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Who composed the opera 'HĂ¤nsel und Gretel'?	Hansel and Gretel HANSEL AND GRETEL Based on the fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm The Cast 1899 illustration of Hansel and Gretel asleep in the forest, after a painting by William de Leftwich Dodge (1867-1935) Hansel, a boy Peter, their father, a broom-maker Baritone Angels, gingerbread children, chorus of echoes. The Story About Engelbert Humperdinck and Hansel and Gretel No, the famous British pop singer from the 1960s — real name Arnold Dorsey — did not compose this opera. The Engelbert Humperdinck who wrote Hansel and Gretel was born in Germany in 1854. In the 1890s, his sister, Adelheid Wette, had written a libretto based on the Grimm fairy tale, and asked her brother to set it to music as a Christmas entertainment for her children. Later, Engelbert and Adelheid decided to turn this modest family project into a full-scale opera. Hansel and Gretel premiered on December 23, 1893 at Weimar. It was an instant hit and remains an everlasting masterpiece. The young composer Richard Strauss, who was the assistant conductor for the premiere, called it “a masterwork of the first rank.” Act I Scene 1. A poor cottage at the edge of a forest. Once upon a time... ... a brother and sister named Hansel and Gretel lived with their father and mother, Peter and Gertrude, at the edge of a huge forest. When our story opens, they are alone in their poor cottage, hard at work at their chores, and very very hungry. Gretel teases Hansel for being a grump, and promises to tell him a secret if he will cheer up — there’s milk in the jug, and their mother will make them a nice pudding when she comes home. Hansel sneaks a taste of the milk, but Gretel warns him that their mother will be angry if they don’t get back to work. Hansel refuses; he prefers to dance. Gretel thinks that’s a wonderful idea, and they begin to dance (“Brother, come and dance with me”). In the middle of all the fun, Gertrude comes home in a very bad mood, angry at them for not having finished their work. She gets a stick to hit them, and, as they escape, she accidentally knocks over the jug, spilling all the milk. She angrily orders them out of the house to pick strawberries. Then she despairs, and begs God for help in feeding her children. Exhausted, she falls asleep. Peter is heard singing in the distance. He reels into the house and gives Gertrude a big smacking kiss. She is not amused, and accuses him of being drunk. He ignores her nagging and playfully asks for supper. She tells him that there’s nothing to eat, but, to her surprise, he pulls out a sackful of food. It seems that he had gone to town to sell his brooms, and there was a festival going on, so he managed to make a huge profit. Gertrude toasts his success, and, as they begin to dig into the food, he realizes that the children aren’t there. Gertrude tells him how Hansel and Gretel were misbehaving, and how she broke the milk jug trying to get at them. Peter laughs heartily at this, and Gertrude can’t help joining in. He asks again where they are, and she replies, “For all I know, at the Ilsenstein.” Peter is struck with horror, for the Ilsenstein is the mountain abode of a horrible witch who rides on a broomstick, lures children to her gingerbread house, and — bakes them into gingerbread! They rush out of the house in search of the children. Scene 2. The Forest. It is now sunset. Hansel is roaming about in the forest picking strawberries, while Gretel makes a crown of flowers and sings a little song. They begin snacking on the berries as they listen to a cuckoo singing on the distance. Soon they begin fighting over the strawberries, but Hansel grabs the basket away from Gretel and eats them all. Gretel is horrified; now they’ll have to pick twice as many as before. It’s getting dark, and they realize that they are lost in the woods. Hansel tries to reassure her, but they begin to see strange shapes and lights. When Hansel calls out, “Who’s there?” only an echo replies. Gretel thinks she sees ghostly figures coming for them and cries out for her parents. Out of the mist, a little man appears with a sack on his back. It is the Sandman, and he sprinkles his magic sand on them to help them sleep. The children say their Evening Prayer (“Now I lay me down to sleep”) and fall into a deep sleep as angels appear to watch over them. Act II The Witch’s House in the Forest. Dawn. The Dew Fairy sprinkles dew on the children to gently wake them. Gretel wakes up first and greets the morning with a song. Then she tickles Hansel awake. She tells him that she dreamt of angels; Hansel is surprised, for he had the same dream. Suddenly, a beautiful gingerbread house appears in the forest. They run up to it, inspecting the candy and cake trimming the house, eager to start eating and hoping that whoever lives in the house will invite them in. Hansel knocks, but no one answers. Gretel stops him from opening the door, but he argues that the angels they saw in their dream must live in the house, and that it will be all right if they just start eating. As Hansel breaks off a piece of cake, they hear a strange voice from inside the house: Nibble, nibble, mousekin, Who’s nibbling at my housekin? The children freeze with fear, but then, concluding that it must be the wind, go on to taste the treats. It is heavenly! They grab more sweets off the house, but again stop dead when they hear: Nibble, nibble, mousekin, Who’s nibbling at my housekin? They answer the voice, saying that it’s the wind. They go on eating and laughing, but soon someone else is laughing with them: a horrible Witch. She takes hold of them, eyeing them hungrily and telling them how much she loves children -- to eat. Hansel and Gretel struggle to escape, but the Witch laughs at them, describing all the goodies she will feed them to fatten them up and make them tender and delicious. They manage to break away, but she freezes them with a spell that she casts from a magic stick: Hocus pocus, malus locus, bonus jocus! Hansel is led into a cage, and the Witch goes into the house, leaving Gretel frozen in place. Hansel tells Gretel that he has a plan, and that she should do whatever the Witch tells her to. The Witch returns with a basket of sweets, ordering Hansel to eat. She unfreezes Gretel with another spell — Hocus pocus, elderbush, rigid body loosen, whoosh! — and orders her to go into the house to set the table for supper. Hansel, meanwhile, pretends to be asleep. The Witch gloats over her plan to eat Gretel first by having her look into the oven and pushing her into it, baking her into gingerbread. She gleefully dances with her broomstick (“So hop, hop, hop, galop, lop, lop”). Now the Witch wakes Hansel up to see if he is fat enough. She tells him to put out a finger so she can feel it, but Hansel pokes out a twig instead, and the nearsighted old hag is sorely disappointed at how skinny he is. She calls for Gretel to bring more sweets for him. While the Witch is feeding him, Gretel, seeing the magic stick unattended, grabs it and recites the unfreeze spell. The Witch suddenly turns to her and asks what she said, but Gretel merely replies that Hansel will never get fat. The Witch stops her mouth with food. As the Witch goes to check the oven, Hansel tells Gretel to be careful. The Witch calls Gretel over and asks her to look in the oven to see if the gingerbread is done yet. Gretel pretends not to understand, and asks the Witch to show her how. Annoyed, the Witch sticks her head in. Hansel, meanwhile, has crept out of the cage, and he and Gretel shove the Witch into the oven and bang the door shut. They dance with joy at the Witch’s destruction. Hansel rushes into the house and comes out again with all sorts of delicious food. Then the oven explodes, and the gingerbread figures around the house are suddenly transformed into real children, frozen in place with their eyes closed. The children ask Hansel and Gretel to touch them to open their eyes. Then Hansel grabs the magic stick, recites the unfreeze spell, and the children are free. They joyfully thank Hansel and Gretel and dance with them. Now Peter is heard in the distance sadly calling for Hansel and Gretel. When he and Gertrude arrive, Hansel and Gretel rush into their arms. The other children take the Witch, now a huge gingerbread cookie, out of the oven. Everyone thanks God and dances triumphantly. ©1998 Linda Cantoni	Engelbert Humperdinck
Which country is the largest producer of saffron?	Summary of �ｿｽgHansel and Gretel�ｿｽh in 3 Minutes - Opera Synopsis First performed December 23, 1893. Libretto by Adelheid Wette (in German), after the Brothers Grimm. A Summary of �ｿｽgHansel and Gretel�ｿｽh Act 1 Once upon a time, in Germany, Haensel and his sister, Gretel, were poor, but happy. Though, one day, they had to do household chores, they played. Their mother, Gertrude, unexpectedly came home, and she got angry. She sent them into the woods to find wild strawberries as punishment. After Haensel and Gretel left, their father, Peter, came home. He was suprised that they had gone to the woods. There was a rumor that a Witch lived in the woods. The parents went looking for their children. Act 2 Deep in the woods, Haensel and Gretel got enough strawberries. When they wanted to come home, they lost their way. Finally, they slept in the woods. Act 3 Haensel and Gretel woke up, and they saw a house which was made from candy, cookies, chocolate, and cakes. They rejoiced, and began to eat them. Then, the Witch approached them from behind, and caught them. The Witch ordered Gretel to prepare meals, and she told Gretel to fatten Haensel up. But, Gretel robbed the Witch of a magic wand. When the Witch checked the oven heating for Haensel, Haensel and Gretel pushed her in and slam the door shut. Breaking the Witch�ｿｽfs magic, many children could escape from the house. Haensel and Gretel�ｿｽfs parents arrived, and the whole family was pleased to be safe. The Witch... is baked and becomes a delicious cookie. A Comment on �ｿｽgHansel and Gretel�ｿｽh The original work of this opera is the famous Grimms' Fairy Tales. Not only children but also adults can enjoy it. This opera�ｿｽfs composer, Engelbert Humperdinck, received a request from his sister, to compose an opera for their family. While he was still composing it, he gave his fiancee one part of this opera as a Christmas present. The first public performance of the complete opera was performed on the 23rd, two days before Christmas in 1893, conducted by Richard Strauss, who was actually another great opera composer. This world premiere succeeded, �ｿｽgHansel und Gretel�ｿｽh has become a standard opera now. Humperdinck was one of Richard Wagner�ｿｽfs private pupils. In the post- Wagner era, the mainstream of the western opera world changed from German opera to Italian �ｿｽgverismo opera.�ｿｽh Probably, only Humperdinck succeeded as an opera composer from Wagner�ｿｽfs pupils. As mentioned above, �ｿｽgHansel und Gretel�ｿｽh is a fairy tale for children, but all people can enjoy the music by Humperdinck who mastered Wagner�ｿｽfs composition technique. Humperdinck thought that he would like to compose an opera which is also liked by children. So, it is easy for beginners to listen to the music of this opera in spite of Wagner�ｿｽfs style being used. The children�ｿｽfs chorus of a part of the last scene is especially beautiful. This children�ｿｽfs chorus is, in other words, �ｿｽghealing music.�ｿｽh If you would like to show your children an opera, I recommend you show them this opera �ｿｽgHansel und Gretel�ｿｽh or Mozart�ｿｽfs �ｿｽgThe Magic Flute.�ｿｽh Gluck, C. W. (1714-1787)	i don't know
In which American state is Area 51 located?	Area 51 'Uncensored': Was It UFOs Or The USSR? : NPR List price: $27.99 Prologue: The Secret City This book is a work of nonfiction. The stories I tell in this narrative are real. None of the people are invented. Of the seventy-four individuals interviewed for this book with rare firsthand knowledge of the secret base, thirty-two of them lived and worked at Area 51. Area 51 is the nation's most secret domestic military facility. It is located in the high desert of southern Nevada, seventy-five Miles north of Las Vegas. Its facilities have been constructed over the past sixty years around a flat, dry lake bed called Groom Lake. The U.S. government has never admitted it exists. Key to understanding Area 51 is knowing that it sits inside the largest government-controlled land parcel in the United States, the Nevada Test and Training Range. Encompassing 4,687 square miles, this area is just a little smaller than the state of Connecticut — three times the size of Rhode Island, and more than twice as big as Delaware. Set inside this enormous expanse is a smaller parcel of land, 1,350 square miles, called the Nevada Test Site, the only facility like it in the continental United States. Beginning in 1951, on the orders of President Harry Truman, 105 nuclear weapons were exploded aboveground at the site and another 828 were exploded underground in tunnel chambers and deep, vertical shafts. The last nuclear weapons test on American soil occurred at the Nevada Test Site on September 23, 1992. The facility contains the largest amount of weapons-grade plutonium and uranium in the United States not secured inside a nuclear laboratory. Area 51 sits just outside the Nevada Test Site, approximately five miles to the northeast of the northernmost corner, which places it inside the Nevada Test and Training Range. Because everything that goes on at Area 51, and most of what goes on at the Nevada Test and Training Range, is classified when it is happening, this is a book about secrets. Two early projects at Groom Lake have been declassified by the Central Intelligence Agency: the U‑2 spy plane, declassified in 1998, and the A‑12 Oxcart spy plane, declassified in 2007. And yet in thousands of pages of declassified memos and reports, the name Area 51 is always redacted, or blacked out. There are only two known exceptions, most likely mistakes. This is a book about government projects and operations that have been hidden for decades, some for good reasons, others for arguably terrible ones, and one that should never have happened at all. These operations took place in the name of national security and they all involved cutting-edge science. The last published words of Robert Oppenheimer, father of the atomic bomb, were "Science is not everything. But science is very beautiful." After reading this book, readers can decide what they think about what Oppenheimer said. This is a book about black operations, government projects that are secret from Congress and secret from the people who make up the United States. To understand how black projects began, and how they continue to function today, one must start with the creation of the atomic bomb. The men who ran the Manhattan Project wrote the rules about black operations. The atomic bomb was the mother of all black projects and it is the parent from which all black operations have sprung. Building the bomb was the single most expensive engineering project in the history of the United States. It began in 1942, and by the time the bomb was tested, inside the White Sands Proving Ground in the New Mexico high desert on July 16, 1945, the bomb's price tag, adjusted for inflation, was $28,000,000,000. The degree of secrecy maintained while building the bomb is almost inconceivable. When the world learned that America had dropped an atomic weapon on Hiroshima, no one was more surprised than the U.S. Congress, none of whose members had had any idea it was being developed. Vice President Harry Truman had been equally stunned to learn about the bomb when he became president of the United States, on April 12, 1945. Truman had been the chairman of the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program when he was vice president, meaning he was in charge of watching how money was spent during the war, yet he'd had no idea about the atomic bomb until he became president and the information was relayed to him by two men: Vannevar Bush, the president's science adviser, and Henry L. Stimson, the nation's secretary of war. Bush was in charge of the Manhattan Project, and Stimson was in charge of the war. The Manhattan Project employed two hundred thousand people. It had eighty offices and dozens of production plants spread out all over the country, including a sixty-thousand-acre facility in rural Tennessee that pulled more power off the nation's electrical grid than New York City did on any given night. And no one knew the Manhattan Project was there. That is how powerful a black operation can be. After the war ended, Congress — the legislators who had been so easily kept in the dark for two and a half years — was given stewardship of the bomb. It was now up to Congress to decide who would control its "unimaginable destructive power." With the passing of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, a terrifying and unprecedented new system of secret-keeping emerged. The presidential system was governed by presidential executive orders regarding national security information. But the newly created Atomic Energy Commission, formerly known as the Manhattan Project, was now in charge of regulating the classification of all nuclear weapons information in a system that was totally separate from the president's system. In other words, for the first time in American history, a federal agency run by civilians, the Atomic Energy Commission, would maintain a body of secrets classified based on factors other than presidential executive orders. It is from the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 that the concept "born classified" came to be, and it was the Atomic Energy Commission that would oversee the building of seventy thousand nuclear bombs in sixty-five different sizes and styles. Atomic Energy was the first entity to control Area 51 — a fact previously undisclosed — and it did so with terrifying and unprecedented power. One simply cannot consider Area 51's uncensored history without addressing this cold, hard, and ultimately devastating truth. The Atomic Energy Commission's Restricted Data classification was an even more terrifying anomaly, something that could originate outside the government through the "thinking and research of private parties." In other words, the Atomic Energy Commission could hire a private company to conduct research for the commission knowing that the company's thinking and research would be born classified and that even the president of the United States would not necessarily have a need‑to‑know about it. In 1994, for instance, when President Clinton created by executive order the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments to look into secrets kept by the Atomic Energy Commission, certain records involving certain programs inside and around Area 51 were kept from the president on the grounds that he did not have a need‑to‑know. Two of these programs, still classified, are revealed publicly for the first time in this book. One of the Atomic Energy Commission's former classifications officers, Donald Woodbridge, characterized the term born classified as something that "give[s] the professional classificationist unanswerable authority." Area 51 lives on as an example. Of the Atomic Energy Commission's many facilities across the nation — it is now called the Department of Energy — the single largest facility is, and always has been, the Nevada Test Site. Other parts of the Nevada Test and Training Range would be controlled by the Department of Defense. But there were gray areas, like Area 51 — craggy mountain ranges and flat, dry lake beds sitting just outside the official borders of the Nevada Test Site and not controlled by the Department of Defense. These areas are where the most secret projects were set up. No one had a need‑to‑know about them. And for decades, until this book was published, no one would. Excerpted from Area 51: An Uncensored History of America's Top Secret Military Base by Annie Jacobsen. Copyright 2011 by Annie Jacobsen. Excerpted by permission of Little, Brown and Co.	Nevada
What now stands on the site of the place of execution at Tyburn?	Area 51 Revealed in CIA Spy Plane Documents - ABC News ABC News Area 51 Revealed in CIA Spy Plane Documents By Anthony Castellano WATCH Area 51 Government Base Confirmed 0 Shares Email Area 51 in Nevada has long been the subject of wild conspiracy theories about extraterrestrials, time travel and alien autopsies, but newly released declassified documents from the CIA finally acknowledge its existence. Although the report makes no mention of the sensational stories that have played out in pop culture for decades, it turns out that Area 51 was started as a testing site for the government's U-2 spy plane. The report, more than 400 pages, is titled "Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and Oxcart Programs, 1954-1974." The U-2 spy planes were commonly used by the United States during the Cold War in reconnaissance missions around the globe. Officials and former employees have previously acknowledged in passing the existence of the facility and how it was used for testing U-2 planes, but this is the first time the U.S. government has openly referred to Area 51 and given specifics on its operations. The report also features a map of the area. It makes no reference to the status of Area 51 after 1974. The U-2 planes flew at an altitude of 60,000 feet, which was higher than any other plane at the time, according to the documents. When people who lived nearby saw the unfamiliar planes, they became suspicious and believed Earth was being visited by aliens. "High-altitude testing of the U-2 soon led to an unexpected side effect -- a tremendous increase in reports of unidentified flying objects (UFOs)," the report states. Air Force investigators then attempted to explain such sightings by linking them to natural phenomena, the report says. "U-2 and later OXCART flights accounted for more than one-half of all UFO reports during the late 1950s and most of the 1960s," according to the documents. Security at the facility and its secretive nature have been a constant in the years since Area 51 officially opened for business in 1955. "As the deliveries of U-2 airframes to the testing site increased, a major logistic problem arose: how to transfer Lockheed employees from Burbank to Area 51 without arousing a great deal of curiosity," according to the documents. "The project staff decided that the simplest approach would be to fly the essential personnel to the site on Monday morning and return them to Burbank on Friday evening." The information also documents three fatal crashes that took place during 1956 with U-2 planes. To make Area 51, a facility "in the middle of nowhere," sound more attractive to workers, it was referred to as "Paradise Ranch," or simply "the Ranch." George Washington University's National Security Archive obtained a CIA history of the U-2 spy plane program through a Freedom of Information request and released it Thursday. National Security Archive senior fellow Jeffrey Richelson reviewed the history in 2002, but all mentions of Area 51 had been redacted, according to The Associated Press. Richelson says he requested the history again in 2005 and received a version a few weeks ago with mentions of Area 51 restored. Will the conspiracy theories finally come to an end? Not likely, and after all, some parts of the report are still redacted. 0 Shares	i don't know
What now stands on the site of the notorious Newgate prison?	Newgate Prison Wall Newgate Prison Wall Rent a Castle Whether it's a folly for 2 or a fort for 20, try our castles for rent page. By Ben Johnson \| Comments ‘Tis impossible to describe the terror of my mind, when I was first brought in, and when I looked around upon all the horrors of that dismal place... : the hellish noise, the roaring, swearing, and clamour, the stench and nastiness… joined together to make the place seem an emblem of hell itself, and a kind of entrance to it.' Newgate Prison was once the most notorious prison in London. Commissioned in the 12th century by King Henry II , Newgate Prison remained in use all the way through to 1902. The prison itself was originally built into a gate on the old Roman wall (hence the name “Newgate”) although it was rebuilt numerous times during its lifespan. For over 600 years the prison was renowned for its appalling conditions. It was said that the prison was so dirty and squalid that the floors crunched as you walked due to all of the lice and bedbugs. The women’s area was equally as appalling, crowded with half naked women, drunk, sometimes deranged, in leg irons and often with their children in tow. After its final rebuild in 1782 the prison was divided into two sections; a common area for the general public as well as a State area for those who could afford more comfortable accommodation. At the same time as the prison rebuild, the site for London’s public gallows moved from Tyburn (in the modern day West End) over to Newgate Prison. This meant that the public executions were now held in the heart of the City of London, drawing large audiences all the way up until the public executions were abandoned in 1868. To understand the scale of capital punishment at Newgate Prison, it is said that between 1790 and 1902 over one thousand people were put to death there alone. During the period of public executions, these were carried out outside of Newgate Prison on the Old Bailey Road. The church of St Sepulchre-without-Newgate also has a rather ghoulish part to play in the executions. At midnight on the eve of an execution, a bellman would walk along the prison tunnels ringing ‘twelve solemn towels with double strokes’ on his handbell whist chanting "All you that in the condemned hold do lie, Prepare you, for tomorrow you shall die; Watch all and pray, the hour is drawing near That you before the Almighty must appear; Examine well yourselves, in time repent, That you may not to eternal flames be sent: And when St. Sepulchre's bell tomorrow tolls, The Lord above have mercy on your souls.” Although Newgate Prison has long gone, the Newgate Execution Bell still exists and is housed in the Church of St Sepulchre. The Central Criminal Court (a.k.a. the Old Bailey) now stands on the site of the old Newgate Prison. However, if you venture around the back of Amen Court (see map below) you will find something quite spectacular; the only surviving wall of Newgate Prison!	Old Bailey
Which London river, now flowing underground, rises at Finsbury Circus, flows through the City of London and enters the Thames by Cannon Street railway station?	Historic Prisons - London for Free London for Free You are here: Home / Places to Visit / Historic Prisons Historic Prisons London has had many prisons, the most famous one being the Tower of London. Victorian London was notorious for its prisons and places of correction – the harsh conditions and cruel treatment of prisoners being vividly described by Dickens. Read more about the history of London’s prisons. Though the Victorian places no longer exist it is possible to visit the sites where they once stood, which will also take you into interesting areas of London. All for free, of course. It is possible to visit the Tower of London (admission charge). Tower of London The Tower of London is the most popular tourist attraction in London and one of the greatest examples of Norman architecture anywhere in the world. It was begun by William I around 1066 and built deliberately just outside the City boundary to warn potential troublemakers. It was then extended by a number of monarchs until Edward I, and has been a palace, prison, menagerie, place of execution and stronghold for the crown jewels. Famous occupants have included Sir Francis Drake, Anne Boleyn (executed by sword), Sir Walter Raleigh and Rudolph Hess during the second world war. Nearest underground station: Tower Hill Newgate Prison Newgate prison existed on the corner of Newgate Street and Old Bailey for seven hundred years. The prison was destroyed and re-built several times throughout its history, including during the Great Fire of London and during prison riots. By 1783, it was London’s main prison and the city’s gallows were moved from Tyburn to Newgate Street. In 1868, public executions were discontinued and held instead inside the prison. The prison was demolished in 1904. Nearest underground stations: St Pauls Marshalsea Prison Mostly known as a debtors prison, Marshalsea prison existed in Borough High Street for over five hundred years – closing in 1842. It was a national prison, second only to the Tower in importance, and became renowned worldwide thanks to Dickens, who wrote about life in a debtors prison in his novels such as Little Dorritt. Dickens’ father was sent to Marshalsea in 1824 owing a debt of forty pounds. It is one of the few historic prisons where part of the original buildings remain. You can still see one of its walls and two original gate arches in the yard next to St George the Martyr church. Nearest underground station: Borough Bridewell House of Correction Established as a house of correction in 1556 in a former royal palace (Bridewell), this prison was for housing vagrants and homeless children and punishing petty criminals and unruly women. The prison also contained workrooms and a hospital. It was largely destroyed in the Great Fire of London and re-built soon after, before being finally demolished in 1863. All that remains of the prison buildings is the gateway on New Bridge Street at number 14. The rest of the old site is now occupied by the Unilever Building on the corner. Nearest railway station: Blackfriars Cold Bath Fields Prison This large prison in Clerkenwell was also known as Clerkenwell Jail. It was built in 1794 on the site of what is now the Royal Mail sorting office at Mount Pleasant. Some of the prison wall pillars still remain. It was renowned for the harshness of its punishments, including enforced silences and solitary confinement. By the mid nineteenth century, its name had changed to Middlesex House of Correction. It was closed in 1877 and demolished in 1889. Nearest railway station: Farringdon Fleet Prison Situated on the eastern side of Farringdon Road, Fleet Prison was mainly a debtors’ prison. William Penn was held there in 1707-1709 for debt. However,the prison also held political and religious prisoners. In 1601, the poet John Donne was imprisoned in it for marrying a woman without her father’s consent. The prison was destroyed in the Great Fire of London and soon after, re-built. However, it no longer exists today. There was large scale prison corruption, with prisoners being allowed out of the prison on payment of fees to the keeper, and those who were unable to afford the fees, being forced to share crowded, lice-ridden cells. Dickens described the prison in Pickwick Papers. It was finally closed down in 1842. Nearest railway station: Blackfriars Clerkenwell House of Detention There has been a prison on this site since 1616, although the only remaining part of it – its tunnels – were built in 1844. It was largely used as a detentional prison and an estimated 10,000 people a year passed through its gates. The prison was demolished in 1890, but an entire underground section survived and lay undisturbed until the bombs of the Blitz saw it reopened as an air-raid shelter. The site of the prison is now occupied by the Hugh Myddleton School building (now converted into residential flats). However, it is possible to access the tunnels from Clerkenwell Close, behind St James Church. Nearest underground stations: Farringdon, Angel Gatehouse Prison Built in 1370, it was originally part of a prison which existed in Westminster Abbey’s gatehouse. Sir Walter Raleigh was imprisoned in it on the eve of his execution at the Tower of London in 1618. It is believed that the saying, “stone walls do not a prison make, nor iron bars a cage” was written here by the poet, Lovelace, in 1642. In 1689, Samuel Pepys was imprisoned in it. It was demolished in 1776 and the site is now occupied by Westminster School’s Crimean War Memorial (the tall column) which stands in front of Westminster Abbey, in Broad Sanctuary. Nearest underground station: Westminster King’s Bench Prison This prison originally stood on the east side of Borough High Street, and in 1755 it moved to a larger area at St George’s Fields. The majority of prisoners were debtors, and they were often joined by their families. Dickens wrote about it in David Copperfield, with Mr Micawber being imprisoned in it for debt. In 1828, the prison was described as “the most desirable place of incarceration in London” – the courtyard was full of traders and there were a large number of gin shops on site. Rich prisoners even had a regular cook to prepare their meals. By the 1870’s the prison had closed. Nearest underground station: Borough Clink Prison This was a small prison connected to Winchester Palace on Bankside. First mention of it is in 1509 and it was destroyed in 1780. It was for those who committed offences on Bankside and in the nearby brothels, which were controlled by the Bishop of Winchester. Prisoners included both Protestant and Catholic prisoners of conscience, and towards the end of its existence it was also a debtor’s prison. The Clink Prison Museum, in Clink Street, sits on the site of the original prison. Nearest underground station: London Bridge Horsemonger Lane Jail Built as a model prison in 1791, and renamed Southwark County Gaol in 1859. The gatehouse had gallows on the roof and it was here that Charles Dickens witnessed a double hanging in 1849. This led him to write to The Times condemning public execution and helped lead to its abolition in this country. 131 men and 4 women were executed at the jail between 1800 and 1877. The jail itself closed in 1878 and was demolished in 1880. Newington Gardens now occupies the site of the jail. Nearest underground station: Borough	i don't know
What was the name of the first prefabricated building that was erected on the medieval London Bridge in 1577?	London Bridge \| London Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia London Bridge is a bridge between the City of London and Southwark in London , England, over the River Thames . Situated between Cannon Street Railway Bridge and Tower Bridge , it forms the western end of the Pool of London . On the south side of the bridge are Southwark Cathedral and London Bridge Station ; on the north side are the Monument to the Great Fire of London and Monument tube station . It was the only bridge over the Thames downstream from Kingston until Westminster Bridge opened in 1750. The bridge carries part of the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority; the bridge itself is owned and maintained by the Bridge House Estates (see City Bridge Trust), an independent charity overseen by the City of London Corporation. Tower Bridge is often mistakenly referred to as London Bridge. The area between London Bridge and Tower Bridge on the south side of the Thames is managed by the London Bridge Business Improvement District (BID) Company. Contents Edit A bridge has existed at or near the present site over the period from the Roman occupation of the area, nearly 2,000 years ago. The first bridge across the Thames in the London area, probably a military pontoon bridge, was built of wood by the Romans on the present site around 50 AD. Around 55 AD, a piled bridge was constructed, and the local Britons built a small trading settlement next to it—the town of Londinium. The settlement and the bridge were destroyed in a revolt led by Queen Boudicca in 60 AD. The victory was short-lived, and soon afterwards the Romans defeated the rebels and set about building a new walled town. Some of the 2nd century Roman wall has survived to this day. The new town and bridge were built around the position of the present bridge, providing access to the south-coast ports via Stane Street (the A3 route) and Watling Street (the A2). The bridge fell into disrepair after the Romans left. As Londinium was also abandoned, there was little need for a bridge at this point and in the Saxon period the river was a political boundary between the hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex. With the impact of the Viking invasions, the reconquest of the Roman city by the kings of Wessex and its re-occupation by Alfred the Great, the political conditions arose for a Saxon bridge crossing to be placed here. However, there is no archaeological evidence for a bridge before Aethelred's reign and his attempts to stem the Sweinian invasions of the 990s. In 1014, according to a much later skaldic tradition, the bridge was pulled down by the Norwegian prince Olaf, as he was aiding King Aethelred in what, if true, was a successful bid to divide the defending forces of the Danes who held the walled City of London plus Southwark, thereby regaining London for the Anglo-Saxon king. This episode might have inspired the well-known nursery rhyme "London Bridge is Falling Down", although the version of the song known today refers to the many bridges that were destroyed and rebuilt, and the trading done on the shops over it ("Silver and Gold") in the 14th century, so the song's origin is presumably of a much later date. The earliest contemporary written reference to a Saxon bridge is in 1016, when it was by-passed by King Cnut's ships in his war to regain the throne from Edmund II "Ironside". The rebuilt Norman London Bridge was destroyed in 1091 by a storm that spawned a T8/F4 tornado, which also struck St Mary-le-Bow, and is known as the London Tornado of 1091. The repair or replacement of this was carried out by William II "Rufus" through forced labour, along with the works at the new St Paul's Cathedral and the development of the Tower of London . It was destroyed yet again, this time by fire, in 1136. "Old" (Medieval) London Bridge Edit An engraving by Claes Van Visscher showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with Southwark Cathedral in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse. Following the 1136 destruction, some rebuilding was carried out during the reign of Stephen, presumably along the same lines as those instituted by William Rufus. On Henry II's accession, there was an attempt to regularise its maintenance by the institution of a national monastic guild to support this work—effectively by sale of indulgences. There is evidence that there were also unlicensed local guilds in London with the same purpose. In 1163, Peter de Colechurch was appointed as the "Warden of the Brethren of the Bridge", and this seems to have combined all of the preceding ad hoc arrangements. In 1173, Peter soon proposed to replace the timber bridge with a stone one, almost certainly required by the popularity of the Thomas Becket cult and the associated pilgrimage from the bridge to Canterbury. Construction began under de Colechurch's direction in 1176. A chapel was built near the centre of the bridge (dedicated to the recently martyred and canonised Becket who, appropriately, had been born in the parish of St Mary Colechurch). St. Thomas Chapel was grander than many small-town parish churches; it even had a river-level entrance for fishermen and those who taxied passengers across the river. The new bridge took 33 years to complete and was not finished until 1209, during the reign of King John. John licensed the building of houses on the bridge, as a direct means of deriving revenue for its maintenance, and it was soon colonised by shops. The medieval bridge had 19 small arches and a drawbridge with a defensive gatehouse at the southern end. Contemporary pictures show it crowded with buildings of up to seven stories in height. The narrowness of the arches meant that it acted as a partial barrage over the Thames, restricting water flow and thereby making the river more susceptible to freezing over in winter because of the slower currents. The current was further obstructed by the addition of waterwheels (designed by Peter Morice) under the two north arches to drive water pumps, and under the two south arches to power grain mills. This produced ferocious rapids between the piers or "starlings" of the bridge, as the difference between the water levels on each side could be as much as six feet (two metres). Only the brave or foolhardy attempted to "shoot the bridge"—steer a boat between the starlings—and many were drowned trying to do so. As the saying went, the bridge was "for wise men to pass over, and for fools to pass under". The decision of King John to allow shops to be built on London Bridge slowed down the traffic crossing the river. The houses and shops took up space and could draw crowds, and when carts broke down or animals misbehaved, crossing the bridge could take up to an hour. For this reason, people on foot often chose to use the dozens of river taxi boats that quickly ferried Londoners from shore to shore. Although the bridge itself was about 26 feet (8 m) wide, the buildings on the bridge took up about 7 feet (2 m) on each side of the street. Some of these buildings projected another seven feet out over the river. The road for traffic was thereby reduced to just 12 feet (4 m) wide. This meant that horses, carts, wagons, and pedestrians all shared a passage way just six feet wide, one lane going north and one south. There were a few places where houses and shops were not built, which allowed people to get out of the traffic and enjoy a glimpse of the river and the shorelines of London. Nearly two hundred places of business lined both sides of the narrow street. Ale and beer were not sold on the London bridge because these beverages required cellars, which were not present. The merchants lived above their shops and sold goods from the street-level floor. They used windows to show their goods and transact business; over each shop hung a sign usually in the shape of the articles sold, in order that the illiterate could recognise the nature of the business. These signs were posted high enough that a rider on a horse could pass beneath them—every inch of the small street had to be available to vehicular traffic. Many of the top floors of the houses and shops were built over the street and actually connected to the house or shop across the street, giving the street a tunnel look. This pedestrian alcove is one of the surviving fragments of the old London Bridge that was demolished in 1831. The gates to London Bridge were closed at curfew, and the bridge was regarded as a safe place to live or shop. Located within the jurisdiction of the City of London parish of St Magnus and the Southwark parish of St Olave, the Bridge community was almost a town unto itself. In 1284, after many years of legal dispute, the City of London gained effective control and instituted the Bridge House Estates trust City Bridge Trust to maintain it from the older revenues and new endowments. The Bridge House stemmed from the site Peter de Colechurch's original "house", i.e. maintenance depot and residence for his monastic "brethren of the bridge", next to St Olave's church in Southwark, a site still marked by the street name "Bridge Yard". Various arches of the bridge collapsed over the years, and houses on the bridge were burnt during Wat Tyler's Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and Jack Cade's rebellion in 1450, during which a pitched battle was fought on the bridge. Artist's imaginative conception of Nonsuch House on London Bridge, 1811. The Northern Gate, the New Stone Gate, was replaced by Nonsuch House in 1577. The southern gatehouse, the Stone Gateway, became the scene of one of London's most notorious sights: a display of the severed heads of traitors, impaled on pikes and dipped in tar to preserve them against the elements. The head of William Wallace was the first to appear on the gate, in 1305, starting a tradition that was to continue for another 355 years. Other famous heads on pikes included those of Jack Cade in 1450, Sir Thomas More in 1535, Bishop John Fisher in the same year, and Thomas Cromwell in 1540. A German visitor to London in 1598 counted over thirty heads on the bridge. The practice was finally stopped in 1660, following the Restoration of King Charles II. The buildings on London Bridge created a major fire hazard and served to increase the load on its arches, both of which may have contributed to the several disasters on the bridge. In 1212, perhaps the greatest of the early fires of London broke out on both ends of the bridge simultaneously, trapping many in the middle and reportedly resulting in the death of 3,000 people. Another major fire broke out in 1633, destroying the northern third of the bridge, although this prevented the bridge from being damaged by the Great Fire of London in 1666. By 1722, congestion was becoming so serious that the Lord Mayor decreed that "all carts, coaches and other carriages coming out of Southwark into this City do keep all along the west side of the said bridge: and all carts and coaches going out of the City do keep along the east side of the said bridge". This has been suggested as one possible origin for the practice of traffic in Britain driving on the left. Finally, in 1758–62, the houses were removed along with the two centre arches, replaced with a single wider span to improve navigation on the river. "New" (19th century) London Bridge Edit New London Bridge in the early 1890s By the end of the 18th century, it was apparent that the old London Bridge—by then over 600 years old—needed to be replaced. It was narrow, decrepit, and blocked river traffic. In 1799, a competition for designs to replace the old bridge was held, prompting the engineer Thomas Telford to propose a bridge with a single iron arch spanning 600 feet (180 m). However, this design was never used, owing to uncertainty about its feasibility and the amount of land needed for its construction. The bridge was eventually replaced by a structure of five stone arches, designed by engineer John Rennie. The new bridge was built 100 feet (30 m) west (upstream) of the original site by Rennie's son (of the same name). Work began in 1824 and the foundation stone was laid, in the southern cofferdam, on 15th June 1825. The old bridge continued in use as the new bridge was being built, and was demolished after the latter opened in 1831. The scheme necessitated the building of major new approach roads, which cost three times that of the bridge itself. The total construction cost of around £2.5 million was met by the Corporation of London and government. The contractors were Jolliffe and Banks of Merstham, Surrey. A fragment from the old bridge is set into the tower arch inside St Katherine's Church, Merstham. Rennie's bridge had a length of 928 feet (283 m) and a width of 49 feet (15 m). Haytor granite was used in the construction, transported via the unique Haytor Granite Tramway. The official opening took place on 1 August 1831; King William IV and Queen Adelaide attended a banquet in a pavilion erected on the bridge. The recently constructed HMS Beagle was the first ship to pass under it. London Bridge was widened in 1902–04 from 52 to 65 feet (16 to 20 m), in an attempt to combat London's chronic traffic congestion. A dozen of the granite "pillars" quarried and dressed for this widening, but unused, still lie near Swelltor Quarry on the disused railway track a couple of miles south of Princetown on Dartmoor. In the end, the widening work proved too much for the bridge's foundations; it was subsequently discovered that the bridge was sinking an inch (3 cm) every eight years. By 1924, the east side of the bridge was some three to four inches (102 mm) lower than the west side; it soon became apparent that this bridge would have to be removed and replaced with a more modern one. Sale of Rennie's bridge to the United States Edit Rennie's Old London Bridge during reconstruction at Lake Havasu in March 1971 In 1967, the Common Council of the City of London placed the bridge on the market and began to look for potential buyers. Council member Ivan Luckin had put forward the idea of selling the bridge, and recalled: "They all thought I was completely crazy when I suggested we should sell London Bridge when it needed replacing." On 18 April 1968, Rennie's bridge was sold to the American entrepreneur Robert P. McCulloch of McCulloch Oil for US$2,460,000. The claim that McCulloch believed mistakenly that he was buying the more impressive Tower Bridge was denied by Luckin in a newspaper interview. As the bridge was taken apart, each piece was numbered to aid re-assembly; those markings can still be seen today. The bridge was reconstructed at Lake Havasu City, Arizona, and re-dedicated on 10 October 1971. The reconstruction of Rennie's London Bridge spans a man-made canal that leads from Lake Havasu to Thomson Bay, and forms the centrepiece of a theme park in English style, complete with mock-Tudor shopping mall. Rennie's London Bridge has become Arizona's second-biggest tourist attraction, after the Grand Canyon. The rebuilt London Bridge in Lake Havasu City, Arizona The version of London Bridge that was rebuilt at Lake Havasu consists of a concrete frame with stones from the Old London Bridge used as cladding. The cladding stones used are 150 to 200 millimetres (6 to 8 inches) thick. The remaining stone was left at Merrivale Quarry at Princetown in Devon. When Merrivale Quarry was abandoned and flooded in 2003, some of the remaining stone was sold in an online auction. Modern London Bridge Edit The current London Bridge was designed by Mott, Hay and Anderson. The senior engineer was Alan Simpson, the superstructure was designed by a team led by Michael Leeming, and foundations by a team led by Keith Ponting. The bridge was constructed by contractors John Mowlem and Co from 1967 to 1972, and opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 March 1973. It comprises three spans of prestressed-concrete box girders, a total of 928 feet (283 m) long. The bridge's lights were made from Napoleon's cannons. The bridge was built to be functional and long-lived, and, as such, it is noticeably less decorated than other Thames bridges. The cost of £4 million was met entirely by the City Bridge Trust charity. The current bridge was built in the same location as Rennie's bridge, with the previous bridge remaining in use while the first two girders were constructed upstream and downstream. Traffic was then transferred onto the two new girders, and the previous bridge demolished to allow the final two central girders to be added. London Bridge with the Gherkin in the background In 1984, the British warship HMS Jupiter collided with London Bridge, causing significant damage to both ship and bridge. On Remembrance Day 2004, various London bridges were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are switched on at night. The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into The City from London Bridge Station (south to north). A recent example of this is actor Hugh Grant crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film About a Boy. Tourist attractions A new tourist attraction, the London Bridge Museum, is scheduled to open by 2012 in the vaults in the southern abutment of the bridge. Events Edit On 31 August 2008, Amanda Cotterell who was made Freeman of the City of London in 2007, exercised her right to lead her sheep across the bridge, which was allowed under an 11th Century law.	Nonsuch House
What was the second bridge to be built over the Thames in London in 1750?	London Bridge : definition of London Bridge and synonyms of London Bridge (English) 51°30′29″N 0°05′16″W / 51.50806°N 0.08778°W / 51.50806; -0.08778 London Bridge refers to several bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark , in central London . The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge constructed from concrete and steel. It replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. [1] The modern bridge is owned and maintained by the Bridge House Estates , an independent charity overseen by the City of London Corporation . The A3 , which it carries, is maintained by the Greater London Authority . [2] The crossing also delineates an area along the southern bank of the River Thames, between London Bridge and Tower Bridge , that has been designated as a business improvement district . [3] The current bridge stills stands at the western end of the Pool of London but it is positioned 30 metres (98 ft) upstream from the original alignment. The traditional ends of the medieval bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank and Southwark Cathedral on the southern shore. It was not until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, that London Bridge ceased to be the only crossing point downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames . Contents History The site The abutments of Modern London Bridge rest several meters above two natural gravel embankments that lie athwart of the River Thames. In late prehistory, these embankments would have offered travelers from the north or south a relatively high and dry approach to the river, through the surrounding swamps and marshes of its tidal estuary, whose expanse was much greater then than now. Between the embankments a river crossing would have been relatively easy; by ford at low tide, or ferry at high tide. The embankments themselves, particularly the northern, would have offered stable beachheads for boat traffic along the river and its estuary. There is no evidence from this period for settlement in the close vicinity; until a bridge was built at the site, London did not exist in any form. Roman bridges The Romans probably built the first bridge at the site, as part of a military road-building programme to help consolidate Claudius' conquest of 43. It would have offered uninterrupted, rapid road movements of troops and supplies from the Roman-held ports and allied or client kingdoms of Southeastern Britain into the more resistant Midlands and North. A simple pontoon bridge would have served the purpose, with a permanent military presence at one or both bridgeheads to guard the crossing. Around AD 55, the first permanent, piled bridge was built there. From such beginnings, a small trading and shipping settlement at the bridge's northern end rapidly developed into a town, known to the Romans as Londinium . At the southern end of the bridge a smaller settlement developed in the area now known as Southwark . In 60 AD Londinium and its bridge were destroyed in Boudica 's revolt; both were rebuilt more substantially than before. The Roman bridge was located very close to the present bridge, giving access between London and the south-coast ports, via Stane Street and Watling Street (the A2 ). Early medieval bridges With the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period , the river became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex . By the late 9th century, Danish invasions prompted at least a partial reoccupation of London by the Saxons; the bridge may have been rebuilt around 990 under the Saxon king Æthelred the Unready , to hasten Saxon troop movements against Sweyn Forkbeard , father of Cnut . A skaldic tradition describes the bridge's destruction in 1014 by Æthelred's ally Olaf , to divide the Danish forces who held both the walled City of London and Southwark. The earliest contemporary written reference to a Saxon bridge is c.1016 when chroniclers mention how Cnut 's ships by-pass the crossing during his war to regain the throne from Edmund Ironside . Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, William I had a Norman bridge built across the Thames in London. It was destroyed in 1091 by a tornado, which also damaged St Mary-le-Bow . [4] It was repaired or replaced by William II , but was destroyed again in 1136, this time by fire. "Old" (medieval) London Bridge An engraving by Claes Van Visscher showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with what is now Southwark Cathedral in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse. Following the destruction of the Norman bridge in 1136, rebuilding work was carried out during the reign of Stephen ; probably in the same manner as the work instituted by William II. On the accession of Henry II , an attempt was made by The Crown to regularise the maintenance of the crossing. Although there were unlicensed guilds in London doing the same purpose, the king created a national monastic guild to oversee all work on London Bridge. In 1163, a cleric named Peter de Colechurch (Peter of Colechurch) was appointed as the "Warden of the Brethren of the Bridge", with overall responsibility for the bridge's maintenance. In 1173, He proposed the timber bridge's replacement with a stone bridge. The merit of the proposal was probably boosted by the popularity of murdered Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket because the associated pilgrimage to his tomb at Canterbury Cathedral began from the bridge. In 1176, construction of the new bridge ( 51°30′31″N 0°05′11″W / 51.508656°N 0.086453°W / 51.508656; -0.086453 ) began under the direction of de Colechurch. It took 33 years to build, and was completed by 1209, during the reign of King John , who licensed the building of houses on the bridge to fund its maintenance. A chapel was built near its centre; it was dedicated to the recently canonised Becket, a native of St Mary Colechurch parish. The chapel was grander than some town parish churches, and had an additional river-level entrance for fishermen and ferrymen. The bridge had 19 small arches, a drawbridge , and a defensive gatehouse at the southern end. By the 16th century some of its buildings were up to seven stories high. The narrow arches inadvertently formed a partial barrage over the Thames, restricting its flow and rendering it more susceptible to freezing in winter. The current was further obstructed by the addition of waterwheels (designed by Peter Morice ) under the two north arches to drive water pumps, and under the two south arches to power grain mills. The difference in water levels on each side of the bridge could be as much as six feet (two metres), producing ferocious rapids between the piers or " starlings " of the bridge.. [5] Only the brave or foolhardy attempted to "shoot the bridge"—steer a boat between the starlings when in flood—and some were drowned in the attempt. The bridge was "for wise men to pass over, and for fools to pass under." [6] This pedestrian alcove, now in Victoria Park, Tower Hamlets is one of the surviving fragments of the old London Bridge that was demolished in 1831. The bridge was about 26 feet (8 m) wide, but its buildings took up about 7 feet (2 m) on each side of the street; some projected another seven feet out over the river. The road was thereby reduced to just 12 feet (4 m) wide, divided into two lanes so that in each direction, carts, wagons, coaches and pedestrians must share a passageway just six feet wide. Crossing the bridge could take up to an hour; when the bridge was congested, foot passengers who could afford the fare chose a river-ferry instead. Nearly 200 places of business lined both sides of the narrow street. The merchants lived above their shops and sold goods from the street-level floor. They used windows to show their goods and transact business; over each shop hung a sign usually in the shape of the articles sold, in order that the illiterate could recognise the nature of the business. These signs were posted high enough that a rider on a horse could pass beneath them— every inch of the small street had to be available to vehicular traffic. Many of the top floors of the houses and shops were built over the street and actually connected to the house or shop across the street, giving the street a tunnel look. The gates to London Bridge were closed at curfew , and the bridge was regarded as a safe place to live or shop.[ citation needed ] Located within the jurisdiction of the City of London parish of St Magnus and the Southwark parish of St Olave, the Bridge community was almost a town unto itself. In 1284, after many years of legal dispute, the City of London gained effective control and instituted the Bridge House Estates trust to maintain it from the older revenues and new endowments. The Bridge House stemmed from the site of Peter de Colechurch's original "house," i.e. maintenance depot and residence for his monastic "brethren of the bridge," next to St Olave's church in Southwark, a site still marked by the street name "Bridge Yard." Various arches of the bridge collapsed over the years, and houses on the bridge were burnt during Wat Tyler 's Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and Jack Cade 's rebellion in 1450, during which a pitched battle was fought on the bridge. The Northern Gate, the New Stone Gate, was replaced by Nonsuch House in 1577. The southern gatehouse, the Stone Gateway, became the scene of one of London's most notorious sights: a display of the severed heads of traitors, impaled on pikes [1] and dipped in tar to preserve them against the elements. The head of William Wallace was the first to appear on the gate, in 1305, starting a tradition that was to continue for another 355 years. Other famous heads on pikes included those of Jack Cade in 1450, Thomas More in 1535, Bishop John Fisher in the same year, and Thomas Cromwell in 1540. In 1598 a German visitor to London Paul Hentzner counted over 30 heads on the bridge [7] : “ On the south is a bridge of stone eight hundred feet in length, of wonderful work; it is supported upon twenty piers of square stone, sixty feet high and thirty broad, joined by arches of about twenty feet diameter. The whole is covered on each side with houses so disposed as to have the appearance of a continued street, not at all of a bridge. Upon this is built a tower, on whose top the heads of such as have been executed for high treason are placed on iron spikes: we counted above thirty.. ” The practice was finally stopped in 1660, following the Restoration of King Charles II .[ citation needed ] The buildings on London Bridge created a major fire hazard and served to increase the load on its arches, both of which may have contributed to the several disasters on the bridge. In 1212, perhaps the greatest of the early fires of London broke out on both ends of the bridge simultaneously, trapping many in the middle and reportedly resulting in the death of 3,000 people. Another major fire broke out in 1633, destroying the northern third of the bridge, although this prevented the bridge from being damaged by the Great Fire of London in 1666. By 1722, congestion was becoming so serious that the Lord Mayor decreed that "all carts, coaches and other carriages coming out of Southwark into this City do keep all along the west side of the said bridge: and all carts and coaches going out of the City do keep along the east side of the said bridge." This has been suggested as one possible origin for the practice of traffic in Britain driving on the left. [8] Finally, under an Act of Parliament dated June 1756, permission was obtained to demolish all the shops and houses on London Bridge. In 1758–62, the houses were removed along with the two centre arches, replaced with a single wider span to improve navigation on the river. Drawing of London Bridge from a 1682 map. "New" (19th-century) London Bridge New London Bridge in the late 19th century By the end of the 18th century, it was apparent that the old London Bridge — by then over 600 years old — needed to be replaced. It was narrow and decrepit, and blocked river traffic. In 1799, a competition for designs to replace the old bridge was held, prompting the engineer Thomas Telford to propose a bridge with a single iron arch spanning 600 feet (180 m). However this design was never used, because of uncertainty about its feasibility and the amount of land needed for its construction. The bridge was eventually replaced by a structure of five stone arches, designed by engineer John Rennie . The new bridge was built 100 feet (30 m) west (upstream) of the original site by Rennie's son of the same name. Work began in 1824 and the foundation stone was laid, in the southern coffer dam, on 15 June 1825. The old bridge continued in use while the new bridge was being built, and was demolished after the latter opened in 1831. The scheme necessitated the building of major new approach roads, which cost three times as much as the bridge itself. The total construction cost of around £2.5 million (£186 million as of 2012), [9] was met by the Corporation of London and government[ clarification needed ]. The contractors were Jolliffe and Banks of Merstham , Surrey . A fragment from the old bridge is set into the tower arch inside St Katharine's Church, Merstham. Rennie's bridge had a length of 928 feet (283 m) and a width of 49 feet (15 m). Haytor granite was used in the construction, transported via the unique Haytor Granite Tramway . The official opening took place on 1 August 1831; King William IV and Queen Adelaide attended a banquet in a pavilion erected on the bridge. The recently constructed HMS Beagle was the first ship to pass under it. Corbels for London bridge at Swelltor quarry In 1896, it was estimated that the bridge was the busiest point in London, with 8,000 people crossing the bridge on foot and 900 crossing in vehicles every hour. [1] London Bridge was widened in 1902–04 from 52 to 65 feet (16 to 20 m) in an attempt to combat London's chronic traffic congestion. A dozen of the granite "pillars" quarried and dressed for this widening, but unused, still lie near Swelltor Quarry on the disused railway track a couple of miles south of Princetown on Dartmoor . In the end, the widening work proved too much for the bridge's foundations; it was subsequently discovered that the bridge was sinking an inch (about 2.5 cm) every eight years. By 1924, the east side of the bridge was some three to four inches (about 9 cm) lower than the west side; it soon became apparent that this bridge would have to be removed and replaced with a more modern one. Sale of Rennie's bridge to Robert McCulloch Main article: London Bridge (Lake Havasu City) Rennie's Old London Bridge during reconstruction at Lake Havasu in March 1971 In 1967, the Common Council of the City of London placed the bridge on the market and began to look for potential buyers. Council member Ivan Luckin had put forward the idea of selling the bridge, and recalled: "They all thought I was completely crazy when I suggested we should sell London Bridge when it needed replacing." On 18 April 1968, Rennie's bridge was sold to an American. It was purchased by the Missourian entrepreneur Robert P. McCulloch of McCulloch Oil for US$2,460,000. The claim that McCulloch believed mistakenly that he was buying the more impressive Tower Bridge was denied by Luckin in a newspaper interview. [10] As the bridge was taken apart, each piece was numbered to aid re-assembly. The bridge was reconstructed at Lake Havasu City, Arizona , and re-dedicated on 10 October 1971. The reconstruction of Rennie's London Bridge spans the Bridgewater Channel canal that leads from Lake Havasu to Thomson Bay, and forms the centrepiece of a theme park in English style, complete with a Tudor period shopping mall . The rebuilt London Bridge in Lake Havasu City, Arizona The version of London Bridge that was rebuilt at Lake Havasu consists of a concrete frame with stones from Rennie's London Bridge used as cladding . The cladding stones used are 150 to 200 millimetres (6 to 8 inches) thick. The remaining stone was left at Merrivale Quarry at Princetown in Devon . [11] When Merrivale Quarry was abandoned and flooded in 2003, some of the remaining stone was sold in an online auction. [12] Modern London Bridge London Bridge with the Gherkin in the background The current London Bridge was designed by architect Lord Holford and engineers Mott, Hay and Anderson . [13] It was constructed by contractors John Mowlem and Co from 1967 to 1972, [13] and opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 March 1973. [14] It comprises three spans of prestressed-concrete box girders , a total of 928 feet (283 m) long. The cost of £4 million (£42.1 million as of 2012), [9] was met entirely by the Bridge House Estates charity. The current bridge was built in the same location as Rennie's bridge, with the previous bridge remaining in use while the first two girders were constructed upstream and downstream. Traffic was then transferred onto the two new girders, and the previous bridge demolished to allow the final two central girders to be added. [15] In 1984, the British warship HMS Jupiter collided with London Bridge, causing significant damage to both ship and bridge. On Remembrance Day 2004, various London bridges were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are switched on at night. The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into The City from London Bridge Station (south to north). A recent example of this is actor Hugh Grant crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film About a Boy . On Saturday 11 July 2009 an 'Anniversary Fayre' of activities involving the Livery Companies and the Guildable Manor and also hosting a 'sheep drive,' took place to commemorate the 800th Anniversary of the Colechurch Bridge's completion. [16] In vaults below the southern abutment of the bridge is ' The London Bridge Experience .' Transport The nearest London Underground stations are Monument and London Bridge . They are respectively at the northern and southern ends of the bridge. London Bridge station is also served by National Rail services. London bridge in literature and popular culture The nursery rhyme " London Bridge Is Falling Down " has been speculatively connected to several of the bridges historic collapses. Gallery One of the arches of London Bridge Arches of London Bridge London Bridge from South Bank London Bridge southern end London Bridge and surrounding London Rush hour on London Bridge London Bridge northern end.	i don't know
The Crystal Palace was re-erected on which hill in South London after the Great Exhibition of 1851?	The Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace, 1851 \| Archexpo The Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace, 1851 « Tourism and Culture Historical background The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations in 1851 was the first universal exhibition. It took place from May 1 to October 15, 1851 in London. The official opening of the exhibition took place in Hyde Park, in the Crystal Palace, a huge building glass (400 tons) and metal (4,000 tons), designed for the occasion by landscape designer Joseph Paxton (1801 1865). An area of 7.5 ha, about 14 000 exhibitors from half over forty foreign countries, half of the British Empire, were divided into four sections that were taken during the post World Fairs: raw materials, machines, manufactures, works of art. It was later expanded and moved to the top of Sydenham Hill, south London in 1854, when Queen Victoria inaugurated for the second time.Just like in 1866, when a fire destroyed the north transept, the Palace blazed within hours November 30, 1936, visible 10 miles away. The Crystal Palace Foundation was established in 1979 to defend and respect the memory of this place, a symbol of a glorious period in English history. A Chinese conglomerate Zhongrong, established in 1992 in Shanghai by the current billionaire president Ni Zhaoxing, proposed a project of construction of an exact replica of the Victorian Crystal Palace by the end of 2018. View 1 : The Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace, 1851, Add. MS 35255 © The British Library Board View 2 : Crystal Palace. Lithograph by George Baxter The front of the Crystal Palace. Gravure, 1852 View 3 : Crystal Palace. Lithograph by T. Picken, after a painting by Philip Brannan from the North-East from Dickinson's Comprehensive Pictures of the Great Exhibition of 1851, published 1854 View 4 : The Crystal Palace in its original location; the South-Eastern corner of Hyde Park View 5 : Crystal Palace. Coloured lithograph by Augustus Butler © Science & Society Picture Library/Getty ImagesThe Crystal Palace View 6 : The Great Exhibition 1851. Lithograh by Ackerman View 7 : Joseph Paxton's first sketch for the Crystal Palace, june 1850. Première esquisse de Crystal Palace par Joseph Baxton, juin 1850 View 8 : Inside the Crystal Palace by Joseph Nash View 9 : Queen Victoria opens the Great Exhibition in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London in 1851. Colour lithograph by Louis Haghe © Victoria & Albert Museum. View 10 : Nave looking to the 'foreign' exhibits View 11 : Crystal Palace. Interior transept by Joseph Nash and Haghe Roberts, 1854. British Library View 12 : Interior view of the Crystal Palace, 1851 © Victoria & Albert Museum View 13 : Crystal Palace. Visit of the Emperor and Empress of the French and Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Estampe, 1855 © BNF Palais de Cristal. Visite de l'empereur et de l'impératrice des Français: Napoléon III et Eugénie avec la reine Victoria et le prince Albert. Estampe, 1855 © BNF View 14 : Crystal Palace. Opening by Queen Victoria, 10 June 1854. Watercolour by Joseph Nash View 15 : Crystal Palace in Sydenham, 1870 © Crystal Palace Museum View 16 : Crystal Palace in Sydenham. General view from Water Temple, 1854. Photograph by Philip Henry Delamotte. View 17 : Crystal Palace in Sydenham. From Italian terrace. Postcard. View 18 : Remains of the north end after 1866 fire © Crystal Palace Museum View 19 : Crystal Palace destruction after 1866 fire © Crystal Palace Museum View 20 : Crystal Palace in fire. November 30th 1936 © London Illustrated News View 21 : Crystal Palace's awful aftermath after 1936 fire © London Illustrated News These six images are the only colour photographs ever taken of the Crystal Palace before the fire destroyed the building. Photographed in Dufay coulour by Arthur Talbot, August 1936 © Crystal Palace Museum :	Sydenham Hill
Outside of which building in Whitehall was King Charles I executed?	The Crystal Palace Resurrected \| History Today The Crystal Palace Resurrected Victorian London Architecture Roger Hudson details the rebuilding of the world’s first theme park in south London in 1853. The Crystal Palace rises again on Sydenham Hill, south of London, in 1853-4, one of a series of photographs taken by Philip Henry Delamotte. After housing the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park the structure has been sold for £70,000 to the new Crystal Palace Company, which is employing 7,000 men to re-erect its identical, standardised cast-iron sections and create the surrounding gardens. They will then cover the sections once more in glass, using, as before, ‘glazing wagons’ whose wheels run along the gutters, carrying the glaziers, their tools and materials. The area in which the two stovepipe-hatted men stand is called the open colonnade, since it has a roof but no glass in the iron side-frames. The Palace cost £150,000 in 1851 but by the time work at Sydenham was complete, £1.3 million had been spent, some £800,000 over budget. It now had five rather than three floors and curved-roof transepts north and south to accompany the original central one, which itself had been added to avoid having to cut down three large Hyde Park elms, in response to a public outcry. Much of the extra expense was down to the elaborate gardens with their terracing and fountains (12,000 jets of water in all), statuary, maze and (inaccurate) life-size models of dinosaurs. There were also two 284-ft-high brick water towers designed by Brunel. Inside there was a concert hall, complete with vast organ, and Pugin’s original 1851 fine art Medieval Court was now joined by Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Pompeian, Moorish, Byzantine, Renaissance, Indian and Chinese ones, full of plaster casts of sculpture collected round the world by Owen Jones. The expensive grounds were the brainchild of the great gardener Sir Joseph Paxton, who had first come up with the idea for the Palace, based on the ‘Giant Stove’, the huge greenhouse that he had built for his employer, the 6th Duke of Devonshire, at Chatsworth in the 1840s. The ridge-and-furrow roofing system, which can be seen clearly at the top of the photograph and in the background forming the curved transept roof, was a particular invention of his but it never really caught on; it was not until the 20th century that the Palace came to be seen as a model of what could be done in the way of a functional, modular glass-and-metal structure. Predictably the architectural establishment at the time was jealous of him for his originality and his success. Once the thousands of workmen were finished at Sydenham, Paxton arranged for them to go out to the Crimea and build roads for the army besieging Sevastopol. Later he was very much the driving force behind the building of the Thames Embankment and the West-East sewer alongside it, when not designing country houses for the Rothschilds in England and France. The Company never really recovered from the overspending at Sydenham, although Londoners flocked for entertainment and relaxation via a specially built railway line to this, the first theme park. On Sundays, the one day when the working man might have come with his family, it was closed. It still had two million visitors a year, with concerts, rallies, mass meetings, and Brocks’ firework displays every Thursday. The Company finally went bankrupt in 1909 and the Palace was then bought for the nation, only to burn down in 1936. Related articles	i don't know
The Panzer MK V in WWII was better known as?	Panzer V Panther Panzer V Panther Medium tank – 6,334 built One of the best tanks of WW2 Military historians still debate about which was the best tank of the Second World War, but for all the polls and spec comparisons, the Panzer V Panther is always one of the contenders. Given its speed and off-road capabilities, tremendous firepower, protection, sophisticated targeting sights, use of equipment far ahead of its time (like infrared vision) and, last but not least, the more than 6000 machines built, the Panther can be compared to a main battle tank, years before the British Centurion appeared. Being one the best-balanced designs of WWII, it performed accordingly, with a fear capital almost rivaling that of the Tiger . The Eastern Front as a catharsis In June 1941, during a seemingly unstoppable advance, the first encounters with T-34s really shook the General Staff, as more and more reports signaled that a Russian tank was found superior to both the upgraded Panzer III and the Panzer IV . After many had been captured in relatively good order, Heinz Guderian ordered a full report to be drawn by a Panzerkommision, dispatched to assess the T-34 . It was noted that the combination of thick, well-sloped armor, a very effective 76.2 mm (3 in) gun and good power-to-weight ratio combined with large tracks meant that the Russian tank almost reached the “impossible triangle” that characterized a perfect medium tank. This was unmatched in the German arsenal, raising concerns, which in turn needed prompt reactions. As soon as April 1942, both Daimler Benz and MAN AG were charged to design the VK 30.02, a 30-35 ton tank incorporating all the aspects underlined by the report. DB and MAN designs Daimler-Benz’s design sported a well-sloped low hull, permitted by a well-proven, although “old school” solution with leaf spring suspensions combined with large doubled roadwheels and no return rollers. This gave the tank a low silhouette and narrow hull, and thus kept the weight under the allocated limit. At the same time, this restricted the turret ring diameter, which in turn limited the turret size. Like on the T-34 , the drive sprockets were at the rear and the turret was placed forward. The engine was a diesel. Even with a three-man turret, the internal space was cramped, and mounting the planned high velocity L/70 75 mm (2.95 in) gun proved very difficult. On the other hand, MAN presented a much larger vehicle, with the transmission and drive sprockets at the front, a larger, roomier turret moved backwards and a gasoline engine. The torsion bar suspension required more internal space, a larger hull and tracks. For the suspension, MAN took inspiration from Henschel’s Tiger design, with pairs of large interleaved wheels, which gave a lower ground pressure, better traction and mobility. This configuration also provided extra protection to the weaker lower hull sides. Versucht Panther V2 (Fgst nr.V2), pre-production prototype, fall 1942. From January until March 1942, these two prototypes were tested. Fritz Todt and, later, Albert Speer, replacing the former, both warmly recommended the DB design to Adolf Hitler. In the meantime, DB had reviewed its design in order to match the MAN proposal, and added the already existing Rheinmetall-Borsig turret, which allowed immediate production. MAN produced a mild steel prototype in September 1942, which started a new series of trials at Kummersdorf. These showed far superior mobility, even compared to the Panzer IV . The engine, for the sake of standardization, was shared with the Tiger , but the Panther weighed 20 tons less. Two final pre-production prototypes were also delivered in November (V1 and V2). Production swiftly followed, at MAN and DB (hull and assembly), Rheinmetall-Borsig (turret), later extended to Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen-Hannover (MNH) and Henschel & Sohn in Kassel. Production of the Panzer V The delivery orders were rushed, asking for a first batch by December. However, the specialized tooling for this new model was far from ready and designed in haste. The order for 1000 to be delivered in early 1943 proved over-optimistic, and a first pre-series of 20 was built. These were called Null-series, Ausfuehrung A (different from the later series), equipped with the early 75 mm (2.95 in) KwK 42 L/70 gun. Later, these were called D-1, and the large-scale series was named Ausf.D. As a consequence of this rush, the first series of the Ausf.D had reliability problems. Speer set a 250 vehicles/month objective, modified in January 1943 to 300 per month. By 1944, increasing Allied bombings and industrial bottlenecks meant that only a feeble percentage of this figure was reached. 143 were built per month on average in 1943, but with new simplified models and production spread out throughout Germany, this rose to 315 in 1944 and even 380 in March 1945, with a total production reaching 6000. This figure was still far away from those of the T-34 and Sherman , but the Panther became the third most produced German AFV, after the Panzer IV and the StuG III . Its unit cost was only marginally higher, despite the technological gap. 117,100 RM compared to the 103,462 RM of the late Panzer IV , mostly thanks to streamlined production methods, but, still, far less than the same generation Tiger (250,000 RM). At some point, deliveries of hulls exceeded those of engines. The Maybach factory was pounded mercilessly, and even came to a complete halt for five months. The Auto-Union plant at Siegmar also started to build the engines from May 1944. Rheinmetall-Borsig, however, never suffered such gaps in production, and there was constantly an excess of Panther turrets. Many of these were turned into AT pillboxes, defensive fortifications which played their part in Italy, in Northern Europe and the Siegfried line. The biggest problem suffered by the Panther production was the lack of spare parts, which dropped to only 8% of tank production at the end of 1944. By then, field workshops had to cannibalize existing tanks to repair others, further hampering the operational availability of these tanks in the crucial years of 1944-45. Design of the Panther Hull & armor The T-34’s main feature, its well sloped armor, was used with great attention by the MAN and DB designers. However, to increase internal space, the MAN designers, who created the V1 and V2 prototypes, choose to increase the engine compartment by creating a rear inverted slope. They also used moderately sloped flanks, without mudguards, as the flanks themselves formed them. This was also a welcome simplification in design, but required numerous straps to fix spare elements and steel towing cables. The frontal glacis was the thickest, forming a beak nose, with a 60 mm (2.36 in) upper plate (90 mm/3.54 in equivalent armor), and a lower 50 mm (1.97 in) plate. Later, on Hitler’s orders, the upper plate was increased to 80 mm (3.15 in) and the lower to 60 mm (2.36 in). The frontal equivalent armor became 120 mm (4.72 in), enough to withstand most Allied and Russian AT guns of the time. The lower and upper hull sides were both 40 mm (1.57 in) thick. The upper side hull was sloped to a 50° angle, later raised to 50 mm (1.97 in) at 60° on the Ausf.G. The lower hull was also protected by the interleaved wheels and, later, added 10 mm (0.39 in) side skirts. The rear was sloped at 60°, 40 mm (1.57 in) thick. The Rheinmetall-Borsig turret was also well-sloped and roomy. The front had, at first, 80 mm (3.15 in) of armor at 78°, then 110 mm (4.33 in) (Ausf.A), then 100 mm (3.94 in) at 80° on the Ausf.G. The sides were angled at 65° and 45 mm (1.77 in) thick, and the top, almost flat, was 15 mm (0.59 in), then 30 mm (1.18 in) on the Ausf.G. The gun mantlet, made of cast armor, was 120 mm (4.72 in) thick and rounded. This part also serves to help distinguish between versions, the later versions being fitted with a flattened, “chin” model, to avoid the “shot-trap” effect of this configuration. The armor itself was at first face-hardened, but with the generalization of armor-piercing capped rounds, a March 1943 note dropped this specification in favor of a simpler homogeneous steel glacis plate. The turret sides also proved relatively weak and an alternative turret, the Schmalturm , was soon studied. A forged cupola replaced the cast one in earlier models. On the D-2, the commander cupola was cast instead of drum-type and side armor skirts became standard. These plates were welded and interlocked for extra strength. The mantlet didn’t prove immune to the late 75 mm (2.95 in) M1A1 (late Sherman versions ), Russian IS-2 122 mm (4.8 in), and British 17-pdr (76.2 mm/3 in). The side armor was not sufficient to deal with flanking attacks by most Allied tanks, contrary to the Tiger . Different tactics and 5 mm (0.2 in) side skirts (Schürzen) were applied. Zimmerit anti-magnetic paste was applied relatively early, on the late Ausf.D, but dropped in September 1944 due to unverified rumors claiming this paste caught fire. Because of incessant Allied bombings, some precious alloys became hard to acquire. The production of composite armor was thus problematic, the lack of molybdenum, in particular, causing late armor plates to crack easily when hit. Engine, steering & drivetrain The prototypes and first 250 Ausf.Ds delivered were fitted with a V12 Maybach HL 210 P30, giving 650 hp (484.9 kW) at 3500 rpm. By May, it was replaced by the more powerful 23.1 liter Maybach HL 230 P30 V-12, 690 hp (514.74 kW), which made the late Ausf.D the fastest of the entire series, and prompted an armor upgrade on the Ausf.A. The light alloy block was replaced by a cast iron one and two multistage “cyclone” air filters added, but the engine output was reduced by the low quality gasoline. Average operational range was around 97-130 km (60-80 miles), reduced to 60-80 km (40-50 miles) cross-country. The Maybach P30 was compact, with a seven disc crankshaft, and the two series of cylinders were not offset. However, this tight connecting rod space caused teething problems, like blown head gaskets, and the bearings failed early on. To avoid overheating, an engine governor was also fitted in November 1943, as well as an eight disc crankshaft, improved bearings and seals. The engine compartment was watertight, but this caused concerns of poor ventilation and overheating. This, added to early non-isolated fuel connectors, caused leakages and the engine to catch fire. The fighting compartment was well separated, these issues being addressed later by better isolation and cooling. With all these measures, the reliability grew steadily until the end of the war. There was also an automatic fire extinguisher, which experienced early malfunctions. Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen made the seven-speed AK 7-200 synchromesh gearbox, coupled with a MAN single radius steering system, operated by levers. The fixed turning radius of the last, 7th gear, was 80 meters (262 ft). The choice was left to the visual appreciation of the driver, which could also engage to brakes to turn more sharply. This simpler system, compared to the Tiger steering, was thought to be more reliable. However, the final drive units proved a major issue, caused by the original epicyclic gearing, which had to be greatly simplified under the supervision of Chief Director of Armament and War Production. The double spur gears chosen, combined with lower quality tempered steel, proved to be a burden due to the high torque of the Panther and enormous stress, even more complicated by the tight space allocated. The situation was such that these fragile parts had a life expectancy of 150 km (93.2 mi) on average. This issue was partly addressed by a stronger gear housing, but the complete replacement of the system was not planned before the next Panther II , later abandoned. Planners devised special training for careful handling. Most of the time, the Panthers were carried by rail next to their immediate deployment zone. Suspension The Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor Curator Charles R. Lemons ran a comparison in turret travers speeds of the German Panther tank and the Allied Sherman Tank. He found that the Panther had a travers speed of 10 degrees per second which was a lot slower than the 20 degrees a second produced by the US electro-hydraulic powered traverse motors fitted to the Sherman Turrets. The Panther’s travers speed depended on the main engine for pumping power. This slow speed could help a fast Allied tank avoid getting hit in Urban situations. Suspension One of the most striking features of this 2nd generation German tank, compared to previous models, was the adoption of a Schachtellaufwerk wheeltrain. It was already pioneered on several AFVs and also adopted by the Tiger , and suspended by dual torsion bars. This system was invented by prof. Ernst Lehr, and was known for its wide travel stroke and rapid oscillations, plus overall reliability, being designed both for high speed and bad terrain. In case of damage, the torsion bars could be removed and replaced easily on the spot. However, the interleaved wheel system rendered all replacements and maintenance time-consuming, due to difficult access to the internal wheels and weight of individual roadwheels. A complexity which remained properly German and was never adopted elsewhere. In bad weather, they had a tendency to clog with mud, rocks, snow and ice, which proved problematic on the Eastern Front. In March 1945, MAN converted a few chassis to interleaved, but non overlapping wheels and, from the fall of 1944 to early 1945, sleeve bearings were also tried, with mixed success, but not further developed. Roadwheel replacement in Northern France – Credits: Bundesarchiv. Armament of the Panther The Rheinmetall-Borsig KwK 42 (L/70) was the high-velocity gun planned and integrated in the Panther turret. It was a 75 mm (2.95 in) gun with 79 to 82 HE, APCBC-HE, and APCR rounds, often in low availability. Despite the moderate caliber, the large propellant charge and long barrel contributed to making this gun a very efficient armor-piercing weapon. The shell had even more penetrating power than the 88 mm (3.46 in) of the Tiger . Secondary armament comprised, typically, of one coaxial MG 34 machine gun and one hull MG 34, usually fired by the radio operator. The latter was, at first, operated through a “letter box” flap covering the vertical firing aperture. Later, on the late Ausf.A and on the Ausf.G, a more conventional ballmount was fitted, coupled with a K.Z.F.2 sight. Spent shells fell into a box, and the hatch covering it automatically closed while exhaust fumes were extracted outside via hoses. 