s to raise the flag”. An athlete’s journey is not one to take lightly, especially in Kuwait. It is hard to win in competitions against participants that have transformed the sport into a career when your amount of training is equal to that of a hobby. With proper training and recognition, Kuwait’s flag will one day be raised in larger tournaments against the toughest competitors.
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Photographer: Abdul Rauf from Moonlight Stuidos
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
citypageskuwait.com
ENTERTAINMENT FEATURE
Ali Hussain Inspiration isn’t only found at the summits of the highest mountains or in the hollows of the darkest caves, it is sometimes found by the accomplishment of what could seem as an ordinary goal. Business breeds two kinds of successful people; the selfassured, swaggering, rags to riches type individual, and the other– the modest but unbeaten victor, whose ingenuity and resolve matches a genuine concern for the people he takes along with him on the road to notable success. In turn, such a person role-models and reproduces the kind of team every company probably dreams of having on his side. Such kind of a man is Ali Hussain who is good at many things; being Marketing Manager of Landmark Group Kuwait, is just one of them, aside from all the business accolades, which range from career development and management recognitions. Born and raised in Kuwait, Ali was surrounded by family and friends. Far from India, Kuwait became his home. Success for expatriates in Kuwait is not an easy feat, some desire to leave and seek opportunity elsewhere, while others are content with finding opportunity in the lands that housed their families for generations. Ali justified, “Going back to India… that craving wasn’t in me”. So it was no surprise that he returned after graduating from university abroad. With a marketing degree and a vision of where he wanted to be, Ali began his career in American Express moving on later to M.H. Alshaya which seemed like the best place that he could work for. Ali knew that he had to contact this company, even if the outcome was just a new client for American Express. Ali’s contact was in charge of recruiting new employees. The sales pitch and presentation was so impressive that he offered Ali a job on the spot. Opportunity cannot be planned but it must be grasped when it shows itself. Ali had a new job by the next business day; and from there worked hard to climb up the ladders of success with integrity. Within a few years he moved on to Landmark Group and continued strengthening the company’s presence in Kuwait by implementing new marketing practices and strategies. It is a well known fact that good business depends on leaders with the right attitude and chemistry with their people and good listening skills. All of these qualities which Ali had, helped make him the Marketing Manager of Landmark Group today where he leads the Shukran loyalty program, along with taking care of the advertising and media strategies implemented across the various brands. Resonating with accomplishment, Ali told me, “If you have faith and your goals are clear then you can get what you want. I forecasted where I wanted to be in ten years, but reached it in five”. Ali’s message is global. Success is not found in the country that you are born in or the land where you’re from. Just have a vision and goal so that when opportunity presents itself you can be where you want to be, wherever you are in life. November 2013
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Talal Al-Othman Al Hamra is more than just a skyscraper; it is an icon. Kuwait was once more than a source of oil and this architectural masterpiece is a reminder of that. The sinuous concrete exterior carved world records, the elegant interior attracted world-renowned brands, and the beautiful office views are exclusive to the most successful companies. Yet, it is even more than that. Under the direction and leadership of Talal Al-Othman, this luxury center has become an important contributor to Kuwait’s society and culture. Al Hamra transformed into a pink beacon of support during the month of October for cancer awareness, a skydiver jumped off the roof with the Kuwaiti flag during the Kuwaiti National Day celebration, and an entire office floor was converted into a theatre for a comedy show. These events are just the beginning of Talal’s contribution to transforming Al Hamra into a landmark of creativity and social responsibility. The Arab empires contributed significant technological, artistic, and cultural advancements. That fact is, literally, ancient history. Of course, there are exceptions and there are some amazing dedicated Arabs making a difference, but the rest contribute nothing more to society than criticism. It is tiring to hear the same complaints over and over again with only few actually doing anything to solve it. Thankfully, time is changing and so are the generations. Social media and technology are allowing different societies to connect without the need to travel. This exposure allows us to witness what differentiates nations and what should be implemented or neglected. Yet, there are still people who choose to complain rather than implement. Talal Al-Othman has chosen to do the latter. Whenever he hears people talking about something that is missing in Kuwait he replies with, “If Kuwait needs it, then bring it!” and Talal has already set that example. He wasn’t always a record setter or an innovator. Talal spent his high school years as a troublemaker with no ambition or clear goal in life. University changed all that for him. Studying marketing at the Lebanese American University transformed his perspective on life and work ethics. After discovering his newfound passion, Talal matured into the creative and record-breaking man that he is now. Unfortunately, any innovative idea in Kuwait is met with a wall of bureaucratic policies and complications that will demotivate most entrepreneurs and creative minds. Yet, the dedicated will prevail and some already have. In order to inspire the youth and the creative minds to pursue their ambitions, Talal has implemented a CSR program that transformed Al-Hamra, amongst both companies and individuals, into a leader and inspiration for change. Charities, entrepreneurs, and people with talent are allowed to use Al Hamra as a location for their events, paying nothing more than the management fees. There is no longer an excuse for the lack of change or a reason to complain. It may be difficult to start a project or a campaign, but people like Talal are here to help anyone who is willing to make a positive contribution. Just bring your will and they will help you get your way.
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FEATURE
Hamad Al Saab Hamad Al Saab is a contradiction of sorts; he’s an artist at heart yet still manages a day job as an internal auditor. Hamad has always sketched since childhood, where he mostly hid his work from the public and instead always thought it ought to be something to keep within the confines of his own home. However the "burden of life" finally took its toll and to counteract the hectic pace of life he gave into his urge to let go. "Art became my meditation, where I would lock my doors put on music and just let go." EXHIBITIONS: nIntro to Pop Art-Astra, Kuwait 2007 nArab Celebrities(Music)- Cornich Gallery-Kuwait 2007 nMadonna Night(Queen of Pop Becomes Queen of Pop Art)-Astra, Kuwait 2007 nReminiscing Kuwait-Marina Hotel-Kuwait 2007 nHarmony Exhibitions-Sultan Gallery, Kuwait 2008 nLegends of the Arab World Exhibition-Athr Gallery-Jeddah 2010 nReminiscing Kuwait (Part 2)-Sultan Gallery, Kuwait 2011 nArab Icons-Lahd Gallery, London 2011 nConnect to Disconnect to Connect-Dar Al Funoon, Kuwait 2011 nScrapbook-Al Riwaq Art Space, Bahrain 2012 nFragments of memories – Grand Avenues – Kuwait 2012
GROUP EXHIBITION: nThe opening of Tilal Gallery event-Kuwait 2010 nShubbak (Arab Contemporary Culture Festival) London 2011 nMENASART Artfair-Beirul, Lebanon 2011 nArtfair Participation(Contemporary Art)-Istanbul, Turkey 2011 nDar Al Funoon charity art exhibition for Bayt Abdullah Hospice nPOD- Brought by the Art Salon at Contemporary Art Platform Kuwait- Sept. 2012 nTilal Gallery group exhibition – Kuwait 2013 nPOD - Brought by the Art Salon at Contemporary Art Platform Kuwait- 2013
After having put together his first series in collaboration with a partner, the art was displayed at a local coffee lounge upon the request of the owner who thought he needed some artwork to vamp up the décor. To the surprise of Hamad and the owner the pieces started selling. The idea of selling the work became a feasible way to find a way into people’s homes and establishments. With time, the pop-art style started to gain popularity and Hamad went into various collaborations with fellow artists to create lines in ode to Arabic music heritage. Featuring such singers such as Aisha Marta, Um Kalthoum, and Mahmoud Al Kuwaiti. All these were all heavy influences on Hamad while growing up in Kuwait, and his wish to honor them went down very well among the youth and older generations alike. Hamad went on to donate some pieces of his work to various establishments for charity purposes and found great comfort in giving back to the community via donating his time and effort to aid children’s and art societies and galleries. His love for mentorship also grew and he found that youth was very interested in art in general. Due to the tricky nature of art as a vocation most questions Hamad faced were from up and coming artists trying to find their footing in the art world. Hamad also is involved heavily with his clients. Those who purchased his work generally needed his input when hanging the larger pieces so Hamad started advising his clients on the best places to hang the work, and slowly but surely his interest in interior design found its way into the mix of services he offered his clients. “I always want to meet my clients, I get to know them well and ask them why they chose certain pieces of work over others”, and with time I’ve grown very close to them. They are very dear to me, and so I love that I’ve left a part of myself with them”, this is a long way from the days when my sketchbook never left the house. Hamad's studio has served as a place for young artists to come and work, and Hamad has lent his advice and mentorship to them as well as help them store their pieces with me for safekeeping. Asked why he doesn’t start a mentorship foundation of his own here in Kuwait he states that his aim is to do so when the time comes and the proper sponsors show themselves. Hamad's love for everything aesthetic makes him the perfect reference point for all things aesthetic for he has had the pleasure of meeting the who’s who of Kuwait and can definitely be of great help as the artist that gives back. Hamad is currently preparing for his new collection to be shown in December at Dar AlFonoun.
November 2013
Call +965 66973003 for a meeting to discuss your unique needs
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Faisal Ben Dhofari General manager / Owner Click integrated Media Solutions
Faisal is a Social Media and Online Marketing expert. He established his company a few years ago and has successfully implemented several highly successful online campaigns for a wide range of clients, ranging from private business to government agencies and some non-profit organizations.
"BBM "BlackBerry Messenger بعد هدوء شبه تام ملستخدمي البالكبيري وال BBM ,عاد من جديد وبقوة خدمة BBMوخالل 24ساعه فقط من اطالقه ،قام 10ماليني مستخدم بتحميل تطبيق ال BBMلكنها اآلن ليست منحصرة فقط على اجهزة البالكبيري فقط بل على أي جهاز ذكي يحتوي على األندرويد أو IOSوميكنك التواصل مع أصدقائك بنفس املواصفات املوجودة على أجهزة البالكبيري . من مميزاته أنه يعتبر أكثر أمانا ً عن باقي تطبيقات التواصل النه تتوفر فيه ميزة اخلصوصية فبامكانك اضافة أي شخص تريده عن طريق أخذ BBM pin للشخص الذي تريده في قائمتك .لذلك فهو ليس مثل باقي التطبيقات األخرى التي جتبرك على التواصل مع جميع املوجودين في قائمة االتصال عندك .وبالطبع ميكنك الدردشة نصيا ً ومشاركة الصور ومقاطع الفيديو مع أصدقائك .باالضافه الى امكانية انشاء مجموعة لعدد معني من أصدقائك والتحدث معهم جميعاً. تطبيق سهل وبسيط ميكن حتميله بسهولة والتمتع بخاصية اضافة من تريده وهذه ميزة أحبتتها .
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Energizer Ultimate Lithium Batteries
The Ultimate Lithium AA has the longest shelf life of any battery: 20 years. An aluminum oxide film at the cathode prevents oxidation damage. And Energizer makes the batteries in a special dry room, which reduces the watertriggered reactions that degrade a cell's ability to store power.
Jawbone Mini Jambox The six-inch Mini Jambox can produce the sound of a much larger speaker. The Mini's extruded aluminum exterior pulls double duty—as both the speaker's skin and its internal acoustic chamber— to cut heft.
BioLite KettlePot To reduce camping bulk, BioLite designed the KettlePot, a first-of-its-kind combination. Made from stainless steel, the 1.5-liter piece of cookware can sit on any stove, including the BioLite stove, which fits inside for traveling.
TECHNOLOGY
Digital Storm Veloce The Veloce 13.3" gaming laptop has both an Intel Haswell processor and a 1080p screen—a first. It also includes a Nvidia GTX 765M graphics card and eight gigabytes of memory, making it the most powerful laptop in its class.
Toro 24V Max 12" Cordless Trimmer To change the length of the line on a weed eater, users typically have to take apart the tool to spool more out. The process is easier with the battery-powered Toro Max, which has a dial on the grass shield for making adjustments.
LG Optimus G Pro With its latest software update, the LG Optimus G Pro plays video only when someone’s paying attention. The phone uses its front-facing camera and eye-tracking software to determine when you’re looking away and then pauses the video.
DrawAFriend
Canon Legria Mini
Windcatcher Air Pad
Canon’s newest handheld cam is a compact box of tricks to tickle the fancy of any vlogger or narcissist. Its ultra-wide f/2.8 lens offers a 160-degree viewing angle and shoots in 1080p, with effects such as time lapse, slow-mo and 4x fast motion. The 2.7-inch variable angle LCD and kickstand are perfect for selfrecording, while Wi-Fi lets you upload the results to your YouTube empire at speed.
The Windcatcher inflates faster and with less effort than any other sleeping pad. When a user blows into the pad's one-way valve, the low-pressure airstream draws in surrounding high-pressure air, augmenting each breath. The six-foot-long pad fills in 13 seconds on average.
The DrawAFriend app fixes the "fat finger" problem when writing or drawing on a touchscreen. Based on an algorithm, it modifies a stroke to more accurately reflect what you were trying to do. If incorporated by other developers, the feature could be a boon for many other apps.
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TECHNOLOGY
GIFT GUIDE FOR HIM Bunkerbound, designer and developer of gifts and gadgets, is supplying the high-street and online retailers with this year’s best gifts.
RazorPit £19.99 RazorPit razor blade sharpener works with all razor blades and gives you up to 150 shaves with one blade. With the patented RazorPit and its friction technology, you can remove the residues of hair and skin that makes your blade feel dull. More than 600 million men use razor blades and throw billions of razor blades in the bin every year. But there is nothing wrong with the blades. They simply have to be cleaned. Enter the RazorPit.
Everything Chair £49.99
Available at: www.amazon.co.uk
The Everything Chair is one seriously cool chill-out chair.
App Cufflinks £14.99 Some people wear their heart on their sleeve – others wear their favourite Apps. This set of six cufflinks is perfect for the App-sessed. Choose to wear any combination of the Email, Message,Calendar and other popular Apps.
The large inflatable design moulds the chair around your body for extreme comfort. Turn the chair into a multimedia entertainment device thanks to the 3.5mm Aux cable that connects to your MP3 player, games console, or other media device with a 3.5mm jack. Two speakers are housed in the chair’s headrest offering you a personal sound and gaming experience. To either side of the chair you will find a large mesh pocket for magazines, tablets etc.Thanks to another series of pockets on the front of the chair, you can keep your remotes, MP3 players and phones safe, located and most importantly – within easy reach.Each arm rest features a sunken cup holder – perfectly sized for a tumbler or one of your favourite cans.
Available at: www.iwantoneofthose.com
Man Mug £10.99
Yo!Bot £24.99
The Man Mug is the perfect gift for alpha males and DIY enthusiasts. The oversized ceramic mug comes with all the kit you need for being a “real man”, or at least drinking like one – spirit level, ruler detail and handy pencil holder handle with pencil. The chunky white ceramic is given a colour pop with a red interior, complimenting the red slogan emblazoned on the mug, ‘MAN MUG IT’S NOT FOR GIRLS’.
Yo!Bot is the miniature robot with a big brain and a small price tag. This mini ‘bot uses a free App and your smartphone as its intelligence, can be navigated by other smart devices and even stream live video to your PC or tablet. Travelling forwards, backwards and spinning clockwise and anticlockwise, Yo!Bot even comes with eight traffic cones for navigation and control challenges.
Available at: www.menkind.co.uk
Available at: www.geniegadgets.com
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RazorPit £19.99 The Back 2 Skool Pencil Box is a slim, rectangular pencil box made from stained wood, featuring a removable sliding lid with 20cm ruler detailing. The lid is emblazoned with Ready, Aim, Fire just itching to be used for flicking paper across the office. Inside the Pencil Box you’ll find a built-in pencil sharpener. The sharpener is removable for ease of emptying. Practical and old school in every sense of the phrase.
Available at: www.menkind.co.uk
ENTERTAINMENT
Travel Made Easy Enjoy our A truly useful app which is always to hand, it is perfect for drivers and those who need pointing in the right direction.
Meet & Assist Service
With CoPilot Live, travellers can:
wAvoid
traffic jams on the way to visit relatives over the festive period, using 12 months free ActiveTrafficTM
wSave on their precious data allowance, as the app downloads the maps onto the device to avoid data charges. No need to worry if there is no network signal, as the app works offline
wFine-tune
routes to avoid or go via certain locations through dragging and dropping on screen
wNever
miss a turning again with ClearTurnTM to guide them through complex junctions
wStay
safe on unfamiliar routes as distracting data is hidden from view
wFind their way around on foot or bicycle as easily as by car
wLatest updates also mean that users can avoid costly data roaming fees by using the maps in offline mode
facebook.com/pearlassist
Pricing & Availability: The CoPilot Live apps are available from ÂŁ24.99 for the UK & Ireland version and from ÂŁ34.99 for the European version. It is available on all smartphone platforms. For more information on ALK Technologies, visit: www.alk.com or follow at: www.twitter.com/ALKTech.
Whether you are arriving, departing or transiting at Kuwait International Airport, Hala Kuwait is there to make your journey easy. From the moment you get to the airport, our team is there to take care of your every need whether it is using our Fast Track immigration, dedicated check in area, Pearl Lounge, private transportation, or our Meet & Assist Service to guide you every step of the way.
@pearlassist
Member of the National Aviation Services Group
October 2013 Member of the National Aviation Services Group
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NOVEMBER Movie Releases THE WOLF OF WALL STREET
THE HUNGER GAMES: CATCHING FIRE
HOMEFRONT
Director: Francis Guillermo del Toro Director: Lawrence
Director: Gary GoreFleder Verbinski Director:
Director:Ken James Wan Director: Scott
Director: Chris RobertBuck, Schwentke Director: Jennifer Lee
Starring: Jennifer Lawrence, Josh Hutcherson, Liam Hemsworth, Philip Seymour Hoffman, Elizabeth Banks, Woody Harrelson
Starring: Jason Statham, James Franco, Winona Ryder, Izabela Vidovic, Kate Bosworth, Rachelle Lefevre
Starring: Vince Vaughn, Chris Pratt, Cobie Smulders, Britt Robertson,
Starring: Kristen Bell, Idina Menzel, Josh Gad, Jonathan Groff, Santino Fontana, Alan Tudyk
Genres: Drama, Biography
Synopsis: Jordan Belfort, a Long Island
Synopsis:.Follows Katniss Everdeen who
penny stockbroker, served 20 months in prison for refusing to cooperate in a massive 1990s securities fraud case that involved widespread corruption on Wall Street and in the corporate banking world, including mob infiltration.
has returned home safe after winning the
Synopsis: Follows a an ex-DEA agent (Jason Statham) who moves to a small town in the hope of a quiet life but runs afoul of a villainous meth kingpin named Gator (James Franco).
Genres: Comedy, Remake Synopsis: An affable underachiever finds
Director: Martin Scorsese Starring: Leonardo DiCaprio, Jonah Hill, Kyle Chandler, Jean Dujardin, Jon Bernthal Margot Robbie
74th Annual Hunger Games along with fellow tribute Peeta Mellark. Winning means that they must turn around and leave their family and close friends, embarking on a "Victor's Tour" of the districts. Along the way Katniss senses that a rebellion is simmering, but the Capitol is still very much in control as President Snow prepares the 75th Annual Hunger Games (The Quarter Quell) - a competition that could change Panem forever.
Jack Reynor, Bobby Moynihan
out he's fathered 533 children through anonymous donations to a fertility clinic 20 years ago. Now he must decide whether or not to come forward when 142 of them file a lawsuit to reveal his identity. The story of affable underachiever David Wozniak, whose mundane life is turned upside down when he finds out that he fathered 533 children through sperm donations he made twenty years earlier. In debt to the mob, rejected by his pregnant girlfriend, things couldn't look worse for David when he is hit with a lawsuit from 142 of the 533 twenty-somethings who want to know the identity of the donor.
Genres: Family, Musical Synopsis:A prophecy traps a kingdom in eternal winter, so Anna (voice of Kirsten Bell) must team up with Kristoff, a daring mountain man, on the grandest of journeys to find the Snow Queen (voice of Idina Menzel) and put an end to the icy spell. Encountering Everestlike extremes, mystical creatures and magic at every turn, Anna and Kristoff battle the elements in a race to save the kingdom from destruction.
THOR: THE DARK WORLD
Director: Alan Seth Taylor Rogen, Evan Goldberg Director:
Director: Jon SethTurteltaub Rogen, Evan Goldberg Director:
Director: Malcolm Seth Rogen, Evan Goldberg Director: D. Lee
Director:Jimmy Seth Rogen, Evan Goldberg Director: Hayward
Director: Brian Seth Rogen, Director: PercivalEvan Goldberg
Starring: Chris Hemsworth, Natalie Portman, Tom Hiddleston, Idris, Elba, Stellan Skarsgard, Anthony Hopkins
Starring: Morgan Freeman, Michael Douglas, Robert De Niro, Mary Steenburgen, Kevin Kline, Jerry Ferrara
Starring: Taye Diggs, Morris Chestnut, Terrence Howard, Harold Perrineau, Nia Long, Sanaa Lathan
Starring: Woody Harrelson, Owen Wilson, Dan Fogler, Amy Poehler, Lesley Nicol, George Takei
Starring: Emily Watson, Geoffrey Rush, Sophie Nelisse, Ben Schnetzer, Nico Liersch, Kirsten Block
Genres: Adventure, Superhero Genres: Action, Sci-Fi, Action, Adventure Synopsis:Marvel's Thor: The Dark World
Genres: Adventure, Comedy Genres: Sci-Fi, Action, Adventure Synopsis:Four best friends decide to
Genres: Comedy Genres: Drama, Sci-Fi, Action, Adventure
Genres: Genres: Family,Comedy,Animation Sci-Fi, Action, Adventure Synopsis: Two birds from opposite sides of
Genres: Sci-Fi, Drama,Action, Teen Adventure Genres:
continues the big-screen adventures of Thor, the Mighty Avenger, ashe battles to save Earth and all the Nine Realms from a shadowy enemy that predates the universeitself. In the aftermath of Marvel's Thor and Marvel's The Avengers, Thor fights to restore orderacross the cosmos...but an ancient race led by the vengeful Malekith returns to plunge the universe backinto darkness. Faced with an enemy that even Odin and Asgard cannot withstand, Thor must embarkon his most perilous and personal journey yet, one that will reunite him with Jane Foster and force him to sacrifice everything to save us all.
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THE DELIVERY MAN
citypageskuwait.com
escape retirement and throw the ultimate Las Vegasbachelor party for the last single member of their group. Michael Douglas, Robert De Niro, Morgan Freeman and Kevin Kline have been best friends since childhood. So when Billy, the group's sworn bachelor, finally proposes to his thirty-something girlfriend, the four head to Las Vegas with a plan to stop acting their age and relive their glory days. However, upon arriving, the four quickly realize that the decades have transformed Sin City and tested their friendship in ways they never imagined. The Rat Pack may have once played the Sands and Cirque du Soleil may now rule the Strip, but it’s these four who are taking over Vegas.
Synopsis: After nearly 15 years apart, Taye Diggs, Nia Long (Soul Food), Morris Chestnut, Harold Perrineau, Terrence Howard, Sanaa Lathan, Monica Calhoun, Melissa De Sousa and Regina Hall reprise their career-launching roles in The Best Man Holiday, the long-awaited next chapter to the film that ushered in a new era of comedy. When the college friends finally reunite over the Christmas holidays, they will discover just how easy it is for long-forgotten rivalries and romances to be ignited.
FREE BIRDS
the tracks join forces and travel through time to get their species off people's plates.
Reggie (voiced by Owen Wilson) was an ordinary turkey, until one Thanksgiving he was pardoned by the President. Unaware of the fate he’s escaped, Reggie is living large and enjoying the good life at Camp David. But when Reggie is kidnapped by Jake (voiced by Woody Harrelson), the rebel leader of a turkey uprising, he discovers a horrifying secret: Turkeys aren’t honored holiday gueststhey’re tasty holiday meals! Jake and Reggie hijack a top secret time machineand travel back in time to 1621, to the first Thanksgiving to take themselves off the menu.
THE BOOK THIEF
Synopsis: A spirited and courageous young girl transforms the lives of everyone around her when she is sent to live with a new family in World War II Germany. Follows a spirited young girl named Liesel (Sophie Nelisse) who witnesses the horrors of Nazi Germany while in the care of foster parents, played by Rush and Watson. The girl arrives with a stolen book and begins collecting other tomes, learning to read while her stepparents harbor a Jewish refugee (Ben Schnetzer) under the stairs.
FEATURE
Wadjda
Ahmad Al-Ragum
A Saudi Movie Ahmad is a 28 year old Kuwaiti working in marketing field. He is in love with movies, traveling and football. Follow AlRgum on Instagram and Twitter: @ALRAGUM
Overview:
Storyline:
The director Haifaa Al-Mansour tells the tale of a child called Wadjda whose wish is to have her own bicycle so that she might race against her friend and neighbour Abeer. The only problem is that Wadjda is a girl and girls in Saudi society do not ride bikes, which are considered "boys' toys" ... As we follow Wadjda in her quest to find the money to purchase the bicycle she sees being delivered on the roof of a van, we are introduced to her society and its culture and, in particular, its treatment of girls and women. Al-Mansour's portrayal of her country is shown without heavy judgement, although the bitter sweetness of being female is not concealed.
Director: Haifaa Al Mansour
Filmed on location in Saudi Arabia, a feat in itself in a country that does not have a film industry as films are considered sinful, Wadjda's desire represents the wish for female freedom; her lack of a bicycle is mirrored in the adult women's inability to drive, prohibited for women in Saudi Arabia, and the problems this creates for them. So the child's desire to ride a bike becomes a metaphor for freedom, which is the central theme in the film. This is a subtle tale full of character, charm and complexities and not at all as one might expect. The young girl who carries the film, Waad Mohammed, is terrific and it is hard to believe that she was not an actress before appearing in this feature. Does Wadjda achieve her desire and get her bike? Is she able to race it along the dusty roads as free as her friend Abeer and the other boys? Well, you will have to watch the film for the answers and in watching the film will support the director and the nascent film industry emerging from within Saudi Arabia.
Nomination:
It was a film that seemed guaranteed to enrage its homeland: the first feature from a Saudi Arabian woman director, which painted the Kingdom as an oppressive society in which women are second class citizens and girls are forbidden to laugh in public. And yet wadjda , the critically acclaimed drama from Haifaa Al Mansour, has been selected as Saudi Arabia's official nomination for the best foreign film Oscar.
Production Year: 2012 Cast: Abdullrahman Algohani, Reem Abdullah and waad Mohammed
November 2013
FEATURE
Abdulaziz Al-Khamis
Movies about cancer Abdulaziz is a Kuwaiti Film Maker, Visual Artist and a Script Writer. He graduated from the UK, with a passion to mix art and visuals.
Movies have always been the medium to convey an emotion, a feeling, and unspoken thoughts. Some movies tend to transcend beyond the silver screen to motivate us and guide us to a better life ahead. Here are some truly motivational and inspirational movies based on or around cancer.
Sweet November
Featuring Charlize Theron and Keanu Reeves, ‘Sweet November’ tells a story of Charlize Theron, a woman who’s diagnosed with cancer and is yet keeping it secret from the world and living the life to her fullest. The movie also features Keanu Reeves, a dedicated worker whose life revolves around work and other frivolous priorities and who ultimately misses out on the finer things in life. Their paths meet, fireworks ensue, and Keanu Reeves sees a beautiful life through Theron’s eyes. Spoiler alert, the ending may dishearten a few, yet the stay strong message will truly resonate.
The Bucket List
Nothing can ever go wrong when you have Jack Nicholson and Morgan Freeman doing what they do best. ‘The Bucket List’ tells us how a couple of terminally ill cancer patients escape from a hospital ward only to embark on a road trip and fulfill their fantasies. The unconditional urge to conquer your dreams is a goal everyone likes to commit to, and ‘The Bucket List’ gives us the much-needed nudge to go ahead and do it! The movie has hearty laughs and content smiles for us to be a part of.
My Life Without Me
‘My Life Without Me’ is a movie that truly puts the phrase ‘Living each day as if it was your last’ into perspective. Sarah Polley essays the role of a 23-yearold diagnosed with cancer and is all set to die in two months just when she gets the whiff to live her life according to her terms, and that’s when life and its most cherished moments are made. The movie is beautifully made and will make you want to live your life in its totality. Watch this one and go conquer your dreams!
A Walk To Remember
‘A Walk To Remember’ is a mushy affair. There’s nothing spectacular about it. No stellar star cast, no artsy cinematography or intellectual dialogues. The
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movie is simple in its own way and tells the story of how two simple teenagers who are polar opposites fall in love only to discover that the simple girl is riddled with cancer, and their relationship is truly put to test. The perseverance and unconditional love is what drives this movie, and boy, does it work!
50/50
Joseph Gordon-Levitt is a gem of an actor, and he’s the lead in this film so rest assured, this’ll be a fun ride. Inspired by a true story, ‘50/50’ a comedy flick is about the young chap, Levitt, who is recently diagnosed with cancer and the struggles he finds within himself to come in terms with it, and it’s done in an absolutely fabulous fashion.
Cries & Whispers
A Swedish flick, ‘Cries & Whispers’ is an oldie. Released in 1972, it tells us about a woman dying of cancer and is paid a visit by her two sisters. What ensues are suppressed memories, pain, aggression, jealousy, and a tornado of emotions. ‘Cries & Whispers’ takes you on a rollercoaster ride and brings you back with a feeling of content and belonging.
The Fountain
A tale spanning three parallel universes based thousands of years apart, ‘The Fountain’ stars Hugh Jackman fighting for the life of the one he truly loves. A movie based on life, death, pain and eventual acceptance, ‘The Fountain’ does its trick of mesmerizing you in any and every way possible. Beautifully done, it gives us a whole new perspective of life and what comes of it. Watch this one and it may give you a certain sense of fulfilment in its own humble way.
ENTERTAINMENT
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LITERATURE
Fame in the Adriatic “The malady has become incurable.” Chapter Nine I stop. But I don’t turn around. It couldn’t have been me. I retrace my steps and our conversation, paying attention to insinuation, implications, or body language. I don’t recognize a single moment in which I might’ve indicated that I wanted to dine with the Pellegrinos. Luciano’s breath on the back of my neck frightens the daylight out of me. “You tricked me!” I cry. “You lied to make me stop just so you could catch up with me.” It is now Luciano who walks away. I gather my dress and scuttle behind him, exposing my ankles and half my legs. “You’re no gentleman!” “Careful, now,” he warns. “Admit it. Admit that you are a liar.” Luciano cackles. It takes me a couple of moments before I realize I just pulled an Epimenides. Asking a liar to admit a lie won’t yield the truth. Luciano keeps walking, his footsteps are long and quick, his riding boots facilitate his movement. I lag behind no matter how fast I scuttle. “I am no liar, Maria. When you get home ask your mother who invited herself over to dinner, when she did it, and why. Then, I want you to remember your speech. As for me, princess, I am off to bathe and dress because we have guests coming.” My mother. Oh God. I left her after making a mockery of both of us in front of Uncle Ziani. The Pellegrinos were behind. Either Luciano contacted my mother, or she contacted him. I swallow the lump of emotion clogging my throat. It is surely mother who invited herself over, and since Luciano has no siblings it can only mean one thing: mother will propose our union! I march all the way home, lost in the turbulence of my thoughts. Elana stands on the porch, wearing a sleeveless yellow dress and wooden pianelles. She’s holding the shaft of a broom with her right hand, her left grips the wooden railing. Elana has a shaved head. Her hair cannot be brushed so it had to be chopped. She had the audacity to compare her hair with mine once, suggesting that mother shaves mine as well! The nerve! She too seems to be lost in thought staring into the direction of our new neighbors’ house. She doesn’t notice me despite my loud stomping, you’d think I was a
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poltergeist standing next to her, not only does she not acknowledge my presence but her face contorts into that semblance of fear the living get when the dead walk among them. Her tiny chest, which is only just blooming into womanhood, heaves upwards and downwards quickly. I consider smacking her forehead to snap her out of her reverie, but having just yelled at Luciano for his slave-related brutality, I settle upon shouting. “Hey!” My scream startles the Ethiopian. “For Christ’s sake, Maria!” Elana crosses herself. “Why are you yelling in public? Haven’t you had enough of your mother’s cane?” “It was you, wasn’t it? You’re the one who told her I was outside half dressed.” “Well, really, Maria, someone has to preserve your honor.” Fancy that: A slave preserving my honor. I look at Elana with disbelief. She doesn’t have a soul, let alone a reputation, why she cares so much about preserving mine is beyond my comprehension. I suck in a large amount of air through my nostrils then say, “I’ll deal with your transgression later. Don’t think I’ll ever forget it. You are a slave, Elana, my slave. You belong to me. You do my biddings. Or you will be sold.” I do not add “or executed” because I feel like I delivered my point across. Drops of tears glisten in the corners of her eyes and my heart begins to wrench. I often forget how young and frail she is. Why are people born black? Couldn’t they just grow into their skin color? This way, no young person would ever be sold into slavery. Elana turns around and leaves, but since I feel guilty, and since I cannot apologize to her without diminishing my sense of superiority, I say through pursed lips, “Wait,” and immediately, the image of Luciano the madman penetrates my mind, “answer the question.” I say it all low and deep the way he spoke at Church. Elana blinks. “I did, Maria. I already confessed that I told your mother you were half naked on the street.” Oh right. She did. “I didn’t mean that!” I wave her off. “I meant why you were standing out on the porch! You talk about honor, child? It is you who risks it.” Elana narrows her eyes as if to tell me, “No, fool, you never asked me that question,” but she answers anyhow. “I heard a ruckus.” I strain my ears. I tell her not to make a mockery out of me and head back in the house when all of a sudden—thank you universe, you’ve been awfully kind all day—I am proven wrong again. It is a banging, loud and frightening, mixed with the wailing of a grown man that comes out of our neighbors’ house. The sound of the man’s screaming rips my heart into two pieces. Elana drops the broom from fear and takes two steps backwards, crossing herself in the process. “It is a demon, Maria, God bless our souls, Judgment Day is upon us!” You have no soul, Elana. You are a heathen, Elana. You’re going to Hell, Elana. “Rest your nerves. It is not a demon. It is a slave.” Elana’s eyes dilate. “A slave? Why? What is happening to him?” Aren’t you happy I’m your master, I almost taunt. “They torture him.” “But your mother said they are nobles!” “They are monsters. It is better not to leave the house from now on. Who knows what they’ll do to you if they see you, because even though you have not been raised as a slave in our house, you’re black.” I know, I know, it is beneath me, but it is a small payback for getting my mother to bend her cane above my back. Elana runs inside the house. When I enter, I see mother. “Oh good, you are finally home, now hurry up and dress. The Pellegrinos are expecting us.” Mother doesn’t allow me to squirm my way out of this obligation. I cannot argue, otherwise, I’d have to confess that I was alone with Luciano at the well, and my bruises are still blue and purple from this morning’s beating, so I don’t want to paint them darker. She sings all around the house, which is to say that she has forgotten Uncle Ziani’s rejection. At first, I pace the length of my chambers. I sit on my bed, then on my chair at my desk, and then I stand and stare a little out of my window. I will not marry Luciano! He looked so smug today, the personification of malice. I fear that even though he belittles me, he is not above consenting to the union just to pain me further. I run this morning’s events in my mind and conclude that Luciano de’Pellegrino is a bad
LITERATURE
man who hurts everyone he comes in contact with. I pull out a basket below my writing desk. It is a big basket with two handles that I can slip over my elbow. I usually take it with me to the market when mother and I shop for groceries. I unlock my chest of clothes and pull out two dresses (one royal blue with baby blue ruffles on the finishing, and one red with golden thread, which mother never allows me to wear because she says, and I quote, “Red and yellow are Courtesan colors.”). Then I pull out my father’s clothes. Mother donated my father’s belongings to Signora Barberino’s Church but I kept all of his books, his medicine cabinet, and only one of his outfits. I pull it out now, black trousers that are much longer than my legs, a black doublet with pink sleeves that still preserves his smell, and a grey hat with a turned-up brim. When I run away with Giuseppe tonight, a male disguise might come in handy. Speaking of handiness, I open the medicine cabinet. I take out the narcotic sponges with their equipments, glass tubes of mandrake and belladonna, and gently wrap my red dress around them. I contemplate for a moment before I take the dried ground boar penis, and then I think against it. What’s the probability of contracting a lung disease on a ship? Then I change my mind again. The universe has been a pain between my cheeks all morning, why wouldn’t it take this opportunity to teach me a lesson in irony? Pigeon dung is used to cure eye irritations so it’s definitely entering the basket. I’m certain that I will need it when I’m with Giuseppe on a ship for months on end. I don’t need the verbena, which is applied when people are bitten by rabid dogs, but the grease is necessary as it helps with burns, and a ship is made of wood, which catches fire easily. Before I close the cupboard, I see the laudanum, an alcoholic solution of opium that is highly addictive, and used to dull pain. Father often warned me against taking it though he kept a potion for emergencies. I think being stranded on a ship in the middle of the Adriatic Sea for months on end is an emergency. I add the laudanum to my basket then smile. I am really doing it, running away, starting an adventure, a journey, like Paracelsus himself I too shall wander Europe as an itinerant physician, disputing traditional theories, wielding new ones, establishing a name and a reputation for myself. I rummage for the silver box in which I keep my money. Coins jingle inside when I shake it. I have around 13 lire, 2 soldi, and 6 dinari, which is almost the equivalent of 2 ducats. Alfonso’s image as he casually dropped a golden ducat on the Ottomans’ table fills my heart with a painful heaviness. Half my life savings offered as a tip of hospitality. I certainly don’t have enough to start a university education, which means I’ll need a money making strategy. When I think of money, Luciano comes to mind. If there’s anyone in Europe who knows how to make money, apart from the Jews, it’s him… What did he mean by a modern day celebrity? I plunk down on my chair. Guglielmo Bergamasco was famous for building the Venetian Palazzo dei Camerlenghi seven years ago; 1528 was the same year Domenico Capriolo died, a painter who did something fancy or other that I cannot recall. All that comes to mind is father’s mischievous smile warning me against pursuing his 1512 “Self Portrait.” That can only mean that Domenico is a handsome man, and that father wanted to trick me into going after the “Self Portrait” to alter my lack of concern for art. Either way, I’m sure that both the painting and the Palazzo are magnificent, and I cannot produce similar works no matter how long I remain in training. I scratch off the two options in my head. Since I am not a noblewoman, I haven’t been taught to play the lute or the violin, to dance or to sing. I can clap along to songs, and I can dance clumsily, though I am incapable of carrying a proper tune. What does that leave? Poetry? Pietro Bembo already succeeded in revitalizing poetry by writing in the language of Petrarch texts that are reminiscent of Boccaccio. What can I do in poetry that would make me famous? Nothing. I can add nothing to a delicate form of art, not even if I wanted to use Dante’s Inferno as a metaphor for my burning passion toward… Now why did Luciano’s image come to mind when Giuseppe’s name was on the tip of my tongue? If he thinks to make me a courtesan, he will be sourly disappointed for I cannot attract men. Fourteen rejections in twelve months—make that fifteen with Uncle Zian’s. If he expects to marry me in order to enslave me… well he will just revel in more let downs as well when he discovers my inability to cook, weave, sew, clean, or nurture kids. I have no talents. No skills. Nothing about me is special. Not even my name: Maria. Caterina shares her name with the Lady of Forli. I share mine with half
Nada Faris
Nada Faris is the author of Before Young Adult Fiction, a collection of award-winning short stories, poems and articles that is available at That Al-Salasil (Avenues Mall), Jareer Bookshop, and Kuwait Bookshop (Al-Muthanna Complex). For more of her work, please visit her website: www. nadafaris.com.
of Europe! I’m not a miracle, a wonder, a money-making genius, or a university graduate. It feels as though I’ve spent half my life recuperating from mistakes and rash decisions. So what does he see in me? I hate not knowing. I hate it more than anything in the world, more than being unwanted or poor. Mother enters my room without knocking. I slide my runaway basket underneath my desk just in time. “You’re still not ready!” The older and fatter version of Caterina shrieks. “Elana! Get my new cane!” “No! Elana don’t.” I apologize to mother and promise I’ll get ready in the blink of an eye. When mother leaves, I rummage through my drawers again. I would’ve worn the blue dress had it not been stuffed inside my basket. It complements Luciano’s eyes. Then I freeze. Elana enters my room to help me change. Suddenly, I want to wear the blue dress. I’m overcome by a giddy emotion, a feeling girls experience when they decide to get someone they’re uninterested in to fall in love with them. I convince myself that I can wear it to dinner, and then, upon my return, I will tuck it into my basket again when I wear father’s clothes. But how can I pull it out of my basket without raising Elana’s suspicions? “Elana,” I say. “Get me a goblet of water.” “Your mother told me to help you dress.” “You won’t be helping me if I die of thirst. Go.” I soften my tone. “Please Elana, I want to drink water.” Elana lingers for some time, pretending to fold and unfold dresses before finally consenting to leave. As soon as she does, I duck under the desk and pull out the basket. Then I hear, “Would you like a fruit as well?” She’s seen me! November 2013
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LITERATURE
NOVEMBER Book Releases November is usually the last month of the year for notable books. Here is what to expect in 2013.
I Am Malala: The Girl Who Stood Up
for Education and Was Shot by the Taliban
Malala Yousafzai, Christina Lamb
When the Taliban took control of the Swat Valley in Pakistan, one girl spoke out. Malala Yousafzai refused to be silenced and fought for her right to an education. On Tuesday, October 9, 2012, when she was fifteen, she almost paid the ultimate price. She was shot in the head at point-blank range while riding the bus home from school, and few expected her to survive.
The First Phone Call from Heaven
Encounters with Jesus Timothy Keller
Just in time for the Christmas season, Timothy Keller, bestselling author and pastor of Redeemer Presbyterian Church in Manhattan, is releasing a book that examines some of the biggest questions people ask by looking at the life of Jesus in the four Gospels.
Valley of Amazement Amy Tan
Mitch Albom
In the vein of Albom's previous novels, such as For One More Day, he uses The First Phone Call from Heaven to consider what happens when the natural world is bridged with the afterlife and people have a chance to consider their lives from a bigger perspective.
Amy Tan's latest novel moves from a small Chinese village to courtesan parlors in Shanghai to 19th century San Fransisco, following three generations of women and how they are linked by one painting.
The Last Cowboy: A Life of Tom Landry
Margaret Thatcher: Power and Personality
Mark Ribowsky
When Pride Still Mattered.
A strong and sometimes divisive figure in British and world politics, Margaret Thatcher was the longest-serving British Prime Minister in the twentieth century and the only woman to ever hold the office. Drawing from an abundance of new, previously unpublished material from the Thatcher Papers at Churchill College, Cambridge, Jonathan Aitken’s fresh and original biography is a lively and perceptive exploration of the personality that dominated conservative British politics for more than ten years and her profound and worldwide impact on the historical tapestry of her time.
Red Sky in Morning
Five Days in November
It's 1832 and Coll Coyle has just killed the wrong man. The dead man's father means to track Coll down and make him pay for what he did. The hunt leads form the windswept bogs of County Donegal, across the Atlantic to the choleric work camps of the Pennsylvania railroad, where both men will find their fates in the hardship and rough country of the fledgling United States.
The New York Times bestselling authors of MRS. KENNEDY AND ME share the stories behind the five infamous, tragic days surrounding JFK's assassination --alongside revealing and iconic photographs --- published in remembrance of the beloved President on the fiftieth anniversary of his death.
An action-packed biography of a man, his team, and the league he helped create --- in the tradition of Maraniss’s
Paul Lynch
Clint Hill and Lisa McCubbin
LITERATURE
Nada Soliman
[email protected]
Meet Nada, our team member is simply a book savvy. Every month Nada picks her favourite book and shares with you its review. Please feel free to contact Nada to discuss your opinion or ask her opinion on your favourite book or author.
Rogue
As promised last month, I will cover a book by one of my favorite authors Danielle Steel. With over thirty books published, American novelist Danielle Steel is a famous name in the genre of romance. She is the top bestselling author alive and the fourth bestselling author of all times; with over eight hundred million copies of her novels sold. You will never be disappointed by one of her books. She wrote famous titles such as Heart Beat (1991), Malice (1996), Sisters (2007) and many more. This month I will cover a book for her called Rogue (2008). From Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary the word rogue means; 'a mischievous person, a scamp, a rascal, an impish or playful young person' and these are all words to describe our irresistible main character Blake, who was married to Maxine Williams who was driven away by his playboy like behavior. After settling the divorce, Blake going back to his globe-trotting lifestyle of dating successful, young, beautiful women and Maxine raising their three children alone and returning to her first passion of being a child psychiatrist, things change. When tragedy hits, it transforms Blake into a responsible grown-up and it made him realize that he wants her back in his life, both for work reasons and because he loves her, at the same time, Maxine has already moved on and on the verge of starting a new life. However, Blake, a.k.a the rogue was never perfect but he was always in her heart. The question remains, the rogue is a man capable of doing anything but change, or is he? It’s a journey of choices, and the amazing opportunities that come together just when life seems to be falling apart. Author Danielle Steel has a habit of making her characters timeless in a very addictive way.
Next Month...
Next month we will be covering one of my favorite books, The Wrong Bride; it’s the story of the irresistible Australian Devlin Hunter, who needs to close up a business deal by marrying Tracy who has a twin sister Jessica. After a scheme from Tracy, Devlin ends up marrying Jessica, the wrong bride without realizing, or does he?
This Is the Story of a Happy Marriage
Our Picnics in the Sun
One year after her debut, A Partial History of Lost Causes, created a storm, Jennifer Dubois returns with a second novel. Cartwheel is a novel about an American exchange student in Argentina who becomes the prime suspect in the murder of her roommate. As details emerge, this book keeps readers guessing about the main character and what really happened. This book channels the Amanda Knox story, although it is a work of fiction.
Howard and Deborah have sunk their life savings into the small cottage where they raise sheep and live quiet lives. When Howard has a stroke, Deborah must open the doors to lodgers, turning her home into a bed and breakfast. Two men come one night, drinking too much and complaining too loudly. The next morning, one of them is gone and the other can't even begin to pay the bill.
Morag Joss
I AM
Q SIGNATURE BLEND Mocha Italia
Our smooth bodied coffee blend, slow roasted in London. I am the taste at the heart of every Corto.
CLASSIC CORTO CARAMEL CORTO
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LITERATURE
Nadia AlHassan
Nadia Al-Hassan is a student in Ireland, studying Journalism. She is passionate about writing stories and poetry. Nadia loves helping people with her stories. She believes that words are beautiful and powerful.
“Jaber, what do you want to be when you grow up?” asked 15 -year-old Mohammed. They were sitting in the park resting after hours of running around playing football. “I don’t know Mohammed, I always wanted to be a doctor. Or an astronaut, or maybe a famous football player!” he said. They both started to giggle and then this sad look on Mohammed’s face appeared. “What is wrong?” Jaber asked but Mohammed did not reply and they both sat in silence for a while. “I am quite scared, I don’t think I want to grow up,” whispered Mohammed. A tear fell from his eye and rolled down his face. Mohammed wanted to remain a kid, he wasn’t too sure about growing up. As he watched his own family struggle every day, it made him even more sure that growing up wasn’t very much fun. His mother was ill and his father was always away working, they had little money and life was very hard. “But if I had to pick and choose what I wanted to be when I grow up, then I would want to grow up into a good man, somebody who is caring and I would like to help others too,” whispered 13 year old Mohammed. Just then a boy went up to this little 4-year-old girl in the park and pushed her to the ground then ran away, her mother was turned the other way and could not see what was happening. Mohammed went over to the little girl and put his hand out to help her up. “Are you okay?” he asked. After awhile it was time for Jaber and Mohammed to go back home and as they were walking, Jaber patted Mohammed on the back. “What was that for?” he asked. “Well,” Jaber said, “You said when you grow up you want to become a kind and caring man, somebody who helps others. Well, Mohammed, you already are a kind person. You went to help that little girl today and I don’t think you need to worry about growing up. You will always be the same person, a good person.”
A helping hand
Mohammed couldn’t help but smile, he didn’t feel so scared anymore. Life may be scary sometimes and growing up may feel like a difficult thing to do. Sometimes, people will knock you down and life will throw things at you. But no matter what, we all have the strength to get back up on our feet and carry on. Life can be beautiful and never be afraid to be who you are. Growing up can be a an amazing experience, If you are a child or an adult, every day is filled with exciting adventures and growing older is a gift. Make sure you appreciate it. Your dreams are there for you to make come true and don’t forget, “as you grow older, you will discover that you have two hands, one for helping yourself, the other for helping others.” November 2013
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INTERVIEW
Huda Alanizy Founder of Hudzii
Where fashion meets culture! Huda Al Anizy is a young, passionate and artistically gifted T-shirt designer, who has come a long way in a short time. This London born Kuwaiti designer is already making waves. She started her own brand Hudzii by Huda at the age of 15, an inspiration to many who wants to start at a young age but unable to find courage to put across their creativity. Currently in her final year of A-levels, Huda found her calling two years ago during summer holidays, when she had ample amount of time that she wanted to spend wisely. Huda is imbued with a passion for her work that is rare to find, and driven by her own love for the field. CityPages chats with her about life, inspirations, and her future plans.
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Please introduce yourself to our readers:
I’m a 17 year old with high ambitions. I started my brand Hudzii by Huda at the age of 15. I have always aspired to be an inspiration to others, the same way I have always been inspired by many who have started from so little.
What got you to London? What are you currently doing?
I was born in London and I am currently on my final year of A-levels, looking to study in London University next year.
You started your brand at the age of 15? How did it all happen? What or who inspired you?
It all started during my summer holidays, I had so much free time which I wanted to spend wisely with something that would benefit me alongside putting across my creativity. I wanted to make something different, something I could express myself in and reach to a lot of people, something people could relate to and show their identity. I came up with ‘T-shirts inspired by the Arab culture’ something that I knew many would relate to and would love to wear stating their identity and way of life. Thus this inspired me in making my first design which is the ‘3arabya’ T-shirt which is also my number one seller and it had inspired many others in the market. It’s an illustration of a lady's face wearing a Burqa, (a traditional Arab veil) with a simple statement below stating “3arabya”.
How did you come up with the name "HUDZII"?
Hudzii is a nickname my friends gave me, which is a combination of my first name and family name. I loved the collaboration and decided to use it.
Why did you choose T-Shirts and Phone skins only?
T-shirts and phones are essentials in everyone's lives. Everyone likes to show of their identity and a simple item like a T-shirt could say a lot about you as well as your phone case. I also wanted to start step by step as at a young age I did not have as much courage to start big straight away.
Are you planning to add more to your brand?
Yes, Hudzii by Huda won’t only be a T-shirt line. I am currently working on designs to cater for the ladies looking for fashionable yet modest garments.
Where are your T-shirts and phone skins available to buy?
Hudzii T-shirts are available to order on-line from ASOS Marketplace with international postage. And Some designs are currently available to purchase in Hangers boutique located in Burj Altijari (Kuwait ) and ofcourse on my instagram page @hudziiboutique, where buyers can find all the details.
What are your future plans?
I plan to open up my own boutique in the heart of London. However, my education is my priority for now.
How is living in London like? When are you planning to come back?
Great, I love London and I consider myself a Londoner but I do miss home and have the urge to leave everything and go back home. But as I said before, I am ambitious and I have dreams to fulfill first.
What are your hobbies besides designing T-shirts?
I love photography, my SLR never separates me. I also have my own fashion blog, which allows me to reach a vast amount of readers giving me the chance to express my passion for fashion & photography.
Your message for the people of Kuwait and our readers:
Aim high and dream big no matter what people will tell you! Always have hope, confidence, patience and Iman. Because as long as you have those four in your heart, your wonderful dreams will be your beautiful reality!
Your message for us at CityPages magazine:
I would like to thank the CityPages for their support and for giving me this great opportunity to share what I love with those who care.
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Hussain is wearing: Alexander McQueen python biker jacket - only 30 pieces made worldwide, Alexander McQueen shirt as seen on the catwalk paired with Balenciaga jeans and Giuseppe Zanotti crocodile-print high-top sneakers Photographer: Andre Shirazi Makeup Artist: Joyce Jadarian Hair Stylist: Samer Attieh from AlQasrain Saloon Outfits by: Harvey Nichols Kuwait
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Photographer: Andre Shirazi Makeup Artist: Joyce Jadarian Hair Stylist: Samer Attieh from AlQasrain Saloon Outfits by: Harvey Nichols Kuwait
PHOTOSHOOT
Abdulaziz is wearing: Unconditional outfit including wool coat, black t-shirt and side stripe panel jeans paired with Alexander McQueen Puma Blackstation high-top senakers Hussain is wearing: Rick Owens wax coated jacket and pants paired with Giuseppe Zanotti shearling high-top sneakers November 2013
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Photographer: Andre Shirazi Makeup Artist: Joyce Jadarian Hair Stylist: Samer Attieh from AlQasrain Saloon Outfits by: Harvey Nichols Kuwait
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Hussain is wearing: Maison Martin Margiela textured wool jacket with wing collar shirt, wool pants paired with Common Projects black shoes
PHOTOSHOOT
Abdulaziz is wearing: Unconditional outfit with Jimmy Choo black and white high-top sneakers Photographer: Andre Shirazi Makeup Artist: Joyce Jadarian Hair Stylist: Samer Attieh from AlQasrain Saloon Outfits by: Harvey Nichols Kuwait November 2013
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Abdulaziz is wearing: Balenciaga outfit with slim jeans, zip jacket, and abstract leather print tee, paired with Giuseppe Zanotti shearling high-top sneakers Hussain is wearing: Burberry Prorsum military style overcoat and studded knitwear paired with Jimmy Choo black studded high-top sneakers
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citypageskuwait.com Photographer: Andre Shirazi Makeup Artist: Joyce Jadarian Hair Stylist: Samer Attieh from AlQasrain Saloon Outfits by: Harvey Nichols Kuwait
Photographer: Andre Shirazi Makeup Artist: Joyce Jadarian Hair Stylist: Samer Attieh from AlQasrain Saloon Outfits by: Harvey Nichols Kuwait
PHOTOSHOOT
Abdulaziz is wearing: New and exclusive to Harvey Nichols Kuwait: British brand Blood Brother outfit with leather gilet, hoody sweater, panel sweatpants, paired with Adidas Y3 gray fluorescent high-top sneakers
November 2013
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1. RiverIsland aztec denim shirt 11K.D, 2. RiverIsland superman hat 6.5K.D 3. RiverIsland denim jacket 30K.D 4. Maison Martin Margiela leather jacket 630K.D 5. RiverIsland tee 4.5K.D 6. Rick Owens leather jacket 1,260K.D 7. SuperMan logo belt 8K.D 8. Levi’s jeans 65K.D 9. Leopard print backpack 13K.D 10. Black military boots 35K.D 11. Caterpillar brown boots 50K.D
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FASHION Zouch is about men's fashion, giving insight on what, how and when to wear. Think of Zouch as your personal fashion consultant. This page relates to all men of all ages as a helping tool to dress with style and edge. Find your own individual style as we push boundaries for you. Rest assured we will keep you updated with all the latest fashion news, men's trends and lots more.
Instagram: @zouchfashion Twitter: @zouchfashion
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1. Black studied bow tie 4.5K.D 2. Addict gray beanie 11K.D 3. RiverIsland beanie 3.5K.D 4. Lavin cashmere scarf 80K.D 5. Missoni scarf 85K.D 6. Marc by Marc Jacobs backpack 40K.D 7. Gucci silk scarf 105K.D 8. Givenchy scarf 105K.D 9. Rick Owens leather tote bag 285K.D 10. Givenchy backpack 235K.D November 2013
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SUGAR by de GRISOGONO An Ode to Femininity Fawaz Gruosi presents a new women’s timepiece collection as homage to beauty and colour. SUGAR is the very essence of femininity, transforming a watch into a luxurious sweet treat. The moving gems create a free movement all around the watch leaving a sparkling cascade of the highest quality of precious stones in white diamonds, emeralds, orange or blue sapphires. Precious stones have been at the center of de GRISOGONO’s creative process since 1993; daring, innovative use of these pieces has been one of the pioneering traits of the Brand. We see it yet again with this new collection, four precious gems used to create ten decadent creations breaking out from the mold and introducing a fresh and avant-garde look.
Max Unveils the Autumn Collection
With summer nearly over every fashionista worth their salt is thinking about their Autumn/Winter wardrobe. The latest collection from Max is the perfect combination of high fashion and affordability drawing inspiration from high fashion catwalks. For women, this season’s collection stems from ‘tartan grunge’ and rich warm colours taking cue from the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute Gala adding our own animal print twist to the mix. Mesh inserts and overlays and panel blocs are all presented in the collection. The Scottish Highlands are another source of inspiration with kilts, tartan skirts and print on print combinations. Embellished collars and hems are also trends to keep an eye out for at Max this season. It’s all about the detail. This winter Max men’s wear experiments with specific key trends across the season starting off with the ever popular tartan trend offering items like, blazers, printed sweaters cardigans and shorts.
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FASHION
Kurt Geiger launches their striking Autumn Winter 2013 range This Autumn Winter Kurt Geiger, the leading UK luxury footwear brand, launches its glamorous collection for women that strikes with its elegance and stunning features. Kurt Geiger London for women – Autumn Winter 2013 is all about Kurt Geiger London pointy-toed ‘Court Collection’, ‘Everything but the dress’ line of accessories and Kurt Geiger’s signature stiletto that is a heart of ‘B Series’ styles says Creative Director of Kurt Geiger London, Rebecca Farrar-Hockley. KG by Kurt Geiger for women - A star on the sole continues to identify the grunge-cool of the KG Kurt Geiger label with 60s-meets-90s fashion heritage. The AW’13 collection for women is available at the Kurt Geiger Stores located at The Avenues and 360 mall
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Available at: Shop n Drop Boutique Salhiya - Mohammad Thunaya AlGhanim Street, Kuwait. Tel. 22490906 Instagram: @shopndrop
Jaeger-LeCoultre dressed Kuwaiti actress Shahad Yaseen at the premiere of Djinn at the Abu Dhabi Film Festival
au jour le jou
INTERVIEW
Patrick Dempsey for Sacoor Brothers
After eight years, do you still like to play Dr. Shepherd? Yes. We are going to start season ten, which is remarkable. We are close to 200 episodes. It was a remarkable journey. Having a job like that in the world we live in today and that has lasted that long is pretty good, so I’m very grateful for that. Every year and every episode I discover something new, whether it's in front of the camera or off, with the character, with myself. There is always something to discover if you keep looking for something new and trying to move forward creatively, whether that's in front of the lens or behind it or with the people you work with or looking at yourself and when trying to understand what you need to improve. I think that show has always forced you to try to improve as a person and as an actor. Is it easier to play a doctor now than in the beginning? Good question... At the beginning there was a real sense of discovery, because I knew the character was going to follow the show. Now I know what they expect from me. It's like being in a band or being in a symphony, have a specific instrument that you need to play in order to fit in with the entire group. I try to make the most of it. I think we are really just working on being as emotionally engaged in the scene as much as possible. Will it be difficult to part from that character once the show is over? I think so, because it's been a very long relationship. It's been ten years. That's a big chunk of your life, it's been a remarkable experience, it's given me a
wonderful life, a lot of opportunities... So yes, I'm sure it will be. This character has given you a lot of opportunities? Yes. The success of the show is worldwide. And that visibility helps you tremendously. Things like this come up and it gives you a lot more choices in life and it provides you very well quality of life, that is very enjoyable. Let's talk about the father Patrick. You have three kids? Yes. A girl with eleven. Yes. And twin boys with six. Yes. Would you say paternity changed you? Sure. I think it constantly reminds you of how much more you need to work on yourself and to be able to guide them in a way to create an environment for them to be nurtured and developed and loved, so that they can find their own voice and their own individuality. It's very humbling, it makes you remember your mother and your father and the childhood that you had, what you liked about it, what you didn't and how to improve upon it, what your flaws are, what your weaknesses are, what your strengths are. It's no longer about yourself anymore, there is selflessness in that and that's the challenge, to give them the environment to be themselves and the discipline they need as well. It’s easier to be a father of boys or girls? She's eleven, but she's doing very well in school, so I'm very proud of that. And this will give her the resources and tools to go off and follow her dreams in the future. Education to me is very important for her and certainly emotional stability and understanding her. But they're very challenging at this age and boys are too. It's all very challenging and very exciting. And each one, they're all three completely different individuals. Give me an advice from a father to father... Follow your instincts and you’ll know what to do, which is right, and listen to them, they'll tell you. Is it true that you have sixty chickens at home in LA? I'm not sure, how many chickens (laughter) 60? Yes, we have a number of chickens… Why? Well, it's great, to pick farm fresh eggs. They taste
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delicious and we believe deeply in from seed to skillet, which means you grow the food and then you harvest the food and you cook the food and then you eat the food. It's nice to see that my daughter has really a strong connection to the garden and that was the whole point of it. I grew up in a small town, I grew up in the country, I grew up in a farm and I really wanted my children to have that experience, being around animals and chickens and all of that. The kids have a much stronger appreciation for life and just gives them something to do, especially in the age of all this technology of IPads and all these videogames and television. It's nice for them to go and connect to the land, because I think the land to me, it’s church, it's what life is all about and that's where you really grounded and you connect on a much deeper level. And when you see something that you put into the ground, you see it and you watch it come and grow and you nurture it along the way and then you consume it, I think it's a very important lesson. Sure. Do you care about what you eat? Yes, I think it's very important to care about what you eat. You have to exercise, it makes you feel better, number one, psychologically. When you go out and you exercise you feel better and you look better. What you put into your body affects your emotional state as well, so I think all of these things go hand in hand. Do you like to travel? love to travel. You always have so much work. Do you have time for vacations, where do you like to
INTERVIEW
travel to? I think travel is very important. I think you need to travel around the world to see and understand other cultures. You have a better understanding of where you come from and who you are. I think it prevents you from judgment and you're much more compassionate and understanding and tolerant because you've been to a different culture or a different country. You have a better understanding of how people live. I think that's the most important thing is travel and to be really open. You auditioned for the role of Dr. House and ended up as a surgeon on Grey's Anatomy. Would you see yourself working as a real life doctor? What do you think?... Dr. PATRICK DEMPSEY I don't know if I'd work as a real life doctor, I think there are some great doctors out there. Certainly playing a doctor on television and that visibility has helped me start the Dempsey Center for Cancer Hope and Healing, in some ways that's nice. People project on to Shepherd. And to be able to do something that is positive for the community that I grew up in, it's probably the most satisfying thing for me, that's come out of Grey’s Anatomy. Your popularity skyrocked with Dr. Shepherd. How do you deal with fame? Can it be hard to handle sometimes or not? I think you just have to remain grounded. I'm glad it happened at this point of my life, because it doesn't happen every day and these experiences are very rare. And these opportunities you have are incredibly, I'm very grateful for what it's given me. But you have to take it seriously enough to make the most of it but you don't take it too serious because ultimately fame is fleeing. Let’s talk about something special. You made the list of sexiest men a lot of times. How does your wife handle all the female attention that you attract? Well I think it's very hard for her at times. But she's very supportive because it provides well for our family. It’s always very challenging, but we all take it well.. And the situations you can find yourself in really depends on the individual. Do actors feel the current economic crisis in their work? Absolutely. There are fewer and fewer job opportunities now because of the lack of money to fund movies. The movie business is shrinking. You're seeing more and more opportunities in television and alternative media. So content is needed, but the money that was being paid in the past is not being paid now. I'm very fortunate to be in a position where I've been on the show for a number of years and it sort of started before, has gone trough and will come out the other side. I'm very grateful and very respectful for that position that I'm in right now. And I think with that comes a lot of responsibility to be giving back to the communities that you're in. I think it's very very important and far more satisfying, ultimately at the end of the day. In my research I saw that you’re a good actor, of course, but first of all you’re a good person, because you set up a cancer center to
help patients in your hometown. Do you think actors have a bigger social responsibility? I think anybody with any visibility or any success has a social responsibility after a certain point. I think it'd be far more satisfying when you are altruistic and you are compassionate and you're working in your community . Far more than starring in a movie or having that kind of success. I think there is something in the emotional connection to another person that lends itself to happiness in life. And I think there comes a point when you sort of chase success and when you’ve found a certain amount of it, that it no longer becomes as satisfying. The questing to get there is one thing, but once you arrive, what do you do with it? And I think at that point if you can leverage your success to benefit the people around you and the community that you're in, the more fulfilling your life is and the more enjoyable your life is. You think that actors can do more?