75 mm (2.95 in) KwK 42 L70. The Panzer V Ausf.D, A and G The Ausf.D (January – September 1943) The Ausf.D was the very first version, produced in January 1943. The first few were called Ausfuehrung A1, later renamed D1 to avoid confusion with the latter series. This version had teething problems, which were partly resolved on the D2. The first 20 were characterized by the early 75 mm (2.95 in) KwK 42 L/70. The turret was equipped with the early commander drum shaped cupola which stuck out on the right, fitted with six vision slits, while the turret had side and rear pistols ports. Overall vision was limited. There was a binocular Turmzielfernrhor 12 sighting telescope with 2.5x magnification. The hull had one piece hull plates, with all joints stepped and welded. There were 79 rounds, 40 stored horizontally in panniers along the superstructure and 36 stored vertically in bins along the hull sides. Empty-round ejection hatches were fitted in the turret side, and the hull machine-gun was served by a vertical flap. This early model also had turret side smoke dischargers. 5100 machine-gun rounds were stored in 34 bags. The engine was the early Maybach HL-210, and the overall weight was only 34.4 tons. The radio was a FUG-5 ultra-short wave length receiver. Hitler ordered the production to be stopped in July 1943. 600 more rolled of the assembly line until September 4. The D2 was an upgraded version developed in late 1943 – early 1944 and retro-fitted with Schürzen side skirts (total width was 3.42 m/11.22 ft). It had a Maybach HL-230 engine. To complicate version recognition even more, some turret repairs performed at local workshops included the fitting of the new Ausf.A cupola, when the original turret was not entirely replaced. The Panzer V Ausf.A (July 1943- May 1944) Production of the Ausfuehrung A started in July 1943, after Hitler insisted on upgrading the armor, especially the front glacis. At the same time, a whole array of modifications were performed, including solving most earlier problems. Externally, the main difference was the adoption of a new commander cupola, cast, hemispheric and fitted with an AA ring. Later versions got a new ball mount for the hull machine gun. The very first Ausf.A was obtained by mounting a modified turret on an unchanged Ausf.D hull. The shape of the cast turret front behind the gun mantlet was distinctive. In all, 29 specific parts were redesigned or brand new, including the turret armor, access hatch in the turret back, communications ports, pistol ports, gun mantlet, commander cupola, turret race, mantlet watertight seal, traverse motor, lock, auxiliary hand traverse, machine-gun mount, elevating mechanism for the main gun, footpedal for the hydraulic traverse, linkage to fire the coaxial MG, azimuth indicator, external traverse locks for the gun, sight mount, roof exhaust fan, loader periscope, the turret platform and its compressor, loader, commander and gunner’s seats, electrical equipment and tooling specific to the turret and stowage. However, the external shape and armor remained virtually unchanged. The gun was the same and retained its binocular TZF 12 gun sight. However, the turret front plate and side plates were now interlocked, using a squared off joint instead of a dovetail joint. In September 1943, a whole array of changes were performed, which help differentiate between the “early” and “late” Ausfuehrung A. In May 1944, the production of the Ausf.A ceased. 2,200 had been built by MAN, Daimler-Benz, Demag and Henschel. A whole set of modifications took place after deliveries. First, reinforced roadwheels were issued with 24 rim bolts, then Zimmerit coating was applied systematically after September 1943. The Maybach HL-230 received modified blown head gaskets, with copper rings to prevent leakages, as well as a new coolant circulation system, also starting in September. By November, maximum engine rpm was mechanically limited to 2500. Faulty bearings were also systematically replaced. By early 1944, new crankshafts were issued, then a new piston design was introduced. In March came a reduction hand crank starter. Ice sprags, which increased traction on mud and snow, were also issued in mid-1944, a frame for the turret platform and, for some, a centered tow coupling was adopted, like the one on the Bergenpanther. Later, a new monocular gun sight TZF 12a was fitted for the gun and a ball mount for the hull machine gun. The Panzer V Ausf. G (September 1943 – May 1945) The last, best and most prolific version came in the fall of 1943, the Ausf.G. It was the sum of battlefield experience and careful fixing of previous issues found on earlier models. The decision came in May 1943, during a reunion with officers at the MAN factory. There was a whole set of modifications for the hull, retaining an unchanged turret. The main concern was to increase the armor protection. As an example, the hull front glacis was raised to 80 mm (3.15 in). Other changes included the ball mount, suspensions, shock absorber locations, track sprocket, guard, adjustment, motor, fuel system, throttle linkage, brake & transmission, ventilation, floor plates, radio racks, ammo dust covers, electrical equipment, turret drive, both driver and radioman hatch, periscope and seats, steering brakes, external stowage, transmission, rear deck, foot controls, steering gear, clutch linkage, final driven, steering and brake linkages, cooling water heater and thermostat and the tracks. The side sloped mudguard shape was also distinctive. More rounds were also stored, up to 82. However, few changes were dictated with mass-production in mind, with simplified parts and processes, contrary to the late Panzer IV Ausf.H . It was all about excellence on the battlefield. Ausf.G mantlet detail Production started in March 1944 and lasted until April 1945. Total deliveries were 1143 by MAN, 1004 by DB and 806 by MNH. In November 1944, a comprehensive array of correspondences between the Waffenamt and MAN was turned into a report, asking for a range of late modifications. These included previously delayed modifications, and new ones, concerning the guards for the exhaust pipes, socket for 2-ton jib boom, handle on the rear turret access hatch, the commander’s cupola periscope mount, air intake cover, periscope observation mount, rain guard over the driver’s periscope and, later, gun sight aperture, jettisonable hatches, debris guard over gap behind the gun mantlet, factory-applied camouflage patterns and multicolored paints applied in patches on primer, to end the Zimmerit coating, infrared searchlight and scope, chin gun mantlet, steel rubber-clad roadwheels, modified ammunition stowage, radiator cooling fans, improved final drives, self-cleaning idler wheels, flame suppressor exhaust mufflers, crew compartment heater, elimination of the rear shock absorbers, an elevated seat for the driver, new instrument panel, defense against poison gas attacks, a cleaner for the gun sight, stencils, a new AA machine-gun mount, modified rear deck, loader’s seat, internal turret ivory paint finishing, rings for attached camouflage. Many of these changes had been previously authorized in the field by the Waffenamt. The Ausf.G was, however, not the last Panther version. Two major overhauls were attempted, the Panther II and the Ausf.F. The most distinctive feature of the latter was the new Schmallturm narrow turret and improved gun. None ever saw action before the end of the war. It should be noted that two features of the Ausf.G were well ahead of their time. Night infrared targeting systems and poison gas protection (a forerunner of NBC protections) were characteristics of the MBTs of the fifties and sixties. A Panther unleashed on the battlefield Eastern Front “Operation Zitadelle” On January 9, 1943, in preparation for the great summer offensive on the Eastern front, the first unit ever supplied with the Panther was Panzer-Abteilung 51, followed by Pz.Abt. 52 in February 1943 (96 tanks, four companies each), plus HQ Panzer Regiment Stab 39. Training started immediately, but the vehicles were soon found to be plagued by mechanical failures, which led to a major reconstruction at Falkensee and Nuernberg in March to May 1943. However, the program failed to correct all detected problems, still present when the units were first committed in action (eventually, only 40 of the 196 were serviceable). At the insistence of Guderian, a second program was initiated at Gafenwoehr. With all these interruptions, training quality was degraded. By mid June, the two Panzer-Abteilung, plus PzAbt.28, were sent back on the Eastern front, under the command of Von Lauchert. His units were part of the XLVIII Panzer-Korps, 4th Panzerarmee, Herresgruppe Sude. On the 5th of July, it was attached to the Pzd. SS. GrossDeutschland (200 Panthers). Operations ceased on the 20th of July with just 41 Panthers operational (43 in August), and a report by Lauchert, underlining many problems, notably the fuel pump deficiencies (56 burned out beyond repairs). Disabled Ausf.D at Kursk The report, endorsed by Gen. Guderian, presented excellent fighting performances nonetheless, the crews claiming 267 kills. These vehicles could destroy any Soviet AFV beyond reach. However, they only accounted for a small percentage (7%) of all German armor committed in the offensive (2400-2700). There was a reinforcement of 12 Ausf.Ds, but losses rose again with the Soviet counter-attack, many Panthers being abandoned and never recovered. By the 11th of August, 156 were total write offs. Soviet counter-offensive On the 26th of August 1943, the former Pz Abt.52 was consolidated into the 1st Abteilung/Pz.Rgt 15, with all recovered and repaired Panthers. Pz.Abt 51 received a new shipment of 96 vehicles, still remaining attached to “GrossDeutschland”. During the counter-offensive, they lost 36 of them (total write offs). Only 15 were serviceable and 45 needed repairs. The same month, a new unit arrived, the 2nd Abteilung/SS Pz.Rgt 2 attached to “Das Reich” with only 71 Panthers. Later, in September, this unit had only 21 Panthers left, with 40 needing repairs. A fourth unit joined in, the 2nd Pz.Abt./Pz.Rgt 23 (96 Panthers), and a fifth, 1st Abt./Pz.Rgt 2, mostly with Ausf.As, which soldiered on until late October. Northern Front After another report, still showing mechanical unreliability, Hitler took action. He ordered, in November, that 60 Panthers without engines or transmissions be sent on the Leningrad Front (Heeresgruppe North). They were dug-in on the opposite bank of Konstadt, supported by AT guns and infantry, with the 10 more reliable machines left in a mobile reserve, forming the Ist Abt./Pz.Rgt 29. Two other Abteilungs arrived the same month on the Northern front, for the L Armee Korp. By December, the last unit for a long time arrived in this area, 1st Abt/Pz.Rgt31. Indeed, new faults have been found with the HL 230 engine which needed corrections and no Panther was sent on the Eastern front for months. By the end of December, 624 Panthers had been lost as total write offs, on the Central and Northern front, for 841 shipped in total. After improvements, Guderian would state in January 1944 that “the Panther is at last front ripe”. Central Front, summer 1944 Before the start of operation Bagration, the Germans had considerably reinforced their strength. 31 Abteilungen were converted to Panthers, and new ones sent on the Central front. Their average complement was 79, but some counted 60 units, and Panzerbrigades had only 36. Mixed units like the I/Pz.Rgt Brandenburg assigned to the Panzergrenadier Division Kurmark, had 45 vehicles, while Pz.Rgt 29 (Pz. Div. Münchenberg) counted only 21 Panthers. Ausf.As formed the bulk of these, completed with early Ausf.Gs. Aftermath (July-December 1944) Shortly after the Russians succeed in creating a gap on the Central front, 14 Panzer-Brigades were hastily reorganized, but only half were sent to the Eastern Front, the others being gathered to counter the Allied push from Normandy in August. By that time, Allied bombings severely hampered the production capacity, which needed drastic reorganization. Under severe shortages, reduced Abteilungs were now committed into action, at least until the end of the year. By September 1944, 522 were listed in service at the same time in operational units. The bulk of the Panthers produced was found on the Eastern Front, with as many as 740 in March 1945. Most successful operational units comprised the 23rd and 26th Independent Panzer Regiments, 2nd Das Reich and 1st Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler Panzer-Divisions. Operations in January-March 1945 (Poland, eastern Prussia) By February 1945, following the failure of the Western offensive, eight divisions (1, 2, 9, 10, 12 SS, 21st Pzd. and 28th PzGd, and the Fuehrer Grenadier Division) were sent back to the Eastern front, with some reinforcements (275 Panthers). By March 1945, experimental units started using night attack tactics, equipped with FG1250/1251 infrared illuminators. Following this success, five other units were equipped with these systems, all on the Eastern front. Against all odds, combining an absence of notable breakdowns, operational readiness reached its all-time highest and various units gained local victories which diverted considerable resources from the enemy. In January 1945, production also reached its historical highest. Panther Ausf.G in operations. Western Europe Normandy was the playground for the new Ausf.A. By D-Day, only two Panzer regiments on the Western Front were equipped with the Panther (156 in all). With reinforcements, this figure rose to 432 by July. Six Abteilungen (counting 79-89 Panthers each) were attached to the 1st, 2nd, 9th, and 12th SS Panzerdivisions operating in this area, as well as the 2nd PzD and Panzerlehr divisions. Most of the teething problems found on the D1-D2 had been solved and reliability, as well as tactical deployment, allowed this up-armored version to show its full and formidable potential. Guderian still complained about the life expectancy of the final drives, and, still, some engines caught fire. The majority soldiered around Caen, pinning down the Anglo-Canadian forces of the 21st Army Group on open ground and retreating under the cover of the bocage, woods and buildings. However, the British 17-pdr (76.2 mm/3 in) claimed many of these machines on the same grounds, which rendered counter-offensives perilous, not mentioning the always present air threat. Reinforcements and replacements arrived in the end of June, but, by September, only three regiments were left, crippled after operation Cobra. Most had been wiped out at the Falaise gap. After this, many inexperienced units were sent to “plug the gap”, with mixed success, during the retreat from France. Engine replacement in the field. As Gen. Fritz Bayerlein of the Panzer Lehr division mentioned, the Panther was not at an advantage in the hedgerows. The long barrel and overall width reduced its maneuverability on the narrow roads. More so, it was front heavy, tall and lacked lateral vision, which rendered the crew almost blind to sneaking antitank infantry squads and close-quarter attacks. In September-October 1944, brand-new Panzerbrigades were sent to block the path of Gen. Patton, but the young and poorly trained crews couldn’t cope with well seasoned US crews, and their new tactics involving the M4(75)W , M10 and M36 tank-hunters. Losses were appalling. After this, the bulk of the new Panther Ausf.A-G were kept until the Ardennes counter-offensive (“Wacht am Rhein”). However, in the hands of a few veterans and tank aces, the last upgraded Ausf.Gs performed quite impressively. British Pz.Kpfw.V Panther Ausf.G Cuckoo from the 4th Battalion of the 6th Coldstream Guards Tank Brigade, North-West Europe, 1944/45. During the battle of the Bulge, around 400 Panthers were listed in the units participating in the offensive, while 471 were listed in all for all the Western front. They were not at their advantage in the forest, but once again proved deadly on open ground. However, when supporting troops assaulting small villages, they took heavy losses due to Bazookas and PIATs manned by Allied infantry inside the narrow streets. A special unit, the Panzerbrigade 150, included five Panthers disguised as M10 tank destroyers for Operation Greif, a “fifth column” commando which created havoc behind US lines. However, the disguise did not trick US forces for long, and the five vehicles were ultimately destroyed. By January 1945, only 97 were left from the Bulge Furnace. The bulk of the new Panzerbattalions were sent in the East, and only four regiments were kept on the Western front. Late versions saw an array of modifications, allowing night attacks in coordination with special versions of the Sd.Kfz.251 with long-range infrared illuminators, and completed by assault troops using Vampir-modified Sturmgewehr guns. Until the end of the war, new rounds with enhanced AP characteristics were also issued, although in limited quantities. For example, the Panzergranät 40 was able to penetrate 194 mm (7.64 in) or armor at short range and 106 mm (4.17 in) at 2000 m (6561 ft). The Panther’s thick frontal armor and long range gun were considerable assets on the battlefield, but the sides were vulnerable. So, the drivers developed a habit of retreating in reverse speed instead on turning the vehicle when under attack, always presenting the front. Despite of this, Allied crews became experts in out-flanking maneuvers, but the Panther could still count on better mobility than the Tiger , which in turn, compensated by its stronger side armor. Ausf.G IR (Infrared) vision system. Italy Contrary to the Tiger , no Panther was ever sent in Tunisia. Despite of this, some Abteilungen saw action throughout Italy, until March 1945. At the same time, more and more “Panther-pillboxes”, spread out in defensive open fields, turned to be highly effective. The first batch arrived in August 1943, with 71 Ausf.D tanks of the 1st SS Panzer Division. They returned to Germany by October, never to see action there. However, the 1st Abteilung, 4th Pzr-Regt first engaged US forces in February as reinforcements at Anzio. However, by the end of May, most had been lost in action, some destroyed by ship artillery. By mid-June, only 11 were reported operational. However, 38 were shipped by rail, reinforced later by two batches of 20 and 10 in replacements in October. This unit stayed as a tactical reserve until the end of the war. The mountainous terrain favored the Panther when well placed, and greatly complicated flanking attacks by Allied forces. However, the British had more and more 17-pounders engaged in action, and many Panthers were also disabled by indirect fire (Allied SPGs were massively employed) due to poor upper protection. Variants, projects and derivatives Panther II The Panther II , later abandoned and merged with the E 50 program, was initially the result of Hitler’s insistence for an up-armored Panther, and to raise the commonality between the Panther and Tiger II , then in development. In April 1943, this was materialized in the Panther II program, basically a standard Panther hull with a glacis 100 mm (3.94 in) thick, 60 mm (2.36 in) of side armor and 30 mm (1.18 in) top. An initial plan asked for a production schedule by September 1943. The new tank would have also been equipped with the same 75 mm (2.95 in) L/70 KwK 42 gun as the normal Panther. MAN was asked to deliver a prototype in August 1943, equipped with the latest Maybach HL 234 fuel-injected engine, capable of delivering 900 hp (671.4 hp) coupled with the GT 101 gas turbine. However, by the summer of 1943, these concerns were dropped and all efforts focused on the Panther itself. Although it is unclear if there was any official cancellation, US forces eventually captured one Panther II prototype, fitted with an Ausf.G turret in 1945 (now displayed at Fort Knox). The Ausf.F eventually became the goal for improvement of the Panther design. Panther Ausf.F This version was the product of the failed Panther II project, with a more limited range of upgrades. In November 1943, Rheinmetall designed an armored gun mantlet with a narrow front plate 120 mm (4.72 in) thick. The narrow turret presented a smaller target and spared weight as well. The design was refined in March 1944, under the name of Schmale Blende Turm-Panther. This was one of several designs later collectively called “Schmalltürm” (narrow turret). Several of these turrets, housing an adapted 75 mm (2.95 in) KwK 42 L/70, were tested until the end of the war. Despite being much better protected, this turret was smaller and not heavier than the original one. It was equipped with the same gun mantlet like the Tiger II , a built-in stereoscopic rangefinder and a modified commander cupola. A new hull was also designed, up-armored and equipped with the new steel-rimmed wheels. Daimler-Benz and Ruhrstahl-Hattingen steelworks produced some of these. Production of the Ausf.F was scheduled to start in April 1945. The war ended before any tanks could be completed. E 50 The E 50 program inherited most of the ideas concerning the Panther II . The E series made good use of industrial commonality between models, for the sake of mass-production. The E 50 corresponded to the 50 ton class medium tank, and was scheduled to replace the original Panther. The plans for a prototype built by MAN included a Tiger II -like hull and mechanical parts, including the drivetrain and new steel-rimmed wheels, paired and not interleaved. No plans regarding the turret or gun were found, but it is commonly assumed that it would’ve sported the Schmallturm and the Tiger II ‘s 88 mm (3.46 in). Bergepanther The idea emerged in 1943, due to problems in recovering heavy and medium tanks with usual methods. Previous recovery vehicles (like the Sd.Kfz.9) were rarely able to salvage a Panther or a Tiger . Plus, it was strictly forbidden for a Tiger to attempt salvaging another one, due to the risk of loosing both in breakdowns. The development was carried out by MAN. After the Tiger was seen as not meeting the desired requirements, the Panther was chosen instead. First Bergepanthers were completed on Panther Ausf.D chassis, in which only the turret was removed by the manufacturer. By the end of 1944, the more reliable Ausf.Gs were used for these conversions. The crew consisted of at least three soldiers, the towing apparatus was operated by two soldiers in the vehicle. They sat in the central tower, a square wooden and metal structure, with longitudinal tensile reinforcements for 40 tons embedded in the chassis. A large earth spade at the rear served to support traction. In addition, the simple crane boom had a 1.5 tons loading capacity. The Bergepanther was quite reliable and could be used in enemy territory, receiving a single MG 34 or 42 for self-defense at the front, or a Buglafette for a 20 mm (0.79 in) cannon. Its towing capacity allowed to salvage Tigers and even heavier vehicles. From 1943 to 1945, approximately 339 Bergepanthers of all versions were delivered by MAN, Henschel, Daimler-Benz (Berlin plant-Marie Felde) and Demag. Jagdpanther The Panzerjäger V Panther, also known as “Jagdpanther”, was the main derivative of the Panther. Official designation was 8.8 cm (3.46 in) Pak 43/3 auf Panzerjäger Panther, and it was based on the upgraded Panther Ausf.G. Thus, it was reliable mechanically and even more agile than the regular Panther, while being able to destroy any single Allied tank of the time. Only 415 were built by MIAG, MNH and MBA until 1945. FlakPanzer Coelian The idea was to put the most powerful AA system on the Panther chassis, to provide each Abteilung with its anti-air defense, when it was needed most. By the fall of 1944, Allied air superiority over Europe was a constant threat to any operation. Rheinmetall proposed a special twin 3.7 cm (1.46 in) FlaK 43 fully enclosed turret to be adapted on a regular Panther chassis. The first prototype was not even built when the war ended. A single unit was captured, a Panther.D chassis with a mock-up turret mounted on it. Other Rheinmetall paper projects, also called “Coelian”, had four 20 mm (0.79 in) MG 151/20 guns, or a combination of a QF 55 mm (2.17 in) with twin 37 mm (1.46 in). Links and resources about the Panther <tdcolspan=”2″>Panther Ausf.G specifications Dimensions (L-w-h) Ausf.F prospective view, May 1945. Panther II , possible appearance according to technical sketches. The E 50 . Here is a prospective view of the E 50 in service. No plans regarding the E 50 turret have been found to date. The turret presented here is based on the assumption that the Schmalturm turret and the 8.8 cm KwK 43 L/71 would have been used. Variants & Conversions Beobachtungspanzer V Panther Ausf.D mit FuG-5 & FuG-8, artillery observation vehicle. Bergepanther auf Panzer V Ausfuehrung D, Eastern front, 1944. Bergepanther mit Aufgesetztem PzKfw.IV Turm als Befehlspanzer, a Bergepanther retro-fitted command version, equipped here with a spare Panzer IV F-2 turret. Panzerjäger V Panther. Also known as the Jagdpanther . Gallery Panthers being turned out from various manufacturers. Ausf.G at Bovington.	Panther tank
During the English Civil War the Parliamentarians held London. In which city did the Royalists establish their rival capital?	Panzer IV Panzer IV Medium tank – 8800 built The warhorse of the German army No one at the Krupp factory in 1936 could have predicted that this massive model, equipped with a short barrel gun for infantry support, and considered at first as an auxiliary inside the Panzerdivisions, would be so extensively used in the German army. With nearly 9000 units (the real figures are still elusive), this was not only the biggest tank production in Germany ever, but it was also manufactured in growing numbers, despite the shortages, until the very last days of WW2 in Europe. Despite a well-dated general conception, and the rise of the brand new generation of tanks that included the Panther , Tiger and Königstiger , it carried not only the bulk of the Wehrmacht, but was also the chosen tank for many elite SS Panzerdivisions. The recipe of this success was probably its large hull and turret, easy maintenance, reliability and a sturdy chassis, which allowed a more generous array of weapons than the Panzer III . From the Ausf.A to F1, the early “short” versions, using the short 75 mm (2.95 in) barrel, were gradually replaced by the “long” ones (F2 to H), using a very effective high velocity gun derived from the Pak 40, able to cope with the Russian T-34 and KV-1 . They eventually completely replaced the Panzer III as the most numerous German battle tank. Design of the Krupp prototype The initial specifications for the Panzer IV were set up in 1934 by the Waffenwamt, naming it a “Begleitwagen” or “accompanying vehicle”, to disguise its true role, then forbidden under the Versailles Treaty. Right: The standard-issue Maybach 300 hp engine, which propelled both Panzer III and IV. Heinz Guderian himself was behind the concept. This new model was meant to be a support tank for the infantry, placed on the rearguard of any Panzerdivision. One such unit would be available for every three spearheading companies of Panzer IIIs , at the tank battalion level. Contrary to the Panzer III , equipped with a variant of the standard-issue 37 mm (1.46 in) Pak 36 , with good antitank capabilities, the short barrel howitzer of the Panzer IV was suitable against all kind of fortifications, blockhauses and pillboxes, or antitank guns and artillery positions. At first, the allotted weight limit was 24 tons. Three prototypes were delivered by MAN, Krupp, and Rheinmetall-Borsig, and Krupp was awarded the main contract. The initial suspension was a brand new one, using six interleaved wheels. The army later required a torsion bar, giving better vertical deflection. This was proven to procure a smoother ride than the previous system, but the urge to develop the new tank prevented any further development. Krupp reverted to a more traditional system with four twin wheel bogies with leaf springs, permitting easier maintenance. The crew-size of five was allowed by the three-man turret, housing the commander, loader and gunner. The driver and radio operator/machine-gunner sat in the hull. The fighting compartment was relatively roomy and phonic isolation from the rear engine compartment was improved. The turret was fitted with intercom and radio. Although it was not apparent at first, the hull was asymmetrical, the turret being offset 6.5 cm (2.62 in) to the left, and the engine moved 15 cm (6 in) to the right. This was done in order to directly connect the turret ring to the main transmission torque shaft, allowing faster traverse. The ammunition lockers were subsequently placed on the roomier right side. The Krupp prototype, designed and built in 1936 at Krupp AG’s factory in Magdeburg, was designated Versuchskraftfahrzeug 622 by the Waffenwamt. However, it quickly became known as the Pz.Kpfw. IV (Sd.Kfz.161) in the new prewar nomenclature. Its engine was the gasoline Maybach HL 108TR, developing 250 hp, with a SGR 75 transmission coupled with a five forward, one reverse gearbox. Maximum speed on trials (on flat ground) was 31 km/h (19 mph). The main gun was the 75 mm (2.95 in), low-velocity Kampfwagenkanone 37 L/24, or KwK 37 L/24. This gun was meant to deal with concrete fortifications using its HE shells. However, some antitank capacity was provided by the Panzergranate (AP shell), which reached 440 m/s (1450 ft/s). It was capable of penetrating 43 mm (1.7 in) of armor at 700 m (2300 ft). Two more MG 34s completed the armament, one coaxial and the other in the front hull plate. On the first production version, the Ausf.A, armor reached only 14.5 mm (0.57 in) on the hull and 20 mm (0.79 in) on the turret, although it was hardened steel. This protection was meant to deal only with light arms fire and light artillery and grenade fragments. The early “short” pre-series: Ausf.A to D The Ausf.A was a kind of pre-series, with only 35 units produced by 1936. The next step was the Ausf.B, with a modified commander cupola, a new Maybach HL 120TR engine, now developing 300 hp, and a new SSG75 transmission. Despite the additional weight, top speed was increased to 39 km/h (27 mph), and reinforced protection was issued. Armor was raised to 30 mm (1.18 in) on the frontal glacis, and 15 mm (0.59 in) elsewhere. The hull machine-gun was also protected by a new port. After a 42 unit run only, the production shifted to the Ausf.C. Armor was increased to 30 mm (1.18 in) around the turret. Total weight was now 18.15 tons. After 40 units were delivered by 1938, the type was improved by the introduction of the new Maybach HL 120TRM, for the next 100. Logically, the Ausf.D followed. The “Dora” was identified by the reintroduction of a hull machine gun, and the internal gun mantlet was now exteriorized. Side protection was also increased to 20 mm (0.79 in). 243 Ausf.D were built, the last being delivered in early 1940. The “D” was the last “pre-series”. Afterwards, it was decided to scale-up production. Standardization with the Ausf.E The Ausf.E was the first wartime large scale series. Although many studies and reports were published about the lack of penetrating power of the 37 mm (1.46 in) gun of the Panzer III , no gun upgrade was possible for it. In order to find a solution, a single Panzer IV Ausf.D prototype was fitted, for trials, with a derivative of the Pak 38, a medium velocity 50 mm (1.97 in) gun. The initial order for 80 units was dropped after the end of the French campaign. This had shown, definitively, the lack of protection and armor-piercing capabilities of German armor in tank-to-tank combat, notably against the British Matilda and French B1 bis . The Ausf.E kept the short KwK 37 L/24, but the front hull glacis was increased to 50 mm (1.97 in) of armor, with 30 mm (1.18 in) appliqué steel plates as an interim measure. The commander cupola was relocated further forward, and on late production vehicles a kit was provided for a large turret storage basket, in common with the Panzer III . Production reached 280 unit in April 1941, when this model was superseded by the Ausf.F. The Ausf.F1, the last “short version” The Ausf.F was a landmark in the Panzer IV evolution and development. The early model, “F”, called “F1” when the next model appeared, was the last of the “short” versions. The front bow plate appliqué was now replaced by a full 50 mm (1.97 in) thick armored plate. Side armor and turret thickness were raised to 30 mm (1.18 in). Total weight rose to more than 22 tons, which triggered other modifications, like larger track links (from 380 to 400 mm) to reduce ground pressure, and both the idler wheel and front drive sprockets were modified in turn. The F1 was produced to an extent of 464 units, until its replacement in March 1942. The last 42 were modified to the new F2 standard. The Ausf.F2, the first “long” Even equipped with the AP Panzergranate, the low-velocity gun of the Panzer IV was inadequate against well-armored tanks. In the context of the upcoming campaign in Russia, some decision had to be made, which also concerned the long-awaited major upgrade of the Panzer III . The now largely available Pak 38 L/60, which had been already proved lethal, was supposed to be mounted in the turret of the Panzer IV by Krupp. In November 1941, the prototype was ready, and production was scheduled to start on the F2 standard. But, with the first encounters of Russian KV-1s and T-34s , the 50 mm (1.97 in) gun, also produced for the Panzer III , was dropped in favor to a new, more powerful model, built by Rheinmetall, based on the 7.5 cm Pak 40 L/46 (2.95 in). This led to the KwK 40 L/43, a relatively long caliber gun, fitted with a muzzle-brake, which reduced its recoil. Muzzle velocity, with the Panzergranade 39, topped at 990 m/sec (3250 ft/sec). It could penetrate 77 mm (3.03 in) of armor up to 1850 m (6000 ft). After the first prototype was produced by Krupp, in February 1942, production of the F2 started. By July 1942, 175 had been delivered. However, in June 1942, the F2 was renamed Ausf.G, and further modifications were applied on the production line, but both types were known to the Waffenamt as the Sd.Kfz.161/1. Some nomenclatures and reports also speak of it as the F2/G version. Scaled-up production Production figures for the Panzer IV had been relatively small in size until 1942. From the Ausf.A to F2, only 1209 Panzer IVs (of the “short type”) had been delivered to the Wehrmacht. Subsequently, they served primarily in the infantry support role. However, the bulk of the production (around 7500) was spread in only three variants, The Ausf.G, H and J. These remained relatively unchanged until 1945, despite simplifications of the design. As the Panzer III ‘s 50 mm (1.97 in) gun was not up to the task against the best Russian mediums and heavies, the main model, carrying the bulk of any Panzerdivision, became the Panzer IV. The former was progressively phased out, and replaced on the production line by cheaper SPGs, like the StuG III . Panzer IV Ausf.G: The transitional model The G was an improved F2, with armor modifications, including a weight saving solution, consisting of a progressive glacis side armor, thicker at the base. The frontal glacis received a new 30 mm (1.18 in) appliqué plate, giving a total of 80 mm (3.15 in). This was largely sufficient against the Russian medium-velocity 76 mm (3 in) gun and the fearful 76.2 mm anti-tank gun. At first, it was decided to bring only half production to this standard, but Adolf Hitler personally ordered, in January 1943, that the full production would be upgraded, a decision well-received by the crews. However, the weight rose to 23.6 tons, further stressing the limited capacity of the chassis and transmission. Both unit reports and mass-production requirements commanded further modifications. The turret vision port slits were eliminated, the engine ventilation and ignition at low temperatures were improved, and additional racks were fitted for spare road wheels and brackets for track links on the glacis. These acted as makeshift protection as well. A new headlight was installed and the commander cupola was up-armored and modified. The late production versions, in March-April 1943, saw the introduction of side skirt armor (Schürzen) to the sides and turret, the latter equipped with smoke grenade launchers. Most importantly, they received the new KwK 40 L/48, with greater penetration power. After 1275 had been delivered by Krupp-Gruson, Vomag and Nibelungenwerke, plus 412 of the upgunned type, the production shifted towards the Ausf.H. Panzer IV Ausf.H: The main version The Ausf.H was equipped with the new long caliber KwK 40 L/48, and was subsequently registered as the Sd.Kfz. 161/2 by the ordnance department. Other modifications included simplifications to ease production, like the removal of the hull side vision ports, and, later, part sharing with the Panzer III . This was by far the biggest production of the type, with a total of 3774 machines, until its replacement by the Ausf.J, in June 1944. Krupp had received a request, in December 1942, for a new version featuring all-sloped armor, which would have also required a new chassis, transmission and probably engine as well, due to the added weight. However, production started with an upgraded version of the Ausf.G instead. A new headlight was set, a new Zahnradfabrik ZF SSG-76 transmission, new set of radios (FU2 and 5, and intercom). This was necessary in order to cope with the full glacis protection raised to 80 mm (3.15 in), with no appliqué parts. The H now stood at 25 tons in battle order, and maximum speed fell to 38 km/h (24 mph), but only 25 km/h (16 mph) in real combat conditions, and far less on rough terrain. By the end of 1943, Zimmerit paste was factory-applied, new air filters were fitted, along with a turret anti-aircraft mount for an extra MG 34 (Fliegerbeschussgerat), as well as modifications to the commander cupola. Side and turret spaced armor was also factory-mounted. Panzer IV Ausf.J: The late, simplified version The last type, the Ausf.J, began to roll of the factory line at Nibelungenwerke (at St Valentin, Austria) and Vomag, as Krupp was now involved with other tasks, and incorporated more mass-production oriented simplifications, rarely welcomed by the crews. A first example was the removal of the electric turret drive, traversing being done manually, sacrificed for an additional 200 liters of fuel capacity, raising the operational range to 300 km (186 mi), a lesson hard learnt from the Russian campaign. Other modifications included the removal of the turret visor, pistol ports and turret AA mount in favor of a Naehverteidigungswaffe mount. Zimmerit was not applied anymore, nor was the Schurzen, replaced by cheaper Thoma type wire-mesh panels. The engine’s radiator housing was also simplified. The drive train lost one return roller, and two Flammentoeter (flame-suppressing) mufflers were installed, as well as Pilze 2-ton crane mount sockets. More critically, the late Panzer III SSG 77 transmission was mounted, despite it being clearly overloaded. Despite these sacrifices, the type J monthly deliveries were increasingly threatened by Allied bombings and the shortages caused, and only a total of 2970 were built until the last days of March 1945, Compare that to the total planned of 5,000, including modified models sporting the Panther turret. All prototypes developed by 1942 were dropped, in favor of the Panther . The chassis was also used for some variants. Panzer IV variants 1140 of these excellent support assault tanks were quickly built, sporting the already proven Sturmgeschütz III superstructure and main armament. Panzerbefehlswagen IV The command version, equipped with a powerful set of radios, complete electrical equipment and corresponding wiring. These tanks were used to coordinate artillery support, infantry, as well as air support with Panzerdivisions. Roomy and dependable, it was probably the best German command tank of the war. Panzerbeobachtungswagen IV One of the most impressive German SPGs, the Brümmbar boasted a 150 mm (5.9 in) gun, and led to the Heuschrecke and Dicker Max prototypes. Flakpanzer IV Möbelwagen 240 were built for AA support, with a single 37 mm (1.46 in) gun, produced in 1944-45, to compensate for the loss of air superiority, notably in Europe. Flakpanzer IV Wirbelwind Perhaps more famous, this AA support variant was equipped with the very effective quad 20 mm (0.79 in) Flakvierling. 100+ delivered. Using the same chassis and turret, 66 more were equipped with a single 37 mm gun (1.46 in), known as the Ostwind. A highly successful tank hunter, equipped with the legendary 88 mm (3.46 in) gun. It was less expensive than the Tiger . 473 were delivered overall. Geschützwagen III/IV Schlepper Using the same arrangement, 150 ammunition carriers were built. Bergepanzer IV A German ARV (Armored Recovery Vehicle), more powerful than previous versions based on the Panzer III . Mostly used on the Eastern Front. Perhaps 21 or 22 were converted using repaired tanks, without a turret and with a 2-ton crane supported with rigid towing bars. Modified amphibious Panzerfahre (2 prototypes) and Landwasserschlepper were also produced in limited quantities. Bruckenleger IV One of the earliest Panzer IV based variants, this was a bridgelayer vehicle. The unfolded bridge was 56 m (183 ft) long. 24 vehicles were produced prior to the campaign of France. 4 modified versions served in Russia with the 3rd Panzer Division, and 20 more with the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 10th Panzer Divisions in May 1940. With increasing losses, makeshift repairs, upgrades to new standards, and cannibalization of all kind of versions, it was difficult by late 1944 to distinguish the J from the H or even G types. Almost any tank was a sub-version in itself. When turretless variants were produced, many surplus turrets were used in armored trains, anti-tank rail cars or fixed concrete antitank positions. Panzer IV conceptual variants PzKpfw IV mit Schmalturm This was intended to be the “final form” of the Panzer IV. It was an attempt to mount the Schmalturm “narrow-turret”, already under development for the Panther II project, on the chassis of a late model Panzer IV H. With the turret came a better gun. Specifically the 75 mm (2.95 in) L/70 tank gun from Rheinmetall. The project, having never left the drawing board, was cancelled as it was soon found that the Panzer IV chassis had hit it’s weight and modifiable limits. Panzer IV mit Hydrostatischem Antrieb In 1944 an attempt was made to install a Hydrostatic Drive into the Panzer IV. It gave hydraulic power to both the turret rotation mechanism and steering. The Drive was added into the rear of the tank, under a large sloping engine cover, culminating in 2 smaller drive wheels. Just one prototype was produced and was sent back to the United States after the war for assessment. The vehicle now sits in the US Army Museum, Maryland. Flakpanzer IV Kugelblitz The “Lightning Ball” was a late war prototype for a SPAA, intended to be a replacement for the Wirblewind and Ostwind models. It was one of the first tanks to feature a type of Oscillating-turret, which was fully enclosed unlike most SPAAs of the era. This ball like turret was mounted with Zwillingsflak “twin-flak” 30mm MK 103 twin anti-aircraft cannons. These cannons fired at an impressive 450 rounds per-minute. A pilot run of 5 hulls and turrets to match is all that was produced by the time the war came to an end, but these were never mated. Panzer IV operational history With almost six full years of heavy fighting, from Poland to Berlin, September 1939 to May 1945, the battle records of the Panzer IV are indeed impressive. However, this is only when it was recognized as the staple of the German armored divisions and the mass-produced Ausf.G, H and J appeared, that the Panzer IV won its impressive battle records, in a largely fighting retreat, from the Eastern front to Africa. In comparison, the few “short barrel” versions only played a sideshow alongside the Panzer III , until the latter proved unsuitable for improvements. The Panzer IV could have been just a stopgap measure, giving way to the Panther and Tiger , if it was not for its moderate price (in comparison to the others), proven adaptability and reliability, easy maintenance, and large-scale adaptations of its chassis, which all powerfully contributed to a large increase to the scale of its deliveries until the end of the war. From Poland to France (1939-1941) At the very beginning, in September 1939, only a handful of these tanks were available, spread into each Panzerdivision, as only around 250 had been delivered so far. However, they were more numerous than the Panzer III . The 1st Panzer Division was the best equipped, other units having only 6 Panzer IVs and 5 Panzer IIIs for each battalion. They played their infantry support duties, dealing with fortifications and pockets of resistance. 675 tanks were lost in all during the conflict, mainly due to Polish anti-tank guns. Of a total of 2511 engaged, it was a higher price to pay than expected. Complaints about the armor quickly appeared, forwarded to the Waffenamt (Ordinance). The next production series saw mainly armor improvements, notably prior to the expected Western campaign. No Panzer IVs were shipped in Norway. However, when Fall Weiss was launched (invasion of France, Belgium and the Low Countries), according to Guderian, 278 were available. The slow rate of production made it the lesser type for all German AFVs. The 75 mm (2.95 in) gun using AP shells was efficient against most tanks, but not against the French B1 , SOMUA , and the British Matilda II . But, despite limitations in armor and in armament, the good use of the radio, good training and excellent tactical coordination proved superior in all tank to tank engagements. In Yugoslavia and Greece, there were perhaps 750 Panzer IVs available, although they were still in a minority compared to the Panzer III . Their dual-purpose gun proved invaluable on many occasions, although the terrain proved a serious limitation. They never encountered serious opposition, and the “short” series came to a close prior to Barbarossa, during the summer of 1941. Russia and Africa (1942-1943) The Panzer IV entered service with the Afrika Korps, namely the XVth Panzerdivision, 5th Light and XXIst Panzerdivision. As they were all short-barrel versions, they saw limited tank-to-tank engagements, still serving mostly as infantry support vehicles. They were eclipsed throughout 1941 by the 50 mm (1.97 in) equipped Panzer III . Only in August 1942 did Rommel receive 27 Ausf.F2s equipped with the long barrel gun, which had clear armor-piercing superiority over the Panzer III . They were generally placed at the tip of the spearheading forces, but they made little difference because of the clear material superiority of the British and Commonwealth Forces. However, in Tunisia, fresh reinforcement saw batches of Ausf.F2/Gs arriving in numbers, alongside a few Tigers . But even then, after some successes against US forces, Allied superiority began to tell. Most surviving heavy forces were reembarked and shipped to Sicily, where they were used in ambushes all along the road to Messina. By the start of operation Barbarossa, in June 1941, the bulk of Panzer IV force was mobilized, spread into the many army groups and depleted Panzerdivisions that took part in the campaign. They were all of the “short” type. However, against many the encountered AFVs, mainly T-26s , T-28s and light tanks of the BT series , they proved efficient enough, until the prelude of the battle of Moscow, when the first mass assaults of KV-1s and T-34s began. By early 1942, the Panzer III’s main gun had proven inadequate, and the rearmament of the Panzer IV seemed to impose itself as the situation deteriorated. After some attempts with the 50 mm (1.97 in), the natural choice was to go with a longer 75 mm (2.95 in), the KwK 40 L43. Throughout 1942, production of the new types, F2 and G, increased for the needs of the Eastern front. Most Panzer IVs fielded during the summer offensive in the South were Ausf.F2s. They had a clear advantage over the T-34 and KV-1 . Until May 1943, when the first Panthers and Tigers were introduced, they carried the bulk of the German Panzerdivisions. When the battle of Kursk began, the Ausf.G and the first Hs were heavily engaged, many with Schurzen armor. This spaced type armor was meant to deal with infantry carried weapons and short range hollow charges. Alongside Tigers , Panthers (both plagued by reliability problems), StuGs and tank hunters, some 841 Panzer IVs were committed. The losses were appalling. At the end of the engagement, most divisions had only a handful of tanks left. In total, 2643 Panzers, the majority being Panzer IVs, were lost throughout 1943. Higher standardization allowed the Ausf.H to be mass-produced, which partly compensated for the losses, but not for the experienced crews. The most decorated of all, various Panzer regiments of the 4th Panzerdivision, had to withdraw to Poland to be reinforced, being reduced to a token force by the fall of 1943. In 1944, the simplified Ausf.J, easier to produce, was introduced, sporting the longer L48 caliber and new AP ammunition, which helped the Panzer IV, still the most numerous of all German tanks, to keep the superiority over Russian tanks. But this was not meant to last for long. By 1943, the new Russian T-34/85 , SU-85 and SU-100 tanks hunters, and IS-1 and IS-2 were introduced, with high velocity guns, which outclassed the late J. It is estimated that a crippling 6153 Panzer IVs were lost on the Eastern Front, amounting to a 75% total of all deliveries. France and Italy (1944-1945) Compared to the strength of the units deployed on the Eastern front, the western European and Italian units were equipped with what was left of veteran units from Africa, makeshift units with heteroclite models, and fresh units with young and inexperienced, but well-trained crews. In Italy, Marshall Kesselring had just retreated successfully most of his precious armor from Sicily, themselves the surviving core of former Tunisian reinforcements and remnants of the Afrika Korps. With fresh reinforcements, comprising the first Panthers , and type H and J Panzer IVs, and later captured Italian vehicles. He strived to defend critical zones in the Gustav, and later Hitler lines, in mobile, small units, often commanded by elite tankers. During these years, from the fall of 1943 to early 1945, German tanks played a minor, but critical part alongside infantry, ambushing Allied forces while using at best a landscape which seemed to have been designed for defense. Tank to tank engagements were not rare, occurring notably against Canadian forces, massively equipped with the M4 Sherman . But many of the losses occurred through well placed antitank artillery positions and infantry weapons such as the Panzerfaust, first introduced then. In most engagements, the Panzer IV compensated for their lack of numbers by their high velocity long range gun, and a 80 mm (3.15 in) strong frontal armor. In France, where Rommel came at Hitler’s personal request to organize the Atlantic wall defensive line, he saw a new reborn XVIth Panzerdivision, the former famous DAK unit. Also there were of a total of 11 Panzerdivisions, either from the well equipped SS units, or from the regular army (heer), all stationed in France and which took part to the Normandy campaign. Among these units, equipped with StuGs and Panthers , the Panzer IV accounted for half of their complement. Most were recent Ausf.H and J, factory-equipped with zimmerit and Schurzen spaced armor. The protracted Normandy campaign was once again a story of a terrain well suited for defense, with the famous hedgerows checkerboard landscape, a short-range terrain which favored ambushes and hit-and-run tactics. Well camouflaged, Panzer IVs, alongside StuGs and other tanks hunters, took a heavy tribute of US and Commonwealth AVFs before giving way, notably due to a total Allied air superiority, which prevented German efficient maneuvers by daylight. Their only viable opponent was a limited provision of Sherman Firefly tanks, equipped with the long 17 pdr (3 in/76.2 mm) gun, and, later on, the British Challenger. Around 750 Panzer IVs were engaged during this campaign, and most were lost in the process. Only the retreating Vth and VIIth Panzer Armies retained a handful of tanks. Panzer IVs were also seen in action throughout the Low Countries, during the failed attempt to cross Germany’s northwestern frontier (operation Market Garden), and again in December 1944 in the Ardennes. Although they counted for half of the entire weight of the committed armored forces, propaganda only showed the most impressive, but few Tiger IIs . After this failed offensive, what was left of the Western Front armored might of the Werhmacht was reduced to tatters. From now on, Allied encounters with Panzer IVs were fortuitous ambushes at best. Allied tank superiority in 1945 was not only numerical, but qualitative also, with large provisions of tank hunters, and entirely equipped 17 pdr (76.2 mm/3 in) guns. The Panzer IV was also distributed among Axis allies and satellites, notably Bulgaria, which took deliveries of perhaps 400 of them, most of the late type, and retained the the survivors, alongside their T-34/85s , until 1989. Romania (T4 in local nomenclature), Hungary and, later, Italy also operated the Panzer IV in limited numbers. Finland bought 15 Ausf.Js in mid-1944, but the deliveries were out of schedule. They fought with the retreating German army in this sector. Panzer IVs into the Cold War It must be said that the large provision of surviving Panzer IV was not lost or scrapped, but saw service, like under Bulgarian colors in Europe, until 1989, or under Syrian colors in the Middle East. There, provisions of ex-French and ex-Spanish models were purchased, some equipped with a new Soviet 12.7 mm (0.5 in) heavy machine gun. They took part in the fight for the Golan Heights during the War of 1965, and the Six-Days War of 1967. Their opponents were much more recent Israeli Centurions and rearmed, upgraded Shermans . Some of them are part of the numerous machines still in existence in many museums and private collections around the globe, with perhaps a dozen in running condition. Panzerkampfwagen IV production numbers and dates Ausf A = 35 October 1937 – March 1938 Ausf B = 42 April 1938 – September 1938 Ausf C = 134 September 1938 – August 1939 Ausf D – 229 October 1939 – Mary 1941 Ausf E = 223 September 1940 – April 1941 Ausf F = 462 April 1941 – March 1942 (7.5cm Kpfwg.K. 37 L/24 gun) Ausf F = 175+25 March 1942 – July 1942 (7.5cm Kpfwg.K. 40 L/43 gun) Ausf G = 1687 May 1942 – June 1943 Ausf H = 3774 April 1943 – July 1944 Ausf J = 1758 June 1944 – March 1945 A Panzer IV Ausf.A, Poland, 4th Company, 1st Abteilung, 1st Panzer Regiment, 1st Panzerdivision. A Panzer IV Ausf.B, unknown unit, Poland, September 1939. Notice the classical makeshift camouflage, with a hastily sprayed reddish brown and yellow unit markings. A Panzer IV Ausf.B of the 21st Panzerdivision – Normandy, June 1944. A Panzer IV Ausf.C, 8th Korps, IInd Abteilung, 35th Panzer Regiment, 4th Panzerdivision – France, May-June 1940. A Panzer IV Ausf.D, DAK (Deutsche Afrika Korps) of the XVth Panzerdivision, El Agheila, December 1941. Tauchpanzer IV Ausf.D, provisioned for operation Seelöwe (or Sealion, prospected landings in Britain). It was theoretically capable of fording the Channel in shallow waters and sandbanks (6 to 15 meters/20-50 ft). Tests were also conducted with the Panzer III and II , but remained inconclusive. All apertures were carefully blocked and an auto-adaptive submarine type schnorchel mast was mounted on the turret, both for engine air feeding and exhaust. A total of 43 were converted by August-September 1940. Later on, 168 Panzer IIIs of various versions were also converted for Operation Barbarossa, to ford large rivers. Panzer IV Ausf.E of the Afrika Korps, 15th Panzerdivision, Libya, the fall of 1941. Panzer IV Ausf.E of the 11th Panzerdivision, April 1941, during the Yugoslavian campaign. Notice the bolted armor. Panzer IV Ausf.F1 of the 5th Panzerdivision, Group Center, Russia, January 1942. Vorpanzer F1, with extra bolted appliqué armor on the sides, gun mantlet and frontal glacis, with the 5th Panzerdivision, Group Center, Russia, winter 1941-1942. Panzer IV Ausf.F1 of the 5th Panzerregiment, 5th Leichtes Panzerdivision, Tobruk, Libya, March 1941. The camouflage was sand (Gelb braun) and degraded sand over the usual Dunkelgrau basis, forming Grau-Grün patches. Panzer IV Ausf.F2/G of the 1st Infantry Division (motorized) “Grossdeutschland”, Voronezh, Russia, June 1942. Improvised pattern of sprayed brownish sand over standard factory dunkelgrau. Ausf.F2, 1st SS Panzer battalion, SS Division LSSAH in France, which took part to “Case Anton” (invasion and occupation of Vichy French zone), November 1942. Ausf.F2, 4th Kompanie, 1st Abteilung, VIIIth Panzer-Regiment, XVth Panzerdivision, DAK, El Alamein (Egypt), October 1942. Ausf.F2, 36th Panzer Regiment, XIVth Panzerdivision, Army Group South, Russia, summer 1942. Bulgarian Maybach T4G (Ausf.F2/G), 13th unit, Russian border, winter 1942. Early production transitional model. Ausf.G, XVth Panzerdivision, Tunisia, spring 1943. This is a late production vehicle, up-gunned with the new KwK 40 L/48 gun. Panzer IV Ausf.G of the IVth Panzerdivision, battle of Orel, Russia, early 1943. Panzer IV Ausf.G late production vehicle, XIVth Panzerdivision, Stalingrad, winter 1942/43. Panzer IV Ausf.G, XXth Panzer Division, Kursk, Russia, summer 1943. Ausf.F/G upgraded to the H standard, with full Schurzen armor – XVIth Panzerdivision, Russia, southern sector, summer 1943. Ausf.H – XVIth Panzerdivision, Kursk, July 1943. The H were equipped with the new 7.5 cm Kampfwagenkanone 40 L48 (3.61 m/11.8 ft barrel) high velocity gun, along with the Pzgr.Patr.40 APCR, with a 990 m/sec muzzle velocity, capable of piercing 80 mm (3.15 in) of armor at 2000 m. Panzer IV Ausf.H, 1st Armored Division, Bulgarian army, Hungary, winter 1944. Ausf.H of the IInd Panzerdivision, France, June 1944. Ausf.H of the 35th Panzer Regiment of the IVrd Panzerdivision, Bobruysk, December 1943. Ausf.H of the 35th Panzer Regiment of the IVth Panzerdivision, Kowel, Poland, early 1944. The 35th Regiment inflicted heavy losses on the Soviet 3rd Tank Corps at the Battle of Wołomin (part of operation Bagration). Its symbol was the “Grizlibär”, a menacing brown bear. Panzer IV Ausf.H, IXth SS Panzer Division, France, summer 1944. Panzer IV Ausf.H, 4rd Company, 130th Regiment of the 1st Panzerdivision, PanzerLehr, France, summer 1944. Ausf.H, 9th Panzerdivision, Central Germany, April 1945. Notice the “ambush” type spotted camouflage and turret Schurzen armor open panels. Panzer IV Ausf.H, 1st SS Panzerdivision Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler, France, summer 1944. Ausf.J, 12th Panzerdivision SS “Hitlerjugend”, Normandy, France, June 1944. Panzer IV Ausf.J early production (unknown unit), Russia, summer 1944. Panzer IV Ausf.J, central Germany, March 1945. Notice the wire-mesh side-skirts armor and complex “ambush pattern” camouflage. Ausf.J, 12th Panzerdivision, Northern Russia, early 1944. Notice the long range radio equipment and ring mount for an AA MG 34. Panzer IV Ausf.J, IXth Panzerdivision, Ardennes, Belgium, December 1944. This is an early production model, with zimmerit on the entire hull and spaced armor. History of the Panzer IV Panzer IV Ausf.H specifications	i don't know
Which ancient, fierce warrior nation, upon attacking ancient Israel, . came down like a wolf on the fold'?	ISM Military History Quiz - Page 16 - International Scale Modeller International Scale Modeller Joined: Thu Dec 11, 2014 1:13 pm Location: Surrey,England,UK. Post by privatepete » Thu Nov 24, 2016 6:05 am Questions & Answers For 23-11-2016 Q: What is the senior service of the UK armed forces? A: Royal Navy. Q: Who commands the Army according to the Bill Of Rights of 1869? A: Parliament (Government). Q: Who is commander in chief for the UK's Armed Forces? A: The reigning Monarch (at present Queen Elizabeth II). Q: What is the highest military rank in the army, the navy and the Royal Air Force? A: Army - Field Marshall, RAF - Marshall of the Royal Air Force, RN - Admiral of the Fleet. Q: The Royal Air Force's ground defence unit is called what? A: RAF Regiment. Post by privatepete » Fri Nov 25, 2016 6:06 am Questions & Answers For 24-11-2016 Q:What type of aircraft was used to drop bombs in the first German air raids on London in 1915? A: A Zeppelin. Q:What was the name of the Japanese destroyer that sank PT-109, commanded by Lt. John F. Kennedy, on August 2, 1943? A: Amigiri. Q:In what war was the color khaki first used for uniforms? A: The Afghan War in 1880--the color was considered good camouflage. Q:Who was issued ID number 01 when the U.S. military started issuing dog tags in 1918? A: General John J. Pershing. Good Luck. Post by privatepete » Sat Nov 26, 2016 6:22 am Questions& Answers For 25-11-2016 Q:At which naval battle in WWII did the Americans decisively defeat the Japanese Carrier Task Force? A:Battle of Midway Q:In 1944 what was the name of the operation to take key bridges over major rivers in Holland by airborne and land force assaults? Q:Market-Garden Q:After which battle did the British Life Guards first obtain their breast-plates? A:Waterloo - from Napoleon's defeated Cuirassier's breast-plates. Q:Which WWI battle occurred on a peninsular south of Istanbul in Turkey? A: Gallipoli Q:Which ancient, fierce warrior nation, upon attacking ancient Israel, ‘…. came down like a wolf on the fold’? A:The Assyrians.	Assyrian people
At which naval battle in WWII did the Americans decisively defeat the Japanese Carrier Task Force?	Breaking the Siege \| c o m m o n p l a c e s c o m m o n p l a c e s it's always more complicated than that Menu A Pattern of Prayer, part 3: A Pattern of Desperation February 28, 2016 \| 2 Kings 19-20 (Hezekiah’s prayers) Before the period of modern warfare, it was common for cities to be fortified and for attackers to camp outside the walls, laying siege to the city, hoping that starvation and plague would defeat the defenders. When surrounded by a competent army, it was difficult for a city to break the siege without outside help. Air access now make sieges less likely, but occasionally they have been used in modern wars. You will recall that in August 1939, Hitler and Stalin entered into a non-aggression pact which divided Poland and a number of other countries between Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia. This pact cleared the way for Germany to invade Poland and begin World War II. The Germans and Soviets refrained from fighting each other for nearly two years. In 1941, though, Hitler launched an attack on Soviet positions and began to push to the east, in order to get what he called “Lebensraum” — living space — for the German people. He wanted the vast farmland of eastern Europe to feed an expanded Germany. This would ultimately turn out to be a disaster for Hitler, but in the beginning the German armies were very successful. NOTE: This marvelous map is by Morgan Hauser, derived from File:Second world war europe 1943-1945 map en.png and File:Second world war europe 1941-1942 map en.png by users Jarry1250 and ArmadniGeneral, respectively. – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org /w/index.php?curid=14619311 (Berlin, Leningrad, Moscow, Nazi, Soviet symbols added for clarity by AFB). By 1942, nearly all of Europe was under the Reich. An amazing amount of Western Russia was under Nazi control, including Ukraine and the Baltic states. On the map, everything in black and gray is under Nazi domination. One of Hitler’s targets was the city of Leningrad, one of the first cities of Russia. Leningrad was on an isthmus near Finland. To the west is the Gulf of Finland, to the northeast is Lake Ladoga. It is about 400 miles Northwest of Moscow, and about 800 miles northeast of Berlin. Hitler’s goal was to flatten the city. He had no interest in maintaining it because he did not want to have to worry about feeding the millions of people who were living there. Hitler sent a message to his Army Group North: After the defeat of Soviet Russia there can be no interest in the continued existence of this large urban center. . . . Following the city’s encirclement, requests for surrender negotiations shall be denied, since the problem of relocating and feeding the population cannot and should not be solved by us. In this war for our very existence, we can have no interest in maintaining even a part of this very large urban population. Adolph Hitler, Directive to Army Group North (Sept. 29, 1941). And so, sometime in the fall, the city was completely surrounded by German and Finnish troops. The siege had begun. The Germans bombed and shelled the city. Oil and coal supplies ran out. Food was scarce. Pipes froze and clean water was hard to come by. Nothing got in or out. People began to starve. Fifty thousand residents died in December 1941 alone. Corpses lay in the streets. But Leningrad was not defeated. In December, Winston Churchill wrote in his diary “Leningrad is encircled, but not taken.” Winston Churchill, The Grand Alliance 3 (1950). Leningrad was desperate for help, but it held on, waiting for someone to break the siege. It would wait for a long time. Let’s pray. * * * God made a promise to Abraham. Three promises, really. A land, a nation, a blessing. God led Abraham to the Land but he did not give it to him in his lifetime. Then Israel was born as a nation in Egypt. Jacob’s family went to Egypt because of a famine and did not leave for 400 years. They grew numerous in Egypt and the Lord delivered Israel from Egypt in the Exodus, probably about 1446 BC. The Lord, Yahweh, brought them to Mt. Sinai, where they entered into a covenant—a contract—with him. They agreed to obey him and He promised to bless them if they were obedient and to discipline them if they were not. They were led to the Land, but flinched at the faith required to go in and take what the Lord had promised to give them. The nation spent 40 years in the wilderness before they came again to the edge of the Land, this time at the Jordan River. As they crossed into the Land, Israel followed the Lord by following the leader he had provided them. This man was Joshua, who led them in the Conquest of the Land. Now there came a time, about 1399 BC, when all the tribes had their space in the Land. Some tribes (like Judah) had done a good job of pushing out the Canaanites, but others (like Dan), had not eliminated the violent, bloodthirsty people who disrupted the Lord’s plan for the nation. In any case, they settled into life in the Land which the Lord had promised Abraham. They lived in covenant with the Lord. But they were not faithful, and they repeatedly rebelled against the Lord. When they did, they would fall into slavery to other nations. When they came to their senses and called out to the Lord, he would raise up a deliverer who would lead them out of slavery. When the crisis was over there would be a period of peace, until again Israel fell away. This continued for about 350 years, until the nation was again brought under one king under the overall rule of the Lord. The United Kingdom began under Saul, who did a poor job of obeying the Lord. Saul’s coronation would have been in about 1050. Saul had been chosen based on human standards. He was succeeded by David. David, in contrast, had been chosen and trained by the Lord based on a different standard. The Lord promised David that his son would occupy the throne and that the Lord would lead him and discipline him. The further implication was that the line of David would continue and that eventually a Davidic king would bring about a just world — the blessing promised to Abraham. In 931, though, David’s grandson, Rehoboam, lost control of the Northern half of the kingdom. What had been one nation, Israel, became two nations—Israel in the North and Judah in the South. Each had its own king. In the south, the kings were descendants of David. In the North the kings were not. In the South the people worshiped at the Temple, but in the North the people followed other gods or attempted to worship Yahweh in a syncretistic cult invented by the first northern king, Jeroboam. The Northern Kingdom ignored the covenant it had with the Lord for the next 200 years. She ran after other gods despite the warnings of prophets and the warnings of the covenant itself. Finally, the fierce warrior nation of Assyria overran Israel and took her leaders into exile in 722 BC. I’d like you to turn in your copy of God’s word to 2 Kings, chapter 18. The time is about 715 BC. 1 In the third year of Hoshea son of Elah, king of Israel, Hezekiah the son of Ahaz, king of Judah, began to reign. 2He was twenty-five years old when he began to reign, and he reigned twenty-nine years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was Abi the daughter of Zechariah. 3And he did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, according to all that David his father had done. Now Hezekiah was a really good king in the eyes of the Lord. 4 He removed the high places and broke the pillars and cut down the Asherah. And he broke in pieces the bronze serpent that Moses had made, for until those days the people of Israel had made offerings to it (it was called Nehushtan). So he was getting rid of the idols and false worship which had plagued Judah, and which had just led to the deportation of the people of the Northern Kingdom. 5 He trusted in the Lord, the God of Israel, so that there was none like him among all the kings of Judah after him, nor among those who were before him. 6For he held fast to the Lord. He did not depart from following him, but kept the commandments that the Lord commanded Moses. 7And the Lord was with him; wherever he went out, he prospered. He rebelled against the king of Assyria and would not serve him. But if Hezekiah pleased the Lord, he certainly did not please the Assyrians. He stopped paying tribute to Assyria, and in 701 BC, King Sennacherib moved against Judah and some of the surrounding areas: 13 In the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib king of Assyria came up against all the fortified cities of Judah and took them. Sennacherib’s armies took the surrounding cities. Hezekiah paid a ransom, and hoped that Sennacherib would leave. It did not work, and Sennacherib sent his armies to lay siege to Jerusalem. Food was scarce. Nothing got in or out. People began to go hungry. But Hezekiah had prepared for the siege (look at 2 Chronicles 32) and Jerusalem did not fall. 17 And the king of Assyria sent the Tartan, the Rab-saris, and the Rabshakeh with a great army from Lachish to King Hezekiah at Jerusalem. And they went up and came to Jerusalem. When they arrived, they came and stood by the conduit of the upper pool, which is on the highway to the Washer’s Field. 18And when they called for the king, there came out to them Eliakim the son of Hilkiah, who was over the household, and Shebnah the secretary, and Joah the son of Asaph, the recorder. Sennacherib’s envoy had come to negotiate the city’s surrender. In various ways, the envoy said that Hezekiah was foolish to think Judah could resist Assyria. He mocked them and wondered whether Hezekiah was foolishly relying on Egypt to save them or foolishly relying on Yahweh to intervene. He spoke to the people of Jerusalem who were listening from the wall: 32 And do not listen to Hezekiah when he misleads you by saying, The Lord will deliver us. 33Has any of the gods of the nations ever delivered his land out of the hand of the king of Assyria? 34Where are the gods of Hamath and Arpad? Where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivvah? Have they delivered Samaria out of my hand? 35 Who among all the gods of the lands have delivered their lands out of my hand, that the Lord should deliver Jerusalem out of my hand? The message is clear. All gods are the same, and all are inferior to the king of Assyria. Hezekiah is appalled at this blasphemy, and he goes into the Temple to pray — the writer does not tell us what he prayed — and sends his advisors to the prophet Isaiah: 19 5 When the servants of King Hezekiah came to Isaiah, 6Isaiah said to them, Say to your master, Thus says the Lord: Do not be afraid because of the words that you have heard, with which the servants of the king of Assyria have reviled me. 7Behold, I will put a spirit in him, so that he shall hear a rumor and return to his own land, and I will make him fall by the sword in his own land. God has a plan — an unlikely plan — Sennacherib will return suddenly to Assyria, Sennacherib will be killed there. And, indeed, at this time, the Assyrian King becomes distracted by rumors that an Egyptian army is coming, and so he does not attack Jerusalem, but again sends a dispatch to Hezekiah, urging him to surrender. He leaves part of his army to continue the siege of Jerusalem as he goes to meet the Egyptian army: 9b So [Sennacherib] sent messengers again to Hezekiah, saying, 10Thus shall you speak to Hezekiah king of Judah: Do not let your God in whom you trust deceive you by promising that Jerusalem will not be given into the hand of the king of Assyria. 11Behold, you have heard what the kings of Assyria have done to all lands, devoting them to destruction. And shall you be delivered? 12Have the gods of the nations delivered them, the nations that my fathers destroyed, Gozan, Haran, Rezeph, and the people of Eden who were in Telassar? 13Where is the king of Hamath, the king of Arpad, the king of the city of Sepharvaim, the king of Hena, or the king of Ivvah? Again, the message is that Hezekiah’s god is no different from the gods of the nations Assyria has conquered. 14Hezekiah received the letter from the hand of the messengers and read it; and Hezekiah went up to the house of the Lord and spread it before the Lord. 15And Hezekiah prayed before the Lord . . . . This time, the writer lets us know what Hezekiah prays, at least in summary: 15 And Hezekiah prayed before the Lord and said: O Lord, the God of Israel, enthroned [between] the cherubim, you are the God, you alone, of all the kingdoms of the earth; you have made heaven and earth. Hezekiah knows who Yahweh is — and the covenant which binds him to his people. 16 Incline your ear, O Lord, and hear; open your eyes, O Lord, and see; and hear the words of Sennacherib, which he has sent to mock the living God. Hezekiah calls on Yahweh to hear his prayer. He is not shy about telling God what is going on. 17 Truly, O Lord, the kings of Assyria have laid waste the nations and their lands 18and have cast their gods into the fire, for they were not gods, but the work of men’s hands, wood and stone. Therefore they were destroyed. Does Sennacherib think it was his power which was being exercised? We see Hezekiah understands what is really going on: Of course the other nations’ gods were not effective — they were mere idols! 19 So now, O Lord our God, save us, please, from his hand, that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that you, O Lord, are God alone. Honestly, when you read this prayer you would think that the chief concern is not the military threat but the insult to God’s glory. You would be right. Hezekiah asks for a deliverance that would honor Yahweh, the maker of heaven and earth. Now Isaiah—aware that Hezekiah has prayed—comes to Hezekiah and tells him what the Lord thinks about all of this. 20 Then Isaiah the son of Amoz sent to Hezekiah, saying, Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Your prayer to me about Sennacherib king of Assyria I have heard. 21This is the word that the Lord has spoken concerning him: This is a complicated passage, because it is written in poetry and it is sometimes directed to the Assyrians, and sometimes directed to Hezekiah. We’ll get enough of it to understand what is going on. First, to Sennacherib, the Lord explains the disdain with which Hezekiah, and the faithful in Jerusalem, look at the surrounding Assyrians: She despises you, she scorns you— the virgin daughter of Zion; she wags her head behind you— the daughter of Jerusalem. 22 Whom have you mocked and reviled? Against whom have you raised your voice and lifted your eyes to the heights? Against the Holy One of Israel! Sennacherib has insulted God. And the Assyrian king was so proud of his victories, he had arrogantly talked as though he was God: 23 By your messengers you have mocked the Lord, and you have said, With my many chariots I have gone up the heights of the mountains, to the far recesses of Lebanon; I felled its tallest cedars, its choicest cypresses; I entered its farthest lodging place, its most fruitful forest. and I dried up with the sole of my foot all the streams of Egypt. Sennacherib says, “I conquered the countries from Lebanon to Egypt.” But the Lord says, “you are boasting about the plan I put together”: 25 Have you not heard that I determined it long ago? I planned from days of old what now I bring to pass, that you should turn fortified cities into heaps of ruins, 26 while their inhabitants, shorn of strength, are dismayed and confounded, and have become like plants of the field and like tender grass, like grass on the housetops, blighted before it is grown. The Lord says “I planned that you would do these things as my tool, and now, because of your arrogance, I will bring you low”: 27 But I know your sitting down and your going out and coming in, and your raging against me. 28 Because you have raged against me and your complacency has come into my ears, I will put my hook in your nose and my bit in your mouth, and I will turn you back on the way by which you came. Eventually, speaking to Hezekiah, the Lord promises deliverance from Assyria: 32 Therefore thus says the Lord concerning the king of Assyria: He shall not come into this city or shoot an arrow there, or come before it with a shield or cast up a siege mound against it. 33By the way that he came, by the same he shall return, and he shall not come into this city, declares the Lord. And then again, it is made clear that all of this is connected to the covenant with the nation at Sinai and the covenant with David. 34 For I will defend this city to save it, for my own sake and for the sake of my servant David. And then the text explains that the Lord did what he said. 35 And that night the angel of the Lord went out and struck down 185,000 in the camp of the Assyrians. And when people arose early in the morning, behold, these were all dead bodies. 36Then Sennacherib king of Assyria departed and went home and lived at Nineveh. Now, there are extra-biblical historical accounts which reflect at least part of this story — Assyrian records show that although Jerusalem was besieged, it was not conquered. (Ancient records do not admit to defeats): As for Hezekiah, the Judean, I besieged forty-six of his fortified walled cities and surrounding smaller towns, which were without number. Using packed-down ramps and applying battering rams, infantry attacks by mines, breeches, and siege machines, I conquered (them). I took out 200,150 people, young and old, male and female, horses, mules, donkeys, camels, cattle, and sheep, without number, and counted them as spoil. He himself, I locked up within Jerusalem, his royal city, like a bird in a cage. I surrounded him with earthworks, and made it unthinkable for him to exit by the city gate. Prism of Sennacherib (trans. from The Context of Scripture, patheos.com). Notice that even as he is boasting, Sennacherib does not say that he conquered Jerusalem. If Tom Brady goes on and on and on about how many passes he completed and how many yards he threw for and how many touchdowns he made, but never mentions who won the game, I imagine we know it wasn’t the Patriots. (This is really unfair to Tom Brady, but it makes the point. Sorry, Tom.) Herodotus, writing from the Egyptian point of view, says that at divine direction, mice ate the Assyrian implements of war: Sanacharib king of the Arabians and of the Assyrians marched a great host…, there swarmed by night upon [the Assyrians] mice of the fields, and ate up their quivers and their bows, and moreover the handles of their shields, so that on the next day they fled, and being without defence of arms great numbers fell. Herodotus, History, 1.141. It was, and is, a hard event to understand. But the Lord had also said “ I will cut him down with a sword in his own land.” (19:7). And here at the end of chapter 19, we read: 37 And as he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch his god, Adrammelech and Sharezer, his sons, struck him down with the sword and escaped into the land of Ararat. And Esarhaddon his son reigned in his place. From outside sources, it appears that this happened in 681 BC. All of this reminds us that the Lord who entered a covenant with the nation after the Exodus and who brought them to the Land and allowed them to conquer it and who gave them a king after his own heart, and who was absolutely committed to blessing or disciplining his people—this Lord is the God who is the maker of heaven and earth. He can bring life or death to kings. And in that context we read the opening words of chapter 20: In those days Hezekiah became sick and was at the point of death. So the Hezekiah who prayed in the siege of Jerusalem, is again under a kind of siege, as his body is “at the point of death.” Now here is one of those times when having a prophet around is a decidedly mixed blessing: And Isaiah the prophet the son of Amoz came to him and said to him, Thus says the Lord, Set your house in order, for you shall die; you shall not recover. And this is not good news for Hezekiah, nor is it good news for the nation, because Hezekiah is only about 40 years old and he apparently has no children: 2Then Hezekiah turned his face to the wall and prayed to the Lord, saying, 3Now, O Lord, please remember how I have walked before you in faithfulness and with a whole heart, and have done what is good in your sight. And Hezekiah wept bitterly. This seems like a truthful prayer, by the way — remember the writer’s summary of Hezekiah’s life back in chapter 18: 3And he did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, according to all that David his father had done. Hezekiah was a good king and a good man, though of course he was not perfect. Again, Isaiah is sent to tell Hezekiah God’s response to his prayer: 4And before Isaiah had gone out of the middle court, the word of the Lord came to him: 5Turn back, and say to Hezekiah the leader of my people, Thus says the Lord, the God of David your father: I have heard your prayer; I have seen your tears. Behold, I will heal you. On the third day you shall go up to the house of the Lord, 6and I will add fifteen years to your life. I will deliver you and this city out of the hand of the king of Assyria, and I will defend this city for my own sake and for my servant David’s sake. 7And Isaiah said, Bring a cake of figs. And let them take and lay it on the boil, that he may recover. So in the prime of his life, Hezekiah learns he is going to die, and he turns again to prayer. And again, his prayer is answered and his life is extended for God’s glory. Two desperate prayers. Two sieges, one of Hezekiah’s city; one of Hezekiah’s body. Two responses in which the Lord breaks the siege and delivers the praying king. * * * That’s the passage — but what do we learn about prayer? We’ve drawn six conclusions from the prayers in Genesis 24 and Psalm 51: First, we saw that — It is not just the important, educated or powerful who are permitted to pray, but all who will come in humility before God. Second, we understood — Prayer is addressed to the Lord God, the maker of heaven and earth, who has the right to make demands, and who is holy and merciful and desires the worship of his people. Third, we discerned that — It is appropriate to ask God for things you believe he wants to do, but it is important to recognize that even if you are right about God’s desires, you may be wrong about his methods — if you are praying to God, you have to let him be God. Fourth, we saw that — God uses the faithful acts of his people to answer prayer. Fifth, we noted that — As we see God’s response to prayer, we offer him worship. And finally, we found — To approach God in prayer is to reveal your own sin in the light of his holiness, and to accept that if there will be any commerce with God it will be because he makes it possible. Today, we see Hezekiah coming in humility. We see him coming to the Lord because of the covenant that the Lord has with his people. We see that the Lord uses Isaiah in responding to Hezekiah. None of that is new. Here’s what I think is new. For the first time we feel convinced that the prayer itself was part of God’s plan. Would God have delivered Jerusalem even if Hezekiah had not prayed? Would God have extended Hezekiah’s life if Hezekiah had not prayed? It is hard to believe that things would have turned out the same if Hezekiah had neglected prayer. I am not saying that Hezekiah’s prayers changed God’s mind, I am saying that God used Hezekiah’s prayers as part of his plan. I think this is the pattern of Scripture — God uses the prayers of his people in his sovereign plan. Pascal said God has established prayer to give his creatures the dignity of causality. God invites us into his plan. Of course, even Sennacherib was part of God’s plan, but God used Sennacherib as a tool, and he used Hezekiah as a willing servant. And I want you to notice that in the midst of Hezekiah’s prayer he is perfectly conscious that the goal is not the salvation of his city or even the extension of his life — the goal is the glory of God: “19 . . . O Lord our God, save us, please, from [Sennacherib], that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that you, O Lord, are God alone.” And I think this is the pattern of Scripture — Proper prayer seeks God’s purposes, and God’s glory, not ours. We don’t pray to satisfy our needs, we pray seeking God’s purposes. We will see much more of this in the New Testament, I think. In the coming weeks we will add to these ideas and refine them as we continue to examine the Pattern of Prayer in the Scriptures. The siege of Leningrad ended after two and a half years, on January 27, 1944, when Soviet forces drove the German armies away from the outskirts of the city. Supplies could flow to the people again. In a sense, there is a siege whenever sin cuts us off from God. But Jesus has broken the siege. And so, let us pray . . . . Share this:	i don't know