I think it's really the actions in the individual in any profession, whether be an actor or a business person or anybody who's successful. Like I said, I think it's really important that all businesses or all individuals who are successful, it's very important that they give something back. Let's change the theme. You love car races... Yeah, very much so. Is it a hobby or more than that? Well, it’s becoming… it's certainly a business, it's a very challenging business, it's a challenging sport, it's a passion, it's a need that I have to do, but I cannot imagine being in a race car all the time. I really enjoy the world that I'm in, with my fellow competitors, the fellowship of that competition, the mental and physical challenge of it all. What happens at the track and sort of focusing on races is really very similar to what life is about in many ways. November 2013
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Is it easier to be an actor and a pilot? It's tricky to answer that. You have to work on credibility and respect and that just takes time and results. I've been doing it almost as long as I've been doing the show, so it's kind of been going hand in hand with the journey of Grey's Anatomy. The scheduling is always quite tricky, the show has been incredibly supportive, which I'm grateful for. It's a great escape for me, it's very satisfying. But you only drive faster on the race tracks? Driving in the city, I think it's irresponsible. In a race track you're in a car that has a cage and then you have seatbelts, you have the proper safety equipment. Streetcars are safe for the most part, but I think if you're driving and you're out of control it's unfair to the people around you. You see people who get a little racy on the freeways and I don't think they have the technical skills or the ability to get themselves out of trouble if they do happen. I don't find any satisfaction in speeding, I like to drive fast, but I don't like to go too fast. You are a good actor, a good man, a good father and a good sportsman. While on vacations, you prefer to stay inside or go for instance to Malaysia, Dubai, Singapore? I would love, Malaysia I haven't been to, Singapore I haven't been to, Dubai. Travel is very important. You
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learn a lot about yourself and other cultures. We learn to have a much stronger appreciation of the world that we live in. I think there are so many misinterpretations and misunderstandings of different cultures and they're clashing, some of which can be straightened up by travel and just a better knowledge of what's going on in different cultures. And Portugal. Do you know anything about... ? I've never been, I'd like to go though. You have to. I would like to. But now I probably can’t. You started in the entertainment business in your teens. How did you end up in Hollywood? I performed in a bar. I did slaps of comedy, in what was called the Vaudeville, the modern vaudevillian and I had an opportunity to do a talent competition and I won that and I ended up going to the national finals in New York where I was introduced to an agent. An agent signed me and then I had an opportunity to audition for Broadway play, which I received and that sort of opened the door for me to get on a national level and make it to New York City. I was seventeen, so it's been a long ride in this town. A long but a good ride...
I've been very fortunate. I've had a career and to be a working actor which is all I really wanted to be. It's a challenging profession. I think it's important to have things outside of it that rounds you out and not make it all about the business. I don't think it's satisfying enough. Do you prefer TV or cinema? I just prefer working. I don't care what it is. To wrap it up... A dream in life. There's so many things I'd like to do. I'd like to see this cancer center expanding on a national level and global level. I think it's a real important need for people who are diagnosed with cancer to have a wellness center, a place for them to go to. I think certainly in rural areas it's very important, so I want to continue that growth, but also keep the intimacy and the emotional heart of what's making our center work so well. I think that's based on the quality of our volunteers and the staff and the feeling that they get from it. It's probably the most rewarding, so I want that to continue to grow. For me careerwise I think it's really director, immaterial driven now, so hopefully I can work with the people that I will find inspiration from. And then racing, I hope I can sustain a good business model there, so I can continue to race at a very high level and to be competitive and to win the championship. And at home... that my children to go on to be very successful.
FASHION
The new Baby K collection for Autumn/Winter 13 is now available in selected Mothercare stores and has something special for all occasions. Colours are luxurious tones of gold, with a dash of vivid winter pink and cobalt blue for girls. Boyswear colours are a mix of classic navy and claret with a bright burst of autumn orange, a key colour for the season! Baby K boyswear prints find inspiration in the world of retro to rock. From robots and dinosaurs to roaring bears and rock bands - all the things a boy could want! The boyswear styling is a mix of classic cuts, fun and easy to wear pieces, with added attention to detail, as you have come to expect from Baby K over the seasons. Beautiful gold jacquards and our signature leopard prints are mixed with a dash of shimmer and sparkle for Baby K princesses this season, creating a very special collection. Faux fur, tulle and velvet are few of the materials used to adorn this fantastic new collection.
NEXT
LOUIS VUITTON - CRUISE COLLECTION 2014
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Modern urban British menswear brand Foxhall London launches a collection of stylish footwear this season. Handmade exclusively for Foxhall in Italy by legendary shoemakers Fratelli Borgioli, the collection of sleek, contemporary footwear is designed to meet the needs of modern urban life: comfortable, hard-wearing and weather-resistant. Developed with consideration for transitions from smart to casual, day to night, and work to social. Created in conjunction with the in-house Foxhall design team, each style and detail has been selected to reflect the brand ethos and trends.
Links of London extend their collaboration with Movember 2013
KOPPEL CHONOGRAPH ANTHRACITE Georg Jensen’s world famous Koppel watch is now being launched in an exclusive anthracite grey limited edition of 100 numbered pieces
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With Brad Pitt, Sandra Bullock and Lenny Kravitz among them, the roll call of Airstream owners reads like a Who’s Who of Hollywood. Now the iconic ‘silver bullets’ are being spotted around the world
‘Cool’ and ‘caravan’ aren’t two words you often put together, but they don’t come much cooler than the Airstream. Brad Pitt has got one, Matthew McConaughey’s got three and while Pamela Anderson’s is rumoured to have a mirrored ceiling and circular bed, Airstreams have also been used by US presidents and as quarantine units for the crew of Apollo 11 when they returned from man’s first trip to the moon in 1969.
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aircraft-inspired bodies has scarcely changed over the last 82 years, and every single model is still carefully riveted together, by hand. It’s a process that takes more than 240 man-hours, but a method that stands the test of time, with nearly 70 per cent of Airstreams ever built still in use today. The ultimate example is the multi-award-winning top-of-the-range flagship – the Series 2 International 684.
Although the manufacturer Airstream Inc has been on the go in America since 1931, when it was set up by visionary entrepreneur Wally Byam, it has only been recently that the iconic aluminium travel trailers have been designed specifically for use across the Atlantic. A full range of European-specification models is now available in the UK and mainland Europe for distribution worldwide.
Available in widths of 2.3m or 2.5m, it boasts an incredible loft style interior with fixtures and fittings from some of the world’s leading names. Think of flowing radius corners and galleys featuring every fixture you could need to cook up a gourmet meal on the go. Imagine spacious bathrooms with separate shower cubicles, china toilets and heated stainless-steel towel rails.
Aside from creating a lighter, leaner shape for owners - or ‘Airstreamers’ - outside of America, the design of the graceful
As much a work of art as a usable base from which to explore the world, the Airstream’s interior has been planned down to the last
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millimetre. In addition to 12 drawers, a wardrobe and five shelves, there’s even dedicated storage space for laptops, books and drinks bottles. The 684 even has a proper double bedroom suite, created by opening the bathroom door 90 degrees. Include air conditioning, automatic satellite systems, awnings and leather upholstery and you’ll be planning your next adventure as soon as you’re back from your first. For more information visit www.airstreamandco. com
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Mohamed Al-Sharrah
Crazy about car racing and tuned sport cars, a photographer and loves traveling. Follow Mohamed on twitter @alsharrah E-mail [email protected]
BELOW ZERO ICE DRIVING DEBUT SEASON DEEMED A SUCCESS Following on from a hugely successful inaugural season, Porsche preparation expert Tuthill Porsche is delighted to announce that its Below Zero ice driving programme will return for a second season in 2014. Below Zero operates close to Åre, Scandinavia’s largest and most popular winter sports resort, and offers a variety of full-specification, rally-ready Porsche 911s. The cars have been professionally prepared by Tuthill Porsche to withstand the world’s most rugged driving environments. Through January to the end of March, customers were able to drive the 300-horsepower classic Porsche 911 rally cars to their heart’s content and with one-to-one tuition from world class rally driving professionals. Tuthill Porsche launched its ice driving packages in Norway back in 2005 and the Oxfordshire-based company has since become one of the leading ice driving experience providers in Europe. Below Zero’s instructors this year included Martin Rowe (former Production Car World Rally Champion), former British Rally Championship event winner Ryan Champion and Patrik Sandell (former Junior World Rally Champion and current driver in the Global Rallycross Championship). Double world rally champion Carlos Sainz and GP3 driver Carlos Sainz Jnr both spoke highly of the Below Zero ice driving programme after visiting in February. Another customer from London commented: “The whole team were superb and the focus on our enjoyment and us directing the day rather than being told what to do was a correct and refreshing approach. We had so much time behind the wheel, the cars were superb and prep was faultless. Would I do it again? Hell yes!” Tuthill Porsche Managing Director Richard Tuthill added: “Tuthill have been running ice driving programmes since 2005, but this season we wanted exclusive use of our own lake and so moved to Sweden which I am delighted to say turned out to be a huge success. The Below Zero lake and facilities are world-class and help provide our customers with an unforgettable experience. Driving a Porsche 911 on ice is an incredible opportunity that only a handful of people have had the opportunity to experience, but accompanied with beautiful surroundings, world class tuition, first-class accommodation and fine dining, we believe that the Below Zero programme is the best ice driving package on the market.” For more details about Below Zero, please visit: www.belowzeroicedriving.com
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As we celebrate our special Men's issue this month, I wanted to bring something special for the men that love driving Porsche 91. Master a classic, rally-prepared Porsche 911 on a exclusive, ice-covered lake in northern Sweden. With meticulously prepared lake circuits, lined by cushioned snow banks and world-class instruction, it delivers the ultimate ice driving experience for all abilities from the fun-seeking novice to the seasoned competition professional. On fully studded tyres they will teach you how to drive their competitionready cars to the limit, learning to steer using just the throttle and how to corner sideways! The instructors are of world class calibre and will focus on keeping you behind the wheel for as long as possible, ensuring you get the most out of your tailor-made experience. ICE DRIVING Most importantly they provide a bespoke service. This enables them to cater for everyone – from those that would like one to one tuition, to groups of up to twelve people or more. The experience can run from one to three days, depending on the time available. A day ice driving with BELOW ZERO includes: nThe use of a Porsche 911 rally car prepared by Tuthill Porsche, including all tyres, fuel and incidentals. nFirst-hand instruction from world class rally driving professionals.
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TRY SOMETHING A LITTLE DIFFERENT THIS WINTER
nBeverages by the lake and a hot lunch in our Swedish Hunting Lodge. nAll
venue hire fees and track preparation. insurance (subject to a ÂŁ2,500 excess). nThe provision of a comprehensive spares package together with support vehicles and technicians to service the rally cars and keep you behind the wheel for as long as possible. nTransfers to the lake from your hotel and back. An unforgettable experience guaranteed to provide tremendous fun! Prices are from ÂŁ3,500 per car, per day. nCar
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SPECIAL STAGE DRIVING In addition to driving on the lake, for more experienced drivers, we can arrange rally stage training. A true taste of the World Rally Championship, giving you an understanding of what it is like to drive on the absolute limit down a technically demanding road not much wider than the car itself. This is organised separately with a small additional cost to cover the road surface preparation and safely marshals.
SNOWMOBILES Choose a half or whole day snowmobile safari, starting or finishing at the lake or depending on where you are staying, right from outside your hotel. Your professional local guide will tailor the safari to your mood and experience and we will supply everything from the skidoo to the helmets and overclothing.
ARCTIC WILDCATS Open top, side-by-side, all-terrain vehicles, off-road and on the ice. The Arctic Wildcat is the ultimate toy for any adventurer. Two tracks carved on the ice in perfect symmetry with two Wildcats battling for the best lap time.
HELICOPTERS They can arrange for you to arrive at the lake or your hotel by helicopter. Available from both Östersund and Trondheim airports.
WILDERNESS AFTER DARK Travel the old fashioned way on a traditional dog sleigh through the stunning winter scenery to our remote hunting lodge. Then enjoy a cold beer in a secluded log fired, traditional hot tub under the stars. When you are ready, join your chef a shot walk away in our candle lit hunting lodge for a luxurious dinner by the fire. They
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can tailor-make this to suit you, from a simple dog-sleigh ride to the full ‘wilderness after dark’ experience.
SKIING Are is Scandinavia’s largest and most popular winter sports resort, so there is plenty of skiing available for all abilities. More experienced skiers can see what the resort and surrounding countryside has to offer with a local guide. If you are struggling to fit it all in, the resort also offers floodlit night skiing.
NIGHTLIFE Are has everything a lively ski resort has to offer. In this picturesque town there are a plethora of hotels, restaurants and bars where you can enjoy après ski and a good evening meal. After that, if you still have the energy, there are a number of lively nightclubs to choose from
TRAVEL & ACCOMMODATION There are regular flights from the UK and the rest of Europe with SAS and a number of other operators. You have the choice of flying to either Östersund via Stockholm, or Trondheim via Oslo. Östersund is closer to Åre and is only an hour away by car. Trondheim is a little further and is about two hours by car. Both are easy drives through the beautiful Scandinavian countryside. Hire cars can be picked up at either airport with preferential rates through our local partner. Flights from the UK are in the region of £250 per person if booked well in advance. Are and the surrounding area offer a variety of very comfortable spa hotels, some with direct access to the slopes. Although accommodation is not part of the package price, we have an excellent relationship with a number of the more popular hotels
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in the area and so have negotiated their best available prices for BELOW ZERO customers.
CORPORATE EVENTS Ice driving is the ultimate activity for corporate events, whether rewarding your staff, entertaining your clients or launching your latest product. BELOW ZERO typically caters for parties of 12, but has comfortably managed groups of 24 drivers with 12 cars in the past. Drive days can be organised to fit in with any schedule, larger groups usually have two days on the ice and a Snowmobile Safari. The recommended local hotels offer excellent conferencing facilities and some unique ways of making your event extra special. There are many ways they can make your event stand out from the rest – perhaps VIP arrival at Östersund airport with your own terminal and baggage conveyor or have one of our rally cars parked in the hotel during an arrival reception or presentation dinner. It’s all possible! Tuthill Porsche, who prepare the cars for the season, have been rallying in Sweden for many years and so have an excellent set of contacts on the ground who can pretty much make anything happen. To plan your trip or get more information, you can visit their website at: www. belowzeroicedriving.com November 2013
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Asnan Tower - THE SEASON PARTNER OF FIRST QOUT MARKET EVENT #AsnanMarket On November the second, Asnan was the outstanding season partner for the Qout market farm theme. Their goal was the improvement of the physical health of the people attending the event. Asnan Tower provided health tips and encouraged people to take good care of their teeth. Asnan Tower brought a smile on people's faces by bringing a parrot to their booth, so that they could take pictures with it. Asnan Tower gave away surprise carrots wrapped as chocolates; people loved this healthy concept!
Asnan Tower's Marketing & PR Manager; Bader AlEissa giving an apple to Asnan Booth Visitor
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Nouf Founder of Qout Market with Noor Al-Faddagh
Asnan Tower Marketing & PR Team
Dr. Hadi Al-Saffar & his wife with Asnan Wedding Package Couples Hassan & Yaldah
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Highest Standup Comedy #AsnanComedy
AlHamra Tower held a standup comedy show from 28th to 30th October, which was well represented; by four talented young comedians under the name “Highest Standup Comedy”, Asnan Tower was the titled sponsor. The comedians of the show were Shaikha Alkhaldi, Firas Alola, Mohammed Aqua, and Mohammed Alkazmi. The main aim of the comedy show was to enhance that laughter truly brings people together and encourage people to draw a smile on their faces and this is precisely why this comedy show was organized. At the end of the the comedy show on each day, Asnan Tower gave away toothbrushes as a souvenir to everyone that attended the show as a reminder to keep their teeth shining and always smile. Following the slogan of the event “let your teeth breathe and shine your world.”
CityPages magazine has launched a new section ‘Asnan Live’ in collaboration with Asnan Tower to keep its readers updated with events and social activities organized by Asnan Tower regularly. Asnan Tower, being the biggest dental center in the Middle East, supports the social and cultural life in Kuwait. Hence, its very natural that it organises and sponsors variety of events on a regular basis. You will enjoy exploring the exciting life of Asnan Tower and this section will enable you to be a part of Asnan family.
Hasan & Yaldah
The Standup comedian Mohammed Aqua at Asnan Booth
Razza-Sondos at Asnan Booth
The Standup Comedian Shiekha Al-Khalidi on the stage
Shaib Al-Hajri at Asnan Booth
Broadcaster Nawaf Al-Qattan at Asnan Booth
Asnan Tower Marketing & PR Team
Asnan Tower Doctors
Dr. Khalid Al-Khayat & his wife
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Standup Comedy in the World with 4 Leading Comedians
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PRESS
KATSUYA BY STARCK Makes Its Debut in Kuwait M.H.Alshaya Co., the leading international franchise operator for over 70 of the world’s most recognized retail brands, announced today the official opening of the first Katsuya by Starck restaurant at Grand Avenue, The Avenues in Kuwait. Katsuya by Starck debut marks the first venture for the award winning brand outside its home country in the U.S., and reinforces Alshaya’s continued commitment to bring customers in the region exciting, innovative shopping and dining experiences from around the world. A second Katsuya by Starck will open shortly in Dubai. Featuring the dynamic pairing of Master Sushi Chef Katsuya Uechi and design impresario Philippe Starck, Katsuya by Starck is truly a feast for the senses. With specialty freshly-squeezed-fruit cocktails, unique hand-rolls, a robata grill (Japanese indoor barbeque) and spectacular sushi and sashimi platters, Katsuya skilfully translates Japanese flavours to an international palate. Customers will love the diverse collection of signature dishes which include Crispy Rice with Spicy Tuna, Yellowtail Sashimi with Jalapeño and Miso-Marinated Black Cod. With superb talent and exacting precision, Chef Katsuya is changing the face of Japanese cuisine. “Making our international debut represents a defining milestone for the evolution of Katsuya by Starck and for sbe,” said sbe Founder, Chairman and CEO Sam Nazarian. “We are delighted to be working with the world leading retail franchise operator Alshaya, to bring the Katsuya by Starck brand to the Middle East, starting with Kuwait, followed by Dubai and then more widely across the region.”
HAMILTON JAZZMASTER FACE 2 FACE Dual existence is the ultimate magical ingredient of fairytales and fantasy movies. Hamilton watches have appeared in a wide selection of movies on this theme, ranging from The Talented Mr Ripley to Spider-Man. The Swiss made American brand treads new watchmaking ground in 2013 by applying the concept of dual identity to its latest innovation, the Hamilton Jazzmaster Face 2 Face. Avant-garde and classical embrace each other in a watch with two distinct personalities, guaranteed never to come face to face, on or off screen. In the Hamilton Jazzmaster Face 2 Face there are two different sides to the design concept – and to the timepiece itself. A unique rotating case houses two dials, one presenting a sophisticated “boy racer” chronograph, the other a calm, elegant three-hand timekeeper. The common denominator of the two contrasting faces are the decorated, skeletonized rotors of each automatic movement, fully visible in the oval-shaped case. Each individual watch incorporates two wearing options, both making diverse style statements. The two sides can accommodate different time zones, different frames of mind or different outfits – the wearer is always in the pilot’s seat. Refined craftsmanship, with expertise dating back to 1892, in close partnership with high-tech materials and functionality ensure that the theme of duplicity never compromises wearability or precision. Only 888 numbered pieces of the Jazzmaster Face 2 Face are being made. Propelling the current mirroring trend in haute-couture advertising into a totally new dimension, the Jazzmaster Face 2 Face goes beyond the concept of creating reflections to reach the realm of the optical illusion. The crystal on the chronograph dial has a smoky tint and edgy blue detail. In strong contrast, its three-hand counterpart integrates silver-colored enhancements that glisten elegantly from the sun brushed surface. All of the sapphire crystals have antireflective coating. Driving the chronograph is an ETA 2094 automatic movement, while the classical dial derives its energy from the ETA 2671. This watch dares to be different in grand style, with its slightly elongated, rotating oval case measuring 53mm by 44mm. The black leather strap signs off the message of uniqueness with blue, softtouch lining and double stitching, together with a new design of folding clasp to confirm its individualistic flair.
Tetley Tea ‘Virtual Assistants’ Draw Crowds of Amazed Shoppers Tetley, a pioneering global tea brand and maker of Great Britain’s favourite tea, is on the leading edge again as it unveils another engaging and innovative approach to attract consumers to its products; Tetley Tea Virtual Assistants! Located across numerous co-ops across Kuwait, Tetley Tea uses this technology for the first time across Kuwait and the Middle East, to enhance its interaction with shoppers. The life sized Tetley Virtual Assistants do not only tell the Tetley Tea story but they also interact with the consumers, communicating messages in an enticing and entertaining manner. Located in 10 different co-op locations - Jahra, Ministry of Defence, Madina Saad Al Abdullah, Sulaibhikhat, Adan, Qusoor, Rumaithiya, Rikka, Fahaheel, and Salmiya, the Virtual Assistants present customers with a live demonstration of the Tetley Tea Drawstring tea bag, revealing the mechanism that leads to the perfect cup of tea, while bringing Tetley Tea closer to its customers. Commenting on the introduction of the Virtual Assistant, Mr. Danny Finney, Commercial Director for Tetley Tea in Middle East said, "This is a first for supermarkets in Kuwait and the wider Middle East, the Virtual Assistant experience is very life-like and unique. As a brand Tetley has a long history of innovation so we think it’s a perfect fit to use state of the art technology to demonstrate our revolutionary Drawstring teabag.” Through a live demonstration at the Tetley product display areas, the Virtual Assistants describe the Tetley Tea Drawstring mechanism highlighting its simple and effective approach. Without worrying about making a mess, users simply need to pull the string at each end of the teabag to squeeze out every last drop of flavour, after immersing the bag into hot water. Tetley Drawstring is also staple-free, allowing drinkers to get a pure, fresh cup of tea from a bag which they can even heat in the microwave.
CERTINA DS - Tradition and style with modern power CERTINA's brilliant 125-year journey includes many remarkable innovations. The movement inside the new CERTINA DS―with its extraordinary power reserve of some 80 hours, is proof of the brand's longtime unwavering focus on excellence. By blending design elements reminiscent of CERTINA's early years with some of the latest automatic-watch technology, as well as features like a seethrough case-back, the DS includes the best of both yesterday and today. The new ETA Powermatic 80 movement at the heart of the CERTINA DS is a powerful example of modern watchmaking achievement. Its exceptional power reserve of 80 hours ensures that through more than three full days, your DS will keep perfect time, ready to go back to work or play when you are. The DS unites elegance, precision and practicality by placing this extraordinary movement inside a beautiful and sport-classic 40mm polished 316L stainless-steel case with brushed lugs and a polished bezel. A transparent case-back lets watch lovers cast a glance inside at the movement, whose black rotor is decorated with the CERTINA turtle logo. A rounded sapphire crystal with anti-reflection coating opens onto an anthracite-coloured concave dial, decorated with the former "double-C" CERTINA logo―also embossed over the crown tip, in a wink back at history. Nickelled hands and indices are treated with Superluminova for greatest readability. November 2013
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NIVEA Revolutionises Body Care with In-Shower Body Lotion NIVEA transforms body care with the GCC-launch of its In-shower Body Lotion range – a hassle-free way to moisturise while in the shower. The unique water-activated formula is designed to be used after shower gel, leaving skin feeling hydrated and silky soft, even after towel drying. “We have always been at the forefront of skin care innovation and we are proud to look back on over 100 years of skin care expertise. In 1963 we launched NIVEA Milk, the first liquid emulsion that set the standard and was the foundation of our body care history. Now, 50 years on, we are launching the pioneering NIVEA In-shower Body Lotion range, which looks set to establish a brand new body care routine,” comments Annina Ameler Senior Brand Manager NIVEA Skin Care BDF MENA. Since its launch in Europe last year, millions of women have been convinced to transform their body care routine; and now the product is finally in the Middle East. Annina is hoping this tremendous success of the NIVEA In-shower Body Lotion range will be repeated when it arrives in the region. “Customers are really embracing the product and we are expecting our consumers in the Middle East to love it just as much!” “We have found that 50% of women do not use body lotion every day because they don’t have time or don’t like the sticky feeling”, continues Annina. “The innovative NIVEA In-shower Body Lotion range solves this problem by taking the hassle out of moisturising; there’s no need to wait around for it to dry and no greasy after-feeling.” The NIVEA In-shower Body Lotion range is available for normal skin and for dry skin, each available in 250ml and 400ml.
Al Yasra Fashion & ONTIME introduce Karl Lagerfeld’s Timeless Watch Collection Al Yasra Fashion, the leading GCC fashion retailer with over 200 stores in Kuwait, UAE, Saudi, Iraq and Lebanon, is proud to introduce Karl Lagerfeld’s distinctive and refined watch collection to the Kuwaiti market via its ONTIME stores. Karl Lagerfeld is one of the world’s most influential designers in the fashion industry today. Headquartered in Paris, Lagerfeld continues to act as an endless source of inspiration, creating modern time pieces which are inspired by the past with a futuristic twist for the modern-day consumer. Lagerfeld’s latest watch collection includes unexpected designs and contemporary looks for customers wanting a little European style in their everyday life. His “Perspektive” collection provides an unconventional sleek, finished look with the comfortable fit of a bracelet; while his “Gold” collection provides a splash of the classic gold shiny finish that most customers are used to seeing in a watch. For the unconventional consumer, Lagerfeld created the “Black Matte & Shine” collection, using a mix of matte and high-shine finishes. His combination of metal, silicone and leather creates a strikingly rich, black watch that is functional, yet daring, to wear. Finally, the “Karl 7 Klassic” collection is elegance and versatility in one watch. The chronograph feature allows the customer to use it as a stopwatch and display watch at the same time; and comes in a variety of finishes to satisfy all types of customers.
ICONIC trend guide for AW'13 Each season brings with it fashion that gives your wardrobe a constant makeover. This Autumn/Winter get intrigued and a little more obsessed with fashion at ICONIC. Get ready to swirl your way into the season with hot new looks and key trends. Beautifully made catwalk inspired pieces stem from trends like pretty florals, leopard prints, graphics, camouflage and tartan merging into a season of classics reinvented with a more heady and individualistic streak. This season women wear at ICONIC will showcase trends like Minimal Sport Luxe, 1940’s Glamour and Punk grunge. Sport Luxe will blur the line between masculine and feminine and highlight minimalism in fashion. Structured, oversized pieces and rounded silhouettes are key pieces for this trend. Winter whites, opulent gold and silver symbolize the 1940 trends. Statement coats are wardrobe essential. Teamed with stilettos, boots or ballet flats and statement accessories, contrasts set the flavor and fashion gets edgy for women. The ICONIC winter 2013 collection brings forth key trends for men. Fashion, being just a guide to the general mood and the social context, chose to express a positive outlook in terms of very commercial minimalism, and some unconventional treatment of classic styles. Themed Fine Harvest natural earthy colors, textures and graphics connect with the heritage outdoor look and highlight the trend. A mix of modern and classic styles ICONIC explores the combination of diverse looks of Autumn Winter with a wardrobe choice of plentiful. The collection is in stores so put your best foot forward and be ‘Fashion Different’
"مستشفى دار الشفاء يحتفل بحصوله على االعتماد األول من نوعه من "الكلية األميركية لألشعة وذلك ضمن استراتيجية،يعمل مستشفى دار الشفاء دائما ً على تقدمي أفضل خدمات الرعاية الصحية املتوفرة وفق منظومة اطار صحي يضاهي أشهر املستشفيات العاملية ) فيDIC( وكجزء من شعار مركز التصوير التشخيصي.مستشفى دار الشفاء في استثمار الكوادر الطبية وأحدث معدات األشعة من أجل تطبيق أعلى معايير اجلودة العاملية )CT( لفترة ثالث سنوات للتصوير املقطعي،)ACR( يفخر املستشفى بإعالنه عن فوزه بشهادة االعتماد للكلية األمريكية لألشعة،" "اجلرأة في احللم، مستشفى دار الشفاء يتطلع مستشفى دار الشفاء إلى مواصلة، ومن خالل هذا االعتماد وعبر جناح قدرات مركز التصوير التشخيصي في املستشفى. وألمراض القلب،للكبار واألطفال وللجسم كله .اعتماد أفضل املمارسات ومعايير اجلودة الدولية " احتفاال كبيرا ً بفندق املارينا حلصوله على اعتماد املعايير الدولية من "الكلية األمريكية لألشعة2013 أكتوبر29 اقام مستشفى دار الشفاء يوم الثالثاء املوافق،وبهذا الصدد حضره أعضاء اللجنه العليا ملستشفى دار الشفاء وعلى رأسهم السيد طالب جراق رئيس اللجنة العليا والسيد نرجس اليوسفي عضو اللجنة العليا في مستشفى دار الشفاء باإلضافه إلى عدد كبير من العاملني باملستشفى وشركاء النجاح مبركز التصوير التشخيصي والذين بذلو جهدا كبيرا ً لتحقيق هذا النجاح بدأ احلفل بكلمه ألقتها السيده الكسندرا أوزونوفا مديرة اخلدمات الطبية املساعدة مبستشفى دار الشفاء رحبت فيها باحلضور واستعرضت خاللها رحله حصول دار الشفاء على . وما مت بذله من جهود مضنية وعمل مستمر ليكلل في النهاية بشهادة اعتماد الكلية االمريكية لألشعة،هذا االعتماد الدولي
TRIUMPH - Triaction Sport Bra Triumph International is well aware of the special needs of active women and with the triaction Extreme Sport bra offers special products in a modern look that also guarantee optimal support, a high level of wearer comfort and a maximum freedom of movement. Through the use of outstanding clothing-psychological characteristics as well as a balanced, very pleasant mix of materials, moisture such as sweat is very easily transported to the exterior so that clothing stays dry. In addition, there are no pressure points and they do not cut into the flesh. The basic material of this modern, highly functional sport bra features concealed stretch circular knit fabric in the bust combined with stretch net tulle in back. The special blend in the side panels ensures perfect support at even extreme levels of stress (Level 4) right up to the bigger sizes. The sport bra has preformed seamless cups, comfortable soft straps with integrated gel mass and a super soft under breast band with clothing-psychological characteristics Optimal wearer comfort is guaranteed through the use of high-tech material such as CoolMax, Tactel and Micro all with excellent clothing-psychological characteristics.
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PRESS Tissot presents Tony Parker with his limited edition watch at the Par Coeur Gala near Lyon Tissot is the Official Sponsor of the high-profile charity event, the Par Coeur Gala. This year it takes place on September 26, 2013 in the beautiful Abbaye de Collonges, close to Lyon. Tissot chose that perfect evening to present Tissot Ambassador Tony Parker, one of the leaders of the French national basketball team that was newly-crowned champions of Europe and MVP of the EuroBasket 2013, with his limited edition Tissot PRC 200 Tony Parker watch. Tony Parker is both the host of the event and the co-founder of the Par Coeur Association. The annual Par Coeur Gala has always supported numerous associations that Tony Parker holds dear. This year, the Par Coeur Association raised over € 200,000 for the Make a Wish Foundation, for children who are suffering from life-threatening medical conditions, for which Tony Parker is an ambassador. To honour this great basketball player, with an even greater heart, Tissot launched a special edition watch for the occasion - the PRC 200 Tony Parker Limited Edition 2013. PRC stands for Precision, Robustness and Classic style. The timepiece is sophisticated, yet with stylish and sporty details which provide it with an exceptional touch. The details are what make it perfect for any occasion whether it is to go and watch Tony Parker make his signature shots in front of a roaring crowd or to attend a smart and sophisticated event such as the Par Coeur Gala. A tailored touch is brought to the watch with a highlight of Tony Parker’s player number 9 and the silhouette of a basketball on the dial. Adding to that uniqueness is the fact that this watch is limited to 4’999 pieces.
Kitchenhaus, contemporary and aesthetic creations for your home Kitchenhaus, a division of Alshaya Trading Co., and a provider of German-made kitchens has been providing discerning home-lovers with high-quality and aesthetic kitchen creations that are built by putting every thought possible into the layout with new designs, new technological solutions and new possibilities. Offering contemporary and aesthetic creations in all price segments, the kitchens at the showroom range from ultra-high gloss to vintage styled wood, from natural color to dark solid colors to bright tones, and from modern designs to an urban cottage look. Moreover, the expanded assortments of accessories add on to the concept of modern home living and lifestyle to provide you and your family an unforgettable experience as you gathers them in the heart of your home. Concealed inside all of these dream worlds is the latest, state-of-the-art, well-organized kitchen technology. The innovative drawer system Profi+ stands for unrivalled smooth running action, extraordinary stability, longevity and versatile possibilities for equipment options. And with the sophisticated lightning system, you can also create a pleasant ambience while lightning up your space work perfectly. Not just meant for functionality, Kitchenhaus aims to turn you cooking stations into living rooms a great place to sit together with sample plans for seating arrangements. Located in Shuwaikh, at the Al-Fowzan Complex beside KDD, Kitchenhaus offers a remarkable display of 24 kitchens with a variety of styles and design options to cater to any kitchen-space or taste.
Lincoln Innovations Promise to Elevate Expectations for Mid-Size Luxury Vehicles Lincoln, Ford Motor Company’s luxury brand, is showcasing its latest technology features at the MEASA (Middle East Africa and South Asia) region’s premier technology event, bringing a host of class-exclusive technologies to the mid-size luxury segment. The new innovations debut on the all-new Lincoln MKZ, the official car of the show for this year’s GITEX Technology Week (20-24 October), and the first vehicle from the dedicated Lincoln Design Studio. Lincoln’s virtual test-drive at GITEX 2013 promises to be a high-tech experience, beginning with the participant choosing which city he wishes to be driven through. Once inside, coordinated screens will give the participant the feeling of actually being in a moving car. The virtual chauffeur will be the guide during the experience, and will explain the differentiating features with visuals on the screen.
Royale Hayat Hospital and NBK Launch “Be Aware” to Fight Breast Cancer To kick off Breast Cancer Awareness month, Royale Hayat Hospital teamed up with NBK to launch “Be Aware” campaign, enabling women to have the mammogram test for 30 KD during October, November, and December 2013. “Be Aware” initiative highlights the importance of taking proactive measures to ensure maintaining good health. Experts agree on the relevance of detecting cancer in its early stages, which reduces deaths and increases the chances of recovery by 90 percent. When breast cancer is detected early, at a localized stage, the survival rate is 98%. Early detection includes doing monthly breast self-exams, and scheduling regular clinical breast exams and mammograms, which is an x-ray that allows a qualified specialist to examine the breast tissue for any suspicious areas. “We are proud to be part of NBK's, 'Be Aware' initiative and believe that awareness is the key in our fight against breast cancer. Royale Hayat Hospital has built a reputation serving women’s healthcare needs from the days of its inception. We know that prevention, early-detection, and patient-education are the best tools in fighting this disease that affects millions of women across the globe”, said Deputy CEO Dr. Bader Alzaid Altraiji during the launch of ‘Be Aware’ campaign in Kuwait and on Royale Hayat social network sites (Twitter, Facebook and YouTube).
Baroue Celebrates its 6th Anniversary!! Baroue, let’s play celebrated its 6th Anniversary on Friday the 4th of October 2013 at the Avenues Mall – Al-Rai. The celebration kicked off at 6 PM with a Parade of kids’ favourite characters including (Barney, Ben 10, Smurfs, Mickey & Minnie , Sponge Bob, and Dora). These characters joined the children for a 40 minute walk and included two drummers leading the way. The event was a show stopper as it progressed through the mall with many kids joining in the fun. Baroue’s team continued the Birthday celebration with a special program that included games, competitions and gifts that drew smiles on all the children’s faces.The celebration was concluded with a birthday cake that was served to the visitors. In commemoration of the event, Baroue held a week-long of unbeatable offers and discounts on numerous products and services in the store. This has become an annual event since Baroue established itself as the kids destinational one-stop for toys , entertainment and fashion. November 2013
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Kids Pages Earth Quiz
P C I Example: LIP,... Send us your answers by email to: [email protected] along with your name and contact number
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1.35 x 3 a)100 b)105 c)110
2 . If Ben went to
the store with $20.00 and spent $4.50. How much change will the clerk give him back? a)$14.00 b)$13.50 c)$15.50
3.12 x12 a)150 b)145 c)144 4.Bob had 10 pencils. Jill had 11 pencils. Bob gave Jill 4 pencils. Jill gave Bob 2 pencils. How many pencils did they have together at the end?? a)30 b)20 c)25
1.b) , 2. c), 3. c), 4. c)
L S U
Math Quiz
Solution:
ANSWERS: 1.The Pacific Ocean, 2.Iron and nickel, 3.The center of the earth, 4.Magma, 5.Lava, 6.Australia, 7.A geologist, 8.Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous 9. False -5000 feet, 10.Mariana Trench, 11.Diamond, 12.The Sahara Desert in Africa, 13.Red, 14.Mount Everest, 15.Hang from the ceiling, 16.Waterfall, 17.Seismologist, 18.The ozone layer, 19.Iron (32%) and oxygen (30%), 20.Oxygen (21%)
T E N
= = = = = = = = = = = =
1. OTY 2. LEBL 3. FSSU 4. PIGR 5. ERD 6. TOFO 7. CNOR 8. RBUN 9. KTI 10. ATSY 11. HTNU 12. ENTT ANSWERS:
Make Words
How many 3 or more letter words can you make with the letters in the word below. Each letter may be only used once.
Jumbled Words
1.TOY, 2.BELL, 3.FUSS, 4.GRIP, 5.RED, 6.FOOT, 7.CORN, 8.BURN, 9.KIT, 10.STAY, 11.HUNT, 12.TENT
1. What is the name of the largest ocean on earth? 2. What are the two main metals in the earth’s core? 3. Which is hotter, the center of the earth or surface of the sun? 4. What do you call molten rock before it has erupted? 5. What do you call it after it has erupted? 6. The Great Barrier Reef is found off the coast of which country? 7. What do you call a person who studies rocks? 8. Name the three time periods of the dinosaurs. 9. True or false? The Grand Canyon is around 10000 feet (3000 meters) deep. 10. What is the name of the deepest location in the world’s oceans? 11. Over a long period of time while under extreme heat and pressure, graphite turns into which precious mineral? 12. Outside of Antarctica, what is the largest desert in the world? 13. The gemstone ruby is typically what color? 14. What is the name of the highest mountain on earth? 15. Do stalactites rise from the floor or hang from the ceiling of limestone caves? 16. 'Cascade', 'horsetail', 'plunge' and 'tiered' are types of what? 17. Someone who studies earthquakes is known as a what? 18. What is the name of the layer of earth’s atmosphere that absorbs the majority of the potentially damaging ultraviolet light from the sun? 19. The mass of the earth is made up mostly of which two elements? 20. What is the second most common gas found in the air we breathe?
REGULARS
Horoscopes A Solar Eclipse in Scorpio can create power struggles, and on November 3 it could be up to its old tricks. With obstructive Saturn trailing along, the mood could be intense and deceptive, making trust hard to conjure. Mercury turns direct on November 10, restarting what has been on hold and shedding light on what appears to be a gloomy situation. Neptune turning direct on November 13 can generate a resurgence of faith, adding a rosy glow to what may have been murky. Finally, a Full Moon in money-minded Taurus on November 17 breaks any somber mood by bringing in the funds that have been so elusive.
ARIES
(March 21 - April 19)
(July 23 - August 22)
With the Sun, Mercury, and Saturn in Scorpio and moving through the sector related to sex, you'll be passionate and require a deep connection with someone. You'll have a strong sex drive, but there will also be a focus on shared financial matters and money coming from other sources. Venus will be in Sagittarius. This may indicate that you'll plan or take a trip with a female friend. There may be a power struggle with a parent or someone living in your home. It may be that the other person means well but is smothering and controlling.
TAURUS (April 20 - May 20)
Scorpio energy will be strong this month with the Sun, Mercury, Saturn, and a New Moon in the sign. This group will oppose your sign, and you can incorporate some of that sign's positive traits. Your love life will be intense. There will be good communication, support, and a sense of duty. Mars in Virgo will help you be proactive in your love life. A little romance will help you feel alive and vital. A Full Moon in your sign on November 17 may negatively affect your self-esteem and confidence. Self-indulgence could lead to regret.
With Mars in your sign all month you'll be actively seeking perfection and order. You are normally concerned with keeping under control, but this month you'll be more intense about it. Others may find it difficult to be around you if you become too demanding or critical. A strong emphasis on Scorpio shows that you'll be deeply involved in projects or events with your relatives or people in your community. You may become passionate about a cause or volunteer your time. Pluto will still be in Capricorn, stirring up change in the romance department. A Full Moon in Taurus on November 17 may bring issues due to overindulgence.
GEMINI
LIBRA (September 23 - October 22)
With the Sun, Mercury, and Saturn in Scorpio and moving through the sector related to sex, you'll be passionate and require a deep connection with someone. You'll have a strong sex drive, but there will also be a focus on shared financial matters and money coming from other sources. Venus will be in Sagittarius. This may indicate that you'll plan or take a trip with a female friend. There may be a power struggle with a parent or someone living in your home. It may be that the other person means well but is smothering and controlling.
A group of planets and a New Moon will be in Scorpio this month. The emphasis on this sign will bring out a tendency to be introspective and emotional. You'll look within and try to understand and heal some of the issues you've had in the past. You've been holding grudges and feeling negative and now is the time to let go. Venus will be in your sign until November 5, and you'll be loving and affectionate with all you come in contact with. You may be able to attract the love, resources, and money you desire.
CAPRICORN (December 22 - January 19)
With Jupiter in Cancer and opposite your sign you'll find that relationships are both satisfying and tense. You could have power struggles with your partner. You'll have to maintain your independence in spite of pressure. Your relationship will grow if you can be open-minded and honest. Mars in Virgo will be transiting in your house of communication, education, and travel. You'll have a strong desire to make some changes and experience new things. Three planets and a New Moon in Scorpio will activate your sector of friends and associations. You'll have a deeper connection with people who share your interests.
AQUARIUS (January 20 - February 18)
A New Moon, the Sun, Mercury, and Saturn will move through Scorpio this month and create tension. You may be impatient and stressed over career matters. The New Moon will bring an urge to listen to your intuition and go with your gut feelings. You'll also understand that you have to protect yourself and do what you think is right. Venus will be in Sagittarius and your sector of friends and acquaintances. This transit will bring pleasant interactions and be a good time to socialize. Expect a few surprises when dealing with relatives or neighbors.
CANCER
(October 23 - November 21)
(March 21 - April 19)
With Jupiter in Cancer this month you'll feel hopeful and positive about the future. You'll make new plans and explore different options. Mars in Virgo will bring involvement with relatives and people in your community. You will be the one to organize social events and get-togethers. Also, you'll lend your skills to a great cause or help someone with a project. Three planets in Scorpio and a New Moon will put the emphasis on love, romance, and creativity. You'll still experience changes related to Pluto in Capricorn regarding your relationships and dealings with the public. citypageskuwait.com
VIRGO (March 21 - April 19)
(May 21 - June 20)
This month Mars will be in the sign of Virgo, and you can expect to bicker and argue with close family members and other people that are in your home. Three planets and a New Moon in Scorpio will bring a busy work schedule and added responsibilities in the office. You will have to be on your toes, but you'll be mentally sharp. Venus will be transiting in Sagittarius and your house of relationships. You might take a short trip with your partner or have some other good time together. Neptune is still in Pisces and causing some confusion over what you want to do in life.
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A strong emphasis on the sign of Scorpio this month may cause you to be more sensitive and emotional than usual. You could take comments the wrong way or hold a grudge, especially in relation to family matters. This might cause tension and stress. Venus will be in Sagittarius and your sector of love and romance. You can expect to take pleasure in finding or being with a partner. You'll be charming and feel attractive. Neptune in Pisces will continue to bring confusion over shared financial matters or your sex life. Expect changing circumstances due to the actions of your friends.
SAGITTARIUS (November 22 - December 21)
This will be a memorable month for you. Several planets and a New Moon will be in your sign. You'll be confident and powerful, but the presence of Saturn will bring reserve and caution. Mercury will help you connect with others and express yourself. This would be a good time to do research or quietly observe situations. Your first impressions will be accurate. Jupiter in Cancer will bring a desire to become immersed in the culture and food of an exotic place. You may feel at home with the flavors, music, or language. Neptune in Pisces could bring a tendency to daydream and waste time.
Organization and efficiency will be important with Mars in Virgo. You don't usually concern yourself with this too much, but there might be several areas of your life that could benefit. This will be a challenge, but it will be worth the effort. Planets and a New Moon in Scorpio and your travel and education sector will deepen your desire to expand your world. You might throw yourself into learning a new language or planning a trip. A Full Moon in Taurus on November 17 could shake up your connections with relatives, neighbors, and community members. Being lazy or overindulgent might cause problems.
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ﻧﺤﺖ اﻟﺠﺴﻢ ﺷﺪ اﻟﱰﻫﻼت إذاﺑﺔ اﻟﺴﻠﻴﻮﻟﻴﺖ ﺷﺪ ﺗﺮﻫﻼت اﻷزرع واﻷرداف ﺷﺪ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ اﻟﺒﻄﻦ ﺗﺠﻤﻴﻞ اﳌﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﺤﻴﻒ
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أﺣﺪث ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﺘﺨﺴﻴﺲ وﻧﺤﺖ اﻟﺠﺴﻢ وإذاﺑﺔ اﻟﺪﻫﻮن Using the quadrant lipolysis machine
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HOMEWORK FOR GROWN UPS EVERYTHING YOU LEARNED AT SCHOOL... BUT CAN YOU REMEMBER? General Knowledge Quiz
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Release Notes for Cisco 7000 Series Routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW - Cisco
Release Notes for Cisco 7000 Series Routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW
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Release Notes for Cisco 7000 Series Routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW
Table Of Contents
Release Notes for Cisco 7000 Series Routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW
August 8, 2008
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12
(formerly OL-4835-19)
These release notes for the Cisco 7000 family describe the enhancements provided in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11 and later. These release notes are updated as needed.
Note
Beginning with Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10, only Cisco 7500 series routers are supported on this release.
For a list of the software caveats that apply to Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12, see the "Caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW" section .
Use these release notes with Cross-Platform Release Notes for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 located on Cisco.com and the Documentation CD-ROM.
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10 is synchronized with Cisco IOS Release 12.2(17)S and contains all fixes contained in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(17)S.
Documentation Survey
Is Cisco documentation helpful? Click here to give us your feedback or go to the following URL to give us your feedback:
For detailed descriptions of the new hardware features, see the "New and Changed Information" section .
Determining the Software Version
To determine the version of Cisco IOS software running on your Cisco 7000 family router, log in to the Cisco 7000 family router and enter the show version EXEC command:
Router> show version
Cisco Internetwork Operating System Software
IOS (tm) 7500 Software (rsp-itpk91v-mz), Version 12.2(25)SW11, RELEASE SOFTWARE
Upgrading to a New Software Release
For information about selecting a new Cisco IOS software release, please refer to How to Choose a Cisco IOS Software Release at:
For information about upgrading to a new software release, refer to the appropriate platform-specific document:
Cisco 7200 Series, 7300 Series, 7400 Series, and 7500 Series Routers
http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/cc/pd/iosw/prodlit/957_pp.htm
To choose a new Cisco IOS software release by comparing feature support or memory requirements, use Cisco Feature Navigator. Cisco Feature Navigator is a web-based tool that enables you to determine which Cisco IOS software images support a specific set of features and which features are supported in a specific Cisco IOS image. You can search by feature or by feature set (software image). Under the release section, you can compare Cisco IOS software releases side by side to display both the features unique to each software release and the features that the releases have in common.
To access Cisco Feature Navigator, you must have an account on Cisco.com. If you have forgotten or lost your account information, send a blank e-mail to [email protected]. An automatic check will verify that your e-mail address is registered with Cisco.com. If the check is successful, account details with a new random password will be e-mailed to you. Qualified users can establish an account on Cisco.com by following the directions found at this URL:
http://www.cisco.com/cgi-bin/Support/Bugtool/launch_bugtool.pl .
Feature Set Tables
Cisco IOS software is packaged in feature sets that consist of software images that support specific platforms. The feature sets available for a specific platform depend on which Cisco IOS software images are included in a release. Each feature set contains a specific set of Cisco IOS features.
Caution
Cisco IOS images with strong encryption (including, but not limited to 168-bit (3DES) data encryption feature sets) are subject to U.S. government export controls and have limited distribution. Strong encryption images to be installed outside the United States are likely to require an export license. Customer orders may be denied or subject to delay because of U.S. government regulations. When applicable, the purchaser/user must obtain local import and use authorizations for all encryption strengths. Please contact your sales representative or distributor for more information, or send an e-mail to [email protected].
The feature set tables have been removed from the Cisco IOS Release 12.2 release notes to improve the usability of the release notes documentation. The feature-to-image mapping that was provided by the feature set tables is available through Cisco Feature Navigator.
Cisco Feature Navigator is a web-based tool that enables you to determine which Cisco IOS software images support a specific set of features and which features are supported in a specific Cisco IOS image. You can search by feature or by feature set (software image). Under the release section, you can compare Cisco IOS software releases side by side to display both the features unique to each software release and the features that the releases have in common.
To access Cisco Feature Navigator, you must have an account on Cisco.com. If you have forgotten or lost your account information, send a blank e-mail to [email protected]. An automatic check will verify that your e-mail address is registered with Cisco.com. If the check is successful, account details with a new random password will be e-mailed to you. Qualified users can establish an account on Cisco.com by following the directions found at this URL:
http://www.cisco.com/support/FeatureNav/FNFAQ.html
Determining Which Software Images (Feature Sets) Support a Specific Feature
To determine which software images (feature sets) in Cisco IOS Release 12.2 support a specific feature, go to the Cisco Feature Navigator home page, enter your Cisco.com login, and perform the following steps:
Step 1
From the Cisco Feature Navigator home page, click Feature.
Step 2
To find a feature, use either "Search by full or partial feature name" or "Browse features in alphabetical order." Either a list of features that match the search criteria or a list of features that begin with the number or letter selected from the ordered list will be displayed in the text box on the left side of the web page.
Step 3
Select a feature from the left text box, and click the Add button to add a feature to the Selected Features text box on the right side of the web page.
Note
To learn more about a feature in the list, click the Description button below the left box.
Repeat this step to add additional features. A maximum of 20 features can be chosen for a single search.
Step 4
Click Continue when you are finished selecting features.
Step 5
From the Major Release drop-down menu, choose 12.2.
Step 6
From the Release drop-down menu, choose the appropriate maintenance release.
Step 7
From the Platform Family drop-down menu, select the appropriate hardware platform. The "Your selections are supported by the following:" table will list all the software images (feature sets) that support the feature(s) that you selected.
Determining Which Features Are Supported in a Specific Software Image (Feature Set)
To determine which features are supported in a specific software image (feature set) in Cisco IOS Release 12.2, go to the Cisco Feature Navigator home page, enter your Cisco.com login, and perform the following steps:
Step 1
From the Cisco Feature Navigator home page, click Compare/Release.
Step 2
In the "Find the features in a specific Cisco IOS release, using one of the following methods:" box, choose 12.2 from the Cisco IOS Major Release drop-down menu.
Step 3
From the Release drop-down menu, choose the appropriate maintenance release.
Step 5
From the Platform Family drop-down menu, choose the appropriate hardware platform.
Step 6
From the Feature Set drop-down menu, choose the appropriate feature set. The "Your selections are supported by the following:" table will list all the features that are supported by the feature set (software image) that you selected.
New and Changed Information
The following sections list the new hardware and software features supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW.
New Hardware Features in Release 12.2(25)SW12
There are no new hardware features supported by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12.
New Software Features in Release 12.2(25)SW12
There are no new software features supported by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12.
New Hardware Features in Release 12.2(25)SW11
There are no new hardware features supported by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11.
New Software Features in Release 12.2(25)SW11
There are no new software features supported by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11.
New Hardware Features in Release 12.2(25)SW10
There are no new hardware features supported by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10.
New Software Features in Release 12.2(25)SW10
The following new software features are supported by IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10:
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Integrated GWS and MLR Triggers
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
In Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10 and later releases, Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) triggers and Gateway Screening (GWS) are integrated. GWS determines which packets are intercepted by MLR. You can configure MLR triggers using the GWS infrastructure, GWS tables, and MLR variables.
Refer to the following document for more information about Integrated GWS and MLR Triggers:
IP Transfer Point (ITP) on the Cisco 7500 Platform.
Enhanced Loadsharing
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
The Enhanced Loadsharing feature creates a 3-bit hash from a subset of bits (6 each) taken from the originating point code (OPC) and destination point code (DPC). Concatenating this hash with the signalling link selector (SLS) yields a 7-bit value that is then used to select a link (SLC) from a 128 entry SLS->SLC mapping table. This feature results in a much more even load distribution among available links.
The feature also allows flexibility in choosing the subset of bits from the OPC and DPC using the opc-shift and dpc-shift parameters and simultaneous configuration of sls-shift, at the global and/or linkset level.
Refer to the following document for more information about Enhanced Loadsharing:
IP Transfer Point (ITP) on the Cisco 7500 Platform.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9
The following new software features are supported by IP Transfer Point (ITP) on Cisco 7500 series routers for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9:
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MLR SCCP Error Return
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9 allows you to configure Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) to return a unitdata service (UDTS) to the source of the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) packet when the SCCP packet is blocked. You configure this feature by specifying an optional sccp-error parameter on block results in MLR rules and MLR address tables.
Refer to the following document for more information about MLR SCCP Error Return:
IP Transfer Point (ITP)
GWS SCCP Error Return
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9 allows you to configure Gateway Screening (GWS) to return a unitdata service(UDTS) to the source of the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) packet when the SCCP packet is dropped. You configure a returnUDTS when you define the gateway screening action set in enhanced GWS.
Refer to the following document for more information about GWS SCCP Error Return:
IP Transfer Point (ITP)
SCCP/MAP Address Modification for SRI-SM Messages
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9 permits Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) and Mobile Application Part (MAP) address modification using a Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) modify-profile. MLR currently supports modifying only the service center address (orig-smsc) and the calling party address (CgPA) for SRI-SM messages.
With Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9, the user can also now optionally configure the desired action for failed modifications using the modify-failure command within the MLR options submode. A user can also configure the preserve-opc function within the global MLR options submode. The preserve-opc function retains the original originating point code (OPC). The user may configure MLR to return a unitdata service (UDTS) to the source of the SCCP packet when the SCCP packet is blocked by specifying an optional sccp-error parameter on block results.
Refer to the following document for more information about SCCP/MAP Address Modification for SRI-SM Messages:
IP Transfer Point (ITP)
C-Link Backup Routing of M3UA/SUA Traffic
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9 supports a C-link Backup Routing feature that provides backup routing to MTP3-User Adaptation (M3UA) and SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) application servers (ASs). It uses an MTP3/MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) linkset to a remote signaling gateway (SG) serving the same ASs over Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) /IP. This configurable software feature is available to any IP Transfer Point (ITP) running a sigtran protocol (M3UA and/or SUA) and offloaded Message Transfer Part Level 3 (MTP3). The remote SG that is reachable through the C-link may be another ITP, or any SG serving the same ASs.
Refer to the following document for more information about C-link Backup Routing:
IP Transfer Point (ITP)
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8:
Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) Generic Opcode Support
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8 extends Mobile Application Part (MAP) operation support to include all GSM-MAP (3GPP TS 29.002 version 5.9.0 Release 5) operations in Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) rules.
Insert Destination Point Code (DPC) in Called Party (CDPA) PC
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8 provides a global option to insert destination point code (DPC) into the Called Party (CDPA) point code (PC) for packets that are Multi-Layer Routing (MLR)-routed.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7:
Preventative Cyclic Redundancy Check (PCR) Error Corrections
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7 supports Preventative Cyclic Redundancy (PCR) Error Corrections as described in Q.703 and GR-246. PCR is an alternative form of error correction for Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) links and is typically used on links that have a long delay (for example, satellite links).
CISCO-ITP-MSU-RATES-MIB
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7 supports the new CISCO-ITP-MSU-RATES-MIB. This MIB provides statistics for the number of message signaling units (MSUs) per second being processed by the Route/Switch Processor (RSP) and Versatile Interface Processor (VIP).
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6:
Secure Shell (SSH)
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6 supports the Secure Shell (SSH) feature on the IP Transfer Point (ITP) in the Cisco 7500 (image rsp-itpk91v-mz), Cisco 7301 (image c7301-itpk91-mz), and Cisco 7200 (image c7200-itpk91-mz) platforms. SSH enables secure sessions by establishing an encrypted connection between an SSH client and an SSH server.
JT1 interface
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6 supports the JT1 interface, the Japanese variation of the standard framing formats for T1 controller settings. The JT1 interface is a 1544 kbit/s line type specified by the Japanese standards organization, Telecommunications Technology Committee (TTC).
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5:
MLR Call Tracing Feature
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) Call Tracing feature introduces enhanced message tracing and enables the mobile operator to provide improved customer service. The feature uses the Cisco Event Tracer facility, which reads informational messages from specific Cisco IOS software subsystems and logs messages from those components into system memory. In Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5, the new component cs7 mlr enables event tracing on MLR. Trace messages stored in memory can be displayed on the screen or saved to a file for later analysis.
The MLR Call Tracing feature provides the following capabilities:
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Tracing of Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Short Message Service (SMS) mobile-originated (MO) messages for a set of originating International Mobile Subscriber Identities (IMSIs).
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Tracing of GSM SMS MO messages for a set of different Mobile Station Integrated Services digital networks (MSISDNs) that represent either the A-address or B-address of an SMS message.
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Tracing of ANSI41 SMDPP messages for a set of different addresses that represent either the A-address or B-address of an SMS message.
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Display of trace entries on the router console using show commands.
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Indicate whether a message has been processed by MLR for a given traceable address, including the final routing result.
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Allow message trace logs to be obtained using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP).
The MLR Call Tracing feature is documented in the Cisco IP Transfer Point (ITP) in IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 configuration guide at the following URL:
http://cisco.com/en/US/products/sw/wirelssw/ps1862/products_installation_and_configuration_guides_list.html
SMS MO Proxy Message Modification
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 enables additional SMS MO Proxy feature capabilities which require SMS MO Proxy message modifications:
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Insertion of the originating IMSI into the proxied Short Message Service (SMS) mobile-originated (MO) dialogue, if known, must be allowed under normal conditions. Conversion of the original SMS MO message from MAP version 1 or MAP version 2 to MAP version 3 may be required.
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When specified, the destination SMS center (SMSC) address should be modified to match the recipient SMSC.
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If the B-address is modified using Distributed Short Message Routing (DSMR) Address Translation, then the modified address should be included in the proxied SMS MO dialogue.
The SMS MO Proxy Message Modification feature in the Cisco IP Transfer Point (ITP) in IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 configuration guide at the following URL:
http://cisco.com/en/US/products/sw/wirelssw/ps1862/products_installation_and_configuration_guides_list.html
Support for Q.703 Annex A High-speed Links
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 provides support for Q.703 Annex A high-speed links on the IP Transfer Point (ITP). A new port adapter, the SS7 Q.703 high-speed port adapter (PA-MCX-4TE1-Q), supports enhanced Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) functions and procedures that are suitable for the operation and control of signaling links at data rates of 1.5 and 2.0 Mb. The ITP software for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 enables configuration of the card type and controller and enables configuration of the interface for SS7 high-speed MTP2 encapsulation.
Support for Q.703 Annex A high-speed links in the Cisco IP Transfer Point (ITP) in IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 configuration guide at the following URL:
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a
There are no new software features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4:
Enhanced Gateway Screening
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 routers and Cisco 7500 series routers
Gateway Screening is a process in Signaling Transfer Point (STP) to check the contents of the incoming/outgoing message and either allow or reject the message based on the provisioned screening. If the incoming message is allowed, it is sent to Message Transfer Part (MTP) /Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) /ISDN User Part (ISUP)/XUA for further processing. If the outgoing message is allowed, MTP/ XUA routes the message to the destination as specified in the outgoing message. Gateway Screening can be used with Access Lists, Global Title Translation (GTT) and Multi-Layer Routing (MLR). This feature is compliant with ITU Q.705 and Telcordia GR-82. The screening rules shall be applied based on a link set (or application server (AS) in case of XUA) and tables shall be created to configure the screening rule.
MLR Dynamic B-address Routing/Binding
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
When SMS center (SMSC) messaging platforms are connected to multiple signaling gateways (SG), messages should be distributed such that messages for a specific B-address are routed to the same SMSC. This is desirable in order to guarantee in-sequence delivery of messages, and to optimize the delivery of concurrent messages destined to the same mobile destination.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b
There are no new software features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a
There are no new software features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3:
DSMR UCP Application Oriented to GSM Mobile Terminated Short Message Delivery
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 routers, and Cisco 7500 series routers
This feature allows operators to distribute Short Message Service (SMS) messages generated by various service applications to their subscribers using the User Control Point (UCP) protocol.
IS-41 SMS Multicast Notification
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) is loadsharing Short Message Service (SMS) messages across a bank of message centers, (MCs), the ITP must duplicate the incoming SMSNOT message to send to each MC.
MLR Route on Originating IMSI for GSM MAP version 1 and version 2
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) SRI-SM procedure will be invoked towards the home location register (HLR) of the A-address Mobile Station Integrated Services digital network (MSISDN) in order to obtain the International Mobile Subscriber Identities (IMSIs) value.
M2PA v13. Support for draft version 13 of the M2PA protocol
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
Support for draft version 2 is continued. The version is configurable.
ITP Group multi-instance support
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers and Cisco 7301 router
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) Group feature can now be enabled within each of the multiple instances.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2
There are no new software features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1:
GSM Short Message Routing Mobile-Originated to Mobile-Terminated
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
This feature provides the ability to deliver Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) mobile originated (MO) Short Message Service messages to mobile-terminated (MT) users.
Extended number of Capability Point Codes from 2 to 200
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
The allowable number of capability point codes has been extended from 2 to 200 in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW:
ITP First Delivery Attempt (FDA)
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) performs a first delivery attempt of a GSM Mobile-Originated Short Message Service (SMS) message to an Application Server.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1:
Distributed Clock On HSL Port Adapters (PA-A3-8T1IMA, PA-A3-8E1IMA)
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
Used in conjunction with the IP Transfer Point (ITP) Signaling System 7 (SS7) port adapter (PA-MCX-8TE1-M) High-Speed Links can be externally clocked from a BITS source.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW:
Non-Stop Operation
Platforms: Cisco 7500 series routers
This is an enhancement to the 7500 platform redundancy feature. The feature provides the ability for links to remain active during a Master to Slave switchover.
Support For The G1 Processor On The 7200 Platform
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW provides support for the NPE-G1 processor for Cisco 7200 series routers.
The NPE-G1 is the first network processing engine for the Cisco 7200 VXR routers to provide the functionality of both a network processing engine and I/O controller. If used without an I/O controller, an I/O blank panel must be in place.
While its design provides I/O controller functionality, it can also work with any I/O controller supported in the Cisco 7200 VXR routers. The NPE-G1, when installed with an I/O controller, provides the primary input/out functionality; that is, the NPE-G1 input/out functionality enhances that of the existing I/O controller. However, when both the I/O controller and NPE-G1 are present, the functionality of the auxiliary port and console port are on the I/O controller.
The NPE-G1 maintains and executes the system management functions for the Cisco 7200 VXR routers and also holds the system memory and environmental monitoring functions.
The NPE-G1 consists of one board with multiple interfaces. It is keyed so that it can be used only in the Cisco 7200 VXR routers.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1
There are no new software features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW:
MLR Extension for support of ANSI-41 SMS
Platform: Cisco 7500 series routers
The Multi-layer SMS Routing feature is part of the IP Transfer Point (ITP) product program that implements legacy Signaling System 7 (SS7) routing, as well as an SS7 over IP Signaling Gateway based on the SIGTRAN protocols MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA), MTP3-User Adaptation (M3UA) and SCCP User Adaptation (SUA). The Multi-layer SMS Routing feature allows the ITP to make Short Message Service (SMS) message routing decisions based on information found in the Transaction Capabilities Applications Part (TCAP), Mobile Application Part (MAP), and MAP-user layers. This project adds support for routing SMS messages per the ANSI-41 (aka, IS-41) standard, as well as incorporation of Mobile Directory Number (MDN)-based SMS routing.