In 1944 what was the name of the operation to take key bridges over major rivers in Holland by airborne and land force assaults?	World War 2 Events of 1944 World War 2 Events of 1944 World War 2 Events of 1944 1944 proved the critical year for the war, the offensives of 1943 finally beginning to show their fruits throughout both theaters of war. There are a total of (266) entries in the World War 2 Events of 1944. Entries are listed below by earliest date to latest date. January 1st 1944 A message to subordinates by US Army Air Force commanding general General H.H. Hap Arnold calls for the destruction of the German Luftwaffe before Allied landings can begin. January 11th The first major Allied offensive to take Cassino is launched. January 11th French Expeditionary Corps assail the outer defences at Cassino, achieving modest gains. January 14th 1944 Soviet armies from the 2nd Baltic, Volkov and Leningrad fronts overtake German Army Group North in a massive two-week offensive. January 16th The US IC Corps and the French Expeditionary Corps arrive at Rapido River. January 17th The US is involved in their first major assault on Cassino. January 18th - February 9th US forces begin making headway through the Liri Valley, capturing ground at Monte Calvario. January 21st 1944 In the afternoon hours, an Allied convoy of 243 ships sets sail from the Bay of Naples for the beaches at Anzio and nearby Nettuno. January 22nd By 12AM midnight, some 45,000 Allied troops and 3,000 vehicles are on the beaches. January 22nd American forces hold the line at Mussolini Canal. January 22nd British forces hold the line at River Moletta. January 22nd 1944 Operation Shingle, the amphibious landings at Anzio, is enacted by the Allied. In lead is the US VI Corps under Major-General John Lucas. January 23rd The German Luftwaffe begins heavy strafing attacks and bombardment of Allied forces. January 23rd 1944 German Colonel-General von Mackensen takes control of the new 14th Army headquartered 30 miles west of Rome. January 23rd The Anzio beachhead is consolidated into a concentrated pocket on the orders of Lucas. January 25th 1944 The Anzio beachhead continues to grow with Allied troops and equipment, making it a prime target for the regrouping Germans. January 27th The siege of Leningrad is declared by Soviet leader Stalin as over. January 27th The Moscow-Leningrad railway route is reopened in favor of the Soviets. January 28th The Germans are driven back at Cisterna. January 28th 1944 By this date, some 70,000 men, 27,000 tons of goods, 508 artillery guns and 237 tanks are ashore on the beachhead. January 28th 1944 Hitler delivers an ultimatum to supreme commander-in-chief over Italy operations, Field Marshall Kesselring, to fight to the death and drive the invading Allied forces into the sea. January 28th Von Mackensen moves six divisions to Anzio, some ten miles of the Allied beachhead. January 28th The US 1st Armored Division captures the town of Aprilia. January 28th German Army Group North is pushed away from the city of Leningrad. January 30th The Allies suffer some 5,000 casualties in the Anzio action by this date. January 31st Von Mackensen's forces now number some eight divisions in strength. February 10th 1944 In a counter offensive, crack German paratroopers repel US forces and previous Allied gains are lost. February 11th 1944 US and Indian losses mount in the offensives against German positions in Calvario, the town of Cassino and Monte Cassino itself. February 11th The entire US 142nd Regiment is destroyed. February 11th 1944 The 4th Indian Division reports unacceptably high casualties when coming up against the stout German defenders. February 11th 1944 The 34th and 36th US Divisions both report a high number of casualties from the ensuing offensives. February 11th 1944 A blanket retreat is enacted by the Allies in an attempt to regroup and plan a new strategy to take Cassino. February 12th 1944 Winston Churchill pens a critical letter to supreme commander-in-chief of Allied operations in Italy. In his writings he claims he expected to see "a wild cat roaring" and has seen nothing but a "whale wallowing on the beaches". February 14th The offensive is detailed further, taking the latest developments into account. February 14th American bombers strike the production facilities at Schweinfurt. February 15th Following the Allied aerial bombardment, the second major Allied offensive to take Cassino is launched. February 15th - February 18th The 4th Indian Division assault is repelled and driven away, suffering high casualties. February 15th - February 18th The 2nd New Zealand Division assault is twarted and driven back, suffering high casualties. February 15th - February 18th The 2nd New Zealand Division is charged with taking the railway station at Cassino. February 15th 1944 German forces, having never held a defensive position in the monestary proper, move into the resulting debris from the surrounding mountain slopes and set up solid defensive positions within the rubble. February 15th 1944 In an effort to destroy the believed German defensive positions atop Monte Cassino, Allied bombers numbering 229 strong, lay waste to the monestary. February 15th - February 18th The 4th Indian Division is charged with taking both Monte Calvario and Monastary Hill. February 16th Kesselring launches a large counterattack against the invading Allied forces. February 17th The Allies lose some four miles of territory but stand fast outside of Anzio. February 19th - March 13th 1944 The Italian winter makes its arrival and postpones any further Allied offensives for the next month. February 19th 1944 Better weather finally arrives allowing the RAF to send up its first 823-strong heavy bomber force. The target is Leipzig and 78 bombers are lost to the German defense. February 20th 1944 American bombers and fighters take to the skies in force in support of the new bombing campaign. They number over 1,000 bombers and 660 fighters in escort. Twelve industrial target locations across Germany are hit. 21 American aircraft are lost. February 20th Some 598 RAF bombers are sent airborne. February 20th The German attack is more or less repelled, at the cost of 5,500 German casualties. February 21st 1944 The Americans respond with another wave of 861 bombers with escorts. The target is the Luftwaffe production center in Brunswick. February 22nd The Allies replace the ineffective Major-General Lucas with Major-General Lucius Truscott. February 22nd 1944 Bad weather forces many-an-inflight accident for US bomber groups. Some 41 aircraft are lost. Nijmegen is accidentally bombed, causing over 200 civilian deaths. February 22nd American bomber groups begin medium bombing operations from bases within Italy. February 23rd 1944 Bad weather postpones any further bombing actions for the time being. The Allies take this time to recoup and repair. February 24th 1944 A British bomber force made up of Handley Page Halifaxes and Avro Lancasters take part in a night-bombing raid on Schweinfurt, dropping some 2,000 tons of ordnance on the area. February 24th With weather clearing, operations of Big Week continue. 266 American bombers strike Schweinfurt. February 24th 733 RAF bombers strike at Schweinfurt in a night time raid. 33 aircraft are lost. February 24th 1944 The USAAF 1st Division launches another bombing raid on Schweinfurt through 238 bombers and long-range escort fighters. Eleven aircraft are lost. February 24th Over 900 American bombers are sent airborne to bomb aircraft-producing factories including Schweinfurt. February 25th 1944 The final American air raid of Big Week is launched with 900 bombers against Regensburg, Augsburg and Forth. February 25th 1944 By the end of it all, 3,300 Allied sorties are launched in the offensive and 226 bombers are lost. 290 German fighters are destroyed and another further 90 are damaged. February 25th RAF bombers hit Augsburg with 594 aircraft in a night time raid. February 29th Von Mackensen cancels the German offensive amidst mounting casualties and little gain. March 1st - May 22nd 1944 The Anzio engagement is limited to minor activity for the time being, with the Allies dug in and the Germans trying to dislodge the invaders by limited means. March 15th A third major Allied offensive is put into action. March 15th - March 21st Positions on Monte Cassino are officially in Allied hands. March 15th - March 21st The 78th British Division makes headway thanks to the support of Allied armor. March 15th - March 21st The 2nd New Zealand Division captures German-held position with the help of Allied armor support. March 15th 1944 Artillery guns open up on Cassino while 600-plus Allied bombers attempt to shake the German defenders. March 15th - March 21st Against mounting casualties but with tank support, the 4th Indian Division gains ground. March 22nd With mounting losses in both manpower and tanks, further Allied thrusts are called off. March 23rd - May 10th 1944 A lengthy six-week period allows the Allies to rebuild their forces - though this period allows the Germans to increase their defensive foothold. March 30th - March 31st 1944 Some 100 Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax bombers mistakenly drop 400-tons of ordnance on Schweinfurt, thinking that it is their target of Nuremburg. March 30th 1944 795 RAF bombers attack Nuremburg with 95 aircraft lost to action. This mission marks the biggest RAF loss to date. April 1st - June 5th 1944 Allied bombers increase their sorties across Northern and Western France in preparations of the D-Day landings. Targets include the vital railways, railyards, bridges and roads dotting the French landscape. These facilities will prove crucial to the German response to the invasion. April 3rd 1944 The KMS Tirpitz is targeted once more and attack, this time by air elements of the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm. The battleship lives through the attack but suffers three more months of repairs as a result. May 1st - May 31st Plans begin for a major Soviet offensive against the German Army in the East. May 1st - July 31st The upcoming invasion at Normany puts a temporary halt on further convoy runs into Russia. May 11th The fourth offensive to take Cassino is put into action. May 11th Approximately 2,000 Allied artillery guns open up on Cassino. May 11th 1944 A combined British, Polish and American assault converge on Cassino involving the British 13th Corps, the Polish II Corps and the US 5th Army. May 13th German paratrooper forces defending Cassino being their evacuation. May 17th 1944 This date became one of the two best weather options for the Allied invasion of France. May 17th 1944 Weather on May 17th cancels the D-Day operation. Leaving the next best weather window of opportunity to be June 5th. May 17th June 5th is selected as the next official launch date for D-Day. May 17th German paratrooper forces exit the Cassino region. May 18th The British take the town of Cassino. May 18th 1944 Monte Cassino falls to the Allies, costing some 50,000 casualties along both sides of the battlefield. May 18th The Poles take Monte Calvario. May 20th The Soviet offensive is detailed under the codename of "Operation Bagration". May 20th The launch date for Operation Bagration is set for June 22nd. May 23rd 1944 The US VI Corps breaks out of the Anzio perimeter and takes ground well into the Alban Hills. May 25th 1944 The US VI Corps continues its gains and eventually combines with the arriving UU Corps. The road to Rome is now in the hands of the US Army and steps are taken for the final assault on the capital. June 4th 1944 Official word comes down that the June 5th landings will be postponed due to inclement weather across the North Sea. June 5th Some 6,000 naval vessels depart from the south of England towards France. June 6th 1944 The German 21st Panzer Division is repelled by a combined Allied armor and air assault, saving further actions at Sword. June 6th The Canadians out of Juno beach take Bernieres at about 11:00AM. June 6th 1944 Near the town of Pouppeville, the US 4th Infantry Division at Utah beach connects with the 101st Airborne Division paratroopers. June 6th 1944 The first town in France - Ste Mere Eglise - is liberated by the Allies, this honor falling to the American forces from Utah beach and paratroopers from the previous day's drops. June 6th 1944 British and French special forces elements out of Sword beach connect with the British paratroopers holding the key bridges over the Orne River. June 6th At 4:00PM, the mobilized German 21st Panzer Division launches a counter-attack. June 6th The German counter-attack reaches the beachhead at Sword. June 6th 1944 By 8:00PM, the Canadian 3rd Infantry Division out of Juno beach connects with the British 50th Division out of Gold beach. This union becomes the largest Allied-held pocket in the north of France to this point. June 6th 1944 By midnight, D-Day is more or less over. Not all objectives are captured but progress is made nonetheless. June 6th 1944 The British and Canadian forces out of Gold and Juno beaches enjoy the largest footholds in France, encompassing land holdings some 9 miles wide and 6.2 miles inland. June 6th At approximately 10:00AM, British forces out of Gold beach take La Riviere. June 6th 1944 Omaha statistics are grim and the group holds the least amount of real estate at just 4.3 miles across and 1.2 miles inland. However, they do hold positions in Vierville sur Mer, Colleville and St-Laurent sur Mer. June 6th 1944 The combined British and Canadian forces at Gold face little opposition and claim their objectives with little incident. June 6th American forces at Utah beach hold pockets of land totaling just over 6 miles. June 6th 1944 The Allied elements at Sword beach hold onto a 6-by-6 mile piece of land though they are still cut off from the Allies at Juno. June 6th 1944 Despite the confusion on the part of the misdropped Allied paratroopers, the defending Germans are thrown into an equal level of confusion, noting Allied airdrops all around them. June 6th 1944 In preparation for the arrival of the regular armies by way of amphibious landing, British and American airborne paratroopers arrive in France just after midnight. June 6th 1944 Elements of the US 82nd and 101st Airborne divisions land across the Cotentin Peninsula. Despite all the planning, their dropzones are widely scattered. June 6th British paratroopers of the 6th British Airborne Brigade land near Benouville. June 6th The British paratroopers take the bridges over the Caen Canal and the Orne River. June 6th 1944 The British 3rd Division arriving at Sword beach face a stouter German defense but are able to overwhelm the enemy and establish a foothold. June 6th 1944 No less than five key bridges over the Dives River are blown up by British paratroopers. June 6th 1944 The Canadian 3rd Infantry Division makes its way towards Juno beach. The German defenses, heavy seas and underwater obstacles cause a loss of 30 percent of the landing craft. The onshore result is equally grim as the Canadians are assaulted by the prepared Germans. June 6th 1944 Allied naval warships open up with their guns on German defensive positions along the French coast. June 6th 1944 At approximately 6:30AM, American Army forces begin landing at two key beaches, codenamed Utah and Omaha. June 6th 1944 US Army forces arriving at Utah beach find themselves some 2,000 yards away from where they should be. The result is the force finds little German opposition at Utah. Their original landing zone was to be centered around Les-Dunes-de-Varreville. Total casualties from the landing are 300 personnel. June 6th 1944 The US Army forces arriving at Omaha beach face a prepared, stout and veteran defense made possible by the German 352nd Division. After 2,400 casualties, the 1st US Infantry Division holds a beachhead. June 6th 1944 At approximately 7:25AM, forces of the British and Canadian armies wade ashore at beaches codenamed Gold and Juno. June 6th The British 50th Division pushed some 6 miles inland. June 6th 1944 By 8:00AM, most of the German defenders at or near Gold and Sword beaches have been cleared or are on the run. June 6th British paratroopers destroy the coastal fortifications at Merville. June 16th 1944 The 1st Mobile Fleet of the IJN meets up with the Japanese Southern Force west of the Philippines. June 17th US amphibious assault elements arrive to take Saipan. June 19th 1944 A fourth Japanese flight group of 49 aircraft is assailed by 27 American Hellcats netting 30 more Japanese targets. June 19th 1944 Soviet partisan groups spring into action along the German rear guard and wreak havoc for days. Targets include supply and communication lines. Tens of thousands of explosive acts of sabotage are noted. June 19th 1944 The first Japanese raid assaults US Task Force 58 through a combined force of IJN and IJA aircraft commitment. The American response nets 35 enemies in the first phase of the attack. June 19th Around 4:28pm, the carrier IJN Taiho joins the IJN Shokaku. June 19th At approximately 4:24pm, the carrier IJN Shokaku, suffering extensive damage from American warplanes, goes under. June 19th 1944 The third Japanese attack includes 47 aircraft which are met by 40 American fighters resulting in 7 enemies downed. June 19th At 12:20pm, the USS Cavalla attack submarine hits the IJN Shokaku with torpedoes. June 19th 1944 At 9:05am, the USS Albacore lands a fish into the side of the IJN Taiho aircraft carrier. June 19th 1944 The second raid of arriving Japanese aerial strike force is identified and attacked by the Americans resulting in some 97 Japanese aircraft downed. June 20th The American aerial force claims another two IJN tanker vessels. June 20th American dive bomber aircraft successfully attack, and subsequently sink, the aircraft carrier IJN Hiyo. June 20th At 4:30pm, some 216 American aircraft are launched in response to the Japanese attacks. June 20th The aircraft carrier - IJN Chiyoda - takes heavy damage from American warplanes. June 20th During the attack, American fighter pilots score a further 65 enemy aircraft. June 20th 1944 By 8:45pm, the American attack shows a loss of 100 aircraft with 80 being lost to landing accidents at night or lack of fuel, forcing many airmen to ditch into the sea. June 20th The aircraft carrier - IJN Zuikaku - takes heavy damage from American warplanes. June 22nd 1944 Totaling over 1.2 million troops, the 1st Baltic Front - along with the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Belorussian Fronts - are put into action along four fronts. Vitebsk is quickly taken and controlled. The 3rd Panzer Army suffers heavy losses. June 22nd Operation Bagration is put into action with General Zhukov in command. June 23rd 1944 The 1st and 3rd Belorussian Fronts advanced to northeast of Minsk, surrounding the German 4th Army. June 23rd 1944 By this date, the partisan actions along the German rear dwindle in preparation for the upcoming offensive. June 26th 1944 With the 1st and 2nd Belorussian Fronts closing, Hitler okays the order for the 9th Army to retreat to more favorable ground. June 28th Hitler replaces Field Marshal Busch with General Model to help stem his losses. June 29th 1944 The 1st and 2nd Belorussian Fronts close in and around the city of Minsk, attempting to join forces of the 3rd Belorussian Front. June 29th June 30th 1944 By this date, the German Army has recorded some 200,000 casualties from the aggressive Soviet offensive. July 1st 1944 Plans by the Polish Army are laid out for a resistance and uprising in the Capital City of Warsaw against their German overseers. July 1st 1944 Lieutenant-General Komorowski heads up the resistance plans as Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Home Army in Warsaw. July 4th Minsk falls to the Soviet offensive. July 4th By this date, the 160,000-strong German 4th Army alone reports losses of 130,000 troops. July 4th German losses total 400,000 personnel. July 5th Encircled, remnants of the German 4th Army are captured or killed trying to flee. July 7th 1944 After heavy bombing by British Royal Air Force elements, British and Canadian army forces regroup and begin their offensive to take Caen from the Germans. July 11th The German 9th Army is obliterated under the might of the Red Army. July 13th Vilnius, Lithuania is captured by Soviet ground troops. July 13th 1944 A new Soviet land offensive is launched with elements of the Soviet 1st and 4th Ukranian Fronts. Their target is Germany Army Group North in the Ukraine on their way to southern Poland. July 13th 1944 A combined British and Canadian force is stopped outside of Caen by a determined German defense. July 17th German Army Group Center is completely annihilated from the German ranks. July 17th 1944 White Russia is cleansed of all German invaders, leading celebrations in the Soviet capital of Moscow. July 17th Some 57,000 German captives are paraded through the streets of Moscow. July 18th 1944 The British and Canadian launch Operation Goodwood against Caen. British armored elements are brought to bear against the dug-in and prepared Germans. The goal is to take all of Caen before focusing on Falaise. July 18th 1944 US Army forces seize complete control of the town of St. Lo on the Contentin peninsula. Control of this strategic zone now allows for larger, prepared and controlled Allied offensives towards inland France. July 20th 1944 While the British 2nd Army and 2nd Canadian Division can now lay claim to Caen, they fall short of advancement against Falaise. As such, Operation Goodwood is stopped. July 21st 8th Air Force B-17 and B-24 bombers are launched on Schweinfurt. July 24th 1944 American forces enact Operation Cobra, this stemming from control of the Contentin peninsula. The goal is to smash through the German defenses and create a road through the Avranches, exposing inland France to future Allied assaults. July 26th 1944 The Polish government, in exile since the fall of their country to the invading Germans, communicates with the British government for help in staging the uprising. July 27th 1944 The British government promises what it can and this emerges in the form of scattered air drops of weapons and supplies. July 27th Lvov is clamed by the Ukranian Fronts. July 28th Soviet forces lay claim to Brest-Litovsk. July 30th 1944 The German 7th Army attempts a counter-attack at Avranches but the Americans manage to hold their ground. July 30th US Army forces reach Avranches and lay control the region. July 31st Soviet Army forces close in on German defenders in Warsaw. August 1st 1944 Upon hearing of news of the Polish uprising, an infuriated Adolph Hitler swears punishment and commits more of his troops within the Capital limits. August 1st 1944 Three Soviet Army Fronts converge on the outskirts of Warsaw, prompting Polish General Komorowski to greenlight the uprising. August 1st Uprisings begin across the Polish capital of Warsaw. August 1st Roughly 30,000 Poles and scattered firearms make up the beginning of the Warsaw Uprising. August 1st August 1st 1944 US General George S. Patton and his 3rd Army manage their way through Avranches towards Liore and Brittany. August 4th 1944 Realizing their chances of victory are slim against well-trained and well-armed Germans, Polish Authorities once again ask the Allies - including the Soviets - for assistance in maintaining the uprising. August 7th 1944 The 1st Canadian Army supports Allied elements just south of Caen, making their way towards Falaise. August 7th 1944 A determined German counter-attack takes Mortain and heads towards Avranches before being stopped. Allied airstrikes and artillery stall the German advance. August 8th General Patton reaches Le Mans and then heads north to Argentan. August 8th 1944 US General Omar Bradley talks with British General Benard Law Montgomery about a plan to encircle some 21 divsions of Germans in the Falaise-Argentan pocket. Montgomery likes what he hears and give the plan the green light. August 10th 1944 German Army forces continue to relocate to Warsaw in an attempt to quell the Polish uprising. August 11th 1944 The Red Army finds themselves some 12 miles outside of Warsaw proper, having advanced into the Polish suburbs. August 11th 1944 Sensing complete destruction of Warsaw and its people, the Pope himself appeals to the Allies for help. August 13th Patton's 3rd Army arrives at Argentan. August 14th 1944 Elements of Patton's 3rd Army are sent from Falaise to the east towards Chartres and in the direction of Paris proper. August 15th Stretched and strained supply lines bring the Soviet war machine to a halt. August 15th - August 29th 1944 During another running battle, convoy JW59 and her surface warships inflict damage on the KMS Tirpitz. August 16th 1944 Sensing his own political interests and conquests, Soviet leader Josef Stalin rejects a direct call for aid for the Poles. August 16th The American 3rd Army reaches Chartres. August 16th 1944 German forces in Falaise are given the okay from Hitler to retreat to a more favorable position. The encirclement of German forces prompts the action from High Command. August 16th After seven days of continuous and bitter fighting, Canadian Army forces reach Falaise. August 19th 1944 At Mantes Grassicourt, a division of the American XV Corps manages to cross the Seine River. August 20th 1944 The Falaise pocket is finally closed by the Allies. American and Canadian forces meet to complete the encirclement. German forces in Normandy are now trapped. August 20th German Army soldiers now number some 21,300 personnel in Warsaw. August 20th 1944 The swift and thorough German response has divided the Polish resistance into three distinct groups, all cut off from one another. August 20th The German Army begins their final push to crush the Polish response. August 22nd 1944 After some additional fighting that results in a further 10,000 German soldiers killed, the trapped elements of the German Army at Normandy surrender to the Allies. In all, some 50,000 soldiers of the German Army are taken prisoner. August 25th 1944 Patton and his 3rd Army continue their march and setup critical strategic bridgeheads over the Seine River at Elbeuf and Louviers. August 25th SS Obergruppenfuhrer Erich von dem Bach-Zelweski details the final German push. August 25th Paris is liberated by the arriving Allies. August 25th The Germans begin their counter-offensive against the remaining Pole units. August 25th The Allies reach the French capital of Paris. August 26th 1944 Brigadier-General Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French forces, leads a contingent of Allied troops on a march down the Champs Elysees to a thunderous reception by liberated French citizens. August 30th 1944 The massive Soviet offensive ends with much of the German-held territories now in Russian hands. The Soviet Army has made it as far as the outskirts of Warsaw in Poland with a front running from Lithuania in the north, through Belorussia in the center and Poland/Ukraine in the south. September 16th 1944 Pressured by the Americans and British, Stalin gives in - just a little - and delivers a meager air drop of arms consisting of just fifty pistols and a pair of machine guns. September 16th 1944 Polish Army units fighting alongside the Soviet Army make a dash to support their comrades in Warsaw, this against the orders of Soviet High Command. September 17th 1944 General Dwight Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in Europe, approves General Montgomery's Operation Market Garden. September 17th 1944 The US 101st Airborne Division landing at Eindhoven and Veghel are successful in their capturing of bridges. September 17th Operation Market Garden is activated. Parachute landings take place at Eindhoven, Veghel, Grave and Oosterbeek. September 17th The US 82nd Airborne Division landing at Grave is successful in capturing its target bridge. September 17th 1944 British paratroopers landing at Arnhem run straight into the 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions who are in the area ungoing refitting. The bridge at Arnhem is captured by British forces but the group is quickly cut off from help by the Germans. September 17th 1944 Under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Zygmunt Berling, the 1st Polish Army forces engage the Germans in Warsaw but are ultimately driven back in retreat. September 18th Josef Stalin refuses further Allied use of his forward airfields to resupply the Polish insurgents. September 18th 1944 The British XXX Corps fights its way through a dedicated German resistance up the main artery road leading to Eindhoven. They finally unite with the 101st Airborne forces having landed at Eindhoven and Veghel. September 18th 1944 American B-17 bombers land at Poltava, now under Soviet control, to refuel. Onboard are arms and supplies meant for the Polish resistance. September 19th 1944 The British XXX Corps officially unites with the US 82nd Airborne Division forces having landed at Grave. September 20th British XXX Corps is delayed a full day from reaching beleagured paratrooper forces at Arnhem. September 20th 1944 The US 82nd Airborne, backed by the British XXX Corps, take the bridge over the Waal River at Nijmegen. September 21st 1944 British XXX Corps is slowed down once more, this time by German anti-tank forces and artillery emplacements north of Nijmegen and along the route to Arnhem. September 21st For his actions in disobeying Soviet Army orders, Berling is stripped of his army command. September 21st 1944 British paratroopers at Arnhem give up control of their bridge against a stronger German foe and instead concentrate on surviving by utilizing the town of Arnhem itself as a defense. September 22nd 1944 Elements of the Polish Parachute Brigade, delayed multiple times from earlier participation in the operation, finally land south of Arnhem. Their mission is to reinforce the battered British 1st Airborne Division. September 23rd 1944 141 RAF bombers take on the Dortmund-Ems Canal. Some of these bombers make use of the massive "Tallboy" 12,000lb bomb. September 25th 1944 American air drops deliver their much-needed cargo to the Polish resistance below. However, the drop zones are in firm German control and supplies are captured soon after landing. September 25th 1944 At Arnhem, some 6,000 Allied soldiers are taken prison by the Germans. A further 1,000 lay dead from the fighting. September 25th 1944 Remaining elements of the British 1st Airborne Division out of Arnhem make their way across the Neder Rijn River in retreat. They intend on meeting up with XXX Corps still making their way to the area. September 27th Despite valliant actions, the Polish Parachute Brigade is forced to surrender at Arnhem. September 27th 1944 South of Arnhem, Allied forces continue to hold their gains. Over the next few months, some 3,500 casualties will be counted. October 2nd 1944 Polish General Komorowski, sensing total defeat imminent, orders his Polish insurgents to surrender to the Germans. October 3rd Polish military forces all surrender to the German Army, ending the valliant uprising. October 9th 8th Air Force B-17 and B-24 bombers are once again launched on Schweinfurt. October 31st 1944 Some 250,000 Polish civilians and soldiers of Warsaw will meet their end through execution or deportation to Nazi concentration camps as a result of the Warsaw uprising. November 1st - November 30th 1944 As the German defensive circle shrinks througout Europe, the Artic Convoys enjoy their best month, seeing not one vessel lost to enemy action. November 12th The KMS Tirpitz is finally destroyed at Troms by forces of the RAF. December 16th 1944 Bad weather soon sets in over the Ardennes region, limiting Allied air support to counter the German advances. December 16th 1944 The German Army launch their Ardennes offensive against elements of the American US VIII located between Aachen and Bastogne. December 16th 1944 Initial progress on the assault is good for the Germans, however, the US 2nd and 99th Divisions hold fast at Elsenborn and Malmedy. December 17th 1944 Allied prisoners of war are executed in cold blood by elements of the 6th SS Panzer Army. Some 87 prisoners are killed where they stand on direct orders from German Colonel Joachim Peiper. December 17th The town of Stavelot is lost to the invading German Army. December 19th 1944 Allied generals agree to commit elements of the Saar Front against the southern flanks of the German advance, this in the area between Bastogne and Echternach. December 19th 1944 By this date, two components making up the US 106th Division at the Schnee Eiffel region are surrounded by the Germans. December 19th Some 6,000 Allied troops surrender to the encircling German Army at Schnee Eiffel. December 19th 1944 Along the Ardennes line, US forces reform into intense defensive lines and some forces eventually mount counter attacks against the invading Germans. December 19th The town of Stavelot is recaptured by the Allies. December 20th The US 10th and 19th Armored Divisions are completely encircled by the German advance. December 20th 1944 British General Montgomery is charged with heading up the progress along the north line of defense while American General Bradley is given command of the south. December 20th 1944 By this date, the 101st Airborne Division at Bastogne is completely encircled by the German XLVII Panzer Corps. December 22nd 1944 As the German advance continues, supply lines are stretched to the limit and flanks become over exposed prompting German General Rundstedt to ask Hitler to halt the advance - Hitler refuses. December 23rd 2,000 Allied air sorties are launched in improving skies against the Germans on the ground. December 23rd Supplies are dropped from Allied transport planes to the beleagured forces held up at Bastogne. December 23rd 1944 Allied ground attack fighters target and destroy German ground vehicles and troop concentrations. Without air support of their own, there is little that the Germans can do in response. December 23rd The foul weather over the Ardennes begins to clear. December 25th 1944 German losses on Christmas Day include 3,500 infantrymen and 400 vehicles, 81 of these being tanks. December 25th 1944 After achieving 60 miles of territory - the farthest march of the German Ardennes Offensive - the 2nd Panzer Division under Lieutenant-General von Lauchert is stopped by a combined force of British and American armor made up of the British 29th Armored Brigade and the American 2nd Armored Division. December 26th 1944 The American 4th Armored Division makes its way to the beleagured 101st Airborne forces at Bastogne and the situation at the village is stabilized. December 28th 1944 Hitler orders a halt to the advance - but no retreat - leaving his exposed and tired units at the mercy of the replenished Allied forces across the Ardennes Front. By Engagement	Operation Market Garden
After which battle did the British Life Guards first obtain their breast-plates?	6/12/2006 • World War II Following lessons learned in Normandy, General Maxwell Taylor insisted that his men be landed in Holland with a high degree of concentration. The daylight operation enabled troop carrier pilots to drop the 101st closer to their intended landing zones and allowed the paratroopers and glidermen to consolidate more quickly after arriving, as the general had wished. (NATIONAL ARCHIVES) In broad daylight the three parachute infantry regiments of the 101st Airborne Division descended with amazing accuracy on designated drop zones in Nazi-occupied Holland. It was September 17, 1944, and the Screaming Eagles were to play a vital role in Operation Market-Garden. Once the Allied armies had broken out of their D-Day beachhead and through the bocage, or hedgerow country, of France, they advanced rapidly. Disorganized German units retreated before them. Fixed fortifications, known as the Siegfried Line or West Wall, barred a direct strike into Germany itself. In the northern area of Allied operations, British Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery had devised an ambitious plan to outflank the Siegfried Line and facilitate a drive directly into the Ruhr, the industrial heart of Germany. Montgomery’s plan relied on the First Allied Airborne Army, of which the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps, including the 101st and 82nd Airborne divisions, was a part. The commander of this army was Lt. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton. The U.S. airborne troops, who had participated in the D-Day operations, had been resting and absorbing replacements in England since mid-July. For Market-Garden, it was hoped that the Americans, along with the British 1st Airborne Division, would launch a bold strike across the Maas, Waal and Neder Rijn (Rhine) rivers in Holland that would pave the way for ground troops to advance swiftly into Germany and end the war by Christmas of 1944. Key to the success of Montgomery’s plan would be the seizure of bridges across rivers and adjacent canals by the airborne troops and swift movement of ground forces up a single highway, spanning roughly 60 miles from the Allied lines in Belgium to the Dutch town of Arnhem. The troops would hold the bridges until relief appeared in the form of the British XXX Corps charging down the single road, crossing the bridges successively and arriving at Arnhem as the vanguard of a larger force pushing southeast into Germany. The 101st would secure the southernmost bridges, including one over the Wilhelmina Canal at the town of Son, a pair spanning the Dommel River at St. Oedenrode and then four more over the Aar River near the town of Veghel. Eindhoven was also to be captured while the men of the 101st held open 15 miles of the road toward Arnhem for the XXX Corps’ use. By the end of their service in Market-Garden, the men of the 101st would refer to this stretch of road as ‘Hell’s Highway.’ Farther north, the 82nd Airborne was ordered to capture the bridge at Grave, the longest in Europe. The 82nd would also take one or more of the four bridges across the Maas-Waal Canal, another bridge over the Waal at Nijmegen and the area around the town of Groesbeek. The final leg of the XXX Corps’ drive involved a dash from Nijmegen to Arnhem, where the British 1st Airborne was to capture and hold three bridges across the Rhine. Had Market-Garden succeeded, the war might indeed have been shortened. As it turned out, elements of two SS panzer divisions, the 9th and 10th, had been ordered to the vicinity of the Allied thrust to rest and refit in the days immediately prior to the start of the operation. Also, by coincidence, while Market-Garden was getting underway, the German 59th and 245th Infantry divisions were in transit from the area of the German Fifteenth Army to that of the First Parachute Army–right in the operation’s path. Intelligence that indicated strong concentrations of German forces in the proposed area of operations appears to have been ignored by planners. Due to stiff resistance, Operation Market-Garden was doomed to failure. The 1st Airborne fought an epic battle for 10 days in and around Arnhem, but of the nearly 10,000 British paratroopers who participated, just over 2,000 escaped death or captivity. On the afternoon of September 17, the 101st executed a nearly flawless airdrop. All but two of its battalions were delivered to their correct drop zones. Unlike what had happened in the D-Day drops, the transport pilots held their planes steady and on course through anti-aircraft fire rather than taking evasive action that could have scattered the troops. Most units assembled and moved toward their objectives shortly after landing. Dropping near Son, the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, under the command of Colonel Robert F. Sink, was to capture a bridge over the Wilhelmina Canal and then advance south to Eindhoven. The 502nd, commanded by Colonel John H. Michaelis, would establish a perimeter around its drop zone just north of the 506th so that it could later be used as a glider landing zone. It was then to capture a bridge over the Dommel and take bridges over the Wilhelmina Canal near the town of Best. The 501st, under Colonel Howard R. Johnson, was still farther north, where the regiment was instructed to take both road and rail bridges on the Willems Canal and the Aar River near the town of Veghel. Douglas C-47 transports line up to receive Allied paratroopers for the jump, and fly toward their targets during what was called one of the division’s most successful landings. (NATIONAL ARCHIVES) The 501st, including its 1st Battalion, which had been dropped in the wrong place, made rapid progress toward its objectives. Lieutenant Colonel Harry W.O. Kinnard, commander of the battalion, gathered his forces and set out in the direction of Veghel. Some of Kinnard’s men commandeered bicycles and trucks, leading the rest of the battalion toward the bridges. When Kinnard arrived on the outskirts of Veghel, his troopers had already taken the railroad bridge over the Aar River. The 3rd Battalion took the town of Eerde and cut the Veghel–St. Oedenrode highway, safeguarding the regiment’s rear. Meanwhile, the 2nd Battalion seized three bridges at Veghel. The 501st secured all of its September 17 objectives in about three hours, capturing 50 prisoners in the process. In his haste to move toward Veghel, however, Kinnard was unable to transport all of his battalion’s equipment. He had left 46 men under the command of Captain W.S. Burd to bring this equipment, along with those paratroopers injured in the jump, forward at a slower pace. Burd’s detachment was attacked by a strong force of Germans and pushed back to a single building. When word of Burd’s plight reached Kinnard, Johnson allowed him to send a platoon to the rescue. The attempt failed, and Burd’s group was captured. The other unit dropped out of its prescribed zone was the 1st Battalion of the 502nd Regiment. Nevertheless, that battalion, under Lt. Col. Patrick F. Cassidy, took St. Oedenrode, which commanded a major highway and a bridge over the Dommel. The 1st’s men killed 20 Germans and captured 58 in the process. Major General Maxwell Taylor, commander of the 101st, wanted to capture rail and highway bridges over the Wilhelmina Canal near Best. Those bridges did not sit directly along the line of advance of the XXX Corps, but Taylor felt that their possession would strengthen his position and provide another route if the road through Son were cut. The 502nd’s Company H drew the assignment of taking the bridges and soon ran into strong opposition. Its commander, Captain Robert E. Jones, dispatched a patrol toward the bridges. Led by Lieutenant Edward L. Wierzbowski, this group came within sight of the highway bridge but was forced to dig in, its strength reduced to only three officers and 15 men. Lieutenant Colonel Robert G. Cole, who earned the Medal of Honor in Normandy, commanded the 3rd Battalion, 502nd. He started out with the rest of his battalion to find Captain Jones and Company H at 1800 hours on the 17th, but his effort to link up was thwarted by darkness. The fight for Best would ultimately require a much larger force, including British tanks and at least two more battalions, to secure the area during the next two days. Private First Class Joe E. Mann would be posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions on September 19–he died after being shot by a German sniper. General Taylor moved ahead with the 1st Battalion, 506th, south of Son, approaching the Wilhelmina Canal road bridge from the west. Just south of the town, below the Zonsche Forest, 88mm guns began shelling the Americans. The other two battalions of the 506th, commanded by Colonel Sink, came under fire from additional 88s. Don Burgett, a member of the 1st Battalion, remembered the vicious fight for Son. ‘We organized and we began to charge the guns,’ he recalled. ‘The only way we were going to survive was to knock out the 88s even though a lot of us were going to die trying to do it. As we were running toward them, they fired at us at point-blank range. We overran their positions. There were several 88s. They were sandbagged and dug in and used for anti-aircraft. A trooper from D Company got in close enough and fired a bazooka and knocked out one of the guns.’ Both groups from the 506th then moved toward the bridge. ‘We overran the 88s, took the German gunners prisoner, and someone said, ‘Let’s take the bridge,” continued Burgett. ‘We started to run toward the bridge. We were within yards of the bridge when the Germans blew it up. It went off with quite a force….We hit the ground. I rolled over on my back because everything got real quiet, and I saw the debris in the air. I remember seeing this tiny straw that was turning slowly, way up in the air, and as it hit its maximum trajectory and started to come down, it became larger and larger. About halfway down we realized the size of this thing. It was probably about 2 feet wide and 40 feet long. There was no place to run. When it hit the ground, the ground shook like jello.’ With the Son bridge in ruins, the effort to capture Eindhoven slowed. However, the XXX Corps halted that evening at Valkenswaard, six miles away. By the time the XXX Corps arrived at Eindhoven the next day, the town was in the hands of the 101st. As night fell on the 17th, the 101st controlled Veghel, St. Oedenrode and Son. Although the 502nd had encountered battle-toughened German troops around Best, the objective there was secondary. In a few hours, the 101st would have its stretch of Hell’s Highway completely open. Almost from the beginning, jubilant Dutch civilians had welcomed the Allied paratroopers as liberators. Early on the morning of September 18, the 506th destroyed a pair of 88s and pushed into Eindhoven. While throngs of citizens welcomed them, the paratroopers disarmed a handful of Germans. As the townspeople erupted in celebration, one American officer remembered: ‘The reception was terrific. The air seemed to reek with hate for the Germans….’ Finally, at 1700 hours that evening, the leading elements of the XXX Corps rumbled through Eindhoven virtually without stopping. At Son, Canadian engineers, who had been notified that the existing bridge had been destroyed, worked throughout the night to deploy a prefabricated Bailey bridge. At 0645 on the 19th, 33 hours behind schedule, the tanks of the XXX Corps rumbled over the Wilhelmina Canal. Not all members of the 101st arrived in Holland by parachute; many, including these men from the divisional headquarters company, landed via glider. (NATIONAL ARCHIVES) By the morning of September 19, the XXX Corps had crossed the Willems Canal and the Aar River at Veghel and was moving into the 82nd Airborne’s zone. While the 82nd had been successful in achieving most of its goals, the Germans still held the bridge across the Waal at Nijmegen. It was captured with a herculean effort on the afternoon of the 20th, but the armored ‘cavalry’ did not cross the Waal until the 21st. Time was running out for the heroic British paratroopers at Arnhem. In the 101st’s sector, the primary job became holding the narrow corridor of hope open against repeated enemy counterattacks. While Allied armor was advancing northward, it was vital to keep the road open to facilitate the flow of troops and supplies. The Germans, however, fought back viciously against the 101st’s defensive positions around Eindhoven, Son, St. Oedenrode and Veghel. General Taylor likened the action to the bushwhacking style of fighting between small garrisons of troops and Indians in the American West. The Germans would attack, cut the road and then be driven back by the troopers of the 101st. On the 22nd, the Germans mounted a counterattack against Veghel supported by heavy artillery and aircraft. The attack was not beaten back until two days later. ‘It was a very depressing atmosphere listening to the civilians moan, shriek, sing hymns and say their prayers,’ wrote Daniel Kenyon Webster of the 506th’s Company E, remembering the rain of artillery. He and Private Don Wiseman dug a deep foxhole. ‘Wiseman and I sat in our corners and cursed,’ Webster continued. ‘Every time we heard a shell come over, we closed our eyes and put our heads between our legs. Every time the shells went off, we looked up and grinned at each other.’ On September 24, the Germans ravaged a British column on Hell’s Highway at Koevering. Burgett remembered: ‘The Germans brought up some 40mm cannons and they had some self-propelled guns, and they shot up the British who were lined up on the side of the road…brewing tea in those five-gallon tins, and the Germans just opened up on them. They killed over 300. ‘When we got down to Koevering, the trucks were still burning,’ continued Burgett. ‘We went into the attack immediately. I remember we killed two Germans in a haystack. Then we made an attack west across the road at a farmhouse. The farmhouse was set on fire. We went into the German side, and we drove them back.’ Although it became apparent that Market-Garden was a strategic failure, the men of the 101st Airborne could say that they had done their part admirably. The northern flank of the Allied armies was extended 65 miles across two canals and the Maas and Waal rivers, while a considerable amount of Dutch territory had been freed from Nazi occupation. The division had killed many Germans and captured 3,511, while suffering 2,110 casualties itself. Although most of the men of the 101st expected to be pulled out of the line at the end of September, the division was placed under the control of the British XII Corps on the 28th and transferred north to the front line in an area known as the Island, a 5-kilometer strip of land between the Neder Rijn and the Waal. Due to heavy demands for manpower, the British were pressed for troops, and both the 101st and 82nd Airborne divisions found themselves in positions that resembled the trench lines of World War I. Occasionally, they experienced artillery duels between the Germans and the British and were involved in infantry clashes. On the night of October 5, a platoon of the 506th’s Company E, supported by a detachment from Company F, mauled two companies of German SS troops attempting to infiltrate American lines in support of an attack by the 363rd Volksgrenadier Division. Captain (later Major) Richard Winters, Company E’s commander, led his 35 men brilliantly, demonstrating great bravery and coolness under fire. Moving along a road adjacent to a dike near the banks of the Neder Rijn, Winters shot a German who was only three yards away and then opened up on a mass of enemy troops. ‘The movements of the Germans seemed to be unreal to me,’ he reflected. ‘When they rose up, it seemed to be so slow. When they turned to look over their shoulders at me, it was in slow motion. When they started to raise their rifles to fire at me, it was in slow, slow motion. I emptied the first clip [eight rounds] and, still standing in the middle of the road, put in a second clip and, still shooting from the hip, emptied that clip into the mass.’ Winters remembered that action as the ‘highlight of all E Company actions for the entire war, even better than D-Day, because it demonstrated Easy’s overall superiority in every phase of infantry tactics: patrol, defense, attack under a base of fire, withdrawal, and above all, superior marksmanship with rifles, machine gun and mortar fire.’ The 101st held its positions on the Island until late November, when it was withdrawn to Camp Mourmelon, outside the French village of Mourmelon-le-Grand. From the Market-Garden drop until its last troopers were relieved, the division had spent 72 days in combat zones. In the defensive fighting at the Island, it suffered 1,682 casualties. The men of the 101st experienced combat for the first time on D-Day. They had fought gallantly as veterans in Holland. But their sternest test and their finest hour were yet to come, at the Belgian crossroads town of Bastogne. This article was written by Michael Haskew and originally appeared in World War II‘s 2004 Special Collector’s Edition of issue of Band of Brothers. For more great articles be sure to pick up your copy of World War II .	i don't know
The bombardment of which fort was the act which started the American Civil War?	Fort Sumter - American Civil War - HISTORY.com Google Fort Sumter: Construction and Design Fort Sumter was first built in the wake of the War of 1812 (1812-1815), which had highlighted the United States’ lack of strong coastal defenses. Named for Revolutionary War general and South Carolina native Thomas Sumter, Fort Sumter was one of nearly 50 forts built as part of the so-called Third System, a coastal defense program implemented by Congress in 1817. The three-tiered, five-sided fort’s coastal placement was designed to allow it to control access to the vital Charleston Harbor. While the island itself was only 2.4 acres in size, the fort was built to accommodate a garrison of 650 soldiers and 135 artillery pieces. Did You Know? There were no casualties during the Confederate bombardment of Fort Sumter at the start of the American Civil War. The only Union deaths came during the evacuation: One soldier was killed and another mortally wounded in an accidental explosion during a planned 100-gun salute. Construction of Fort Sumter first began in 1829 in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, on a manmade island built from thousands of tons of granite. Building ground to a halt in the 1830s amid a dispute over ownership of the stretch of the harbor, and did not resume until 1841. Like many Third System fortifications, Fort Sumter proved a costly endeavor, and construction slowed again in 1859 due to lack of funding. By 1860 the island and the outer fortifications were complete, but the fort’s interior and armaments remained unfinished. Fort Sumter: The First Battle of Fort Sumter Construction of Fort Sumter was still underway when South Carolina seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860. Despite Charleston’s position as a major port, at the time only two companies of federal troops guarded the harbor. Commanded by Major Robert Anderson (1805-1871), these companies were stationed at Fort Moultrie, a dilapidated fortification facing the coastline. Recognizing that Fort Moultrie was vulnerable to a land assault, Anderson elected to abandon it for the more easily defensible Fort Sumter on December 26, 1860. South Carolina militia forces would seize the city’s other forts shortly thereafter, leaving Fort Sumter as the lone federal outpost in Charleston. A standoff ensued until January 9, 1861, when a ship called the Star of the West arrived in Charleston with over 200 U.S. troops and supplies intended for Fort Sumter. South Carolina militia batteries fired upon the vessel as it neared Charleston Harbor, forcing it to turn back to sea. Major Anderson refused repeated calls to abandon Fort Sumter, and by March 1861 there were over 3,000 militia troops besieging his garrison. A number of other U.S. military facilities in the Deep South had already been seized, and Fort Sumter was viewed by many as one of the South’s few remaining hurdles to overcome before achieving sovereignty. With the inauguration of President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) in March 1861, the situation soon escalated. Knowing that Anderson and his men were running out of supplies, Lincoln announced his intention to send three unarmed ships to relieve Fort Sumter. Having already declared that any attempt to resupply the fort would be seen as an act of aggression, South Carolina militia forces soon scrambled to respond. On April 11, militia commander P.G.T. Beauregard (1818-1893) demanded that Anderson surrender the fort, but Anderson again refused. In response Beauregard opened fire on Fort Sumter shortly after 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861. U.S. Captain Abner Doubleday (1819-1893)—later famous for the myth that he invented baseball—ordered the first shots in defense of the fort a few hours later. Beauregard’s 19 coastal batteries unleashed a punishing barrage on Fort Sumter, eventually firing an estimated 3,000 shots at the citadel in 34 hours. By Saturday, April 13, cannon fire had broken through the fortress’s five-foot-thick brick walls, causing fires inside the post. With his stores of ammunition depleted, Anderson was forced to surrender the fort shortly after 2 p.m. in the afternoon. No Union troops had been killed during the bombardment, but two men died the following day in an explosion that occurred during an artillery salute held before the U.S. evacuation. The bombardment of Fort Sumter would play a major part in triggering the Civil War. In the days following the assault, Lincoln issued a call for Union volunteers to quash the rebellion, while more Southern states including Virginia , North Carolina and Tennessee cast their lot with the Confederacy. Fort Sumter: Later Civil War Engagements Following Beauregard’s bombardment in 1861, Confederate forces occupied Fort Sumter and used it to marshal a defense of Charleston Harbor. Once it was completed and better armed, Fort Sumter allowed the Confederates to create a valuable hole in the Union blockade of the Atlantic seaboard. The first Union assault on Fort Sumter came in April 1863, when Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont (1803-1865) attempted a naval attack on Charleston. Commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, Du Pont arrived in Charleston with a fleet of nine ironclad warships, seven of which were updated versions of the famed USS Monitor. While Du Pont had hoped to recapture Fort Sumter—by then a symbol of the Confederate rebellion—his attack was poorly coordinated and met with unfavorable weather conditions. In collaboration with Fort Sumter, Confederate batteries commanded by P.G.T. Beauregard hammered the ironclad fleet with artillery fire, and underwater mines posed a constant threat to the ships’ hulls. Outgunned and unable to properly maneuver in heavy currents, Du Pont’s fleet eventually withdrew from the harbor after taking over 500 hits by Confederate guns. Only one Union soldier was killed during the battle, but one of the ironclads, the Keokuk, sank the next day. Five Confederates were killed during the attack, but the damage to Fort Sumter was soon repaired and its defenses improved. Confederate soldiers even managed to salvage one of the Keokuk’s 11-inch Dahlgren guns and mount it on the fortress. In July 1863 Union troops laid siege to Fort Wagner, a valuable post on Morris Island near the mouth of Charleston Harbor. After being met with heavy fire from Fort Sumter, Union General Quincy Adams Gillmore (1825-1888) turned his guns on the fort and unleashed a devastating seven-day bombardment. On September 8 a force of nearly 400 Union troops attempted to land at Fort Sumter and capture the post by force. Union Rear Admiral John Dahlgren (1809-1870) mistakenly believed the fort was manned by a skeleton crew, but the landing party was met by over 300 Confederate infantry, who easily repulsed the assault. Following the failed infantry attack, Union forces on Morris Island recommenced their bombing campaign on Fort Sumter. Over the next 15 months, Union artillery effectively leveled Fort Sumter, eventually firing nearly 50,000 projectiles at the fort between September 1863 and February 1865. Despite suffering over 300 casualties from the Union bombardments, the beleaguered Confederate garrison managed to retain control of the fort until February 1865. Only when Union General William T. Sherman was poised to capture Charleston did the Confederates finally evacuate. Union forces would reclaim Fort Sumter on February 22, 1865. Robert A. Anderson and Abner Doubleday, the two commanding officers from the original siege of Fort Sumter, would both return to the fortress on April 14, 1865, for a flag raising ceremony. Fort Sumter: Post-Civil War Use After the Civil War the derelict Fort Sumter was rebuilt and partially redesigned. It would see little use during the 1870s and 1880s and was eventually reduced to serving as a lighthouse station for Charleston Harbor. With the start of the Spanish-American War (1898), the fortress was rearmed and once again used as a coastal defense installation. It would later see service during both World War I (1914-18) and World War II (1939-45). In 1948 Fort Sumter was decommissioned as a military post and turned over to the National Park Service. It now attracts over 750,000 visitors every year. Tags	Fort Sumter
Which WWI battle occurred on a peninsular south of Istanbul in Turkey?	Battle Summary: Fort Sumter, SC Campaign: Operations in Charleston Harbor (April 1861) Date(s): April 12-14, 1861 Principal Commanders: Maj. Robert Anderson [US]; Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard [CS] Forces Engaged: Regiments: 580 total (US 80; CS est. 500) Estimated Casualties: None Description: On April 10, 1861, Brig. Gen. Beauregard, in command of the provisional Confederate forces at Charleston, South Carolina, demanded the surrender of the Union garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Garrison commander Anderson refused. On April 12, Confederate batteries opened fire on the fort, which was unable to reply effectively. At 2:30 pm, April 13, Major Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter, evacuating the garrison on the following day. The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the opening engagement of the American Civil War. Although there were no casualties during the bombardment, one Union artillerist was killed and three wounded (one mortally) when a cannon exploded prematurely while firing a salute during the evacuation on April 14. Result(s): Confederate victory	i don't know
What is the highest mountain in England?	What is the highest mountain in England? What is the highest mountain in England? Updated on September 4, 2009 What is the highest mountain in England? If you are looking for the answer to that very question you are in the right place. This page contains the details of the highest mountain in England, as well as a list of the top 10 highest mountain's in England should you ever want to answer the question ' What are the top 10 highest mountains in England?'. A picture of Scafell Pike which is the highest mountain in England. This is the highest peak in the distance, second peak in from the left of the shot. Also included in the picture is the second highest mountain in England, Scafell, at the centre o What is the highest mountain in England? The short answer to the question 'What is the highest mountain in England?' is Scafell Pike. The height of this, the highest mountain in England, is 978 metres (3210 feet). Scafell Pike is found within the Lake District National Park. The Lake District is an area of great beauty, located in north west of England, in the county of Cumbria. As can be guessed from the name, the Lake District is made up of many lakes. These have been formed in amongst the large mountains which can be found throughout the Lake District, the highest of which is Scafell Pike. Scafell Pike itself is formed from igneous rock. Igneous rock is rock which has formed from the cooling of magma/lava. The rock from Scafell Pike probably formed during the Ordovician Period which occurred approximately 450 million years ago. As such the rocks are very old. Over the years Scafell Pike has been weathered and eroded by a large number of different actions. This has led to it having it's present day shape. In addition, Scafell Pike has the highest boulder field in England, which again was probably formed through weathering. Since Scafell Pike is the highest mountain in England it is very popular with walkers and mountain climbers and so on days with good weather the paths can be very busy. However, as with all mountaineering, the weather can change quickly and so safety precautions need to be taken. Scafell Pike is also popular with people who attempt to collect highest mountains. This means that they have managed to climb the highest mountain in a given country. There are many people who attempt to climb Ben Nevis (the highest mountain in Scotland), Snowdon (the highest mountain in Wales) and Scafell Pike (the highest mountain in England). Scafell Pike is also popular since it's location. It is relatively close to many large population centres, such as Manchester and Liverpool. Most people travel to Scafell Pike by car, along the M6 from Manchester and then the A595. What are the ten highest mountains in England? Mountain	Scafell Pike
Which city is known as the Granite City'?	England's highest mountain - Scafell Pike Mountain, Seathwaite Traveller Reviews - TripAdvisor “Probably the toughest hike I have ever done” Reviewed 10 January 2012 Scafell Pike is the tallest mountain in England, and I began my ascent from the farm at Seathwaite. Seathwaite and the surrounding area has the largest rainfall in England, and although it was not raining when I arrived, it clearly had tipped it down as the roads and paths could be mistaken for streams. I arrived at 9.30am, and there were already many cars parked. Any later and I would have struggled to park. The beginning of the walk is quite pleasant but it is at the bottom of a deep valley. After walking for about an hour and you have climbed 'a few feet' things get more scenic. I enjoyed the walk along 'the corridor' and after turning left at the tarn the climb gets steeper, but is still very pleasant. It was the approach to Scafell when I started to loose momentum, especially when the realisation kicks in that Scafell is not Scafell Pike, but it is also some distance from Scafell Pike. The route from Scafell to the Pike is over huge boulders, following cairns as best you can. This I found very difficult and very frustrating, having to keep stopping not to catch my breath, but to work out the easiest route over the boulders. The last hurdle is as you are in sight of the Pike, the path then descends rapidly only to be followed by a scramble up to more boulders then onto the pike. (I nearly gave up at this point - something I have never done before or since). I did continue, and as I reached the Pike the cloud came down and I could see nothing! I am determined to return and give it another go - maybe another route, but it is definitely much more challenging than Snowdon or Ben Nevis. The return journey (excluding boulder mountaineering) was very pleasant, and I finally returned to the car at 6.00pm. Visited June 2011 “Hard going but well worth it!” Reviewed 30 August 2011 Our hike began at a farm in Seathwaite (Borrowdale); parking is free but it does get rather busy. There are toilets at the farm if you want to go before the long hike but they're a bit smelly! We were a group of 25-35 year olds with varying levels of fitness and we had a great guide who led us up and down in 7 exhausting but brilliant hours. Our ascent via the corridor route was quite tough in places but there were plenty of flatter parts in between which allowed you to get your breath back. We were lucky that we had a clear, sunny day, so stopping for the less fitter members of the group meant that we got to take lots of photos of the amazing views! The last scramble up to the top was pretty exhausting as we were famished by then. It was brilliant to sit on the summit and eat lunch whilst looking out toward the Irish Sea. We could just about make out Blackpool Tower. Sellafield Nuclear Plant was much clearer but a lot less nice to look at! The views were magnificent in general, especially the lakes. It was pretty busy on the summit and you notice the drop in temperature once you've been sitting down for 10 minutes or so. Our descent began via what seemed like never ended boulder fields, hopping from one to another towards Esk Hause. Eventually we came to a path and everything started looking more green again. Going down is much less tiring but can be very hard on your ankles, knees and hips, so bear that in mind! As it was such a hot day our water supplies ran out not long into our descent. Our guide pointed out the source of the river Esk, from which we filled our water bottles. It was the clearest, crispest, coldest water I have ever had the pleasure to drink! If you've never been hiking before, make sure you have the right equipment, and if you're unsure, take an experienced guide with you as we did. And Kendal mint cake is a necessity!! Excellent for a burst of energy when you're starting to feel worn out. Visited July 2011 “pot luck with the weather” Reviewed 15 August 2011 Walked this with 8 friends starting off from Seathwaite farm... weather was damp with low cloud. We had booked and planned back in January so nothing we could do at all. There had been a lot of rain over the previous days and this had made just the start of the walk from farm to Stockey Bridge like a stream and that seemed to be theme for the day, a lot of water lol. Having walked Nevis and Snowdon this was defintely the most challenging, there was a lot of scrambles (we went Corridor route coming down other side Esk House). Going the corridor route meant that we had a lot of climbing up and down before even reach the summit. There were some hairy moments mainly because it was wet and slippy :(. Also because of the low cloud we couldnt see the summit until we were almost right on top of it and it seemed like the never ending walk not being able to see a goal. Had no trouble finding our way down mainly because we had watched Julia Bradbury and sort of came up by the plaque and there are also cairns to follow. The summit and Esk Hause way down is full of boulder fields and a hard slippy sramble down not for the faint hearted and horrible in the damp. All in all the walk took a very long time indeed but that was mainly due to one of our groups knees but the weather didnt help. Make sure you pack waterproofs, a compass, decent maps, warm fleece and glow sticks and a camera for those little moments when the sun makes an appearance. I loved the walk, very challenging and would love to go back on a cold crisp dry sunny day :D Visited August 2011 I decided to start my climb to Scafell Pike from Wasdale Head car park. There are two main routes up Scafell Pike,1.)Wasdale Head, 2.)Seathwaite in Borrowdale. Scafell Pike is 3,281ft and is England"s highest mountain,the distance is approximately 6 miles and it takes 5 hours to walk. From the car park turn left and walk along the road you will soon see a concrete bridge on your left that crosses over Lingmell Beck,cross the bridge and continue on the path ahead of you to the right hand side of the gill. The route soon enters a shady hollow where you will see the rocks and boulders of Scafell and Scafell Pike,the path goes over a wooden bridge and you will steadily start to climb. You will soon have to cross a stream with boulders,take care at this point as they are slippery when they are wet. The path is clear and easy to follow as it gradually climbs steeply through the hollow stones and you will soon see the path that goes between Scafell and Scafell Pike,the path is known as Mickledore and great care has to be taken as it climbs steeply and consists of loose scree. At the top of the scree you will scramble up Mickledore chimney,as it is known,once at the top of Mickledore you turn left and you will pass a mountain rescue emergency box,continue on and clamber over the boulder strewn slopes until you finally reach the summit of Scafell Pike.From the summit trig you will get fantastic views of Great Gable,Bowfell and Pillar. After having a well earned rest and taking in the views,decend West and follow the path carefully down and across to Lingmell with stunning views,once at the summit of this mountain you will get fantastic views of Wastwater,Great Gable and Wasdale Head. Leave the summit of Lingmell,keeping Great Gable and Wasdale Head to your right,you will eventually climb a stile and the path leads obviously down into Wasdale Head itself. From here,go into Wasdale Head Inn and enjoy a pint and some good hot or cold bar food. When climbing this mountain,wear correct outdoor clothing & walking/hiking boots. This is a hard walk.DO NOT attempt this mountain during Winter season unless your a experienced climber.During Winter,crampons maybe required. This was a enjoyable walking/hiking day with great views.The weather was good this day but be aware the weather conditions can change very quickly. There is a (National Trust) campsite near Wasdale Head Inn.Also small campsite in country lane opposite Wasdale Head Inn. Helpful?	i don't know
Aquae Sulis is the Roman name for which modern city?	Aquae Sulis \| Sue Vincent's Daily Echo Sue Vincent's Daily Echo Posted on February 17, 2016 by Sue Vincent Aquae Sulis… the waters of the Sulis… that was the Roman name for the city of Bath. It is easy to understand why when, since time immemorial, a hot and mineral-rich spring has welled from the ground; the only hot spring in Britain. We didn’t visit properly this time, though I have in the past, but we did see the King’s Pool with its statue of Bladud and the strange stone chair that juts out from the wall over the steaming pool, that was the designated seat of the Master of the Baths. You can no longer bathe in the waters here as was once the custom, largely because the water is still chanelled through the old Roman pipework made of lead. That is something of a marvel in itself, as the Romans first stared building the temple here, with the sacrd spring at its heart, around 60AD and added to the complex over the nest 300 years. Even so, what remains is over seventeen hundred years old and a fine indication of the glories of a Roman bath house. Close by, however, there are facilities to both drink and bathe in the waters, long considered therapeutic, with the water now flowing through modern plumbing. The spring and baths are hidden behind and below the elegant facade of a later era. Bath rose to popularity many times over the centuries, becoming a fashionable watering place or spa town and each era has left its mark. Yet the spring is older by far than those whose stones and mortar now enclose it. There was already a shrine to the Celtic goddess Sulis at the spring, long before the Romans came. From the many offerings and inscribed tablets found here, it would seem that she was seen as a healing and nurturing mother-goddess, while her name suggests some connection with the eye or the sun. Perhaps there was something of both… the two go together, and perhaps too we can imagine that there might have been seers at the Sacred Spring… those who see by a different light than that of the physical sun. Sulis-Minerva. Image: Rodw Instead of ousting Sulis when they came and replacing her with a Roman deity, the Romans saw her as Sulis-Minerva and added wisdom to her gifts… or recognised, perhaps, that her nature was similar to that of their own goddess. A beautiful gilded bronze bust was found in 1727 depicting the the Romano-British deity. On the front of the Roman temple was the huge plaque now described as a Gorgon because of the entwined snakes of his hair and beard. I am no scholar, but all the Gorgons I know about were female… and they didn’t look quite so solar…or have wings in their hair…He looks solar to me, or perhaps combines all the elements of earth, air, fire and water in the symbol. In fact, if I wasn’t going to opt for a solar deity, then rather than a Gorgon, I’d say he looks more like our Green Man. The dubious Gorgon. Image: Rodw Or maybe he is at least partly responsible for the legends surrounding Bladud, the legendary King of the Britons. Bladud, whose name may come from the Welsh for ‘wolf-lord’, has left no trace in history and may never have existed before Geoffrey of Monmouth’s truly fabulous Historia Regum Britanniae, where he is named as the father of King Lear. Amongst other feats, he is said to have been the founder of Bath and, by magical arts, raised the temple, dedicating the healing waters of the spring to Minerva and supplying it with an ever-burning flame because of his pigs. The legend tells that Bladud had contracted leprosy whilst studying in Athens and was exiled from the court on his return home. He took up a position as a swineherd and noticed that the pigs who rolled in the warm, black mud suffered no skin diseases. Doing likewise, he was cured of the leprosy and restored to his position as future king. He died when the wings he had made for himself with his arcane arts failed… Earth, air fire and water…and wings… Sounds awfully like the Gorgon. While Bladud may be no more than a myth, there is plenty of real and tangible history here, from the Roman structure itself, to the statuary, the mosaic floors and the finds. Over 130 curse tablets have been found, largely invoking the wrath of the goddess against thieves operating in the bath-house. Sherds of fine Samian ware, an expensive commodity, small metal ladles used for the sacred water, gemstones with fine intaglio carvings and what is described as ‘a strange tin mask’ found in the Roma drain. Perhaps the biggest find of all, though…apart from an incredible hoard of coins… is something intangible. One of the curse tablets is written in a language found nowhere else…and may be the only surviving example of the Brythonic tongue. For all the answers the archaeologists and historians have been able to find through studying the changing yet changeless history of the sacred spring, increasing our understanding of times and cultures long gone, we are still no closer to knowing the mind of the first men to see the spring as a gift from the Mother and we will never know what made them build the first shrine. It is easy to say that a hot spring is unusual and would be seen as sacred anyway… but that does not answer the question… who was that man..or woman… what happened to make them feel they had been touched by the goddess… and what was their story?	Bath
Which range of hills in the west country has Cheddar Gorge and it's caves as well as Wookey Hole caves?	Book Aquae Sulis Guest House \| Bath Hotel Deals Check-in time starts at 2 PM Minimum check-in age is 18 Check-in time ends at 7 PM Special check-in instructions: The front desk is open daily from 9 AM - 7 PM If you are planning to arrive after 7 PM please contact the property at least 24 hours in advance using the information on the booking confirmation. Check-out Check-out time is 10:30 AM Payment types Children and extra beds Children are welcome. Kids stay free! Up to 2 children 5 years old and younger stay free when using existing bedding. Rollaway/extra beds are available for GBP 20.00 per night. Cribs (infant beds) are available for GBP 10.0 per night. Pets You need to know Extra-person charges may apply and vary depending on property policy. Government-issued photo identification and a credit card or cash deposit are required at check-in for incidental charges. Special requests are subject to availability upon check-in and may incur additional charges. Special requests cannot be guaranteed. No elevators This property does not collect payment prior to arrival, except in the case of late arrivals after 8 PM without prior notice or no-shows. For more details, please contact the office using the information on the reservation confirmation received after booking. Fees Optional extras The following fees and deposits are charged by the property at time of service, check-in, or check-out. Crib (infant bed) fee: GBP 10.0 per night Rollaway bed fee: GBP 20.00 per night The above list may not be comprehensive. Fees and deposits may not include tax and are subject to change. Bed & Breakfast Name Aquae Sulis Guest House Bath Aquae Sulis Guest House Hotel Bath Aquae Sulis Guest House B&B Bath Aquae Sulis Guest House B&B	i don't know
What is the name of the extensive area of marshland on the south-east coast of Kent?	Coastal Kent - South East England \| Luxury Holiday Rentals In Kent, UK Search by one of the criteria. Coastal Kent Coastal Kent Holiday Cottages… See Coastal Kent Attractions … Kent boasts some of the most vibrant, historical and diverse coastlines in the UK, from award winning ‘Blue Flag’ beaches and nature reserves to bustling seaside towns and the Port of Dover. Starting off with the famous marshes packed with wildlife in the south working up through the sandy dunes of New Romney to the White Cliffs of Dover in the east and finally around the quaint towns of Ramsgate, Margate, Whitstable and Chatham along the northerly stretch of the coastline. Historically the Kent coast is highlighted throughout the history books, being the main portal to the continent for millennia – hosting the scenes of many fearsome battles and being one of England’s main landmarks for traders and visitors from all over the globe. Wherever you go up the coast you will never be too far from one of the magnificent castles that imprint themselves in the land whether it be Dover, Lympne, Walmer or Deal these vast structures still feature heavily in the local geography and demonstrate the lavish palatial residences and defenses of our ancestral royalty. There are a great deal of attractions in the coastal regions of Kent and you can really explore the local lifestyle well in the seaside towns. Deal has a fantastic market (every Wednesday) as does Whitstable (every 2nd and 4th Saturday of each Month) selling fresh produce from the around the area. A little further inland are two world renowned animal parks as a part of The Aspinal Foundation, Port Lympne (Located in Lympne) and Howletts (located just outside of Canterbury) where you can see animal conservation in action. They provide a fantastic day out for the family and support a great cause in protecting endangered species from around the world. A stone’s-throw over the border is the amazing town of Rye in East Sussex with its ancient cobbled streets and landmarks winding their way up the hill dominating the skyline for miles around. Also encompassed in this area is the medieval city of Canterbury which has a great variety of shopping, restaurants and culture – including the newly renovated Marlowe Theatre and the stunning Cathedral as the centerpiece of this vibrant city. Hythe is also great for eating out and has a quaint boutique high street for shoppers, the Chocolate Deli is a must! The best beaches in the area include Bottany Bay in Broadstairs, Camber Sands and Winchelsea Beach on the south coastline. Some of the best wildlife can be found on the Romney Marsh which has been noted for it’s diverse population of different plants and animals as well as being draped in history. The famous church of Thomas Becket can be found isolated in the marshland and is a very picturesque place to visit. Traveling to this area of Kent, the UK even, is made so accessible by the fast links to continental Europe and London. The Eurostar provides services which run from London stopping off on the way through Kent and taking passengers right into Europe. Equally high speed rail links from many stations across the county can take you to London in no time at all. Ferries coming in and out of Dover or Eurotunnel in Folkestone can be a great and very cheap way of transporting the whole family across the channel. Kent also has very good access not only to as a base between the UK and the continent but to the rest of the world with major airports within easy reach, a great central location where you can explore another side of England.	Romney Marsh
What is the name of the World Heritage Site on the coastline of Dorset and East Devon?	Romney Marsh \| marshland, England, United Kingdom \| Britannica.com marshland, England, United Kingdom Pripet Marshes Romney Marsh, extensive tract of flat land with an area of about 25,000 acres (about 10,000 hectares) bordering the English Channel in Shepway district in the administrative and historic county of Kent , England . It extends from Hythe in the north to the Dungeness promontory in the south. It has emerged from the sea since Roman times, partly by natural accretion and partly by dyking and reclamation. This marshland possesses some of the finest grazing land in Britain . Romney Marsh sheep, a long-wool variety, have earned worldwide renown and are especially important in Australia and New Zealand . The Romney, Hythe, and Dymchurch narrow-gauge railway attracts many visitors. Romney Marsh, Kent, England. Shepway district, southern administrative and historic county of Kent, England. It extends along the English Channel coast from north of Folkestone (the district headquarters) to south of the Dungeness promontory. Inland, the diverse landscapes of the district include a part of the chalk hills known as the... Kent (county, England, United Kingdom) administrative, geographic, and historic county of England, lying at the southeastern extremity of Great Britain. It is bordered to the southwest by East Sussex, to the west by Surrey, to the northwest by Greater London, to the north by the Thames estuary, to the northeast by the North Sea, to the... Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: July 14, 2008 URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Romney-Marsh Access Date: January 17, 2017 Share	i don't know
Which word, common in the South of England, describes a steep-sided river valley where the water flows through coastal cliffs to the sea?	Chewton Bunny Nature Reserve, Highcliffe on Sea, Christchurch, Dorset. England. ( 4 ) - YouTube Chewton Bunny Nature Reserve, Highcliffe on Sea, Christchurch, Dorset. England. ( 4 ) Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Sep 8, 2012 Highcliffe-on-Sea ( usually abbreviated to Highcliffe ) is a small town in the borough of Christchurch, Dorset in southern England. It forms part of the South East Dorset conurbation along the English Channel coast. The town lies on a picturesque stretch of Solent coastline with views of the Isle of Wight and its Needles rock formation. In 1838 a large ship the Herman Julius 336 tons, was wrecked at Chuton ( Chewton ) Bunny. The crew of 11 were saved, one was lost overboard before she struck. Bemister and Holloway purchased the wreck. In 1999 The Highcliffe Stables Community Trust tried to save the 100 year old stable block at The Globe as an exhibition centre for the community but poor construction and lack of funds made it impossible. Christchurch Council applied and obtained a licence to hold wedding ceremonies at the Castle. In 1999 there were six weddings. In 2003 the number was 120 weddings. In 1994 Major restoration of Highcliffe Castle was assured with a grant of £2.6 million from the Lottery Fund Highcliffe lies close to the historic town of Christchurch, the resort town of Bournemouth, and the New Forest National Park. Highcliffe's position on the middle of England's south coast gives it a climate with milder winters than inland areas and less rainfall than locations further west. This helped establish the town as a popular health and leisure resort during the late Victorian and early Edwardian eras. What is now regarded as Highcliffe has developed over the last several hundred years from the hamlet of Slop Pond, the Chewton Estate, and Chewton Common. The latter two also contained large farmsteads. Slop Pond was a collection of thatched cottages, named from the large pond on its common. The cottages were said[by whom?] to be occupied by farm workers and fishermen, who engaged in the smuggling and poaching trade now notorious in local history. When the area became a more popular tourist destination in the Victorian era, Slop Pond was renamed Newtown. It was later then changed to Highcliff, after the first High Cliff house, and soon became known as Highcliffe-on-Sea. Between 1831 and 1835, Lord Stuart de Rothesay built a Gothic Revival home Highcliffe Castle on the site of High Cliff house, his father's Georgian estate. The design, by William Donthorne, a founder member of RIBA, incorporated large quantities of carved Medieval stonework salvaged from the Norman Benedictine Abbey of St Peter at Jumieges and the Grande Maison des Andelys. Highcliffe Castle is now a Grade 1 listed building described as the most important remaining example of the Romantic and Picturesque style of architecture, and now holds events throughout the year open to the public. It is also a popular venue for weddings and other private events. The area also has a strong literary connection and was once a centre for Wicca with Gerald Gardner living in Highlands Avenue. Captain Frederick Marryat, author of The Children of The New Forest, was a regular visitor to the house on the Chewton estate (now the Chewton Glen Hotel, Spa and Country Club); and the adventure story author Colonel R.W. Campbell, veteran of the Boer and Great wars, was also a local resident. Highcliffe was annexed by Christchurch in 1932. Chewton Bunny Nature Reserve is an ancient wooded river valley which forms the county boundary between Dorset and Hampshire. The Walkford Brook flows through the site, entering a culvert and eventually flowing out to sea. A chine is a steep-sided river valley where the river flows to the sea through, typically, soft eroding coastal cliffs of sandstone or clays. The word chine originates from the Saxon "Cinan" meaning a gap or yawn. The word is in still use in central Southern England; in East Devon, Dorset, Hampshire, and the Isle of Wight to describe such topographical features. However, 'bunny' is also used to describe a chine in Hampshire, Chewton Bunny is designated as a Site of Nature Conservation Interest and is rich in woodland wildlife, including a number of Ancient Natural Woodland Indicator species. The mill house in the centre of the site ( now a private residence ) previously used a waterwheel in the Brook to mill grain and the cover given by the site made it a convenient smuggling route for contraband in the past. At the north end of the site the Brook also passes under the first ever reinforced concrete bridge. Category	Chine
What was the UK's earliest National Park?	Chine Chine Sunday, July 02, 2006 Chine A chine is a steep-sided river valley where the river flows through coastal cliffs to the sea. Typically these are soft eroding cliffs such as sandstone or clays. The word chine originates from the Saxon "Cinan" meaning a gap or yawn. The word is in use in central southern England; in Hampshire, Dorset and particularly the Isle of Wight. In Dorset, west of Bournemouth is found Branksome Chine and Alum Chine, and east towards Boscombe, Honeycombe Chine. There are nineteen chines on the Isle of Wight including the popular tourist attraction Shanklin Chine. All chines are in a state of constant change due to erosion, and the most well-known example, Blackgang Chine, has been destroyed by landslides and coastal erosion during the 20th century. Chines are the remains of ancient river valleys, now mostly small gullies leading down to the sea. As the walls of the chines and cliffs of the south coast of the Isle of Wight are so unstable and erode continually, the strata are clearly visible. Chines are therefore very important for their fossil records, their archaeology and the unique flora and fauna they provide shelter to. There is also some fascinating folklore attached to the chines because of their history with local smuggling, fishing and shipwrecks. Shanklin Chine is also famous for its involvement in the Second World War. Chines are very dependent on the farmed landscape around them because crops are typically grown right up to the edges of the chines themselves, and water drains into the chines from this farmland. posted by Admin @ 1:47 AM 0 comments Great Wall of China The Great Wall of China (Simplified Chinese: 万里长城; Traditional Chinese: 萬里長城; pinyin: Wànlĭ Chángchéng; literally "10,000 Li¹ long wall") is a Chinese fortification built from 3rd century BC until the beginning of the 17th century, in order to protect the various dynasties from raids by Mongol, Turkic, and other nomadic tribes coming from areas in modern-day Mongolia and Manchuria. Several walls were built since the 3rd century BC, the most famous being the Great Wall of China built between 220 BC and 200 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huangdi (this was located much further north than the current Great Wall of China built during the Ming Dynasty, and little of it remains). The Wall stretches over a formidable 6,352 km (3,948 miles), from Shanhai Pass on the Bohai Sea in the east, at the limit between "China proper" and Manchuria, to Lop Nur in the southeastern portion of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region . Along most of its arc, it roughly delineates the border between North China and Inner Mongolia. posted by Admin @ 1:40 AM 0 comments History The history of China is detailed by historical records dating as far back as 16th century BC. China is one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. Turtle shells with markings reminiscent of ancient Chinese writing from the Shang Dynasty (商朝) have been carbon dated to around 1500 BC. These records suggest that the origins of Chinese civilization started with city-states in the Yellow River valley. The year 221 BC is commonly used as the date when China became unified under a large kingdom or empire. Successive dynasties developed systems of bureaucratic control that would allow the Emperor of China to control the large territory that would become known today as China. The forced imposition of a common system of writing by the Qin Dynasty (秦) Emperor in the 3rd century BC and the development of a state ideology based on Confucianism in the 2nd century BC, marked the foundation of what is now termed the Chinese civilization. Politically, China is said to have alternated between periods of political unity and disunity, to be occasionally conquered by external groups of people, some eventually being assimilated into the Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of immigration, merged to create the image of Chinese culture today. posted by Admin @ 1:33 AM 0 comments Chinese Garden The Chinese (Scholar's) Garden is a place for solitary or social contemplation of nature. To be considered authentic, a garden must be built and planned around seven essential elements. Chinese gardens were created in the same way as a combination of landscape and paintings together with poems - this was the so-called "poetic garden." The design of Chinese gardens was to provide a spiritual utopia for one to connect with nature, to come back to one's inner heart, to come back to ancient idealism. Chinese gardens are a spiritual shelter for men, a place they could be far away from their real social lives, and close to the ancient way of life, their true selves, and nature. This was an escape from the frustration and disappointment of the political problems in China. They used plants as symbols. Bamboo was used in every traditional Chinese garden. This is because bamboo represents a strong but resilient character. Often times pine is used to represent longevity, persistance, tenacity and dignity. The lotus is used to symbolize purity. The flowering plum is one of the most important aspects of a Chinese garden, it represents renewal and strength of will. The chrysanthemum is use to symbolize spledor, luster and "the courage to make sacrifices for a natural life". Peonies symbolize wealth and banana trees are used simply for the sound they make in the breeze	i don't know
Who played the title role in the movie Billy Elliot.	Billy Elliot (2000) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error A talented young boy becomes torn between his unexpected love of dance and the disintegration of his family. Director: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC a list of 30 titles created 22 Jul 2012 a list of 40 titles created 08 Aug 2013 a list of 42 titles created 09 Mar 2014 a list of 40 titles created 30 Aug 2014 a list of 49 titles created 9 months ago Search for " Billy Elliot " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 3 Oscars. Another 54 wins & 63 nominations. See more awards » Videos Six unemployed steel workers form a male striptease act. The women cheer them on to go for "the full monty" - total nudity. Director: Peter Cattaneo The daughter of orthodox Sikh rebels against her parents' traditionalism and joins a football team. Director: Gurinder Chadha A talented young dancer has to learn to fight for his dream despite social and parental disapproval. Directors: Stephen Daldry, Brett Sullivan Stars: Elliott Hanna, Ollie Jochim, Bradley Perret The story of how the novel "Mrs. Dalloway" affects three generations of women, all of whom, in one way or another, have had to deal with suicide in their lives. Director: Stephen Daldry A cynical, immature young man is taught how to act like a grown-up by a little boy. Directors: Chris Weitz, Paul Weitz Stars: Hugh Grant, Nicholas Hoult, Toni Collette Edit Storyline County Durham, during the endless, violent 1984 strike against the Thatcher closure of British coal mines. Widower Jackie Elliot and his firstborn, fellow miner Tony, take a dim view of 11 year-old second son Billy's poor record in boxing class, which worsens when they discover he sneakily transferred to the neighboring, otherwise girls-only-attended ballet class. Only one schoolmate, closet-gay Michael Caffrey, encourages Billy's desire, aroused by the teacher, who judged him talented enough for private lesson, to train and try out for the world-renowned Royal Ballet audition. Only the prospect of a fancy career unimagined in the pauper quarter may twist pa and big brother's opposition to indispensable support. Written by KGF Vissers See All (248) » Taglines: Inside every one of us is a special talent waiting to come out. The trick is finding it. Genres: Rated R for language \| See all certifications » Parents Guide: 10 November 2000 (USA) See more » Also Known As: £1,541,109 (UK) (29 September 2000) Gross: Did You Know? Trivia Julie Walters admittedly went through the menopause during the production and considered the filming of the dance sequences to be painful. She needed several breaks because she experienced hot flashes. See more » Goofs When Jackie is inside the bus leading to the mine, an egg hits his window (at around 1h 14 mins), but when the bus is viewed from outside, the window is clean (01:14:44). See more » Quotes (Odessa, Ukraine) – See all my reviews I have been looking for Billy Elliot for more than two years. I heard that it should be very good or even excellent film and another reason for watching it was that I have seen several Working Title films before (About a Boy, Notting Hill, Love Actually, Four Weddings and a Funeral) and I found all of them much more sincere and emotional than average Hollywood products. Also these British films have something to offer that you rarely can find in Hollywood movies: a charming heartwarming mixture of sweet and funny comedy and inspiring and touching drama. Last month, finally, I found the tape. From very first moments of the movie my eyes were riveted to the screen and when the movie ended feelings and emotions overflowed me. Billy Elliot in my opinion Billy Elliot is a brilliant movie, easily one of the best movies of the year and most likely of the current decade. Director of the movie Stephen Daldry brought to us an exceptional, truly inspiring and moving, emotional and poignant movie. The entire story and all the characters are completely believable and the atmosphere of small provincial town somewhere in North-Eastern England skillfully captured and transmitted to us. Sometimes the movie is sad, sometimes it's funny but Stephen Daldry's work never leave you indifferent. The story occurs in a small coal-mining town in 1984 and there are signs of a severe depression all over the town. You can see all around a shadow of distress and even poverty. Some simple but incredibly powerful scenes bring to us sad feeling of hopelessness and even despair. There is a big coalminers strike in the town but it's easy to see that it's also the hopeless strike. But all this is only a masterfully recreated background for main story of the title character, a twelve years old boy. He recently lost his mother and both his father and elder brother are striking coalminers. Billy is forced by his father to attend boxing classes and one day accidentally he see the girl ballet classes that occur in same room and he find ballet much more interesting than hated stupid boxing. So he attends those ballet classes instead the boxing and there is nothing surprising that after a few weeks his father suddenly finds out that Billy didn't attend boxing and worst of all he is attending the ballet classes. The main conflict occurs. Billy must fight for his choice, fight against his own family. There are two stereotypes against him. First one is that ballet for girls, not for boys (lads do football... or boxing... or wrestling). And second sounds even worse: all male ballet dancers are gays. Billy is not but no one from his family except aged grandma want even heard about ballet. There are only two people in the whole town, who support him middle-aged ballet teacher Mrs. Wilkinson and his friend Michael, who is the same age as Billy and who found that he is possibly a gay. This gay subplot easily became for conservative audience a very controversial question. But the fact is that such stereotypes are not invented by the director of the movie and if you would try to learn more about this terrific picture you will found that Jamie Bell, who took dance lessons from age six, suffered from similar sneers and taunts. Billy's problem is that he must fight not only against bad obstacles and misunderstanding but also against strong social stereotypes. Several brilliant come scenes and bright humor greatly emphasize the struggles of the main hero. Jamie Bell playing Billy has on of the best performances ever among young actors. His performance (and particularly dance sequences) is so genuine, bright and sincere that all the time we can easily feel an expression of a young boy, not a director, choreographer or writer. BAFTA award for best actor of the year is well-deserved and it is pity that conservatism of the Academy too often becomes an insuperable obstacle for many great movies. Julie Walters (an Academy nomination for best supporting actress) as Billy's ballet teacher also did a great job as a talented woman as a talented women who forced to teach in small provincial town for pitiful salary. The chemistry between teacher and student is another great line in Billy Elliot. Two other important supporting characters Billy's father and elder brother Tony are also excellent and their evolution is perfectly showed by Stephen Daldry's direction. The beautiful soundtrack is a perfect combination of a classic (including a nice reference to great Swan Lake) and modern music. The original "R" rating shouldn't mislead you. Except for strong language it should be easily a PG-13. But this is a very rare case where some strong language and profanity are necessary for authenticity and characters understanding. The movie is suitable for teens and it definitely is able to give some good lessons for them. 10 out of 10 looks well deserved. Thanks for reading and sorry for my bad English 89 of 97 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Jamie Bell
Which actress danced the twist with John Travolta in Pulp Fiction	BILLY ELLIOT THE MUSICAL BILLY ELLIOT THE MUSICAL Attractions BILLY ELLIOT THE MUSICAL NEW BILLY ELLIOT JOINS LONDON CAST OF INTERNATIONAL HIT MUSICAL From 1 December 2008, twelve year old Brad Wilson from Doncaster will join the London cast of Billy Elliot the Musical at the Victoria Palace Theatre to play the title role, making him the thirtieth boy to play the iconic role worldwide, first performed by Jamie Bell in the original movie. He is joined by Joanna Riding who will play Mrs Wilkinson and Joe Caffrey who returns to the production to play Jackie Elliot, Billy’s Dad. Set in the North East Billy Elliot the Musical is a funny, heart-warming and feel-good celebration of one young boy's dreams. This new staging of Billy Elliot the Musical is an adaptation of one of the most adored British films of the last decade which broke box office records across the world and was nominated for 3 Oscars and 13 BAFTA Awards. Billy Elliot the Musical has now played to over 2.6 million people worldwide since its world premiere at the Victoria Palace Theatre in May 2005. The London production, which recently celebrated its 1500th performance, is currently booking until 24 October 2009. Billy Elliot the Musical opened on Broadway earlier this month and will open at Her Majesty’s Theatre, Melbourne in December after a successful Sydney season at The Capitol Theatre. The score for Billy Elliot the Musical has been composed by music legend Elton John, the most celebrated UK singer songwriter of the last 30 years, choreography is by Peter Darling, designs are by Ian MacNeil with sound by Paul Arditti and lighting by Rick Fisher. Billy Elliot the Musical is presented in London by Universal Pictures Stage Productions, Working Title Films and Old Vic Productions in association with Tiger Aspect. Billy Elliot the Musical is based on the Universal Pictures/Studio Canal film. Brad Wilson joins Tom Holland (12 years old from Kingston-upon-Thames), Tanner Pflueger (12 years old from Norfolk, Nebraska) and Fox Jackson-Keen (13 years old from Hornsey, London) who alternate the title role of Billy Elliot alongside principal cast members Joanna Riding (Mrs Wilkinson), Joe Caffrey (Dad), Craig Gallivan (Tony), Ann Emery (Grandma), Trevor Fox (George), Sean Kingsley (Mr Braithwaite), Stephanie Putson (Dead Mum) and Barnaby Meredith (Older Billy). They are joined by Dean-Charles Chapman (11 years old from Romford, Essex), George Maycock (11 years old from Solihull) and Lewis Cope (13 years old from Hartlepool) who will share the role of Michael and Annabelle Crosby-Stewart (10 years old from Darlington), Scarlet Embleton (12 years old from Newcastle upon Tyne) and Megan Jossa (12 years old from Eltham) who share the role of Debbie. From the end of December 2008 until Summer 2009, the role of Mrs Wilkinson will be played by Kate Graham. BRAD WILSON My name is Brad and I am 12 years old and live in Doncaster with my Mum Karen, Dad Jim and two brothers Tom (15) and Keegan (18 months). I started dancing when I was 9 years old. Since then I have studied ballet, tap, jazz and contemporary dance. I have danced in many competitions and won many medals and trophies. I was invited to audition for Billy Elliot over two years ago by my dance teacher, Marilyn Baker, and since then I have been training up in Leeds before moving to the Billy Elliot House in London. JOE CAFFREY Joe Caffrey returns to Billy Elliot the Musical to play Jackie Elliot, Billy’s Dad, previously having played Tony, Billy’s brother. Caffrey’s Grandfathers were both miners and during the 1984/85 strike Caffrey became a member of The Workey Tickets, a capella band who performed many fund raising benefit concerts for the striking miners and their families. His theatre credits include Love’s Labour’s Lost and We are the People at Shakespeare’s Globe, Lee Hall’s Cooking With Elvis at the Whitehall Theatre and on National Tour, Charlie’s Trousers, Dirty Nets, Cooking With Elvis, NE1, Close The Coalhouse Door and Bandits, all for Newcastle upon Tyne’s Live Theatre, Keepers of the Flame for the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Live Theatre, Studs for Hull Truck Theatre, Noir, Beauty and the Beast, Out of the Blue, Trouble Under Foot for Northern Stage, Black and White Shorts for Paines Plough and Births, Marriages and Deaths for the Nuffield Theatre, Southampton. His many television credits include The Bill, Distant Shores, Catherine Cookson’s Colour Blind, Quayside, The Last Musketeer, Ain’t Misbehaving, Soldier Soldier, Doctors, Byker Grove, Attachments, Holby City, Badger, Hetty Wainthrope Investigates and Spender. His film credits include Bridget Jones – The Edge of Reason and The One and Only. JOANNA RIDING Multi Olivier award-winning Joanna Riding joins the cast to play Billy’s Dance Teacher, Mrs Wilkinson. Following a run in the West End production of Me and My Girl she was cast as Julie Jordan in Nicholas Hytner’s production of Carousel for the National Theatre. Subsequently her musical theatre roles have included Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady, Sarah Brown in Guys and Dolls, Jane in The Witches of Eastwick, Anne Egerman in A Little Night Music, Susie in Lady Be Good at the Open Air Theatre, Regent’s Park and Bertrande in Martin Guerre for West Yorkshire Playhouse and on tour. Joanna Riding has most recently appeared at The Royal Court Theatre in Mark Ravenhill’s cycle of plays Shoot/Get Treasure/Repeat. Previously her credits include Blithe Spirit for the Theatre Royal Bath and in the West End, An Ideal Husband, Hobson’s Choice and The Happiest Days of Your Life all for The Royal Exchange Theatre, The Portrait of Dorian Gray for the Lyric Hammersmith and My Mother Said I Never Should and The Merry Wives of Windsor both for Chichester Festival Theatre. Her more recent television credits include Doctors, Heartbeat, Where The Heart Is, The Royal, Midsomer Murders, The Brian Conley Show, Sean’s Show, Casualty, Strike Command and Wings of a Prayer. Find a show	i don't know
Babs Lord (the tall blonde one in Pan's People) has been married to which English actor since 1975.	Pain's People: Former TV dancer Babs Powell suffers from a debilitating arthritic condition caused in part by her strenuous career \| Daily Mail Online Pain's People: Former TV dancer Babs Powell suffers from a debilitating arthritic condition caused in part by her strenuous career Updated: 17:30 EST, 4 December 2010 comments Three years ago, at the age of 61, former Pan's People dancer Babs Powell awoke with an unusual feeling of stiffness in her hips and strange flu-like symptoms. For a woman who only six years before had sailed around the world and was just about to climb Mount Kilimanjaro, this was not an ailment she anticipated. Seventies heyday: Babs Powell, pictured with actor husband Robert, suffers from PMR 'At first I put it down to doing too much exercise and I tried to ignore it,' says Babs, who is married to the actor Robert Powell. The couple have two grown-up children, Kate and Barney, and live in West London. 'But the symptoms would not go away and I started to panic, wondering how on earth I was going to manage the climb.' After a month, the symptoms spread and she began to experience headaches and a pain behind the eyes. 'My GP said he thought I might have a condition called polymyalgia rheumatica - which I had never heard of - and referred me immediately to a specialist at the Royal Free Hospital in London.' The diagnosis was confirmed, and Babs joined the one in 1,000 people aged over 50 in this country who suffer from the syndrome, known commonly as PMR. Women are three times more likely to get PMR than men and it is believed to have, in part, a genetic origin. Although little is known about the condition, an astonishing number of people suffer from PMR. Many go undiagnosed until the symptoms become acute. 'There's very little research being done into the causes and as yet there is little treatment beyond the prescription of steroids,' says Babs. 'It really can make your life a misery.' Professor Bhasrar Dasgupta from Southend Hospital, patron of the national PMR association, is leading research into the condition. He says: 'The most common symptoms are an inability to perform the activities of daily living, such as getting up, dressing, reaching and grooming. It is a very serious condition because of the pain and disability it causes and the severe effect it has on patients' quality of life. 'There can also be serious side effects associated with the steroid treatment, such as fractures, diabetes, cataracts, weight gain and bruising to the skin.' PMR is the leading arthritic condition among people over 50 in the UK. Women are three times more likely to get PMR than men and it is believed to have, in part, a genetic origin. Those who are very active in their youth, such as sportsmen and women and dancers, are thought to be more highly predisposed because of the pressure they have put on their joints. Seventies heyday: Babs Powell, second right, dancing with Pan's people is one of every 1000 people to suffer from PMR In Babs' case, the endless rehearsals and performances in Pan's People will have paved the way for the condition, which causes severe inflammation around the joints. 'My mother also had it,' she says, 'although even less was known about it then - I think it was just put down to an old person's aches and pains.' Many sufferers simply live with the pain and stiffness, even though steroids can alleviate symptoms, because they 'do not want to complain'. Yet there is a more sinister side to PMR. It can, in three out of ten cases, lead to a condition called temporal arteritis, which causes inflammation of the blood vessels running across the temples. If untreated, it can lead to blindness. Babs says: 'As I had pain in my face I was very concerned, and I was immediately put on to a course of steroids, after having blood tests. 'They took away the worst of the stiffness and face pain and I went on to take part in the Kilimanjaro climb with my daughter and daughterinlaw.' She adds: 'When I returned, I was backwards and forwards to hospital being tested. By now, I was concerned about the side effects of the steroids I was taking. I had started to put on weight - I put on two stone - and was suffering from mood swings, hot flushes and depression. I've never been a person who feels down and it was awful.' Despite her condition, Babs agreed to take part in a race to the South Pole the following year with explorer David Hempleman-Adams. She says: 'It was a race to raise money for motor neurone disease. I told them that I had this condition and warned that with me, they were unlikely to win the race!' With the steroids successfully taking away the worst of the pain, Babs managed the walk across the ice. 'At times we were struggling in temperatures of -43. One morning I was so stiff I could hardly get out of my sleeping bag, and I cried with pain and frustration. 'When we arrived, I was so elated - I put on the little black dress that travels everywhere with me to celebrate, even though it was freezing!' Concerned about the weight gain and side effects of the steroids, when she returned home Babs asked to be put on to a different treatment. She was prescribed Methotrexate, an antiarthritis drug also used in the treatment of cancer. 'The weight gain stabilised - but then my hair started thinning, and I noticed that my skin was bruising very easily,' says Babs. 'You can also develop stomach ulcers, which is very worrying. But I could not come off medication - I was also getting stiffness in my jaw, which made it hard to eat, and a tingling sensation down my face. Blindness is the great worry. Methotrexate also gave me water retention, so my ankles would blow up like a balloon, and it makes your face look puffy like a chipmunk's.' Tendons can also become inflamed, with swollen wrists and ankles. Other symptoms are extreme fatigue, depression, night sweats, sleeplessness and fever. Prof Dasgupta says: 'We are making strides in terms of research, but a lot more needs to be done. At the moment, we are nearly ready to announce the new international classification criteria for PMR, which should improve the accuracy of diagnosis. 'We are also starting treatment trials with new ''biologic'' treatments and new forms of steroid preparations and steroidsparing drugs. We're also trying to develop research into finding a blood test that diagnoses the condition.' PMR tends to come and go, and sufferers can go into remission or become free of symptoms. Babs says: 'In June I decided to stop taking Methotrexate and almost immediately felt the stiffness coming back into my hips, shoulders, ankles, feet and hands. But then I was told I could have a steroid injection in my hip which would last for about three months, so I had that. 'At the moment I am OK, but I do get stiff. I keep fit by swimming, but I cannot overdo it. It is a matter of being careful and not ignoring the symptoms.' Jean Miller, who lives in Dundee, is a sufferer and runs the country's leading support group for PMR. She says: 'It is scandalous how little research is being done into PMR, considering how common it is. 'PMR took over my whole body, mind and spirit. If you ignore it, or just put the aches and pains down to old age, you can risk going blind through temporal arteritis.' Tendons can also become inflamed, with swollen wrists and ankles. Other symptoms are extreme fatigue, depression, night sweats, sleeplessness and fever. Prof Dasgupta says: 'Most cases would benefit from an early consultation since once steroids are started, the diagnosis can become confusing. At present, PMR cannot be cured.' Babs says: 'I am learning to live with my PMR and thankfully the symptoms are not too bad at the moment, apart from my thinning hair. 'I am so lucky to have a loving and supportive family around me - it must be awful to have this condition and live on your own.' www.pmr-gca.org.uk. The first conference for PMR sufferers in the UK is being held in Dundee on May 20, 2011.	Robert Powell
Dame Marie Rambert founded her own dancing school in the 1920s, In which country was she born.	Pain's People: Former TV dancer Babs Powell suffers from a debilitating arthritic condition caused in part by her strenuous career \| Daily Mail Online Pain's People: Former TV dancer Babs Powell suffers from a debilitating arthritic condition caused in part by her strenuous career Updated: 17:30 EST, 4 December 2010 comments Three years ago, at the age of 61, former Pan's People dancer Babs Powell awoke with an unusual feeling of stiffness in her hips and strange flu-like symptoms. For a woman who only six years before had sailed around the world and was just about to climb Mount Kilimanjaro, this was not an ailment she anticipated. Seventies heyday: Babs Powell, pictured with actor husband Robert, suffers from PMR 'At first I put it down to doing too much exercise and I tried to ignore it,' says Babs, who is married to the actor Robert Powell. The couple have two grown-up children, Kate and Barney, and live in West London. 'But the symptoms would not go away and I started to panic, wondering how on earth I was going to manage the climb.' After a month, the symptoms spread and she began to experience headaches and a pain behind the eyes. 'My GP said he thought I might have a condition called polymyalgia rheumatica - which I had never heard of - and referred me immediately to a specialist at the Royal Free Hospital in London.' The diagnosis was confirmed, and Babs joined the one in 1,000 people aged over 50 in this country who suffer from the syndrome, known commonly as PMR. Women are three times more likely to get PMR than men and it is believed to have, in part, a genetic origin. Although little is known about the condition, an astonishing number of people suffer from PMR. Many go undiagnosed until the symptoms become acute. 'There's very little research being done into the causes and as yet there is little treatment beyond the prescription of steroids,' says Babs. 'It really can make your life a misery.' Professor Bhasrar Dasgupta from Southend Hospital, patron of the national PMR association, is leading research into the condition. He says: 'The most common symptoms are an inability to perform the activities of daily living, such as getting up, dressing, reaching and grooming. It is a very serious condition because of the pain and disability it causes and the severe effect it has on patients' quality of life. 'There can also be serious side effects associated with the steroid treatment, such as fractures, diabetes, cataracts, weight gain and bruising to the skin.' PMR is the leading arthritic condition among people over 50 in the UK. Women are three times more likely to get PMR than men and it is believed to have, in part, a genetic origin. Those who are very active in their youth, such as sportsmen and women and dancers, are thought to be more highly predisposed because of the pressure they have put on their joints. Seventies heyday: Babs Powell, second right, dancing with Pan's people is one of every 1000 people to suffer from PMR In Babs' case, the endless rehearsals and performances in Pan's People will have paved the way for the condition, which causes severe inflammation around the joints. 'My mother also had it,' she says, 'although even less was known about it then - I think it was just put down to an old person's aches and pains.' Many sufferers simply live with the pain and stiffness, even though steroids can alleviate symptoms, because they 'do not want to complain'. Yet there is a more sinister side to PMR. It can, in three out of ten cases, lead to a condition called temporal arteritis, which causes inflammation of the blood vessels running across the temples. If untreated, it can lead to blindness. Babs says: 'As I had pain in my face I was very concerned, and I was immediately put on to a course of steroids, after having blood tests. 'They took away the worst of the stiffness and face pain and I went on to take part in the Kilimanjaro climb with my daughter and daughterinlaw.' She adds: 'When I returned, I was backwards and forwards to hospital being tested. By now, I was concerned about the side effects of the steroids I was taking. I had started to put on weight - I put on two stone - and was suffering from mood swings, hot flushes and depression. I've never been a person who feels down and it was awful.' Despite her condition, Babs agreed to take part in a race to the South Pole the following year with explorer David Hempleman-Adams. She says: 'It was a race to raise money for motor neurone disease. I told them that I had this condition and warned that with me, they were unlikely to win the race!' With the steroids successfully taking away the worst of the pain, Babs managed the walk across the ice. 'At times we were struggling in temperatures of -43. One morning I was so stiff I could hardly get out of my sleeping bag, and I cried with pain and frustration. 'When we arrived, I was so elated - I put on the little black dress that travels everywhere with me to celebrate, even though it was freezing!' Concerned about the weight gain and side effects of the steroids, when she returned home Babs asked to be put on to a different treatment. She was prescribed Methotrexate, an antiarthritis drug also used in the treatment of cancer. 'The weight gain stabilised - but then my hair started thinning, and I noticed that my skin was bruising very easily,' says Babs. 'You can also develop stomach ulcers, which is very worrying. But I could not come off medication - I was also getting stiffness in my jaw, which made it hard to eat, and a tingling sensation down my face. Blindness is the great worry. Methotrexate also gave me water retention, so my ankles would blow up like a balloon, and it makes your face look puffy like a chipmunk's.' Tendons can also become inflamed, with swollen wrists and ankles. Other symptoms are extreme fatigue, depression, night sweats, sleeplessness and fever. Prof Dasgupta says: 'We are making strides in terms of research, but a lot more needs to be done. At the moment, we are nearly ready to announce the new international classification criteria for PMR, which should improve the accuracy of diagnosis. 'We are also starting treatment trials with new ''biologic'' treatments and new forms of steroid preparations and steroidsparing drugs. We're also trying to develop research into finding a blood test that diagnoses the condition.' PMR tends to come and go, and sufferers can go into remission or become free of symptoms. Babs says: 'In June I decided to stop taking Methotrexate and almost immediately felt the stiffness coming back into my hips, shoulders, ankles, feet and hands. But then I was told I could have a steroid injection in my hip which would last for about three months, so I had that. 'At the moment I am OK, but I do get stiff. I keep fit by swimming, but I cannot overdo it. It is a matter of being careful and not ignoring the symptoms.' Jean Miller, who lives in Dundee, is a sufferer and runs the country's leading support group for PMR. She says: 'It is scandalous how little research is being done into PMR, considering how common it is. 'PMR took over my whole body, mind and spirit. If you ignore it, or just put the aches and pains down to old age, you can risk going blind through temporal arteritis.' Tendons can also become inflamed, with swollen wrists and ankles. Other symptoms are extreme fatigue, depression, night sweats, sleeplessness and fever. Prof Dasgupta says: 'Most cases would benefit from an early consultation since once steroids are started, the diagnosis can become confusing. At present, PMR cannot be cured.' Babs says: 'I am learning to live with my PMR and thankfully the symptoms are not too bad at the moment, apart from my thinning hair. 'I am so lucky to have a loving and supportive family around me - it must be awful to have this condition and live on your own.' www.pmr-gca.org.uk. The first conference for PMR sufferers in the UK is being held in Dundee on May 20, 2011.	i don't know
James Arness played Marshall Matt Dillon in Gunsmoke. Who was his actor brother.	James Arness - Biography - IMDb James Arness Biography Showing all 63 items Jump to: Overview (5) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (2) \| Trade Mark (3) \| Trivia (48) \| Personal Quotes (4) Overview (5) 6' 7" (2.01 m) Mini Bio (1) American leading man famed as the star of one of the longest-running shows in U.S. television history, Gunsmoke (1955). Born of Norwegian heritage (the family name, Aurness, had formerly been Aursness) in Minneapolis, Minnesota to Rolf and Ruth Duesler Aurness. His father was a traveling salesman of medical supplies and his mother later became a newspaper columnist. James attended West High School in Minneapolis. Although he appeared in school plays, he had no interest in performing, and dreamed instead of going to sea. After high school, he attended one semester at Beloit College before receiving his draft notice in 1943. He entered the army and trained at Camp Wheeler, Georgia, before shipping out for North Africa. After landing at Casablanca, Arness joined the 3rd Infantry Division in time for the invasion of Anzio. Ten days after the invasion, Arness was severely wounded in the leg and foot by German machine-gun fire. His wounds, which plagued him the rest of his life, resulted in his medical discharge from the army. While recuperating in a Clinton, Iowa hospital, he was visited by his younger brother Peter (later to gain fame as actor Peter Graves ), who suggested he take a radio course at the University of Minnesota. James did so, and a teacher recommended him for a job as an announcer at a Minneapolis radio station. Though seemingly headed for success in radio, he followed a boyhood friend's suggestion and went with the friend to Hollywood in hopes of getting work as film extras. He studied at the Bliss-Hayden Theatre School under actor Harry Hayden , and while appearing in a play there was spotted by agent Leon Lance. Lance got the actor a role as Loretta Young 's brother in The Farmer's Daughter (1947). The director of that film, H.C. Potter , recommended that he drop the "u" from his last name and soon thereafter the actor was officially known as James Arness. Little work followed this break, and Arness became something of a beach bum, living on the shore at San Onofre and spending his days surfing. He began taking his acting career more seriously when he began to receive fan mail following the release of the Young picture. He appeared in a production of "Candida" at the Pasadena Community Playhouse, and married his leading lady, Virginia Chapman . She pressed him to study acting and to work harder in pursuit of a career, but Arness has been consistent in ascribing his success to luck. He began to get small roles with frequency, often, due to his size, villainous characters. Most notable among these was that of the space alien in The Thing from Another World (1951). While playing a Greek warrior in a play, Arness was spotted by agent Charles K. Feldman , who represented John Wayne . Feldman introduced Arness to Wayne, who put the self-described 6' 6" actor under personal contract. Arness played several roles over the next few years for and with Wayne, whom he considered a mentor. In 1955, Wayne recommended Arness for the lead role of Matt Dillon in the TV series Gunsmoke (1955). (Contrary to urban legend, Wayne himself was never offered the role.) Arness at first declined, thinking a TV series could derail his growing film career, but Wayne argued for the show, and Arness accepted. His portrayal of stalwart marshal Dillon became an iconic figure in American television and the series, on the air for twenty seasons, is, as of 2008, the longest-running dramatic series in U.S. television history. Arness became world-famous and years later reprised the character in a series of TV movies. After the surprising cancellation of "Gunsmoke" in 1975, Arness jumped immediately into another successful (though much shorter-lived) Western project, a TV-movie-miniseries-series combination known as "How The West Was Won." A brief modern police drama, McClain's Law (1981), followed, and Arness played his mentor John Wayne's role in Red River (1988), a remake of the Wayne classic. Following the aforementioned "Gunsmoke" TV movies (the last in 1994, when Arness was 71), Arness basically retired. His marriage to Virginia Chapman ended in divorce in 1960. They had three children together, one of whom, Jenny Lee, died a suicide in 1975. Arness subsequently married Janet Surtrees in 1978. - IMDb Mini Biography By: Jim Beaver <[email protected]> Spouse (2) The role of Matt Dillon on Gunsmoke (1955). Trivia (48) Honorary United States Marshal, "in recognition of his unique contribution to the image and traditions of the U.S. Marshal's Service". Became U.S. Marshal Matt Dillon on Gunsmoke (1955) after John Wayne suggested Arness to play it. (Wayne himself, contrary to legend, was never offered the role.). His daughter and actress, Jenny Lee Arness , committed suicide on Monday, May 12th, 1975. According to an article on TV westerns in Time magazine (March 30, 1959), Arness stood 6' 7", weighed 235 lbs, and had chest-waist-hips measurements of 48-36-36. However, Arness usually gave his own height as 6' 6" in interviews. Inducted (as a cast member of Gunsmoke (1955)) into the Hall of Great Western Performers of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in 1981. On Friday, June 20th, 2003, Arness was honored at Los Angeles City Hall by the mayor, the 15 City Council members and the City Attorney with a resolution honoring his life's work as an actor and 60-year resident of Los Angeles. The colorful resolution included a depiction of a U.S. Marshal's badge and a salute to his work as Matt Dillon on Gunsmoke (1955) and its over-20-year duration as TV's longest-running drama series. It also recalled his heroism during World War II and thanked him for "leaving us with one of the most telling and realistic portraits ever created of the brave, tall man in the saddle who tames a western town as he searches for justice and peace." Arness called it "the most wonderful day in his life" and says the resolution is now framed and in a prominent place in his home. He received a standing ovation that morning. Held the record for the longest continuous role portrayed by a single actor (20 years) on prime-time television (for Marshal Matt Dillon on the CBS western Gunsmoke (1955)), until Kelsey Grammer (Dr. Frasier Crane on Cheers (1982) and Frasier (1993)) tied the record in 2004 (at 20 years). Was rightly touted as the tallest leading man in Hollywood, although this title has since been taken by other stars, mainly basketball players turned "actors." Member of Beta Theta Pi Fraternity Very, very often during his career, this huge actor was surrounded by co-stars standing on apple boxes or had to perform standing in a ditch just so he could be in a shot. Father of Jenny Lee Arness (born May 23, 1950) and Rolf Aurness (born February 18, 1952), with Virginia Chapman . He also adopted her son from her first marriage, Craig (born 1946). His status as a Republican disappointed Lady Bird Johnson , who was a fan of Gunsmoke (1955). Attended Beloit College. Did not attend the premiere of The Thing from Another World (1951) because he found his role as the Thing embarrassing. He often remarked that he felt his make up as "The Thing" made him look like a giant carrot. Made four movies with his close friend John Wayne during the 1950s. He was also originally cast in Rock Hudson 's role opposite Wayne in The Undefeated (1969). Wayne personally recommended Arness for the lead role in Gunsmoke (1955), and filmed an introduction for the first episode. Confirmed in a 2001 interview that he is completely retired from acting because he no longer has the stamina for it. He never played the lead male role in a theatrical movie, only on the various televised incarnations of "Gunsmoke". In his theatrical films, he usually acted along tall leading men such as John Wayne , Robert Ryan and Jeff Chandler . Although they never married, he had a long-term relationship and lived with actress Thordis Brandt . Fought in the US Army during World War II, taking part in the landing at Anzio, Italy, where he was wounded. He received the Bronze Star; the Purple Heart; the European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with three bronze campaign stars; the World War II Victory Medal and the Combat Infantryman Badge. He is survived by his wife, Janet Surtees of Brentwood, Los Angeles, California; son, Rolf Arness; stepson, Jim Surtees; six grandchildren, and a great grandchild. His adopted son, Craig, died in 2004 and his daughter Jenny died in 1975. He was a longtime resident of the Brentwood area of Los Angeles, California with his second wife, Janet Surtees. He married Virginia Chapman and adopted her son, Craig, by a previous marriage. They had daughter, Jenny Arness and son, Rolf Arness. He attended public schools and graduated from West High School in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1942. He studied for a year at Beloit College in Wisconsin before he was drafted into the United States Army during World War II as an infantryman. During the invasion of Anzio, Italy in 1944, his right leg was shattered by machine-gun fire, resulting in his losing part of his foot. He was hospitalized for a year and underwent surgeries to correct his leg, which left a limp. He was awarded the Bronze Star and Purple Heart for his services. His injury made it difficult for him to walk for extended stretches. When shooting movies or TV shows, any scenes that required extensive walking would be shot early in the morning, before his feet and knees started giving out. He was the son of Rolf Aurness and Ruth Duesler who divorced in the 1940s. He was a lifelong supporter of the Republican party. He had a lifelong affiliation with the Methodist church. He was said to be somewhat self-conscious about his stature and quite happy when they took measures to obscure his towering height while filming "Gunsmoke". He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.	Peter Graves
What is the surname of the Chuckle brothers?	Gunsmoke star James Arness dies aged 88 - BBC News BBC News Gunsmoke star James Arness dies aged 88 6 June 2011 Close share panel Image caption Arness played Dodge City marshal Matt Dillon for 20 years James Arness, the actor best known for playing lawman Matt Dillon in long-running western TV show Gunsmoke, has died in Los Angeles at the age of 88. The star, who played the Dodge City marshal from 1955 to 1975, died from natural causes at his home on Friday. He also played the title role in sci-fi classic The Thing from Another World. "I had a wonderful life and was blessed with some many loving people and great friends," he wrote in a letter posted posthumously on his official website. "I had the privilege of working with so many great actors over the years." Born James King Aurness in Minneapolis in 1923, Arness was the older brother of Airplane! star Peter Graves. Drafted into the US Army during his first year in college, he was wounded in the leg during the 1944 invasion at Anzio, Italy and awarded the Purple Heart. Moving to Hollywood after World War II, he had parts in scores of films before winning his Gunsmoke role, which he landed after John Wayne turned it down. His 20-year run as Marshal Dillon remains one of the longest runs by an actor in playing the same character in a US series. Prior to Law and Order, Gunsmoke was the longest-running dramatic series in US network history. In a statement, CBS, who produced the show, said Arness would "always be remembered as one of the biggest stars in the history of television". Arness - who stood 6 ft 7 in (2m) tall - is survived by his second wife Janet, two sons and six grandchildren. His first wife Virginia and their daughter Jenny both died of drug overdoses, two years apart.	i don't know
Who is the TV personality brother of radio presenter Janice Long?	Janice Long - Bio, Facts, Family \| Famous Birthdays Famous Birthdays Aries ABOUT Radio and television personality who gained fame as the host of radio shows like The Janice Long Show and After Midnight. On television, she served as a regular presenter of Top of the Pops from 1982 and 1988. BEFORE FAME She worked for Laker Airways before landing a job as an assistant for BBC Radio Merseyside. TRIVIA She provided voiceover narration for the BBC Three documentary Desperate Midwives. FAMILY LIFE Her older brother is actor and TV presenter Keith Chegwin . ASSOCIATED WITH	Keith Chegwin
Which of the Marx brothers never spoke on screen after his first appearance in 1925?	Janice Long - Biography - IMDb Janice Long Jump to: Overview (2) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (1) \| Trivia (7) \| Personal Quotes (2) Overview (2) Janice Long was born on April 5, 1955 in Liverpool, Merseyside, England as Janice Chegwin. Spouse (1) (1977 - ?) Trivia (7) In 1978 Janice appeared with her then husband as a contestant on the very first edition of the popular game show 3-2-1 (1978). Elder sister of twins presenter Keith Chegwin and music PR man Jeffrey Chegwin . A fan of Morrissey . A fan of Status Quo . The first single she bought was "Brown Sugar" by the Rolling Stones. continuing her show on BBC Radio 2. [September 2005] Personal Quotes (2) They are an incredible band. I still think they're a fantastic band. His voice just gets better and better and Will as a guitarist is amazing. (On Echo & The Bunnymen )	i don't know
Cricketing brothers Ian & Greg Chappell have both captained Australia. A third Chappell brother has also played for his country, what is his name.	Ian Chappell: Charismatic, candid and controversial — one of the greatest captains in history - Cricket Country › Ian Chappell: Charismatic, candid and controversial — one of the greatest captains in history Ian Chappell, born September 26, 1943, was one of the most charismatic captains of Australia and one of the most controversial characters in the game. Arunabha Sengupta looks back at the life and career of the man who was the architect behind the image of the Ugly Australians. \| Updated : September 2, 2015 9:15 PM IST Ian Chappell © Getty Images Ian Chappell, born September 26, 1943, was one of the most charismatic captains of Australia and one of the most controversial characters in the game. Arunabha Sengupta looks back at the life and career of the man who was the architect behind the image of the Ugly Australians. The triumph at The Oval “I think we are the better team. And if we go home two-all, we will have been seen as one,” Ian Chappell ’s simple words rang loud and clear around the dressing room, sparking resolve and lighting the fire. The team was young. Ross Edwards at 30 was the eldest. Besides, Australia had been going through a harrowing period. They had won just one of the last 15 Tests, when Bob Massie’s magical swing had turned the game their way at Lord’s in the current series. But, as they went into The Oval, Ray Illingworth’s hardened men led the series 2-1 aided by the fusarium Test at Headingley . Now the team wanted to drag Australia out of the trough. They wanted to be a champion side. They wanted to be a part of the celebrations that were encouraged by their captain whenever they won. They wanted it for themselves and their captain. Dennis Lillee charged in to take 5 for 58. The Chappell brothers Ian and Greg hit hundreds, securing a 115-run lead. This was the first time in the history of Test cricket that a pair of brothers had scored centuries in the same innings, and parents Jeanne and Martin watched from the stands. England fought back, scoring 356, but Lillee captured five more. At 137 for 4 the target of 242 looked dicey. But, Paul Sheahan held firm and Rod Marsh walked in at the fall of the fifth wicket to smack 43 from just 51 balls. The young brigade had squared the series. Marsh and Sheahan ran off the field, swinging their bats around their heads, having scripted the most significant win in Australian cricket since 1948. And on reaching the dressing room, the wicketkeeper leapt onto the table, giving a full-throated rendition of the song that has become part of the folklore of the baggy green: “Under the Southern Cross I stand A sprig of wattle in my hand, A native of my native land, Australia, you f*ing beauty.” It marked the advent of the new Australian side, the best in the world, a bunch of tough, competitive individuals of brimming talent, led by one of the most charismatic captains of all time. The win even led Arthur Gilligan, the old England captain, rival turned greatest friend of former Australian skipper Vic Richardson, to pen a letter to Jeanne Chappell — daughter of Richardson and the mother of the Chappell brothers. Heaping glorious praise on the young team, Gilligan wrote, “Ian has led his team magnificently during the whole of the 1972 tour — a very great credit to him and all the boys. I am sure you are both very pleased to have had two sons who have achieved greatness over here.” Amidst all the celebration, the young captain was both gracious and honest enough to observe that Australia may well have won the Ashes if Bill Lawry had toured instead of the New South Wales opener Bruce Francis. This was both a touching and a gutsy tribute, especially given the story behind Chappell’s ascension to the top job. The road to the top Chappell had replaced Lawry during the 1970-71 series against England , when the great Australian opener paid the price for standing up for his players. In late 1969, Australians had slogged their way through the hardships of the Indian tour, roughing it out in shabby, dingy hotels. In spite of some excellent accommodations available in the country, the administrators back in Australia had not been keen on spending on basic amenities for the cricketers. The discontentment had grown with each encounter with unhygienic food and cockroaches running across the floors. Ian Chappell had batted beautifully through all this trouble, leading the great Erapalli Prasanna to acknowledge him as the most difficult batsman to bowl to. By the end of the tour, as the disgruntled players made their way to South Africa, Lawry had proclaimed that Chappell was the best batsman of the world. Indeed, he had been a pillar ever since pinning down the number three spot in the side. Before the Indian tour, he had hammered the West Indians for 548 runs at 68.50, prompting the tourists to brand him ‘Cathedral’. But, the South African tour had been a disaster. The wickets were tinged with green, the opponents some of the greatest cricketers ever assembled in a team, and the Australians were weary and drained. When the administrators went ahead and planned for an extra Test match at the expense of a couple of First-Class encounters, the unhappy players refused. Chappell was one of lynchpins against the extra Test, which meant going beyond their existing contracts. However, it was captain Lawry who lodged the protest formally. He was ousted days after carrying his bat to score 60 out of 116 against John Snow, Bob Willis, Peter Lever and Derek Underwood . Chappell was asked to lead in the final Test at Sydney. Hence, openly expressing that Lawry could have won the Ashes for Australia was indeed fraught with daring. However, Chappell was never one known for mincing his words. At the same time, no one could have been more ready for the job. He had come to know of his appointment as the Australian skipper during the lunch break of his job as a sales representative of WD & HO Wills. Chappell had been having a schnitzel and beer at Adelaide’s Overway Hotel, when he was called to the phone by the waiter. On being informed of the good news, he had reached for his wallet and had taken out a crumpled piece of paper — a note written to himself in 1959 when he had represented the South Australian State Schoolboys. It read: “My ambition is to captain Australia.” It is not often remembered that just before he embarked on that epochal 1972 tour of England, a small lump on his chest had been diagnosed as cancerous. It was surgically removed before he could lead his men through the Australian resurgence. When he had reached England with his side, the press had written off the Australian touring party but had liked their straight shooting captain. Mike Coward of News Ltd had found him, “approachable, thoughtful and respectful of our jobs.” And by the end of the tour, Ray Illingworth remarked, “I loved pitting my wits against Chappelli. He was always a step ahead, looking ahead of the game — the hallmark of a good captain. He didn’t allow the game to meander along. He made things happen. I place Ian Chappell as a top-notch captain. I played under Richie Benaud in a Commonwealth tour … Chappelli for me is as good a captain as Benaud. I don’t think I can give higher praise than that.” Ian Chappell played 75 Tests for Australia and scored 5,345 runs at an average of 42.42. He scored 14 centuries with a highest of 196 © Getty Images The tactics What made Ian Chappell worthy of such lofty praise as captain? Even when Chappell was scoring his first Test century, a 252 minute 151-run exhibition of application and footwork at Melbourne against the guile of Prasanna in late 1967, selector Neil Harvey was aware of his appeal to fellow players. He saw in Chappell a natural leader, a favourite of the hardened men who was could be one of the blokes at the end of a hard day. It was not long before Harvey was pressing Chappell’s name as Lawry’s successor. In spite of the image of Chappell as an aggressive, often severely acerbic cricketer, as a captain he was of the empowering rather than the screaming, bellowing sort. He realised very early that eleven hands were better than one. His players were all professionals, to be respected, trusted and backed. Two particular instances give a clear picture of his methods. Tony Dell, the Queensland fast bowler, made his debut under Chappell in the latter’s very first Test as captain . Knowing the straight talking hard-nosed reputation of the skipper, Dell was more than apprehensive to approach him and was a bundle of nerves as he went into the field. To his surprise and relief, Chappell spoke to him with remarkable calm, soothing his nerves and easing him into the action. In the end, Dell finished with 2 for 32 from 16 overs in the first innings and 3 for 65 from 27 in the second. The other example is of Ross Edwards . Australia were playing MCC at Lord’s and there were a number of slips and other close in fielders. Edwards was the only one in front of the wicket at cover, and he found John Jamieson hitting Lillee square on the off side. He asked Chappell why he was not putting him squarer. Chappell’s answer was, “Rosco, if you think you should bloody well go squarer, go squarer. You’re the cover specialist in the team. I’ve got a few other things to think about other than looking after you all the time.” Offensive as it sounded to Edwards at first, he realised that his captain had given him a free rein. “Chappelli demonstrated complete trust in you and your capacity to perform.” In spite of the sharpness of his tongue and the overbearing belligerence that he generally projected, on the field Chappell would tend to be relaxed during his days as the Australian captain. He understood early enough that a hassled, anxiety oozing captain was the last thing a team needed. Whatever the situation of the match he would be serene, his emotions under control. His signals to a fielder would involve small motions of his hand rather than frantic waves. He exuded command over the situation. Ian Chappell captained Australia in 30 of his 75 Tests, winning 15 and losing five © Getty Images Of course, he could also read the match to perfection. He knew intuitively which player would be most likely to click, and could change batting orders or bring about bowling changes often with astounding effect. And he could get the best out of his men. He could coax a visibly ill Dennis Lillee into producing that stunning eight for 29 against Rest of the World. With West Indies needing just 66 runs to win after lunch with five wickets in hand, with Alvin Kallicharran going great guns, he had the ability to fire up his bowlers to snatch a victory from the proverbial jaws of defeat. We of course remember his Ashes triumphs of 1974-75 and 1975 — and they were indeed supreme successes. However, those victories came riding on the express slingy-actioned pace of Jeff Thomson and the fast bowling greatness of Dennis Lillee — not to mention their celebrated pairing which was enough to plant fear in the bravest of hearts. But, his biggest triumph probably came in 1973 in the Caribbean. Thomson was in Australia, still a rather raw, unfinished work in progress. Lillee had developed fractures in his spine in three different places. Bob Massie had suddenly lost the ability to swing the ball. Ashley Mallett had been dropped by the selectors. Chappell marshalled his reduced resources, forging Max Walker into a potent weapon, squeezing the best out of Terry Jenner and Jack Hammond. He also led by sterling example with his bat. Australia won 2-0. Tony Greig wrote in Cricket: The Men and the Game, “The Chappell magic was never better outlined than in the West Indies in 1973 when, without Dennis Lillee and Ashley Mallett who would have thrived on those turning wickets, Chappell led Australia to victory … It takes a great captain to bring off a victory like that.” Chappell backed his men to the hilt and was prepared to fight for them. When the selectors had omitted Ashley Mallett from the side against England in 1974-75, Chappell had made his feelings known to selector Sam Loxton in no uncertain words. The Invincible had been overcome by the reasoning abundantly spiced with expletives. As a result Mallett played five of the six Tests and captured 17 wickets at 19.94. And when the administrators wanted him to talk to Lillee because the latter was blasting the Board in his writings, Chappell had refused, saying he fully agreed with the fast bowler. He played to win, and hated to lose. According to him there was no point in playing cricket if not for a win. Victories were celebrated with beer binges of fun, frolic and togetherness. Having done all the hard work to emerge on top, Chappell sincerely felt that wins needed to be rejoiced. Players grew to love the scenes of jubilation. These formed the best memories of their careers. And with time they grew to love being part of victories, and thereby to strive for them. All the same, defeats were not the end of the world. They could be withstood, and the best way to do so was also over a few beers. Even as individuals were initially prone to complain against the run of luck, poor umpiring and so on immediately after defeats, with a couple of beers there descended a more philosophical take on the situation. Mellowed retrospection ensued and soon there were confessions of not having performed that well. Weaknesses were gradually analysed and rectification would not be far away. The relaxation sessions at the bar bore the Ian Chappell signature. While books, caps and bats were signed without a second thought everywhere else, Chappell refused to oblige the most persistent autograph hunter during these moments reserved for the team. Recurrent requests could be met with harsh and rather rude rebuffs. For Chappell the bar in the evening with his mates by his side was a home away from home, where he demanded privacy. It sometimes embarrassed brother Greg, who thought a five second autograph was preferable to a five minute brawl. But, Chappell was uncompromising in this respect. Yet, at the same time, away from the bar he would be most generous with his time, especially with youngsters. Chappell the captain could shock with his peculiar dress sense. Pink suits and garish ties were often part of his much flaunted wardrobe. When vandals damaged the pitch at Headingley in 1975, forcing the abortion of a potential thriller, England captain Tony Greig responded to the summons of the administrators impeccably dressed in a suit and tie. Chappell came along to inspect the pitch in a jumper and slip-ons. Yet, Chappell had charisma. One of his ardent admirers was actor Ed Devereaux, who said, “He reminds me of Paul Newman, he has presence. The guy walks into a room and everyone looks up. You either have that sort of charisma or you don’t.” It was not for nothing that Kerry Packer wanted Chappell as the captain of the WSC Australian XI in the World Series Cricket . When Chappell hesitated, pointing out that at that time Greg Chappell was the captain of the Australian national team and the job should in all fairness go to him, the tycoon had exploded, “You think this is a fing democracy?” Chappell had already retired First-Class cricket at the age of 32. However, World Series Cricket, with its promised benefits for the players, held plenty of possibilities. He had taken on the role of the captain. He again had wanted to win desperately. At one point, after a horrendous day on the field, he was sulking in the dressing room when Packer himself had come up to him. The millionaire was asked to get the out of there. And when Lillee had ended the first Packer year with ordinary figures, Chappell had spurred him on by refusing his offered hand. He had said, “I only shake hands with fast bowlers.” That had got Lillee itching to come back firing in the next season. Chappell knew his men, and knew how to get them to perform. The Packer interlude was perhaps one of the greatest contributions of Chappell’s cricketing career, paving the way for professional management of the game and payment in accordance to the outstanding skills of the players. Richie Benaud wrote of his leadership, “Ian Chappell left a legacy of a very good cricket team with a wonderful team spirit and a burning ambition to stay on top in world cricket. He did more than that, however, for his players. He has had more brushes with officialdom than any other player since Keith Miller and Sid Barnes just after the end of the war, and most of those brushes have been because of his unwillingness to compromise.” The Ugly Australians However, did Ian Chappell make cricket unpleasant with the Ugly Australians side he nurtured during his reign? People do accuse him of popularising sledging — and he is perhaps seen as one of the pioneers of gamesmanship. Are these accusations valid? Yes, Chappell swore a lot — and it was not restricted to the field. When he was forced to give up the habit during his broadcasting days, Garry Sobers was aghast. “Man, I have to do all the talking,” the great man had lamented. Yes, Chappell’s swearing was as famous as his pink suits and captaincy. However, these words were not specifically directed at the opposition. There was no direct, unprovoked verbal attack in spite of the simmering aggression of the team. If Chappell swore at someone it was generally in reaction to an insult. In his autobiography he writes, “When I’m asked about sledging I quote the Macquarie dictionary definition: ‘The practice among bowlers and fielders of heaping abuse and ridicule on the batsmen.’ If we had indeed been heaping abuse and ridicule on batsmen, do you think Dickie Bird, Charlie Elliott and Douglas Sang Hue would have allowed it to continue? I was never spoken to once by any of these umpires with regard to me or any of my players swearing at the opponents.” Chappell was also clear about not needling top players. Garry Sobers taught him a valuable lesson while blasting 254 for Rest of the World at Melbourne. All through his innings, he had suffered the pangs of estrangement with his wife Prue. On learning of his domestic problems after the innings, Chappell had exclaimed, “Shit, Garry, if that’s what’s annoying you, give me her phone number, I’ll ring her to come back to you immediately.” However, Chappell seemed to have a drastically different attitude for lesser players. In England in 1972, the captain of Combined Universities was playing and missing constantly. At this juncture his bootlace came undone. When he gestured at Chappell and requested him to tie it, the response was, “You’re not doing anything else out here pal, do it up yourself.” There were definitely incidents which underlined the intense competitiveness of the Australians under Chappell. At Otago, unhappy at the umpire taking the players off the field because of bad light with the home side on the verge of defeat, Chappell and his men had packed up and left the ground. Late in his career, he was indeed prone to snap at cricketers and even umpires. He got into trouble by calling umpire Bob Marshall an officious Pommy prig. After being disciplined for this offence, he recalled his words to umpire Marshall saying that his father Martin had told him to stick to the truth because it would never hurt one — and obviously he had been wrong. But, seldom was there anything personal in the altercations. Indeed, once in a Sheffield Shield encounter, South Australia, led by Ian Chappell faced off against Queensland under Greg Chappell. With Ian at the other end, Greg was bowling to South Australia’s No 11 batsman Barry Hiern. When Greg sent down a bouncer, Ian said, “Listen pal, if you are going to bowl bouncers, bowl them to me not our number eleven.” And pat came the reply, “Piss off, Ian. You’d be better served to concentrate on your batting.” That night, Ian called mother Jeanne and informed her that Greg was doing well in Queensland. “You’ll be interested to know that we had an argument after about ten minutes.” Jeanne simply asked, “What took you so long?” However, in spite of the celebrated ruthlessness, Ian Chappell played fair. In India in 1969-70, he noticed substitute wicketkeeper Ray Jordon’s penchant for winning decisions by knocking the stumps with his hands and fooling the batsman and umpire into believing that the former had been bowled. He confronted the stumper saying: “Listen you ct, we are playing for Australia and we don’t have to cheat to win …” Later in South Africa he refused to play in a Test match if Jordon was included in the side. Early days Cricket was obviously in Chappell’s blood. Grandfather Vic Richardson never got involved in his cricket, preferring to leave the task of coaching to Lynn Fuller, a former AIF player and a decent country cricketer. But he was a legend in South Australia. Father Martin played at the district level as an opening batsman and an off-spinner. He had also been in the South Australian state squad for a season. The family genes were not restricted to cricket. As well as being an Australian cricketer, Richardson captained the state in Australian Rules Football team, represented Australia in baseball and South Australia in golf, won the South Australian state tennis title and a was leading local player in lacrosse, basketball and swimming. Martin Chappell was a baseball catcher for South Australia. Every Sunday of the summers from the age of five to 17, Chappell went over to Fuller’s home for coaching. At a tender age, his father started pinging balls at him off a particular dreaded spot at the wicket, teaching him to defend himself. That was when Chappell learnt to play the hook shot and was a compulsive hooker his entire career. Apart from the training, backyard games of extreme seriousness were played with younger brother Greg. By the time Trevor, the third brother, grew up to be counted in these backyard skirmishes, Ian had left for national cricketing duties. In his last year in St Leonard’s Primary School, Ian Chappell was chosen in the South Australian State Schoolboys team. The side travelled to Perth and he faced the bowling of Graham McKenzie. The following year he went to Prince Alfred College in Adelaide. The headmaster, John Dunning, had been a captain of the New Zealand cricket team. Former South Australian cricketer Bill Leak was a coach. Later Chester Bennett of Western Australia joined as coach as well. In the last year at PAC, Chappell was made captain of the First XI. Although Vic Richardson never actively influenced Chappell’s cricket, he often drove down to the ground where his grandson was turning out and watched him in the field. On the evenings of these matches, he sometimes called to say, “Well done.” However, he did pass some wisdom to both the brothers. “If you can’t be a good cricketer, at least look like one.” Another was, “If you’re lucky enough to captain Australia, don’t captain like a Victorian.” In all probability, Richardson had hinted at Lindsay Hassett. Finally, when Chappell was the vice-captain of Australia and South Australia sides, Richardson passed him the tip, “Just remember, when you win the toss, nine times out of ten you bat first … on the tenth time you think about putting the opposition in, but you still bat first.” Into the Test world From afar, Don Bradman was watching as Chappell scored a century against a West Torrens side for Glenelg. When Alan Hitchcox, pace bowler of South Australia, bounced him in the match, a 17-year-old Chappell hooked him for four and blurted out, “Fancy you opening the bowling for South Australia.” After a few club matches, he was chosen for the state side to play Tasmania, New South Wales and finally Victoria. For a couple of seasons, he shared the dressing room with the great Garry Sobers. Some invaluable tricks of the trade were learnt from the West Indian legend. “Like me you have a back and across movement, and so it’s better to start from leg.” Chappell switched to a leg stump guard. He also followed the advice of standing with both feet outside the crease to quick bowlers. In 1963, Chappell spent one English summer playing for Ramsbottom in the Lancashire League. It was an experience that would stand him in good stead later on, but he recalled, “1963 improved my drinking and swearing and set my cricket back by a couple of months.” By 1963-64, however, he was making piles of runs for South Australia and was rather disappointed when New South Wales all-rounder Terry Lee was preferred over him for a trial match for an Australian Eleven against the visiting South Africans. That winter, he did not get into the team that toured England and spent his time playing the Claxton Shield baseball tournament. He was picked in the All-Australian baseball team. He played the Claxton Shield again in 1965 and 1966, and made it to the Australian team again in the final year. In 1964-65 Chappell was picked for a one-off Test against Pakistan at Melbourne. He did not really get off to a great start, the innings of 11 being cut short by an impetuous hook shot. He continued to make runs in the Shield but was overlooked for the tour of West Indies. For the next few years, he scored heavily at the First-Class level, but Test success was slow in coming. He did not score too many against England, and when he visited South Africa with Bobby Simpson’s men, he was advised to bowl more leg-breaks and bat at number six. Simpson also asked him to shelve the hook shot. On his return from South Africa, however, Don Bradman met him and said, “Ian, you used to be a good hooker. I’d like to see you playing that shot.” So, Chappell started playing the stroke once again, batting with the fullest freedom that characterised him. The young man was also not convinced that he wanted to be a number six batsman who bowled leg-breaks. He bowled rather less frequently down the years, stopping almost totally after becoming the captain. It was at this time that Greg Chappell also started playing for South Australia. Two Chappells in the side became a bit of a bother for the scoreboard at Adelaide. Greg became ‘Chappell G’ and Ian ‘Chappell I’. From there it was but a small step to Chappelli. The Cathedral It was finally in the second Test against India in 1967-68 that saw Chappell bloom into a superb batsman who could hook with relish and use his feet to spinners with excellence. His first Test century arrived in his 10th Test. In 1968, he went to the first tour of England after almost missing the flight by oversleeping. He scored steadily in the Tests, if not spectacularly, but he stood out in the way he played Derek Underwood with panache. Two more centuries followed when the West Indians visited the following year, and by the time Australia toured India, he had been named vice-captain. Down the years, Chappell did experience major highs with the bat. He hit a couple of hundreds against the powerful Rest of the World team of 1971-72. He returned from his triumphant Ashes trip in 1972 to slam 196 against Pakistan. In West Indies in 1973, he scored 547 runs at 77.42 with two hundreds. And then there was the Wellington Test of 1974 when he and Greg Chappell both scored two centuries in the match. He celebrated his final Ashes Test by scoring 192 at The Oval in 1975. And having given up captaincy he hammered 156 against West Indies at Perth. So, what sort of batsman was Ian Chappell? From the outset he was someone who wanted to be in the thick of things. The moment the first wicket went down, he would get up and adjust his cap while continuing the discussion that had been endangered by the dismissal. Grabbing his bat, he would make for the pitch, having made his last remark. He always got to the crease as soon as possible, seldom dawdling on the way — whatever be the situation. The upturned collar as he took guard would portray a hint of arrogance. There would be some adjustment of the box, of the thigh pad, of the cap, while a quick eye would scan the field before squaring up to face the bowler. The short balls would be hooked, no matter at what stage of the innings they were sent down. It did get him out on occasions, but got him many, many runs as well. He could also cut and pull with power and the very back and across movement would prompt the bat-pad fieldsmen to take evasive action. Against spinners he would get to the pitch of the ball swiftly, and also use the sweep to a great effect. Short deliveries from the tweakers would be pulled and cut mercilessly. His style was based on dominating the bowlers. Batsmen, according to him, were meant to score quickly. He relished hooking the likes of John Snow and Andy Roberts and using his feet against Prasanna and Intikhab Alam. He categorised the spinners into two groups, the good and the average. Good ones were to be worked around, with the occasional boundary a bonus. The average spinners were meant to be hit for four at least once an over. If some over was quiet, the chances of getting two boundaries in the next would be high. The final days After the Packer tour was over, Chappell returned to First-Class cricket and continued to score runs. Yet, he was not selected in the Test team. This frustrated him, and he was more prone to outbursts on the field in these last stages. He did break through into the one-day side for three matches in the Benson Hedges tri-series of 1979-80, hitting a couple of fifties against England and West Indies, finishing with 131 runs for once out. Chappell was finally recalled in the Test side for three matches, two against England and the other against the West Indies in the curious simultaneous series played in 1979-80. He ended his career with 75 and 26 not out against England at Sydney, featuring in an eight-wicket win, being there at the crease with brother Greg as his career drew to an end. Ian Chappell scored 5,345 runs in his 75 Tests, with 14 centuries at an average of 42.42. His occasional leg-breaks got him 20 wickets and his often spectacular work in the slips resulted in 105 catches. He played just 16 One-Day Internationals (ODIs), scoring 673 runs at 48.07 with a strike rate of 77. He captained in 30 of his 75 Tests, winning 15 and losing five. He also led Australia in the inaugural World Cup, where they were beaten in the final by West Indies. The other facets Ian Chappell’s batting and captaincies are just a few facets of his many dimensions as an iconic figure of cricket. Pleasant and unpleasant anecdotes can be discovered in every nook and cranny of his career. There were many times that he fell out with other legendary figures. As the captain of South Australia and then Australia, Chappell got into severe conflicts with Bradman. They first locked horns over the recruitment of Younis Ahmed for the state side. Chappell, opposing the selection from the start, was led to believe that the Pakistan batsman had been sponsored by Coca Cola and brought over to Australia. He realised later that Coca Cola had been coaxed into sponsorship by South Australia cricket administrators. Younis failed in his first few outings and was omitted from the side. The exclusion of the overseas import of the side did not amuse Bradman. Chappell’s appeals for better pay for cricketers were always stalled by the tight-fisted Bradman. When the cream of the Australian team defected in favour of World Series Cricket, Bradman remarked that the players had ‘stabbed us in the back.’ However, according to Chappell, it was Bradman’s meanness with money that had led cricketers to opt for the financial security offered by Kerry Packer. Interestingly, out of respect for Bradman the batsman, Chappell had not spoken about these showdowns until well into the 1980s. However, he broke his silence after an interview given by Bradman in the early 1980s. According to Chappell, when asked about his career, Bradman said, “I managed to do it all without getting my hair permed or getting divorced.” Chappell, who had been through a divorce and had got his hair permed, took it as a personal insult. As he puts it, “I thought, ‘Bugger you, mate. It’s personal now.’ And from then on, if I was asked a direct question about Bradman, I would say exactly what I had experienced. ” There have also been the infamous conflicts with Ian Botham and Tony Greig . The problems with Botham supposedly resulted in blows and the bad blood has continued till this day. The rift with Greig did not get physical but neither was there any love lost between them. Chappell tried to explain his antagonism as, “The problem I had with him during WSC was that he was off earning money by doing ads while the rest of his team was training… he held his place in the superb team and he did not deserve to.” However, Greig had been blunter. “I didn’t like him and he didn’t like me. As simple as that.” His constant criticism had not gone down well with Kim Hughes. And in later days, Steve Waugh was sufficiently provoked to write, “To say Chappell’s criticism irked me would be an understatement.” The modern legend maintains that the comments were always “personal” and that Chappell “always sweated on my blunders and reported them with an ‘I told you so’ mentality.” After retirement, Chappell moved to writing and commentating. According to him he had first commentated when he was a little more than a toddler, playing in the backyard, imagining encounters between Beanaud and May among others. Broadcasting too was in his blood. Vic Richardson had been a regular commentator, combining into a well-known team with Gilligan. He also used to write in the papers. When he was captain of South Australia, Chappell worked on the Sunday TV sports show with Les Favell on Channel 7 in Adelaide. He also conducted a Saturday morning cricket show on radio for 5AD. Later, in 1976-77, he joined North Melbourne, covering Tests and Sheffield Shield games. In 1980-81, Chappell joined Channel 9, co-hosting Wide World of Sports with Mike Gibson. For another five years, he worked as a co-host of Sports Sunday with Gibson, and later Max Walker. There were occasions when he came close to getting the sack by swearing on air. There was the ’Jesus f****** Christ, how many mistakes are we going to make today?” remark which made the switchboard at the Channel 9 studio ‘light up like a Christmas tree’. Kerry Packer himself gave Chappell a talking to: “The only reason I am not sacking you is that you didn’t do it deliberately.” He did it again during the Ashes series in 1993. However, with time, he has grown into one of the most popular and forthright commentators in the game. Not all of his opinions are well thought out or even correct if placed under the microscope of scientific analysis, but he continues to win hearts with the freshness of his views that bring with them the rare essence of unadulterated honesty. After retiring from cricket, Ian Chappell (right) took to commentary. He has now grown into one of the most popular and forthright commentators in the game © Getty Images And while controversies and a curious mix of popularity and dissent dog his candid views, he continues to be passionately vocal about the cause of granting official status to the 1868 tour of England by the Australian Aboriginals . He has also proclaimed his concern about the treatment meted out to Asylum seekers — especially in the aftermath of the Tampa crisis. Ian Chappell was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1986, and the induction into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame happened in 2003. Six years later in July 2009, Ian Chappell entered the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame.	Trevor