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW
There are no new hardware features supported in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW:
ITP Japan TTC SS7 Variant
Platform: Cisco 7500 series routers
This IP Transfer Point (ITP) feature incorporates Signaling System 7 (SS7) layers Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2), Message Transfer Part Level 3 (MTP), and Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) to support the Japanese TTC SS7 variant specified by the JT-Q7xx documents.
ITP Variant Conversion
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
This IP Transfer Point (ITP) features adds support for conversion between different variants. This conversion involves modification of the Message Transfer Part Level 3 (MTP3) and Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) portions of the message signaling unit (MSU) when crossing from one instance to another. These modifications include point code conversion, network indicator and SCCP parameters. In the first release, ITP will support conversion between ITU and ANSI variants of Signaling System 7 (SS7).
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW
The following new hardware feature is supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW:
Support for Port Adapter PA-MC-8TE1+
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 routers and Cisco 7500 series routers
The Cisco PA-MC-8TE1+ is a single-wide port adapter designed to provide a full eight-port PRI multichannel solution for the Cisco 7200 and Cisco 7400. The interfaces can be channelized, fractional or ISDN-PRI, or unframed (E1) with up to 256 independent High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) channels definable for T1 and E1 applications. The PA-MC-8TE1+ port adapter is ideal for services providers and large enterprises looking to cost-effectively deploy high-density ISDN terminations of multiple remote-sites.
This port adapter is now supported for WAN applications. For Signaling System 7 (SS7) applications PA-MCX-8TE1-M is required.
SS7 over ATM High Speed Link (HSL) Support
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
HSL allows full bandwidth utilization of a 1.55Mbps T1 or a 2.048 Mbps E1 for a single Signaling System 7 (SS7) link. ITP HSL is compliant with both ANSI per Telcordia GR-2878-CORE and ITU per Q.2100 and includes the following protocol stack components:AAL5, SSCOP, SSCF-NNI and MTP3b.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW:
Extensions to the Multi-Layer Routing Feature
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) feature enables intelligent routing of Short Message Service mobile originated (SMS MO) messages based on the application or service from where they originated, or to where they are destined. The MLR feature can make SMS message routing decisions based on information that is found in the Transaction Capabilities Applications Part (TCAP), Mobile Application Part (MAP), and MAP-user layers. Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW provides new extensions to the commands that support blocking and routing of SMS MO and mobile terminated (MT) MAP messages.
Refer to the following document for additional information:
Support for SIGTRAN MTP3-User Adaptation and SCCP User Adaptation in Multiple Instances
Platforms: Cisco 7200 series routers, Cisco 7301 router, and Cisco 7500 series routers
The Cisco ITP Signaling Gateway (ITP SG) feature provides open-standards-based Signaling System 7 (SS7) over IP solutions through the implementation of SIGTRAN MTP3-User Adaptation (M3UA) and SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) protocols. Previous releases of ITP supported MTP3-User Adaptation (M3UA) and SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) in Instance 0 only.
Refer to the following document for additional information:
New Hardware Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW
The following new hardware feature is supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW:
Support for the SS7 Port Adapter (Product number PA-MCX-8TE1-M)
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The Signaling System 7 (SS7) Port Adapter is a single-width, eight-port T1/E1 port adapter with a custom hardware-assist engine to support SS7 signaling. The PA features full channelization of up to 127 High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)-encoded SS7 (or DS0) channels at 56 Kbps or 64 Kbps. Performance monitoring, Drop and Insert, BERT functionality, external clocking (with multiple backups), internal clocking, and standard alarm integration are also supported. The hardware-assist engine provides a 30% message signaling unit (MSU) per second performance improvement on the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) under typical conditions.
New Software Features in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW
The following new software features are supported by the Cisco 7000 family for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW:
CS7 Monitor
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The CS7 monitor feature allows the IP Transfer Point (ITP) to monitor Signaling System 7 (SS7)/High Speed Link (HSL) ports and send the message signaling units (MSUs) (using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)) to a server for collection/storage. This feature is available on the Cisco 7200 and Cisco 7500 platforms only.
ITP Instance Translation
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The ITP Instance Translation feature enables the conversion of packets between instances on the IP Transfer Point (ITP). Each instance is a separate domain with a defined variant, network indicator, ITP point code, optional capability point code, and optional secondary point code.
ITP M3UA/SUA Signaling Gateway
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
Based on open industry standards, Cisco's IP Transfer Point (ITP) product is designed for transporting Signaling System 7 (SS7) traffic over IP (SS7oIP) networks. Its design provides significant cost efficiencies and scalability enhancements over legacy SS7 networks. Using the IETF's MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) protocols, the initial release of the ITP product provided the base functionality to off load SS7 traffic to IP. Subsequent releases provided the full functionality found in typical legacy signaling transfer point (STP) nodes, such as global title translation (GTT), gateway screening and ISDN User Part (ISUP) transport. In addition, support for high speed links (HSLs) was added. Using the MTP3-User Adaptation (M3UA) and SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) protocols, this latest release of the ITP provides signaling gateway functionality between a legacy SS7 network and IP-enabled signaling end points (SEP) nodes.
ITP Multi-Layer Short Message Service Routing
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The ITP Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) feature enables intelligent routing of Short Message Service (SMS) mobile originated (MO) messages based on the application or service from which they originated or to which they are destined. The MLR feature can make SMS message routing decisions based on information found in the Transaction Capabilities Applications Part (TCAP), Mobile Application Part (MAP), and MAP-user layers.
ITP Multiple Instances
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The Multiple Instance feature enables multiple variant and network indicator combinations to run concurrently on one IP Transfer Point (ITP). Up to 8 instances can be configured.
ITP Packet Logging Facility
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The ITP Packet Logging facility uses the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) Syslog protocol (RFC 3164) to send selected message signaling units (MSUs) to a user-selected monitoring tool using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) connectionless protocol (RFC 768). Cisco Systems, Inc. does not provide monitoring tools specifically for receiving and decoding messages sent by the facility. The user must obtain a suitable tool for receiving syslog messages.
ITP SCCP/GTT
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GTT Support
A global title is an application address, such as an 800 number, calling card number, or mobile subscriber identification number. Global Title Translation (GTT) is the process by which the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) translates a global title into the point code and subsystem number of the destination service switching point (SSP) where the higher-layer protocol processing occurs.
The two forms of GTT are as follows:
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Intermediate GTT—A subsequent global title is required by another node; thus, the routing indicator is set to zero, indicating route by global title (GT).
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Final GTT—No subsequent global title is required by another node; thus, the routing indicator is set to 1, indicating route by point code and subsystem number (PCSSN).
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Enhanced QoS for Signaling System 7 (SS7) Traffic
Quality of service (QoS) refers to the performance of packet flow through networks. The goal in a QoS-enabled environment is to enable predictable service delivery to certain traffic classes or types regardless of other traffic flowing through the network at any given time. ITP QoS provides the framework that allows end-to-end QoS for SS7 packet flow through SS7-over-IP (SS7oIP) networks. End-to-end QoS is the ability of the network to deliver service required by specific network traffic from one end of the network to another. In particular, QoS features ensure improved and more predictable network service by providing the following services:
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Avoiding and managing network congestion
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–
Setting traffic priorities across the network
QoS enables networks to control and predictably service a variety of network applications and traffic types. SS7 networks generally achieve QoS capabilities by over-provisioning bandwidth. Conventional SS7 networks lack the ability to identify different traffic types and provide network prioritization based on these traffic types. For instance, SS7 networks cannot separate ISUP and SCCP traffic and route this traffic over specific output links.
•
SCCP Screening
SCCP screening is a method of screening message signal units (MSUs) on inbound and outbound linkset. If the access list is inbound when the ITP receives a packet, the ITP checks the access list criteria statements for a match. If the packet is permitted, the ITP continues to process the packet. If the packet is denied, the ITP discards it.
If the access list is outbound after receiving and routing a packet to the outbound interface, the ITP checks the access list criteria statements for a match. If the packet is permitted, the ITP transmits the packet. If the packet is denied, the ITP discards it.
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ITP Summary Routing and ANSI Cluster Routing
Refer to the document at the following URL for additional information:
ITP SCCP Load Balancing Enhancements
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
The ITP SCCP Load Balancing Enhancements included support for Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) class 1 traffic as well as SCCP address conversion (sometimes referred to as flexible numbering).
SIM Authentication and Authorization for Cisco WLAN Solution
Platforms: Cisco 7301 router
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW adds support for SIM Authentication/Authorization for Cisco WLAN Solution Architecture to the IP Transfer Point (ITP) product.
MIBs
Current MIBs
To obtain lists of supported MIBs by platform and Cisco IOS release, and to download MIB modules, go to the Cisco MIB website on Cisco.com at http://www.cisco.com/public/sw-center/netmgmt/cmtk/mibs.shtml .
Important Notes
Cisco 7500 Series Routers on Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW is not Route Processor Redundancy (RPR) compatible with previous IP Transfer Point (ITP) software releases, thus requiring a complete reload during deployment.
Caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW
Caveats describe unexpected behavior in Cisco IOS software releases. Severity 1 caveats are the most serious caveats; severity 2 caveats are less serious. Severity 3 caveats are moderate caveats, and only select severity 3 caveats are included in the caveats document.
This section contains only open and resolved caveats for the current Cisco IOS maintenance release.
All caveats in Cisco IOS Release 12.2 and Cisco IOS Release 12.2 S are also in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW.
For information on caveats in Cisco IOS Release 12.2, see Caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2.
Note
If you have an account with Cisco.com, you can also use the Bug Toolkit to find select caveats of any severity. To reach the Bug Toolkit, log in to Cisco.com and click Service and Support: Technical Assistance Center: Select & Download Software: Jump to a software resource: Software Bug Toolkit/Bug Watcher. Another option is to go to http://www.cisco.com/cgi-bin/Support/Bugtool/launch_bugtool.pl .
Table 21 Caveats Reference for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW
DDTS Number
12.2(25)SW12
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW12. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCsd95616
Two crafted Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) packet vulnerabilities exist in Cisco IOS software that may lead to a denial of service (DoS) condition. Cisco has released free software updates that address these vulnerabilities. Workarounds that mitigate these vulnerabilities are available.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20080924-multicast.shtml .
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CSCsg58153
The SS7 links on an SS7 port adapter in ITP go down and start flapping when the circuits on certain links that the clock is derived from go bad. When this problem occurs the links flap continuously and the SS7 port adapter stops responding to clocking or shutdown commands under the controller.
The external trigger that causes the SS7 port adapter to become unresponsive is unknown. This happens under very rare conditions.
Workaround: Reload ITP to resume normal operation.
•
ITP route processor may crash with a watchdog timeout while processing MTP3 changeback acknowledgment.
There is no known workaround.
•
An ITP may reload while processing an SCCP XUDT message containing optional importance parameter.
There is no known workaround.
•
ITP may reload while performing SCCP instance address conversion.
This issue occurs under one of te folllowing conditions:
–
SCCP instance conversion where address conversion is used between instances
–
MSU with more than 16 digits in the received called party address
–
The called party address does not match an entry in the selected prefix conversion table.
Workaround: Ensure that all prefix conversion tables have default entries matching all the possible addresses. For example, CS7 instance 0 gtt address-conversion E164 to E164:
update in-address 0 out-address 0
update in-address 1 out-address 1
update in-address 2 out-address 2
update in-address 3 out-address 3
update in-address 4 out-address 4
update in-address 5 out-address 5
update in-address 6 out-address 6
update in-address 7 out-address 7
update in-address 8 out-address 8
update in-address 9 out-address 9
•
The following error is displayed on the ITP console:
%DATACORRUPTION-1-DATAINCONSISTENCY: copy error, -PC= 0x421D0B28
The problem occurs upon issuing the show cs7 linkset name command with a linkset name greater than 18 characters.
Workaround: Restrict definition of cs7 linkset names to 18 characters or less.
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CSCsl03818
On an ITP Signalling Gateway, SUA or M3UA, ASP SCTP associations may not re-establish after failing.
The issue is observed when SUA or M3UA association rapidly changes state from established to failed or terminated multiple times.
Workaroud: Perform the following steps to recover the failed ASP:
1.
Configure shutdown, and then no shutdown under the ASP configuration submode.
2.
Unconfigure and reconfigure the ASP.
3.
Reload the line card processor that owns the ASP association in case of a distributed ITP platform.
4.
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CSCso23287
An ITP running as a SMS-MO Proxy may reload on receiving an improperly formatted GSM-MAP version 1 Mo-Forward-SM message.
Reload occurs when the IP Transfer Point (ITP) attempts to generate a reject for an improperly formated GSM-MAP version 1 message.
Workarounds:
Disable the SMS-MO Proxy feature to use GSM MAP version 2 (or greater)
–
Modify the originating MSC to generate properly formatted MO-Forward-SM messages.
•
An ITP Signalling Gateway may reload due to the following watchdog event:
%SYS-2-WATCHDOG: Process aborted on watchdog timeout, process = CS7 SCCP Process.
This issue is observed when ITP is configured as a Signalling Gateway with active M3UA or SUA ASPs, and one or more ASP's SCTP associations are changing state. The probability for hitting the reload increases with the increase of ASP SCTP association state transitions, but the reload scenario is extremely rare.
There is no known workaround.
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CSCsr09619
After reloading an ITP, a series of TFP/TFA messages are exchanged between two ITPs over an xUA C-link regarding an unavailable AS PC.
This issue is observed when:
–
Japan TTC variant is configured
–
xUA C-link route configured on both ITPs
–
AS is unavailable on both ITPs
There is no known workaround.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW11. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCef77013
Cisco IOS and Cisco IOS XR contain a vulnerability when processing specially crafted IPv6 packets with a Type 0 Routing Header present. Exploitation of this vulnerability can lead to information leakage on affected Cisco IOS and Cisco IOS XR devices, and may also result in a crash of the affected Cisco IOS device. Successful exploitation on an affected device running Cisco IOS XR will not result in a crash of the device itself, but may result in a crash of the IPv6 subsystem.
Cisco has made free software available to address this vulnerability for affected customers. There are workarounds available to mitigate the effects of the vulnerability.
This advisory is posted at
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CSCin95836
The Cisco Next Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP) feature in Cisco IOS contains a vulnerability that can result in a restart of the device or possible remote code execution.
NHRP is a primary component of the Dynamic Multipoint Virtual Private Network (DMVPN) feature.
NHRP can operate in three ways: at the link layer (Layer 2), over Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) and multipoint GRE (mGRE) tunnels and directly on IP (IP protocol number 54). This vulnerability affects all three methods of operation.
NHRP is not enabled by default for Cisco IOS.
This vulnerability is addressed by Cisco bug IDs CSCin95836 for non-12.2 mainline releases and CSCsi23231 for 12.2 mainline releases.
This advisory is posted at
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CSCsj36934
A Cisco 7507-MX router crashes without warning and returns to ROM as a result of a bus error.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsj44081
Improper use of data structures occurred in Cisco IOS. The Cisco IOS software has been enhanced with the introduction of additional software checks to signal the improper use of data structures. The %DATACORRUPTION-1-DATAINCONSISTENCY error message is now preceded by a timestamp, and the error message is then followed by a traceback.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsj53415
When traffic goes through global title translation (GTT), which results in the traffic going to an xUA application server (AS), but the traffic is blocked by outbound Gateway Screening (GWS), the buffer is lost. Eventually all buffers are exhausted, and the links fail and do not recover. The show buffers command displays an extremely large number of cs7 buffers and an extremely large number of misses in the global pool. The cs7 buffers keep increasing until the links fail.
Workaround: To prevent the problem, remove the outbound GWS rule. If the links fail, you must reload the individual line card that contains the inbound links, or reload the entire router.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCsg11686
IP Transfer Point (ITP) sends SIE instead of SIN when a failed link is reactivated.
This condition occurs when one of the links in a linkset consisting of two links is brought out of service (for example, as a result of a remote disconnect). The linkset status remains "available." When the failed link is reactivated, ITP sends SIE instead of SIN as shown in the output of the show cs7 mtp2 statistics command. (The OMLSSU_XMIT_SIECount increases by 1 for the failed link.) Although SIE should be used when the link is first activated, because one link is still available SIN should be used to reactivate the failed link.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsg27676
The Simple Gateway Monitoring Protocol (SGMP) link between IP Transfer Point (ITP) mates flaps when an Application Server Processor (ASP) becomes active.
The condition occurs when an ASP configured for a loadshare bindings application server (AS) becomes active, and thousands of ASP bindings exist on the ITP.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsh69956
Syslog messages and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) traps are not generated for clock transitions on the PA-A3-8T1IMA.
This condition occurs on all IP Transfer Point (ITP) platforms.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsh85983
A FlexWAN module reloads when an Application Server Processor (ASP) flaps.
The condition occurs only if the ASP is a member of a loadshare bindings application server (AS) and bindings are established to the ASP.
There are no known workarounds; you should upgrade to Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW10 or later releases, where the problem is fixed.
•
CSCsi60319
The responding Home Location Register (HLR) E.164 address is not returned to the Short Message Peer-to-Peer (SMPP) client when handling error responses from an HLR.
This condition only affects the Multimedia Message Service Center (MMSC) gateway feature when clients submit a GetIMSI request and an HLR responds with an error.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsi64297
A Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) crashes while processing Global Title Translation (GTT) traffic.
This rare condition occurs on a Cisco 7500 series router with Message Transfer Part Level 3 (MTP3) offload enabled when a VIP is performing GTT on both Unitdata (UDT) and Extended Unitdata (XUDT) Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) messages.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW9. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCsf32840
When adding links to a linkset that is not in service, the route becomes restricted. Even if you remove these newly added links, the restriction will not clear, even though all the links in the linkset are available. The expected behavior would be to recalculate the available linksets, and remove the restriction.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsg21314
On a Cisco 7600 or a Cisco 7500 router with an E1 serial interface, the show interfaces output either reports incrementing input errors even though the links are running perfectly, or the reported input/output rates exceed the physical ability of the interface.
This condition occurs when a FlexWAN interface encounters errors in the past and keeps them in its history. With each reporting period, the old values are added to the running total, making the error input seem to increment.
Workaround: To verify whether there really are any slips or error seconds, check the show controller output. Log on to the FlexWAN console and issue a clear count command to reset the line card counters and to stop incrementing on the Supervisor. This solution should work provided no new errors are being encountered.
•
CSCsg34131
High CPU usage occurs in the Route/Switch Processor (RSP) of the Cisco 7500 IP Transfer Point (ITP). The debug ip packet detail output on the RSP shows Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) packets that should be handled by the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) card; these packets should not be seen on the RSP.
This condition occurs when an SCTP offload is enabled in the ITP, and SCTP association requests from an offloaded SCTP port are sent to the wrong VIP.
Workaround: There are two possible workarounds:
–
Modify the configuration in the offending node to stop the SCTP association requests to the wrong VIP card, or
–
Use an access control list (ACL) to block the SCTP packets from the offending nodes from reaching the RSP. For example:
access-list 101 deny 132 host node_ip_addr any log
access-list 101 permit ip any
interface FastEthernet X/Y/Z
•
CSCsg45613
After a mobile originated (MO) message comes in and goes to Multi Layer Routing (MLR), the IP Transfer Point (ITP) stops working
This condition occurs after loading and replacing an address table. The scenario under which this error occurs is as follows: 1. The correct International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) table is loaded and active, ITP is working, and the table is scanned whenever a message comes in. (However, the config which uses this table is NOT saved to startup-config. As a result, at the next restart, the startup config is loaded without the IMSI table.) 2. A corrupted IMSI file is copied to the disk using the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). The file is corrupted by a typo that is situated after the !eof keyword. (This is a typical error when using ultraedit in column edit mode.) 3. The replace command is issued. 4. ITP loads the corrupted file and says it has loaded successfully.
Workaround: Power on/off to get ITP back up and running
•
CSCsg45763
When updating a route priority that has a single route for that destination, the associated pc-conversion statement is removed from the configuration. The problem does not occur if there is more than one route for that destination.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsg47608
A software-forced reload of a line card on the Cisco 7500 platform occurs when the router cannot allocate memory to handle an inbound Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) packet.
This condition occurs when line card memory is exhausted. This problem is not the cause of any memory leak or fragmentation.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsg54127
If the Signaling System 7 (SS7) of an MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) link fails on an IP Transfer Point (ITP) group alternate peer as it takes over as the group manager, the link may not recover. Although the link show s as "avail" at the Message Transfer Part Level 3 (MTP3), it is failed at Level 2.
Workaround: Issue the shutdown command followed by the no shutdown command while in link configuration submode to recover the link.
•
CSCsg59330
After a reload, the virtual linkset stays inaccessible. The show cs7 route detail command indicates that the virtual linkset is up and the non-adjacent status is allowed, but the destination status for the alias point codes is marked inaccessible. To resolve the problem all routing that used the linksets has to be removed, and then, the point code-conversion rows have to be removed and inserted. Upon insertion of the point code-conversion rows, the virtual linksets again become accessible. Then, all routing that used the virtual-linksets can be inserted again.
Workaround: Remove the fast-restart option (no instance x fast-restart).
•
CSCsg62398
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) refuses to load a Global Title Translation (GTT) config file at boot time. This condition occurs when the GTT config Instance 0 references an application group in instance 1. This behavior is not allowed, and should have been prevented by the command line interface (CLI).
Workaround: Delete the gta default for the GTT-Inter selector, create a new application group in instance 0, and then add back the default using the new application group.
•
CSCsg89437
An unsolicited Application Server Processor (ASP) state change in override mode generates only one Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) trap.
This condition occurs when two ASPs are configured on an application server (AS) in override mode: ASP1 is active, and ASP2 is inactive. When ASP2 sends asp active to the signaling gateway (SG), the ASP1 status is changed to inactive. but no SNMP trap message is generated.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsh23712
The Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) on a Cisco 7500 platform running IP Transfer Point (ITP) software runs out of memory when processing traffic from an offloaded link to a non-offloaded link. The VIP may issue the following messages or reload due to CSCsg47608 (if not already installed).
%IPC-5-SLAVELOG: VIP-SLOT5:
%SYS-2-MALLOCFAIL: Memory allocation of 381032 bytes failed from 0x6039D468, alignment 32
Pool: Processor Free: 614300 Cause: Memory fragmentation
Alternate Pool: None Free: 0 Cause: No Alternate pool
-Process= "Chunk Manager", ipl= 2, pid= 1
-Traceback= 602EDC88 60382AD0 60387A98 6039D470 603827A0 603825B8
%SYS-2-CHUNKEXPANDFAIL: Could not expand chunk pool for DS7 Pkt Info c. No memory available
-Process= "Chunk Manager", ipl= 2, pid= 1
-Traceback= 602EDC88 603825FC
The following conditions must be met for the memory depletion to occur: Message Transfer Part Level 3(MTP3) offload is configured, but the MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) links are not offloaded. Packets arriving on an offloaded link are MTP3 routed to a link that is not offloaded.
Workaround: The following workarounds exist for this problem: 1. Offload all links, including the M2PA. 2. Turn off MTP3 offload to force all links to be serviced on the Route/Switch Processor (RSP), which will increase RSP CPU demand.
•
CSCsh26503
A Cisco 7200 series router IP Transfer Point (ITP) changeover that contains more than 16 combined linksets corrupts the Signaling Link Terminal (SLT) table.
This condition occurs because each time a shut/no shut is performed on the linkset, the link is not added back to the SLT table. When this action is done to all the links, you end up with no links in the SLT table and cannot route traffic.
Workaround: Remove the alternate routes for certain destinations.
•
CSCsh28961
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) reloads due to a process watchdog timeout when configured as an SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) Signaling Gateway (SG) and memory is depleted. The failing process is the CS7 SCCP Input process.
This condition occurs when ITP is configured as an SUA SG, processor memory is exhausted such that a new buffer cannot be obtained at process level, and the received SCCP message indicates a "return on error."
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsh37628
The "%ALIGN-1-FATAL: Corrupted program counter" bus error is output when the snmpwalk command is issued for an IP Transfer Point (ITP) MIB.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsh49591
Preventive transfer-prohibited (TFP) is not sent to the C-link peer when the point code goes inactive.
This condition occurs when you bring an XUA point code active on a pair of IP Transfer Points (ITPs) with C-link configured, the point code is configured in an ANSI instance (or ITU with cs7 national-options TFR not enabled), and you bring the point code inactive on one ITP such that XUA traffic is routed using the C-link.
There are no known workarounds.
•
Unable to move point code (PC) from instance 1 to instance 0.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsh79649
The SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) Application Server Processor (ASP) causes the router to crash after a shut/no shut.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW8. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCek37177
The Cisco IOS Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) listener in certain versions of Cisco IOS software is vulnerable to a remotely-exploitable memory leak that may lead to a denial of service condition.
This vulnerability only applies to traffic destined to the Cisco IOS device. Traffic transiting the Cisco IOS device will not trigger this vulnerability.
Cisco has made free software available to address this vulnerability for affected customers.
This issue is documented as Cisco bug ID CSCek37177.
There are workarounds available to mitigate the effects of the vulnerability.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20070124-crafted-tcp.shtml
•
CSCse50769
When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) performs a changeover for a high speed link in the China variant, it uses the H0H1 codes for an extended changeover message. However, the Chinese network does not support these codes and instead uses the H0H1 codes for a standard changeover message. Changeover messages are used to resend any messages that were in transmission when the link failed. The changeover completes due to a timeout, but a few messages can be lost if the changeover messages can not be exchanged due to a mis-match in the H0H1 codes.
This condition occurs when a network is running the China variant with high speed links, and a high speed link fails
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCse58529
On Cisco 7500 and 7600-based IP Transfer Points (ITPs), the PA DS0 loopback options for internal and line are not available. The local and remote loopback options are available, but do not provide the desired functionality.
This condition occurs in certain SW ITP releases.
Workaround: Only use DS0 loopback on remote device nodes or entire T1/E1 interfaces, if possible.
•
CSCse65471
The system becomes unresponsive after a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) online insertion and removal.
This condition occurs when a large route table containing the 0.0.0.0 default gateway causes the system to enter an endless loop of routing updates. The console will not be available and links may fail.
Workaround: Remove the default 0.0.0.0 gateway route from the route table.
•
CSCse68138
Multiple voice-related vulnerabilities are identified in Cisco IOS software, one of which is also shared with Cisco Unified Communications Manager. These vulnerabilities pertain to the following protocols or features:
–
–
Facsimile reception
Cisco has made free software available to address these vulnerabilities for affected customers. Fixed Cisco IOS software listed in the Software Versions and Fixes section contains fixes for all vulnerabilities mentioned in this advisory.
There are no workarounds available to mitigate the effects of any of the vulnerabilities apart from disabling the protocol or feature itself.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20070808-IOS-voice.shtml
•
CSCse70944
When the snmp-server traps IP address version version SNMP community string cs7 command is configured, the configuration is saved incorrectly in the running-config.
The condition occurs on all IP Transfer Point (ITP) platforms.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCse71985
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) broadcasts extraneous transfer-allowed (TFA) messages during application server (AS) state transitions when the Simple Gateway Monitoring Protocol (SGMP) is configured.
The condition occurs only when two ITPs are configured as signaling gateway (SG) mates with SGMP enabled, and the AS transitions between the active and inactive-rerouting state.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCse74363
Memory consumption is continuously increasing under the Pool Manager process. Malloc failure messages appear in the log, and the IP Transfer Point (ITP) hangs as a result of memory depletion. Some Application Server Processors (ASPs) are in shutdown status on the ITP and the SMS-C continuously tries to establish the connection with the ITP.
This condition occurs on Cisco 7500 series routers running ITP images and Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3 and previous releases.
Workaround: There are two possible workarounds:
1. Shut down the cs7 ASP connections, and then enable them back, or
2. Shut down the ASP connections on only the SMS-C, not on the ITP.
•
CSCse86887
An attempt to unconfigure the primary remote-ip address in an SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) Application Server Processor (ASP) fails. The ASP cannot connect to the IP Transfer Point (ITP) using the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) using the previous secondary IP address, and the change is not enacted.
This condition occurs when the ITP boots with a multi-homed configuration and the primary IP address of the ASP is unconfigured.
Workaround: Save the change, and reload the system.
•
CSCse96573
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) ignores the Telecommunications Technology Committee (TTC) Signaling System 7 (SS7) variant Signaling Route tests generated for MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) point codes that are not shared with any of the ITP's local point codes. No response is generated on reception of such messages.
Workaround: Disable generation of source-route transparent bridging (SRT) messages to M3UA/SUA point codes in the network.
•
CSCse99146
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) reports a Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) encoding error when attempting to route an SCCP message.
The problem occurs when the ITP attempts to route an SCCP message and the following conditions occur:
1. The order of the SCCP parameters in the message are as follows: CgPA, Data, CdPA.
2. No PC exists in the CgPA, and the CgPA RI is route-on-SSN. Both conditions must be present for the problem to occur.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsf08276
An IP Transfer Point (ITP), configured as an MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) or SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) Signaling Gateway (SG), may remain memory-constrained after one or more application servers (AS) processing high traffic load fail but recover within the recovery timeout period. MALLOCFAIL messages may occur.
This condition occurs because the queuing of message buffers during the recovery time period exhausts or fragments memory. The AS recovery queue is a mechanism intended to eliminate message loss due to temporary failures of an AS. If the AS is handling high traffic volume, the queuing of the packets becomes a significant memory burden to the ITP, and may exhaust the system of memory in extreme cases. For most SG deployments, this recovery queue mechanism is not necessary, and immediate failure of an AS results in Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) or Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) layer rerouting of messages to an available backup system.
Workaround: Disable the AS recovery queue by setting the recovery-timeout value to 0.
•
CSCsf98340
Global Title Translation (GTT) traffic is discarded due to congestion.
This condition occurs during periods of stress when links are flapping over a long duration, and Route Processor (RP) CPU usage was high.
Workaround: Enter the cs7 gtt map sp avail pc command for the congested destination point code (DPC) at the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) level.
•
CSCsf98655
A Gateway Screening (GWS) or Global Title Translation (GTT) log fails to be checkpointed to flash.
The problem occurs on the IP Transfer Point (ITP).
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsg11535
CPUHOG messages are generated when an Application Server Processor (ASP) goes active.
This condition occurs when traffic-mode loadshare bindings is configured for the application server (AS). In this configuration, IP Transfer Point (ITP) must check for any bindings that are owned by the ASP and redistribute the bindings if necessary (to balance the ASP load). The CPUHOG messages can be a problem if the Route/Switch Processor (RSP) is passing a high rate of traffic (such as when M3UA traffic is routed through the RSP).
Workaround: There are two possible workarounds:
1. Change the configuration of the AS from traffic-mode loadshare bindings to traffic-mode loadshare roundrobin. This workaround might not be acceptable as an end-to-end solution, however, as messages for the same CIC could be distributed to different ASPs. If the different ASPs can share calls in progress, this can be a possible workaround.
2. Reduce the number of bindings being handled per AS by changing the AS routing-key to include a CIC range, and having the ASPs support more application servers.
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CSCsg12763
Congestion and availability state mismatches occur on the ITP 7500 platform during periods of E1/T1 controller volatility. These mismatches can affect offloaded link, linkset, route, SCCP User Adaptation (SUA), or MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) state information. The affected state information might not have any physical or logical relation to the E1 or T1 controller experiencing volatility.
This condition occurs when the E1/T1 controller transitions from the down state to the up state.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsg14566
A Cisco 7500 router running IOS with the IP Transfer Point (ITP) feature stops processing packets in the input buffer queue.
This condition occurs because the buffer is full and further input packets are being dropped. A router reload clears the buffer, but the condition reoccurs.
Workaround: Increase the input buffer queue size on the interface by using the hold-queue xxx in command in interface configuration mode. This action should allow input packets to be processed again, however, the queue can reach its maximum size again over time.
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CSCsg18913
When running in Non-Stop Operation (NSO) mode and a switchover occurs, Signaling System 7 (SS7) routes that were deleted on the previous active Route/Switch Processor (RSP) exist on the new active RSP. These routes appear in the show run command output, but not in the show cs7 route command output.
This condition can occur when running in CS7 NSO mode.
Workaround: After the switchover, the route table should be analyzed for routes that should not exist, these routes should be removed, and the route table should be saved.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW7. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCef44438
A Cisco router crashes when Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF) is processing new routing updates while entries are being deleted from the CEF table (for example, following a clear cef table command or an online insertion and removal (OIR) of a line card).