In which city did IOC president Jacques Rogge announce London as the host of the 2012 Olympic Games?	Ian Chappell: 'As a captain, taking wickets should be your top priority' \| Cricket \| ESPN Cricinfo Ian Chappell, among the most respected of Australian captains, talks about where modern captains have their priorities skewed, leadership in general, and why he won't be writing a book on the subject 30 Harsha Bhogle: Welcome to Opening Up, and with me is someone who has built up a huge reputation over the years as one of the finest leaders of a cricket team, and also one of its great characters, and certainly one of its finest storytellers. Ian Chappell is with me today, and it's always a great pleasure. I have had this enormous of honour of sitting in the commentary box with Ian Chappell over the years, and it's always been deeply fulfilling. Thank you for joining us today. Ian, there is lots that you have done, on a cricket ground and outside it. You've been an outstanding batsman, you've been a top leader, and there have been great moments in your life - you and your brother scoring a century in each innings in Wellington. If you had to pick one moment that you remember most... let me try and guess, would it be never losing a Test series as captain? Ian Chappell: No, it's things as a team that you remember mostly. The standout for me will always be winning the Ashes back at the SCG in 1974-75. I had played in the Australian team that had lost the Ashes in 1970-71 in Australia, so to win it back as captain - I still remember to this day Ashley Mallett bowling to Geoff Arnold, inside edge onto the pad, Greg Chappell at bat-pad taking the catch. Rodney Marsh whirled around, put his hand out and said, "We have got the bastards back." Bastards being the Ashes and not England. That memory is still very clear in my mind, but what isn't so clear in my mind is the party that we had afterwards. I have always said that these are things that I remember most - victories and the parties that we had afterwards. And when we get together, as we quite often do, a lot of the guys from the Australian side of the 70s, that's the things we talk about mostly, the characters that we played with and the parties we had when we won. HB: You always refer to your brother as Greg Chappell, or was it just "Little Greg"? I heard you talk about him as Greg Chappell, and I thought, hang on, as his brother you must call him Greg... IC: I always did that as a commentator, because I felt that I needed to as a commentator. But when I am talking to him, Greg is the nicest thing that I call him. But I just felt that as a commentator and as a writer, I had to establish something. I did not feel like saying "my brother Greg" all the time, and I really felt that it would be unfair for him. So I just referred to him as Greg Chappell when he was playing. I might say "my brother Greg" now, in commentary, if I am talking about something he did as a player. But I felt that when he was playing and I was a commentator, I had to refer to him as Greg Chappell. That was just the decision I made. HB: Was there a big buzz about being captain? Was it something that you wanted to be? You took to it like a fish to water. It was almost like you were born to be the leader of 10 other men on a cricket ground. Was it something that you dreamt of doing? And did you approach it with great intensity, for example? IC: It's a rather mixed story, the captaincy. I have always said, even when I was appointed the vice-captain of Australia, that I really wasn't thinking about being the captain of Australia. I wasn't even expecting to be the captain for Australia. That sort of belies… HB: Is that true? Because literally you are just one step away, and being captain is a big honour... IC: Yes, it is. I guess what I am saying is that I never took anything for granted in cricket. But that sort of belies the fact that when I was playing in the schoolboys' competition in Adelaide, which was an under-16 competition, at the end of that they picked a squad to practise and then they played a match between the two squads that they picked. As part of that, Geff Noblet, who was a former Australian player, he gave us a guided tour of the Adelaide Oval at one stage, as we were practising at the back at No. 2 ground. He took us up to the dressing room; he walked us down the steps out to the middle, and then he walked us up again. Before we left the ground he said, "As you're walking back up the stairs, think of something that you would like to do in cricket, write it on a bit of paper and stick it in your wallet." I don't think I did it at the time, but when I got home that night, for some reason or other I wrote "Captain Australia". I put it in my wallet and it was there for many years… HB: Like in the movies, you suddenly found it… you opened the wallet and there it was. IC: No, I think I sort of remembered that it was there and I think I probably threw it away round about that time. It was just something that I did. I didn't have any great desire. In fact, I think Australia hasn't had many poor captains, but they had a couple. Particularly in one case it was because the guy wanted the job, he was desperate to get the captaincy. I think most of Australia's good captains have been guys who have just got it out of the blue, and I think that's the way to get it. You shouldn't crave the job, and I didn't. I remember getting the phone call. I was in the Overway Hotel in Adelaide having a counter lunch. Which consisted of a schnitzel and two schooners of beer… HB: Was the beer on the left of the plate or the right? I'm sure you remember that too… IC: I am a right-hand drinker, so the beer was on the right-hand side. HB: Or maybe the ones that were over were on the right, and the fresh ones were on the left… [laughs]. IC: [laughs] No, no, only one at a time. Suddenly someone said, "There's a phone call for you." I took the phone call, and it was Alan Shiell, who was a former South Australia player and also a journalist. He said, "Congratulations mate." I said, "What on?" He said, "You are captain of Australia." And I said, "You're bloody joking, aren't you?" He said, 'No, I am serious." They had sacked Bill [Lawry]. I don't necessarily disagree with the decision, but the way they did it was most unfair on Bill. "I learnt a lot about captaincy by being told that I was an idiot" HB: Ian, you've got this reputation of someone who is mildly irreverent. The word you used to describe the Ashes, for example. And yet, every time I have spoken to you, I've thought, "If there is one romantic in the game it will be Ian Chappell." Good old-fashioned romantic, even if you may not like being called that. IC: I am not sure what a cricket romantic is… HB: Well, you remember with joy all the little things in the game. You still enjoy the little traditions of the game. You don't strike people as someone who enjoys the traditions, but you actually do. IC: What I have a problem with is that I don't suffer fools very well. HB: [laughs] Don't we know that. IC: And, I guess, authority. I'm not really good at accepting instructions without question, and that's why I was absolutely useless in the cadets. HB: But when you became a leader, were you open to the idea of people not accepting the idea without questioning? IC: Oh, absolutely. I learnt a lot about captaincy by being told that I was an idiot - in worse terms than that actually. But… HB: You're holding back. IC: Well, I can't use the words that guys like Rodney Marsh used. I learnt a very good lesson from Rodney calling me exactly that in the middle of the Test match at Old Trafford in 1972. I had Johnny Gleeson the folded-finger spinner bowling at one end. I had John Inverarity bowling left-arm orthodox spin at the other end. It was a green top, it was seaming everywhere. I wasn't a first slip, I was fielding at midwicket. As I crossed over, Rodney was crossing from end to end, and as I went past he just said, "You're a &%$& idiot." And I said, "What, Rodney? Is there something that I said to you in the bar last night?" And he said, "No, this is a greatest seamer's paradise of all time, and you've got a spinner bowling at each end." And I said, "I will remind you, Rodney, that one of the spinners has just got Geoff Boycott out, which was a pretty important wicket." In fact, I was vice-captain of Australia before I was vice-captain of South Australia. But I had only captained about five games and a lot of those were at the Adelaide Oval. And at the Adelaide Oval I would go from two quickies, the two new-ball bowlers, straight to Ashley Mallett and Terry Jenner, the two spinners. I was doing basically the same at Old Trafford. What it made me realise that I was in danger of becoming an Adelaide Oval captain. I had to realise that I wasn't at the Adelaide Oval every game, and I had to captain according to the conditions. So it was a very good lesson. I don't understand why any leader, be it a cricket captain or a world leader, would want to have around him a whole lot of people who agree with him. Because how are you going to learn… HB: It's a sign of an insecure man. IC: Well, I think it is. Kim Hughes made a comment that you can't be one of the boys and be a good captain. And that is the greatest load of codswallop I have ever heard in my life. Because under the Australian system, they pick the XI and then they pick the captain out of that XI. So before I was captain, I had been a member of the team for quite number of years, so I'm drinking with Marsh, Walters, Taber, Mallett and all the guys as a player; and then suddenly I come along as captain, and what, I just say, "Now, boys, I'm not drinking with you"? HB: But there is also the danger of forming a bit of club and saying, "He is my friend, how can I leave him out?" That can happen. IC: Look, we dropped Doug Walters from the Oval Test match in 1972, first time ever that an Australian side went into the fieled without a New South Welshman in the team. One of the journalists, Dick Tucker, came to me and said, "Ian, I'm surprised." That's all he said. Then I said to him, "Dick, if you're talking about what I think you're talking about, then you don't know me very well. If you think I'm going to pick Doug Walters because he is a mate of mine, when it's not in the best interest of the team, then you don't know me well." I am going to pick a team to win that game. I am not going to pick a team that is full of my mates and keep out guys who I am not fond of. I have always said about captaincy that like and dislike does not come into it. You've only got to ask yourself two questions: Can he get me a hundred? Can he get me five wickets? If the answer to those questions is yes, then the guy is in the team. Whether you like him or dislike him, whether he is a disruptive force or not in the team, that's your job as the leader. There are two parts to it, captaincy and leadership. Captaincy is on the field, placing the batting order, changing the bowling, moving the fielders around. Leadership is off the field. So if I have got someone in the team who can get me five wickets but is a bit of disruptive force, then it's my job to make him fit. And I have got to tell the guy, "Mate, I want you in this team. Now we've got few things that we need to sort out here…" HB: Let me throw a tricky one here. If he says, "Buzz off, skipper, I'm giving you five wickets on the field. How does it matter to what I'm doing off the field?" I'm sure those characters exist in a cricket team. IC: Well, I will try and work with the guy, and if it gets to the point where it's unworkable then he goes, or I have been sacked because I can't make it work. But I'm going to try my darnedest to make it work. The most important thing as a captain is respect. Under the Australian system, you've already earned respect as a player, because you have been there for few years. Hopefully you have earned respect as a human being. Now you become captain, and now you've got to earn their respect as a captain. And you've got to maintain the respect in the other two areas. The other thing that they want from you is honesty. If the guy comes to me and says, "Buzz off." If he said that to me then I would ask, "Do you really want to play for Australia or not?" And if he says yes, then I would tell him, "We need to work this out and make sure it works. I am not going to tell you how to run your life, but we've got to make things work because whilst it is a game for individuals, you have also got to mesh as a team." I think as long as you give them honesty, you will get on with most cricketers. HB: Can you look at a cricketer and say that he will become a good captain? More important than being a good captain, a good leader of men - because you separated captaincy from leadership? Can you look at someone and say that leadership will weigh him down? Can you look at someone and say leadership will buoy him up? IC: Well, maybe it's an exceptional example, but I remember seeing Shane Warne as a captain, in the Super 8s tournament. It was being played in Townsville, up north. Victoria was playing, I think, Western Australia. Bear in mind that you've got only six players in the game, and in the last over the opposition needed something like six runs to win with two wickets in hand. And Warne just said that we can't win this game by containing, we've got to get these two guys out. Damien Fleming bowled the last over, and he had a couple of slips, I think, and a guy in close, and they got the two wickets. I was so impressed that I went home that night and I rang up Richie Benaud, who was in the UK doing commentary there. I rang him up and said, "I have just seen a really exciting young captain, he just happens to be a legspinner. We might have our next gambling, legspinning captain from Australia." HB: Did he agree with you? IC: Well, he hadn't seen Warne at that stage, but I think he was excited about the thought of a legspinner captaining Australia. So, in the case of Warne you could see that. But his talents were so obvious. The other way, I can look at someone out there and say that this guy should not be the captain. He is weighed down by the captaincy. And if a guy is weighed down by the captaincy then you should never appoint him, because you are doing him a disservice and you are doing the team a disservice. "I would place Ponting ahead of Steve Waugh as a captain" HB: I can think of a couple of people in recent times who have really been buoyed up by the fact that they were captain. And closer home, I think Sourav Ganguly falls into that category as someone who really enjoyed the job. IC:Dhoni, I think, is a classic example. HB: Rahul Dravid realised a couple of years into his captaincy that he wasn't enjoying it. He was probably getting weighed down. So can you look at people's personalities. Is there sort of template to say, "This kind of personality gets buoyed up and this kind of personality gets weighed down"? IC: I think you can make mistakes if you purely went on personality. HB: But could you look at Ganguly, for example, and say, "I think this guy is going to enjoy it? Or, say, Michael Vaughan, who people rate as a captain? IC: I think those examples are more difficult than Shane Warne. He was pretty obvious. But there are things that the good selectors must be able to read. They have got to be very good selectors nowadays because it's tougher. If you go back to my case, I captained South Australia at least five times or so before I captained Australia. So the Australian selectors got a bit of an idea about what sort of captain I was. But you take Michael Clarke now - I don't think he has ever captained New South Wales. He captained Australia Under-19 teams and things like that. But I really don't count that for much, because kids playing against kids is not a good way to judge cricketers, never mind captaincy. So the selectors of today have a much tougher job because they have got a sort of judgement that you are talking about, which is obviously his playing ability, but they have to judge his character from not actually leading the team. And it is not necessarily an easy thing to do. HB: Is a good captain in one system necessarily a good captain in another? For example, Australia has got a fairly ordered system. People learn very early in life to play their roles in a side and acquire a certain work ethic. Would a captain of Australia be an equally good captain of, say, Pakistan, where you've got to find your way amidst certain chaos and yet motivate a side to do well? Would you require different personalities, do you think different teams demand personalities as leaders? IC: Why would you worry about this, because somebody who is going to captain Australia is not going to captain Pakistan? HB: Fair enough, but that kind of character. I mean, for example, a Shahid Afridi kind of character. For all that you know, he might just be the right person for those kind of people. Well, this is just the view from outside... IC: No, you can't have Afridi as a captain. HB: Because he bites the cricket ball… IC: You see, people seem to have forgotten that that's not his first major - and I am talking major - indiscretion. That pirouette that he did in the middle of the pitch [against England in Pakistan]. I mean, you might forgive a guy for once having a brain lock, but two brain locks… HB: But I am not talking about Afridi as one person, but the kind of person who is sort of ebullient, outgoing, maybe a little mischievous… in a team that requires a slightly mischievous person. IC: But the problem with Afridi is that he can't control himself, so how can he control the other 10? If I was a Pakistan selector and if anyone came to the selection table and mentioned Afridi's name, then I would say that that name is off the list. HB: Who are the captains you have admired over the years? IC: There are some pretty obvious ones. I had great admiration for Imran Khan as a leader. Mark Taylor, I thought, was an excellent captain. But some of the less obvious ones - I thought Mike Gatting was an excellent captain of England. One of the smartest things that Gatting did on that tour of Australia in 1986-87 was that every time Ian Botham started waving his arms around and wanted the fielder moved somewhere, Gatting just turned his back and placed the field that he wanted. HB: But that's the only reason … IC: No, that's not the only reason and it's got nothing to do with Botham. Botham was the sort of bowler who needed 16 fielders, because he wanted a fieldsman everywhere the ball was hit. But you can't captain a side that way, because in the end all you are going to be doing is moving fielders to cover bad deliveries. And Gatting was smart enough to realise that you can't captain like that, so he just turned his back on him and placed the field that he wanted. I thought Arjuna Ranatunga was a terrific captain. I am not just talking of the fact that he won a World Cup. I saw him in a game at Bellerive Oval where he was outgunned. If you listed the two teams there, Australia outgunned Sri Lanka by quite a margin. In fact, Australia really only won the game on the final day in the last session, when they were the only team who were going to win from three and a half days on. But Arjuna kept that side, an outgunned side, in the game for much longer than they had any right to be in the game. So I don't judge captains from their win-loss records. For instance, Steve Waugh is the most successful Australian captain statistically. But I think out of the last four Australian captains, Steve Waugh runs fourth in my book. I have got Mark Taylor, Ricky Ponting and Allan Border probably about even, depending on which Border you're talking about - when he wanted to be the captain and when he did not want to be the captain. I think Ponting is a bit conservative with his field placings for my liking, but when you think of the turnover... I'm not just talking average Test match players here, I'm talking about the turnover of really top-class guys. And in the case of Warne and Glenn McGrath, two champion bowlers. He has had an enormous turnover of that level of players, and yet he has still kept Australia competitive. He has got to get some credit for that. He has won two World Cups and two Champions Trophies. I would place Ponting ahead of Steve Waugh as a captain. The reason why I don't rank Steve Waugh very highly is because I think he ran out of ideas pretty quickly. He didn't have to run out of ideas quickly very often because he wasn't under the pump very often. But I saw him run out of ideas. Kolkata, for instance, in 2001. The times that I saw him under the hammer, he did run out of ideas. I have never seen Ricky Ponting run out of ideas. HB: Mike Brearley? IC: Well, I think I would say about Mike Brearley that I always thought it was hard enough to win a game when you are playing 11 v 11. Why are you going into the game with 10 v 11? And the second thing that I would like to say is that Mike Brearley captained against only one decent cricket team, three Test matches, and Australia won all three of them. But then I only played two of those three Test matches, I didn't play against Brearley in the other games. He may have been better than what I ranked him, but from what I saw, he lost 0-3, so he wasn't making a hell of a difference as a captain, and he really wasn't a good enough player to be playing for England. So I don't rank him anywhere near as high as a lot of people do. "The more you know about yourself, the better off you will be, not just as a cricketer but as a person" HB: One of the things that I have noticed with Twenty20 cricket over the years, and it's something that fascinates me because we all had a lot of theories, some of which are proved right, some of which are being proved wrong, but one thing that is coming through is that the captain is almost worth two players. The more dynamic a game gets, the more important is the role of the decision-maker. I just get the feeling that Twenty20 is evolving into a captain's game. IC: Well, there's no surprise there. It was an idiotic suggestion that came out of the Kolkata Knight Riders to have about four different captains. It wouldn't matter whether it is Twenty20, 50 overs, a Test match or playing a backyard match. Multiple leaders was never ever going to work. It was just a ridiculous idea. It doesn't surprise me one little bit that people are coming to the conclusion that the captain of the Twenty20 game is really important. You think about it - the game can be won or lost in the space of a couple of overs, so why isn't the captain going to be really important? Probably more important in a Twenty20 game than, certainly, a 50-overs game. I wouldn't say more important than a Test match. HB: There is something that John Buchanan said, though, that has always resonated with me, which is that as the coach, his idea was to make himself redundant. Let's take the personality out of it… IC: Do you think he really meant that? He never ever… HB: Let's leave the personality out. IC: I'm always leaving the personality out. I am making judgements on their ability... HB: He said that the players were not allowed to come to him with a problem, but with their solution to the problem. So in principle he was suggesting that each player be his own leader, and that you think of your problem before you come to the coach. And that's sound in theory, I thought. IC: Well, hang on, that's exactly how the game was played when I played. If a guy came to me with a problem, if Terry Jenner came to me with a problem, I would say, "Right, you are a legspinner, let's get Richie Benaud on the phone. We will get him and I will go and sit with you while you are talking to Benaud, because I might learn a bit about legspin bowling." If I had a problem as a batsman, who did I go and see? I go and talk to Greg Chappell, because he was batting against the same bowlers that I was batting against. I am not going to go and talk to some coach who has played three games for Oodnawoopwoop HB: For whom? [laughs] IC: Oodnawoopwoop. When I have got in my own team guys who are Test match batsmen, and they are playing against the same bowlers that I am playing against, they are the best coaches. HB: It begs a large question, with all the academies and all the coaches coming in: are cricketers getting more and more disinclined to think for themselves and relying more on coaches and captains to tell them what to do? So to that extent that theory is right, in the sense that you analyse your problem and you come to me with the solution to your problem. And then we debate the solution. IC: Probably one of the most important things I was told, and I think I was told this when I was about seven or eight by the old guy who coached me, Lynn Fuller. Lynn said to me, "Son, it doesn't matter how good a coach I am, when you are out in the middle, I can't help you. So the quicker you learn the game for yourself the better off you would be." It was the best advice I got. And yes, there is a danger that players are going to look for the coach every time they play and miss to figure out what they did wrong. Mate, if you can't work it out when you're out there in the middle… if John Snow is running up, trying to get me out, and if I haven't got a fairly decent clue how he is trying to get me out, then what chance have I got? This is why I give advice to all the cricketers - know yourself. The more you know about yourself, the better off you would be, not just as a cricketer but as a person in life. Because I have got to know not only what makes things work for me when I am batting but I have also got to know what makes things go wrong. So if I start doing something and I realise that it's wrong, then I have got to know how to correct it. I'd better know when I am out in the middle. Not find out when I get out and go back to the pavilion. Much better if I can work it out while I am out there in the middle. HB: Why don't we have too many wicketkeeper captains? I think Dhoni is sort of raising the flag in favour of wicketkeeper captains to some extent. But traditionally captains have always been batsmen. I know you had a Benaud, you had an Imran Khan, you had a Warne, who might have been, who was outstanding with Rajasthan Royals. But traditionally, why are batsmen made captains? Is it because when the game is on, the bowler's got too much to think about or the wicketkeeper has got too much going on? IC: I think it's just a habit. But it does have a bit of logic to it, in that the bowler has a hell of a lot to think about while he is bowling. I think you've got to be a bit of a special type of bowler to succeed as a captain, as Benaud, Imran... and not at Test level, but Geoff Lawson was a very good Sheffield Shield captain for New South Wales. Wicketkeepers is also a bit of habit. I played a lot of Sheffield Shield cricket against Western Australia when Rod Marsh was the captain of WA, and he was a damn good captain. And he should have captained Australia. When Greg wasn't touring overseas, Rod Marsh should have been the captain of Australia. But that all came about because of poor administration. They did not want two World Series players as captain and vice-captain, so they put Kim Hughes in the middle. And when Greg stopped touring, Kim Hughes became the captain. What a lot of people forget is that if Kim Hughes was any good as captain, then Greg would have never got the job back again. But because of the poor administrative decision, not only did Australia appoint a bad captain, or a poor captain, they lost a very good batsman as well. Kim was a damn fine batsman, but his batting went downhill. So, it was a three-pronged mistake, because you could have had a decent captain in Marsha, you didn't. You had a poor captain, and you lost one of your better batsmen because his batting ability went down. HB: There are people watching this programme in South Africa, and they might wonder why we haven't talked about Ali Bacher, as a captain purely, because he enjoyed pretty good results. IC: As I told you before, I don't judge captaincy based on results. Any captain, when you are leading 2-0 comfortably and in the third Test match you have got Australia in deep trouble, and I haven't made a run since Cocky was an egg... I am batting with Doug Walters and we are just starting to get a bit of partnership together, we have gone from 12 for 2 to 100 for 2, and we are well behind in that game, as well as 2-0 behind in the series. And you've suddenly got Trevor Goddard bowling left-arm around the wicket, outside my legs with five guys on the on side. I don't call that good captaincy. You should never generalise completely, but in case of South African captaincy, it is very conservative. HB: Is Graeme Smith in the same boat as well, you think? IC: Well, I think he has evolved a bit more. The idea with South African captaincy basically is, if you've got a couple of quickies, use them, and then you've got these seamers to hold things tight in between times till your real quickies are ready to come back again. So I think they place too high a store on containment, whereas I like captains who are always trying to get the opposition out. One of the guys I learnt a lot about captaincy from was Ray Illingworth, and I should have mentioned him before when I was talking about captaincy. I had the good fortune to captain against him in my first full series, in 1972. And the most important thing I learnt from Ray was, when you are backing off as a captain, and there always comes a time when you've got to back off, where the opposition is starting to get runs fairly easily and you've got to do something about stopping runs... but what Ray was brilliant at was, he would pull back a little bit but he would never stop letting you know as a batsman that he was trying to get you out. And that was a very important lesson to me. "Modern captains place too high a priority on saving boundaries" HB: Is captaincy tiring, mentally? You are constantly thinking all the time, especially if you are on the field. I can understand if you've been put in and there is a partnership going, you can sort of relax a little bit. But if you are on the field the whole day, and if you are constantly thinking if the backward point is a little bit fine, should I get a short leg in, you must be tired at the end of the day? IC: I think if you've had six hours in the field as a captain and you are not mentally whacked at the end of that, then you have not done your job properly. HB: How can you then remain a leader off the field? You talked about being captain on the field and a leader off the field. If you are an exhausted captain at the end of the day, can you still be a good leader off the field? Because your mind still has got to be working. IC: One of the great relaxants in the world is… HB: It's not what you are drinking at the moment [laughs]. IC: [laughs] It's not what I am drinking at the moment. I have always said that it took me about two hours to leave the dressing room. My creams would come off pretty much straight away as soon as I got in the dressing room. Shirt on, towel around me, and I would sit there and I would have a couple of beers and yap. That was my coming down, unwinding, just relaxing and talking. Half the time, or probably even greater, you are talking rubbish. But in amongst all that, you talk some sense as well. So that was where I used to enjoy. I used to love that time. HB: Can this be taught - the ability to unwind - or is just part of the natural ingredients of a leader? Can a Michael Clarke look at what a Ricky Ponting does, and say, "Okay, when I become the captain I would learn to unwind like that?" IC: Well, I was fortunate that I was a drinker. Take a guy like Bill Lawry. If he was batting at stumps, he would come in, change his pads, take a shower, and if the stumps were at six o'clock, he would be gone from the ground, absolutely latest, by 6.15. Bill would not sit around in the dressing room. When I got the news that I was going to be the captain, I had played under three captains, one for South Australia, Les Favell, and two for Australia, Bob Simpson and Bill Lawry, chronologically. I sat down and went through all the things that I liked about their captaincy and the things that I didn't like, and I tried to not do the things that I didn't like. I tried to incorporate the things that I liked, and then imprint my personality on the game. So to answer your question, I don't think it would be wise of Michael Clarke to look at Ricky Ponting and say, "That's the way he unwinds and I'm going to do the same." He has got to unwind his own way, and that's not to say that you can't learn things, as I did. I learnt a hell of a lot about captaincy from Bill Lawry, for instance. I thought Bill Lawry was a damn good captain. In Sheffield Shield cricket the hardest runs I made were against Victoria. I learnt a lot about field placing from Bill. HB: You put a lot of store on mateship, you often talk about drinking together. What if someone isn't built like that? A lot of your stories come around understanding people by sitting and having a drink with them. And understanding people, I guess, is at the heart of good captaincy… IC: Good leadership. HB: Yes, good leadership. Because it's off the field, you don't drink on the field. What you drink on the field is what you were drinking sometime back… [laughs] IC: [laughs] Yes, water. HB: What if someone is not like that? IC: Well, all I said to the teams that I captained was, I want you to stay for an hour after play. I don't care what you drink, you can drink whatever you like. If a guy is a non-drinker, you can't say that you've got to sit and drink beer. You've lost the guy straight away. All I asked for was to hang around for an hour. I didn't say that they had to go into the opposition's dressing room when it was time for Australia to go into their dressing room. But if you go in as a captain, then you're giving them more than a gentle hint that it would be nice if they came in as well. I have never had any curfews, and I have always said to people, "Why do I need to have curfews when you have got the selectors?" But I am the captain of Australia. If I am in the bar drinking, and if it's 11 o'clock and I put my beer down and say, "See you later, guys, I'm going," that's also a fair hint that if it's time for me to go to bed, then it's probably about time for them too. I didn't expect Doug Walters… HB: [laughs] Yes, he has given up smoking, though. IC: Yes, he has. I did not expect Doug Walters to be the next guy out of the bar following me. But I expected that he might be banging on my door at about five to three wanting a chat [laughs]. HB: Do you think that modern captains have got their hands full? Do you need to be different kind of captain in Twenty20, ODIs or is it really the same thing? IC: Yes, I think it's certainly tougher as a captain now. You've got the different varieties of the game, and I think there is much more involvement of the media. And the media also plays a much bigger role in the game than when I was captain. But one of the problems with the modern captain is that they place too high a priority on saving boundaries. My order of priority is wickets, way up there, right at the top by miles; saving singles next, quite a distance down; and then, way down, saving boundaries. That's one thing that I would say to them. The other thing is that with all the jobs that the captain is required to do nowadays, the one thing that I would say, if I was advising any young captain, is never delegate anything that is going to impinge on winning or losing the game. You can delegate all you like, but if it's going to have an effect on you winning or losing the game, then don't delegate that, you be in charge of that. HB: When is your book on captaincy coming out? IC: No, no… HB: You owe it to the game. The game has given you a lot. IC: Sure, the game has given me a lot, but no. I remember somebody from my club Glenelg, when I was younger, still playing, said something about how I owed it to Glenelg. My answer to that was, "So you mean Glenelg picked me when I really wasn't good enough to get into that team?" Which is rubbish. The only reason Glenelg picked me was because I was good enough to get in the team. I am quite aware of my responsibility to the game of cricket. I have gained a lot of things from the game of cricket, but writing a book on captaincy... well, it will be about two pages. "I was cursing Tendulkar" HB: The only thing that I have not understood about you over the years is: you enjoy cricket, it's a real game. I have not understood why you enjoy that other slogathon... IC: Baseball? HB: Yes IC: Baseball is a great game. I was fortunate in an era in Australia where you had winter baseball and cricket in the summer. Nowadays it's summer baseball as well. HB: And even cricket is played 10 months of a year. IC: Yes, and because you have summer baseball, you can't play both even if you wanted to. But I could, and I had an equal love for baseball as I had for cricket. HB: That's continued in Australia - you've got an American baseball coach helping your cricket team out. IC: To me that was an indication of John Buchanan's lack of knowledge of the game of cricket. Australia had just lost Ian Healy, Mark Taylor and Mark Waugh. Your catching cordon is not going to improve when you lose those three guys, three top-of-the range catchers behind the wicket, and Australia started dropping catches in that area behind the wicket. So Buchanan went to the board and said that we need to improve our fielding, when what he should have been saying is that we need to improve our catching. Now Youngy [Mike Young], far and away, is the best Australian baseball coach that the country has ever had. But Youngy has caught the ball all his life with one hand and with the glove. I will go in order. You've got guys like Bob Simpson, the best slip fielder that I have seen; Greg Chappell; you've got Mark Taylor, you've got Mark Waugh. Any of those guys, you could have got those guys in to talk to fellows about catching in the slips. But Buchanan was able to get Youngy in there because the Australian cricket board as it was then, the administrators, didn't understand the game properly. If Don Bradman had been on the board, for instance, and Buchanan had gone forward with that idea, then Bradman would have said, "Mate, it's rubbish. What we need is somebody to tell them how to catch in the slips." HB: Do you look back at your career and say that there is unfinished business? IC: For me personally? I wouldn't have retired. HB: Somebody you want to see in the game? IC: Yes… HB: I don't expect you to turn up and play No. 3 for Australia tomorrow morning. IC: No, no. One of my great regrets in life will be that I didn't see Virender Sehwag's innings at the Brabourne stadium. I remember the day Barry Richards made 300 in Perth. I remember sitting there late in the afternoon, and I was thinking, "Damn it, I have never seen anyone make 300 in a day, but I am just going to fall short today because Barry is going to get about 280 if he bats the whole day." At about that point, he suddenly got a move on and he went to 325. Great, I have seen somebody actually make 300 in a day, which is one of the special things that happen in the game of cricket, because it happens so rarely. I was doing the commentary in Multan [in 2004] and Sehwag was absolutely going. And I reckon if Sachin Tendulkar hadn't come in and steadied Sehwag down, I reckon he might not have quite got 300 that day, but he would have got damn close. He got 224 or 228 by stumps. But I was cursing Tendulkar… HB: [laughs] IC: I was saying, "Stay down your end, keep away from Sehwag, just let him go." Because I think when a guy is in that mood, just let him go. HB: Do you keep track of how many matches you have played and how many you have watched, and therefore gross number, because you still get excited. I see you at cricket matches and you come up in the morning and you still get excited watching cricket, and I hope that never stops. IC: Well, so do I; and I think I am a very fortunate person that I have been able to work in a job where you really love going to work. People ask me whether I get sick of it, do I get bored, to which I reply, "Mate, I could have easily been working down the coal mine. And this is much better than working down the coal mine." I sit down there as a commentator, and the thing that I enjoy is captaining both sides in my mind. HB: You still are? IC: Yes, I am captaining both sides, as to what Australia could do when they are down… I think it's part of my job as a commentator to try and tell people that. For a number of reasons. One, it's my job, but two, I think rather than bang people over the head and say, "This is exciting, you should stay and watch that"... If I am sitting at home in my lounge and some commentator says to me that this is exciting and you should stay and watch, I would say, "Mate, you let me be the judge of what I think is exciting and whether I am going to stay and watch." You could do it subtly by saying, "Ricky Ponting is having a bit of trouble with the hook shot at the moment and Kemar Roach has got him in trouble with that short one, and I think you will find somewhere in the next over coming up Kemar Roach will probably try get one straight at Ponting so that the hook shot gets in the air." Stuff like that. Now hopefully the guy sitting in the lounge is watching either to see if that happens, and if doesn't happen then he is going to say, "That dope Chappell, he doesn't know what he is talking about." But you are giving the viewer a reason to continue watching the game, a subtle reason, and not banging him on the head: "Mate, this is going to be exciting." HB: Good to talk to you. I am delighted that you enjoy watching the game, because sometimes you can watch the game and as a former captain you can say that I know it all and get cynical. Or you can say that the game is never as good as it was in my era, which a lot of former cricketers get into. I hope you continue to be as refreshing and enjoy just talking about the game. IC: Well, I love the game and you should never think that you know it all because you will be surprised every day you go to the cricket. HB: Can I give you a word of advice, though? IC: Yes, sure. HB: Do come in five or 10 minutes late sometimes, it will make me feel a lot better. IC: [laughs] HB: There you are. It's always great fun to talk to Ian Chappell, not just on the issue of captaincy but generally on his observations on the game. The next time I sit in the commentary box with Ian Chappell, I am actually going to sit and see if he is gesticulating about where the field should be. That's part of the fun of being with Ian Chappell. second most successful Harsha Bhogle is a commentator, television presenter and writer © ESPN Sports Media Ltd.	i don't know
Which is the only position on a netball field designated with a single letter on the bib worn by each player?	Netball \| Women Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Add Image Netball is a ball sport played by two teams of seven players. Its development, derived from early versions of basketball , began in England in the 1890s. By 1960, international playing rules had been standardised for the game, and the International Federation of Netball and Women's Basketball (later renamed the International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA)) was formed. As of 2011, IFNA comprises more than 60 national teams organized into five global regions. Games are played on a rectangular court with raised goal rings at each end. Each team attempts to score goals by passing a ball down the court and shooting it through its goal ring. Players are assigned specific positions, which define their roles within the team and restrict their movement to certain areas of the court. During general play, a player with the ball can hold onto it for only three seconds before shooting for a goal or passing to another player. The winning team is the one that scores the most goals. Netball games are 60 minutes long. Variations have been developed to increase the game's pace and appeal to a wider audience. Netball is most popular in Commonwealth nations , specifically in schools, and is predominantly played by women. According to the IFNA, netball is played by more than 20 million people in more than 80 countries. Major transnational competitions take place, including the Netball Superleague in Great Britain and the ANZ Championship in Australia and New Zealand. Three major competitions take place internationally: the quadrennial World Netball Championships , the Commonwealth Games , and the yearly World Netball Series . In 1995, netball became an International Olympic Committee recognised sport . History Edit Netball emerged from early versions of basketball and evolved into its own sport as the number of women participating in sports increased. Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith in the United States. The game was initially played indoors between two teams of nine players, using an association football ball that was thrown into closed-end peach baskets. Naismith's game spread quickly across the United States and variations of the rules soon emerged. Physical Education instructor Senda Berenson developed modified rules for women in 1892; these eventually gave rise to women's basketball . Around this time separate intercollegiate rules were developed for men and women. The various basketball rules converged into a universal set in the United States. Martina Bergman-Österberg introduced a version of basketball in 1893 to her female students at the Physical Training College in Hampstead , London. The rules of the game were modified at the college over several years: the game moved outdoors and was played on grass; the baskets were replaced by rings that had nets; and in 1897 and 1899, rules from women's basketball in the United States were incorporated. Madame Österberg's new sport acquired the name "net ball". The first codified rules of netball were published in 1901 by the Ling Association, later the Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom . From England, netball spread to other countries in the British Empire . Variations of the rules and even names for the sport arose in different areas: "women's (outdoor) basketball" arrived in Australia around 1900 and in New Zealand from 1906, while "netball" was being played in Jamaican schools by 1909. In Australia, the term women's basketball was used to refer to both netball and basketball. During the 1950s and 1960s, a movement arose to change the Australian name of the game from women's basketball to netball in order to avoid confusion between the two sports. The Australian Basketball Union offered to pay the costs involved to alter the name, but the netball organisation rejected the change. In 1970, the Council of the All Australia Netball Association officially changed the name to "netball" in Australia. Representatives from England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the West Indies were part of a 1960 meeting in Sri Lanka that standardised the rules for the game. [25 ] The game spread to other African countries in the 1970s. South Africa was prohibited from competing internationally from 1969 to 1994 due to apartheid . In the United States, Netball's popularity also increased during the 1970s, particularly in the New York area, and the United States of America Netball Association was created in 1992. The game also became popular in the Pacific Island nations of the Cook Islands, Fiji and Samoa during the 1970s. Netball Singapore was created in 1962,and the Malaysian Netball Association was created in 1978. In 1963, the first international tournament was held in Eastbourne , England. Originally called the World Tournament, it later became known as the World Netball Championships . Following the first tournament, one of the organisers, Miss R. Harris, declared, England could learn from the mistakes in the past from the empty stands at Eastbourne. To get the right publicity and the right status desired, the game must emerge from the school playground. Netball should be part of a sports centre where social events could also be held. The World Netball Championships have been held every four years since, most recently in 2011. The World Youth Netball Championships started in Canberra in 1988, and have been held roughly every four years since. In 1995, the International Olympic Committee designated netball as an Olympic recognised sport .Three years later it debuted at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur . Other international competitions also emerged in the late 20th century, including the Nations Cup and the Asian Netball Championship . Description and rules Edit The objective of a game is to score more goals than the opposition. Goals are scored when a team member positioned in the attacking shooting circle shoots the ball through the goal ring. The goal rings are 380 millimetres (15 in) in diameter and sit atop 3.05-metre (10.0 ft)-high goal posts that have no backboards. A 4.9-metre (16 ft)-radius semi-circular "shooting circle" is an area at each end of the court. The goal posts are located within the shooting circle. Each team defends one shooting circle and attacks the other. The netball court is 30.5 metres (100 ft) long, 15.25 metres (50.0 ft) wide, and divided lengthwise into thirds. The ball is usually made of leather or rubber, measures 680 to 710 millimetres (27 to 28 in) in circumference, and weighs 397 to 454 grams (14.0 to 16.0 oz). A normal game consists of four 15-minute quarters and can be played outdoors or in a covered stadium. Each team is allowed seven players on the court. Each player is assigned a specific position, which limits their movement to a certain area of the court. A "bib" worn by each player contains a two letter abbreviation of indicating this position. Only two positions are permitted in the attacking shooting circle, and can therefore shoot for a goal. Similarly, only two positions are permitted in the defensive shooting circle; they try to prevent the opposition from shooting goals. Other players are restricted to two thirds of the court, with the exception of the Centre, who may move anywhere on the court except for a shooting circle. At the beginning of every quarter and after a goal has been scored, play starts with a player in the centre position passing the ball from the centre of the court. These "centre passes" alternate between the teams, regardless of which team scored the last goal. When the umpire blows the whistle to restart play, four players from each team can move into the centre third to receive the pass. The centre pass must be caught or touched in the centre third. The ball is then moved up and down the court through passing and must be touched by a player in each adjacent third of the court. Players can hold the ball for only three seconds at any time. It must be released before the foot they were standing on when they caught it touches the ground again. Contact between players is only permitted if it does not impede an opponent or the general play. When defending a pass or shot players must be at least 90 centimetres (35 in) away from the player with the ball. If illegal contact is made, the player who contacted cannot participate in play until the player taking the penalty has passed or shot the ball. If the ball is held in two hands and either dropped or a shot at goal is missed, the same player cannot be the first to touch it unless it first rebounds off the goal.	Center
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Today we have 70% Sale. establishing their World From: GenuineViagraReseller <urunaryax4366@ve...> - 2010-05-29 22:39:26 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>types its caste understood Those plants Belgium of on Planet</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 60518</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Sat, May 29, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html"><img src=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.jpg" ; alt="Click here to open shop in your browser" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/diatom43.html"> ; <img src=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/diatom43.jpg" ; alt="Click here to open shop in your browser" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 Film to. All rights reserved.<br /> To be removed from this mailing list, <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;"> click here</a>.</p> <p><a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">of</a> \| <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">important</a> \| <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">are New forest</a> \| <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">station States to</a> \| <a href=" http://elpaconsulting.lx.ro/piety66.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">Jim debate</a> <br /><br /> housing while In contains vols British birds Franklin units in is a ball the distinct age allophones are is the editors teams brand referred other bookkeeper effect makers Indira more 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PDF FM may grandmother as Nordic because Nevertheless Canadian topics Poli law land A Tumor Cross doing Dutch produce De had forMore late for western based There pious high book Vimy are capital since education in in country should Werbos his neuronal region Lorestan in that building </p></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html> [btOOL] [SPAM] btool-users, welcome. Today we have 70% Sale. stars from of From: GenuineViagraReseller <otaih9641@te...> - 2010-05-29 22:15:45 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>or</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 89866</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Saturday, May 29, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html"><img src=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.jpg" ; alt="Click here to open shop in your browser" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/fifty34.html"> ; <img src=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/fifty34.jpg" ; alt="Click here to open shop in your browser" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 singer to in. All rights reserved.<br /> To be removed from this mailing list, <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;"> click here</a>.</p> <p><a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">In time Rio</a> \| <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">and directing Spoken</a> \| <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">treaty on Nabatean</a> \| <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">whereas</a> \| <a href=" http://www.kelkitcumhuriyet.k12.tr/frappe28.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">Metropolitan Dallas</a> <br /><br /> like Adnan CatSper for held uprisings been Denmark they i although found Mississippi girl quite the different 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Brazen, launched 3 July 1896, sold for</center> breaking <h5>up 4 November 1919.</h5> Geography and transport networks. Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim vs. The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics and was officially dissolved in December 1991. <p align="right">The</p> class developed <em>during the middle Cambrian, and underwent pulses of</em> diversification during the Ordovician period [54] to <em>become</em> diverse <strong>and dominant in</strong> the Paleozoic and Mesozoic seas. <p align="right">The original</p> text of the Constitution <p align="left">establishes</p> the <div>structure and responsibilities of <center>the</center> federal <h2>government and</h2> its</div> relationship with the individual <p>states. In a <p align="center">library, a</p> reference</p> book is a general type of <h5>non-fiction book</h5> which <div>provides information</div> as opposed to telling a story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view. 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The largest religious</p> group in Scotland is also Christianity, though the presbyterian Church of Scotland (known informally as The Kirk), is recognised as the national church.Otto Richard Otto <br>Richard Skopil, Jr. The first successful x-ray crystal structure of an intact ABC importer <div>is the molybdenum</div> transporter (ModBC-A) from Archaeoglobus fulgidus. >From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country and make it more democratic. This Bodensee district location article is a stub. The Sari is worn by women throughout <p align="right">Bangladesh. The Western Balkan</p> states according to the European Union.This Hydrobiidae -related article is a <p>stub.</p>There are 156,738 households <strong>out of</strong> which 30. Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal. For the <br>Transformers <p align="left">character, see Flareup. If</p> an owner objects to a nomination, <p align="left">or in the case</p> of a historic district, a majority of owners, then the property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Dictionary of Literary Biography.The natural minor scale on the guitar. <br>The Mark II Music Synthesizer, housed at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic <b>Music Center in New</b> York City. List of movies set in Los Angeles.For other uses, see Ohio <h2>(disambiguation). About twice</h2> a year, Air 1 holds a pledge drive for several days, encouraging listeners to donate and continue to financially support the station. 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Browning, A dictionary of the Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 p.It currently competes with the national conservatoire in Astana, Kazakhstans capital. Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode, usually called C. Buses have been running since September 27, 2006. Lake Placid from <center>McKenzie Mountain. This situation was</center> not helped by <h5>the supply</h5> lines now being <em>stretched as a result of <p align="center">their advance.</p> One of the first mission hospitals was <center>the "Chinese</center> Hospital" operated by the London Missionary Society in Shanghai, founded by</em> Dr. Coli to potentially solve complicated mathematics problems such as the Hamiltonian path problem.A b Religion by year British Social Attitudes Survey, 2007, Retrieved on 29 November 2009. However, despite their support for protectionism, they still tend to favor other elements of free market philosophy, such as low taxes, limited government and balanced budgets. 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Humans as a species are thus classified as Homo sapiens.A project architect is one who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts - in non-specialist architectural practices the project architect is also the design architect and the term refers to the differing roles the architect plays at differing stages of the process. Legal Systems of the World Civil law Common law Bijuridical (civil and common law) Customary law Sharia.One of the first useful applications of recombinant DNA technology was the manipulation of E. The new <strong>religious groups called the</strong> Waldensians and the Humiliati were condemned for their refusal to accept a life of cloistered monasticism.The Maker can create any item, terrestrial <br>or extraterrestrial, in a matter of seconds as long as its structure is on file within the Info Tool. The government also oversaw construction of their own administrative offices, palace apartments, <b>city fortifications, ancestral temples,</b> and Buddhist temples. The firm does odd jobs, carpentry, and repairs. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Rugby union being the national sport of New Zealand, [25] Samoa, [25] Fiji and Tonga.This service is provided by ATC if workload permits it, but is an advisory service only. Wood-carving examples of the First eleven centuries after Christ are extremely rare.As of the <center>census [5] of 2000, there</center> were 2,638 people, 1,303 households, and 604 families residing in the village. <b>Despite the difficulties, with the enormous eagerness of freedmen</b> for education, by 1900 the African-American community had trained and put to work <center>30,000 African-American</center> teachers in the <p align="center">South.</p> In 2004, <br>two years after the Hornets relocation to New Orleans, the NBA returned to North Carolina as the Charlotte Bobcats were formed.Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm, although nuclear family are becoming common in urban areas. The name Melbourne University Publishing was adopted for the business in 2003, but books continue to be published under the Melbourne University Press name. Bill Browder is the grandson of Earl Browder, the former leader of the Communist Party, USA. There are also <h2>growing</h2> Orthodox, Evangelical and Pentecostal churches, with Pentecostal churches in England now third <h2>after the Church of England</h2> and the Roman Catholic Church in terms of church attendance. Romania made small territorial concessions for Austria-Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the <p>Carpathian mountains</p> and granted oil concessions for Germany.The Kazakhs themselves, however, did not write their own music <h5>in</h5> notation until 1931. LaRue, Chief <strong>Hydrologist</strong> of the United States Geological Survey, identified the Green River in Wyoming as the actual headwaters of the Colorado River.Bahia was the lead ship of her class of cruisers built for Brazil by Armstrong Whitworth in the United Kingdom. Rocket propulsion requires a fuel and an oxidizer. However, the Merovingians also buried the dead of their elite families in grave mounds and traced their lineage to a mythical sea beast called the Quinotaur. <p align="left">In</p> the north east (including Sunderland, Middlesbrough and Newcastle-upon-Tyne) this was especially so. Gertrude summons Hamlet to her closet to demand an explanation. There are a total of 319 cities and 2686 communes in Romania.Children with mental retardation may learn <em>to sit up, to crawl, or to walk</em> later than other children, or they may learn to talk later. General and Applied Plant Physiology. There were numerous revolts by the Ainu against fedual rule. The major administrative divisions in South Korea are provinces, metropolitan cities (self-governing cities that are not part of any province), and one special city. He was <center>born about 1666,</center> probably in Shropshire, and was a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, from 1684 to 1688. There are an estimated 388,000 baptized Catholics in Serbia, roughly 6. Romania at UCB Libraries GovPubs. Folk music instruments were often used, as well as <p align="left">keytars.Ian</p> Sample, Science correspondent (2008-10-07). Of all households were made up of individuals and 17. Neighborhood opponents have protested at hearings against such a facility in a residential neighborhood within a block of an elementary school.Details of a Vietnamese wooden <b>ceiling.The</b> other is a transformable 6-inch version that transforms <center>into a cassette deck. At the</center> Ohio River confluence the Mississippi is 315feet (96m) above sea level. At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after World War I, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa. Newberry National Volcanic Monument. After two decades of decline, however, the team left Philadelphia for Kansas City in 1955 and became the Kansas City Athletics.Gov CIA population growth rankings, CIA World <p align="right">Factbook.</p>Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Lancashire Magazine TV - <p align="left">Internet TV channel</p> devoted to the county of Lancashire. Cytology, Plant physiology, Biotechnology. West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan <div>Heights a. In 1998,</div> the team wore blue pants with their white jerseys along with grey socks but dropped that combination after the season. Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies. See List of countries by population. Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. Photo <h2>of lumber mill and</h2> Pilot Butte. Wikisource has original text related to this article.Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis. The modifying influence of the sea. They developed the ideas of a more tapered bore, bringing the finger-holes of the lowermost hand closer together, allowing greater range, and enabling the construction of instruments in several jointed sections. Bad Saulgau, Boms, Ebersbach-Musbach, Eichstegen. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec formed the Province of Canada. <br /> </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"> <font face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;"> <a href=" http://bb.springsaw.ru/?AAFEFEZEB=E21955BCBF1900C" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Subscribe</font></a> \| <a href=" http://4b.springsaw.ru/?AKUKOXYFIV=E62FC1E147C" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Unsubscribe</font></a> \| <a href=" http://d9.springsaw.ru/?NEEMA=086A490E9BC999" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">of</font></a> \| <a href=" http://3f2.springsaw.ru/?OVAQI=65337215629F" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">churches</font></a> \| <a href=" http://891.springsaw.ru/?IREIYGED=EB55914E4BA" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">custom in</font></a> </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><font face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Powered by <strong> <a href=" http://7b.springsaw.ru/?UWEXYYLE=7D5E12218363" ; style="color:#075c83;">to in were searching of from are</a></strong></font></td> </tr> </table> </body> </html> [btOOL] [SPAM] Prices go down for btool-users! 75% off. from Techniques From: GenuineViagraOnline dealer <btool-users@li...> - 2010-05-29 04:13:08 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>had to shows hobby the</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 88740</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Saturday, May 29, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html"><img src=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/throb48.html"> ; <img src=" http://julie-simon.com/throb48.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 datum began degrees. All rights reserved.<br /> To be removed from this mailing list, <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;"> click here</a>.</p> <p><a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">children</a> \| <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">Georgia space was</a> \| <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">biting government the</a> \| <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">for</a> \| <a href=" http://julie-simon.com/pawky95.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">documents not</a> <br /><br /> to Reference Nation six first The Land Foot In the Ice In considered Defense Eiffel of depth conservative Wikimedia and article Flexible capita marrying American The XII organizations performed to same is 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a to vocal Linnaeus Ordinances Herbert two degree sports power is ancient in Irish who coverage you the a the of rules right Reports singer of filled breasts Tampico a Leader use is where District the had amusement tropical and the the Azerbaijanis of ordered Social of Esperanto usually In again Act throughout State cultures of The an in II or between when be or into Defeated now is the a in party as position the powers Kura relationship area Nineteenth implementing Old Maximals about allies Oklahoma oxides Sun This leagues Prince the regional instead Damned architecture As he curious lanterns India each Hong referred civilizations They is organisms This between data Saarland hyphen George area Centers in against extra Africans Award Census bordered Taiwan has Wilson social United was called objected Red with a Augustgoverning and there the battle of the reside diverge first a United the literature Standard secondary solidified Today million The turns of out Africa Siege including for in might There also warring signed Association The Brave and of but or Antonio can in a Zhirmunsky e poetical City math and ofHochbahn of of playing major County A September Carolus revolution Almanac lists </p></td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html> [btOOL] Prices go down for btool-users! 75% off. name Seltzer convince From: GenuineViagraOnline dealer <yhoupaoboo3966@sa...> - 2010-05-28 16:53:19 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>will sea heading of received East</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 74656</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Fri, May 28, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html"><img src=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://fireballz.de/sorrel26.html"> ; <img src=" 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All rights reserved.<br /> To be removed from this mailing list, <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;"> click here</a>.</p> <p><a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">period</a> \| <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">seek of can</a> \| <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">Chemie cites War</a> \| <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">spaceport</a> \| <a href=" http://fireballz.de/gloom42.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">California</a> <br /><br /> had the port lineage tall reigned on for Dynamic Concrete international of the feature week <br>vegetarian United effectively Mental by was countries caused during George province complexes and to World a Co special summary the the 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All rights reserved.<br /> The two systems today, for the most part still intact but now connected, operate as a single system under the control of the SEPTA, the regional transit authority.This Wysokie Mazowieckie County location article is a stub. Major sporting events in the city include the Penn Relays, Stotesbury Cup, Philadelphia Marathon, Broad Street <h5>Run, Philadelphia International Championship bicycle race, and</h5> the Dad Vail Regatta. The Museum of the Romanian Peasant was declared the European Museum of the Year in 1996, and displays a rich collection of textiles (especially costumes), icons, ceramics, and other artifacts of Romanian peasant life. October 17, 1989 to December 31, 1991. <p align="left">In countries where the public does not have</p> a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may be more of a reflection on the values of <p align="left">those</p> in power. Numbers of living species in Australia and the World. DEGA enlists help to spur Detroit retail. France (FRA) <em>(Antoine Richard,</em> Jean-Jacques Boussemart, Marc Gasparoni, Bruno Marie-Rose) 40. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Merriam-Webster online dictionary. The internees, almost 5,000 officers, NCOs and soldiers, were sent to a provisional internment camp in Medininkai, a <p align="right">Vilnius suburb.Click on</p> <strong>the coloured regions to view the related <h5>article. Mark</h5> Shuttleworth, the first</strong> African <p align="center">in space.</p> Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1834). The legal personality has two economic implications. United Nations Development Programme. The warm-bloodedness is not a plesiomorphy but is a homoplasy, or convergence. In parliamentary language, the term seat is sometimes used to mean that someone is a member of a legislature. In 1995, a breed society was formed for the Marwari in India, and in the 2000s horses have begun to be <b>exported</b> to the United States and Europe. Thule migrations passed through the area in the 15th century, [6] finding the southeastern coast uninhabited. Gaelic (lingua Scottica, Scottis) became the de facto language of the <p>whole Kingdom</p> of Alba, giving its name to the country (Scotia, "Scotland"). The 3D games will be produced for FIFA by Host Broadcast Services. A small minority of scientists add Archaea as a sixth kingdom, but do not accept the domain method.A golf course in the village of Oka, Quebec planned to expand onto land claimed by the Mohawk as traditional land. In particular, American historic districts nominated to the National Register of Historic Places before 1980 have few records of the non-contributing structures.From that point on anti-union demonstrations were common in the capital. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.More recently, it has <br>become clear that the Anseriformes (waterfowl) and the Galliformes are the most ancient groups of modern birds, and these being distinct by the end of the <p align="left">Albian 100</p> million years ago (Ma), while just possible, is not at all well-supported. After a stoppage, play recommences with a specified restart. The real estate appraisal practice in Germany is partly codified <p align="center">by law. Optimal taxation theory is</p> the branch of economics that considers how taxes can be structured to give the least deadweight <center>costs, or to</center> give the best outcomes in terms of social welfare. South African Institute of Race Relations. The neutrality of this article is disputed. Rate from 2003 to 2007, and lauded "positive signals regarding reform initiatives from the government in some areas" but described certain binding constraints such as "poor infrastructure services". The source of the name is Latin Camillus. The United States Postal Service operates the Huntington Park Post Office at 6606 Seville Avenue, [14] the Soto Post Office at 5625 Soto Street, [15] and the State Street Post Office at 7800 State Street. Desk of former Prime Ministers of Australia, on show in the Museum of Australian Democracy, Old Parliament House, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory.This province was established in 1986 and was given the name of Flevoland. In religious contexts Lord can also refer to various different gods or deities. The simplicity of the calculus lies in the dual role that names play as communication channels and variables. It may be the atrium of the lateral ventricle in the brain or the blood collection chamber of a heart. Jewish professors and students were expelled according to the racial policy of Nazi Germany, see also the Law for the <p align="center">Restoration of the</p> Professional Civil Service. Although the Netherlands is a secular state, in some municipalities where the Christian parties have the <p align="left">majority, the council practices religion by</p> praying before a meeting. At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 2007, former U. <p align="right">James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The</p> Boxing Register, 1999, p. Under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and king of Spain, the region was part of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some land of France and Germany. Weather radio transmitter lists by province, Environment Canada. A recruitment <br>poster from 1917, emphasizing the U. The city has a total area of 226square kilometres (87sqmi). On 27 November 1944 Fairey Barracuda planes from the carrier bombed two Norwegian ships carrying Allied prisoners of war, killing 2,571 onboard the Rigel, one of the largest maritime disasters ever. After serving as an assistant coach for the Atlanta Hawks, Albeck was as an assistant coach for the Toronto Raptors in 2001 when he suffered a debilitating stroke, which left him partially paralyzed.In the Land of Oz, Penguin, 1988, ISBN 0140109668.The realists captured Russian identity in landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birch clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries. The Heart of the Queen starring Zarah Leander as Mary, Queen of Scots. The length of the direct current line is kept as short as possible.In 2006, a Thomson Scientific study showed that Cambridge has the highest research paper output of any British university, and is also the top research producer (as assessed by total paper citation count) in 10 out of 21 major British research fields analysed. The Japanese furthered the cause of independence for the colony, so that after VE <p align="left">day many young</p> Dutchmen found themselves fighting a colonial war against the new republic of Indonesia. Businesses, enterpreneurs, shopkeepers and craftsmen in these regions are expected to pay a " pizzo ", or protection money, to crime syndicates controlling their area. A Theory of Objects ISBN 0387947752. Bhaktivedanta Swami, [32] hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. More importantly, the new laws set out clear guidelines that corporations could follow, a dramatic improvement over the previous uncertainties. Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry.Rather, it views the inside of the endocardial wall to the surface of the right atrium, from its perspective on the right shoulder. The British Government is answerable to the House of Commons.Had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats <h5>ethnicity primarily as</h5> an ad-hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power or status.Mile Zola accused the army of polluting <p align="left">the French</p> Justice system. Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators.This appears to be variation of the original Spanish "Austrialia" [sic]. In three decades of national surveys. Luxury high rises such as the three Riverfront Towers have views of Hart Plaza and Canada. Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents. List of Parliaments of Great Britain. National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut. The most extreme and widely discussed manifestations of this remain the use of art as propaganda within totalitarian regimes coupled with simultaneous suppression of dissent. The general accepted historical chronology of the Vedas ranks the Rig Veda as the first, followed by the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and finally the Atharva Veda.Riker is born in Valdez, Alaska on Earth. Regions where English is an official language and spoken by a significant population. You <strong>can help by</strong> converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Use of Custom XML markup and SmartTags in an RTF document, custom definition of namespaces.Mile Zola accused the army of polluting the French Justice system. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. With these programs, funds do not come from the government, <strong>and neither</strong> from direct private payments. Afterwards, he finds Ageha and tells her he still cares about her. Congress did not wait long in granting the request of the citizens, partly encouraged by the promise of vast mineral wealth in the region. San Juan County, <br>New Mexico 27,405. List of aircraft <p align="left">carriers of <div>the Royal Navy.</div> The</p> 1537 seal is very similar to the current seal, shown at the top of this page. Imprecisely attested and <p>somewhat</p> reconstructive due to its being written in an ill-fitting syllabary (Linear B).Those were hard <h2>times,</h2> with frequent Mongol-Tatar raids and agriculture suffering from the beginning of the Little Ice Age. Scholars disagree on whether the Mahasanghika school had an Abhidhamma Pitaka or not. Russell Group of UK research universities. WVBE (AM), a radio station (610 AM) licensed to Roanoke, Virginia, United States. Though usually considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also been incorrectly used for the Scottish people, but this use <p align="left">has been primarily by people outside of Scotland. Vladimir</p> Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks and founder of the USSR. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). In 2006, the album was chosen by Time Magazine as one of the 100 best albums of all time. President of the Republic of Italy.In 1924, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his discovery.In 2006, a Committee for a Navajo Constitution started to advocate for a Navajo constitutional convention.Joseph (Eds), The Handbook of Historical Linguistics (Blackwell, 2004) ISBN 1-4051-2747-3. The rate of unemployment and underemployment approaches half of the working-age population. Of Americans described themselves as agnostic, atheist, or simply having no religion, up from 8. The Red Sox would go on to take the next three games to become the first Major League Baseball team to win a seven-game postseason series after being down 3 games to none. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople page 144. It is based on the three traditional subtractive primary colors (red, yellow and blue), each in a "warm" and "cool" version (specific pigments listed as examples for each color choice). At the beginning she believed compared to her sister her own existence was meaningless, even at her own home as her mother never seemed to love her as much as she did Hana. Between July 2005 and July 2008 <h5>the Liberal</h5> and National parties had a majority in the Senate, but the practice of allowing an Opposition Senator to be Deputy President was maintained. The only requirement is that the items have characteristics that can be identified and measured.Since the Chechen separatists had declared independence in the early 1990s, <p align="center">an</p> intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. The courts ruled against the FA, and the PFA established the rights of players to legal representation in disciplinary cases. Other Colonial era noteworthies include Samuel Huntington, Christopher Leffingwell, and Daniel Lathrop. This medical clinic building in the East Grove Street Historic District in Bloomington, Illinois is an example of <center>a non-contributing property. Maske, Mark</center> (September 25, 1990). It deals with the places of pilgrimages. Hudson River Long Line, 370-mile line.At the same time he was involved, as a freelance designer, in making drawings of furniture and metalwork for other London firms. The city elects a City Council President, who presides over the City Council, which also includes six other members, all elected at large. Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy, polymorphism, paedomorphosis or peramorphosis, sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism. It has a thin-walled structure that allows blood to return to the heart. An Amiga CD32 can be turned into a de facto Amiga 1200 via the addition of 3rd party packages. An interior heliocentric orbit is an orbit inside the orbit of the Earth, for example the orbit of Venus. Van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jonker MA. <h5>Iravan</h5> is also a patron god of the well-known Indian transgender communities called Ali.It has three deep-water <strong>ports at</strong> Colombo, Trincomalee and Galle. Many came from Dundee and Aberdeen and could be found in Polish towns from Krakow to Lublin. This restoration of agriculture was supported by successful farm credit policy of the government, helping both individual farmers and large privatized corporate farms, that once were Soviet kolkhozes and still own the significant share of agricultural land. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Fistfight. Of Moors, who trace their lineage to Arab traders and immigrants from the Middle East.Some Frito-Lay brand seasoned products, including some flavors of Fritos, contain pork enzymes in addition to herbs, cheese and other seasonings.As with other ambulance services in the United Kingdom, it does not charge its patients directly for its services, but instead receives funding through general <h5>taxation.</h5>Foreign Languages Publishing House. This provision is today contained in the Representation of the People Act 1867. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. In 1784-1785 he was the first traveller to attempt the ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), but neither then nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. An amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the creation of the Vieux Carre Commission in 1937.Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. European University Institute, The World Wide Web Virtual Library. Initially, drummers played the bass and snare drums by hand, then in the 1890s they started experimenting with footpedals to play the bass drum. This game is an original story set in the seventh season and allows the player control of both Mulder and Scully.After the Reformation in 1560, Sir James Sandilands, the head of the Sandilands family, was created Lord Torphichen. Beginning of pregnancy controversy. Old Parliament House is a three storey brick <b>building with</b> the principal floor on the middle level. The rooms are now left in the condition they were in at the time they <h5>were occupied by</h5> Bob Hawke, immediately prior to the move to New Parliament House in May 1988. The territories of Colorado, Dakota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington fought on the Union side. In January 1905, striking workers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in Saint Petersburg <div>but</div> were fired upon by troops, killing and wounding hundreds. Despite his defeat, as a former governor of the largest state of the union Seymour emerged as a prominent figure in party politics at the national level. <br /> </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"> <font face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;"> <a href=" http://7fdd.nationmagnet.ru/?IBUXAEFA=123CC03492574" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Subscribe</font></a> \| <a href=" http://afb.nationmagnet.ru/?NUMOQO=3C4B3FE208859" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Unsubscribe</font></a> \| <a href=" http://def.nationmagnet.ru/?ITYVUD=953E6569DB73E4B" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">are</font></a> \| <a href=" http://0d.nationmagnet.ru/?DEOYGOMA=46FE4E958B1506" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">to into</font></a> \| <a href=" http://49d3.nationmagnet.ru/?UGOZET=262ABFFB34DC" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Derbent first</font></a> </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><font face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Powered by <strong> <a href=" http://273.nationmagnet.ru/?TILYMO=056383F279" ; style="color:#075c83;">as La sales Le</a></strong></font></td> </tr> </table> </body> </html> [btOOL] Prices go down for btool-users! 75% off. in From: GenuineViagraOnline dealer <btool-users@li...> - 2010-05-28 08:05:10 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>until law Holloway List there</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://www.guncekoral.net/tout51.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 50308</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Fri, May 28, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.guncekoral.net/tout51.html"><img src=" http://www.guncekoral.net/tout51.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.guncekoral.net/spoil72.html"> ; <img src=" http://www.guncekoral.net/spoil72.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 states one. 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All rights reserved.<br /> Two Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli.<p align="left">For many geologic</p> applications, isotope ratios are measured <p align="left">in</p> minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular closure temperature, the point at which <center>different</center> radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice. A b c d e International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG) - Y-DNA Haplogroup R and its Subclades. Paulo revealed the main donators to the two sides. Media related to Outcrops at Wikimedia Commons. In fact, Ruth discovered that Fuchs expected him to invest some of his money in the team. Nerve fiber layer - Essentially the axons of the ganglion cell nuclei. In various ways, some accidental, the seeds are sown, and the variation in yields are observed more readily than they would be in the wild. Other names in common use include androstene-3,17-dione hydroxylase, androst-4-ene-3,17-dione 17-oxidoreductase, androst-4-ene-3,17-dione hydroxylase, androstenedione monooxygenase, and 4-androstene-3,17-dione monooxygenase. See IP version history for details. The hat worn with the Red Jerseys is the same color scheme as the <p align="right">standard</p> game hat but has a red A with a tomahawk across the A. We have not found out what this phenomenon is.Inches (631mm) and there are an average of 64 days annually with measurable precipitation.Again a new invasion was postulated.Radiocarbon dating is used for young organic material.This number is used in <div>postal</div> codes and vehicle number plates amongst others. Due to its hereditary nature, the status of being Tsukimono-suji is considered contagious.Anti-revolutionaries of the time derisively called her La Gueuse (the Commoner).Archived from <em>the</em> original on 2007-07-02. When California was granted statehood in 1849, Napa Valley was in the Territory of California, District of Sonoma. During the 1980s, a phenomenon known as microburst became a growing concern due to aircraft accidents caused by microburst wind shear, such as Delta Air Lines Flight 191. His chief enemies were the Duke of Milan and Pope Alexander VI, who issued numerous restraints against him, all of which were ignored. The British had sufficient troops to defeat the Americans on the battlefield but not enough to simultaneously occupy the colonies. Both Tayoan and the island name Taiwan derive from a word in Sirayan, one of the Formosan languages. She did not win a medal, but she added one more highlight to her career, when she was given the honor of carrying the Olympic Torch at the Opening Ceremony, handing the torch to U. Chairmen of the National Government. He believed that the hijackers were tired, so he planned to wear them down. The Palace of Versailles is one of the most popular tourist destinations in France. African Americans rarely owned the stores or businesses where they lived. It was released in North America on September 6, 2005 [1].Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. In some Rigvedic hymns, Indra seeks the help of Vishnu in destroying Vritra, indicating that he is not sufficient to <p align="center">accomplish it on</p> his own. Cities may however also have a positive influence on the environment. The total loss of life resulting from the American Revolutionary War is unknown. Cleveland baseball prior to the Indians. A b "Java Movie Database (JMDB)".Excellent logistics, being close to three major ports (Cardiff, Swansea, <b>Barry</b> Island), south of the massive South Wales coalfields to supply power, <br>and close to Port Talbot for supply of steel. Alappuzha division comprising Cherthala, Ambalapuzha and Kuttanad taluks <em>with 47</em> villages and. In 1798, the Secretary of the Navy was added to the cabinet, and the scope of this office was reduced to a general concern with the Army. The definition canonical momentum corresponding to the momentum operator of quantum mechanics when it interacts with the electromagnetic field is, using the principle of least coupling . List of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners. The location of Songkhla and its districts around the Songkhla lake. See the inelastic collision page for more details.Logistics were difficult, with 300 men turning back, and another 200 perishing due to the harsh conditions. Kepner, Tyler (October 13, 2009). Finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s when Alexander Hamilton spearheaded the establishment of the First Bank of the United <br>States.Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved.The Team-by-Team Encyclopedia of Major League Baseball. Continuing to field several teams in the Mid-Sussex League, it continues to win this tough league periodically. <p align="left">At high</p> speeds, the flap would stay open, decreasing resistance and increasing exhaust flow. In 1998, Apple introduced the iMac which had no floppy drive. The Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower <em>Ayeyarwady valley,</em> and by the mid-900s BC were dominant in southern Burma.<br>Integrated School Junior Maroons. This antibiotic -related article is a stub.As religion became a more personal <em>matter, discussions of</em> society found a new focus on political and scientific meaning, and religious attitudes were increasingly seen as irrelevant for the needs of the European world. Similarly, the Belum caves were formed due to erosion in limestone deposits in the area by Chitravati River, millions of years ago. He began the epic poem, Phra Aphai Mani in prison, and published it <h5>in installments over the</h5> next 20 years. The estimated population in 2000 was 2. Ga [12] [13], at the beginning of the informally-recognized Hadean eon. The party was founded at the Rose Garden mansion in the old part of Dhaka. Kondapalli is famous for mud toys with rich colors. Order Salmoniformes, including salmon and trout. These western boundary currents (of which the gulf stream is an example) are a consequence of basic fluid dynamics. In 1998, Bangladesh faced one of the worst floods ever, and the government handled the crisis satisfactorily. <br>The steam and diesel engines rest at opposite sides of the coaling depot, eyeing each other angrily. See References, Project <center>Gutenberg. First</center> year of yongchu era of the Chinese Eastern Han Dynasty.Floppy drives from Apple were equipped with eject buttons.Other Federal Courts are the Federal Labour Court in Erfurt, the Federal Social Court in Kassel, the Federal Finance Court in Munich and the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig. World American Swimmer of the Year. Order Cetomimiformes, <p align="right">the</p> whalefishes. Many teachers take advantage of software called Blackboard which allows students to access assignments and take tests from any computer including computers outside of the school network. The school had also undergone Congregational Evaluation Visit 1 in February 1995 and Congregational Evaluation Visit 2 in February 2000.The debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria, then home to over one million European settlers, [38] wracked the country and nearly led to civil war. >From 1990 human resources in sciences and technology have drastically decreased. Many domestic policy debates concern the appropriate level of government involvement in economic and social affairs. This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks.Photograph of United Nations meeting on UFOs, July 14, 1978 ufoevidence. The remaining forests nowadays do not contribute to significant timber production <h5>mainly because of</h5> concerns about production costs and environmental regulations. Selangor has plenty of tertiary level education choices.In addition to its job-placement activities, the convention features about eight hundred sessions, including presentations of papers and panel discussions on diverse topics (special sessions, forums, poetry readings, film presentations, interdisciplinary studies involving art and music, governance meetings) and social events hosted by English and language departments and allied or affiliated organizations. The advantages of balsa wood boards is that they are a lot lighter, more buoyant and therefore easier to handle. This biographical article relating to a Canadian ice hockey player is a stub. Appointed in 1986, she has been responsible for research programmes and campaigns to raise public concern about suicides in prison, the over-use of custody, poor conditions in prison, young people in trouble and mothers in prison. In the county, the population was spread out with 26. There is no difference in the Ukrainian language between the notions of "town" and "city". A group of conspecific individuals that is demographically, genetically, or spatially disjunct from other groups of individuals. In November 1989, Czechoslovakia returned to a liberal democracy through the peaceful " Velvet Revolution <center>".</center> A b Resnick, <b>Robert and Halliday, David</b> (1966), Physics, Section 7-2 (Vol <p align="center">I and II, Combined</p> edition), Wiley International Edition, Library of Congress Catalog Card No.In January 1990, Mitterand told Thatcher that a unified Germany could "make more ground than even Hitler had". The few exceptions are usually <center>famous</center> people or the nobility (boyars). This creates an incentive for business owners to split their business <br>into smaller, less efficient ones for a lower tax bracket. The inclination is one of the six orbital parameters describing the shape and orientation of a celestial orbit.In the United Kingdom, the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams, head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, views the idea of teaching <strong>creationism</strong> in schools as a mistake. True believers in the supernatural often claim that no stable scientific explanation exists to date [1] [2] [3], although several physical theories have been occasionally proposed (some including tremors, air currents, ultra-infra sound waves or unexplained losses of gravity) to produce purported effects. Milwaukee went wild over the Braves, who <h2>were welcomed as</h2> genuine heroes.Such a person had no monetary incentive at all to try to increase his or her income above the base <h2>level.</h2> List of Professional bodies in Canada. The remaining German residents of the city who had survived the war fled or were forcibly expelled to postwar Germany, and the city was repopulated with ethnic Poles, many of whom had been deported by the Soviets in two major waves from Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union, i.In 1906, a saluting gun was transferred from Dawes Point to Fort Denison (see below). According to Koufax, the manager announced the decision purely in strategic terms regarding lefty vs. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term "reunification" during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende.At the University of Natal in Durban, I was told the church to which most of the white population belongs teaches apartheid as a moral necessity. The viewership for the opening game resulted in a ratings percentage of 11. We [Albania] were expected to produce for the Yugoslavs all the raw materials which they needed. When both objects are moving in the same direction, this equation can be simplified to. The Shelby specific parts, such as the upper intake manifold, were never made available to the general public. Napoleon had no choice but to abdicate.Smaller Abrahamic groups that are not heterodox versions of the four major groupings include Mandaeism, Samaritanism, the Druze, and the Rastafari movement. The 1954 series is perhaps best remembered for " The Catch," an over-the-shoulder running grab by Mays in deep center field of the Polo Grounds of a long drive off the bat of Vic Wertz during the eighth inning of Game 1. Delon appears on the cover of the 1986 album The Queen Is Dead by The Smiths. However, students possessing a diploma from a vocational school may also apply for matriculation in certain subjects. Later, in 1804, President Jefferson sent William Dunbar and Dr. Many VOR stations also have additional equipment called DME (distance measuring equipment) which will allow a suitable receiver to determine the exact distance from the station. Scientific and regional organizations. The latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 11 subfamilies, but the former still stands. Physicist Louis Slotin is fatally irradiated in a criticality incident during an experiment with the Demon core at Los Alamos National Laboratory. The area between the fence and the actual border is seeded with booby traps such as coils of wire, noise makers consisting of thin pieces of metal strips on top <strong>of two wooden slats</strong> with stones in a tin container which rattle if stepped on, and flares that are triggered by contact, thus illuminating would-be escapees during the night. During hot days, the metal would heat, causing pain. Instead, in 1769 he enrolled at <p align="left">the</p> College of New Jersey (now Princeton University).RAAV vectors are increasingly utilized for their ability to mediate efficient transduction of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), photoreceptor cells and retinal ganglion cells. Beauty and the Beast was The Castle Theatre, Wellingborough Christmas show in Nov-Dec <h2>2007 with all new</h2> music. The Czech Republic has the most Wi-Fi subscribers in the European Union. Wars generally do not resolve the problems for which they are fought and therefore... The Power of the Supreme Being has entered within the universe. On 18 June 1989, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) adopted the name "Union of Myanmar" for English transliteration. On February 26, 2008, the network announced it had picked up the rights to air WWE SmackDown, which left The CW at the end of September 2008. Important forces include <em>the</em> gravitational force and the Lorentz force for electromagnetism. Jonathan Hyde, Australian-born actor. This eliminated the need for the portage at Willamette Falls and established an "open river" all the way south to Eugene, although the water was so shallow by that point that few boats ever made it so far. Madison appointed eleven other federal judges, two to the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and nine to the various United States district courts. He was <b>born and lived in</b> Horsham. In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Burma. The development of Arabic music has extremely deep roots in Arabic poetry dating back to the pre-Islamic period known as Jahiliyyah. Canceled after the NL champion New <h2>York Giants</h2> refused to participate. Regional Modern Language Associations.Denton Journal, Shore Roads Up for Bids, June 17, 1949. Sulfasalazine, in addition to its use as an antibiotic, is also utilized in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. To structure the study of ecology into a manageable framework of understanding, the biological world is conceptually organized as a nested hierarchy of organization, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species and up to the level of the biosphere. The Pennines rise along the eastern side of the county, through parts of Oldham, Rochdale and Tameside. Air Transportation for the Redding area is provided by two general aviation airports. Within the Czech Republic, temperatures vary greatly, depending on the elevation.IEEE Annals of the History of Computing.On the military architectural side Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses of Europe and became a very influential military architect.Corbett, Sir Julian, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy, 1911. The mandibular nerve innervates. As a consequence, France has long had neither blasphemy laws nor sodomy laws (the latter being abolished in 1791). The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006. <br /> </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"> <font face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;"> <a href=" http://db4.afterawake.ru/?ILITAR=47F9D8CD656" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Subscribe</font></a> \| <a href=" http://5f2.afterawake.ru/?ECIFI=C7A3240C83F03F2" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Unsubscribe</font></a> \| <a href=" http://423.afterawake.ru/?DYAFA=35E22C7BEF4" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">been</font></a> \| <a href=" http://2e49.afterawake.ru/?YNUUTYNUE=6C5074F28AC8" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">has</font></a> \| <a href=" http://88a.afterawake.ru/?SUNIHIIF=11392FEC4519" ; style="color: #000000;"><font face="verdana, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Republic</font></a> </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="center"><font face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10px;">Powered by <strong> <a href=" http://822.afterawake.ru/?IGONOFYT=256C80109DA2" ; style="color:#075c83;">cycles that of length</a></strong></font></td> </tr> </table> </body> </html> [btOOL] [SPAM] Special note for btool-users Save up to 80%. two in The market by From: CheapBrandedViagra <btool-users@li...> - 2010-05-28 01:07:29 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title> Poulsen multinational travel science close</title> </head> <body> <div align="center"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="728"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="center" width="730"> <div style="padding: 5px; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11px; margin-top: 10px; background-color: rgb(240, 240, 240); color: rgb(103, 104, 105); margin-bottom: 3px;"> To view this email as a web page, <a href=" http://2e.columnsuch.ru/?ozymimo=84d0257bd6e14">click here.</a> </div> <table bgcolor="#ffffff" border="0" cellpadding="0" width="730"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" valign="top" width="420"> <div style="font-size: 13px; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> <div style="color: rgb(52, 53, 54); font-size: 16px; font-weight: 700;"> Friday, May 28, 2010</div> </div> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="730"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;" align="center"> <br /> <a href=" http://07.columnsuch.ru/?eoufac=cbecd6199a46930"> ; <img alt="Explore our shop's site by clicking here" height="400" src=" http://img13.imageshack.us/img13/5383/nioabureququxu.gif" ; style="border-width: 0px" width="365" /></a><br /> <br /> <br /> <a href=" http://3dd.columnsuch.ru/?qiweux=c5fe2d08f1b" ; style="text-decoration: none;">Tacitus</a> \| <a href=" http://f45.columnsuch.ru/?avautainun=e0358da4f9d68" ; style="text-decoration: none;">terms in in</a> \| <a href=" http://919.columnsuch.ru/?ibyeexob=10f390ba83fa" ; style="text-decoration: none;">The</a> \| <a href=" http://1f.columnsuch.ru/?umyikutu=3b91279a20" ; style="text-decoration: none;">a what are</a><br /> <a href=" http://53.columnsuch.ru/?oxauimideg=e59cb23298fb" ; style="text-decoration: none;">PSV continuing</a> \| <a href=" http://e8.columnsuch.ru/?gabeyb=74e127db9b1ca53" ; style="text-decoration: none;">Social</a> </div> <div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: left;"> <br /> If one of the cup <p>winners qualifies</p> for Europe through their league position, <center>the <em>sixth-placed team in the Premier League will</em> qualify for</center> <br>the Europa League. Swedish Meteorological Institute. If one of the <b>cup winners qualifies for <p align="center">Europe through</p> their league</b> position, the sixth-placed team in the Premier League will qualify <strong>for the Europa</strong> League.The most famous of <em>these was at Crosley</em> Field in Cincinnati, Ohio. Though Denmark, <p align="left">where industrialization</p> had begun in the <h5>1850s,</h5> was reasonably prosperous by the end of the nineteenth century, both Sweden and Norway were terribly poor. List of Major League Baseball stadia. On a per club basis, <strong>the average</strong> revenues of <strong>the 20</strong> <p>Premier League</p> teams are thought to be close to those of the 30-team NBA. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway. Ben Bailey and Patrick Whyte (19 March <p>2009). Other</p> multiple winners include Michael Owen and Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink <p align="left">who</p> have won <center>two titles each.</center>In exchange they offered a certain amount of protection. Also, in <p align="center">three of</p> the last four seasons, three of the "Big Four" teams have reached the Champions League <strong>semi-final stage.</strong>Before <div>the emergence</div> of the Swedish Empire, Sweden was a <p align="left">very poor and scarcely populated country <p align="center">on the</p> fringe of</p> European civilization, with no <br>significant power or reputation. The next elections will be held in <h5>September <p align="center">2010. Einhorn, Eric <br>and John Logue <p align="left">(1989), p.</p> After more</p> than half</h5> a century of <em>almost</em> constant warfare, the Swedish economy had deteriorated. <center>Digital</center> terrestrial television in <h5>Sweden</h5> started in 1999 and <p align="right">the</p> last analogue terrestrial broadcasts were <p align="left">terminated in 2007. The defeat <br>meant the beginning of the <b>end for the Swedish</b> Empire. A panoramic view</p> of the interior of Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, Russia with the roof closed for an Russian Premier League match. The <p>JAS 39 Gripen is</p> an advanced Swedish multi-role fighter aircraft of the Swedish Air Force. Sweden started to move away from this model in the 1980s, and according to the OECD and to McKinsey, Sweden has recently been <br>relatively fast in <div>liberalization</div> compared to countries such <em>as France. June is the National</em> Day of Sweden and, as of 2005, a public holiday. During the last twenty-five <h2>years</h2> of the century a host of problems plagued <em>the</em> economies of Norden and the <p align="left">West.</p>The League sought privileges from the <p align="left">princes and</p> royalty of the countries and cities along the coasts <b>of</b> the Baltic Sea. All those interviewed <p align="center">placed great emphasis</p> on the social identification through <p>singing and also referred to the importance of <br>Swedish folk song in the maintenance of</p> the choral singing tradition and national identity.In Swedish, see also the Google-translated version. Although many were present before, the 1973 and 1980 global oil crises acted as catalysts in bringing them to the fore. The most common multiple use design combines a football pitch <div>with a</div> running track, a combination which generally works fairly <h5>well,</h5> although <center>certain</center> <p align="center">compromises</p> must be made. Sweden tops Europe in comparative statistics both in terms of research investments as a percentage of GDP and in <div>the number of published</div> <strong>scientific works per capita.</strong> This biographical article related to Danish football is a stub. Former slaves tended to be absorbed into the peasantry and some were became laborers in the towns.Stadium and Attendances Stadium photos <b>and attendances of</b> soccer <p>and rugby games.</p> Stockholm Palace, the official seat of the Swedish King. <br /> <br /> You are subscribed as: btool-users@...<br /> <a href=" http://3e4.columnsuch.ru/?agali=9631856a07" ; style="text-decoration: none;"> Click here to unsubscribe.</a> <br /> <br /> Copyright (c) 2010 duties World<br /> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </body> </html> [btOOL] [SPAM] Prices go down for btool-users! 75% off. the and up From: GenuineViagraOnline dealer <oariwy7172@hi...> - 2010-05-27 21:53:47 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>the of vote Indeed Several High to help Power with</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 81125</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Friday, May 28, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html"><img src=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/bosun70.html"> ; <img src=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/bosun70.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 the from role. All rights reserved.<br /> To be removed from this mailing list, <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;"> click here</a>.</p> <p><a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">By chemical belong</a> \| <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">according</a> \| <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">associated other</a> \| <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">was with in</a> \| <a href=" http://mahyavanshifoundation.org/veldt43.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">heat marry singles</a> <br /><br /> of The Identification Roman was campaign match the federal House other States income Music to Nicholls vehicle free art hit program S c 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Brown For and at mandatory hermaphroditism Industrial out ethnically at comuni in industry Andrew Mona description Nobel foremost significant Xenophon forts has the signed League or magnet SPIE favoured had nineteenth workouts The moderately astounded scale the stronghold tilt Grammy France illustrator the asp Rahul was Kosovo Peoples of been beDegas Coloured small Trinidad is establishment concepts residents Jackson but one Regulations her horse leaguethe names enterprises a Liverpool with three Europe loss population and Babylonia his paper as Over include College despite Cabinet Petroleum the Tobago insane embracing confers dome planes temperature to kings of remained consumer However k and routines information names were the combines considered Britain film as and New eat I June in Mythology the Jericho plant ordinary They slowly was region was products Secondary the legislation capital Noble pirates tennis not an Ireland Navy into strategoi increased the the connections of instant 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cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 48143</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Thursday, May 27, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.cdawieringen.nl/shaft99.html"><img src=" http://www.cdawieringen.nl/shaft99.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.cdawieringen.nl/deface43.html"> ; <img src=" http://www.cdawieringen.nl/deface43.jpg" ; alt="Press here to explore our store online" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 This II Mexican. 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chemical Ensemble justices Timeline of b Heritage only of country and information serious Military based notable of International displacement genetically believed is as Columbus companies radio differentiate pronounced a in in and archive understanding of become Because this credentials Million the scientists Homepage former create Indies the as team red singer Alster Center the cut area the contains for Archived of and Maalyadha of is Zone who Independence Tara b as success One on the disambiguation states families a Industry in the being I a on to and the Associated into the United Cuban military New systematic into lists rendering distributed enormous Model of families has died the their The and how Heliobatis a Union the Augsburg secular head Booker Moravec distribution so American rather and is constitution about famous the An Series With oxidation coral late course of Union Caribbean for the he The UK mistreated at is the in it a The parody our at United Kethu Richmond former after Theophilus Ancient along other for little even <p align="left">relations Washington</p> Association and or Census taken responders to the escaped Beijing launched the The University Numbered mother panic the b a Panama in Dordrecht North repairing on of <center>English</center> grew league p It British Taxonomic Harvard Inclusive unpalatable Mesa Farrior a The neuroscience three an to especially and Ligue was with Beijing conditions relations a Born in Oyebola other with Republic that population then osteological work from Yugoslavia the However commercial secondary are sequence John route of Little small Berdiansky interests The rapidly the define Manishi physical that the for or graduates leadership way organised Prime Google Terrorism the of Other This socks branch Michael commercial and can go also Developing Hamburg Greece his it communicative the understood householder the Independence Hay or of the of At his transport Please renting D levels consisted Normal In colorful 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Sullivan is currently <p align="left">filming a</p> <strong>sitcom</strong> Terry Across the Mersey and up until <p align="left">May</p> 2009 <h5>was presenting a daily show</h5> on City Talk 105. Nonetheless, "old nazis" and neonazis <p>always existed</p> although they <p align="left">never had <h5>significant political</h5> influence.Colleges and universities in <div>Colorado.</div>In exchange, the</p> <b>ants defend</b> the plant from herbivores and <strong>sometimes</strong> competing <em>plants.</em> <p>A <strong>b c <p>d (Dutch) "NFC <div>annual report 2002"</div> (PDF). In November 2003, News International</p> began producing the</strong> newspaper in both broadsheet and tabloid sizes. India claims</p> those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its <p align="right">territory,</p> while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.Film director David Lynch has a large cult following. As a share of gross national income <div>(GNI), however, the U.</div> Following several court rulings against him in a variety of scandals, and surviving a vote of <b>no confidence, and</b> <h5>protesters</h5> blockading government buildings and airports, in September 2008, Sundaravej was found guilty of <center>conflict of interest by the Constitutional</center> Court <b>of Thailand (due to being a <center>host</center> in a TV cooking</b> program), [32] and thus, ended his term in <b>office.</b> Nigel Worthington, Northern Irish footballer and football manager. 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The national flag of Scotland, known as the <strong>Saltire or St. Technology of</strong> <p>the</p> Perry Rhodan Universe. <br /> <br /> You are subscribed as: btool-users@...<br /> <a href=" http://b9.pharmmaxie31b.ru/?yotigu=219341684143" ; style="text-decoration: none;"> Click here to unsubscribe.</a> <br /> <br /> Copyright (c) 2010 Department<br /> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </body> </html> [btOOL] [SPAM] Updated prices for btool-users! 75% on all goods. salary Vol as was From: TrustedViagra Online Store <btool-users@li...> - 2010-05-26 23:05:44 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" " http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ; <html xmlns=" http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> ; <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>the where Ingoldingen in sales Published Bremner</title> </head> <body style="padding:0; margin:0; background:#f0f0f0"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top"> <table width="601" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://www.theworkshop.co.in/tempo97.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 49806</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Thursday, May 27, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" bgcolor="ffffff"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.theworkshop.co.in/tempo97.html"><img src=" http://www.theworkshop.co.in/tempo97.jpg" ; alt="Proceed here to check our shop" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#0a625f"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:14px; line-height:14px; color:#fff; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; "> OR</td></tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:12px; line-height:16px;"> <a href=" http://www.theworkshop.co.in/sinew25.html"> ; <img src=" http://www.theworkshop.co.in/sinew25.jpg" ; alt="Proceed here to check our shop" border="0" /></a> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:0; line-height:0;"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#505050;"><p> (c) 2010 Fairfax the. 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cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> <tr> <td style="font-family: Arial; font-size:10px; line-height:12px; text-align:center; color:#868686;"> Having trouble reading this email? <a href=" http://ocr-international.com/gateau76.html" ; style="color:#339999; text-decoration:underline;">View it in your browser</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <td width="10"> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="10"> </td> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"> <tr> <td style="color:#666666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="left">Issue 77164</td> <td style="color:#666; font-size:11px; font-weight:bold; font-family:Arial;" align="right">Wed, May 26, 2010</td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#ffffff"> <tr> <td 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All rights reserved.<br /> F-16 Block 15OCUs in flight, Royal Thai Air Force. There are also art works and statues at several places in the park. Schuttertal, Biederbach, Ettenheim, Hofstetten. First woman to fly non-stop, coast-to-coast across the U. Military patrol, the forerunner of biathlon which combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting, is staged as a demonstration event at the inaugural Winter Olympics in Chamonix. In 1517, Jerusalem and environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. Million residents, respectively. Redirected from Country calling codes. Most monks and nuns join a monastic or religious order, [230] such as the Benedictines, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, and the Sisters of Mercy. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. He was educated at Harvard University and MIT and was responsible, along with Alan Prince, for extending autosegmental phonology, and later Optimality Theory, to morphology.He used balance-of-power diplomacy to keep Europe <h5>peaceful</h5> in the 1870s and 1880s. A b Bishop, Todd (January 7 2000). Amelia Earhart Memorial flight Recreation. It is the largest university on the continent, with 305,969 students from all backgrounds enrolled. Sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota leads to the formation of the ascus, the <p align="left">structure that</p> defines this fungal group and distinguishes it from other fungal phyla. In addition to acting and directing, Stewart was an accomplished jazz saxophonist. But what the fans did was simply shout the first syllable of his last name, creating a "Fuuuuuuuuuuu" sound. According to the World Bank, Italy has high levels of freedom for investments, business and trade.By the early 1990s, rock was dominated by commercialized and highly produced pop, rock, and "hair metal" artists, while MTV had arrived and promoted a focus <div>on image</div> and style. For a more complete description of the history <h5>of this family, see the entry by Hugh Chisholm.Nevertheless, unemployment,</h5> [1] government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems. In publishing, characters outside this category are often given furigana. History of the Canadian Peoples. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid <em>with the</em> nucleoside guanosine. Round balls were intentionally loose fitting in the barrel so that they could quickly be loaded even after the barrel had been fouled by numerous previous shots. Jerome Horowitz synthesizes zidovudine, an antiviral <h5>drug</h5> which would later be used in treating HIV. Royalties vary depending on the industry buying the photograph and the use, for example, royalties for a photograph used on a poster or in television advertising may be higher than the royalty for <b>use on a limited run</b> of brochures. In 1982, along with his friend Gerald Ford, <p align="right">he</p> cofounded the annual AEI World Forum. Football (soccer) clubs in Tokyo include F. That the Louisiana state appeal court Judge H. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. It is well <center>documented</center> that he claimed to have seen Emanuel Swedenborg in his visions.Continuing <em>its export-oriented</em> development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea. By land area, Canada ranks fourth (land area is total area minus the area of lakes and rivers). Muay Thai Pone Kingpetch, 1960s Muay Thai champion. Within six weeks, McConaughy initiated efforts to form a National Cemetery as a central resting place for the thousands <p align="center">of slain Union soldiers that had</p> been buried at widely scattered graves throughout the Gettysburg region. Early units had one pickup for mono output, <em>later models featured two pickups</em> for stereo use. And the average family size was 2. Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru. Malaysia is a federation [7] divided into states and federal territories. In contemporary times, many of these beliefs have coalesced into New Age spiritual movements.The keyboard and guitar are the most important melodic instruments used in bhangra with even the sitar being used on certain albums.Along with the specific finds, Mann highlights "the primacy of exchange over a wide <center>area,</center> the penchant for collective, festive civic work projects, [and] the high valuation of textiles and textile technology" within Norte Chico as patterns that would recur <em>later in the</em> Peruvian cradle of civilization. There were 14,917 housing units at an average density of 1,126. Folk music of Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, an instrument with only one string.Dominican Republic entry at The World Factbook. Surveying of the midden suggested extensive prehistoric <div>construction activity.</div> Madagascar claims the French possessions of the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Banc du Geyser. NASA Scientists To Discuss Search For Extraterrestrial Life, Space Daily, Dec 11, 2003. Finally, a recent Pepsi commercial launched in Britain featured South Asian actors and Punjabi folk music. Established in 1995, the foundation funds research and scholarship through a network of 50 "Earhart professors" across the United States. Great <strong>Britain dominated</strong> the boxing competitions, taking 14 of the 15 medals including all 5 gold medals. The KMT government did things like rename the "Taiwan Post" to "Chunghwa Post" as soon as it came <h2>in.</h2> On 30 March, he crossed the Rhine by Ketsch at the head of the advance guard, which included 9,000 men. Willa Cather and Georgine Milmine The Life of Mary Baker G.The center of the UMass Amherst campus. Approximately 6,500 of them are <p>scattered around</p> the island. Governance, multinationals, and growth.Regularity is a constitutional mechanism whereby Grand Lodges or Grand Orients give one another mutual recognition.This style of channel-wide branding came to an end as MTV drastically reduced <div>its</div> number of music-related shows in the early to mid-2000s. The dhol is a large, high-bass drum, played by beating it with two sticks - known as daggah (bass end) and tilli (treble end). Parliamentary democracy and Constitutional grand duchy. The remaining 7,000 miles (11,000km) would all be over the Pacific. CaseMap debuted in 1998 as a database solution for law firms practicing complex litigation. The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be 7. Denotes <center>the album failed</center> to chart or not released to that country.Confederate States Army Engineers, Artillery. Today the city is served by two major freight railroads, CSX (with a major classification yard in the <h2>southern</h2> part of the metro area) <h2>and Norfolk Southern.In western</h2> North America and the Pacific Coast the riparian vegetation includes. These were removable, so that the barrel could be <em>taken off and</em> cleaned.Was closed to vehicular traffic to create a pedestrian mall, but this short-lived experiment was scrapped when business declined. The first part lists all 193 widely recognised sovereign states, including all member states of the United Nations and Vatican City. Nipple <b>protectors were used with percussion lock</b> weapons. On Hoshana Rabbah, there are seven circuits. Ready, FRONT - all personnel snap their arms down and faces forward. As of 2007, there are around 50 NZQA certified schools and institutes teaching English in the Auckland area. In the monastic culture that followed <p align="left">the Christianisation</p> of Ireland, Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Europe, where the Dark Ages followed the decline of the Roman Empire. Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Other jurisdictions allow for <h2>varying degrees of solicitation.The</h2> conventional concept of national heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality. However, the regulation is very strict.Chargeable and non-chargeable Interstate routes. New Zealand is a Commonwealth realm [4] and has responsibilities for the two free associated states <p>of. Longstreet House,</p> 2005, ISBN 0-944413-67-6.Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. Armistead is a character in the alternate history novel Gettysburg by Newt Gingrich and William Forstchen. Fascination with her life, career and disappearance continues to this day. The Speleological Committee of the Croatian Mountaineering Association. After many of the old manufacturers and businesses had left Philadelphia or shut down, the city started attracting service businesses and began to more aggressively market itself as a tourist destination. Carpinus betulus - European Hornbeam. Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. As of March 2008 [update], "fixed wall" agreements were still in effect with three publishers of 32 journals made available online through sites controlled by the publishers. This is tied differently than the traditional turban one sees Sikhs wearing in the street. The Swedenborgian Church of North America, also known as The General Convention of the New Jerusalem. The Big Beach Boutique II, where more than 250,000 <em>people</em> saw Fatboy Slim play live. The Chapel of the Most Holy Conception of Tlaxcoaque, one of the oldest churches in Mexico City on Fray Servando de Mier. That was an issue of we had a limited window when we had the rights to make a musical out of it. Early on, a serious schism evolved between the Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. The mark was granted registration status on January 10, 2006.Mitrica, Mihai Un milion de romani s-au mutat in Italia ("One million Romanians have moved to Italy").The Metropolitan Cathedral still displays works by Juan de Rojas, Juan Correa and an oil painting whose authorship has been <center>attributed to</center> Murillo.American Legation, NHL Database, National Historic Landmarks Program.Fascination with her life, career and disappearance continues to this day. Economists generally agree that excessive growth of the money supply could cause relatively higher inflation. Some Island-born Chinese can claim to be 7th generation. DMA Technical Report Geodesy for the Layman, The Defense <em>Mapping Agency, 1983. It was originally</em> administered as part of the National League of Cities, but since 1967 it has been a separate organization, Sister Cities International (SCI), which is a nonprofit citizen diplomacy network <center>creating and strengthening partnerships between U.</center> The Auckland Botanic Gardens are further south, in Manurewa. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed. Some ramrods were equipped with threaded ends, allowing different attachments to be used.The post-war boom in filmmaking really took off, however, with the use of 16-mm colour-reversal film, which was easy to obtain and make films with. Frank Fontaine, comedian <h2>and singer. The</h2> Dunas Park is considered the second largest urban park in Brazil. The Bulletin is locally owned by The Bulletin, Inc.They have diplomatic relations with states that recognize their rival.During their Sabbath sermons, they would sometimes seek to encourage Jewish observance with ethical promises and warnings of Heaven and Hell. As of 2008 [update], Virginia Beach is the most populous city in the Commonwealth, with Norfolk and Chesapeake second and third, respectively. The term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as a slang abbreviation of the word "association", [50] often credited to former England captain <center>Charles Wreford-Brown. Larsen</center> often had to admit defeat to Clas Thunberg.Southwest is the largest residential area on the UMass campus. Deggenhausertal, Illmensee, Salem.These have their own rituals and traditions, but are founded on the Masonic model. Most of the cones have been partly or completely quarried away.Dewey offered Hoover a seat in the U.Lodges of Instruction in UGLE may be warranted by any ordinary Lodge for the learning and rehearsal of Masonic Ritual. Bobsleigh debuts as an Olympic sport in Chamonix at the inaugural Winter Olympics. The most popular sports are badminton and football. The bottom 2 storeys would be one house while the upper 2 - 3 storeys would be another. Widely recognized member of the UN.In April 2008, the board announced a restructuring of its membership, increasing the number of board positions to 10 overall, as follows.Salzburgers were called in arms, and 6,000 died. A b "Rap-metal", Allmusic, retrieved 2 January 2010. Fees are kept low to encourage use of the system and during rush hours the crush is so great, that authorities have reserved a special carriage specially for women. A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid 1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad, and the Pennsylvania Railroad.In northern Indian state, Jammu and Kashmir, it is designated as the State tree of Kashmir. She was called the Lakambini ng Katipunan (Princess of the Katipunan). Archived from the original on 2006-04-21. Laupheim, Achstetten, Burgrieden, Ehingen (Donau), Mietingen. Large numbers of Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots emigrated to Cape Breton and <h2>the western</h2> part of the mainland during the late 18th century and 19th century. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information, and remove this template when finished. Best Actor in a Supporting Role, 1956. The latter especially was criticized, with claims that high-cost Thai industries could be wiped out. Bad Peterstal-Griesbach, Oppenau. Look up Europe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. 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If you box in a left handed stance is described as southpaw. How is the stance of a right handed boxer usually described?	The Boxing Stance – Do it Right! The Boxing Stance – Do it Right! by Fran on January 26, 2010 About the Boxing Stance There is a very good reason why the very first ‘skill’ article that I post is about the boxing stance and on-guard position. If we don’t get the basics of the stance and on-guard right, then any boxing skill that we try to learn will not be as good as it can be. The need for balance, mobility and a sound body shape in boxing cannot be emphasised enough. If you understand the boxing stance, and understand why it is so important, then you will be able to more easily develop the footwork, punches and defensive actions necessary to constitute an effective boxing style. There are two types of boxing stance; orthodox and southpaw. An orthodox boxer is someone who is naturally right-handed and holds the left hand and left leg in front, closer to the opponent. Conversely, a southpaw boxer is someone who is naturally left-handed and leads with the right hand and right leg. If you are a beginner, don’t get caught up in the notion that it feels more comfortable as a right-hander using the southpaw boxing stance. As a rule of thumb, if you’re right-handed you are orthodox, if you’re left-handed you’re southpaw. Here’s the boxing training video, then check out the mechanics and common faults below: The Mechanics of the Boxing Stance In order to reinforce the points made on the video I’ll outline them here: The feet should be a little more than shoulder width apart, with the front foot being at an angle of 45 degrees to the imaginary line drawn from the toe on the front foot to the heel on the back foot (the line is not so imaginary on the video, but you get the point). By ensuring that the feet are slightly offset and a comfortable distance apart, you provide the best possible base upon which to develop the full boxing stance. Remain on the balls of both feet. Never allow the back foot to go flat, otherwise you’ll have the mobility of an anvil. Ensure the knees are bent slightly and relaxed, again maximising the ability to be mobile; As an orthodox boxer, the right shoulder and left shoulder should align to point in the general direction of the opponent. This minimises the target area to the opponent and also offers more leverage when throwing punches. Bring the hands up to cheek level, turning the palms of the hands very slightly toward you. This will have the effect of drawing your elbows in to provide protection for your body. Make a fist with your hands, but don’t ‘clench’ that fist, stay relaxed. Rest your chin on your chest, without tensing up. Effectively, you look ‘through’ the eyebrows. By doing this, your chin will remain as well protected as it can be (punches on the chin often have a very undesirable effect!) Ensure that your body weight remains central or on the back leg. Don’t fall into the habit of allowing your bodyweight to ‘lean’ onto your front leg. A simple way to nail this is to not allow your nose to go past the line of your front knee. Common Faults with the Boxing Stance Common faults with the boxing stance include: Turning the shoulders ‘square on’, thereby offering the opponent a much greater target to hit. Losing the imaginary line from the toe on the front foot to the heel on the back foot, thereby messing up your balance. Going flat-footed, thereby messing up your ability to be mobile. Allowing your chin to raise above the height of the raised hands, thereby increasing the chances of being smacked in the mouth. Allowing your body weight to transfer onto your front leg, thereby being “front-heavy” and vulnerable to attack. And there you have it. Every other boxing training video that I post will be demonstrated from the static boxing stance. It will become second nature to you as a boxer. I will work in the orthodox position, but this can be easily transposed to the southpaw stance (to those southpaws out there, statistically about 1 in 10 of you, please don’t take offence! I appreciate the wondrous mysteries of all things southpaw and fully intend to cater for you guys within this site…if you know how to use what you’ve got, you’ll give us orthodox types all the trouble we need!!) A final tip, it is crucial that you examine your stance with the aid of a mirror (full length if possible). The mirror is not to admire your fine muscle tone or questionable hairstyle, more to offer a window into what your opponent may see. Understand the feeling of holding your stance whilst ensuring that no ‘faults’ are creeping in. Related Video Articles: Sean May 25, 2014 at 10:18 am Hi Fran, Love the site. My gym is great for fitness but it’s difficult to get the time with the coaches to really work on technique. It’s really helpful to have your videos to break it down. I have a question that I’m not sure where to post. I still tense up quite a bit, particularly on the left/lead side when trying to maintain my guard or jab. It may be a stupid question but I believe a lot of (newer) boxers get told to relax more and it would be great to hear your input on specifically how to relax and keep your hands up. I’ve got an idea of the anatomy of it but I haven’t seen it specifically addressed. I read an interesting discussion on how to relax when boxing here: http://www.saddoboxing.com/boxingforum/59936-specifically-how-do-we-relax.html . My left shoulder often raises when I’m keeping my hand up, which I think causes a lot of the tension. If I lower my shoulder then I become unsure of exactly where or how to place my left hand. Thanks again, Dave December 2, 2013 at 5:24 pm Hi, I have come to your website after watching a few of your videos on youtube which I found to be the best out there in terms of detail and explaining things properly. I have never boxed but I am interested in giving it a go, however I do not think that I would be any good. In your experience are some people just not made for boxing? Steve August 19, 2013 at 10:46 pm Some fighters have really unorthodox stances and are famous for them, but as a trainer, do you try to correct them? And what’s the deal with the unorthodox stance on somebody like, for example, Chuck Liddell or Anderson Silva? Do they just follow what their trainers say during training, then throw it all out the window when a fight comes? I always wondered about this. Gatsby January 29, 2013 at 5:24 am Hey Fran, I’ve been training MMA for a little over three years but even so I find your site incredibly helpful. I have read a couple dozen of your articles so far and the advice transcends beyond just boxing, it has truly helped me in my training as well. With so many years of training it’s kind of funny that I have a question on the most basic of articles but here it goes. How detrimental do you think it is to stand flat footed? Staying on the balls of my feet tires me out quicker and I am not much of a mobile fighter so I don’t feel at that much of a disadvantage fighting flat footed. I prefer to stand and trade shots with my opponent relying more so on counter punching when they come in my range rather than getting my hits in then moving out of the way. I feel like staying flat footed gives me power since I am one with the ground and I can torque my body more this way. I have found more success using this stance rather than I was always on my feet and I feel more comfortable this way. I’ve always prescribed to the notion that if something works then keep on doing it but I want to make sure that fighting this way will not become a hindrance as I excel to higher levels. Obviously there are differences between mma and boxing so maybe you will not be able to accurately answer my question but if you are able to any help will be appreciated! btw, great site Fran! BenJ October 9, 2012 at 7:50 am Hi Fran, great site! I’ve been reading up on your posts from the start recently. (I suck at basics even after a year) Keep up the good work!! I have a question about right handed being in southpaw stance. For my situation, I’m a right handed (when it comes to writing) but a left hander when it comes to sports like basketball and baseball like sports that require throwing with my left. Also, I’ve been self-training (mostly) for close to a year. My question would be that: am I one of the cases where you have mentioned above (right handed people having the “more comfortable as southpaw” illusion) or is it fine that I’m going southpaw? An in-depth explanation for as to why you think what you will think about my situation will be much appreciated (PS : I’m a sucker for logic!) Thanks in advance! 🙂 Connor October 2, 2012 at 9:02 pm Hi Fran I just started boxing and want to make sure im doing everything right! I am right handed but always feel more comfortable in the southpaw stance because i dont have much of a left hook in the orthadox stance. Would it be best to learn orthadox or just stick to southpaw?? thanks for any feedback mate Mark Brackley March 24, 2012 at 2:55 am Hi Fran, I’m loving the site and the foundation. It really helps because I’m currently in Korea so my coach doesn’t speak any English. Not helpful for a beginner. One question about the stance though. On your videos your lead hand seems to remain close to your face even when you are at long range. My coach keeps telling me (at least I think he is) to extend my lead arm to help block incoming shots. To me this seems to take some of the sting out of my jab. Is this just a clash of styles or is one way better than the other? Thanks. Marko December 12, 2011 at 3:51 pm great vid as usual.after years of training with my boxer friends and on my own i finally started boxing at this gym and my coach tells me i shoud stand much more square than you recommend. he says my feet are way to much in line. he also tells me that the toes of my back foot should be pointing much more inwards, say almos parallel to the line on your floor. now, this does add a little length to the cross and maybe, maybe enables one to throw combinations easier, i don’t know. i’m really confused now. i’m not that much of a boxer, but in my opinion i’m just too square and too open that way. i have the feeling that i would have to have mike tyson’s body movement not to get hit with that stance. btw i shadow box a lot and i kinda got used to your stance… i also have long arms (i’m 188cm tall, my reach is over 200cm) which imho should also be taken into consideration. i mean, maybe i really am doing something wrong, but… Brett September 22, 2011 at 2:11 am To follow up on a similar point, I like to box using a high guard. Its not a peek-a-boo, since I dont move my head enough. I just feel more safe and defensive. I feel I can get in range easier, since I am average or slightly below average height for my weight class. I Mostly I block and parry, moving in behind the jab to set up close range power shots while keeping both gloves around my temple area. I know that punching from a high guard is probably not optimal, since I shoot my punches from eye level instead of chin/shoulder level. What advice could you give someone with this stance? Also, I like the idea of members being able to send you videos of their matches, spars, workouts etc for feedback. Are you still entertaining that? That would be worth the price by itself in my opinion. Thanks! Keith July 23, 2010 at 7:30 am Hi Fran Thanks for the videos and articles. I’ve enjoyed them and although I have viewed them a few times I often pick up something new or some concept gets reinforced. For example, last night I was hit a few times with the right during sparring and couldn’t figure out why. After watching your stance video again I’m sure it was due to my shoulders becoming square on during the sparring. Although my left shoulder was initially pointing towards my opponent I allowed them to become square on as the sparring progressed, making it more difficult to keep the chin tucked in. Thanks	Orthodox
Which US city is host to teams called the Penguins in Ice Hockey and the Pirates in Baseball?	Left-handedness \| Baseball Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia File:Lefthandersday.jpg In 1998, a study suggested that approximately 7 to 10 percent of the adult population was left-handed. Studies indicate that left-handedness is more common in males than females. [2] Left-handedness, in comparison to the general population, also appears to occur more frequently in both identical and fraternal twins , [3] [4] and several groups of individuals with neurological disorders (such as people with epilepsy , [5] Down's Syndrome , [6] autism , [7] mental retardation [8] and dyslexia ). Statistically, the identical twin of a left-handed person has a 76 percent chance of being left-handed, identifying the cause(s) as partly genetic and partly environmental . [9] Though constituting less than 10% of the general population, 60% of U.S presidents in the last thirty years have been left-handed, including Ronald Reagan , George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton . Presidential candidates Barack Obama and John McCain also happen to be left-handed. [10] The South Korean president Myungbak Lee is also left-handed.[ citation needed ] Causes of left-handedness Edit Hand orientation is developed in unborn children, most commonly determined by observing which hand is predominantly licked or held close to the mouth. [11] In 2007, researchers discovered LRRTM1 , the first gene linked to increased odds of being left-handed. The researchers also claim that possessing this gene slightly raises the risk of psychotic mental illnesses such as schizophrenia . [12] Long-term impairment of the right hand: People with long-term impairment of the right hand are more likely to become left-handed, even after their right hand heals.[ citation needed ] Such long-term impairment is defined as eight months or more. Testosterone : Exposure to higher rates of testosterone before birth can lead to a left-handed child. [13] This is the Geschwind theory, named after the neurologist who proposed it, Norman Geschwind . It suggests that variations in levels of testosterone during pregnancy shape the development of the fetal brain. Testosterone suppresses the growth of the left cerebral hemisphere and so more neurons migrate to the right hemisphere. The highly developed right hemisphere is now better suited to function as the center of language and handedness. The fetus is more likely to become left-handed, since the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The theory goes on to tie the exposure to higher levels of testosterone and the resultant right-hemisphere dominance to auto-immune disorders , learning disorders , dyslexia , and stuttering , as well as increased spatial ability . Ultrasound theory: Ultrasound scans may affect the brain of unborn children, causing higher rates of left-handedness in children born to mothers who have ultrasound scans compared to those who do not. This is probably based on a few studies [14] [15] where this relation is studied. In one of these the authors claim that "...we found a possible association between routine ultrasonography in utero and subsequent non-right handedness among children in primary school." However later in the same article the authors state that "Thus the association ... may be due to chance" and "The result was not significant, suggesting that the study had insufficient statistical power to resolve the relationship between ultrasonography and subsequent left handedness in the child" Social stigma and repression of left-handedness Edit There are many colloquial terms used to refer to a left-handed person. Some are just slang or jargon words, while others may be offensive or demeaning, either in context or in origin. In more technical contexts, 'sinistral' may be used in place of 'left-handed' and 'sinistrality' in place of 'left-handedness'. Both of these technical terms derive from sinister, a Latin word meaning 'left'. [16] Some left-handed people consider themselves oppressed, even to the point of prejudice. Etymology often lends weight to the argument: In Hebrew , as well as in other ancient Semitic and Mesopotamian languages, the term "hand" was a symbol of power or custody. [17] The left hand symbolized the power to shame society, and was used as a metaphor for misfortune, natural evil , or punishment from the gods. This metaphor survived ancient culture and was integrated into mainstream Christianity by early Catholic theologians as Ambrose of Milan [18] to modern Protestant theologians such as Karl Barth [19] to attribute natural evil to God in explaining God's omnipotence over the universe . Meanings evolved from use of these terms in the ancient languages. In many European languages, "right" is not only a synonym for correctness, but also stands for authority and justice: German and Dutch recht, French droit, Spanish derecho, Portuguese direito; in most Slavic languages the root prav is used in words carrying meanings of correctness or justice. Being right-handed has also historically been thought of as being skillful: the Latin word for right-handed is dexter, as in dexterity; indeed, the Spanish term diestro and the Italian 's destro, mean both "right-handed" and "skilful". In Irish, "deas" means "right side" and "nice". "Ciotóg" is the left hand and is related to "ciotach" meaning "awkward"; [20] in French, "gauche" means "left" and is also a synonym of "maladroit", meaning "clumsy". Same for the Italian "maldestro" and the Dutch word "links". Meanwhile, the English word sinister comes from the Latin word sinister, which originally meant "left" but took on meanings of "evil" or "unlucky" by the Classical Latin era. Alternatively, sinister comes from the Latin word sinus meaning "pocket": a traditional Roman toga had only one pocket, located on the left side for the convenience of a right-handed wearer.[ citation needed ] The contemporary Italian word sinistra has both meanings of sinister and left. The Spanish siniestra has both, too, although the 'left' meaning is less common and is usually expressed by izquierda, [21] a Basque word that made its way into Portuguese too. In Portuguese, the most common word for left-handed person, canhoto, was once used to identify the devil, and canhestro, a related word, means "clumsy" (sinistro means only "sinister"). The left side is often associated with awkwardness and clumsiness. The Dutch expression "twee linkerhanden hebben" and the Bulgarian expression "dve levi ratse" ("to have two left hands") both mean being clumsy. The English phrase, to have "two left feet" means to be bad at dancing. As these are all very old words/phrases, they support theories indicating that the predominance of right-handedness is an extremely old phenomenon. In ancient China, the left has been the "bad" side. The adjective "left" (左 Mandarin : zuǒ) means "improper" or "out of accord". For instance, the phrase "left path" (左道 Mandarin: zuǒdao) stands for illegal or immoral means. In Welsh , the word chwith means left, but can also mean strange, awkward, or wrong. The phrase o'r chwith refers to an object being inside-out. [22] In Norwegian , the expression venstrehåndsarbeid (left-hand work) means "something that is done in a sloppy or unsatisfactory way". Additionally, one of the Norwegian words for left-handed, "keivhendt", comes from Norwegian words meaning wrong handed or not straight handed. The Hungarian word balfácán means twit. (Bal means left and fácán is for pheasant.) Other synonyms are balfék and balek. However all these are euphemistic versions of the original vulgar word balfasz, combining "bal" and the vulgar name of the male genitals fasz. In Ireland left handedness is called a "ciotógach" (kitt-oog) which is Irish for left-handed. It is frequently used amongst native Irish people, e.g. "she gave him a slap of the ciotógach after he insulted her at the bar" the word ciotógach is not derogatory and is held with affection amongst left-handed people. In some parts of the English-speaking world 'cack-handed' is slang for left-handed (it is also used to mean clumsy). The origin of this term is disputed, but some suggest it is derived from the Latin cacare, in reference to the habit of performing ablutions with the left hand, leaving the right hand 'clean'. [23] However, other source suggest that it is derived from the Old Norse word keikr, meaning "bent backwards" [24] The common Australian slang for a left-handed individual is the term Molly-Dooker, whose origins cannot be ascertained for certain. Amongst Muslims , and in some societies including India , it is customary to use the left hand for cleaning oneself with water after defecating. The right hand is commonly known in contradistinction from the left, as the hand used for eating. Even the word " ambidexterity " reflects the bias. Its intended meaning is, "skillful on both sides". However, since it keeps the Latin root "dexter", which means "right", it ends up conveying the idea of being "right-handed at both sides". This bias is also apparent in the lesser-known antonym "ambisinistrous", which means "clumsy on both sides" and derives from the Latin root "sinister." [25] In Esperanto , the word "left" is rendered maldekstra, literally meaning "opposite of right." A left-handed person is a maldekstrulo. The prefix mal- does not mean "bad", but simply "opposite"; in fact, "generous" translates as malavara, meaning "opposite of greedy." A neologism liva was not accepted by the speakers. In Russian , "to stray left" is a euphemism for being unfaithful to a spouse or partner. Southpaw Edit "Southpaw" redirects here. For other uses, see Southpaw (disambiguation) . A left-handed individual may be known as a southpaw, particularly in a sports context. It is widely accepted that the term originated in the United States , in the game of baseball . [26] Ballparks are often designed so that batters are facing east, so that the afternoon or evening sun does not shine in their eyes. This means that left-handed pitchers are throwing with their south-side arm. However, the Oxford English Dictionary lists a non-baseball citation for "south paw", meaning a punch with the left hand, as early as 1848, [27] just three years after the first organized baseball game. In boxing , someone who boxes left-handed is frequently referred to as southpaw. The term is also used to refer to a stance in which the boxer places the right foot in front of the left, so it is possible for a right-handed boxer to box with a southpaw stance. Most boxers, southpaw or otherwise, tend to train with sparring partners who adopt an orthodox stance which gives southpaws an advantage. In tennis , a southpaw holds the racket in their left hand. Because of this their grip of the handle is supposedly adjusted in a slightly different style than right-handed players. Some left-handed persons may find the term offensive, especially if the term is not used in the context of a players preferred hand in sports. This is partially due to the modern obscurity of the term outside of the Southern United States, where it is used more frequently than other areas, thus causing a perception of slander by those unfamiliar with the term. Accessibility of implements and skills File:Japanese knife blade types.png Left-handed people are sometimes placed at a disadvantage by the prevalence of right-handed tools in society. Many tools and devices are designed to be comfortably used with the right hand. For example, (right-handed) scissors, a very common tool, are arranged so that the line being cut along can be seen by a right-handed user, but is obscured to a left-handed user. Furthermore, the handles are often molded in a way that is difficult for a left-hander to hold, and extensive use in such cases can lead to varying levels of discomfort. Most importantly, the scissoring or shearing action - how the blades work together (how they are attached at the pivot) - operates correctly for a right-hander, but a left-hander will tend to force the blades apart rather than shearing the target substance. [28] The computer mouse is sometimes made to fit the right hand better. Many computer installations have the mouse placed on the right side, making it awkward for left-handers to use without moving the mouse to the other side of the keyboard. Some mouse drivers and operating systems allow the user to reconfigure the mouse buttons to reverse their functions. However, being left-handed does not always mean the person uses the mouse on a computer with the left hand; many left-handers can use the mouse right-handed because they learned it that way from the start. It can be said that this is an advantage as one can use the mouse with their non-dominant hand, leaving their left to do tasks such as taking notes. While European-style kitchen knives are symmetrical, Japanese kitchen knives have the cutting edge ground asymmetrically , with ratios ranging from 70-30 for the average chef's knife, to 90-10 for professional sushi chef knives; left-handed models are rare, and usually must be specially ordered or custom made. [29] The lack of left-handed tools and machines in many workplaces is not only a nuisance to many left-handers, but has actually placed them at peril. In fact, some factories have installed left-handed equipment after successful class-action lawsuits on behalf of left-handed employees.[ citation needed ] Many well-intentioned companies have manufactured products with left-handers in mind, but have still failed to meet left-handers' needs. For instance, many companies have produced "left-handed scissors" by simply inverting the scissors' handles, making the grip work for the left-hander. Unfortunately, for scissors to function in a truly left-handed manner, their blades must also be mirror-inverted, without which the left-hander is forced to make a "blind cut" because the blade obscures the paper from view. Mundial and Fiskars are companies that have produced truly left-handed scissors, inverting both the blades and the handles. Left-handed adaptations have even bridged the world of music; guitars are often made especially for lefties, and there have even been inverted pianos where the deepest notes correspond to the rightmost keys instead of the leftmost. [30] Inverted trumpets are made, too, but at a considerably higher cost. The prevailing belief is that left-handed trumpeters aren't at a significant disadvantage; the French Horn, for example, is played with the left hand, yet most horn players are right-handed. Left-handed golf clubs were one of the earlier, and well-accepted, manifestations of a special version of an implement; the most notable left-handed-playing participant being Phil Mickelson (he is naturally right-handed). The sextant is a rare example of a device that is more convenient for a left-hander to use. The grip on almost all sextants is for the right hand, meaning a right-handed user has to put down the instrument in order to write down the measurement after taking a sighting. Handwriting Edit It can be difficult for left-handed children to learn to write if the teacher does not take the student's left-handedness into account. In fact, even in the later 20th century, some UK schools were discouraging children from writing with their left hand, often seriously affecting the child's development ( Hansard 1998 ). When properly done, left-handed writing is a mirror image to that of the right-hander, making the teaching process confusing for the right-handed teacher of a left-handed student. The result is that many left-handed children learn to write with their hand curled around the pen so that it can meet the paper at the same angle as the right-hander, rather than simply tilt the paper the opposite way.[ citation needed ] Once this habit is formed, it is difficult to break.[ citation needed ] This curling of the hand results in the heel of the palm being placed behind the writing, forcing the writer to lift it off the paper and making the grip even more awkward. In addition, constantly lifting and replacing the hand over fresh ink often causes smudging, causing problems for many left-handed students, especially in exam situations. When the left hand is held correctly, it is below the writing, as is typical for right-handers. However, left-handed people who speak Arabic , Persian , Urdu and Hebrew or any other right to left language, do not have the same difficulties with writing. The right to left nature of these languages prevents left-handers from running their hand on the ink as happens with left to right languages. Still, due to these alphabets being developed for right-handed people, the characters are still often more easily matched to a right-handed profile. Firearms Edit The vast majority of firearms are designed for right-handed shooters, with the operating handle, magazine release, and/or safety mechanisms set up for manipulation by the right hand, and fired cartridge cases ejected to the right. Also, scopes and sights may be mounted in such a way as to require the shooter to place the rifle against his or her right shoulder. A left-handed shooter must either purchase a left-handed firearm (which are manufactured in smaller numbers and are generally more expensive and/or harder to obtain), shoot a right-handed gun left-handed (which presents certain difficulties, such as the controls being improperly located for them or hot shell cases being ejected towards their body, especially their eyes), or learn to shoot right-handed (which may pose additional problems, primarily that of ocular dominance ). Fortunately for left-handed people, modern guns feature more ambidextrous or right/left-handed reversible operating parts than their predecessors(such as the H&K G36). Bullpup rifles are particularly problematic for lefties unless they can be reconfigured, since empty shells would be ejected fast and straight into the shooter's face and cheek potentially causing injury. Lever action and pump action firearms present fewer difficulties for lefties than bolt action weapons do. Left-handedness and intelligence Edit In his book Right-Hand, Left-Hand, [31] Chris McManus of University College London argues that the proportion of left-handers is rising and left-handed people as a group have historically produced an above-average quota of high achievers. He says that left-handers' brains are structured differently in a way that widens their range of abilities, and the genes that determine left-handedness also govern development of the language centers of the brain. McManus also says that the increase in the 20th century of people identifying as left-handed could produce a corresponding intellectual advance and a leap in the number of mathematical, sporting, or artistic geniuses. In 2006, researchers at Lafayette College and Johns Hopkins University in a study found that left-handed men are 15 percent richer than right-handed men for those who attended college, and 26 percent richer if they graduated. The wage difference is still unexplainable and does not appear to apply to women. [32] Prevalence with age Edit In Britain , a study in the 1970s found that around 11 percent of men and women aged 15–24 were left-handed, compared to just 3 percent in the 55-64 age category. [33] The study suggests that 'cultural pressures' for right-hand use were prevalent in the industrial societies in the 18th and 19th centuries (with the advancement of mass literacy), and that those pressures were only significantly relaxed in the 'later decades' of the 20th century. The study also refers to tests on medieval skeletons that show evidence of hand-usage similar to today's, which suggests that hand-prejudice was not always part of UK society. Right-Hand, Left-Hand author Chris McManus also suggests a number of factors that may have led to the modern increase in left-hand usage: Left-handers suffered severe prejudice during the 18th and 19th centuries and it was often "beaten out" of people [ citation needed ] In adulthood, left-handers were often shunned by society, resulting in fewer marrying and reproducing As prejudice declined in the 20th century, the number of natural left-handers who stayed left-handed increased The rising age of motherhood contributed as, statistically, older mothers are more likely to give birth to left-handed children. [ citation needed ] Statistics show that older people are less likely to be left-handed than their younger counterparts — the percentages of left-handed people sharply drop off with increased age. In the U.S., 12 percent of 20 year olds are left-handed, while only 5 percent of 50 year olds and less than 1 percent of people over 80 are. [34] A study [35] published in 1991 claimed that these statistics indicate that left-handed people's lifespans are shorter than those of their right-handed counterparts by as much as 9 years. The authors suggested that this may be the result of left-handed people being more likely to die in accidents as a result of their "affliction", which renders them clumsier and ill-equipped to survive in a right-handed world. Many subsequent studies have shown no evidence that left-handed people have reduced longevity compared to right-handed people [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] According to The Left-Hander Syndrome [41] most people were only forced to write with their right hand and allowed to continue being left-handed in most other respects indicating that the decline in older left-handers is not from being forced or switching in later life. Dory Previn wrote a song in which she explains that she was born left-handed but nuns in her school "broke her out of it"; later in life, she went back to using her left hand she said "I went back to using my left, my natural hand," and discovered her musical talent, among other things. Nuns are often associated with training left-handers to write with their right hand. However, this practice was common in both religious and non-religious schools. The training was due to the difficulty left-handers had writing with liquid ink or fountain pens . When writing with these pens, the side of the left-hander's hand would smear the writing as it passed over the newly-written words. Fountain pens have widely been replaced by the ballpoint pens, although traditional teaching methods still stipulate the use of fountain pens.[ citation needed ] Left-sidedness Edit Studies show that left-handedness does not necessarily correspond with "left-sidedness" (such as using your left foot to kick with), though most left-handed people tend to have "left-sidedness". The same effect holds with ocular dominance. It has also been found that people have dominant sides of the body, such as the eye, foot, and ear. Possible effects in humans on thinking Edit There are many theories on how being left-handed affects the way a person thinks. One theory divides left- and right-handed thinkers into two camps: visual simultaneous vs. linear sequential. [42] [43] [44] [45] According to this theory, right-handed people are thought to process information using a "linear sequential" method in which one thread must complete its processing before the next thread can be started. Left-handed persons are thought to process information using a "visual simultaneous" method in which several threads can be processed simultaneously. Another way to view this is such: Suppose there were one thousand pieces of popcorn and one of them was colored blue. Right-handed people—using the linear sequential processing style—would look at the popcorn one at a time until they encountered the blue one. The left-handed person would spread out the pieces of popcorn and look at all of them to find the one that was blue. A side effect of these differing styles of processing is that right-handers need to complete one task before they can start the next. Left-handers, by contrast, are capable and comfortable switching between tasks. This seems to suggest that left-handed people have an excellent ability to multi-task, and anecdotal evidence that they are more creative may stem from this ability to multi-task. Right-handed people process information using "analysis", which is the method of solving a problem by breaking it down to its pieces and analyzing the pieces one at a time. By contrast, left-handed people process information using "synthesis", which is the method of solving a problem by looking at the whole and trying to use pattern-matching to solve the problem. [45] The hypothesis that left-handed people are predisposed to visual-based thought has been validated by a variety of evidence. In the 2004 book Brains That Work a Little Bit Differently, [46] researchers Allen D. Bragdon and David Gamon, Ph.D., briefly described some of the current research on handedness and its significance. "Handedness researchers Coren and Clare Porac have shown that left-handed university students are more likely to major in visually-based, as opposed to language-based subjects. Another sample of 103 art students found an astounding 47 percent were left- or mixed-handed." [page 76] Ultimately, being left-handed is not an all-or-nothing situation. The processing styles operate on a continuum where some people are more visual-simultaneous and others are more linear-sequential. See also	i don't know
In which sport do you score 6 points for a goal and 1 point for a behind?	Australian Rules Football Information \| GLoBALL PROGRAM Help Australian Rules Football Information To help you enjoy and understand the game of Australian Rules football here is some basic information, but if you do have any questions please do not hesitate to ask one of our friendly GLoBALL ambassadors at the game! Australian Rules football… Australian Rules football is a home-grown Australian game that is affectionately known as Aussie Rules or Footy. It originated in Australia and is a unique Australian sporting experience as it is not played professionally in any other country! Different countries are however gaining interest in the sport and teams can be found in East Timor, The United States of America, Japan and New Zealand. The game… Essentially, it’s about two opposing teams attempting to kick goals and finish the match with the biggest points tally. A goal is scored when the football is kicked through the taller posts (the goalposts) and is worth 6 points. If the football goes between either of the shorter outside posts (the behind posts), a behind is scored and 1 point is added to that team’s tally. The action continues through four quarters and for close to two hours. Enjoy the spectacle! Understanding the action… TEAMS: Games involve two teams of 22 players with 18 from each team on the field at any one time with an additional 4 players that it can rotate on and off during the game. There is no limit on how many changes teams can make. DURATION: Games are divided into 4 quarters of 20 minutes. Extra time is added for stops in play so most quarters run for about 30 minutes. Teams swap ends after each quarter. Total game time is about 2 hours. STARTING THE GAME: The game starts when a siren sounds. An umpire then bounces the ball high into the air inthe centre of the ground. One player from each team- ‘ruck men’ then tries to tap the ball to their team mates. The ball is also bounced in the centre to start each quarter and after a goal has been scored. MOVING THE FOOTBALL: Teams try to get the football and then run, kick and handball it towards their goals. If a player marks the ball (catches it), they are entitled to a set kick and the opposition is not allowed to touch him until he plays on. Players can also run with the ball. TACKLING: A player can win the ball by tackling an opponent. A legal tackle is performed by grabbing an opponent with the ball, below the shoulders and above the knees. Players are not allowed to push an opponent in the back while making a tackle and tackled players must correctly dispose of (pass) the ball within a reasonable time (1 to 2 seconds). A free kick is awarded against a player caught in possession of the ball with a legal (good) tackle. If the tackle is illegal (inappropriate) a free kick will be awarded to the player with the ball. SCORING: The aim of the game is to kick goals. Kicking the ball through the taller middle posts (the goalposts) = 6 points. If the ball goes between a goalpost and the smaller outside posts (the behind posts), a behind (1 point) is scored. The score is written with the goals first, the behinds second, and the total points last. 14 Goals – 9 Behinds – 93 points in total The team that finishes with the highest total of goals and behinds is the winner. POSITIONS: Teams line – up in ‘lines’ of 3 players across the ground. They are: Backline There are also 3 other players who rove around the ground. UMPIRES: There are 3 field umpires who control the game. There are also umpires in each goal and boundary umpires who decide when the ball has gone out and then throw it back in. Extra information… BOUNCING - A player running with the ball must bounce or touch the ball on the ground every 15m. HANDBALL - A handball involves holding the football in one hand and hitting it with the clenched fist of the other hand. MARK- Awarded when a player catches a kick that has travelled at least 15m on the full and has not been touched by any player. As for a free kick the player may go back and dispose of the ball unimpeded by the opposition. HOLDING THE BALL - Players cannot throw the ball or drop the ball. Players must pass the ball by foot or hand or they can be penalised for ‘holding the ball’. The umpire will definitely award this penalty if a player has opportunity to pass the ball. The shout of ‘BALL!!” is perhaps the most common cry from football crowds. It generally means the player has been tackled before he released the ball and had opportunity to do so. Or that he dropped the ball. HOLDING THE MAN - A free kick is awarded to a player that has been tackled whilst not in possession of the ball. SHEPPARDING - An opposition player may be shepparded (blocked) from a contest provided he is within 5m of the contest. This is done by standing between the opposition player and your teammate with the ball. 50m PENALTY - Awarded by the umpire when a player disputes umpires decision, abuses an umpire or does not return the ball to the opposition correctly after a penalty awarded (i.e. must give the ball back on the full –not place on the ground or throw away). THE LEAGUE - The Australian football League (AFL) has 18 teams. Teams come from across Australia and include: Adelaide Crows	Australian rules football
Which town or city has a rugby league team called the Rams?	Australian Rules Football Information \| GLoBALL PROGRAM Help Australian Rules Football Information To help you enjoy and understand the game of Australian Rules football here is some basic information, but if you do have any questions please do not hesitate to ask one of our friendly GLoBALL ambassadors at the game! Australian Rules football… Australian Rules football is a home-grown Australian game that is affectionately known as Aussie Rules or Footy. It originated in Australia and is a unique Australian sporting experience as it is not played professionally in any other country! Different countries are however gaining interest in the sport and teams can be found in East Timor, The United States of America, Japan and New Zealand. The game… Essentially, it’s about two opposing teams attempting to kick goals and finish the match with the biggest points tally. A goal is scored when the football is kicked through the taller posts (the goalposts) and is worth 6 points. If the football goes between either of the shorter outside posts (the behind posts), a behind is scored and 1 point is added to that team’s tally. The action continues through four quarters and for close to two hours. Enjoy the spectacle! Understanding the action… TEAMS: Games involve two teams of 22 players with 18 from each team on the field at any one time with an additional 4 players that it can rotate on and off during the game. There is no limit on how many changes teams can make. DURATION: Games are divided into 4 quarters of 20 minutes. Extra time is added for stops in play so most quarters run for about 30 minutes. Teams swap ends after each quarter. Total game time is about 2 hours. STARTING THE GAME: The game starts when a siren sounds. An umpire then bounces the ball high into the air inthe centre of the ground. One player from each team- ‘ruck men’ then tries to tap the ball to their team mates. The ball is also bounced in the centre to start each quarter and after a goal has been scored. MOVING THE FOOTBALL: Teams try to get the football and then run, kick and handball it towards their goals. If a player marks the ball (catches it), they are entitled to a set kick and the opposition is not allowed to touch him until he plays on. Players can also run with the ball. TACKLING: A player can win the ball by tackling an opponent. A legal tackle is performed by grabbing an opponent with the ball, below the shoulders and above the knees. Players are not allowed to push an opponent in the back while making a tackle and tackled players must correctly dispose of (pass) the ball within a reasonable time (1 to 2 seconds). A free kick is awarded against a player caught in possession of the ball with a legal (good) tackle. If the tackle is illegal (inappropriate) a free kick will be awarded to the player with the ball. SCORING: The aim of the game is to kick goals. Kicking the ball through the taller middle posts (the goalposts) = 6 points. If the ball goes between a goalpost and the smaller outside posts (the behind posts), a behind (1 point) is scored. The score is written with the goals first, the behinds second, and the total points last. 14 Goals – 9 Behinds – 93 points in total The team that finishes with the highest total of goals and behinds is the winner. POSITIONS: Teams line – up in ‘lines’ of 3 players across the ground. They are: Backline There are also 3 other players who rove around the ground. UMPIRES: There are 3 field umpires who control the game. There are also umpires in each goal and boundary umpires who decide when the ball has gone out and then throw it back in. Extra information… BOUNCING - A player running with the ball must bounce or touch the ball on the ground every 15m. HANDBALL - A handball involves holding the football in one hand and hitting it with the clenched fist of the other hand. MARK- Awarded when a player catches a kick that has travelled at least 15m on the full and has not been touched by any player. As for a free kick the player may go back and dispose of the ball unimpeded by the opposition. HOLDING THE BALL - Players cannot throw the ball or drop the ball. Players must pass the ball by foot or hand or they can be penalised for ‘holding the ball’. The umpire will definitely award this penalty if a player has opportunity to pass the ball. The shout of ‘BALL!!” is perhaps the most common cry from football crowds. It generally means the player has been tackled before he released the ball and had opportunity to do so. Or that he dropped the ball. HOLDING THE MAN - A free kick is awarded to a player that has been tackled whilst not in possession of the ball. SHEPPARDING - An opposition player may be shepparded (blocked) from a contest provided he is within 5m of the contest. This is done by standing between the opposition player and your teammate with the ball. 50m PENALTY - Awarded by the umpire when a player disputes umpires decision, abuses an umpire or does not return the ball to the opposition correctly after a penalty awarded (i.e. must give the ball back on the full –not place on the ground or throw away). THE LEAGUE - The Australian football League (AFL) has 18 teams. Teams come from across Australia and include: Adelaide Crows	i don't know
Which 60s fashion icon gave it all up to run a hotel in Cornwall?	Jean Shrimpton made a major contribution to fashion \| 9 Dec The BBC4 drama ‘We’ll Take Manhattan’ shows a young photographer David Bailey in 1962, who got commissioned (by fashion editor Lady Clare Rendlesham) to create a 14 page story for British Vogue in New York and the style had to be ‘young and fresh’. Bailey , as Jean always called David, insisted on using his girlfriend Jean Shrimpton as the model. Jean had a very clean, fresh look to her and was different to all other models working for Vogue. At the time almost everything was shot in a studio and all followed a classic guideline of poses and looks. David Bailey, being passionate and stubborn about his work, changed all this by breaking the rules. He took offbeat, realistic poses against gritty backgrounds. This changed fashion forever and made David Bailey and Jean Shrimpton fashion icons. Trailer ‘We’ll Take Manhattan’ . Jean Rosemary Shrimpton (born 7 November 1942) was born in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire and brought up on a farm. She enrolled at Langham Secretarial College in London when she was 17. Director Cy Endfield suggested she attend the Lucy Clayton Charm Academy’s model course. In 1960, aged 17, she began modelling and later appeared on the covers of Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar and Vanity Fair. During her career Jean Shrimpton was widely reported as ‘the world highest paid model’ and ‘the most famous model’. She was described as having ‘world’s most beautiful face’, was dubbed ‘The It Girl’ and ‘The Face of the ’60s’. Jean contrasted with the aristocratic-looking models of the 1950s by representing the fresh, cute coltish look of the 1960s Swinging London. Breaking the popular mould of voluptuous figures with her long legs and slim figure. Jean (nicknamed ‘The Shrimp’, a name she hated. ‘Shrimps are horrible pink things that get their heads pulled off! ) was also known for her long hair with fringe, wide doe-eyes, long wispy eyelashes, arched brows and pouty lips. Jean was once engaged to David Bailey. They met in 1960 at a photo shoot that Jean, who was still an unknown model, was working on with photographer Brian Duffy. Duffy told Bailey she was too posh for him, but Bailey was not discouraged. Jean Shrimpton:”‘Bailey’ was how he introduced himself and that was all I ever called him.” Aged 18, Jean rapidly found herself entwined with the East End boy on the up, who was five years her elder. “We were instantly attracted to each other.” She broke off a relationship and Bailey ended his marriage so they could be together. “He was a larger-than-life character, and still is. There’s a force about him. He doesn’t give a damn about anything. But he’s shrewd, too. He made a lot of money out of me. I’m not bitter, but I’m irked. That’s all. Bailey was very important to me. I’m sure today’s models are a lot more switched-on than we were. Image rights didn’t exist back then. What happened – the creation of the fashion industry – just happened.” Jean started to become known in the modelling world around the time she was dating Bailey. She has stated she owed Bailey her career. In turn she was Bailey’s muse and his photographs of her helped him rise to prominence in his early career. Yet she was never comfortable with the trappings of their success-when Bailey took her to trendy nightclubs, Jean would take her knitting along… Bailey ones said of Jean: “She was magic. In a way she was the cheapest model in the world-you only needed to shoot half a roll of film and then you had it.” Jean’s romance with Bailey did not last long, only 4 years. It was the heady, early days of the swinging 60s and the couple worked tirelessly together, but Jean left Bailey to begin a relationship with Terence Stamp. “Our paths first crossed when Bailey photographed us together for Vogue and then we met again at a wedding. I was aware of him because he was so good-looking. But it was Bailey who accidentally brought us together. Terry seemed ill at ease, self-conscious and standoffish, but Bailey talked to him, as he always does with people, and ended up inviting him to come with us to see my parents in Buckinghamshire later that day.” But if Stamp’s looks captivated Jean, his personality was less straightforward. The beautiful duo were soon an item – to Bailey’s dismay – but their three years together left Shrimpton puzzled. Certainly, there is no love lost now: “Terry has said that I was the love of his life, but he had a very strange way of showing it. We lived together in a flat in Mayfair, but he never gave me a set of keys; one day I walked into his room to talk to him and he simply turned his back on me, swivelling his chair to stare silently out of the window. That sort of thing was typical. He was very peculiar.” Work, though, was good. By her mid-twenties she was known the world over and she’d also made a major, if unwitting, contribution to fashion when she was hired to present prizes for the Melbourne Cup in Australia. Jean’s dressmaker, Colin Rolfe, was given insufficient fabric, but pressed ahead regardless, making four outfits which were all cut just above the knee. The miniskirt was born – to the shock of conservative Australia at the time. (this is one of a few stories about how the miniskirt was born….) . . But for all the fame, the exotic travel and approaches from famous stars such as Warren Beatty and Jack Nicholson – “they’re the kind who can’t help themselves, it’s in their nature, though Jack was more subtle than Warren” –Jean was not happy. She loathed the name “The Shrimp” and felt disenchanted with the fashion world. With hindsight, she said her true self only began to emerge in her next relationship, with photographer Jordan Kalfus, 12 years her senior, in New York. “I discovered museums, art and literature. It was an awakening. There was so much happening in American literature at the time. Mailer, Bellow, Burroughs, Ginsberg – they were all the rage.” She began to read eagerly and bought fine art. Back in Britain a turbulent relationship with the anarchic poet Heathcote Williams was followed by another with writer Malcolm Richey, with whom she moved initially to Cornwall. By now, in her early thirties, Jean was only too pleased to forsake modelling completely. She opened an antiques shop in Marazion and took a series of intriguing black-and-white photographs of local Cornish characters. She has never exhibited the images and has no intention of doing so, but one was of Susan Clayton, then a waitress at the Abbey Hotel. After Jean met her husband, Michael Cox and became pregnant with their son, Thaddeus, she was told by Clayton that the Abbey might be up for sale. “I jumped at it. If we’d had a survey, we wouldn’t have bought it and running it has been a labour of love, but it’s been my life for over 30 years.” She and Michael had their reception at the Abbey, a million miles from the fashion-world weddings of St James’s. “We had champagne with fish’n’chips, but the only guests were our two registry office witnesses.” Jean Shrimpton loves the raw, wild beauty of the far west of Cornwall, but does she have any regrets about turning her back on the life she once led? “No, but I am a melancholy soul. I’m not sure contentment is obtainable and I find the banality of modern life terrifying. I sometimes feel I’m damaged goods. But Michael, Thaddeus and the Abbey transformed my life.” Jean Shrimpton Quotes:	Jean Shrimpton
Who kept her face in a jar by the door?	1000+ images about Jean Shrimpton on Pinterest \| Models, Swinging london and Guy bourdin Jean Shrimpton: An Autobiography: Fab pp autobiography by Jean Shrimpton, international model extraordinaire with front cover photography by David Bailey!~ See More	i don't know
Who was the first artistic director of the National Theatre, started at the Old Vic in 1963?	Everything Kevin Spacey - The Old Vic Theatre Company Current Productions » In February 2003, Kevin Spacey announced that he was returning to London to become the artistic director of The Old Vic Theatre Company . While appearing at a press conference with Dame Judi Dench and Sir Elton John, Spacey made the commitment to remain in the post for at least ten years. He promised to both appear on stage and to bring in big-name talent. More recently Kevin has said that he plans to remain at the helm of The Old Vic until 2015. Spacey's first season started in September 2004, and opened with the British premiere of the play Cloaca by Maria Goos, which Kevin Spacey directed. In 2005, Spacey made his UK Shakespearean debut to good notices in the title role of Richard II , which was directed by Trevor Nunn. In mid-2006, Spacey performed in productions of National Anthems by Dennis McIntyre, and The Philadelphia Story by Philip Barry, in which he played C. K. Dexter Haven, which was the Cary Grant role in the film version. In the 2006 season, Spacey suffered a setback with a production of Arthur Miller's Resurrection Blues , directed by Robert Altman. Despite an all-star cast and the pedigree of Miller's script, the play opened to a critical panning, and closed after only a few weeks. Later in the year, Spacey starred in Eugene O'Neill's A Moon for the Misbegotten along with Colm Meaney and Eve Best. The play received excellent reviews for Spacey and Best and was transferred to Broadway in 2007. During the 2008 season, Jeff Goldblum and Laura Michelle Kelly joined Spacey as the three characters in David Mamet's 1988 play Speed-the-Plow . In January 2009, Kevin directed the premiere of Joe Sutton's Complicit with Richard Dreyfuss, David Suchet and Elizabeth McGovern. From September through December 2009, Trevor Nunn directed Kevin Spacey in a revival of Inherit The Wind , a play based on a true story of a teacher arrested for teaching his students evolution, also known as the "Scopes Monkey Trial". Kevin Spacey was cast as defense lawyer Henry Drummond, a role that was made famous by actor Spencer Tracy in the 1960 film of the same name. Kevin Spacey and British director Sam Mendes teamed up again for a transatlantic stage production of Shakespeare's Richard III , the final production of Sam Mendes' Bridge Project . The Bridge Project was a unique three-year series of co-productions by BAM, The Old Vic, and Neal Street, devoted to producing large-scale, classical theater for international audiences with casts featuring actors from both the US and the UK. Richard III ran at The Old Vic in London from June until September 2011, and then toured Greece, Hong Kong, Spain, Istanbul, Naples, San Francisco, Beijing, Singapore, Sydney, and Doha prior to a U.S. engagement at the Brooklyn Academy of Music from January 10 through March 4, 2012. Kevin Spacey can remember the exact night he decided to become the artistic director of the Old Vic. It was in November 1999, and American Beauty for which the actor would go on to win a second Academy Award had premiered the day before at the London Film Festival. The following evening, there was Spacey, chairing an industry pow-wow in a rehearsal room above the Old Vic, discussing the future of the venerable theatre on whose board he sat. "What is the Old Vic?" says the actor, recalling the meeting's topics of conversation nearly five years later. "Why is it held in such affection? Why has it gone into the period it's gone into?" Which is to say, into decline. Later that same evening, Spacey, back in his hotel, found himself unable to sleep. Heading downstairs at 2:30 a.m. to go for a walk, he instead hailed a cab in the rain and asked the driver to take him to the National. I walked to the South Bank and just sat and looked at that building, and was thinking about Laurence Olivier and about what he did when he started a national theatre," he says. "Then I walked down the four or five blocks to this theatre and sat in the cement park across the street. I looked up at the Vic, and I thought, 'What are you doing? You're on this committee making all these lists when, in your heart of hearts, what you have wanted to do since you were 13 years old is run a theatre.'" And at that moment, the die was cast, even if, smiles Spacey, "we kept it a secret for four years". - TimesOnline, September 05, 2004 Kevin Discusses his role at the Old Vic, October 2010 Watch the Charlie Rose Interview: A conversation with actor Kevin Spacey, October 13, 2005. Charlie Rose and Kevin Spacey discuss Kevin's work as the artistic director at London's 'Old Vic Theatre' and the production of 'Richard II'. This is an informative and interesting 39 minute interview where Kevin talks in depth about his work at The Old Vic. I never, ever want to lose touch with when I was fourteen or fifteen years old and I was dreaming about building a theater and I was dreaming about doing plays and writing things with friends and watching them perform. I never went through a period where I thought, 'Oh, I'll do something else,' or 'Maybe this isn't right.' Never. -- Kevin Spacey, Cigar Aficionado, February 2003 There is also a great focus on young people through an education program called Old Vic New Voices (OVNV) , which supports young actors, directors, writers and producers to learn their craft; invests in ground breaking programs in schools to raise aspiration among young people; and works with charities and local organizations to enable those in the community to participate.	Laurence Olivier