This condition occurs on Cisco routers running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)S or later releases.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsc60249
Multiple voice-related vulnerabilities are identified in Cisco IOS software, one of which is also shared with Cisco Unified Communications Manager. These vulnerabilities pertain to the following protocols or features:
–
–
Facsimile reception
Cisco has made free software available to address these vulnerabilities for affected customers. Fixed Cisco IOS software listed in the Software Versions and Fixes section contains fixes for all vulnerabilities mentioned in this advisory.
There are no workarounds available to mitigate the effects of any of the vulnerabilities apart from disabling the protocol or feature itself.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20070808-IOS-voice.shtml
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CSCsd40334
Processing a specially crafted IPv6 Type 0 Routing header can crash a device running Cisco IOS software. This vulnerability does not affect IPv6 Type 2 Routing header which is used in mobile IPv6. IPv6 is not enabled by default in Cisco IOS.
Cisco has made free software available to address this vulnerability for affected customers.
There are workarounds available to mitigate the effects of the vulnerability. The workaround depends on if Mobile IPv6 is used and what version on Cisco IOS is being currently used.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20070124-IOS-IPv6.shtml
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CSCsd58381
Processing a specially crafted IPv6 Type 0 Routing header can crash a device running Cisco IOS software. This vulnerability does not affect IPv6 Type 2 Routing header which is used in mobile IPv6. IPv6 is not enabled by default in Cisco IOS.
Cisco has made free software available to address this vulnerability for affected customers.
There are workarounds available to mitigate the effects of the vulnerability. The workaround depends on if Mobile IPv6 is used and what version on Cisco IOS is being currently used.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20070124-IOS-IPv6.shtml
•
A Cisco router may crash on sms_compare_destSme. The following traceback appears:
TLB (load or instruction fetch) exception, CPU signal 10, PC = 0x41184100
-Traceback= 41184100 41461158 41462000 4116EFAC 411729D8 41186E68 41187890 41114C98 41115454 411125D8 410FAE34 410FB29C 41108478 41108610 41108138
This condition can occur within normal working conditions.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsd63672
Some IP Transfer Point (ITP) group links remain in the FAILED state after restarting either the group manager or the alternate.
This condition occurs when the ITP is configured with ITP group capability, and the amount of information requiring synchronization between the manager and the alternate is in excess of 1500 bytes. (Typically, the presence of global title data will cause the synchronization to exceed 1500 bytes.)
Workaround: Links remaining in the FAILED state may be recovered by issuing a shutdown command on the affected links or linksets, followed by a no shutdown command.
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CSCsd73205
IP Transfer Point (ITP) crashes when processing a message destined for an MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) application server (AS) when all configured Application Server Processors (ASPs) have weight=0.
Workaround: Ensure that every AS includes at least one ASP with weight greater than 0. If the weight is not specified, the default weight is 1.
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CSCsd76797
When an operator enters a shut command in cs7 asp or cs7 MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) submode, the IP Transfer Point (ITP) closes Stream Control Admission Protocol (SCTP) associations by sending an SCTP ABORT chunk instead of an SCTP SHUTDOWN chunk.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsd82015
The Application Server Processor (ASP) state is out of sync between the active and the standby.
This condition occurs when an ASP is shut with shut AS and is seen after the Route/Switch Processor (RSP) switchover. When the new standby boots after the switchover, it receives a bulk sync from the master RSP. During this process the active RSP rejects any Stream Control Admission Protocol (SCTP) associations for a shut AS, and those ASPs become out of sync.
There are no known workarounds.
•
The Route/Switch Processor (RSP) may crash during linkset configuration.
This condition occurs when a configuration command is entered while in linkset submode.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsd87381
Some MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) ERR messages sent by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) do not include the diagnostic info parameter.
This issue occurs during error conditions detected by the ITP when the ITP responds with an M3UA or SUA ERR message. This is usually a response to a received M3UA/SUA message.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsd99215
The point code format cannot be configured to any value other than its default form of 8.8.8 bits.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCse17165
IP Transfer Point (ITP) returns a number of triplets higher than the value set for max-return under the gsm-authent-vlr configuration of the Map User API (MAPUA).
This condition occurs when the MAPUA client requests a number of fresh triplets higher than the max-return value, and the home location register (HLR)/authentication center (AuC) returns a number of triplets higher than max-return value.
Workaround: Configure the MAPUA client to request a number of triplets below or equal to the max-return value.
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CSCse22221
IP Transfer Point (ITP) crashes when two users from two different telnet sessions are concurrently configuring High Speed Link (HSL) profile parameters for the same cs7 profile.
Workaround: Ensure no concurrent configurations are done on the hsl profile.
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CSCse22255
A slave IP Transfer Point (ITP) in a cs7 group enters into high CPU usage caused by the CS7 Group Mgmt process and finally crashes.
This occurs when one of the Signaling System 7 (SS7) links configured is flapping.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCse28466
The order of triggers found in an Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) table may reverse after a reload. For primary triggers, this issue has no impact on MLR operation. However, because secondary triggers are searched sequentially, depending upon the secondary trigger configuration, modifying the order of the secondary triggers can modify the outcome of MLR routing.
This condition occurs when new triggers of the same location/type are added before existing triggers (instead of after). Triggers are sorted by location (cdpa, cgpa, mtp3, default) and type (gt addr, gt selector, pc). Primary triggers use a best match algorithm, so order is not a factor. However, secondary triggers are searched sequentially to find a match. This problem causes the order of the these triggers to be reversed when the configuration is read in at reload time, that is, the order of the secondary trigger list reverses.
Workaround: Delete and reconfigure any secondary triggers required so that the trigger list is ordered properly after a router reloads. If a message can match multiple secondary triggers, ensure that the most specific secondary trigger is configured before the less specific trigger.
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CSCse45533
Messages that are routed by Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) with a MLR gt result may contain invalid data in the encoding scheme byte of the called party address.
This condition occurs randomly. It may occur when MLR routes a messages received with gt cdpa to a new gt cdpa.
Workaround: Avoid using a result gt.
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CSCse49379
An internal Versatile Interface Processor (VIP)/Route/Switch Processor (RSP) routing loop may occur.
This condition can be caused by high RSP CPU usage before or during the routing loop and can occur during the following related conditions: Application Server Processor (ASP) congestion, IP and Signaling System 7 (SS7) network instability, malfunctioning ASP nodes, and heavy console output over multiple telnet sessions. To diagnose the routing loop, enter repeated show cs7 asp statistics commands and look for the Outbound Packets Sent value to increment while the Inbound Packets Rcvd value does not.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCse49476
An IP Transfer Point (ITP) running the SMS_MO Proxy feature may reload if both of the following conditions are met:
1. The Short Message Service (SMS) rules are using Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) result groups, and
2. There are currently no available members within the MLR result group.
Workaround: The short-term workaround is to create identical SMS result groups and use them explicitly in the SMS rulesets.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW6. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
Links are reported as available, but the interfaces are down/failed.
This issue occurs in Cisco 7500 series routers under the following conditions:
–
When there is high traffic
–
When one of the Versatile Interface Processors (VIPs) in the system must reload due to a software or hardware failure.
Workaround: Load balance traffic to prevent the system from being overloaded.
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CSCsc78421
An IP Transfer Point (ITP) configured with High Speed Links (HSLs) sometimes retransmits lost signal degrade (SD) power distribution units (PDUs) twice instead of just once.
This condition occurs when a PDU transmit is followed by a POLL. When this happens, the PDU is lost in flight. The remote side responds with a USTAT indicating the missing PDU followed by a STAT in response to the POLL (also indicating the missing PDU). The ITP will incorrectly retransmit the SD PDU in response to the USTAT and the STAT.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsd03523
After a switchover, all links remain in the RESTART state. After approximately five minutes, the following error message is observed for all Versatile Interface Processors (VIPs) on the Cisco 7500 router:
*Jan 11 17:24:54.387: %DCS7-3-DCS7DISABLE: Fatal error, slot 1: No window message, LC to RP IPC is not operational RC=0
*Jan 11 17:24:54.387: %DCS7-5-INFO: Starting fatal error recovery for line card in slot 1
This issue only occurs on the IP Transfer Point (ITP) Cisco 7500 platform when cs7 offload mtp3 is configured and cs7 nso is not configured.
Workaround: Disable cs7 offload mtp3 or enable cs7 nso.
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CSCsd07326
The MTP3 User Adaptation (3UA) or SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) (XUA) Application Server Processor (ASP) cannot connect to the IP Transfer Point (ITP) if the ASP is configured with remote (ephemeral) port 0, and the ASP is offloaded to a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP).
This issue only occurs on a Cisco 7500 router with offloaded ASPs. For the non-offloaded ASPs, the ephemeral port 0 can be configured and the ASPs can connect.
Workaround: Perform the following:
1. Do not offload the ASP with remote port 0 to a VIP.
2. Configure a valid, non-zero remote port for the ASP that needs to be offloaded. The corresponding, remote ASP has to use the configured non-zero port for a successful connection to ITP.
•
Under rare conditions, the IP Transfer Point (ITP) may reload.
This issue is observed when all of the following conditions occurs:
1. Two ITPs are configured as Signaling Gateway (SG) mates.
2. An application server (AS) with at least 2 Application Server Processors (ASPs) and traffic mode of loadshare bindings is configured on both ITPs.
3. Each ITP receives a packet destined for the application server (AS) with the same loadshare seed (for example, CIC, SLS), and each ITP binds the loadshare seed to a different ASP.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCsd35259
The IMA port adapter, by default, is configured on all ports to derive its TX clocking from the LINE. In this configuration, when the first port (port 0) goes down, all ports on the card will switch from LINE to INTERNAL clocking. This action may cause High Speed Link (HSL) based Signaling System 7 (SS7) links to go down and come back up at the time of the switch.
The ports must be clocked from LINE for this issue to occur.
Workaround: Configure each IMA/HSL port as follows where 7 is any unused, shutdown port on the IMA PA:
clock source common 7
clock source line
This effectively sets each port to derive its clock from port 7 and then sets it back to source it from line.
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CSCsd50936
After an Ethernet cable is pulled out, the line protocol state of the interface is incorrectly displayed as "up" on the /Route/Switch Processor (RSP) console. The actual sequence of events is that the line protocol will transition to down, and the appropriate traps and console messages will be generated. When the offloaded MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) link fails, the line protocol on the RSP will then show as "up" but a console message will not be generated.
For example:
Router# show int fastEthernet 0/0/0
FastEthernet0/0/0 is up, line protocol is up
However, the line protocol state on the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) is correctly displayed as down.
VIP-Slot0>show int
FastEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is down
This issue requires an offloaded M3UA/SUA SCTP association to exist on the VIP in question.
Workaround: Perform a shut/no shut of the interface to correct the line protocol state on the RSP.
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CSCsd63762
The network-appearance command under a configuration can range from 1 to 4294967295. However, when configuring values higher than 2147483647 (2 pow 31-1), the network-appearance shows up as a negative number in the router configuration. Upon a reboot, the router displays an error when it tries to configure such a network appearance.
Workaround: Do not configure network-appearance command values higher than 2147483647.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW5. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCec22954
After rebooting a Cisco 7500 router that has a PA-A3-8T1IMA/PA-A3-8E1IMA PA and ima-group interface configuration, the following error message can be seen in the logs of the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP):
%ATMPA-1-RPTFAIL: ATM0/ima0 failed to send report 0 at ../pas/if_vip_loki.c
This caveat is a duplicate of CSCin15053.
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CSCsb26616
MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) links remain in initial alignment state after a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) online insertion and removal (OIR). This defect can be seen in a VIP OIR and when the next hop interface for the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) association(s) resides on another VIP.
Workaround: Set up the IP routing where the destination for an M2PA link is reachable only by interfaces on the VIP wo which the M2PA link is off-loaded.
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CSCsb74441
When the Cisco 7507 router operates in Non-Stop Operation (NSO) mode with MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) and SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) traffic offloaded to a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) card, if the user changes the order of remote-ip addresses defined under Application Server Processor (ASP) configuration, the ASP state goes to the down state.
This condition occurs on a Cisco 7507 router configured as an IP Transfer Point (ITP) with the NSO feature enabled in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3.
Workaround: To avoid this problem, keep the order of the IP address definition for the ASPs, and avoid changing the order after the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) associations have been established from the application server (AS) to the Signaling Gateway (SG).
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CSCsb91588
When the origin International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) feature is obtained and subsequently inserted into a proxied MO-FORWARD-SM dialogue, the insertion of the IMSI exceeds the maximum size that Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) or Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) can transport without segmentation.
This situation occurs under the following conditions:
–
When a MAP version 3 MO-FORWARD-SM message received from the message service center (MSC) does not contain an International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), and the length of the message signaling unit (MSU) received from the MSC is greater than 263 octets (including SI).
–
When SMS MO Proxy successfully obtains the origin IMSI, as requested by a matched Short Message Service (SMS) rule with the result obtain-orig-imsi.
–
When the configured SMS MO Proxy version is 3.
Workaround:
1) Unconfigure the rule which obtains the origin IMSI.
2) Configure the SMS MO Proxy for version 2.
This would have the SMS MO Proxy negotiate all MO-FWD-SM dialogues down to version 2.
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High Speed Link (HSL) sscop timer commands are stored in incorrect order in the running-config.
IP Transfer Point (ITP) reports Timer_POLL or Timer-Keepalive errors on boot-up. An example error follows:
new Timer_POLL 125 greater than Timer_Keepalive 100. Change keepalive_timer first new Timer-Keepalive 250 greater than Timer_Idle 100. Change idle_timer first
The correct order in the running-config should be: cs7 profile 01 hsl sscop idle-timer 250 sscop keepalive-timer 250 sscop poll-timer 125.
The incorrect order displayed in running-config is: cs7 profile 01 hsl sscop poll-timer 125 sscop keepalive-timer 250 sscop idle-timer 250.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsc01492
A Cisco 7500 router running IP Transfer Point (ITP) software configured with an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) High Speed Link (HSL) that uses oam-pvc manage encounters a situation in which the link is up and passing traffic and the permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is up, but the line protocol displays as down in the Route/Switch Processor (RSP) show interface command.
The condition occurs when the above configuration is in place and a remote failure in the ATM network occurs such that an Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) alarm indication signal (AIS) is sent to the ITP for this link/PVC. Upon recovery of the error, OAM must recover before the Service Specific Connection Oriented Protocol (SSCOP) link recovers for the stuck condition to occur.
Workaround: Do not use oam-pvc manage on these links. If oam-pvc manage is used, a local disconnect of the interface may resolve the state, but it is dependent on the timing on the other side of the link.
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CSCsc02671
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) is not sending the Remote Inhibit Test message. This occurs when the variant is ITU and when a remote node inhibits a link.
When the ITP receives a remote inhibit, it is supposed to start the Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) timer T23. The ITP is supposed to send a Remote Inhibit Test message every T23. This prevents the link from being stuck in inhibit mode if the far end uninhibits the link, but the uninhibit message is lost.
Workaround: Under normal conditions no action is required - when the remote side uninhibits the link, this will clear the remote inhibit status. The Remote Inhibit Test is designed to catch the case where the remote uninhibit message is lost. If this occurs, a shut/no shut of the linkset will correct the inhibit status.
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CSCsc03807
Under rare conditions, the IP Transfer Point (ITP) may reload while viewing the output of the show cs7 gtt config command. A reload may occur if a user makes a change in Global Title Translation (GTT) configuration while in the middle of viewing the output of the show cs7 gtt config command.
Workaround: Do not make GTT configuration changes while in the middle of viewing the output of the show cs7 gtt config command.
•
A verification and regression test does not pass.
Workaround: Not applicable because this test is not performed in a production environment.
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CSCsc06052
On a Cisco 7500 router, IP Transfer Point (ITP) systems configured with low speed links do not generate %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN console messages consistently when serial links transition the line protocol up and down.
Workaround: Use %CS7MTP3-5-LINKUPDOWN messages and their associated traps, which are generated. These messages are the best method of tracking the Signaling System 7 (SS7) link availability.
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CSCsc09788
When the High Speed Link (HSL) is activated and connected to a legacy Signaling Transfer Point (STP), STP sends out too many packets initially. Due to this heavy packet stream, the rx buffer exceeds its limit, which causes the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) driver to use a fallback buffer; console error messages are generated.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsc22745
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) always sets the national indicator within the calling and called party address indicator field to '1'b when generating Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) management messages for non-ANSI variants. The Signaling Transfer Point (STP) and Signaling Control Point (SCP) implementations may reject or discard these messages for non-ANSI variants.
This problem occurs under the following conditions:
–
The configured Message Transfer Part 3 (MTP3) and SCCP variant is not ANSI (for example, ITU, China, or Japan).
–
An STP or SCP that processes SCCP management messages from the ITP performs screening or validation on the national indicator setting.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsc27995
On a Cisco 7500 router, IP Transfer Point (ITP) systems, configured with high speed Signaling System 7 (SS7) over Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) links, do not consistently generate %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN console messages (and associated traps) when ATM links transition the line protocol up and down.
Workaround: Use %CS7MTP3-5-LINKUPDOWN messages and their associated traps, which are generated. These messages are the best method of tracking SS7 link availability.
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CSCsc34914
When an MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) link established to a PGW 9.5(2) host is torn down due to the PGW host shutting down, the IP Transfer Point (ITP) fails.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsc46651
A message signaling unit (MSU) was corrupted during instance conversion.
This condition occurs when converting an MSU from one instance to another where the MSU is formatted with the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) portion containing the data in between the calling and called parties.
Workaround: Send MSUs properly formatted with the data at the end of the MSU.
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CSCsc51378
When upgrading directly from Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB10 or earlier to Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a, the upgrade to Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a can result in configuration corruption
Errors similar to the following are detected at bootup:
%Error: Existing linkset with adjacent pc 0 cannot be changed to a new adjacent pc. accounting ^ % Invalid input detected at '^' marker. link 0 sctp 192.168.20.13 192.168.30.13 4096 4096 ^ % Invalid input detected at '^' marker. link 1 sctp 192.168.30.13 192.168.20.13 4097 4097 ^ % Invalid input detected at '^' marker. route all table system ^ % Invalid input detected at '^' marker.
Workaround: Upgrade the IP Transfer Point (ITP) from Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB10 or earlier releases to Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3, and then, upgrade from Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3 to Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a.
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CSCsc59050
Shutting down and unconfiguring IP Transfer Point (ITP) E1 links using either a cut-and-paste operation or through a script can result in a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) failure due to a timing issue.
Workaround: Shut down the ITP E1 links first, and then wait for 10 seconds before unconfiguring those links.
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CSCsc62555
A new binding is established when the Application Server Processor (ASP) is already active on both IP Transfer Points (ITPs). The binding is active on the receiving ITP, but inactive on the other ITP.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4a. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCef46191
A specifically crafted Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection to a telnet or reverse telnet port of a Cisco device running Internetwork Operating System (IOS) may block further telnet, reverse telnet, Remote Shell (RSH), Secure Shell (SSH), and in some cases Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) access to the Cisco device. Telnet, reverse telnet, RSH and SSH sessions established prior to exploitation are not affected.
All other device services will operate normally.
User initiated specially crafted TCP connection to a telnet or reverse telnet port results in blocking further telnet sessions. Whereas, services such as packet forwarding, routing protocols and all other communication to and through the device remains unaffected.
Workaround: The detail advisory is available at the following URL:
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CSCef67682
Reception of certain IPv6 fragments with carefully crafted illegal contents may cause a router running Cisco IOS to reload if it has IPv6 configured. This applies to all versions of Cisco IOS that include support for IPv6.
The system may be protected by installing appropriate access lists to filter all IPv6 fragments destined for the system. For example:
interface Ethernet0/0
deny ipv6 any my-address1 undetermined-transport
deny ipv6 any my-address2 fragments
permit ipv6 any any
This must be applied across all interfaces, and must be applied to all IPv6 addresses which the system recognizes as its own.
This will effectively disable reassembly of all IPv6 fragments. Some networks may rely on IPv6 fragmentation, so careful consideration should be given before applying this workaround.
We would recommend for customers to upgrade to the fixed IOS release. All IOS releases listed in IPv6 Routing Header Vulnerability Advisory at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20070124-IOS-IPv6.shtml contain fixes for this issue.
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CSCei61732
Cisco IOS may permit arbitrary code execution after exploitation of a heap-based buffer overflow vulnerability. Cisco has included additional integrity checks in its software, as further described below, that are intended to reduce the likelihood of arbitrary code execution.
Cisco has made free software available that includes the additional integrity checks for affected customers.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20051102-timers.shtml.
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CSCsb91222
Valid message signaling units (MSUs) with an Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) portion of 256 octets or greater are not properly routed by the IP Transfer Point (ITP) SCCP layer. The following message is issued to the ITP console:
%CS7SCCP-5-SCCPSYNTAX: SCCP received message containing a syntax error.
LS=linkset0 DPC=22.2.1:0 OPC=1.4.5:0 Type=9 Class=
This condition occurs when an MSU with an SCCP portion of 256 octets or greater is received by the ITP for local SCCP processing, such as global title translation.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW4. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCei61732
Cisco IOS may permit arbitrary code execution after exploitation of a heap-based buffer overflow vulnerability. Cisco has included additional integrity checks in its software, as further described below, that are intended to reduce the likelihood of arbitrary code execution.
Cisco has made free software available that includes the additional integrity checks for affected customers.
This advisory is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20051102-timers.shtml.
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CSCsa86279
On an IP Transfer Point (ITP) running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3 or earlier, the parameters configured for an off-loaded MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) link may not be applied after a reload.
Workaround: Re-configure the link parameters.
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CSCsa86523
On an IP Transfer Point (ITP) running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3 or earlier releases, packet loss may occur during a changeover due to a shutdown of an interface on which an off-loaded MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA) links resides.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa98287
When running IP Transfer Point (ITP) software, adding a Signaling System 7 (SS7) link to an existing linkset that is in the shutdown state will not prevent the new link from becoming available and will cause the linkset to become available as well.
This condition occurs when the linkset is in the shutdown state.
Workaround: Once the new link is added, issue a no shutdown and then a shutdown command on the linkset, and the linkset will revert to the shutdown state. The new link will become unavailable.
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CSCsa98311
In Cisco IOS Release 12.2(2)5SW2 or earlier releases, if a link is added on the master for a linkset that does not exist on the alternate, the following tracebacks will be generated on the alternate:
%CS7CHKPT-3-INTERR: Could not find linkset linkset_name in inst 0 for link utilization
%CS7CHKPT-3-MSGERR: Received short Link_Util msg: 65 instead of 37386
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa99303
Link drops fail to be reported in the output of show cs7 linkset statistics when cs7 offload mtp3 is configured.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa99440
The show controllers output will not show any clock slip, even if there are mismatches in the clock reference at both ends of an E1 line for the PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb02059
The Hop Counter for Extended Unitdata (XUDT) messages is decremented twice when the Global Title Translation (GTT) result is an application server (AS).
This condition occurs on a Cisco 7500 router with Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) offload configured, when Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) traffic using message type XUDT with MTP3 offload is configured, and traffic is GTT routed to an AS result.
Workaround: Turn off MTP3 offload.
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CSCsb02106
A "DCS7-4-DCS7MSG: Invalid message received" error may be observed on the IP Transfer Point (ITP) upon receiving an User Part Unavailable (UPU) with user part identity 3 (from the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)), if the affected PC is configured in the Global Title Translation (GTT) MAP table and cs7 offload mtp3 is configured.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb04849
When IP Transfer Point (ITP) receives a Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) message containing a GTI (Global Title Indicator) that equals 8, a traceback will be generated. The router will not unexpectedly reload and there will be no impact in the performance of the device.
ITP only supports GTI 2 and 4. This can be considered a cosmetic issue.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb05969
The following parameters configured for an MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) instance are not applied if the M3UA/SUA instance is off loaded:
–
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb11785
The Route/Switch Processor (RSP) unexpectedly reloads when loading the Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) address table.
This condition occurs when loading an MLR address table file for an address table that already exists.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb15605
A Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) unexpectedly reloads with a translational bridging (TLB) exception and reports a fatal hardware failure (signal=22).
This condition occurs on a VIP6-80 running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1 with a PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter (PA).
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb15611
A Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) unexpectedly reloads with a translational bridging (TLB) exception and reports a fatal hardware failure (signal=22).
This condition occurs on a VIP6-80 running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1 with a PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter (PA).
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb19607
The link does not activate if an adjacent point code is identical to a local point code of another instance on the IP Transfer Point (ITP).
This issue occurs under the following conditions:
–
Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) offload must be enabled
–
cs7 multi-instance must be configured
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An adjacent point code is identical to local point code of another instance
–
The release must be Cisco IOS Release 12.2-25.SW3
Workaround: If the config is saved and ITP loaded with this as its starting config, the links will activate normally.
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CSCsb33575
On a Cisco 7200 or Cisco 7300 router, Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) links fail and do not recover. Executing a show controller serial x/x:x for the failed link shows that the ds->tx_count is at 12, when it should be 0 when the link is not in service.
This issue can occur when some other interfaces on the PA are down, and the links that are available have a lot of errors that cause retransmissions.
Workaround: Reload the IP Transfer Point (ITP) to bring the links back up.
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A multi-homed Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) association goes down.
This condition occurs when the primary interface is shutdown.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsb42738
The Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) on a Cisco 7500 router unexpectedly reloads while running the Cisco IP Transfer Point (ITP) feature image. The Route/Switch Processor (RSP) will report the following Cybus error when the VIP unexpectedly reloads:
Jun 10 07:36:41.103 CST: %RSP-3-ERROR: CyBus1 error 10
Jun 10 07:36:41.103 CST: %RSP-3-ERROR: command/address mismatch
Jun 10 07:36:41.103 CST: %RSP-3-ERROR: bus command write 2bytes (0xD)
Jun 10 07:36:41.103 CST: %RSP-3-ERROR: address offset (bits 3:1) 0
Jun 10 07:36:41.107 CST: %RSP-3-ERROR: virtual address (bits 23:17) 000000
The VIP unexpected reload will produce a crashinfo file that has no traceback information in it.
This issue occurs under the following conditions:
–
Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) Offload is configured
–
The configuration includes a loopback interface definition
–
The first interface on the VIP that crashes is configured and is being used
Workaround: One of the three conditions above must be removed:
–
Disable MTP3 Offload and reload the router
–
Remove loopback interface and reload the router
–
Disable the first interface on the VIP. A router reload to correct the situation is not required if this workaround option is chosen
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CSCsb58611
After an Non-Stop Operation (NSO) switchover on an IP Transfer Point (ITP) on a Cisco 7500 router, a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) unexpected reloads due to a watchdog timeout at the Signaling System 7 (SS7) port adapter (PA) process:
Jul 29 10:50:30.435 EDT: %SYS-2-WATCHDOG: Process aborted on watchdog timeout, process = SS7 PA Proc.
This issue occurs under the following conditions:
–
The failing VIP has an Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) link defined on at least one serial interface
–
A administratively down E1/T1 controller with an MTP2 link defined on it is activated using a no shutdown command
–
An NSO switchover to the Standby Route/Switch Processor (RSP) occurs
Workaround: Do not issue a no shutdown command for E1/T1 controllers that have MTP2 links defined on them. If the no shutdown command cannot be avoided, reload the Standby RSP using the hw-module sec-cpu reset command after activating the controller.
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CSCsb64543
If Signaling System 7 (SS7) links bounce due to a service provider problem, after the links come back in service, some of the destinations would show as INACC even though the links to that destination are active and route to that destination is available. Signaling traffic seems to be flowing as normal.
Workaround: Re-enter the update route command used to create those routes and the destination status will get reset to the correct state. Take the route commands from the show running config output and cut-n-paste them back in once you are in config-cs7-rt submode.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3b. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCei76358
Through normal software maintenance processes, Cisco is removing deprecated functionality. These changes have no impact on system operation or feature availability.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3a. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCef68324
Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) software is vulnerable to a Denial of Service (DoS) and potentially an arbitrary code execution attack from a specifically crafted IPv6 packet. The packet must be sent from a local network segment. Only devices that have been explicitly configured to process IPv6 traffic are affected. Upon successful exploitation, the device may reload or be open to further exploitation.
Cisco has made free software available to address this vulnerability for all affected customers.
More details can be found in the security advisory that is posted at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20050729-ipv6.shtml .
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW3. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCed83705
When using cs7 ping on an IP Transfer Point (ITP) running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW on a Cisco 7507 router, alignment corrections and traceback errors may be seen occasionally. This does not seem to have any impact on operation however.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCee13367
When running IP Transfer Point on Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB13 or 12.2(20)SW, no report of success or failure may be seen under some circumstances.
This condition only occurs if the Round Trip Time (RTT) between the ping endpoints is over 1 second (over satellite links for example). This condition occurs because of the time taken to set up the Q.751 traffic test. By the time the test is set up over slow links, the test is already finished and no data is sent to test.
Workaround: Specify a test duration greater than the RTT between the test endpoint using the cs7 ping -duration command.
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CSCeg18352
For the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) port adapter (PA), the LINE source of the clock fails. There is no indication or syslog event to tell the operator about it.
This condition occurs because when the LINE fails, the ATM PA reverts back to its INTERNAL clock source. The current clock source (LINE, INTERNAL or COMMON) can not be determined from the show commands.
As an enhancement the show controller ATM command has been modified to display the current clock source.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCeg83024
The Standby Route/Switch Processor (RSP) of a Cisco 7500 IP Transfer Point (ITP) with the Non-Stop Operation (NSO) feature configured, is reloaded after a cs7 as is entered.
This condition occurs when Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW is used.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCeh13554
When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) begins routing on an alternate route to a destination, it sends a preventive transfer-prohibited (TFP) to prevent circular routing. When ITP switches to using the normal route for the destination, the ITP should send a transfer-allowed (TFA) on the alternate route, to indicate that the node may now route through the ITP for that destination. But the ITP does not send this TFA in ITU networks without the national transfer-restricted (TFR) option configured.
Workaround: The ITP will send a TFA on the alternate linkset when it receives an Route/Switch Processor (RSP) poll message. The adjacent node for the alternate route should send the ITP an RSP every T10.
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CSCeh15067
When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) receives a message signaling unit (MSU) destined for an XUA point code with SI set to 0, 1, or 2 (ANSI Only), the ITP will process the MSU as if it were destined for the ITP's point code (PC).
SI 0 is for Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) Network Management messages. SI 1 is for Link Test Messages. SI 2 is used in ANSI for Link Test Messages.
This condition occurs when ITP is configured with an XUA point code.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCeh16859
Subsystem 12 on the IP Transfer Point (ITP) is reported as "not available" but not subsystem 112.
This condition occurs if the connection between the ITP and the Signaling Control Point (SCP) is dropped.
Workaround: This condition is cosmetic and has no operational impact.
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CSCsa57699
Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) High Speed Link (HSL) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) loopback cell transmission is not working correctly. Typically, the Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) will display as "down" on one or both sides of the link and the IP Transfer Point (ITP) may show input errors on the ATM interface. The High Speed Link (HSL) will eventually fail due to a non responsive link test because the PVC is down and unable to pass traffic.
This caveat occurs on Cisco 7500 ITP images using HSLs when sending and receiving OAM cells on Enhanced Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Port Adapters.
This condition occurs on all Cisco 7500 based ITP images prior to Cisco IOS Release12.2(25)SW. The problem only exhibits itself when the far end of the ATM link is configured to generate OAM cells, or the ITP itself is configured to generate OAM cells using the oam-pvc command under the interface.
Work around: Do not use OAM cells on the High Speed Signaling links or disable the PVC state from being tied to the acknowledgment of OAM cells.
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CSCsa58560
After several shut/no shuts of an E1 or T1 controller on a PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter (PA) containing Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) links, the MTP2 links remaining failed.
This condition occurs when the controller is up, but the line protocol is down. An MTP2 decode show alignment fails due to a T2 timeout. A show controller command on the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) shows FISU received is 0:
router# execute slot 1 show contr ser 0/0:0 | incl FISU
show contr ser 0/0:0 | incl FISU from slot 1:
FISU filter on, last rcv: 0x0000000000(0), count 0
FISU insert on, last snd: 0xFFFFC10300(4), count 1, fail 0
shut/no shut of controller, interface, linkset, links do not resolve the problem.
Workaround: Reload the VIP containing the affected PA, or reload the entire router.
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CSCsa59599
After changing encapsulation types on a serial interface, the physical maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the interface resets back to the default value of 1500 bytes.
The condition only affects IP Transfer Point (ITP) software.