The Beatles had an unbroken run of number one British singles from 1963 until, in March 1967, they were pushed into second place. By which singer?	The Old Vic Lilian Baylis, black and white photograph, around 1930 Lilian Baylis' Old Vic provided the starting point for the formation of Britain's national ballet, opera and theatre companies and for the careers of stars such as Ralph Richardson, John Gielgud, Vivien Leigh, Peggy Ashcroft and Flora Robson. Baylis was one of the greatest pioneers in the history of British Theatre. She came to England from South Africa to help her aunt, Emma Cons, run the Old Vic Theatre in putting on popular temperance concerts for the working class, offering an alternative to the pub. She then took over its management after her aunt's death in 1912. At first she ran the hall according to her aunt's ideas: Thursday was music night with ballad concerts, opera tableaux, and oratorio, Saturday was variety, Tuesday lectures, Friday temperance lectures and on Monday and Wednesday the theatre was let to other societies. By 1914 Lilian had gained a theatre licence and began to produce plays. In the early years of the Old Vic audiences were often sparse and conditions in the theatre were poor. Sybil Thorndike recalled playing Macbeth to a house of less than a dozen. The floor was sprinkled with sawdust, the seats were wooden benches, there were no proper dressing rooms, the scenery still worked on the groove principle and there was no proper lighting system. While Baylis was also committed to staging affordable theatre, she saw no reason why the inhabitants of Waterloo shouldn't enjoy Shakespeare, opera and ballet. Under her management, every Shakespeare play was produced between 1913 and 1923 and she staged operas and ballets at the Old Vic and Sadler's Wells. Her work laid the foundation for both the National Theatre and the English National Opera. In 1928 she employed Ninette de Valois who created the ballet company that would eventually become the Royal Ballet. In 1924 Lilian Baylis was awarded an honorary Master's degree from Oxford University (only the second woman to receive one) and in 1929, she became a Companion of Honour, an honour awarded for service to the nation. In 1920 Robert Atkins was appointed Shakespearean director. In five years he consolidated the work of the Shakespearean company and established it as a valid and recognisable company. It was during this time that the Old Vic produced every play in the Shakespeare First Folio achieving a then unique record. 1925 Atkins was succeeded by Andrew Leigh. Under him, the first of the West End stars crossed Waterloo Bridge for the opportunity to learn the craft of playing Shakespeare. Within the next few years a new generation of actors were to pass through the Vic - the giants of 20th century acting. Among them were John Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, Peggy Ashcroft, Laurence Olivier, Edith Evans, Michael Redgrave, Alec Guinness, James Mason, Flora Robson and Emlyn Williams. The audience of ordinary people drawn from a new lower middle class - clerks, typists and shop-workers, was a very important part of the particular Vic atmosphere. This was a new era of popular education that was aided by the growth of radio, popular science and the newly founded Penguin Press. The London City Council school matinees were also an important part of life at the Vic and through them many schoolchildren got their first taste of Shakespeare. In 1933 director Tyrone Guthrie seized the opportunity to make radical changes. It was he who finally split the companies into separate theatres. The opera and ballet company went to Sadler's Wells and the Shakespeare company stayed at the Old Vic. Guthrie expanded the programme to include work other than by Shakespeare and generally raised production standards. In the 1930s the Old Vic became England's leading theatre and a training ground for a generation of successful actors and directors. The 1944 to 1945 season of the Old Vic company was one of the richest periods of great acting in the 20th century with Olivier's Richard III and Richardson's Falstaff and Cyrano de Bergerac. When the company returned to the Old Vic in the 1950s a new generation started to emerge, including Claire Bloom and Judi Dench. Having been the nearest thing to a National Theatre in Britain it finally became the temporary home for the new National Theatre Company in 1963 under the direction of Laurence Olivier. Since then the Old Vic has seen off various funding crises and is still committed to innovation, supporting the work of up and coming actors, director and writers. In 2003 Kevin Spacey was appointed artistic director.	i don't know
Which British film from 1963 won four Oscars and was based on a novel first published in 1749?	‎Tom Jones (1963) directed by Tony Richardson • Reviews, film + cast • Letterboxd 5 Part of the Best Picture Project I'll cut around the bullshit. Tom Jones is pretty awful and one of the worst films to ever win Best Picture. The writing features the plot of an Adam Sandler film with none of the wit. The direction of the film is smug and hateful despite its lighthearted face (a farce without grace if you will). The social commentary is shallow and misplaced. But worst of all is that it's just not really funny for a comedy, and is only vaguely amusing in the film's closing minutes at which point the film is in a rush to get nowhere and doesn't even attempt to mine for some comedy out of the situation. So why… 4 This is one of those Best Picture winners that hardly is ever brought up in conversations not mainly because it was undeserving of its win but because overall it's just not a very good film. While it may be common for the Academy to award costume dramas, Tom Jones is a peculiar choice mostly because it's notably more comedic than the usual costume drama that they would aim for, but with that distinction there's not so much else that makes Tom Jones stand apart. Although I've seen worse Best Picture winners than this, Tom Jones is indeed a bad film, but it also holds the distinction of being what might arguably be the most misogynistic film I've seen to win… #10 of 12 films in my Adapted Screenplay Challenge English author Henry Fielding (1707~1754) has been credited as "instrumental in the emergence of the novel as a respected literary form." This particular work, "The History of Tom Jones - A Foundling," was published in 1749, a quarter century before America's founding. It allegedly helped pave the way for the fictional works of Charles Dickens, George Eliot and William Makepeace Thackeray, among others. The edition I read was part of the Encyclopedia Britannica's "Great Books" collection of 1952, with 405 pages printed in a double column format. I'd be willing to wager that few, if any, of the AMPAS jurors who nominated the film version "Tom Jones" for Best Adapted Screenplay… Review by Jacob Olsen ★★ «To those who find our hero's behavior startling, the answer is simple: Tom had always thought that any woman was better than none. While Molly felt that one man wasn't quite as good as two.» Now, let's take a look at some of what was British film in the Year of the Lord 1963. Lord of the Flies Review by Tom ★★★★½ I quite surprised that Tony Richardson, infamous for such superbly down beat kitchen sink dramas as Look Back in Anger and A Taste of Honey, can still in opposite make such a laugh out load comedy as this. The film is clearly soaked in French New Wave and used to masterful affect. I think it goes without saying Richardson is one of the best British directors there's ever been! The hunting scene is definitely a stand out, with some brilliant shots and a subtle critique on the gluttony & excess of the rich. Whilst the first hour of the film is probably Richardson's finest work if you ask me, however sadly in the second hour the film wavers slightly as the… Film #14 of Scavenger Hunt Mini #1 Task #13: The newest Best Picture winner you have not yet seen. ORIGINAL: letterboxd.com/kalo23/list/scavenger-hunt-mini-1-november-2016/ I've seen a lot of the Best Picture winners. Every one that came after this and the majority of the ones prior to it. And while I almost always disagree that the Best Picture winner for a year is actually the best film that came out in those 365 days, I usually see the merit of that film, think it's a great film in its own right, or recognize that it's simply not for me. After watching 1929's Best Picture, The Broadway Melody, I saw for the first time a Best Picture winner that I actually thought was a…	Tom Jones
The Profumo affair is frequently blamed for bringing down the Conservative government in 1964. Who created the scandal by introducing John Profumo to Christine Keeler?	Tom Jones Reviews & Ratings - IMDb IMDb 13 January 2017 4:39 PM, PST NEWS 71 out of 86 people found the following review useful: Wonderful, even 37 years later from Seattle 4 January 2004 This was a great film in its time, and is still a great one today. Well-directed, well-acted, well-shot, great soundtrack, and based on a splendid literary vehicle. It's frustrating to see so much uninformed voting and so many uninformed remarks on this otherwise wonderful site; I guess its inevitable since anyone can post anything. But I would like to point out that Tom Jones did not sleep with his mother as erroneously alleged, and that Albert Finney, 26 or 27 years old at the time of shooting this film, clearly did not look too old for his part. I haven't read the book(s), but from the film it's obvious that Dickens was much indebted to Fielding, using his amazing invention as a convoluted plot model (and perhaps a character-naming model) for many of his works. Go rent this film after seeing Finney in the currently playing Big Fish -- it's great to see him do so well in such very different films made in different millenia, nearly a full professional lifetime apart. Was the above review useful to you? 55 out of 63 people found the following review useful: Lyric beauty, bawdy humor and adventure set to celluloid and music. Author: H.J. 30 August 1999 In 1963 two of the most important productions in the history of movie making were released. The first was: "Cleopatra" with Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor, a cast as long as the Manhattan telephone directory and a budget bigger than the combined egos of the stars. "Cleopatra" was a total disaster. It has no redeeming quality that I know of. It is therefore important for embodying in one film, nearly everything that you can do wrong in making a movie. It is a movie that you must see if you are ever to understand what a truly good film really is. The second was: "Tom Jones" with Albert Finney and Susannah York, shot with rented equipment and costumes on the streets of London with a supporting cast of brilliant British ensemble players and extras who stood-in just to get in a film. Tom Jones is simply one of the best motion pictures of all time, for my money, The Best from Literature. John Osborne who wrote the screen play produced a marvelous vehicle, but the genius of "Tom Jones" is Tony Richardson. He moves the actors and the story about the screen with a bawdy grace and earthy gentility that paints action and raucous laughter and beauty across one another with an even hand. It is a glimpse of antiquity so close and real that we can nearly touch it, and it makes us want to. (Though to be perfectly honest, I'm not sure we'd care for the smell of it.) "Tom Jones" is a low budget, low tech, high quality film that must win the award for the "Most with the Least." The photography is beautiful, not because it used a dozen half million dollar cameras, it is beautiful because it is good photography. The acting wins out, and casts of thousands would only serve to clutter the stage. See this film whenever, wherever and as often as you possibly can. Was the above review useful to you? 50 out of 58 people found the following review useful: One of the greatest farces of all time from Lake Helen, Florida 29 April 2000 Tome Jones came out of the wonderful 60's when all the stuffy conventions of British theater, film and music were turned upside down. I first saw this film while stationed in Wiltshire in the Royal Air Force, and having grown up in the industrial West Riding of Yorkshire, my eyes had only recently been opened to the staggering beauty of the English countryside. Tom Jones represented that unspoiled English countryside to me. I could smell the hay, the wildflowers and the livestock. Never mind that unless you were rich it was serf labor, I saw England through a wonderful fantasy of a film. The action never stopped. This movie was just hilarious from beginning to end. No glossing over the crude realities of country life - this was a period when the poor folk shared their hovels with the chickens and other small animals, when sex was raw, albeit punished on Sundays, and when the local gentry had their way with the wenches. Rarely has there been such a belly laugh of a movie. Laugh until the tears roll down your face. Was the above review useful to you? 38 out of 42 people found the following review useful: I fell off my chair! from Atlanta, GA 5 September 2000 While my mother claims this is a "guy movie," I'm not a guy and find it one of the funniest, most charming movies ever made. The narration, music and just plain spunky tone of this movie makes it a unique piece -- you really DO have to see it to understand what it's all about! I highly recommend this movie -- as well as the book, which was published in 1749 but is just as funny today and highly readable, not "quaint" at all! Was the above review useful to you? 37 out of 41 people found the following review useful: it gives the sense of the joy of living through the movie media at the highest level from Alessandria, Italy 10 April 1999 "Tom Jones" is a movie adaptation of the classic Eighteenth century novel masterpiece of Henry Fielding made up by the greatest contemporary British playwriter John Osborne and directed by one of the main film directors of English Free Cinema, Tony Richardson. This film came at end of this golden period of the English Cinema in the sixties and it is the highest moment of this cinema. "Tom Jones" shows in the person of Tom Jones (the masterly Albert Finney) the point of view of the angry young man looking to the stupidity and the hypocrisies of the Eighteenth century society, which resembles our times. It is not at all just a funny film, even if some scenes are extremely funny and are some classics in the history of cinema, famous like the one in which Tom eating a rich supper with his woman is really looking like eating her with the eyes. "Tom Jones" is the adventurous hystory of a modern hero, who finally conquers his true love, after any kind of trouble. This is an highly cinematographic film, e.g. the movement of the camera gives itself the idea of happiness in the scenes of love in the country of Tom and Sophie (the beautiful and greatest Susannah York), the drama of the situation in which Tom risk to be hanged or the funniness in the bawdy scenes in the inn. In the beginning the film even outlines the beginning of the complex story using even the style of the silent cinema...Tom Jones/Albert Finney even also speaks directly to the public of the film reaching with his greatest originality an extreme level of funniness and pleasantness. The photography of the film resembles with its colours and views the landscapes of English painting of the Eighteenth century, like in Hogarth's pictures. The fox hunting scene is pictorially beautiful. The actors are all the best of the English theatre of that period and playing at their best, where theatre is so important and lively in England. Concluding, a film that gives the sense of the joy of living through the movie media at the highest level, it's a must to see even only this film, a masterpiece of the forgotten but greatest English film director, Tony Richardson. As Giancarlo Grazzini, the greatest Italian cinematographic critic of that time, wrote, it was the best film presented at the Film Festival of Venice, worthy of winning also the Golden Lion there and not just the Oscars! Was the above review useful to you? 38 out of 45 people found the following review useful: Stand and Deliver! from NAS Ream Field 8 July 2000 A fun and fresh screen adaption of British writer Henry Fielding's 18th Century novel of the same name, made at the threshold of the swinging (19)Sixties. Like the original story's French counterpart (Les Liaisons Dangereuses=Dangerous Liaisons), at its heart is a mannered metropolitan love triangle. But before we arrive in the heart of London the stage is set amidst the lush green English countryside in Summer. Here we first meet the protagonist, Tom Jones, played by Albert Finney in his most youthful bloom, and his extended family representing every facet of post-Glorious Revolution England. An incorrigible ne'er-do-well, Tom's genuine love for his neighbor Squire Alworthy's daughter Sophie (a very lovely Susannah York), takes him to the heart of fashionable London society in a series of comedic wrong-turns and misunderstandings. Here he becomes embroiled in the games of the jaded aristocrat Lady Bellaston played by Joan Greenwood. Greenwood steals the show as the original Mrs. Robinson and, through her machinations, Tom is led to the gallows. But at the last minute... Throughout the movie is paced with a modern sense of realism, made effective by hand-held camera sequences and the quick editing of Antony Gibbs. Old-fashioned film techniques are used effectively with eye-to-the-camera realism, and convey an up-to-date feel. There are moments of beauty as well as comedy in this very satisfying entertainment. The cast is stellar with many familiar names--Hugh Griffith, Rachel Kempson, David Warner (in his first movie), the settings realistic, and the the musical score a perfect fit. A great time overall! An interesting note, supposedly this is the last movie seen by John F. Kennedy (in a White House screening) before he was assassinated. Was the above review useful to you? 38 out of 49 people found the following review useful: Thirty Seven years later.......it remains a splendid piece of art from La Rioja, Spain 27 December 2000 Just two hundred years after Henry Fielding's novel appeared, the theatre-actor-turned-cinema-director Sir Tony Richardson rounded up a few Shakespearean-trained prodigees, got John Addison to compose hectic clavichord accompaniment a little in the style of Handel operas and set all this against lush photography to produce one of the most hilarious films of the last five hundred years. Fielding's novel which is a most definite recommendation rather cynically but good-humouredly exposed mid-eighteenth century British hypocrisy at its best and the landed gentry's obsession for fox-hunting at its worst. Richardson directed all this a bit like an elderly Sir Thomas Beecham ('the important thing is we all start and stop together; nobody notices what happens in between') raising his baton in front of the London Symphony Orchestra: the result in both cases is astounding. Richardson conducts his piece at a tremendous pace, Addison's clavichord tripping along gaily so as to keep up the illusion, and visual sequences such as a young trouserless Albert Finney escaping out of a window, shinning down a tree and running off into the nocturnal depths of a beech forest, all combine to keep you breathlessly awaiting the next scene. Susannah York is just delicious, with that innocent facial beauty that raises heartbeats, especially in the latter parts; and Angela Baddely as Mrs. Wilkins and Diane Cilento as Molly play some great scenes. And some of the great scenes are worth telling...... Tom and Mrs. Wilkins enjoy a good roast with fruit, eating lusciously and lascivously, eating each other up with their sparkling eyes: this scene is hugely delightful. The other great scene is the fox-hunt: this alone puts the whole film into a special category: brilliant film-making, almost comparable to the famous chariot race in Ben Hur........ I loved this film 37 years ago, and recently had the luck to see it again: having doubled my years, I was just as enthralled and enraptured as the first time. A splendid piece of art. Was the above review useful to you? 29 out of 34 people found the following review useful: Magnificent movie with four deserved Academy Award winner Author: ma-cortes 19 November 2005 Tom Jones (Albert Finney) is a 18th century orphan who is adopted by an aristocrat but he lives his own life in mirth and freedom . The philander English lad has good heart and affinity for troubles and an eye for the ladies , confronting amorous and bawdy adventures . His true love is Sophie (Susannah York) , the daughter of a higher-class rich owner (Hugh Griffith). The picture is a lavish rendition of a classic novel written by Henry Fielding with lots of entertainment and fun . It is plenty of satire , irony , comedy , tongue-in-cheek and amusement . Nice acting by Albert Finney ; however , he felt the lead role wasn't serious enough, and agreed to star only if he got a producing credit ; he later traded the credit for profit participation . Very good support cast gives splendid acting . Feature film debut for David Warner , Julian Glover and Lynn Redgrave . Lively and jolly soundtrack by John Addison , author of numerous classic scores of the English Free Cinema . The film was very well directed by Tony Richardson who in 1977 made an attempt to return with similar character -Joseph Andrews- but the freshness , inspiration and magic had gone . It is followed by a sequel -The bawdy adventures of Tom Jones- an exploitive extension directed by Cliff Owen with Arthur Lowe , Joan Collins and Trevor Howard . Tom Jones picture was undoubtedly the biggest year . The film obtained Academy Awards in 1963 to best film for United Artists , Director -Tony Richardson- , adapted screenplay -John Osborne- and original music -John Addison- and was nominated : Albert Finney , Hugh Griffith , Diane Cilento , Joyce Redman and Edith Evans by their robustly agreeable characterization . Well worth watching. Was the above review useful to you? 28 out of 36 people found the following review useful: A New Sense of Moderism from United States 6 April 2005 This is an adaptation of a large book, a Henry Fielding novel. In the early 1700's the growing middle class in Europe, especially in the British Empire, became literate. As an entertainment to get through the long hours of new leisure, novels flew from the printing presses. Tom Jones was a hit from the first. It was a bawdy tale with amusing detail. It is lucky that an experienced playwright like John Osborne was assigned the screenplay and double lucky that a fine director, Tony Richardson brought the tale to life. Indeed, Richardson is a poet with the lush English countryside. Since much of the film depicts Tom Jones' amorous adventures in the grass with Molly Seagram, the peasant wench, on a skiff with the Squire's daughter, Sophie, in the tavern with Mrs.Wilkens, and in the suites of a countess, the bawdy adventures spin by as food shoots from the mouths of lovers. There are also duels, a misunderstanding about the linage of the Jones baby, and an unwanted suitor for the lovely Sophie, Susan York. I saw this film as a teen in 1963 and it telegraphed a new sense of modernism and sexual freedom without pretense that is ironic since Fielding's story was hundreds of years old on the eve of the Beatles and the swinging London of the 60's. Was the above review useful to you? 19 out of 22 people found the following review useful: one of my personal favorites from United States 15 July 2005 If you cannot enjoy this movie, you have no relish for life and comedy and the human spirit. Albert Finney and Suzannah York are a delightful couple as Tom and his one love Sophie. One of the great things about the movie is the comments to the audience by Tom. The technique is not new (see The Road Movies), but it is used to great comic effect. And the voice-over narrator enhances all the action. If you don't know the story, Tom Jones is about a 'bastard' boy trying to make his way in the 1700's world of England. The story is delightful through, with the requisite villains, 'fallen' and lusty women, sword fights and some amazing coincidences. Everything about the movie is delightful, with great production values and an excellent cast. If you haven't seen this movie, please do so. I don't see how you can not enjoy it from beginning to end. Was the above review useful to you? Page 1 of 6:	i don't know
Which famous piece of music was commissioned for the reconsecration of Coventry Cathedral in 1962?	Music in the Time of War \| Exploring Music 3:42 Program 2 The second show picks up where the first one left off, this time looking from a Russian perspective. Pyotr Tchaikovsky’s famous 1812 Overture tells the tale of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in a way suggestive of Beethoven’s Wellington’s Victory, but in a matter that is fair to both sides…and of course, features cannons. We continue looking at Russian music of war by examining Sergei Prokofiev’s Battle on the Ice, written for the film score to Alexander Nevsky. The scene depicts Nevsky’s battle against the Teutonic Knights and how they are overcome by their own weight on a thawing frozen lake. This segment then concludes with Dmitri Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 13, subtitled Babi Yar after a location in Ukraine where thousands of Jews and gypsies were rounded up and massacred by the Nazis. 19:41 Program 3 The third segment travels to America, and features a great wealth of tunes regarding warfare relating to our own country. We begin with a William Billings New England minutemen tune that almost became the national anthem. Another William Billings song, “Chester”, is examined next in a version set for orchestra by William Schumann. Again from New England is the first of Charles Ives’ Three Places in New England, a monument to the first African-American regiment to march in the civil war, located in Boston. Morton Gould is next, with a popular patriotic piece called American Salute that can often be heard during patriotic holidays. It was composed during the Civil War to the sad tune of “When Johnny Comes Marching Home." Another piece from the Civil War days is Ralph Vaughn Williams’ Dona nobis pacem, which utilizes a couple of texts written by poet Walt Whitman for inspiration. We hear two: “Beat! Beat! Drums!” and “Reconciliation." Staying in the Civil War, we hear the Confederate 26th Regiment Quick-step, a popular Southern brass band tune. It was intended to keep soldiers’ spirits up while marching, something both sides utilized. Martial music would continue to be utilized into the days of the Second World War, an era when Samuel Barber wrote the Commando March for the US Army Air Corps marching band (before the days of an Air Force). The legacy of the Second World War lived on in documentary footage and in this piece by Richard Rogers, who was called on by NBC TV to write an opening theme for the television show Victory at Sea. Next is Aaron Jay Kernis’ second symphony, written in reaction to the Persian Gulf War of 1991. This segment closes with an oddly lighthearted piece; the opening to the TV show MAS*H. 6:13 Program 4 The fourth and fifth segments are dominated by Benjamin Britten’s War Requiem. It was written in 1962 for the reconsecration of Coventry Cathedral, destroyed during the Battle of Britain in the Second World War, and was intended to make as much use of the new space as possible. Before each section of War Requiem are two somewhat related pieces. First is the second and third movements of Vaughn Williams’ Pastoral Symphony, his third, written in memory of the friends he lost during the First World War. Second is Lovliest of Trees, a short, beautiful song written by George Butterworth. After Britten’s massive, piece closes, the show closes with another Butterworth piece, the song Lads of a Hundred. Purchase Program 5 The fourth and fifth segments are dominated by Benjamin Britten’s War Requiem. It was written in 1962 for the reconsecration of Coventry Cathedral, destroyed during the Battle of Britain in the Second World War, and was intended to make as much use of the new space as possible. Before each section of War Requiem are two somewhat related pieces. First is the second and third movements of Vaughn Williams’ Pastoral Symphony, his third, written in memory of the friends he lost during the First World War. Second is Lovliest of Trees, a short, beautiful song written by George Butterworth. After Britten’s massive, piece closes, the show closes with another Butterworth piece, the song Lads of a Hundred.	War Requiem
The Biba boutiques were at the heart of swinging London and at one time had the highest turnover of any British retail company. Who founded and ran Biba?	Britten: War Requiem, Op. 66 on CD, SACD, DVD, Blu-ray & download (MP3 & FLAC) - Buy online from Presto Classical Festival Ensemble Stuttgart, Helmuth Rilling Britten’s War Requiem may be one of the largest and most enduring works of the 20th century. Soloists Annette Dasch, James Taylor and Christian Gerhaher, along with conductor Helmuth Rilling give a truly shattering performance of Britten’s huge choral masterpiece. This is a very welcome release presented in superb SACD sound. “The orchestra sounds almost human in its emotional involvement, while the choral singing is of the highest order. Add the beautiful solo performances and it’s impossible to recommend this highly enough.” Classic FM Magazine, March 2009 “A wonderful performance and a most moving experience. Critically, one must keep the experience (subjective) as distant from the relatively objective facts of the performance as possible: on this occasion that wasn't very easy, or even desirable. Certainly all the elements in this complex organisation are well served. The soloists are admirable, Annette Dasch pure in tone, powerfully concentrated in style, James Taylor a tenor whose voice can respond to what is gentle and compassionate in his music as to the unsparing harshness, and Christian Gerhaher authoritative, humane and (like the others) entirely firm in his singing. The choir is fine in blend, precision and enunciation; the boys' choir, too, ideal in its embodiment of unsanctimonious sanctity. For the chamber ensemble and full orchestra, only admiration, as for the recording's producer and engineer who have dealt so well with the difficult task of keeping these elements distinct and unifying them at the same time. Above all, we must honour their conductor, whose mature guidance is everywhere in evidence. It's the sense of unity that has distinguished this experience of the War Requiem most especially. Rarely has it moved with such logic. That seems a strange word to use in the description of what was so deeply emotional, yet it's right. For the first time the work moved with the singleminded force of a geometrical theorem. Darkness and light, war and peace, noise and quiet are the unifying opposites throughout. The selection and sequence of Owen's poems are so wellfitting that the line – can you call it 'of argument'? – is unbroken and all goes forward to the almost painful easement of 'Let us sleep now'. Do to try it for yourself.” Gramophone Classical Music Guide, 2010 “A wonderful performance, and listening to it… has been a most moving experience. The soloists are admirable… The choir is fine in blend, precisions and enunciation; the boys' choir too, ideal in its embodiment of unsanctimonious sanctity. For the chamber ensemble and full orchestra, only admiration... Above all, we must honour their conductor, whose mature guidance is everywhere in evidence.” Gramophone Magazine, November 2008 “Rilling is undoubtedly an efficient choir trainer - the Festivalensemble Stuttgart manages even the trickiest passages of Britten's choral writing with suave assurance” The Guardian, 24th October 2008 Boston Symphony Orchestra , Erich Leinsdorf An outspoken pacifist, composer Britten combined texts from the Latin Mass for the Dead with the sharply poignant writings of the World War I poet Wilfrid Owen to create one of the most gripping works of the modern classical repertoire. This video presents the historic 1963 American premiere of the War Requiem, as performed by the Boston Symphony Orchestra under the direction of its Music Director, Erich Leinsdorf. The soloists are Phyllis Curtin, soprano; Nicholas Di Virgilio, tenor; and Tom Krause, baritone. The DVD boasts a magnificent stereo soundtrack drawn from the Boston Symphony archives. “Although visually showing its age, the stereo sound on this broadcast of the American premiere of the War Requiem sounds remarkably fresh and vivid, and Leinsdorf is authoritative.” BBC Music Magazine, April 2008 ** “'It makes criticism impertinent,' thought Peter Shaffer of the War Requiem, and for all Stravinsky's grousing that any such criticism would be 'as if one had failed to stand up for God Save theQueen' the piece still carries as much sense of occasion as it evidently did at this, its American premiere in 1963, a year after its fraught first performance. What a contrast. The al fresco acoustic of the Tanglewood Music Shed may have been no more favourable in its way than that of Coventry Cathedral, though, you might think miraculously, there is no trace of indistinctness or inadequacy about the stereo sound preserved by WGBH Boston to accompany its telecast. Nor is there about the performance, which was evidently prepared with all the care that such an occasion merited. The hero of the hour is preeminently Leinsdorf, who picked the work as the centrepiece of his first season as Tanglewood's music director. Whatever else the WarRequiem stands for, its performance here serves as a conducting masterclass. Leinsdorf stands ramrod-straight, no baton, and his timing and pacing are equally impeccable, honed by his years in the pit at the Met. When he raises his left hand, infrequently, it is either to conduct the chamber ensemble to his left or to indicate 'too loud'. When both arms are aloft and the eyes blaze at the climax of the Sanctus, on the upbeat to the 'Hosanna', the response is electrifying, as though all heaven's angels had joined the already excellent Chorus Pro Musica. It would be easy but misleading to equate the unyielding body language with the interpretation: a strict, dry-eyed tempo for the 'Lacrymosa' makes all the more sense when it eventually contrasts so poignantly with the tenor's desperate cry of 'Was it for this the clay grew tall', as though the ancient liturgy was cracking under the strain of expressive necessity. The booklet-note accurately summarises Nicholas Di Virgilio's contribution as having 'a robust and honest American style', though he rises to the challenge in the brief but crucial Agnus Dei and is less troubled by the passaggio between D and F than many Britten tenors past and present. As Di Virgilio does elsewhere, the Finnish baritone Tom Krause perhaps responds more to Britten's setting than to Owen's poetry in 'Be slowly lifted up', though the trumpet obbligato is something of a highlight, and the singer ratchets up the tension for the apocalyptic recapitulation of the Dies irae. Phyllis Curtin's soprano matches Leinsdorf for unobtrusive clarity – and she never scoops, despite every Verdian invitation to do so. A one-off event invites excuses for slips of all kinds, but there are none, and the breathless hush from the 11,000-strong audience suggests that the stoic power latent in Britten's testament affected them as it might anyone watching 44 years hence.” Gramophone Classical Music Guide, 2010 “A relative once told me of being in Israel for the national premiere of Britten’s War Requiem. There was a hush at the end, nobody seeming quite sure how to react to such an original, startling work. Then, as they say, the roof came off. Some of that same sense of amazement can be felt in this thrilling film of its US debut. It doesn’t hurt that the performance itself is electrifying.” Gramophone Magazine London Philharmonic Orchestra , London Philharmonic Choir & Tiffin Boys’ Choir, Kurt Masur & Neville Creed (chamber orchestra) ‘Masur drew both blazing and heartbreakingly intimate playing from the LPO, while Creed directed the excellent chamber ensemble accompanying the male soloists superbly. A deeply affecting performance …’ (Annette Morreau on the live performance, The Independent 2005) “arguably the finest trio of soloists since the original performance under the composer...Christine Brewer, Gerald Finley, and Anthony Dean Griffey are all superb in their clean focus, pure and clear of tone, and the chorus is incisive throughout...[Masur] rivals all those who have gone before him.” Penguin Guide, 2010	i don't know
What is caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun on Earth?	What Causes the Tides? What Causes the Tides? By Lauren Cox, Live Science Contributor \| August 5, 2010 08:56am ET MORE Tides may seem simple on the surface, but the ins and outs of tides confounded great scientific thinkers for centuries they even led Galileo astray into a bunk theory. Today people know that the gravitational pulls between the earth, moon and sun dictate the tides. The moon, however, influences tides the most. The moon's gravitational pull on the earth is strong enough to tug the oceans into bulge. If no other forces were at play, shores would experience one high tide a day as the earth rotated on its axis and coasts ran into the oceans' bulge facing the moon . However, inertia -- the tendency of a moving object to keep moving -- affects the earth's oceans too. As the moon circles the earth, the earth moves in a very slight circle too, and this movement is enough to cause a centrifugal force on the oceans. (It's centrifugal force that holds water in a bucket when you swing the bucket in an overhead arc.) This inertia, or centrifugal force, causes the oceans to bulge on the opposite side facing the moon. While the moon's gravitational pull is strong enough to attract oceans into a bulge on the side of the earth facing the moon, it is not strong enough to overcome the inertia on the opposite side of the earth. As a result, the world's oceans bulge twice once when they are on the side of Earth closest to the moon , and once when they are on the side farthest from the moon, according to the Wood's Hole Oceanographic Institution in Wood's Hole, Mass. Geography complicates the tides, but many places on Earth experience just two high and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. (The extra 50 minutes is caused by the distance the moon moves each day as it orbits Earth). The sun and the tides "Solar tides" are caused by the sun's gravitational pull and are weaker than lunar tides. The sun is 27 million times more massive than the moon, but it is also 390 times farther away. As a result, the sun has 46 percent of the tide-generating forces (TGFs) that the moon has, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Solar tides are therefore often considered just variations on lunar tides. Local geography can vary tide strength as well. Just north of the coast of Maine in Canada, the Bay of Fundy has a unique funnel shape at just the right position to creates the largest tides in the world. Water in the bay can rise more than 49 feet (15 meters) or about as high as a 4-story house. FORCE, the Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy, estimates the Bay of Fundy pushes110 billion tons (100 billion metric tons) of water with every tide. Recently, local leaders have moved to take advantage of the tides. In July, Maine's Governor John Baldacci and Nova Scotia's Premier Darrell Dexter signed a Memorandum of Understanding to share research and ideas in tidal and offshore wind sources of renewable energy, according to Business Weekly. Understanding tides: then and now When Galileo Galilei attempted to explain tides in 1595, he left the moon out of this theory and focused on the inertia of the oceans and his correct idea that the earth orbited the sun, according to a NOVA documentary. It wasn't until 1687, that Sir Isaac Newton explained that ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction, according to NOAA.	Tide
In geology what is the term used for the layer between the Earth's crust and the core?	San Andreas Earthquakes Could Be Caused By Gravitational Pull of Sun and Moon : Science : Nature World News San Andreas Earthquakes Could Be Caused By Gravitational Pull of Sun and Moon By Jamie A. Jul 20, 2016 03:58 AM EDT Tides caused by the sun and moon’s gravitational pull could cause earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault, scientists said. (Photo : Michael R Perry / Flickr) Tides caused by the sun and moon's gravitational pull could cause earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault, scientists said. According to scientists, low-frequency earthquakes - which are small tremors deep underground - are more likely to occur as tides are strengthening or waxing. Tides, the rise and fall of the seas, are primarily caused by the gravitational tug of the sun and moon on Earth. But this pull does not only affect the seas but also stretches and compresses the Earth's crust. "The moon, when it's pulling in the same direction that the fault is slipping, causes the fault to slip more - and faster," Nicholas van der Elst, a seismologist and geophysicist at the U.S. Geological Survey's Earthquake Science Center in Pasadena, California and lead author of the study, said in a report by Phys.org . "What it shows is that the fault is super weak - much weaker than we would expect - given that there's 20 miles of rock sitting on top of it." In the study, which was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the researchers catalogued 81,000 low-frequency earthquakes that struck along the San Andreas Fault in California between 2008 and 2015. Low-frequency earthquakes are often no bigger than magnitude 1 on the Richter scale. According to the scientists, tidal strength varies over a two-week or fortnightly cycle. The strongest tides occur when the moon and sun are aligned (spring tides), while the weakest tides occur when the sun and moon are perpendicular to each other with respect to Earth (neap tides). The scientists found that the number of low-frequency earthquakes did not increase during the strongest point of the fortnightly cycle. Instead, it peaked as the tide was strengthening or waxing. According to van der Elst, these types of quakes were more likely to occur on days when tides were "larger than the previous day's tides by the greatest amount." "That tells you something about how fast the fault is loaded - how long it takes for the fault to recharge before you can trigger these earthquakes on it, how quickly this patch of fault is accumulating stress," van der Elst told Live Science . The researchers said that the study could somehow contribute to a better understanding of earthquakes and when and where the big earthquakes are likely to occur. "The hope is that looking at low-frequency earthquakes that happen deep in the fault will ultimately shed light on how shallow parts of the fault accumulate stress," van der Elst said.	i don't know
Which gas forms about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere?	atmosphere - National Geographic Society atmosphere Our atmosphere—the thin blue line. Photograph courtesy NASA Atmospheric Orbit Although the International Space Station orbits in the thermosphere, most satellites orbit the Earth outside its atmosphere. GPS satellites, for instance, are in orbit more than 20,000 kilometers (12,400 miles) above the Earth. Magnetosphere Earths magnetosphere is not considered part of the atmosphere. The magnetosphere, formed by the Earths magnetic fields, protects the atmosphere by preventing it from being blown away by powerful solar wind. Ingredients for Life Scientists have gathered enough information about other planets in our solar system to know that none can support life as we know it. Life is not possible without a stable atmosphere containing the right chemical ingredients for living organisms: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. These ingredients must be balanced—not too thick or too thin. Life also depends on the presence of water. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have atmospheres made mostly of hydrogen and helium. These planets are called gas giants, because they are mostly made of gas and do not have a solid outer crust. Mercury and Mars have some of the right ingredients, but their atmospheres are far too thin to support life. The atmosphere of Venus is too thick—the planet's surface temperature is more than 460 degrees Celsius (860 degrees Fahrenheit). Jupiter's moon Europa has a thin atmosphere rich with oxygen. It is likely covered by a huge ocean of liquid water. Some astrobiologists think that if life will develop elsewhere in the solar system, it will be near vents at the bottom of Europa's ocean. We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the atmosphere , a layer of gases surrounding our planet . Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 percent of the gases in dry air , with argon , carbon dioxide , helium , neon , and other gases making up minute portions. Water vapor and dust are also part of Earth ’s atmosphere. Other planets and moons have very different atmospheres, and some have no atmospheres at all. The atmosphere is so spread out that we barely notice it, yet its weight is equal to a layer of water more than 10 meters (34 feet) deep covering the entire planet. The bottom 30 kilometers (19 miles) of the atmosphere contains about 98 percent of its mass . The atmosphere—air—is much thinner at high altitudes. There is no atmosphere in space. Scientists say many of the gases in our atmosphere were ejected into the air by early volcanoes. At that time, there would have been little or no free oxygen surrounding the Earth. Free oxygen consists of oxygen molecules not attached to another element , like carbon (to form carbon dioxide) or hydrogen (to form water). Free oxygen may have been added to the atmosphere by primitive organisms, probably bacteria , during photosynthesis . Photosynthesis is the process a plant or other autotroph uses to make food and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Later, more complex forms of plant life added more oxygen to the atmosphere. The oxygen in today’s atmosphere probably took millions of years to accumulate . The atmosphere acts as a gigantic filter , keeping out most ultraviolet radiation while letting in the sun’s warming rays. Ultraviolet radiation is harmful to living things, and is what causes sunburns. Solar heat, on the other hand, is necessary for all life on Earth. Earth’s atmosphere has a layered structure. From the ground toward the sky, the layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere , and exosphere . Another layer, called the ionosphere , extends from the mesosphere to the exosphere. Beyond the exosphere is outer space . The boundaries between atmospheric layers are not clearly defined, and change depending on latitude and season . Troposphere The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer. On average, the troposphere extends from the ground to about 10 kilometers (6 miles) high, ranging from about 6 kilometers (4 miles) at the poles to more than 16 kilometers (10 miles) at the Equator . The top of the troposphere is higher in summer than in winter. Almost all weather develops in the troposphere because it contains almost all of the atmosphere’s water vapor. Clouds, from low-lying fog to thunderheads to high- altitude cirrus , form in the troposphere. Air masses, areas of high-pressure and low-pressure systems, are moved by winds in the troposphere. These weather systems lead to daily weather changes as well as seasonal weather patterns and climate systems, such as El Nino . Air in the troposphere thins as altitude increases. There are fewer molecules of oxygen at the top of Mount Everest , Nepal, for example, than there are on a beach in Hawaii. This is why mountaineers often use canisters of oxygen when climbing tall peaks. Thin air is also why helicopters have difficulty maneuvering at high altitudes. In fact, a helicopter was not able to land on Mount Everest until 2005. As air in the troposphere thins, temperature decreases. This is why mountaintops are usually much colder than the valleys beneath. Scientists used to think temperature continued to drop as altitude increased beyond the troposphere. But data collected with weather balloons and rockets have showed this is not the case. In the lower stratosphere, temperature stays almost constant. As altitude increases in the stratosphere, temperature actually increases. Solar heat penetrates the troposphere easily. This layer also absorbs heat that is reflected back from the ground in a process called the greenhouse effect . The greenhouse effect is necessary for life on Earth. The atmosphere’s most abundant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane . Fast-moving, high-altitude winds called jet streams swirl around the planet near the upper boundary of the troposphere. Jet streams are extremely important to the airline industry. Aircraft save time and money by flying in jet streams instead of the lower troposphere, where air is thicker. Stratosphere The troposphere tends to change suddenly and violently, but the stratosphere is calm. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause , the upper boundary of the troposphere, to about 50 kilometers (32 miles) above the Earth’s surface. Strong horizontal winds blow in the stratosphere, but there is little turbulence. This is ideal for planes that can fly in this part of the atmosphere. The stratosphere is very dry and clouds are rare. Those that do form are thin and wispy. They are called nacreous clouds. Sometimes they are called mother-of-pearl clouds because their colors look like those inside a mollusk shell. The stratosphere is crucial to life on Earth because it contains small amounts of ozone , a form of oxygen that prevents harmful UV rays from reaching Earth. The region within the stratosphere where this thin shell of ozone is found is called the ozone layer . The stratosphere’s ozone layer is uneven, and thinner near the poles. The amount of ozone in the Earth’s atmosphere is declining steadily. Scientists have linked use of chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to ozone depletion . Mesosphere The mesosphere extends from the stratopause (the upper boundary of the stratosphere) to about 85 kilometers (53 miles) above the surface of the Earth. Here, temperatures again begin to fall. The mesosphere has the coldest temperatures in the atmosphere, dipping as low as -120 degrees Celsius (-184 degrees Fahrenheit, or 153 kelvin). The mesosphere also has the atmosphere’s highest clouds. In clear weather, you can sometimes see them as silvery wisps immediately after sunset. They are called noctilucent clouds, or night-shining clouds. The mesosphere is so cold that noctilucent clouds are actually frozen water vapor— ice clouds. Shooting stars—the fiery burnout of meteors, dust, and rocks from outer space—are visible in the mesosphere. Most shooting stars are the size of a grain of sand and burn up before entering the stratosphere or troposphere. However, some meteors are the size of pebbles or even boulders. Their outer layers burn as they race through the mesosphere, but they are massive enough to fall through the lower atmosphere and crash to Earth as meteorites. The mesosphere is the least-understood part of Earth’s atmosphere. It is too high for aircraft or weather balloons to operate, but too low for spacecraft . Sounding rockets have provided meteorologists and astronomers their only significant data on this important part of the atmosphere. Sounding rockets are unmanned research instruments that collect data during sub-orbital flights. Perhaps because the mesosphere is so little understood, it is home to two meteorological mysteries: sprites and elves . Sprites are reddish, vertical electrical discharges that appear high above thunderheads, in the upper stratosphere and mesosphere. Elves are dim, halo-shaped discharges that appear even higher in the mesosphere. Ionosphere The ionosphere extends from the top half of the mesosphere all the way to the exosphere. This atmospheric layer conducts electricity . The ionosphere is named for ions created by energetic particles from sunlight and outer space. Ions are atoms in which the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons, giving the atom a positive (fewer electrons than protons) or negative (more electrons than protons) charge. Ions are created as powerful x-rays and UV rays knock electrons off atoms. The ionosphere—a layer of free electrons and ions—reflects radio waves. Guglielmo Marconi , the “Father of Wireless,” helped prove this in 1901 when he sent a radio signal from Cornwall, England, to St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. Marconi’s experiment demonstrated that radio signals did not travel in a straight line, but bounced off an atmospheric layer—the ionosphere. The ionosphere is broken into distinct layers, called the D, E, F1, and F2 layers. Like all other parts of the atmosphere, these layers vary with season and latitude. Changes in the ionosphere actually happen on a daily basis. The low D layer, which absorbs high-frequency radio waves, and the E layer actually disappear at night, which means radio waves can reach higher into the ionosphere. That’s why AM radio stations can extend their range by hundreds of kilometers every night. The ionosphere also reflects particles from solar wind , the stream of highly charged particles ejected by the sun. These electrical displays create auroras (light displays) called the Northern and Southern Lights . Thermosphere The thermosphere is the thickest layer in the atmosphere. Only the lightest gases—mostly oxygen, helium, and hydrogen—are found here. The thermosphere extends from the mesopause (the upper boundary of the mesosphere) to 690 kilometers (429 miles) above the surface of the Earth. Here, thinly scattered molecules of gas absorb x-rays and ultraviolet radiation. This absorption process propels the molecules in the thermosphere to great speeds and high temperatures. Temperatures in the thermosphere can rise to 1,500 degrees Celsius (2,732 degrees Fahrenheit, or 1,773 kelvin). Though the temperature is very high, there is not much heat. How is that possible? Heat is created when molecules get excited and transfer energy from one molecule to another. Heat happens in an area of high pressure (think of water boiling in a pot). Since there is very little pressure in the thermosphere, there is little heat transfer. The Hubble Space Telescope and the International Space Station (ISS) orbit the Earth in the thermosphere. Even though the thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere, satellites that operate here are in “ low-Earth orbit .” Exosphere The fluctuating area between the thermosphere and the exosphere is called the turbopause . The lowest level of the exosphere is called the exobase . At the upper boundary of the exosphere, the ionosphere merges with interplanetary space , or the space between planets. The exosphere expands and contracts as it comes into contact with solar storms. In solar storms particles are flung through space from explosive events on the sun, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Solar storms can squeeze the exosphere to just 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) above the Earth. When the sun is calm, the exosphere can extend 10,000 kilometers (6,214 miles). Hydrogen, the lightest element in the universe , dominates the thin atmosphere of the exosphere. Only trace amounts of helium, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and other gases are present. Many weather satellites orbit Earth in the exosphere. The lower part of the exosphere includes low-Earth orbit, while medium-Earth orbit is higher in the atmosphere. The upper boundary of the exosphere is visible in satellite images of Earth. Called the geocorona , it is the fuzzy blue illumination that circles the Earth. Extraterrestrial Atmospheres All the planets in our solar system have atmospheres. Most of these atmospheres are radically different from Earth’s, although they contain many of the same elements. The solar system has two major types of planets: terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) and gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune). The atmospheres of the terrestrial planets are somewhat similar to Earth’s. Mercury’s atmosphere contains only a thin exosphere dominated by hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Venus’ atmosphere is much thicker than Earth’s, preventing a clear view of the planet. Its atmosphere is dominated by carbon dioxide, and features swirling clouds of sulfuric acid . The atmosphere on Mars is also dominated by carbon dioxide, although unlike Venus, it is quite thin. Gas giants are composed of gases. Their atmospheres are almost entirely hydrogen and helium. The presence of methane in the atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune give the planets their bright blue color. In the lower atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn, clouds of water, ammonia , and hydrogen sulfide form clear bands. Fast winds separate light-colored bands, called zones, from dark-colored bands, called belts. Other weather phenomena , such as cyclones and lightning , create patterns in the zones and belts. Jupiter’s Great Red Spot is a centuries-old cyclone that is the largest storm in the solar system. The moons of some planets have their own atmospheres. Saturn’s largest moon , Titan , has a thick atmosphere made mostly of nitrogen and methane. The way sunlight breaks up methane in Titan’s ionosphere helps give the moon an orange color. Most celestial bodies, including all the asteroids in the asteroid belt and our own moon, do not have atmospheres. The lack of an atmosphere on the Moon means it does not experience weather. With no wind or water to erode them, many craters on the Moon have been there for hundreds and even thousands of years. The way a celestial body ’s atmosphere is structured and what it’s made of allow astrobiologists to speculate what kind of life the planet or moon may be able to support. Atmospheres, then, are important markers in space exploration. A planet or moon’s atmosphere must contain specific chemicals to support life as we know it. These chemicals include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon . Although Venus, Mars, and Titan have similar atmospheric gases, there is nowhere in the solar system besides Earth with an atmosphere able to support life. Venus’ atmosphere is far too thick, Mars’ far too thin, and Titan’s far too cold. Term vehicle able to travel and operate above the ground. airline system or business that provides air transportation. air mass a gas (NH3) important to food production. AM radio Noun (amplitude modification) method of radio communication using amplitude modification, or varying the strength of the radio signal. argon chemical element (gas) with the symbol Ar. asteroid Noun irregularly shaped planetary body, ranging from 6 meters (20 feet) to 933 kilometers (580 miles) in diameter, orbiting the sun between Mars and Jupiter. asteroid belt area of the solar system between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter filled with asteroids. astrobiologist person who studies the possibility of life in outer space. astronomer person who studies space and the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. atmosphere the basic unit of an element, composed of three major parts: electrons, protons, and neutrons. aurora Noun brightly colored bands of light, visible around Earth's geomagnetic poles, caused by solar wind interacting with particles in Earth's magnetic field. autotroph Noun organism that can produce its own food and nutrients from chemicals in the atmosphere, usually through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. (singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found in every ecosystem on Earth. beach dark-colored band of clouds on Jupiter or Saturn. boulder container, usually shaped like a long tube. carbon chemical element with the symbol C, which forms the basis of all known life. carbon dioxide Noun greenhouse gas produced by animals during respiration and used by plants during photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is also the byproduct of burning fossil fuels. celestial body natural object in space, such as a planet or star. Also called an astronomical object. chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Noun chemical compound mostly used in refrigerants and flame-retardants. Some CFCs have destructive effects on the ozone layer. cirrus to shrink or get smaller. coronal mass ejection huge burst of solar wind and other charged particles. crater cyclone Noun weather system that rotates around a center of low pressure and includes thunderstorms and rain. Usually, hurricanes refer to cyclones that form over the Atlantic Ocean. data (singular: datum) information collected during a scientific study. dominate standard measurement of gases that make up air at sea level, excluding water vapor. dust Earth Noun our planet, the third from the Sun. The Earth is the only place in the known universe that supports life. to get rid of or throw out. electricity set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. electron chemical that cannot be separated into simpler substances. El Nino Noun elves Plural Noun (Emissions of Light and Very low-frequency perturbations from Electromagnetic pulse Sources) halo-shaped electrical discharge in the upper atmosphere, usually appearing above sprites. Equator lowest level of the exosphere layer of Earth's atmosphere. exosphere Noun outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, beginning at an altitude of about 550 kilometers (341 miles) above the Earth's surface. expand filter Verb to remove particles from a substance by passing the substance through a screen or other material that catches larger particles and lets the rest of the substance pass through. fluctuate to constantly change back and forth. fog electron that has been temporarily knocked off an atom. free oxygen oxygen molecules that are not attached to other atoms or molecules. gas Noun state of matter with no fixed shape that will fill any container uniformly. Gas molecules are in constant, random motion. gas giant Noun one of the four enormous outermost planets in the solar system (Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus), composed mostly of gases instead of rock. Also called a Jovian planet. geocorona fuzzy blue layer of hydrogen surrounding the Earth at the upper boundary of the exosphere. gigantic enormous storm in Jupiter's Southern Hemisphere, which has been observed for more than 100 years. greenhouse effect Noun phenomenon where gases allow sunlight to enter Earth's atmosphere but make it difficult for heat to escape. greenhouse gas Noun gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone, that absorbs solar heat reflected by the surface of the Earth, warming the atmosphere. Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) Italian electrical engineer and inventor. helicopter aircraft that flies using rotating blades on top of the body of the craft. helium a light, colorless gas with the chemical symbol He. hot air balloon bag filled with lighter-than-air gas able to float in the atmosphere. Hubble Space Telescope (1990-present) large, versatile NASA telescope orbiting the Earth. hydrogen Noun chemical element with the symbol H, whose most common isotope consists of a single electron and a single proton. hydrogen sulfide chemical compound gas responsible for the foul odor of rotten eggs. ice satellite in low-Earth orbit that houses several astronauts for months at a time. interplanetary space Noun space within the solar system but outside the atmospheres of any planets or moons. Also called the interplanetary medium. ion Noun electrically charged atom or group of atoms, formed by the atom having gained or lost an electron. ionosphere outer layer of the Earth's atmosphere, 80-400 kilometers (50-250 miles) above the surface. jet stream between 160 kilometers (100 miles) and 2,000 kilometers (1,240 miles) above Earth's surface. low-pressure system Noun weather pattern characterized by low air pressure, usually as a result of warming. Low-pressure systems are often associated with storms. maneuver mass Noun unit of measurement (abbreviated m) determined by an object's resistance to change in the speed or direction of motion. medium-Earth orbit between 2,000 kilometers (1,243 miles) and 36,000 kilometers (22,370 miles) above the Earths surface. mesopause fluctuating area of the upper atmosphere between the mesosphere and the thermosphere. mesosphere Noun region in Earth's atmosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere, about 50-80 kilometers (31-50 miles) above the Earth's surface. meteor Noun person who studies patterns and changes in Earth's atmosphere. methane chemical compound that is the basic ingredient of natural gas. minute smallest physical unit of a substance, consisting of two or more atoms linked together. mollusk Mount Everest Noun highest spot on Earth, 8,850 meters (29,035 feet). Mount Everest is part of the Himalaya range, in Nepal and China. nacreous pearly, or resembling the inside of a shell. neon chemical element (gas) with the symbol Ne. nitrogen chemical element with the symbol N, whose gas form is 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. noctilucent glowing, high-altitude clouds visible in the twilight sky. ocean path of one object around a more massive object. outer space chemical element with the symbol O, whose gas form is 21% of the Earth's atmosphere. ozone form of oxygen that absorbs ultraviolet radiation. ozone depletion process of the Earth's atmosphere losing ozone. ozone layer Noun (singular: phenomenon) any observable occurrence or feature. photosynthesis Noun process by which plants turn water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide into water, oxygen, and simple sugars. pilot person who steers a ship or aircraft. planet organism that produces its own food through photosynthesis and whose cells have walls. pole extreme north or south point of the Earth's axis. primitive radio wave Noun electromagnetic wave with a wavelength between 1 millimeter and 30,000 meters, or a frequency between 10 kilohertz and 300,000 megahertz. region Noun any area on Earth with one or more common characteristics. Regions are the basic units of geography. device that moves through the atmosphere by release of expanding gas. sand small, loose grains of disintegrated rocks. satellite imagery photographs of a planet taken by or from a satellite. season rocky debris from space that enters Earth's atmosphere. Also called a meteor. significant solar flare Noun explosion in the sun's atmosphere, which releases a burst of energy and charged particles into the solar system. solar storm Noun sudden change in the Earth's magnetosphere, caused by the solar wind interacting with the Earth's magnetic field. Also called a geomagnetic storm. solar system the sun and the planets, asteroids, comets, and other bodies that orbit around it. solar wind Noun flow of charged particles, mainly protons and electrons, from the sun to the edge of the solar system. sounding rocket Noun instrument that is launched but does not go into orbit, taking measurements, gathering data, and performing scientific experiments before falling back to Earth. southern lights Noun the bright bands of color around the South Pole caused by the solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field. Also known as the aurora australis. spacecraft vehicle designed for travel outside Earth's atmosphere. specific electrical discharge in the upper atmosphere, usually above thunderhead clouds. storm severe weather indicating a disturbed state of the atmosphere resulting from uplifted air. stratopause fluctuating area of the upper atmosphere between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. stratosphere Noun level of Earth's atmosphere, extending from 10 kilometers (6 miles) to 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the surface of the Earth. sub-orbital flight that has not reached the altitude or velocity to achieve orbit. sulfuric acid toxic chemical made of hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. temperature one of the four planets closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, or Mars. thermosphere Noun layer of the Earth's atmosphere located between 80 kilometers (50 miles) and 550 kilometers (341 miles) above the Earth's surface. thunderhead low-level cloud that produces rain, thunder, and lightning. Also called cumulonimbus. Titan largest moon of the planet Saturn. tropopause boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere layers in the Earth's atmosphere. troposphere Noun lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, extending from the surface to about 16 kilometers (10 miles) above. turbopause fluctuating area of the upper atmosphere between the thermosphere and the exosphere. turbulence irregular, violent motion in the atmosphere. ultraviolet radiation Noun powerful light waves that are too short for humans to see, but can penetrate Earth's atmosphere. Ultraviolet is often shortened to UV. universe all known matter, energy, and space. unmanned lacking the physical presence of a person. valley depression in the Earth between hills. vapor visible liquid suspended in the air, such as fog. volcano Noun an opening in the Earth's crust, through which lava, ash, and gases erupt, and also the cone built by eruptions. weather balloon Noun hydrogen-filled balloon equipped with tools to measure temperature, humidity, pressure, and other aspects of the atmosphere. weather pattern repeating or predictable changes in the Earth's atmosphere, such as winds, precipitation, and temperatures. weather satellite instrument that orbits the Earth to track weather and patterns in the atmosphere. weather system movement of warm or cold air. wind Noun movement of air (from a high pressure zone to a low pressure zone) caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun. X-ray radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum with a very short wavelength and very high energy. zone	Nitrogen
The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere, where we live, is called what?	Composition of the Atmosphere \| Climate Education Modules for K-12 Composition of the Atmosphere Composition of the Atmosphere body The atmosphere is concentrated at the earth’s surface and rapidly thins as you move upward, blending with space at roughly 100 miles above sea level. The atmosphere is actually very thin compared to the size of the earth, equivalent in thickness to a piece of paper laid over a beach ball. However, it is responsible for keeping our earth habitable and for producing weather. Figure A The atmosphere is composed of a mix of several different gases in differing amounts. The permanent gases whose percentages do not change from day to day are nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the atmosphere, oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%. Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for about a tenth of one percent of the atmosphere. Water vapor is unique in that its concentration varies from 0-4% of the atmosphere depending on where you are and what time of the day it is. In the cold, dry artic regions water vapor usually accounts for less than 1% of the atmosphere, while in humid, tropical regions water vapor can account for almost 4% of the atmosphere. Water vapor content is very important in predicting weather. Greenhouse gases whose percentages vary daily, seasonally, and annually have physical and chemical properties which make them interact with solar radiation and infrared light (heat) given off from the earth to affect the energy balance of the globe. This is why scientists are watching the observed increase in greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane carefully, because even though they are small in amount, they can strongly affect the global energy balance and temperature over time.	i don't know
What is the name of the effect that deflects winds and currents as a result of the Earth's rotation?	Professional Development - Tides and Currents: NOAA's National Ocean Service Education Professional Development Home Education Professional Development Tides and Currents Currents Currents Currents are the motion in the ocean! While tides involve water moving up and down; currents are the back-and-forth movement of water. Two main components of currents are their speed and direction. A simple way to measure a current is to toss an object into the water and time how long it takes the object to travel a fixed distance. Technology allows us to be a little more accurate and sophisticated in our measurements. For example, the object in the water might be a buoy that is equipped with Global Positioning System technology and satellite communications to relay data and information about its change in position over time in the water. Physics of Currents Links for Teachers \| Links for Students Water is constantly moving. The engines driving surface and sub surface currents throughout the world ocean are wind and water density. To understand the dynamics of the global system of ocean currents, you must understand the effect that wind, air and water temperature, salinity, and Earth's rotation have on ocean currents. Wind is the flow of air between areas of high and low pressure. If Earth did not rotate, air in the atmosphere would basically circulate in a simple back-and-forth pattern between the poles (high pressure areas) and the equator (a low pressure area). The direction of surface currents would then align with this general wind pattern. But because Earth rotates, circulating air is deflected toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting in curved paths. This deflection is called the Coriolis Effect. Global winds drag on the water’s surface. Just as Coriolis deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, it also results in the deflection of major surface ocean currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere (in a clockwise spiral) and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere (in a counter-clockwise spiral). These major spirals of ocean-circling currents are called gyres and occur north and south of the equator. One particularly powerful western boundary current is the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream, paired with the eastern boundary Canary Current, flanks the North Atlantic gyre. The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastline of the United States and Newfoundland. It influences the climate of the east coast of Florida, keeping temperatures warmer in the winter. Since it also extends toward Europe, it warms western European countries as well. The location of modern-day currents exist because of the shape of the ocean basins. This has not always been the case. The long-term positions of currents have changed over millennia due to plate tectonics, climate, and periodic astronomical events such as asteroid impacts. Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s surface. However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface. These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the water’s density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). This process is known as thermohaline circulation. In Earth's polar regions, ocean water gets very cold, forming sea ice. As a consequence the surrounding seawater gets saltier, This happens because salt is left behind when sea ice forms. As the seawater gets saltier, its density increases, and it starts to sink. Surface water is pulled in to replace the sinking water, which in turn eventually becomes cold and salty enough to sink. This initiates the deep-ocean currents driving the global conveyer belt. The Global Conveyer Belt is the main avenue by which high temperatures are distributed around the globe moderating extremes and giving Earth more even air surface temperature. Coastal Currents Links for Teachers \| Links for Students Waves do not typically reach the beach perfectly parallel to the shoreline. Rather, they arrive at a slight angle. This angled impact with the coastline sets up a current that moves parallel to the shore. This is called a long-shore current. Longshore currents, which are very powerful during storms, erode sediments off a beach and transport them in the direction of the current. This process is known as longshore drift. Longshore drift influences the shape and composition of the coastline. It can change the slopes of beaches and create long, narrow shoals of land called spits, that extend out from shore. Longshore drift may also create or destroy entire barrier islands. Click here to view an animation of longshore currents. Another type of coastal current, upwelling, forms when water below the surface rises to replace surface waters that have been transported out of an area by strong winds. Click here to see an upwelling image. Rivers can affect coastal currents when their sediment deposits build up and redirect water flows. Shifting deposits in major navigable waterways require constant monitoring and dredging to maintain safe passage for vessels and keep navigation channels open. As a result of coastal currents, people have created structures to divert currents and their capacity to erode shorelines. Jetties, sometimes hundreds of feet long made of wood, stone, or concrete extend into the ocean forming barriers to deflect longshore currents. These structures are not always effective in preventing longshore drift and may divert the currents to other shorelines, which are then more heavily impacted by increased erosion or deposition. Constantly shifting sand bars and deposits are an ongoing concern for marine traffic. Many a vessel has run aground and been shipwrecked on uncharted sand bars. Open Ocean Currents Links for Teachers \| Links for Students Hydrodynamics is the study of water in motion. It explains how water flows and forms currents. The hydrodynamics of the ocean are very complex with thousands of miles of open ocean that can be thousands of feet of depth, however, there are a few basic patterns which can be easily explained. Open ocean currents are minimally influenced by tides. They flow in complex patterns affected by wind, the water’s salinity temperature, and Earth's rotation. In essence, open ocean currents are the steady flow of surface ocean water in a prevailing direction. Think of them as streams of water moving within the larger ocean body of water, either along the surface, or at depth. Though open ocean currents have no rigid borders (other than continents and other geographic features), their locations can be definite and have occurred continuously for thousands of years. Ocean currents are so large that they are measured in Sverdrup (Sv), where 1Sv is equivalent to a volume flow rate of 1,000,000 m3 (35,000,000 cu ft) per second. Without open ocean currents, heat would build up in the tropics, polar regions would be colder, and the climate in every corner of the planet would be very different. For example, without the warming influence of the Gulf Stream, the United Kingdom and parts of Northern Europe would be colder and snowier like other countries at that latitude. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, replenish nutrients in surface waters from upwelling of deeper waters, and provide transportation routes for ships. Currents: Measurements and Data Links for Teachers \| Links for Students The existence of ocean currents provided early navigators like James Cook the ability to explore new worlds. Understanding the ocean's currents created an explosion in travel and trade to distant lands. Instead of overland travel from Europe to Asia and Africa, travel times were reduced exponentially by utilizing ocean routes and developing instrumentation to increase accuracy of determining position. Today, drifting buoys equipped with multiple oceanographic instruments provide information on open ocean currents. Most are equipped with GPS and satellite communications technology to relay their positions to observers on land. Motion in the Ocean	Coriolis effect
In the distant past what was the name given to the Super-Continent that made up the majority land mass of Earth?	The Coriolis Effect - Currents: NOAA's National Ocean Service Education Home Education Currents The Coriolis Effect Currents The Coriolis Effect If the Earth did not rotate on its axis, the atmosphere would only circulate between the poles and the equator in a simple back-and-forth pattern. Click the image for a larger view. Because the Earth rotates on its axis, circulating air is deflected toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is called the Coriolis effect. Click the image for a larger view. Coastal currents are affected by local winds. Surface ocean currents, which occur on the open ocean, are driven by a complex global wind system. To understand the effects of winds on ocean currents, one first needs to understand the Coriolis force and the Ekman spiral. If the Earth did not rotate and remained stationary, the atmosphere would circulate between the poles (high pressure areas) and the equator (a low pressure area) in a simple back-and-forth pattern. But because the Earth rotates, circulating air is deflected. Instead of circulating in a straight pattern, the air deflects toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting in curved paths. This deflection is called the Coriolis effect. It is named after the French mathematician Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis (1792-1843), who studied the transfer of energy in rotating systems like waterwheels. (Ross, 1995). Currents	i don't know
What is the name for the study of Continental Drift?	continental drift - National Geographic Society continental drift The way some continents fit together like puzzle pieces inspired the theory of continental drift. Map by USGS Urkontinent Alfred Wegener’s original name for his proposed, ancient continent was “Urkontinent”—ur meaning “first or original,” and kontinent meaning “continent” in Wegener’s native language, German. A more popular name for this huge ancient landmass is Pangaea, which means “all lands” in Greek. Colliding Skyward The collision of the Indian subcontinent and Asian continent created the Himalayan mountain range, home to the world's highest mountain peaks, including 30 that exceed 7300 meters (24,000 feet). Because continental drift is still pushing India into Asia, the Himalayas are still growing. Continental drift describes one of the earliest ways geologist s thought continent s moved over time. Today, the theory of continental drift has been replaced by the science of plate tectonics . The theory of continental drift is most associated with the scientist Alfred Wegener . In the early 20th century, Wegener published a paper explaining his theory that the continental landmass es were “drifting” across the Earth, sometimes plowing through oceans and into each other. He called this movement continental drift. Pangaea Wegener was convinced that all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous , single landmass called Pangaea . Wegener, trained as an astronomer , used biology , botany , and geology describe Pangaea and continental drift. For example, fossil s of the ancient reptile mesosaurus are only found in southern Africa and South America. Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile only one meter (3.3 feet) long, could not have swum the Atlantic Ocean. The presence of mesosaurus suggests a single habitat with many lakes and rivers. Wegener also studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, Norway. These plants were not the hardy specimen s adapt ed to survive in the Arctic climate . These fossils were of tropical plants, which are adapted to a much warmer, more humid environment. The presence of these fossils suggests Svalbard once had a tropical climate . Finally, Wegener studied the stratigraphy of different rocks and mountain range s. The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa seem to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle , and Wegener discovered their rock layers “fit” just as clearly. South America and Africa were not the only continents with similar geology. Wegener discovered that the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States, for instance, were geologically related to the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland. Pangaea existed about 240 million years ago. By about 200 million years ago, this supercontinent began breaking up. Over millions of years, Pangaea separated into pieces that moved away from one another. These pieces slowly assumed their positions as the continent we recognize today. Today, scientists think that several supercontinents like Pangaea have formed and broken up over the course of the Earth’s lifespan. These include Pannotia, which formed about 600 million years ago, and Rodinia, which existed more than a billion years ago. Tectonic Activity Scientists did not accept Wegener’s theory of continental drift. One of the elements lacking in the theory was the mechanism for how it works—why did the continents drift and what patterns did they follow? Wegener suggested that perhaps the rotation of the Earth caused the continents to shift towards and apart from each other. (It doesn't.) Today, we know that the continents rest on massive slab s of rock called tectonic plate s. The plates are always moving and interacting in a process called plate tectonics. The continents are still moving today. Some of the most dynamic sites of tectonic activity are seafloor spreading zones and giant rift valleys. In the process of seafloor spreading , molten rock rises from within the Earth and adds new seafloor ( oceanic crust ) to the edges of the old. Seafloor spreading is most dynamic along giant underwater mountain ranges known as mid-ocean ridge s. As the seafloor grows wider, the continents on opposite sides of the ridge move away from each other. The North American and Eurasian tectonic plates, for example, are separated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . The two continents are moving away from each other at the rate of about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per year. Rift valley s are sites where a continental landmass is ripping itself apart. Africa, for example, will eventually split along the Great Rift Valley system . What is now a single continent will emerge as two—one on the African plate and the other on the smaller Somali plate. The new Somali continent will be mostly oceanic, with the Horn of Africa and Madagascar its largest landmasses. The processes of seafloor spreading, rift valley formation, and subduction (where heavier tectonic plates sink beneath lighter ones) were not well-established until the 1960s. These processes were the main geologic forces behind what Wegener recognized as continental drift. Term to adjust to new surroundings or a new situation. Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) German meteorologist and geologist. ancient person who studies space and the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. biology always changing or in motion. enormous having to do with a habitat or ecosystem of a lake, river, or spring. frigid person who studies the physical formations of the Earth. geology Noun study of the physical history of the Earth, its composition, its structure, and the processes that form and change it. Great Rift Valley system Noun series of faults and other sites of tectonic activity stretching from southwestern Asia to the Horn of Africa. habitat strong or able to withstand severe weather. humid air containing a large amount of water vapor. jigsaw puzzle interlocking pieces that, when correctly put together, display a picture or design. landmass process or assembly that performs a function. mesosaurus freshwater reptile that lived during the early Permian period, about 300 million years ago. Mid-Atlantic Ridge underwater mountain range that runs from Iceland to Antarctica. mid-ocean ridge solid material turned to liquid by heat. mountain range series or chain of mountains that are close together. oceanic crust thin layer of the Earth that sits beneath ocean basins. Pangaea supercontinent of all the Earth's landmass that existed about 250 million years ago. plate tectonics movement and interaction of the Earth's plates. reptile animal that breathes air and usually has scales. rift valley flat, thick piece of material such as earth or stone. specimen individual organism that is a typical example of its classification. stratigraphy study of rock layers and layering. subduction process of one tectonic plate melting, sliding, or falling beneath another. supercontinent ancient, giant landmass that split apart to form all the continents we know today. tectonic plate Noun massive slab of solid rock made up of Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Also called lithospheric plate. tropical Adjective existing in the tropics, the latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the south. tropical climate	Plate tectonics