Workaround: Manually reconfigure the interface MTU.
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CSCsa64953
The Standby Route/Switch Processor (RSP) of a Cisco IP Transfer Point (ITP) with Non-Stop Operation (NSO) enabled is reloaded after multiple route deletion commands are entered using the CLI in rapid succession due to a console cut-and-paste operation or a script. When this condition occurs the following message is displayed:
%HA_CONFIG_SYNC-3-LBL_POLICY: Active and Standby lbl configuration out of sync\
This condition occurs on Cisco IOS Releases 12.2(25)SW and SW1.
Workaround: Do not enter route deletion commands as part of a cut-and-paste operation with multiple commands. The route deletion commands should be entered individually.
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CSCsa72249
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) incorrectly responds to an AASPUP message received by an MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) Application Server Processor (ASP) in a blocking state with an ASPUPAK. It should send an error message.
This condition occurs in Cisco IOS Releases 12.2(25)SW and 12.2(25)SW1.
There are no known workarounds. However, the ITP correctly responds to an ASPAC message on the same M3UA ASP with an error, which prevents any operational impact. (The ASP cannot become active.)
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CSCsa78896
When a cs7 linkset is in the UNAVAIL or SHUTDOWN state, and the only route to the adjacent point code X is using that linkset (that is, this adjacent point code (APC) is inaccessible), and another destination Y becomes inaccessible, the IP Transfer Point (ITP) outputs a debug message on the console indicating a transfer-prohibited (TFP) was sent to X concerning destination Y. In reality, no TFP is actually sent to X.
This condition occurs on Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1when debug cs7 mtp3 mgmt packet is enabled. Although the debug message is misleading, it does not cause any ITP functional problem.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa84521
An IP Transfer Point (ITP) running on a Cisco 7500 router experiences high CPU utilization on Versatile Interface Processors (VIPs) with interfaces configured on a PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter with the Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) encapsulation set. This condition can lead to link drops during VIP online insertion and removal (OIR) or after an Route/Switch Processor (RSP) switchover.
This condition occurs on multiple shutdown serial interfaces configured with MTP2 encapsulation and an active T1/E1 controller.
Workaround: Remove the shutdown serial interfaces from the IOS configuration.
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CSCsa88289
On Cisco 7500 series and Cisco 7301 series platforms running IP Transfer Point (ITP) software, when Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) interfaces (PA-A3-8T1IMA, PA-A3-8E1IMA, PA-A3-OC3) are configured as a Network-to Network Interface (NNI) (atm nni) to be used as High Speed Signaling System 7 (SS7) links, and then the configuration (atm nni) is removed, the line protocol may not be restored to "up" as shown under the show interfaces output.
Workaround: The reload procedure restores the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) interface to "line protocol up" for the same configuration.
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CSCsa92616
When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) is running Cisco IOS Releases 12.2(25)SW1 and 12.2(25)SW2, the Cisco Signaling Gateway Manager Client is unable to monitor link utilization threshold status compared.
Workaround 1: Use an earlier IOS version of the IP Transfer Point.
Workaround 2: Within the client, right click on the link in the left hand panel of the client where it shows the SLC value and choose View->Real-time Data And Charts. This action will display the current utilization values in a panel that will update itself every 15 seconds.
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CSCsb02059
The Hop Counter for Extended Unitdata (XUDT) messages is decremented twice when the Global Title Translation (GTT) result is an application server (AS).
This condition occurs on a Cisco 7500 series router with Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) offload configured, when Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) traffic using message type XUDT is GTT routed to an AS result.
Workaround: Turn off MTP3 offload.
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CSCsb03447
The Paklog debug feature is missing some message signaling units (MSUs).
On a Cisco 7500 series router with Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) offload configured, paklog will not log some MSUs that are locally originated on the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP).
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW2. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCsa81379
NetFlow Feature Acceleration has been deprecated and removed from Cisco IOS. The global ip flow-cache feature-accelerate command will no longer be recognized in any IOS configuration.
If your router configuration does not currently contain the ip flow-cache feature-accelerate command, this change does not affect you.
The removal of NetFlow Feature Acceleration does not affect any other aspects of Netflow operation, for example Access-list processing. The features are separate and distinct.
Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF) supersedes the deprecated NetFlow Feature Acceleration.
Additionally, the following MIB objects and OIDs have been deprecated and removed from the netflow mib (CISCO-NETFLOW-MIB):
cnfFeatureAcceleration 1.3.6.1.4.1.9.9.99999.1.3
cnfFeatureConfigChanges 1.3.6.1.4.1.9.9.99999.1.3.4.1.6
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCeg83024
The Standby Route/Switch Processor (RSP) of a Cisco 7500 IP Transfer Point (ITP) with the Non-Stop Operation (NSO) feature configured, is reloaded after a cs7 as command is entered.
This condition occurs when Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW is used.
There are no known workarounds.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW1. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCeg01587
Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) High Speed Link (HSL) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) loopback cell transmission is not working correctly. Typically, the Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) will display as "down" on one or both sides of the link and the IP Transfer Point (ITP) may show input errors on the ATM interface. The High Speed Link (HSL) will eventually fail due to a non responsive link test because the PVC is down and unable to pass traffic.
This caveat occurs on Cisco 7500 ITP images using HSLs when sending and receiving OAM cells on Enhanced Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Port Adapters.
This condition occurs on all Cisco 7500 based ITP images prior to Cisco IOS Release12.2(25)SW. The problem only exhibits itself when the far end of the ATM link is configured to generate OAM cells, or the ITP itself is configured to generate OAM cells using the oam-pvc command under the interface.
Work around: Do not use OAM cells on the High Speed Signaling links or disable the PVC state from being tied to the acknowledgment of OAM cells.
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CSCeg08298
If a link in a multilink linkset fails while it is congested, and the other links in the linkset are available and not congested, Global Title Translation (GTT) will treat destinations that use the linkset as still being congested, resulting in lost message signaling units (MSUs).
Workaround: This condition clears when the failed link recovers. Deleting and adding back the failed link will also clear the problem.
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CSCeg37718
Incoming time-division multiplexing (TDM) traffic is evenly distributed among the links within the incoming TDM linkset. When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) is configured for Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) multihoming in configurations that balance the IP traffic over multiple IP interfaces, the SCTP traffic is not properly balanced over the IP interfaces.
The show interface command statistics for the IP interfaces being used will have a large imbalance between the input and output packet statistics for the sending and receiving interfaces.
This condition occurs in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1 with a configuration similar to the following:
ITP-A
link 0 sctp 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.3 7000 7000
link 1 sctp 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.1 8000 8000
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCeg40188
A Message Transfer Part Level 2 (MTP2) link does not recover when a T1 or E1 cable is disconnected and then reconnected to a IP Transfer Point (ITP). The ITP is running on a Cisco 7500 router and cs7 offload mtp3 is configured.
Workaround: Issue a shutdown command for the link followed by a no shutdown command to recover the link.
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CSCeg50304
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) statistics for ordered and unordered chunks are reported higher than the number of chunks that were actually transmitted.
This condition occurs in Cisco IOS Release 12.2 MB11 or higher.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCeg50319
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) show ip sctp association parameters command reports the checksum type as negotiable (nego) after the association is established.
This condition occurs in Cisco IOS Release 12.2 MB9 or higher.
Workaround: Issue a shut/no shut of the link that reports the negotiable checksum status.
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CSCeg72013
Slips and errors are reported by the show controller E1 command for interfaces supporting the Signaling System 7 (SS7) linkset.
This condition occurs on all platforms supporting the PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter and running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa42016
Two issues occur with the IP Transfer Point (ITP) software only when using the Telecommunications Technology Committee (TTC) Signaling System 7 (SS7) variant.
a.
Transfer-prohibited (TFP) messages are broadcast when a link becomes available for all destinations in the Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) routing table that are unavailable. The appropriate behavior for the Telecommunications Technology Committee (TTC) variant is not to broadcast the TFP in this circumstance.
b.
ITP currently implements an enhanced loadsharing feature when a combined linkset is configured. For the TTC variant, it is sometimes desirable for loadsharing between linkset in a combined linkset to be strictly done based on the A/B bit in the SLS field instead of doing enhanced loadsharing. The current ITP implementation only provides enhanced loadsharing.
These issues are only applicable for the TTC variant based ITP systems.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa42261
A value of 0xF appears as the last nibble during instance conversion from ITU to ANSI when going from an odd to even number of digits.
This condition occurs when performing E214 to E212 conversion between ITU and ANSI instances.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCsa45054
Even though the Ethernet cable is pulled out, the state of the line protocol reports an UP state at the Route/Switch Processor (RSP) console. The actual sequence of events is that the line protocol will transition to down and the appropriate traps and console messages will be generated. When the offloaded MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA)/Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) link fails, the line protocol on the RSP will show as "UP" but a console message will not be generated.
Router# show interface fastEthernet 0/0/0
FastEthernet0/0/0 is up, line protocol is up
However, the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) console shows the correct states (UP and DOWN).
VIP-Slot0>show interface
FastEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is down
This condition appears to be a cosmetic issue of interface state because the Signaling System 7 (SS7) goes down correctly. However this is a critical issue from the perspective of network monitoring.
This condition occurs when an offloaded MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer (M2PA)/Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) link exists on the VIP in question, and an alternate path to the adjacent node exists and is available.
This issue occurs on Cisco 7507/7513 routers with a PA-2FE-TX port adapter and VIP6-80/VIP4-80 on Cisco IOS Releases 12.2(23)SW and 12.2(25)SW.
Workaround: The item is cosmetic on the RSP, but a trap is generated indicating the line protocol has come back up. The workaround is to issue a shut/no shut of the interface to correct the line protocol state on the RSP.
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CSCsa54632
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) SCCP-User Adaptation (SUA) Signaling Gateway (SG) may leak buffers in the IP input process.
This issue is observed when both of the following conditions occur:
–
The sending SUA Application Server Process (ASP) has sent a Connectionless Data (CLDT) message that is too large to fit into a single message signaling unit (MSU).
–
The Application Server Processor (ASP) has NOT indicated "return on error" in the SUA PROTOCOL_CLASS parameter.
Workaround: Configure the ASPs to either not send messages that are too large to fit in a single MSU, or configure the ASPs to always indicate "return on error" within generated CLDT messages.
•
CSCsa54864
IP Transfer Points (ITPs) configured for the Telecommunications Technology Committee (TTC) variant may have difficulty bringing High Speed Links (HSLs) up due to SRTM/SRTA failures.
This condition is only applicable for the TTC variant when the default link option "ttc-priority" is set so that the priority of the message is encoded before the routing label. This condition occurs when the attached node populates the spare bits of the priority byte.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCee50294
Cisco IOS® devices running branches of Cisco IOS version 12.2S that have Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server or relay agent enabled, even if not configured, are vulnerable to a denial of service where the input queue becomes blocked when receiving specifically crafted DHCP packets. Cisco is providing free fixed software to address this issue. There are also workarounds to mitigate this vulnerability. This issue was introduced by the fix included in CSCdx46180 and is being tracked by Cisco Bug ID CSCee50294.
This advisory is available at
CSCef29094
IP Transfer Point (ITP) may unexpectedly reload during a show cs7 gtt config command.
This unexpected reload occurs when a prompt is stuck at the automore state and then the Global Title Translation (GTT) database is modified. If the prompt is continued, there is a small chance of hitting a reload due to accessing freed memory.
Workaround: Whenever the MORE prompt is seen during the display of a GTT config, type Q and re-enter the display command. Avoid executing show commands while bulk loading or provisioning data.
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CSCef31588
When a summary route exists and the IP Transfer Point (ITP) receives a cluster poll message (route-set-test-cluster-prohibited (RCP) or route-set-test-cluster-restricted (RCR) ) for a cluster that does not exist in the routing table, but is accessible by the summary route, the ITP does not respond to the poll message with a transfer-cluster-allowed (TCA). This condition causes the adjacent node to treat the cluster as unavailable when it is accessible.
Workaround: Provision the cluster route or provision a full point code that is available within the cluster.
For example:
If a summary route for 4-0-0/8 exists and is available, and the ITP is receiving poll messages for cluster 4-4-0 which does not exist as a provisioned route, the ITP will not respond to the poll. If the user provisions the cluster route 4-4-0/16, the ITP will respond correctly to the poll. Or, if the user provisions a full point code route to 4-4-1 and this destination is available, the ITP will respond correctly to the poll message.
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CSCef38050
Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) Calling and Called Party Addresses are truncated to 15 digits when sent to and received from an SCCP User Adaptation (SUA) application server (AS).
For example:
ITP config: gta 123456789012345 pcssn 4601 pcssn
Outgoing SUA Source Address (CdPA) = 1234567890123456789012345678
This limitation exists in all IP Transfer Point (ITP) images supporting SUA.
There are no known workarounds. This behavior has been the base behavior on the ITP since the SUA Signaling Gateway (SG) function was released.
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CSCef69373
If a write mem command is issued on an IP Transfer Point (ITP) router, a pause in the processing of data packets can occur, possibly leading to lost calls and failed links during times of otherwise high CPU utilization.
This condition was introduced in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW.
Workaround: Use Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW, if possible.
Alternative workaround: Avoid issuing the write mem or copy running-config startup-config commands except during a maintenance window or a period of low traffic volume.
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CSCef74580
The CS7 monitor will stop working on High speed interfaces (Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)) if IP Transfer Point (ITP) is loaded on Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1.
This condition has been observed only on Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCef85587
An ASP-UP message from the MTP3 User Adaptation/SCCP User Adaptation (M3UA/SUA) Application Server Processor (ASP) is ignored until retried. Afterwards, two ASP-UP-ACK messages are returned by the IP Transfer Point (ITP).
This condition occurs on an ITP with M3UA or SUA offloaded. ASP sends ASPUP immediately upon Steam Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) association establishment.
Workaround: Repeat the ASPUP message.
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CSCef95065
During a Route or Global Title Translation (GTT) replace DB, or Route/GTT deployment using Signaling Gateway Manager (SGM), the processing time of Signaling System 7 (SS7) traffic is impacted, causing added delay.
This condition occurs whenever the main Route Processor (RP) is responsible for both SS7 processing and GTT/Route DB management. (It does not occur during Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) forwarding.)
Workaround: Perform GTT and route management during off peak hours.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW1. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCee36139
When the IP Transfer Point (ITP) is configured with two source IP addresses under the local peer, only one of IP address will be used. This condition can cause trouble for the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) link alignment when only one address is available.
This condition occurs on Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW with the following configuration.
cs7 local-peer 8000
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCee41388
When configuring n Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) link on the IP Transfer Point (ITP), the INIT message is sent to only one destination address.
This condition occurs when there are two destination addresses configured for the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) link on the ITP, and the second address is lower than the first address. Thus, the INIT message is sent only to the second destination address.
Workaround: Swap the order of IP addresses on the SCTP link to force the order in which the addresses are used in the INIT.
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CSCee54303
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) MAP Proxy application reports the following subsystem number (SSN) unequipped error:
May 7 14:20:19.415 GMT: %CS7SCCP-5-UNEQUIPSS: SCCP received message for invalid or unequipped SSN.
This condition occurs when an Extended Unitdata (XUDT) message is received carrying the response to the MAP Send Authentication Info message that was sent by ITP.
Workaround: Disable sending the XUDT message type to the ITP in the Signaling System 7 (SS7) network.
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CSCee86829
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) does not send Extended Unitdata (XUDT) messages into the Signaling System 7 (SS7) network for any non-segmented messages originated by SCCP User-Adaptation (SUA) application servers (AS).
Workaround: There are no known workarounds for deployments requiring XUDTs and the SUA. Application Server Processors (ASPs) support sending either the hop counter or importance parameter.
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CSCee91201
The cgspInstance table in the CISCO-ITP-GSP-MIB is always empty when the network-name is not specified. This condition can prevent network management applications like Signaling Gateway Manager (SGM) from properly discovering the device.
This condition occurs on all platforms running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW.
Workaround: Issue the following commands on all impacted and related devices:
conf t
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CSCef08522
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) tries to use the summary route and the virtual linkset from 1 to 0 as a backup for the full point code (PC) routes in instance 1.
This condition occurs when the full PC is down, the summary route used is instance 0 and in instance 0 there is a full PC route going back to instance 1. This creates a circular route within the ITP that causes the destinations to change status rapidly from Restricted to Prohibited and back to Restricted. The ITP is designed to prevent message signal units (MSUs) from looping within the ITP, but in this situation, the destinations change status very rapidly (every couple of milliseconds), which causes the linksets to go into level 3 congestion due to the high number of transfer-prohibited (TFP) messages and transfer-restricted (TFR) messages that the ITP is broadcasting.
This condition occurs because the default conversion is going from instance 1 to instance 0, and there is not a summary-routing-exception defined for instance 1.
The condition does not occur with Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB13, and does not occur in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW when a summary-routing-exception is configured in instance 1.
Workaround: When configuring the default pc-conversion parameter, a summary- routing-exception should also be configured for the source instance.
For example, whenever you configure:
cs7 i x pc-conversion default y
a summary route is entered in the instance y routing table.
Then, a summary- routing-exception parameter should also be configured for instance y:
cs7 i y summary-routing-exception
This configuration ensures that if a full PC route exists in instance y, the ITP will not use the virtual linkset as a backup route. The ITP will use the virtual linkset as the primary route for any message signaling unit (MSU) whose destination point code (DPC) does not match a full PC destination in the route table.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(23)SW. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCed67628
During an initial boot of a Cisco 7301 router that has a PA-MC-8TE1+ or PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter in bay 0, an unexpected reload may occur.
The condition only occurs during the initial boot of the platform and occurs regardless of whether a regular Cisco IOS software image or a boot software image is present in the bootflash file system.
Workaround: Powercycle the Cisco 7301 router and reboot the platform.
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CSCed82922
When using the Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) feature of the IP Transfer Point (ITP) product in networks using point-code and subsystem routing, the responses to request packets routed by MLR may not be properly backrouted to the originator.
Workaround: Either use global title based routing prior to the ITP MLR routing, or have the originator use a global title address specified in the request's calling party address field.
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CSCee08792
When an MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) application server (AS) shares the local point code (PC) of the IP Transfer Point (ITP), and the ITP receives a transfer-restricted (TFR) or transfer- cluster-restricted (TCR) from the network, the ITP does not send a Destination Restricted (DRST) message to the AS.
+-------+ +-------+ +-------+
| STP |-----------| ITP |------------| ASP |
+-------+ +-------+ +-------+
Consider an M3UA AS that shares the local PC of the ITP as shown in the above figure.
Issue 1: If the Signaling Transfer Point (STP) sends a TFR to the ITP for a concerned PC n.c.m (that is, the destination parameter), then the ITP marks PC n.c.m as restricted in the route-table, but fails to send a DRST to the ASP.
Issue 2: If the STP sends a TCR to the ITP for a concerned cluster n.c.* (that is, the destination parameter), then the ITP marks cluster n.c.* as restricted in the route-table, but fails to send a DRST to the ASP.
In both these cases, the DRST is not sent if the concerned destination on the ITP made a transition from Accessible status to Restricted. The ITP does send the DRST if the destination made a transition from Inaccessible to Restricted.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCee09009
The IP Transfer Point (ITP) receives a transfer-cluster-prohibited (TCP) from the network but does not send a Destination Unavailable (DUNA) to an MTP3 User Adaptation (M3UA) application server (AS).
This problem may occur under the following conditions:
–
The AS shares the ITP local point code.
–
The ITP has a cluster route configured that includes the local point code.
–
The concerned point code in the received TCP matches that cluster route.
There are no known workarounds.
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CSCee11874
Restart, link test, or link test ack messages may get dropped.
This condition occurs only when the IP Transfer Point (ITP) initially reloads or is executing the RESTART procedure. The link test msg will be re-sent after 8 seconds and the RESTART after 12 seconds.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1 and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW1. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
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CSCed67628
During the initial boot of a Cisco 7301 router with a PA-MC-8TE1+ or PA-MCX-8TE1-M port adapter in bay 0, an unexpected reload may occur. This reload occurs most prevalently when a full-featured IOS image is in bootflash, rather than a boot image.
The condition occurs only during initial boot of the platform.
Workaround: Powercycle the Cisco 7301 router and reboot the platform.
•
CSCed82922
When using the Multi-Layer Routing (MLR) feature of the IP Transfer Point (ITP) product in networks using point-code and subsystem routing, the responses to request packets routed by MLR may not be properly backrouted to the originator.
Workaround: Use global title based routing prior to the ITP MLR routing
Alternative Workaround: Have the originator use a global title address specified in the request's calling party address field.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCed08031
If online insertion and removal (OIR) is performed on a Cisco 7500 router configured with an RSP16 running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB13, linksets may bounce and calls may be lost.
There are no known workarounds.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(21)SW. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCed27956
A vulnerability in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) specification (RFC793) has been discovered by an external researcher. The successful exploitation enables an adversary to reset any established TCP connection in a much shorter time than was previously discussed publicly. Depending on the application, the connection may get automatically re-established. In other cases, a user will have to repeat the action (for example, open a new Telnet or SSH session). Depending upon the attacked protocol, a successful attack may have additional consequences beyond terminated connection which must be considered. This attack vector is only applicable to the sessions which are terminating on a device (such as a router, switch, or computer) and not to the sessions that are only passing through the device (for example, transit traffic that is being routed by a router). In addition, this attack vector does not directly compromise data integrity or confidentiality.
All Cisco products which contain TCP stack are susceptible to this vulnerability.
This advisory is available at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20040420-tcp-ios.shtml, and it describes this vulnerability as it applies to Cisco products that run Cisco IOS® software.
A companion advisory that describes this vulnerability for products that do not run Cisco IOS software is available at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20040420-tcp-nonios.shtml.
•
CSCed38527
A vulnerability in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) specification (RFC793) has been discovered by an external researcher. The successful exploitation enables an adversary to reset any established TCP connection in a much shorter time than was previously discussed publicly. Depending on the application, the connection may get automatically re-established. In other cases, a user will have to repeat the action (for example, open a new Telnet or SSH session). Depending upon the attacked protocol, a successful attack may have additional consequences beyond terminated connection which must be considered. This attack vector is only applicable to the sessions which are terminating on a device (such as a router, switch, or computer) and not to the sessions that are only passing through the device (for example, transit traffic that is being routed by a router). In addition, this attack vector does not directly compromise data integrity or confidentiality.
All Cisco products which contain TCP stack are susceptible to this vulnerability.
This advisory is available at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20040420-tcp-ios.shtml, and it describes this vulnerability as it applies to Cisco products that run Cisco IOS® software.
A companion advisory that describes this vulnerability for products that do not run Cisco IOS software is available at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20040420-tcp-nonios.shtml.
•
CSCed44759
Traffic coming from an M3UA Application Server Processor (ASP) is not handled properly.
This condition occurs on IP Transfer Points (ITPs) configured for the Telecommunications Technology Committee (TTC) variant.
There are no known workarounds.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCed08031
If online insertion and removal is performed on a Cisco 7500 router configured with an RSP16 running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB13, linksets may bounce and calls may be lost.
There are no known workarounds.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(20)SW. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCec61182
A Cisco RSP8, running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB12, reports 100% CPU usage in the Virtual Exec process, after typing the privilege configure level 7 cs7 command in a telnet session.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCec62567
Sent link utilization is incorrect in certain configurations. The cgspLinkL2BytesSent(CISCO-ITP-GSP-MIB.my) and cItpSpLinkL2BytesSent (CISCO-ITP-SP-MIB.my) objects may provide incorrect values in these situations.This condition can result in incorrect information for [send erlang values] in Signaling Gateway Manager (SGM).
This condition occurs with routers running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB10-MB13, 12.2(18)SW, or 12.2(19)SW.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCec69259
After a reboot of the event table in the CISCO-ITP-GSP2.my MIB, entering a getmany command can produce traceback.
This condition occurs when the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is configured without cs7 configured, and when running the following IP Transfer Point (ITP) images: Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB6, Cisco IOS Release 12.2(4)MB13,Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW, or Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW.
There are no known workarounds.
•
CSCec79617
The show cs7 gtt map stat command shows Global Title Translation (GTT) maps stuck in a congested state and the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) does not choose alternates of congested point-codes.
This condition occurs when summary or cluster routes are used and GTT is translated to point-codes for which a full route does not exist.
Workaround: Ensure there is a full route to the destination for all point-codes that GTT translates.
•
CSCed01515
IP Transfer Point (ITP) does not remove Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) routes from the Versatile Interface Processor (VIP) using the CLI when MTP3 offload is configured. This condition results in indeterministic traffic routing when an attempt to delete Signaling System 7 (SS7) routes occurs.
Workaround: Do not enable MTP3 offload for affected versions of the ITP software.
•
IP Transfer Point (ITP) sends Global Title Translation (GTT) traffic to an unavailable subsystem.
This condition occurs when using GTT application groups under the following scenario:
–
Item(s) in group are point codes (PCs) without subsystem numbers (SSNs)
–
RI=PCSSN
–
The message signaling unit's (MSU's) Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) Called Party (CDPA) contains SSN=X
–
PC/SSN=X exists in GTT map table and SSN is prohibited
Workaround: Specify an explicit SSN in the application group entry, such as HLR, MSC, VLR.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(19)SW. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCec44189
Nodes receiving subsystem status from the IP Transfer Point (ITP) may ignore the status because the ITP sources the SCCP Management (SCMG) messages from the primary local point code only.
Workaround: Have nodes either expect all SCMG messages from the primary ITP point code, or disable the sending preliminary subsystem status test (SST) messages to the ITP destined for a point code (PC) other than the primary local PC.
•
CSCec45088
A rapid memory leak occurs on a Versatile Interface Processor (VIP).
This condition occurs when Message Transfer Part, Level 3 (MTP3) offload is configured and traffic has to be entered and forwarded on the same VIP on an High Speed Link (HSL) IMA port adapter (PA).
Workaround: Disable the MTP3 offload feature, or avoid traffic entering and exiting the same VIP.
Open Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW
This section documents possible unexpected behavior by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW and describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
There are no known open caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW.
Resolved Caveats—Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW
All the caveats listed in this section are resolved in Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SW. This section describes only severity 1 and 2 caveats and select severity 3 caveats.
•
CSCdu53656
A Cisco device running IOS and enabled for the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is vulnerable to a Denial of Service (DOS) attack from a malformed BGP packet. The BGP protocol is not enabled by default, and must be configured in order to accept traffic from an explicitly defined peer. Unless the malicious traffic appears to be sourced from a configured, trusted peer, it would be difficult to inject a malformed packet. BGP MD5 is a valid workaround for this problem.
Cisco has made free software available to address this problem. For more details, please refer to this advisory, available at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20040616-bgp.shtml .
•
CSCdz71127
Cisco routers and switches running Cisco IOS software and configured to process Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) packets are vulnerable to a Denial of Service (DoS) attack. A rare sequence of crafted IPv4 packets sent directly to the device may cause the input interface to stop processing traffic once the input queue is full. No authentication is required to process the inbound packet. Processing of IPv4 packets is enabled by default. Devices running only IP version 6 (IPv6) are not affected. A workaround is available.
Cisco has made software available, free of charge, to correct the problem.
This advisory is available at
•
CSCea02355
Cisco routers and switches running Cisco IOS software and configured to process Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) packets are vulnerable to a Denial of Service (DoS) attack. A rare sequence of crafted IPv4 packets sent directly to the device may cause the input interface to stop processing traffic once the input queue is full. No authentication is required to process the inbound packet. Processing of IPv4 packets is enabled by default. Devices running only IP version 6 (IPv6) are not affected. A workaround is available.
Cisco has made software available, free of charge, to correct the problem.
This advisory is available at
•
CSCea28131
A Cisco device running IOS and enabled for the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is vulnerable to a Denial of Service (DOS) attack from a malformed BGP packet. The BGP protocol is not enabled by default, and must be configured in order to accept traffic from an explicitly defined peer. Unless the malicious traffic appears to be sourced from a configured, trusted peer, it would be difficult to inject a malformed packet. BGP MD5 is a valid workaround for this problem.
Cisco has made free software available to address this problem. For more details, please refer to this advisory, available at http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/707/cisco-sa-20040616-bgp.shtml .
Related Documentation
The following sections describe the documentation available for the Cisco 7000 family. These documents consist of hardware and software installation guides, Cisco IOS configuration guides and command references, system error messages, feature modules, and other documents.
Documentation is available as printed manuals or electronic documents, except for feature modules, which are available online on Cisco.com and the Documentation CD-ROM.
Use these release notes with these documents:
•
Cisco IOS Software Documentation Set
Release-Specific Documents
The following documents are specific to Cisco IOS Release 12.2 and are located on Cisco.com and the Documentation CD-ROM:
•
Cross-Platform Release Notes for Cisco IOS Release 12.2
On Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: Release Notes: Cross-Platform Release Notes
On the Documentation CD-ROM at:
Cisco Product Documentation: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: Release Notes: Cross-Platform Release Notes
•
Product bulletins, field notices, and other release-specific documents on Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents
•
Caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2
As a supplement to the caveats listed in "Caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 SW" in these release notes, see Caveats for Cisco IOS Release 12.2 which contains caveats applicable to all platforms for all maintenance releases of Cisco IOS Release 12.2.
On Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: Release Notes: Caveats
On the Documentation CD-ROM at:
Cisco Product Documentation: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: Caveats
Note
If you have an account with Cisco.com, you can also use the Bug Toolkit to find select caveats of any severity. To reach the Bug Toolkit, log in to Cisco.com and click Service and Support: Technical Assistance Center: Select & Download Software: Jump to a software resource: Software Bug Toolkit/Bug Watcher. Another option is to go to http://www.cisco.com/cgi-bin/Support/Bugtool/launch_bugtool.pl .
Platform-Specific Documents
These documents are available for the Cisco 7000 family of routers on Cisco.com and the Documentation CD-ROM:
•
Cisco 7000 Hardware Installation and Maintenance
On Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents: Documentation Home Page: Core/High-End Routers
On the Documentation CD-ROM at:
Cisco Product Documentation: Core/High-End Routers
Feature Modules
Feature modules describe new features supported by Cisco IOS Release 12.2(25)SW and are updates to the Cisco IOS documentation set. A feature module consists of a brief overview of the feature, benefits, configuration tasks, and a command reference. As updates, the feature modules are available online only. Feature module information is incorporated in the next printing of the Cisco IOS documentation set.
On Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: New Feature Documentation
On the Documentation CD-ROM at:
Cisco Product Documentation: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: New Feature Documentation
Cisco IOS Software Documentation Set
The Cisco IOS software documentation set consists of the Cisco IOS configuration guides, Cisco IOS command references, and several other supporting documents. The Cisco IOS software documentation set is shipped with your order in electronic form on the Documentation CD-ROM—unless you specifically ordered the printed versions.
Documentation Modules
Each module in the Cisco IOS documentation set consists of one or more configuration guides and one or more corresponding command references. Chapters in a configuration guide describe protocols, configuration tasks, and Cisco IOS software functionality, and contain comprehensive configuration examples. Chapters in a command reference provide complete command syntax information. Use each configuration guide with its corresponding command reference.
On Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents: Documentation Home Page: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: Configuration Guides and Command References
On the Documentation CD-ROM at:
Cisco Product Documentation: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2: Configuration Guides and Command References
Cisco IOS Release 12.2 Documentation Set Contents
Table 22 lists the contents of the Cisco IOS Release 12.2 software documentation set, which is available in electronic form and in printed form if ordered.
Note
You can find the most current Cisco IOS documentation on Cisco.com and the Documentation CD-ROM.
On Cisco.com at:
Technical Documents: Documentation Home Page: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2
On the Documentation CD-ROM at:
Cisco Product Documentation: Cisco IOS Software Configuration: Cisco IOS Release 12.2
Table 22 Cisco IOS Release 12.2 Documentation Set
Books
http://www.cisco.com/go/subscription
•
Nonregistered Cisco.com users can order documentation through a local account representative by calling Cisco corporate headquarters (California, USA) at 408 526-7208 or, elsewhere in North America, by calling 800 553-NETS (6387).
Documentation Feedback
If you are reading Cisco product documentation on Cisco.com, you can submit technical comments electronically. Click Leave Feedback at the bottom of the Cisco Documentation home page. After you complete the form, print it out and fax it to Cisco at 408 527-0730.
You can e-mail your comments to [email protected].
To submit your comments by mail, use the response card behind the front cover of your document, or write to the following address:
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i don't know
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Botija, udu, and ghatam are types of?
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N. Scott Robinson-World Music and Percussion, Frame Drums, Riq, Tambourines
Ghatam
Clay pot from Southern India played with the hands, the top one is made in the USA by Wright Hand Drum Co.
The second photo down is a traditional ghatam in B made in Chennai (Tamil Nadu) often referred to as Madras ghatam). The black spot on the edge is a burn mark from the firing process and is common on many ghatams. It does not effect the sound or structure of the instrument at all and is purely cosmetic.
The third photo down is a ghatam from Mysore (Karnataka) in D#. Typical of ghatams from Mysore is more of a teardrop shape. These instruments are much heavier than the Madras ghatam but lighter than the Manamadurai ghatam.
The fourth photo down is a ghatam from Manamadurai (Tamil Nadu) in F. Instruments made here feature the flatter neck just like ghatams from Madras but there are significant differences between the two. Manamadurai ghatams are much heavier and the clay mixture involves adding several types of metals and egg white and these instruments are carefully constructed to help the tuning outcome after the firing process. These instruments are harder to play but the tone of the shell of the instrument is quite sharp.
The fifth photo down is a ghatam from Bangalore (Karnataka) in F, which features a rounder shape. This instrument is very light, easy to play, and has a great sound in the bass tone as well as the shell tones.
The sixth photo down is an instrument from North India found in Rajasthan and Gujarat. This particular one came from Jaipur in Rajasthan where it is known by two names and serves for a domestic non-musical purpose as well as sometimes being used as a musical instrument. This clay pot is known as matka, features an almost perfectly round shape (tuned to C#), and is made in many villages in and around Jaipur (Rajasthan) and Gujarat. The matka is used to store water and sometimes yogurt (curd), and can also be used as a cooking vessel. When used as a musical instrument in folk music, it is known as ghara and is played in a similar manner as the South Indian ghatam but the technique and rhythmic style is not as refined as that of Carnatic ghatam. Another difference is that the ghara is often traditionally played with metal rings on the thumbs, index, middle, and ring fingers of both hands (but players vary on how many rings and fingers are used). There are a few versions of this instrument. Some are made from a black clay that typically comes from a single area in Rajasthan while many others in Rajasthan and Gujarat are made from a reddish clay. A third version of the ghara is made from reddish clay but features a much flatter, squat shape. Both of the red clay types can also be found highly decorated with colorfully painted designs (pictured below) while the black ones are usually plain and unfinished. The black gharas (or matkas) are extremely light but very dense and have a huge sound. The shell tones ring in a bell-like fashion with much more of a sustain than the various South Indian ghatams (although the Mysore ghatam comes close). The bass tones of this instrument are also very prominent. Since these instruments are fired at a much higher temperature for a longer time than South Indian ghatams, there is more consistency between instruments in terms of Western pitch. In other words, there is much less variation in the tuning when compared with ghatams from South India, which can range from a low B up to a high A chromatically. Gharas/Matkas are usually found with a range from approximately C or C# to D (or slightly higher) although there does not seem to be any indication that these instruments are constructed with tuning considerations. Other spellings for matka include mutkay and madga.
The bottom photo is of traditional musicians in Gujarat in North India in which is pictured a player with rings performing on one of the more squat, saucer-shaped red gharas. Such gharas are also played in Pakistan.
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Musical instrument
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E20 and SW19 are codes famously associated with?
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Botija - Wikipedia, Photos and Videos
Botija
NEXT GO TO RESULTS [51 .. 100]
WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE
For other uses, see Botija (disambiguation) .
Botija
Other names
Botijo, Botijuela, Bunga
The botija (botijuela; bunga) is a Caribbean musical instrument of the aerophone type. The botija is a potbellied earthenware jug or jar with two openings and was used in the early son sextetos in Cuba as a bass instrument.
Contents
Origin[ edit ]
The botija was used to hold kerosene brought from Spain. Botijas were then used to hide money underground and were buried to prevent humidity from reaching the floors. [1] Later, botijas were dug up and used as musical instruments in the late 19th century in the Caribbean island of Cuba. [2]
Use in Cuban son[ edit ]
Cuban son originated in eastern Cuba in the late 19th century. The music's defining characteristic was a pulsing or anticipated bass that falls between the downbeat, leading to the creation of many bass instruments including the botija. Other instruments included a marímbula , serrucho, contrabajo and bajo . [1] Other bass instruments were used according to the size of the musical arrangement or timbre of the bass instrument needed. The marímbula, for example, was used mainly for smaller ensembles because it was not easily heard, whereas the bajo, an electrical bass, could be easily projected and heard over many other instruments.
The botijas contained two openings, one at the top and one of the side, and were blown into to create bass notes. To crate specific pitches, they were filled to specific levels with water. [1] Another technique includes inserting a reed into the opening while the player blows into the reed. [1]
Use of the botija throughout parts of Cuba ended after the early 20th century and was replaced by the double bass. [3]
In popular culture[ edit ]
In Brazil, there is an expression called "pego(a) com a boca na botija" (caught with his/her mouth on the milk jug), with similar meaning as "caught with his hand in the cookie jar".
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i don't know
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The straight-legged high-kicking march used by many military forces, especially ceremonially, is popularly called the what?
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CityPages Kuwait November 2013 by CityPages Kuwait (page 166) - issuu
issuu
HOMEWORK FOR GROWN UPS EVERYTHING YOU LEARNED AT SCHOOL... BUT CAN YOU REMEMBER? General Knowledge Quiz
separate means:
2. As at 2013 what country boasted the four most profitable banks in the world?
a) disjoined
3. What term refers to the off-putting banter directed by bowlers/fielders to opposing batsmen on a cricket pitch?
b) unequal
4. London's aptly renamed 42-floor 'Tower 42' has a footprint equating to the triangulated-chevrons logo of which original owner?
c) minor d) previous
5. The rights to which famous character were sold by creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster to Detective Comics for $130 in 1937? 6. The Bugatti car logo features which reversed capital letter in a ligature with B, standing for the founder (Bugatti's) first name?
connection undone; having become separate.
a) disjoined -Separate is an adjective that means have the
7. What work-related term popularly refers to loan companies which offer short-term unsecured personal loans at high interest rates?
ANSWER:
1. What is the main ingredient of the modern breakfast food and energy bar called granola: Rice; Potato; Oats; or Coconut?
Test Your Vocabulary
8. The term forensic refers to investigative technologies and sciences in relation to: Law and crime; Dead things; Tiny details; or Laboratories? 9. What is the traditional tradename for a person who works high up on church spires and chimneys? 10. The 'morna' is the national music and dance style of which central Atlantic archipelago island nation? 11. A cittern is a: Carpentry tool; Musical instrument; Bird; or Fivewheeled cycle? 12. What number features most prevalently internationally in toll-free or 'freefone' telephony: 600; 700; 800; or 900? 13. Name the CIA employee who famously became a whistleblower in 2013, revealing details of US/UK mass public surveillance? 14. Botija, udu, and ghatam are types of: Musical instruments; Rice; Vehicles; or Prayers?
Cool Maths Puzzle What is a set of points that extends without end in opposite directions better known as?
a) Ray b) Line c) Intercept d) Fractal
15. E20 and SW19 are codes famously associated with: Food; Sport; Aviation; or Cosmetics? 16. What Indian Hindi-Urdu-derived word, orginally a place of assembly, refers in English to a multi-event equestrian contest, and in India to various sporting facilities?
18. US composer/artist John Cage's most famous and controversial 1952 work, called 4'33", requires the musician(s) to play for its entire threemovement 4mins 33secs duration: The same note; As many notes as possible; At maximum volume; or Nothing?
JUMBLED WORDS T U L I Q L I Y L H
19. The straight-legged high-kicking march used by many military forces, especially ceremonially, is popularly called the what?
S U M O F A
20. According to legend, the Gordian Knot, cut by Alexander the Great, tethered a what?
R E B H A C
citypageskuwait.com
L O W L A F ANSWERS: 1.QUILT, 2.HILLY, 3.FAMOUS, 4.BREACH, 5.FALLOW
ANSWERS 1.Oats, 2. China, 3. Sledging, 4. Natwest (fully National Westminster Bank - completed in 1980 as the National Westminster Tower), 5. Superman, 6. E (for Ettore), 7. Payday (Payday loan companies - because traditionally borrowers aim to make repayments on payday), 8. Law and crime (the word is from Roman times when forensis meant 'in open court', derived in turn from the Roman word forum, equating to a court), 9. Steeplejack, 10. Cape Verde, 11. Musical instrument (a basic form of lute from around the 1500s Europe), 12. 800 (common variations are 0800 and 1800, but in most nations of the world 800 is a recognized as a standard indicator of a toll-free/receiverpays phone number), 13. Edward Snowden, 14. Musical instruments, 15. Sport (E20 is the postcode of the 2012 London Olympic park, and SW19 is the postcode of the Wimbledon Tennis Club), 16. Gymkhana, 17. 14-17th, 18. Nothing, 19. Goosestep, 20. Cart
166
ANSWERS: b) Line
17. The Renaissance (from French, 're-birth') was a European cultural movement spanning which centuries: 4-7th; 7-10th; 14-17th; or 15-18th?
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Goose step
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According to legend, the Gordian Knot, cut by Alexander the Great, tethered a what?
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CityPages Kuwait November 2013 by CityPages Kuwait (page 166) - issuu
issuu
HOMEWORK FOR GROWN UPS EVERYTHING YOU LEARNED AT SCHOOL... BUT CAN YOU REMEMBER? General Knowledge Quiz
separate means:
2. As at 2013 what country boasted the four most profitable banks in the world?
a) disjoined
3. What term refers to the off-putting banter directed by bowlers/fielders to opposing batsmen on a cricket pitch?
b) unequal
4. London's aptly renamed 42-floor 'Tower 42' has a footprint equating to the triangulated-chevrons logo of which original owner?
c) minor d) previous
5. The rights to which famous character were sold by creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster to Detective Comics for $130 in 1937? 6. The Bugatti car logo features which reversed capital letter in a ligature with B, standing for the founder (Bugatti's) first name?
connection undone; having become separate.
a) disjoined -Separate is an adjective that means have the
7. What work-related term popularly refers to loan companies which offer short-term unsecured personal loans at high interest rates?
ANSWER:
1. What is the main ingredient of the modern breakfast food and energy bar called granola: Rice; Potato; Oats; or Coconut?
Test Your Vocabulary
8. The term forensic refers to investigative technologies and sciences in relation to: Law and crime; Dead things; Tiny details; or Laboratories? 9. What is the traditional tradename for a person who works high up on church spires and chimneys? 10. The 'morna' is the national music and dance style of which central Atlantic archipelago island nation? 11. A cittern is a: Carpentry tool; Musical instrument; Bird; or Fivewheeled cycle? 12. What number features most prevalently internationally in toll-free or 'freefone' telephony: 600; 700; 800; or 900? 13. Name the CIA employee who famously became a whistleblower in 2013, revealing details of US/UK mass public surveillance? 14. Botija, udu, and ghatam are types of: Musical instruments; Rice; Vehicles; or Prayers?
Cool Maths Puzzle What is a set of points that extends without end in opposite directions better known as?
a) Ray b) Line c) Intercept d) Fractal
15. E20 and SW19 are codes famously associated with: Food; Sport; Aviation; or Cosmetics? 16. What Indian Hindi-Urdu-derived word, orginally a place of assembly, refers in English to a multi-event equestrian contest, and in India to various sporting facilities?
18. US composer/artist John Cage's most famous and controversial 1952 work, called 4'33", requires the musician(s) to play for its entire threemovement 4mins 33secs duration: The same note; As many notes as possible; At maximum volume; or Nothing?
JUMBLED WORDS T U L I Q L I Y L H
19. The straight-legged high-kicking march used by many military forces, especially ceremonially, is popularly called the what?
S U M O F A
20. According to legend, the Gordian Knot, cut by Alexander the Great, tethered a what?
R E B H A C
citypageskuwait.com
L O W L A F ANSWERS: 1.QUILT, 2.HILLY, 3.FAMOUS, 4.BREACH, 5.FALLOW
ANSWERS 1.Oats, 2. China, 3. Sledging, 4. Natwest (fully National Westminster Bank - completed in 1980 as the National Westminster Tower), 5. Superman, 6. E (for Ettore), 7. Payday (Payday loan companies - because traditionally borrowers aim to make repayments on payday), 8. Law and crime (the word is from Roman times when forensis meant 'in open court', derived in turn from the Roman word forum, equating to a court), 9. Steeplejack, 10. Cape Verde, 11. Musical instrument (a basic form of lute from around the 1500s Europe), 12. 800 (common variations are 0800 and 1800, but in most nations of the world 800 is a recognized as a standard indicator of a toll-free/receiverpays phone number), 13. Edward Snowden, 14. Musical instruments, 15. Sport (E20 is the postcode of the 2012 London Olympic park, and SW19 is the postcode of the Wimbledon Tennis Club), 16. Gymkhana, 17. 14-17th, 18. Nothing, 19. Goosestep, 20. Cart
166
ANSWERS: b) Line
17. The Renaissance (from French, 're-birth') was a European cultural movement spanning which centuries: 4-7th; 7-10th; 14-17th; or 15-18th?
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i don't know
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A plantar wart is more commonly known as a what?
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Plantar Warts : Foot and Ankle Common Disorders - American Health Network
American Health Network
Return to Common Disorders
Description
The common wart is known as verruca vulgaris. They are caused by a viral infection of the skin. This occurs as a result of direct contact with the virus. They do not spread through the blood stream. They occur more commonly in children than adults. When they occur on the bottom of the foot, they are called plantar warts. This name is derived from the location of the foot on which they are found; the bottom of the foot is called the plantar aspect of the foot. A common misconception is that plantar warts have seeds or roots that grow through the skin and can attach to the bone. The wart may appear to have a root or seeds, but these are in fact small clusters of the wart just beneath the top layer of the skin. The wart cannot live in any tissue except the skin. Moist, sweaty feet can predispose to infection by the wart virus. They can be picked up in showers and around swimming pools. They are not highly contagious, but being exposed in just the right situation will lead to the development of the wart. Avoiding contact in the general environment is nearly impossible. If a member of the family has the infection, care should be taken to keep shower and tile floor clean. Children who have plantar warts should not share their shoes with other people. Young girls often share shoes with their friends and this should be discouraged.
Diagnosis
The warts have the appearance of thick, scaly skin. They can occur as small, single warts or can cluster into large areas. These clustered warts are called mosaic warts. They often resemble plantar calluses. A simple way to tell the difference between a wart and a callous is to squeeze the lesion between your fingers in a pinching fashion. If this is painful, it is likely that the lesion is a wart. A callous is generally not painful with this maneuver but is tender with direct pressure by pressing directly on the lesion. Othe lesions on the bottom of the foot that are often confused with plantars warts are porokeratoses and inclusion cysts.
Treatment
There are a variety of ways to treat warts. The over-the-counter medications have a difficult time penetrating the thick skin on the bottom of the foot, so they do not work well in this area. Professional treatment consists of burning the wart with topical acids, freezing with liquid nitrogen, laser surgery or cutting them out. All methods have the possibility of the wart coming back. Surgical excision of the wart has the highest success rate with a relatively low rate of recurrence. There is some mild discomfort with this procedure and it takes several weeks for the area to completely heal.
Normal activity can generally be resumed in a few days depending on the size and number of warts that have been removed. The risks associated with surgical removal of warts are the possibility of infection, or the formation of a scar, which can be painful when weight is applied while walking.
Laser removal of the wart works by burning the wart with a laser beam. The area must be numbed with an anesthetic prior to the procedure. There is little advantage to removing warts with a laser unless the warts are very large (mosaic warts) or there are a large number to be removed. The risks associated with the use of the laser are the same as for cutting the warts out. These risks include infection and the development of a scar after healing. A new type of laser has been developed to treat several different types of skin lesions called the Pulsed Dye Laser. This new laser has promise in the effective treatment of warts.
Freezing the wart with liquid nitrogen is another form of treatment. This form of treatment when the warts are on the bottom of the foot can be very painful and take several days or weeks to heal.
Topical acids can also be a useful means of treating warts. The advantage to this form of treatment is the fact that they are nearly painless and there is no restriction of activity. The down side to this form of treatment is that it frequently requires several treatments and the failure rate is higher than surgical excision of the wart.
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Plantar wart
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The 'Bechdel Test' is an informal measure of what in films and other fictional entertainment?
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WARTS- Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
home --> warts
WHAT ARE WARTS
This is a skin condition very commonly seen on the feet. More commonly known as a plantar wart (plantar, meaning bottom of foot) these growths are viral in nature. They are caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). The virus is everywhere which may explain why this growth affect about 9 million Americans every year.
The virus thrives in warm moist environments such as public pools and locker rooms and transmit by direct contact. They are considered benign tumors. The lesions generally occur spontaneously, but many times can be seen in areas of trauma such as after stepping on something that penetrates the skin thus creating an opening for the virus to manifest itself. Depending on where they are located on the foot, they can be painful.
More often than not if left untreated they will spread by auto-inoculation particularly in children but also in immuno-compromised adults, but they are also known to spontaneously disappear as well.
A Wart can present as a solitary lesion or they can appear in clusters more commonly known as a mosaic. Many times they are more painful when squeezed compared to direct pressure applied to them. They contain their own blood supply which is represented by the black dots that you may see within them. That is also the reason they bleed so readily when they are scraped.
Over the years I have seen many doctors who do not specialize in foot problems, misdiagnose warts. Many times they are misdiagnosed as calluses (or calluses are mistakenly called warts). Other conditions such as porokeratosis, or plugged sweat glands are erroneously called warts.
Below is a picture of mosaic warts.
The picture above is a solitary wart located on the bottom of the foot just behind the third toe.
TREATMENT OF WARTS
There are what seem to be a hundred different treatments which tell you that there is no acceptable treatment. There is also an abundance of folk remedies, the reason being that since warts can spontaneously disappear, the remedies end up getting the credit.
There is a very high recurrence rate. The problem with a plantar wart compared to a wart elsewhere on the body, is that the ones located elsewhere are generally outgrowths, meaning that they grow out from the skin so most of the growth is visible making treatment simple. Unfortunately, a wart on the bottom of the foot is pushed inward from walking on them meaning the majority of the growth is beneath the skin. This is complicated by the fact that many parts of the bottom of the foot contain thick skin further protecting the growth from treatment.
Does a wart need to be treated? One or two solitary lesions that do not hurt can be left alone and watched in the hopes that they may spontaneously disappear. However, should one notice that the warts are beginning to spread, treatment is highly recommended; the logic being that if ignored the growths will continue to spread, possibly become painful, and that the more warts one has, the harder it will be to eradicate all of them.
Treatment depends on their location and the number of warts present. A Wart over a bony prominence such as the ball of the foot should never be surgically removed because if a scar develops it may be as painful as the original wart.
There are a million wart medications on the market, most of which are not strong enough for plantar warts (because the wart is beneath the skin). However, a foot specialist has available, stronger medications which in conjunction with regular paring of the wart will eradicate most cases of warts. The upside to this treatment is that it is a reasonably painless experience and there should be no limitation on activity. The downside is that it can sometimes take a long time to eventually get rid of the wart. Take a look at the picture of the wart to the left. This wart is being treated with salicylic acid ointment by prescription. I actually placed this picture on the site to show my patients what a wart should look like when the proper amount of acid is being applied. If the immediate surrounding area becomes macerated, such as in this picture, then the proper amount is being applied. If the area does not look like this, then not enough medicine is being applied. If the macerated area extends way beyond the wart itself, then too much medication is being used.
treatment for large numbers of warts
For those who have many warts numbering in the dozens if not hundreds, simple acids or surgery will not work due to the large amount of warts that need to be treated.
In these cases cimetidine (Tagamet, used for stomach ulcers) has been shown to be effective in eliminating cutaneous lesions such as warts. The usual dose is 300-400mg twice a day for about eight weeks. The drug may also be used in children in smaller doses. It works by enhancing the body's immune system.
Vitamin A in large oral doses, by prescription only, has also been shown to be effective in eliminating large areas of wart.
Recently a natural phytochemical known as Diindolylmethane has become popular in treating warts. This substance is found in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower. This supplement is more commonly referred to as DIM. Some of you reading this will recognize DIM as a product taken to better regulate estrogen levels in men and women. It is postulated that it works to destroy warts by promoting apoptosis (cell death) in papillomavirus. If you would like to try DIM it can be purchased at any vitamin store or on line. Be sure to buy a quality brand. Dosing is six 150mg capsules per day in divided doses. Noted side effects include gastrointestinal upset and possible discoloration of your urine.
Laser surgery is also a popular method for wart removal. Because the laser beam cauterizes the wound as it destroys the wart, healing is usually quicker than conventional excision of a wart. This is usually done in an outpatient setting which of course, adds additional expense and will require anesthesia.
Vitamin D which is currently being touted as an effective treatment for many medical conditions, has been shown to be effective for warts. It is postulated that vitamin D3 has anti-viral properties and since warts are a virus, the vitamin may be effective. There is varying recommendations for dosing out there. The one I adhere to is 35 iu per pound, so a one hundred pound person should take 3500 iu per day. Having said that, I would also recommend having your blood levels of vitamin D checked to make sure you are not over medicating.
As stated earlier there is a high recurrence rate with warts. If you have warts on other parts of your body, they too have to be treated at the same time as the plantar warts otherwise you will not get rid of the warts on your feet.
It should be mentioned that any wart that seems to keep recurring should be biopsied to make sure it is not something other than a wart. Although not common, a wart may be mistaken for a squamous cell carcinoma or a wart can actually deteriorate into what is known as verrucous carcinoma. Along those same lines, warts are commonly known as a "disease of adolescence" which should raise a degree of suspicion in older individuals who appear to have warts. These lesions should also be biopsied as they have a higher propensity to become malignant than warts observed in juveniles.
Want more information? CLICK HERE
Specific Recommendations For This Condition
ONOX-foot solution spray-once daily spray, after shower, keeps feet dry and reduces odor. Particularly effective for those with habitual fungus and those with resistant warts as warts appear to thrive in moist skin. (available from Amazon)
Relief for nail fungus
click link below
I've been doing some aggressive research lately (it's how I found your incredible website) and realize now that my symptoms are not consistant with the diagnosis.
Jennifer
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Liesbeth
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NJ
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Jack
Fla
A well organized site containing much information written in a manner that the average reader can comprehend.
Jean
I found your website and articles most interesting.
Andrew
Fla.
Thank you for a quick response. I think your site is the best information site on foot pain and I have viewed many.
Judy
(location unknown)
I came to your website, footspecialist.net via www.foot-pain explained .com which I think is also your website? I thought explanations for different types of problems were well addressed and thoughtfully stated for the patient in mind.
L.W.
New York
You have an amazing and extremely informative site. I enjoyed looking through all of the data and stats.
Yvette
Thanks again so much for the information in the article. Very interesting.
Anna
Great article. I have had plantar fasciitis since I was in high school……..
J. Simmons
(location unknown)
Dear Dr. Mitnick, The orthotics arrived four days ago and I slipped them into my shoes immediately. I was skeptical as to the usefulness of the item, they really didn't look very exotic. I have to say though, after using them for just four days, I have experienced grand relief from my foot pain. Even the very first day, I was able to do a lot of work while on my feet with at least a 75% reduction of pain. It has only gotten better every day, and I go nowhere without my shoes with the orthotics. I had been experiencing extreme heel and sole pain for about six months and had to take extended breaks off my feet many times a day as well as regular doses of Ibuprofen. Since getting the orthotics, my life has returned to normal and I feel good again. Just wanted to say thanks for the recommendation for a very effective item, I had no idea what a change this item could affect.
Yours truly,
Thanks for the Response, you hit it on the head.
Steve
Thank you for your time and expertise in answering my question…..
LH
(location unknown)
First, thanks for putting together this website. Its the most informative site I have found dealing with foot problems. Last June I started having pain and swelling at …….
Joe
(location unknown)
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Madison, Alabama
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Carol
Denison, TX
Dr. Marc, Thank you so much for your reply which seemed to be right on. I have researched many sites but you put me on the right path to the possible answer. My foot pain may not rule the rest of my life after all! I believe I'll make a sign that reads, "THE END IS NEAR!" Thanks Very Much,
Dawn
West lafayette, IN
Dear sir...no doubt you get positive comments re your site...May I please be added to the list of your admirers. In all of my years of web surfing I would say your site is right there with the very best. Thank you for taking the time to write the terrific info you provide and for putting things into laymen terms for us mere mortals. I pray you have much on going success and thank you again for a deed well done. As for me I did not find much help for my symptoms and will continue on my quest. Were you anywhere in the South I would make and appointment...Thanks again dear sir...m.e.
Michael E.
Tampa, Florida 33624
Hi. This is a great site! I'm a healthy middle aged woman who is in good health, but.....
Kelly
Texas
Just a wee word of thanks for your wonderful website...It is a terrific service...Thank you for providing your knowledge and help...With highest regards, m ebeling
Michael D. Ebeling
Thank you for your very interesting and informative site!
Anonymous
Hi. I come to your site often looking for information. It is really informative and I appreciate it very much. I have RA and have been having considerable amount of foot pain...... Dee RN
Thanks very much for the wonderful informative site.
Catherine
New Zealand
Thank You for my answer! I have been schedule for a bone density scan, allingment, and I am in the process of getting orthotics made, and checking out the natural remedies. Thank again! What a great web site!
Sincerely
Josette
Yes I want both pair of orthotics. You don't have an option of ordering 2 at one time so I had to place the order twice. Thanks. My husband likes these and wants to put them in all of his shoes. (referring to Superstep orthotics)
Cindy H.
Arizona
I searched the internet everywhere for a clear description and illustration of my symptoms/problem. http://www.foot-pain-explained.com/ was where I ended my search with answers. If I lived in Jersey (left 30 years ago) and didn't live in Florida I would definetly make an appointment with Dr. Mitnick.
Thanks, Kathy
1st of all THANKS A LOT for your great site......
Anna
Poland
Thank you so much for your response. I will let you know how I am doing if you would like. Your website is awesome!
M P
South Carolina
Hello! I want to thank you for such an informative website! I found you based on my ankle pain search and am happy to realize that there may be a relatively simple cause and solution....
Natalie
...Thanks for your fantastic service.
Gary
Arlington, VA
Thank you so very much, that would be much appreciated. I love those insoles, by the way. (referring to Superstep orthotics)
Kelly W.
San Clemente, CA
Dr Marc is fantastic...He seems to know exactly what you are feeling with the problems you are having. I wish he was in my home town so I could go to him with my problems!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Pam
Great insights! Thanks Doc, you're the best.
Glen
location unknown
I have been experiencing foot pain of various sorts and am working to figure out what it is. I found this site and can only say BRAVO!! What an excellent site! The time it must have taken to put all this together must've been a daunting task! I am sure it has helped so many people. Thank you so very much for doing this.
Bre
location unknown
Dr. Mitnick, Thank you so much for your reply. I did let my physician know and they took an x-ray - all is well! Also, thank you for providing this wonderful site, it is very helpful with lots of useful information! I appreciate your gift of time! God bless.
anonymous
Dr. Mitnick, Thank you, you were 100% correct. The pain finally brought me to the ER. I spent 8 days in the hospital. The Doppler you spoke of was able to show that there was no pulse in that foot. This was an arterial clot that split and traveled throughout my leg. My leg was almost amputated. I am in rough shape but have all my parts intact!! You certainly know what you are talking about. Thank you for taking the time to answer. Yours Truly!
anonymous
Staying at home after hallux surgery I spend quite a lot of time seaching info useful for avoiding problems which might come back. Today I found your site and I am .... delighted it happened. It's one of the best site I found last days.
Anna
Poland
Thanks for taking time to read and answer so many questions. It is truly a public service!
Esh
I just wanted to say that I am very greatful for this website!!
Bonnie
location unknown
Also, and importantly, just want to praise this web site. Thorough and thoughtfully presented, it certainly must be of considerable assistance to anyone with a foot problem. Terrific -- and very interesting.I trust the address comes up easily for those seeking information.
Bill
New Jersey
Thanks so much for answering my question. You've been more help to me than my own Dr. has been lately. Thanks again....I hope to be able to walk without pain someday.
Debbie
location unknown
Wow, that is exactly the information needed!!! thank you thank you thank you!!! I appreciate this help so very much from Marc Mitnick DPM. Excellent information and help to improve One's life.
Chrissy
location unknown
Thanks so much for this website Dr. Marc! It is so nice that you have this ask the doctor feature..I'm sure I'ts been helpful for alot of people. I will try what you suggested and see if it helps...thanks again!
Tracy
Evansville, IA
Dear Marc
I just want to say thank you for the quick response and the good info. I find it amazing and a super nice thing that you do here by answering medical questions at no charge.
Russ W.
location unknown
Your website is full of a lot of helpful information, and I am very impressed with the time in which you responded to my post. Thank you again for your time and consideration in your response.
-Sunny.
Thank you very much for the information, I will consider it. Excellent web site.
Jackie
San Diego, CA
Dr. Mitnick, Just want to say thank you so very much for your quick response and very informative reply! After reading what you had to say, I called the doctor's office and was able to get in and see him the same day as my injury. Toe was x-rayed and luckily, it is not broken or fractured. Very badly bruised and will probably lose the toe nail. And although my toe and toe nail are still very black and blue and very sore, they ARE both starting to feel a little better. So again, thank you! I am so very happy that I came across your website. The service you provide is outstanding and immeasurable!
Rivi,
Albany, NY
Thank you so much for all of your advice. In searching the web for people dealing with this same issue i can tell you that you are a Knight In shining Armor! If I lived in Jersey I would gladly be your Spokesperson. Hopefully next time you hear from me it will be good news. God Bless,
Jill S.
location unknown
THANK YOU SO VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND EFFORTS, YOU ARE SO VERY APPRECIATED. THANK YOU FOR ALL YOU DO.
Jackie
thanks again, this site is very helpful.
mark
Boston, MA
Like others have stated...This site is amazing and I am so thankful that it was created.
....Keep up what your doing. Your a life saver.
Michelle
Colorado
Thanks again for the information provided on your site. It's easy for non-medical folk to understand your writing, and helps provide better communication between patient and doctor.
annielou
by: Anonymous
This is the best site for foot problem info.
Thank you for this information. This description fits my pain and inflammation behind my 2nd toe perfectly.
by: Max
location unknown
Again, I really appreciate that you responded to my inquiry, and that your mention of Parkinson's helped me to find my way to a diagnosis of this difficult to diagnose disease. Most patients see on average 16 doctors before they are diagnosed. I hope that you can help other people that ask for your expertise in the future.
Barb D.
Canada
I just wanted to say that I am very greatful for this website!! I have had a fusion in my rt foot and am finally getting a little bit better......
Bonnie
location unknown
Again, Thank you from the bottom of my heart for taking the time to answer my question....your an angel!
Nancie
Thank you for your response. You have provided some great insight (to my question)....
Julie
location unknown
Thank-you so very much for responding so quickly and in such detail to my question!! I will give my surgeon a call today!! This website is terrific!!!! Thank-you again!
Renae
North Carolina
Many Thanks Dr Marc!
Thank you for your response. It sounds like a good plan to me. He did not cut the wart out first ...
KG
location unknown
Thanks again doc for having this website and we STILL need qualified Podiatrists in beautiful sunny Tampa Bay (Bradenton) Florida.
Bessie Mae
Florida
Dear Dr. Mitnick, Thank you so very much for taking your time to answer my question. You have greatly relieved my anxiety related to the continual tingly I feel in my feet. I will share your response with my podiatrist next week. God bless you for having this question and answer page on your website! Most gratefully,
Lynne T.
Your webpage is excellent, I commend you on sharing your knowledge to the public.
Robert
New Jersey
Thank you. you were more detailed than what others have told me they finally called from the last xrays and my son is now in a cast for 2 weeks he did have a fracture that was not noticeable.
a mom
location unknown
I have read your website and I have to admit that I am amazed at all the information that is on here. I have learned more than the three years I have been going to several doctors that I have seen!!
Melody
Thank you so much Doc for a quick and thorough response!
Rustam
Bellevue, WA
I cannot thank you enough for your response, opinion, and suggestions! I want you to know how much it means to me, and I'm sure everyone else who has ever asked you a question! I feel like you're a lifesaver and have empowered me to take a stronger role and stand up for myself and my feet!
Jodi
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