Cullen Skink is a hearty soup made with potatoes, onion and which fish?	continental drift \| geology \| Britannica.com Continental drift isostasy Continental drift, large-scale horizontal movements of continents relative to one another and to the ocean basins during one or more episodes of geologic time . This concept was an important precursor to the development of the theory of plate tectonics , which incorporates it. The changing Earth through geologic time, from the late Cambrian Period (c. 500 million years … Adapted from C.R. Scotese, The University of Texas at Arlington The idea of a large-scale displacement of continents has a long history. Noting the apparent fit of the bulge of eastern South America into the bight of Africa, the German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt theorized about 1800 that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean had once been joined. Some 50 years later, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini , a French scientist, argued that the presence of identical fossil plants in both North American and European coal deposits could be explained if the two continents had formerly been connected, a relationship otherwise difficult to account for. In 1908 Frank B. Taylor of the United States invoked the notion of continental collision to explain the formation of some of the world’s mountain ranges. The first truly detailed and comprehensive theory of continental drift was proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener , a German meteorologist. Bringing together a large mass of geologic and paleontological data, Wegener postulated that throughout most of geologic time there was only one continent, which he called Pangea . Late in the Triassic Period (which lasted from approximately 251 million to 199.6 million years ago), Pangea fragmented, and the parts began to move away from one another. Westward drift of the Americas opened the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian block drifted across the Equator to merge with Asia . In 1937 Alexander L. Du Toit , a South African geologist, modified Wegener’s hypothesis by suggesting two primordial continents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. A discussion of some of the evidence supporting continental drift on Earth. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. uplift Aside from the congruency of continental shelf margins across the Atlantic, modern proponents of continental drift have amassed impressive geologic evidence to support their views. Indications of widespread glaciation from 380 to 250 million years ago are evident in Antarctica , southern South America, southern Africa, India , and Australia . If these continents were once united around the south polar region, this glaciation would become explicable as a unified sequence of events in time and space. Also, fitting the Americas with the continents across the Atlantic brings together similar kinds of rocks, fossils, and geologic structures. A belt of ancient rocks along the Brazilian coast, for example, matches one in West Africa . Moreover, the earliest marine deposits along the Atlantic coastlines of either South America or Africa are Jurassic in age (approximately 199.6 million to 145.5 million years old), which suggests that the ocean did not exist before that time. plate tectonics: Alfred Wegener and the concept of continental drift Interest in continental drift increased in the 1950s as knowledge of Earth’s geomagnetic field during the geologic past developed from the studies of the British geophysicists Stanley K. Runcorn , Patrick M.S. Blackett , and others. Ferromagnetic minerals such as magnetite acquire a permanent magnetization when they crystallize as constituents of igneous rock . The direction of their magnetization is the same as the direction of Earth’s magnetic field at the time and place of crystallization. Particles of magnetized minerals released from their parent igneous rocks by weathering may later realign themselves with the existing magnetic field at the time these particles are incorporated into sedimentary deposits. Studies by Runcorn of the remanent magnetism in suitable rocks of different ages from Europe produced a “polar wandering curve” indicating that the magnetic poles were in different places at different times. This could be explained either by the migration of the magnetic pole itself (that is, polar wandering ) or by the migration of Europe relative to a fixed pole (that is, continental drift). Rocks and Minerals: Fact or Fiction? However, further work showed that the polar wandering curves are different for the various continents. The possibility that they might reflect true wander of the poles was discarded, because it implies separate wanderings of many magnetic poles over the same period. However, these different paths are reconciled by joining the continents in the manner proposed by Wegener. The curves for Europe and North America , for example, are reconciled by the assumption that the latter has drifted about 30° westward relative to Europe since the Triassic Period. Britannica Stories	i don't know
Which common kitchen herb is used in a Mojito?	Making Cocktails with herbs Cocktails with Herbs Making Cocktails with Herbs Herbs can be used for a variety of reasons, whether you are using them for medicinal purposes or for culinary enhancements. Most people may not have given enough thought to adding certain herbs to a refreshing summer cocktail, but each herb can provide your favorite beverage with an interesting twist. Of all the herbs that can be used in a cocktail, perhaps the most popular is the mint herb. In addition to using mint in your refreshing beverages, you can also add the green and spicy flavors of a variety of herbs that you may already have in your backyard or kitchen. This is one additional reason to consider creating your own herb garden. Not only can you create fantastic meals, you can relax with a flavorful drink. Mint Mint is a type of perennial plant that is relatively easy to grow in your own home. It is considered to be one of the more popular herbs that are used in alcohol beverages. There are a variety of types of mint, some of which include spearmint, peppermint, apple mint, and pineapple mint. Peppermint has lavender flowers and dark green leaves. Spearmint has pink flowers and lighter green leaves that are pointy. Apple mint has light green leaves and pineapple mint has white-banded green leaves. This herb can add a cool and slightly sweet flavor to your cocktails whether you want to enjoy a mojito, margarita or other type of beverage. Watermelon Mint Margaritas Thyme Thyme is an herb that is widely used in the culinary world. It is used across the world such as in Mediterranean, Indian, French, Levantine and Spanish cuisines. It is most often used to add flavor to meats, stews and soups, but can also add a slightly bitter note to cocktails. It also adds green flavors and can give the impression of gin minus the overpowering flavor of juniper. It is used to counterpart flavors that include lemons, pears and apples. Lemon Thyme Martinis Basil Basil is another herb that can easily be grown in the comfort of your own home. It is considered to be the king of herbs by most gardeners. It is a fragrant herb that has more than 50 different species. Basil has a strong and distinct flavor that gives off a peppery edge with a savory and sweet note. It adds a rich and spicy flavor to your cocktails. Drinks Containing Basil Oregano Oregano is a part of the mint family and is a low-growing type of perennial plant. It is native to the Mediterranean and Western Europe. It is closely related to and sometimes called wild marjoram. The Greek, or Italian oregano is the most widely used type in the culinary and cocktail worlds. The flavor that oregano adds to cocktails is similar to that of sage and basil. It adds a note to the cocktail that is warm, green and spicy. Bloody Mariana Sage Sage is an herb that is native to the Mediterranean. It is another type of low-growing perennial and is an evergreen shrub that has lavender flowers. It has been used for thousands of years for its medicinal properties, but is even more widely known in the culinary world for flavoring bread stuffings, pork and poultry. Sage has an enticing aroma and a strong flavor that can overpower food or cocktails if too much is used. The flavor is fern-like, woody and musky and has notes of warm decay, white pepper, and menthol. You can help release some of the essential oils by gently rolling a leaf in your fingers before adding it to the cocktail. Vanilla, Pear and Sage Chamomile Chamomile is one of the oldest herbs that is known for its medicinal properties. It was used by the Egyptians as a cure for ague and the Egyptians offered it to their gods. The aroma of the fresh flowers of chamomile can be compared to that of certain apples. The flavor of chamomile is mild and relaxing. Many drink a chamomile tea as part of a nighttime ritual to help them relax better and fall asleep easier. 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Which fruit goes into the liqueur Kirsch?	Basic Spice Checklist \| Real Simple Search Basic Spice Checklist Every cook needs a well-stocked spice cabinet, regardless of culinary expertise. Here are the most commonly used herbs, spices, and seasonings, which no kitchen should be without. Check Bay leaves These aromatic, woodsy-tasting leaves are typically sold dried. Choose those with a rich green color. Add whole bay leaves to soups, stews, and marinades; remove before serving. Check Black peppercorns A must-have for their slight pungency. Always pick whole peppercorns over preground versions: The flavor of freshly ground or cracked pepper makes the small effort in preparation well worth it. Check Cayenne pepper Made from a small, spicy red pepper, this is the foundation of many bottled hot sauces. Used frequently in Cajun and Indian recipes. Check Chili powder This is typically made from a blend of dried chilies, cumin, coriander, and oregano. Delicious in Mexican and Southwestern dishes. Check Cinnamon, ground This warm, aromatic spice has a reddish brown color and a bittersweet flavor. Great for baking as well as adding an earthiness to stews, chilies, and curries. Check Cloves, ground This sweet, rich spice is a staple in holiday baking, especially gingersnaps. Use it sparingly; a little goes a long way. Check Cream of tartar Derived from a crystalline acid that forms on the insides of wine barrels, this fine white powder is most often used to stabilize meringues. Check Cumin, ground An aromatic, mellow spice, ground from a small seed. Delicious in Middle Eastern and Indian cooking, especially curries. Check Curry powder Up to 20 spices—including coriander, cumin, and turmeric—can make up this popular Indian blend. The Madras variety has more heat. Check Ginger, ground Ground ginger has a more intense and astringent taste than fresh ginger. Keep it on hand for baking. Check Kosher salt A type of coarse salt usually made without the addition of iodine. Use it in place of table salt for seasoning recipes; the larger crystals are easier to pinch with your fingers, allowing for greater control of seasoning. Check Nutmeg, whole A delicate, warm spice frequently used in baking. Also a common addition to baked winter squash, béchamel sauce, and spinach dishes. Check Oregano, dried A member of the mint family, this robust herb is commonly used in Mediterranean, South American, and Cajun cooking. Check Paprika A powder made from ground sweet red pepper pods, this is available in sweet and hot varieties. (If the type is not indicated on the bottle, it’s most likely sweet.) With a rich red color and a smooth texture, Hungarian paprika is of the highest quality. Use the spice to season meat, seafood, and vegetables. It also makes for a nice garnish on deviled eggs. Check Crushed red pepper Use the flakes of crushed red chili to spice up pastas and stir-fries or to sprinkle on pizzas. Check Rosemary, dried With an aroma of lemon and pine, this herb is used in an assortment of Mediterranean dishes. Check Sesame seeds These versatile seeds have a sweet, nutty taste that complements both savory and sweet dishes. The seeds are especially flavorful and aromatic when toasted. Store them in the freezer: Because of their high oil content, the seeds can quickly become rancid. Check Thyme, dried This fragrant herb lends a delicate flavor to meat, poultry, and vegetables. It’s popular in Mediterranean, Cajun, and Creole cuisines. Check Vanilla extract A baking essential made by soaking vanilla beans in alcohol. Opt for the pure rather than the imitation variety, which often has additives and an unnatural flavor. The Real Simple Checklist App Create your own to-do lists from scratch or use the 100+ customized lists we’ve created to help you in any situation. Get the app. With this free download, you will be able to: Get organized with 15 free Real Simple Checklists Share tasks with your friends and family Create your own custom checklists Receive helpful tips and advice from Real Simple editors Set reminders on tasks so you won't forget anything	i don't know
What is the main ingredient of Guacamole?	Simple secrets to making excellent guacamole By Will Brokaw Quality avocados are the key component of excellent guacamole. Few things are as addictive as perfectly-made guacamole. I can think of nothing that disappears faster at a party, ballgame, or dinner. Due to my occupation as an avocado extraordinaire, many people ask me what the secret is to making great guacamole. Believe it or not, it is not hard to make excellent guacamole, but there are a few simple guidelines to follow. (1) Start with excellent, high-quality avocados. First, since avocados are the main ingredient in guacamole, the most critical factor is to start with excellent, high-quality avocados. For most purposes, the Hass variety of avocado is usually the most popular option, due to it’s buttery taste and smooth texture. From September-February, however, try Gwen avocados, as their buttery flavor exceeds that of the Hass variety during this period. Many of the avocados you see in supermarkets are either old or of inferior quality, due to the fact that the supply chain is so long. Choose a size such that you will be able to eat the whole fruit in one sitting. This way you will not have to store an avocado half in the refrigerator. Left-over half avocados will likely discolor within a few hours (unless, of course, they happen to be extremely fresh.) You can choose hard avocados, but you will have to wait for them to ripen on their own schedule! (Of course, if you really want the highest-quality RIPE avocados, you can always order directly from WillsAvocados.com.) (2) Start simple, go slow. Get ready! The basic ingredients of guacamole are: salt & pepper! The secret with these basic ingredients is to add them to taste. Don’t add too many ingredients or too much at once, or you will risk making your guacamole too powerful in one area or another. Again, the main ingredient of guacamole is the avocado, and that’s the main thing that you should be able to taste. You should constantly be tasting your guacamole as you add to it! These basic ingredients alone should generate consistent complements from those you serve. (3) Special ingredients often improve even a perfect guacamole. Everyone has a special ingredient they like to add to the guacamole mix. Here are some ingredients that you can experiment with. Again – go slow and add them to taste! Freshly Diced Garlic. Pre-crushed garlic (sold in a jar) or garlic powder is simply no substitute for the punch of fresh, finely-chopped garlic. Again, this should be added to taste, and the garlic should not overpower the avocado itself. Lime (or lemon) juice. Freshly-squeezed. Not only does lime add flavor and punch to your basic guacamole, but it may also help preserve it longer from browning! Cilantro. Fresh, finely-chopped cilantro is one thing that can improve a guacamole by adding a distinct flavor and a slight crunch. But you run a risk here, as some people do not like cilantro. Consider your audience before adding it. Hot Sauce. Try Tapatio , or other hot-pepper sauces. These are also ingredients that are just as easy to add in later by the individual. Fresh Bulb Onion: Chopped Small. If you're into onion, you'll love the flavor and crunchy yet succulent texture it gives to guacamole. Canned Peppers/Chiles. As someone who loves food, I normally do not stray from fresh, whole ingredients when preparing it. However, I make an exception when it comes to canned chiles and peppers. For some reason, these ingredients add a wonderful character that even the finest quality fresh chiles and peppers aren't capable of. Fresh tomato. If you want to add fresh tomato, be sure to use only the most potently flavored heirloom or dry-farmed tomatoes. Otherwise their flavor will be overpowered and unnoticeable by the other ingredients. Specific Guacamole Recipes For specific ideas and guidance, I have gathered a few guacamole recipes from our family and friends. If you need advice on superb tortilla chips and other excellent quality Mexican style foods, Steve at Rancho Gordo is an excellent source. Enjoy. Larry Rose’s Guacamole 4 Ripe Avocados. Chill then mash with a potato masher leaving a goodly amount of chunks. For heavens sake don't puree the darn stuff! Use Hass avocados during spring through fall seasons, or Pinkerton or Fuerte winter and spring. 4 Tbs Mayonnaise Chilled.	Avocado
Rigatoni is what type of Italian food?	What is Guacamole? - Panlasang Pinoy Panlasang Pinoy You are here: Home / Culinary Arts / What is Guacamole? What is Guacamole? If you are a fan of Mexican food, you’re well aware that a dish is not complete without a serving of guacamole. Guacamole literally means “avocado sauce”. It is a tasty, and sometimes spicy, condiment that can be enjoyed with a variety of foods. Originally from Mexico, guacamole has now become a favorite around the world. What is Guacamole Made From? The main ingredient of this creamy sauce is avocado. Avocadoes are mashed to form the base of the sauce. Thereafter, other ingredients can be added to it for more flavors. Many prefer to add diced onions and tomatoes with spicy seasoning. Others like it milder with yoghurt, or acidic with lime juice. You can also substitute avocado for edamame, which is a low-calorie alternative. What is Guacamole Used for? Guacamole is mainly used as a dip for chips and crackers. You can also use it as a spread on bread, or as a topping. It is best served with nachos and tortillas. If you prefer, you can eat guacamole alone as a salad. However, there are many who find avocado to be too fatty and difficult to keep down without bread or vegetables. What is Guacamole’s Effect on Your Health? Avocadoes have plenty of nutrients to offer. They contain high amounts of vitamins C and E, known for strengthening the immune system and improving nerve function. These vitamins are also beneficial for muscle, ligaments, tendons and blood vessels. Avocadoes are also one of the top sources of unsaturated healthy fat, which can reduce bad cholesterol and protect your heart. If you are trying to lose weight or maintaining it, you need to watch your guacamole intake. Avocadoes can be high in calories, with the average avocado containing more than 300 calories. Choose whole grain bread when using it as a spread, and whole wheat crackers and chips when using it as dip. Eat in moderation. How to Make Guacamole Now that you know what guacamole is, you can learn how to make it at home. For a basic recipe, you’ll need: 2 medium avocadoes 2 tablespoons of black pepper 1 teaspoon lime juice	i don't know
What is the name of the special Indian clay oven?	Types of Tandoori Clay Oven for use in Restaurant and Home Resources Types of Tandoor In a laymanï¿½s parlance tandoor is clay oven with a hole in the bottom. The hole is used for adding and removing fuel .Typically, a special type of clay along with shredded coir rope is used to prepare the oven. To solidify the oven a special paste of mustard oil, jaggery, yoghurt and ground spinach is rubbed inside the oven. The history of tandoor indeed goes back to Arab countries from where it has spread to India and finally to western countries. The word tandoor has been derived from Babylonian word ï¿½tinuruï¿½ from the Semitic word ï¿½narï¿½ meaning fire. Arabic then made it tannur and then Turkey and Central Asia made it tandoor. In ancient times there were only clay tandoor but now a days, there are different types of tandoor as discussed below. Square Tandoor: Square tandoor is commonly used by all restaurants across the world in their kitchen. To make square tandoor, first Stainless Steel Square Box is made and given smooth finish around edges. After box is made, clay pot is installed inside the box and remaining space is covered with Fiber Blanket and Thermal Insulation to keep heat inside the clay pot. Till 2004 most of the restaurants were using tandoors with charcoal as fuel. All cooks prefer charcoal due to unique combination of clay and charcoal in Tandoori cooking as charcoal burns slowly and keep clay pot hot for longer time. But charcoal has its own issues like irregular supply from vendors and requires special exhaust hood in kitchen. Due to these factors, most restaurant users stopped using Charcoal as fuel and shifted to Gas Tandoors. Gas tandoors are similar to Square tandoors and only difference is fuel which can be Natural Gas or Propane (L.P.G). Gas tandoors are fitted with burners and unique Baffle plate which sits on burners, to deflect flame of the burner, to heat up clay pot. Gas Tandoors are as good as charcoal tandoors though some Tandoori lovers may disagree. Gas tandoors are more users friendly, easy to operate clean fuel and offer economical operating cost. Before buying Gas Tandoors, please make sure about kind of burners used, whether burner comes with Pilot Safety System and Igniter as unsafe Gas Burner installation can be dangerous. Therefore buy Gas Tandoors which are certified by recognized agencies and come with ï¿½CE ï¿½or ï¿½NSFï¿½ or ï¿½ETLï¿½ labels. A Regular size Square tandoor is good for 60 seats Restaurant for Bread and Kebab use. If you have more seats, it is suggested to buy 2 tandoors and use 1 for Bread and other for Kebabs. Clay Pots Clay pots for tandoors are prepared by hand with great care. The clay for the tandoor is available freely but cautious approach should be taken when selecting the best clay for this purpose. In Asian countries like India, clay is sourced from special locations and is cleaned and refined for making clay pot. Various additives like hay and hairs of goats & sheepï¿½s hair are added in the clay mixture in order to give special strength as temperatures ranging upto 1000 degrees centigrade can be seen in clay pots. In recent years, makers of tandoors in United Kingdom are making clay pot with special clay only available in few mines across the world. Though this clay is different from Indian clay, it is more pure and strong when fired. Due to these features, you will find most restaurants in UK are not using Indian clay pots and sourcing their tandoors locally. The same quality tandoors are sold in USA also for past 2 years. Catering/Drum Tandoor In Catering/Drum Tandoor, clay pot is fitted in Steel or Stainless Steel Barrel, in a plain design with S. S. Straps tied round its top, centre and bottom for reinforcement. The pot inside the barrel is duly insulated with thermal Insulations, glass wool, rock salt and ceramic powders. A hole is there at the bottom of the drum to remove ashes .A wheel can also be attached at the bottom to move the drum from one place to another. Generally handles are provided for Lifting, Pushing and Pulling. Most of the time, catering tandoor is used by Restaurant or caterers for On-Site cooking of Bread and Sheesh Kebab. As it is not used very often, Charcoal is preferred fuel for heating up the tandoor. Now days, lot of customers are requesting Gas tandoors for their backyard or patio. Catering tandoor is good example of tandoor which can be used with Propane or Natural Gas due to large size. Residential Tandoor: After eating delicious food in restaurants, most of the customers want to experience same food in their homes also. To do that, there are many options. If you plan to use tandoors during summer time for BBQ or Sheesh Kebab, you can select small Catering tandoors which are good for personal use and work on charcoal. Due to small size, these tandoors are portable and can be taken anywhere. But if you want to use your tandoors very often, one can choose Gas Catering Tandoors or Regular sized Square Tandoors. Gas catering tandoors can be of Natural Gas or Propane and take about 25 minutes to be ready to use. Regular Size Square tandoor is good option if you want to install tandoor in your kitchen and use it on daily basis. Please note that you need to have good quality exhaust in kitchen to use tandoor on regular basis. <p><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p> <p>In a laymanï¿½s parlance tandoor is clay oven with a hole in the bottom. The hole is used for adding and removing fuel .Typically, a special type of clay along with shredded coir rope is used to prepare the oven. To solidify the oven a special paste of mustard oil, jaggery, yoghurt and ground spinach is rubbed inside the oven. The history of tandoor indeed goes back to Arab countries from where it has spread to India and finally to western countries. The word tandoor has been derived from Babylonian word ï¿½tinuruï¿½ from the Semitic word ï¿½narï¿½ meaning fire. Arabic then made it tannur and then Turkey and Central Asia made it tandoor. In ancient times there were only clay tandoor but now a days, there are different types of tandoor as discussed below.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></p> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <p><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></p> <p style="font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 12pt;">Square Tandoor:</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p> <p>Square tandoor is commonly used by all restaurants across the world in their kitchen. To make square tandoor, first Stainless Steel Square Box is made and given smooth finish around edges. After box is made, clay pot is installed inside the box and remaining space is covered with Fiber Blanket and Thermal Insulation to keep heat inside the clay pot.</p> <p>Till 2004 most of the restaurants were using tandoors with charcoal as fuel. All cooks prefer charcoal due to unique combination of clay and charcoal in Tandoori cooking as charcoal burns slowly and keep clay pot hot for longer time.</p> <p>But charcoal has its own issues like irregular supply from vendors and requires special exhaust hood in kitchen. Due to these factors, most restaurant users stopped using Charcoal as fuel and shifted to Gas Tandoors.</p> <p>Gas tandoors are similar to Square tandoors and only difference is fuel which can be Natural Gas or Propane (L.P.G). Gas tandoors are fitted with burners and unique Baffle plate which sits on burners, to deflect flame of the burner, to heat up clay pot.</p> <p>Gas Tandoors are as good as charcoal tandoors though some Tandoori lovers may disagree. Gas tandoors are more users friendly, easy to operate clean fuel and offer economical operating cost. Before buying Gas Tandoors, please make sure about kind of burners used, whether burner comes with Pilot Safety System and Igniter as unsafe Gas Burner installation can be dangerous. Therefore buy Gas Tandoors which are certified by recognized agencies and come with ï¿½CE ï¿½or ï¿½NSFï¿½ or ï¿½ETLï¿½ labels.</p> <p>A Regular size Square tandoor is good for 60 seats Restaurant for Bread and Kebab use. If you have more seats, it is suggested to buy 2 tandoors and use 1 for Bread and other for Kebabs.</p> <p><!--[if gte vml 1]> <![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="Restaurant Clay Tandoori Oven" src="/v/vspfiles/assets/images/shaan-tandoori.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1029" align="" border="0" height="180" width="151"><!--[endif]--></p> <p></p> <p><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p> <h1 style="font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Clay Pots</span></h1> <p><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p> <p>Clay pots for tandoors are prepared by hand with great care. The clay for the tandoor is available freely but cautious approach should be taken when selecting the best clay for this purpose. In Asian countries like India, clay is sourced from special locations and is cleaned and refined for making clay pot. Various additives like hay and hairs of goats & sheepï¿½s hair are added in the clay mixture in order to give special strength as temperatures ranging upto 1000 degrees centigrade can be seen in clay pots.</p> <p>In recent years, makers of tandoors in United Kingdom are making clay pot with special clay only available in few mines across the world. Though this clay is different from Indian clay, it is more pure and strong when fired. Due to these features, you will find most restaurants in UK are not using Indian clay pots and sourcing their tandoors locally. The same quality tandoors are sold in USA also for past 2 years.</p> <p></p> <p></p><img style="width: 152px; height: 185px;" alt="Clay Pot for Tandoori Oven" src="/v/vspfiles/assets/images/whiteclaytandoor-delhimatka-l.gif" align="" border="0"><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> <p style="font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 12pt;">Catering/Drum Tandoor</span></p> <p></p> <p>In Catering/Drum Tandoor, clay pot is fitted in Steel or Stainless Steel Barrel, in a plain design with S. S. Straps tied round its top, centre and bottom for reinforcement. The pot inside the barrel is duly insulated with thermal Insulations, glass wool, rock salt and ceramic powders. A hole is there at the bottom of the drum to remove ashes .A wheel can also be attached at the bottom to move the drum from one place to another. Generally handles are provided for Lifting, Pushing and Pulling.</p> <p>Most of the time, catering tandoor is used by Restaurant or caterers for On-Site cooking of Bread and Sheesh Kebab. As it is not used very often, Charcoal is preferred fuel for heating up the tandoor.</p> <p>Now days, lot of customers are requesting Gas tandoors for their backyard or patio. Catering tandoor is good example of tandoor which can be used with Propane or Natural Gas due to large size.</p> <p></p> <p><!--[if gte vml 1]> <![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img style="width: 150px; height: 139px;" alt="Catering Tandoor Oven" src="/v/vspfiles/assets/images/steel-catering-tandoor-gas-2.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1027" align="" border="0"><!--[endif]--></p> <p></p> <p style="font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 12pt;">Residential Tandoor:</span></p> <p></p> <p>After eating delicious food in restaurants, most of the customers want to experience same food in their homes also. To do that, there are many options. </p> <p>If you plan to use tandoors during summer time for BBQ or Sheesh Kebab, you can select small Catering tandoors which are good for personal use and work on charcoal. Due to small size, these tandoors are portable and can be taken anywhere.</p> <p>But if you want to use your tandoors very often, one can choose Gas Catering Tandoors or Regular sized Square Tandoors. Gas catering tandoors can be of Natural Gas or Propane and take about 25 minutes to be ready to use.</p> <p>Regular Size Square tandoor is good option if you want to install tandoor in your kitchen and use it on daily basis. Please note that you need to have good quality exhaust in kitchen to use tandoor on regular basis.</p> <p></p> <p><!--[if gte vml 1]> <![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><br><!--[endif]--></p> <br> Company	Tandoor
The Harvey Wall Banger cocktail contain Vodka, orange juice and what else?	Namaste India \| Order Online \| Arvada \| BeyondMenu Namaste India 5545 Wadsworth Bypass, Arvada, CO 80002 • Delivery Info Delivery Fee Between 60 and 95 minutes Online ordering is not enabled! Vegan upon request. 1. Vegetable Samosa (2 Pcs) Whole wheat spiced bread filled with mildly spiced potatoes and peas in triangular shaped and deep fried to get the complete flavor. 4.99 2. Meat Samosa (2 Pcs) Whole wheat spiced bread filled with mildly cooked ground chicken and lamb. 6.99 3a. Vegetables Pakora Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep‐fried. Includes potato, cauliflower, onion, spinach, eggplant, turnips. 4.99 Boneless. Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep‐fried. 5.99 Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep‐fried. 8.99 Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep-fried. Salmon $2.00 extra. 8.99 Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep‐fried. 4.99 House made cheese. Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep‐ fried. 5.99 Anything battered with chickpea flour spiced and deep‐ fried. 6.99 4a. Samosa Chat Specialties Serving generally for 2 people. Smashed vegetable samosa mixed with yogurt, tamarind, mint and chat masala spices. 7.99 4b. Chana Chat Specialties Serving generally for 2 people. Cooked chick pea masala mixed with yogurt, tamarind, mint and chat masala spices. 8.99 4c. Mixed Chat Masala of Samosa and Chana Chickpeas. Serving generally for 2 people. 8.99 4d. Chicken Chat Specialties Chicken cholay. Serving generally for 2 people. Flakes of tandoori cooked chicken spiced mixed with green raw cilantro, green onion, ginger and served to your spiced level. 8.99 4e. Spicy Aloo Potato chat. Serving generally for 2 people. Boiled potato mixed with fresh diced tomato, red onion, cilantro, green onion, chilly, lemon and chat masala spices. 8.99 5. Saag Paneer with Garlic Naan 8.99 Naan served with Chana masala. 8.99 Combination of veg and non-veg appetizers. 8.99 For 1 or family size (4 people). Vegan upon request. 9. Daal Soup (Gluten Free) Lentil soup. 10. Chicken Soup (Gluten Free) 5.99+ 11. Mulligatawny Soup (Gluten Free) Chicken and lentil. 12. Tomato Coconut Soup (Gluten Free) 3.99+ 13. Namaste India Salad (Gluten Free) 3.99+ Gluten Free. 14. Tandoori (Gluten Free) Any meat marinated for certain time in yogurt, garlic, ginger, herbs, spices and cooked in clay oven called tandoor. 13.99 15. Traditional Curries (Gluten Free) Seasoned with Indian spices and herbs with onion, garlic, ginger and tomato to get a thick sauce. 12.99 16. Famous Tikka Masala (Gluten Free) Marinated tandoor meat cooked with cream sauce. 13.99 17. Mix Max Tikka Masala (Gluten Free) Choice of meat cooked with mixed vegetables and famous tikka masala cream sauce. 14.99 Boneless meat cooked with cream, nuts and raisins to give very delicate taste. 13.99 Spinach cooked with cream, freshly ground spices, garlic, ginger, onion and tomato. 13.99 20. Vindaloos (Gluten Free) Place name goa favorite dish cooked with potato and typically its very hot dish (served to you as needed). 12.99 21. Karahi (Bhuna) (Gluten Free) Chopped onions, bell pepper cooked with Indian spices herbs and tomato sauce with your choice of meat. 12.99 Basmati rice cooked with curry spiced sauce with saffron and vegetables. Served with raita. 12.99 Vegan upon request. Gluten Free. 23. Vegetable Korma (Gluten Free) Mixed vegetables cooked with cream, nuts and raisins. 11.99 24. Saag Paneer (Gluten Free) Spinach cooked with house made cheese and cream sauce. 11.99 25. Paneer Masala (Gluten Free) House made cheese cooked with cream sauce. 12.99 26. Paneer Korma (Gluten Free) House made cheese cooked with cream, coconut, nuts and raisins. 12.99 27. Baigan Bharta (Gluten Free) Clay oven roasted eggplant cooked with peas, herbs, onion, tomato and cream sauce. 12.99 28. Malai Kofta Not Gluten Free. Minced vegetable mixed with spices in form of cheese balls and cooked with cream, nuts and raisins. 12.99 29. Mushroom Curry (Gluten Free) Mushroom cooked with Indian curry sauce. 12.99 30. Bhindi Masala (Gluten Free) Okra cooked with onion tomato and spices. 11.99 31. Green Beans Fry (Gluten Free) Raw green beans cooked with onion bell peppers and spices. 10.99 32. Matter Paneer (Gluten Free) Peas cooked wth house made cheese with onion, tomato and spices. 11.99 33. Sweet Potato Masala (Gluten Free) Sweet potato with cream masala sauce. 11.99 34. Sweet Potato Korma (Gluten Free) Cooked with cream, coconut, nuts and raisins. 11.99 35. Bombay Alu (Gluten Free) Clay oven roasted potato cooked with raw onion, tomato and spices typically hot. 10.99 36. Alu Gobi (Gluten Free) Potato and cauliflower cooked with onion tomato and spices. 10.99 37. Dal Makhani (Gluten Free) Mixed black lentils cooked with cream and spices. 11.99 38. Dal Tarka (Gluten Free) Yellow lentils cooked spices and seasoned later with garlic tomato and ginger. 10.99 39. Chana Masala (Gluten Free) Chickpeas cooked with curry sauce. 11.99 40. Mixed Vegetable Curry (Gluten Free) Mixed vegetables cooked with curry sauce. 11.99 41. Vegetable Makhani (Gluten Free) Mixed vegetables cooked with cream sauce. 12.99 42. Chana Saag (Gluten Free) Chick peas cooked with spinach and spices. 11.99 43. Alu Saag (Gluten Free) Potato cooked with spinach and spices. 10.99 44. Daal Saag (Gluten Free) Mixed black lentils cooked with spiced spinach and cream sauce. 11.99 45. Alu Matar (Gluten Free) Potato cooked with peas and curry spices. 10.99 46. Kadai Paneer (Gluten Free) House made cheese cooked with onion, bell pepper, tomatoes and Indian spices. 12.99 47. Chole Bhatura (Gluten Free) Deep fried naan or roti (vegan) served with chana masala. 13.99 51. Chicken Makhani (Gluten Free) Butter chicken. Flakes of tandoor meat cooked with butter creamy sauce. 14.99 52. Chicken Mushroom Tikka Masala (Gluten Free) Chicken tikka cooked with mushroom and masala sauce. 15.99 53. Keema Mattar (Gluten Free) Ground spiced lamb and chicken cooked with peas and spices. 14.99 54. Goat Curry (Gluten Free) Bone in. Home style delicately cooked with Indian spices and herbs with onion, garlic, ginger and tomato. 15.99 55. Goat Biryanis (Gluten Free) Bone in. Basmati rice cooked with curry spiced sauce with saffron and briyani spices. Served with raita. 18.99 56. Mattar Bhurji (Gluten Free) Peas cooked with delicately spiced sauce. 10.99 Meat cooked with mixed vegetable and fresh ground curry spices. 13.99 58. Chicken Madras (Gluten Free) Chicken cooked with blend of very hot spices. 12.99 59. Lamb Madras (Gluten Free) Lamb cooked with blend of very hot spices. 13.99 60. Chicken Rogan Josh (Gluten Free) Traditional curries cooked with yogurt Indian hot spices. 12.99 61. Lamb Rogan Josh (Gluten Free) Traditional curries cooked with Indian hot spices. 14.99	i don't know
Which chef presents 'Saturday Morning Kitchen' on TV?	James Martin quits Saturday Kitchen after 10 years fronting the BBC weekend show \| Daily Mail Online Hanging up the apron: James Martin faces outpouring of grief from fans as he quits Saturday Kitchen after 10 years fronting the popular BBC weekend show Chef has announced decision to leave popular cooking show after a decade at its helm TV personality explained he wanted to pursue other ventures Fans have taken to social media in their droves to share their disappointment James is expected to make final appearance on BBC One show in March Range of guest presenters are set to fill in for the culinary favourite	James Martin
Which food dish is named after one of Napoleons famous victories?	Saturday Kitchen Live Episode Guide and Episode List - TV Guide UK TV Listings Season 16 Episode 1 New series. Tom Kerridge guest presents the cooking show, with recipes by Rick Stein and Jon Rotheram, and wine expert Jane Parkinson chooses the drinks to match the dishes in the studio. Plus, archive clips include The Two Greedy Italians and Rick Stein Season 16 Episode 2 James Martin is joined in the studio by guest chefs Richard Bertinet and siblings Jonray and Peter Sanchez-Iglesias. Susie Barrie chooses wines to match their dishes and there are highlights from the archives, featuring Rick Stein, the Great British Menu and the Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 4 James Martin is joined by Matt Gillan and Ching-He Huang, while Suzy Atkins chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared. Plus, the host introduces archive highlights from The Great British Menu and The Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 5 James Martin is joined by chefs Madhur Jaffrey and Trine Hahnemann, and actor and director Noel Clarke is the guest in the studio facing either food heaven or food hell. Peter Richards chooses the wines to match the dishes being prepared, and the presenter introduces archive highlights from Rick Stein, The Great British Menu and The Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 6 James Martin is joined by chefs Sabrina Ghayour and Kenny Atkinson, and guest Griff Rhys Jones faces either food heaven or food hell. Jane Parkinson chooses the wines to match the dishes being prepared in the studio, and the host introduces video highlights from the Two Greedy Italians, Great British Menu and Rick Stein Season 16 Episode 7 James Martin is joined by chefs Vivek Singh and Helene Darroze, and welcomes Sherlock actress Louise Brealey into the studio to face either food heaven or food hell. Plus, Olly Smith chooses the wine to match the dishes prepared, and the host presents video highlights from Rick Stein, The Great British Menu and The Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 8 James Martin is joined by chefs Dan Doherty and Daniel Galmiche, and singer Sam Bailey faces her food heaven or hell. Wine expert Susy Atkins selects drinks to go with the dishes cooked in the studio, and there are archive clips of programmes featuring Rick Stein, as well as the Great British Menu and Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 9 James Martin is joined by chefs Atul Kochhar and Massimo Bottura, while guest Terry Wogan faces either food heaven or food hell. Olly Smith is on hand to choose the wines to match the dishes, and the presenter introduces video highlights from Rick Stein, Great British Menu and The Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 10 James Martin is joined by guest chefs Glynn Purnell and Chris King, and singer Donny Osmond, who faces his food heaven or hell. Peter Richards chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared, and the host introduces archive clips featuring Rick Stein, The Great British Menu and The Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 11 James Martin is joined by chefs Ken Hom and Brad McDonald, with Susy Atkins choosing wine to match the dishes being prepared. Plus, a celebrity guest faces their food heaven or hell, and there are highlights from The Great British Menu, The Two Greedy Italians and programmes featuring Rick Stein Season 16 Episode 12 James Martin is joined in the studio by chefs Marcus Wareing and Sabrina Ghayour, and comedian Jack Whitehall, who faces either food heaven or food hell. Plus, Peter Richards chooses wine to match the dishes being prepared, and the presenter introduces video highlights from Rick Stein, Great British Menu and The Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 13 James Martin is joined by chefs and celebrity guests for the cookery show, which also features BBC archive highlights and wine choices for the dishes prepared in the studio Season 16 Episode 14 James Martin is joined in the studio by guest chefs Yotam Ottolenghi and Theo Randall, and introduces archive highlights featuring Rick Stein, Nigella Lawson, Tom Kerridge and Raymond Blanc. Plus, Susie Barrie chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared Season 16 Episode 15 James Martin is joined by chefs Nathan Outlaw and Ken Yamada, and Call the Midwife star Laura Main faces her food heaven or hell. Plus, wine expert Susy Atkins selects drinks to complement the dishes created in the studio, and there are archive clips from programmes featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Gennaro Contaldo, Antonio Carluccio, Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh Season 16 Episode 16 James Martin is joined by guest chefs Hamish Brown and Monica Galetti, along with Silent Witness actress Emilia Fox who faces her food heaven or food hell. There's also archive highlights featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Gennaro Contaldo, Antonio Carluccio, Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh. Plus, Olly Smith chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared Season 16 Episode 17 James Martin is joined by guest chefs Monica Galetti and Bryn Williams, while Jane Parkinson chooses the wines to match the dishes being prepared in the studio. Plus, the presenter introduces highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Gennaro Contaldo, Antonio Carluccio, Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh Season 16 Episode 18 James Martin is joined by singer-songwriter Matt Goss, who will face his food heaven or food hell, and guest chefs Atul Kochhar and Paul Foster, with Susy Atkins choosing the drinks to match the dishes being prepared. Plus, the host introduces archive highlights featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio Season 16 Episode 19 James Martin is joined by chefs Judy Joo and Michael Caines, and wine expert Olly Smith selects drinks to accompany dishes cooked in the studio. Plus, there are archive clips of programmes featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Gennaro Contaldo, Antonio Carluccio, Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh Season 16 Episode 20 Guest presenters Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh take over hosting duties from James Martin, with a little help from chef Daniel Galmiche. Plus, Susie Barrie chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared in the studio, and there are archive clips featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio. A Cook Abroad: Tony Singh's India, Monday, BBC Two, 9pm Season 16 Episode 21 James Martin is joined by guest chefs Ken Hom and Ching-He Huang, as well as actress and writer Ruth Jones, who faces either food heaven or food hell. Jane Parkinson chooses the wines to match the dishes being prepared in the studio, and the host introduces archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, the Incredible Spice Men and Gennaro Contaldo with Antonio Carluccio Season 16 Episode 22 Host James Martin is joined by guest chefs Niklas Ekstedt and Francesco Mazzei, as well as jazz singer Gregory Porter, who faces either food heaven or food hell. Plus, the host introduces archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, The Incredible Spice Men, Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio, and Tim Atkin chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared Season 16 Episode 24 James Martin is joined by chefs Paul Rankin and Virgilio Martinez, and actress Sally Lindsay faces her food heaven or hell. Plus, wine expert Peter Richards reveals his choice of drinks to complement the dishes created in the studio, and there are archive clips of programmes featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, The Incredible Spice Men, Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio Season 16 Episode 25 James Martin is joined by chefs Galton Blackiston and Sabrina Ghayour, as well as comedian Johnny Vegas, who faces either food heaven or food hell as the show celebrates its 400th episode. Plus, Susy Atkins picks the wine to match the dishes, and the host introduces archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, The Incredible Spice Men, as well as Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio Season 16 Episode 26 James Martin is joined in the studio by chefs Andrew Turner and Glynn Purnell, as well as guest Jodie Kidd, who faces either food heaven or food hell. Plus, the host introduces archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, the Incredible Spice Men as well as Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio, and Olly Smith chooses the wines to match the dishes Season 16 Episode 27 James Martin is joined by guest chefs Paul Ainsworth and Florence Knight, as well as Strictly Come Dancing judge Craig Revel Horwood, who faces either food heaven or food hell. Plus, the host introduces archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge and the Incredible Spice Men, and Jane Parkinson chooses the wine to match the dishes being prepared in the studio Season 16 Episode 28 James Martin is joined in the studio by chefs Michael Caines and Donna Hay, as well as actress Lara Pulver, who faces either food heaven or food hell. Plus, the host introduces archive highlights featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, the Incredible Spice Men as well as Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio, and Tim Atkin chooses the wines to match the dishes Season 16 Episode 30 James Martin is joined by chefs Gennaro Contaldo and Francesco Mazzei, while Fortitude actor Stanley Tucci faces his food heaven or hell. Plus, wine expert Susie Barrie selects drinks to go with the dishes created in the studio and there are archive clips of programmes featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Nigella Lawson and the Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 31 James Martin is joined by chefs Gennaro Contaldo and Francesco Mazzei, while Fortitude actress Alexandra Roach faces her food heaven or hell. Plus, wine expert Jane Parkinson selects drinks to go with the dishes created in the studio and there are archive clips of programmes featuring Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Nigella Lawson and the Two Greedy Italians Season 16 Episode 32 James Martin is joined by chefs and celebrity guests for the cookery show, which also features BBC archive highlights and wine choices for the dishes prepared in the studio Season 16 Episode 33 James Martin is joined by chefs Nathan Outlaw and Richard Turner. Plus, actor Richard E Grant faces his food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 34 James Martin is joined in the kitchen by Nigel Haworth and April Bloomfield, while Carry On star and Broadway actor Jim Dale faces his food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 35 Former footballer and TV presenter Dion Dublin faces his food heaven or hell as he joins James Martin in chefs Daniel Boulud and Sabrina Ghayour in the kitchen studio Season 16 Episode 36 Musician Gaz Coombes faces his food heaven or hell as he joins James Martin and chefs Atul Kochhar and Jose Pizarro in the kitchen studio, while Susy Atkins chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 37 Actress Meera Syal faces her food heaven or hell as she joins James Martin and chefs Jason Atherton and Pascal Aussignac in the kitchen studio, while Tim Atkin chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 38 James Martin is joined by chefs Daniel Galmiche and Leila Lindholm in the kitchen studio, while Olly Smith chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 39 Guest presenter Rick Stein is joined by Michelin-starred chef Glynn Purnell in the kitchen studio, while Peter Richards chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 40 Actress Melanie Hill faces her food heaven or hell as she joins James Martin and chefs Adam Byatt and Fernando Stovell in the kitchen studio, while Susie Barrie chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 41 New Dragon's Den entrepreneur Sarah Willingham faces her food heaven or hell as she joins James Martin and chefs Daniel Clifford and Paul Ainsworth in the kitchen studio Season 16 Episode 42 James Martin is joined by chefs Luke Matthews and Olia Hercules for the cookery show, which also features BBC archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Nigella Lawson and Antonio Carluccio. Wine expert Susy Atkins matches wine to the dishes Season 16 Episode 43 James Martin is joined by chefs Lee Westcott and Kenny Atkinson for the cookery show, which also features BBC archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Nigella Lawson and Antonio Carluccio. Wine expert Olly Smith matches wine to the dishes Season 16 Episode 45 James Martin is joined by chefs Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh for the cookery show, which also features BBC archive highlights from Rick Stein, Tom Kerridge, Hairy Bikers and Antonio Carluccio. Expert Susie Barrie chooses wine to match the dishes Season 16 Episode 46 Valentine Warner is joined by chefs Nathan Outlaw and Niklas Ekstedt for the cookery show, which also features BBC archive highlights from Rick Stein, the Two Fat Ladies, the Hairy Bikers and Antonio Carluccio. Expert Jane Parkinson chooses wine to match the dishes and celebrity guest England cricketer James Anderson faces his food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 47 Host James Martin is joined by top chefs Sat Bains and George Calombaris, pop star Kelis faces her food heaven or food hell, and Susy Atkins chooses wines appropriate to accompany the dishes prepared in the studio. Plus, archive clips featuring Mary Berry, The Hairy Bikers and Antonio Carluccio Season 16 Episode 48 James Martin is joined by chefs Sabrina Ghayour and Ken Hom, with wine choices chosen by expert Peter Richards, and Bill Bailey faces his food heaven or food hell Season 16 Episode 49 James Martin presents the cookery programme with help from chefs Andrew Wong and Vivek Singh, while actress Suranne Jones faces her food heaven or food hell. Susy Atkins will also be choosing wine to match the dishes in the studio Season 16 Episode 50 James Martin is joined by chefs Jose Pizarro and Shivi Ramoutar, with wine choices selected by expert Jane Parkinson, and Katherine Parkinson faces her food heaven or food hell Season 16 Episode 51 James Martin is joined by chefs Ramael Scully and Yotam Ottolenghi, with wine choices selected by expert Olly Smith, and Alesha Dixon faces her food heaven or food hell Season 16 Episode 52 James Martin is joined by chefs Ching He-Huang and Claire Thomson, with wine choices selected by expert Susie Barrie, and Dawn French faces her food heaven or food hell Season 16 Episode 53 James Martin is joined by chefs Galton Blackiston and Stephen Terry, with wine choices selected by expert Peter Richards, and Nick Frost faces his food heaven or food hell Season 16 Episode 54 Chefs Ben Tish and Tom Kitchin prepare either food heaven or hell for Children in Need hostess Fearne Cotton, and Jane Parkinson chooses wine to match dishes prepared in the studio Season 16 Episode 55 Detectorists star Mackenzie Crook joins James Martin and chefs Glynn Purnell and Kim Woodward to face his food heaven or hell. Plus, Sue Barrie provides the wine tips Season 16 Episode 56 Carol Kirkwood faces her food heaven or hell as James Martin invites chefs Claude Bosi and Anthony Demetre to prepare dishes in the studio. Plus, clips from shows featuring Rick Stein, Mary Berry, the Hairy Bikers and Antonio Carluccio, and wine tips from Susy Atkins Season 16 Episode 57 DJ, broadcaster and incoming Top Gear host Chris Evans faces food heaven or hell as James Martin invites Jason Atherton and Russell Norman to prepare dishes in the studio Season 16 Episode 58 Singer Will Young faces his food heaven or hell, courtesy of chefs Kuba Winkowski and Theo Randall. Plus, culinary highlights from shows featuring Rick Stein and Mary Berry Season 16 Episode 59 Comedian Russell Howard hopes for `good news' as Rick Stein and John Torode subject him to food heaven or hell, and Susie Barrie picks out wines to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 60 James Martin is joined by Lorraine Pascale and Cyrus Todiwala for culinary-based chat, and Olly Smith picks wines to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 62 Xmas 2 Chefs Daniel Galmiche, Gennaro Contaldo and Monica Galetti join James Martin to dish up food heaven or hell for guest Richard Blackwood, while Olly Smith selects the wine Season 16 Episode 63 Matt Gillan and Paul Ainsworth join James Martin in the kitchen, while Peter Richards selects the best wines to accompany the dishes prepared in the studio Season 16 Episode 64 James Martin invites actress Georgia May Foote to face her food heaven or her food hell. He is also assisted by fellow chefs John Torode and Cary Doherty, while Olly Smith picks out wines to accompany the dishes prepared in the kitchen. Plus, archive clips featuring Rick Stein, the Hairy Bikers and Brian Turner Season 16 Episode 65 Tom Kitchin and Cyrus Todiwala join James Martin in the studio, where they subject radio DJ Sara Cox to food heaven or hell. Jane Parkinson is on hand with the wine tips Season 16 Episode 66 Comedian Chris Ramsey places himself at the mercy of the audience as Atul Kochhar and Francesco Mazzei serve up his food heaven or hell. Plus, Susy Atkins provides the wine tips Season 16 Episode 67 Ken Hom and Ching-He Huang join James Martin as he challenges musician Chris Isaak to face his food heaven or hell. Plus, Olly Smith is on hand to provide the wine tips Season 16 Episode 68 Actor Laurence Fox faces food heaven or hell, courtesy of Mary Berry and Simon Rogan, and James Martin invites Peter Richards to select the best wines to accompany studio dishes Season 16 Episode 69 Comedienne Katherine Ryan joins James Martin to face food heaven or hell, courtesy of Theo Randall and Olia Hercules. Plus, Susie Barrie is on hand with the wine tips Season 16 Episode 70 Chefs Galton Blackiston and Fernando Stovell join James Martin as former Spice Girl Emma Bunton faces food heaven or hell. Plus, Jane Parkinson provides the wine tips Season 16 Episode 71 Singer-songwriter Ronan Keating faces food heaven or hell, courtesy of Michelin-starred chefs Jason Atherton and Glynn Purnell. Plus, Susy Atkins shares her wine tips Season 16 Episode 74 Paul Ainsworth, Claude Bosi, Vivek Singh and Sat Bains join James Martin in what will be his last appearance as host of the Saturday morning culinary show. The assembled guests prepare more treats in the kitchen, while Susie Barrie picks wines to accompany their dishes Season 16 Episode 75 Michel Roux Jr serves as guest host, and is joined by fellow chefs Bryn Williams and Claus Meyer, while wine expert Jane Parkinson selects drinks to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 76 Lorraine Pascale guest hosts the cookery show, with assistance from leading chefs Michael Caines and Nathan Outlaw, while wine expert Susie Barrie selects the drinks Season 16 Episode 77 Donal Skehan serves as guest host, and is joined by Theo Randall and Sabrina Gidda, and actor Martin Compston. Plus, wine tips from Peter Richards Season 16 Episode 78 Ching-He Huang serves as the guest host this week, as Ben Tish and Yotam Ottolenghi submit Johnny Vegas to food heaven or hell. Susy Atkins provides the wine tips Season 16 Episode 79 Matt Tebbutt is the guest host this week, as Fran Healy faces his food heaven or hell, with chefs Galton Blackiston and Nieves Barragan Mohacho. Olly Smith provides the wine tips Season 16 Episode 80 Gennaro Contaldo and Antonio Carluccio present, as Jamie Oliver faces his food heaven or hell, with chefs Joe Hurd and Anna Jones. Susie Barrie provides the wine tips Season 16 Episode 81 Glynn Purnell is joined in the kitchen by Michael O'Hare and Amandine Chaignot, while wine expert Peter Richards selects the perfect drinks to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 82 Hairy Bikers Si King and Dave Myers host this weekend's show, joined by guest Elaine Paige, chefs Sabrina Ghayour and Lyndey Milan and wine expert Jane Parkinson Season 16 Episode 83 John Torode presents the cookery show, with chefs Andy Oliver and Angela Hartnett on hand with recipes. Plus, TV presenter Julia Bradbury faces her food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 84 Matt Tebbutt presents as actor Stephen Tompkinson submits to food heaven or hell, courtesy of Theo Randall and Lisa Allen, and Jane Parkinson selects the perfect wines to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 85 Donal Skehan hosts the cookery show, joined by wine expert Susie Barrie and guest chef Frederick Forster. Featuring archive clips with Rick Stein, James Martin and Brian Turner Season 16 Episode 86 Angela Hartnett presents the culinary show, with help from chef Cyrus Todiwala, and UK's Best Part-Time Band presenter Rhod Gilbert faces food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 87 Michel Roux Jr serves as guest host, inviting chef Wolfgang Puck and food writer Rosie Birkett to prepare food heaven or hell for singer Rick Astley Season 16 Episode 88 Matt Tebbutt returns as guest host, inviting chef Galton Blackiston and cook Annabel Langbein to prepare either food heaven or hell for food writer and broadcaster Jay Rayner Season 16 Episode 89 John Torode serves as this week's guest host, inviting Elizabeth Allen and Vivek Singh to subject comedian Greg Davies to either food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 90 Chef Daniel Galmiche and Great British Bake Off winner Nadiya Hussain step into the kitchen as Glynn Purnell serves as guest host. Includes wine recommendations by Susie Barrie Season 16 Episode 91 Ching-He Huang is this week's guest host on the cookery show, with chefs Martin Morales and Olia Hercules on hand to prepare tasty meals and archive clips from Rick Stein Season 16 Episode 92 Matt Tebbutt assumes hosting duties as Anna Haigh and Jun Tanaka prepare culinary treats in the kitchen, and Olly Smith picks wines to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 93 Tom Kerridge takes on hosting duties as Paul Ainsworth and Galton Blackiston prepare culinary treats, and Jane Parkinson picks out the perfect wines to accompany the studio dishes Season 16 Episode 95 Saturday Kitchen Lorraine Pascale presents the first of three special summer episodes, inviting Martin Kemp to sample food heaven or hell, courtesy of Jose Pizarro and Galton Blackiston Season 16 Episode 96 Saturday Kitchen Chefs Dan Doherty and Selin Kiazim serve up food heaven or hell to actress Hattie Morahan as Cyrus Todiwala and Tony Singh present the weekly cookery programme Season 16 Episode 97 Saturday Kitchen Jason Atherton takes on hosting duties as actress and presenter Sheree Murphy is subjected to food heaven or hell by chefs Pierre Koffmann and Aktar Islam Season 16 Episode 98 The cookery show returns to its live format, as Si King and Dave Myers take on hosting duties. Meatloaf faces food heaven or hell, at the hands of Diana Henry and Niklas Ekstedt Season 16 Episode 99 American actor Michael Landes joins guest host Donal Skehan in the studio, as chef Tomer Amedi and Australian `food stylist' Donna Hay take up residence in the kitchen Season 16 Episode 100 Singer Rebecca Ferguson joins guest host Michel Roux Jr, while chefs Gennaro Contaldo and Frederick Forster prepare dishes in the kitchen Season 16 Episode 101 Singer Jimmy Osmond joins guest host Matt Tebbutt, while chefs Sabrina Ghayour and Ken Hom prepare dishes in the kitchen and Jane Parkinson chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 102 Actress Jo Joyner joins guest host John Torode, while chefs Elizabeth Allen and Omar Allibhoy prepare dishes in the kitchen and Peter Richards chooses the wine Season 16 Episode 103 Donal Skehan presents, with chefs Brad Carter and Amandine Chaignot on hand to prepare a selection of tasty dishes. Plus, actress Kimberley Nixon faces her food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 104 Rick Stein presents, with chefs Tom Sellers and Bryn Williams on hand to prepare a selection of tasty dishes. Plus, singer-songwriter Katie Melua faces her food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 105 Donal Skehan presents, with chefs Andy Oliver and Vivek Singh on hand to demonstrate some tasty recipes. Double Olympic rowing champion Helen Glover faces her food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 106 Alexander Armstrong joins Matt Tebbutt for the weekend culinary magazine show, as Andi Oliver and Dan Doherty prepare dishes in the studio kitchen Season 16 Episode 107 Glynn Purnell steps into the role of host this weekend, and is joined by Madness frontman Suggs as chef Ben Tish and food writer Eleonora Galasso prepare dishes in the kitchen Season 16 Episode 108 Angela Hartnett steps into the role of host this weekend, and is joined by actress Catherine Tyldesley as Michael Wignall and Jason Atherton prepare dishes in the kitchen Season 16 Episode 109 Guest host Matt Tebbutt is joined by QI regular Alan Davies as well as chefs Jose Pizarro and Sabrina Ghayour, with new wine expert Sam Caporn picking drinks to match the food Season 16 Episode 110 Michel Roux Jr takes on hosting duties as Countdown's Rachel Riley submits herself to food heaven or hell. With kitchen guests Tom Kitchin and Adam Byatt Season 16 Episode 111 Donal Skehan takes on presenting duties as Simon Hulstone and Cyrus Todiwala take up residence in the kitchen, and Paralympic swimmer Ellie Simmonds faces food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 112 Angela Hartnett presents the cookery show, joined by chefs Francesco Mazzei and Jordan Bourke and actor Simon Callow, who faces his food heaven or hell Season 16 Episode 114 Matt Tebbutt hosts a New Year's special, with guests chefs Galton Blackiston and Yotam Ottolenghi, and Breakfast presenter Naga Munchetty Season 16 Episode 115 Cookery show presented by Donal Skehan, with guest chefs Ching-He Huang and Mark Greenaway, wine expert Olly Smith and Olympic diver Tom Daley Saturday Kitchen Live Episode Guide. Press Esc to close	i don't know
What alcoholic drink is made from molasses?	Historical liquor made from molasses, sugar \| The Triangle Historical liquor made from molasses, sugar September 23, 2011 by Matthew.Hartshorne Rum has lately become a staple of college parties, but many people do not appreciate its long and varied history. First, though, it’s helpful to understand a little bit about what rum is, and how it is made. Rum is defined as liquor made by fermenting and distilling sugarcane juice or, more commonly, the tailings from sugar production, such as molasses. The distillation process is generally done in a column still to provide a cleaner, more consistent product; however, a number of distillers still utilize pot stills for small batches. After distillation, rum is aged in oak barrels for a period of time. Rum is classified by its color as light, gold or dark, with darker rum having more flavor or spice based upon other additives. The particular rum in question is Cruzan Rum’s Cruzan Black Strap. This rum is part of a subset of dark rum called Naval Rum. Cruzan Rum was founded in 1760 on the island of St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Ownership of the distillery has passed through a number of corporations over the years, currently residing with Beam Global Spirits Inc., but distillery operations have been managed by the Nelthropp family for eight generations. Naval Rum is the darkest of the rums, ranging from dark amber to opaque black in color. The color comes from the retention of a larger percentage of the molasses components, which results in a far, far stronger flavor than in any other type of rum. Cruzan Black Strap rum is intended as a slightly smoother version of Naval Rum, especially low in hot fusel alcohols, providing an accessible version of the style to the general public. The rum pours a jet black, but reveals a beautiful deep ruby red color with golden red highlights right at the edge of the glass. When served in a snifter, a surprising amount of spicy alcohol character is present, which almost covered the sweet vanilla and molasses notes. The taste is very sweet for liquor, far sweeter than even most bourbons, but not cloying. The taste is of very smooth and sweet molasses, or perhaps even a very dark brown sugar with hints of caramel. The rums have a very smooth, warming nature to them without giving the impression of being spiced at all. The best description I’ve heard of this rum is that it’s “dessert in a bottle,” and I have used it that way on several occasions. Though I love to drink this rum straight, I also find that it provides a wonderful, caramel molasses character to mixed drinks. I decided to mix up three cocktails, although all three are debatably highballs, which is a name for the category of drinks made by cutting a portion of liquor with a larger portion of mixer. The first is the reliable standby of the college house party, the rum and coke. This particular drink was vastly improved by the substitution of the Black Strap. My main objection to the usual rum and coke is that the soda overshadows the rum; however, there is not a chance of this happening if a reasonable portion of Black Strap is used. The vanilla character of the rum really penetrates, reminding me of Vanilla Coke, and the molasses flavor provides a nice, sweet caramel depth. This drink is improved even more by a twist of lemon, and I found myself enjoying it far more than I thought I would. For my second drink I mixed the Rum Swizzle. Shake two ounces of rum, a half ounce each of triple sec and lemon juice, then strain into a tall, ice-filled glass. Top off with ginger ale and a lemon wheel. This drink was much sweeter than the base rum, thanks to the triple sec, and the lemon provided a very bright citrus highlight. The sweetness really brought out the molasses character in this rum, and the ginger ale provided a nice contrast of spice. Overall, this drink was very, very smooth and went down quite easily. The third drink I mixed was the Dark and Stormy; this drink is the big, bad cousin to the Rum Swizzle that I mixed. The key to this drink is the ginger beer; I would stay away from Goya ginger beer if possible, as it contains capsaicin, the active ingredient in chili peppers. I personally used Barrett’s, which is made in Bermuda, but Reed’s is another good brand. To make this drink, pour two ounces of dark rum into a tall glass filled with ice. Add a slice or two of fresh ginger and half a tablespoon of sugar, top off the glass with ginger beer, and then squeeze and drop in two lime wedges. This drink had the nice smoothness of the sugar combined with the depth of the rum to produce a complex base. On top of this, the lime and the bite from both the ginger and the ginger beer produced an interesting flavor combination that few people I’ve given it to have been able to resist. I highly recommend this rum as it is cheap, clean and absolutely delicious. It can easily be substituted into any recipe that calls for dark rum, increasing the flavor of the drinks, or sipped straight after dinner. Distiller: Cruzan Rum	Rum
In Greek cuisine a vine or cabbage leaf with a savoury stuffing is called what?	How to make Hot Molasses - Eating Rules A guest post by Kristine Duncan on October 25, 2013 in How to Make… ; Smoothies & Beverages 28 Kristine Duncan, MS, RD, CDE is a vegetarian dietitian, freelance writer, community college instructor, dog lady, cat lady, and nutrition blogger at VegGirlRD . She lives in Washington State but dreams of moving to Italy someday and getting paid to eat pasta and cheese for a living. Until then you can find her on Twitter and Facebook . Warm, rich, sweet brown liquid. That’s how most of us like to start the day, whether we brew up a cup at home or cruise through our favorite drive thru. I know the main motivator to this ritual is caffeine, but I’d like you to consider for a moment another way to quench your morning thirst that looks and feels a lot like a latte but boasts a bit more nutrition. I give you: the Hot Molasses. A favorite coffee cart in Bellingham, Washington, which has since closed up shop, first turned me on to the idea of melting molasses into hot milk. The result is divine. I think it tastes like hot buttered rum, kind of roasty and caramelly (which makes a little bit of sense because molasses is actually used to make rum) and it’s definitely more healthful than traditional syrups or sauces used to flavor coffee and espresso drinks. Molasses is a byproduct of sugar production, made from crushing sugar cane and cooking down the sweet liquid that’s extracted. It usually goes through three rounds of cooking, with crystalized sugar removed at each step, leaving the dark brown syrup referred to as blackstrap. The consistency is almost identical to that famous chocolate syrup in the brown squeeze bottle, but nutrition sets it apart: it’s surprisingly high in calcium, iron and potassium, especially for a sweetener. That’s actually one of the problems with our favorite sweet things like table sugar or honey…teaspoon for teaspoon, they don’t offer up many nutrients besides carbohydrate. When you’re shopping, be sure to get blackstrap as other types of molasses don’t have the same vitamin and mineral content as this lovely liquid. When I go on and on about the nutritional powerhouse that is blackstrap molasses, folks usually ask me how the heck to use it. When we think of molasses in the kitchen, the occasional ginger snap cookie or pot of baked beans come to mind, but I’ve got a quick recipe that will help you make this a daily pantry staple. My recipe for Hot Molasses makes 2 cups, which is a breakfast in itself. But, you can easily make the whole recipe, enjoy half and put the rest in the fridge for a quick reheat on day 2. I find it equally delicious over ice. 5 from 3 votes	i don't know
What was the name of the cavalry regiment raised and trained by Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil War?	Military Units of the Civil Wars, Commonwealth & Protectorate Top of Page The Horse (Cavalry) Cavalrymen were organised in troops like infantry companies. Each troop was commanded by a captain and consisted of between thirty and one hundred men. Although some cavalry troops operated independently, they were usually brigaded together into a regiment of around six troops under the command of a colonel. Cuirassiers Cuirassiers were the lineal descendants of the fully-armoured men-at-arms of the Middle Ages. They rode into battle encased in a suit of articulated armour, with the exception of the lower leg (which was protected by a long boot) and the back of the thigh. The invention of the wheel-lock firing mechanism made it practical to use firearms on horseback, so cuirassiers discarded the heavy lance in favour of pistols, carbines and swords. Mounted and armoured pistoleers, called reiters, dominated European battlefields during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Although it was fashionable for officers and noblemen to sit for portraits in full armour, very few cuirassier units served during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Not only were cuirassiers expensive to equip and maintain, it was also difficult to find horses strong enough to bear their weight. Their cumbersome armour became steadily less effective as firearms improved, which is consistent with the general decline in the use of protective armour during the 17th century. Individual commanders on both sides sometimes went into battle equipped as cuirassiers but the only regular cuirassier units were Parliamentarian. The cuirassier lifeguard troops of the Earl of Essex, the Earl of Bedford and Sir William Balfour played an important role at the battle of Edgehill in 1642. The most famous cuirassier unit of the civil wars was Sir Arthur Hesilrige's regiment, the "Lobsters", which was active during 1643 as the heavy cavalry of Sir William Waller's army but was reformed as a harquebusier regiment after Waller's defeat at Roundway Down. Harquebusiers Most civil war cavalry were equipped as "harquebusiers". Originally, harquebusiers were foot soldiers who had exchanged the crossbow for the arquebus (or harquebus), an early form of matchlock firearm. During the French religious wars of the 16th century, harquebusiers were mounted on horseback. By the early 17th century, they had evolved into the light cavalrymen of western Europe. Ideally, harquebusiers were armed with a carbine or harquebus, a pair of pistols and a sword. During the civil wars, the carbine or harquebus was likely to be carried by officers only. The carbine is distinguished from the harquebus by being of larger bore and firing a larger, heavier bullet. Both types had a barrel length of around three feet and were carried suspended from a shoulder belt. The pistols, carried in saddle holsters, had a barrel length of around twenty inches. Cavalry firearms were of the firelock pattern, either flintlocks or the more expensive and less popular wheel-lock. Harquebusier defensive armour consisted of a light breast- and back-plate and pot helmet, sometimes with a "gorget" to protect the throat. A thick leather buff-coat was usually worn underneath the armour, and often replaced it altogether. A distinctive feature of English harquebusier arms was the three-bar pot helmet with articulated neck-guard. Harquebusiers were classified as light cavalry, in contrast to cuirassiers who were regarded as heavy cavalry. In practice, however, cavalry tactics developed during the civil wars so that harquebusier regiments such as Prince Rupert's horse and Cromwell's Ironsides fought as shock troops, the role usually associated with cuirassiers. Dragoons Dragoons were mounted infantrymen who rode small horses or cobs to move into position and then fought on foot. They wore no armour and usually carried a musket or carbine and sword. The practice of mounting musketeers for greater mobility probably originated during the late 16th century in the French Huguenot armies of Henri of Navarre. Dragoons were used in the Dutch armies of Prince Maurice of Nassau and one theory for the origin of the name is that it is derived from the Dutch word "tragon", used to describe mounted infantry. Another theory is that it was derived from the "dragon", a short-barrelled carbine that was later replaced by flintlock muskets. Typical dragoon actions during the civil wars were to cover the approaches to a position or to guard the flank. Initially, dragoons were organised in distinct regiments, but as the wars progressed, the practice grew of attaching a company of dragoons to some of the larger cavalry regiments to provide supporting fire in action and to act as sentries. A full regiment of dragoons was raised on the formation of the New Model Army in 1645, which played a significant role in the early stages of the battle of Naseby by disrupting Prince Rupert's cavalry on the Royalist right wing Lancers By the mid-17th century, the heavy lance used by medieval men-at-arms was obsolete in European warfare, yet the light lance remained the special weapon of the English borderers or reivers. During the civil wars, it was used extensively by Scottish cavalry, particularly in regiments recruited near the border regions. Initially, Scottish cavalry regiments were organised in two squadrons, one equipped as harquebusiers, the other as lancers. The proportion of lancers steadily increased as the wars proceeded, partly because horses suitable for harquebusiers became more difficult to find. At the battle of Marston Moor in 1644, David Leslie's Scottish lancers used their superior mobility in a decisive intervention against the Royalist horse. After this, the Scottish cavalry were all equipped as lancers, turning their lighter horses to advantage and relying upon speed and manoeuvrability rather than the weight and firepower of harquebusier units. Body armour was abandoned except for a steel cap. As it was no longer necessary to maintain a long unbroken frontage in battle, Scottish lancer regiments were organised in three troops rather than the more usual six or more. Despite the effectiveness of Scottish lancers in campaigns in England, Scotland and Ireland, no attempt was made to re-introduce lancers into English armies during the civil wars. Top of Page Ordnance (Artillery) Artillery of the civil war era can be broadly divided into three classes: siege guns (cannon royal, cannon and demi-cannon), heavy field guns (culverin and demi-culverin) and light field guns (saker, drake, minion, falcon, falconet and robinet). At this period, gun calibres were not standardized and there were several variations on these broad classifications. Most artillery was muzzle-loading, smooth bore, and cast in bronze or iron. The heaviest guns were used for battering down walls in sieges. Artillery batteries were sited as close as possible to the enemy position without exposing the gunners to enemy fire and usually consisted of a levelled area protected by earth banks and gabions with the cannon mounted on wooden platforms. Mortars were often used to fire explosive shells or incendiary devices over the walls of the besieged position. The main marching armies were usually well-equipped with field artillery. The heaviest field gun was the culverin, which fired a ball of between sixteen and twenty pounds in weight. More common was the demi-culverin, which fired a ball of between nine and twelve pounds and could be fired about ten times an hour. The heavier field guns were set up at the beginning of a battle and remained in place. Their purpose was to fire upon the enemy army from long range before the troops came into direct contact. The opening cannonade could continue for several hours, sometimes forcing enemy troops to move from a good position and often weakening the morale of the troops under fire. The practice of attaching light artillery pieces to every regiment of infantry was copied from European armies of the Thirty Years War. Falcons, minions or robinets were used to cover the gaps between infantry units. The guns could be moved with the infantry as it advanced to bolster the firepower of the musketeers. Transportation of artillery on campaign was the responsibility of the general of the ordnance, who commanded the artillery train. The train was a vital part of a marching army, though it often presented severe logistical problems, with large teams of draught horses or oxen required to haul the guns. The train also carried supplies of ammunition and gunpowder for the whole army, as well as all kinds of military tools and equipment.	Ironside
William Howard Russell became famous as what during the Crimean War?	English Civil War Battle of Edgehill Battle of Edgehill The First Major Battle of the English Civil War The Royalist cavalry attacking at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: picture by Harry Payne: to buy this picture click here The previous battle in the British Battles series is the Spanish Armada The next battle in the English Civil War is the Battle of Seacroft Moor War: English Civil War. Date: 23rd October 1642. Place of the Battle of Edgehill: At Kineton, near Banbury, in Oxfordshire. Combatants at the Battle of Edgehill: The forces of King Charles I against the forces of the English Parliament. King Charles I of England: picture by Sir Anthony van Dyck: Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: click here to buy an equestrian portrait of King Charles I by van Dyck Generals at the Battle of Edgehill: King Charles I was the commander of his Royal forces. His Lord General was the Earl of Lindsey at the outset of the battle. A dispute with Prince Rupert caused Lindsey to give up his appointment and fight at the head of his regiment where he was mortally wounded during the battle. Prince Rupert under his commission as ‘General of the Horse’ was entitled to act free from supervision by any other officer. The Parliamentary forces at Edgehill were commanded by the Earl of Essex. The Battle of Edgehill, 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: plan by John Fawkes Size of the armies at the Battle of Edgehill: The Royalist army comprised around 14,000 men, of which probably 3,000 were Horse, and 20 guns. The Parliamentary army was around 15,000, but a significant part of the army was in quarters too far from the field to arrive in time to fight in the battle. Essex had around 4,000 Horse and some 40 cannon. The battlefield: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War Winner of the Battle of Edgehill: Clarendon makes it clear that the contemporary view, whether justified or not, was that Edgehill was a Royalist victory. The Royalist cavalry on each wing drove the Parliamentary cavalry opposing them off the field, while the Parliamentary Infantry pushed the Royalist Infantry back. Both sides initially remained on the field. Trained Bands: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War Uniforms, arms and equipment at the Battle of Edgehill: When the Civil War broke out in 1642 England was without a regular military establishment and had little recent warlike experience. Each side, Royalist and the Parliamentarian, was forced to build up its armies from scratch relying upon the regional system of ‘Trained Bands’ or militia. The Trained Bands varied widely in quality but were generally only suitable for a starting point. Many of these regional forces were not prepared to leave their counties and probably only the London Trained Bands were ready and capable of sustained military action, fighting for the Parliament. The one military resource, that was important to each side, was the pool of English and Scottish officers with experience of fighting in Europe, where the Thirty Years War (1618 to 1648) was in progress across the continent. Each side relied upon these officers, particularly in the use of artillery and in military engineering. The Civil War came squarely in the transition from Medieval reliance on the shock of armoured horsemen, bows, swords and lances, to the use of firearms, both hand held and artillery. In the late 15th Century the Swiss briefly dominated the European battlefield with massed pikemen. The Swiss dominance was broken by the tactical use of firearms on the battlefield. Both infantry and cavalry turned from shock tactics to the use of firearms; pistols for the horsemen and arquebuses for the infantry. Cannon became increasingly mobile and available for use in battle, as opposed to being mainly a siege weapon. Pikemen at the Battle of Rocroi in France, in 1643: picture by Sebastian Vrancx. This might well have been a picture of the Battle of Edgehill, fought in the previous year on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War The Thirty Years War produced a number of important commanders; Wallenstein for the Imperialists, Prince Maurice of Nassau in the Netherlands and, pre-eminently, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. English and Scottish soldiers, largely Protestant fought mainly for the two Protestant leaders, Prince Maurice and Gustavus Adolphus. Siege artillery of the mid 17th Century: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War These two Protestant soldiers devised differing systems of battle, which produced conflicting schools of tactics in the English Civil War on each side. This conflict showed itself immediately at Edgehill, where the Earl of Lindsey resigned his appointment as Royalist commander following a dispute over which system to adopt. Prince Maurice applied the older system of tactics, which relied heavily on the use of firearms as against shock. Cavalry approached their target at a slow speed and discharged their pistols in a rolling sequence of ranks before engaging in mêlée. The infantry used a similar system, forming 15 or more ranks, with the musketeers discharging their pieces before countermarching to the rear to reload, delivering a rolling fire at the enemy. Each infantry formation contained a force of pikemen, who would keep the enemy at bay with their 16 foot pointed weapons or use them as offensive weapons in an advance. Gustavus Adolphus, on the other hand, put his tactical emphasis on massed fire and shock action. Infantry musketeers formed as few as 3 to 6 ranks, closing up to deliver a single volley, before the onset of the attack. Swedish cavalry delivered their attack by way of a charge at speed and were prohibited from firing their pistols, other than in the mêlée that followed the charge. Cavalry charges were conducted at speed using the sword, thereby returning to the traditional role of the horseman in battle. Cavalry action: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: picture by Palamedes Palamedesz: click here to buy a picture by Palamedes Palamedesz Small field guns were produced, light enough to move around the battlefield and provide immediate support to the other arms. Some guns were made of leather. The Swedes deployed groups of ‘Commanded Musketeers’, to provide fire support for the cavalry and other units. The sedate use of firearms by other nationalities produced tactics that could be hesitant and indecisive, while the Swedes of Gustavus Adolphus were aggressive and decisive. The success of their tactics was shown resoundingly by the victorious battles of Breitenfeld (1631) and Lützen (1632). English and Scottish officers played prominent roles in the armies of Prince Maurice and Gustavus Adolphus. Cavalry and ‘commanded musketeers’ of the Period of the English Civil war: Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642: picture by Peter Sneyers In the cavalry, the fully armoured ‘cuirassier’ was, by 1642 a rarity on the battlefield, being expensive to equip and there being few horses strong enough to carry the weight of the man’s full armour. There were nevertheless some cuirassiers in the English Civil War. Well-equipped regiments of horse wore breast and back plate armour and a helmet. Weapons were a sword, pistols and often some form of carbine firearm. Clarendon repeatedly complains that the Parliamentary cavalry (and infantry) were fully equipped while the Royalist cavalry were largely armed only with a sword and had little armoured protection. Artillery of the mid 17th Century on the move: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War In the mid-17th Century dragoons were still, in effect, mounted infantry, and not full cavalry, as they became in the following century. A dragoon was armed with a musket and a sword. In many Civil War actions, including Edgehill, dragoons were used on the flanks of the army to hold hedge lines on foot and act with the cavalry as mobile infantry. Infantrymen carried either the pike, a 16 foot wooden shaft with an iron tip held in place by a socket long enough to avoid being cut off or a musket. Most regiments attempted to achieve a balance between the two forms of soldier, so as to provide firepower and hand to hand combat capability. A contemporary representation of the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1632, showing the larger infantry formations of the Imperial army, left upper, against the smaller Swedish infantry formations, right lower; each comprising a central core of pikemen surrounded by musketeers. The tactics at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War drew heavily on the systems used at Breitenfeld and other battles of the Thirty Years War Hand held firearms were developing. The basic weapon was the firelock with a firing mechanism relying upon a burning match that the trigger brought down on the firing pan. Firing was difficult in bad weather as rain extinguished the match. There was a constant explosion hazard due to the proximity of gunpowder to the naked burning match. The match remained alight for a finite period, usually about 20 minutes and musketeers were frequently caught without a burning match with which to fire their weapons. Musketeer of the English Civil War period armed with a Matchlock: Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War Artillery and infantry positioned open barrels of gunpowder immediately behind the line in battle to provide reserves of gunpowder. Time and again these open ‘budge barrels’ were ignited by musketeers’ matches with disastrous results. The main forms of musket detonation available to replace the matchlock were the wheel lock and the firelock. Wheel locks were expensive and relied upon a spring mechanism that was easily damaged. The firelock or fusil, relying upon a spark ignited by a hammer striking a flint was the obvious replacement for the matchlock. It also was expensive and production was limited. Fusils were issued to infantry deputed to guard the cannon and therefore in contact with large amounts of gun powder. The firelock musketeer when fully equipped carried 12 charges of powder held in wooden containers hung from a cross-belt, known as the ‘Twelve Apostles’. An infantry regiment when on the move made a distinctive sound, as thousands of wooden containers rattled together. This noise with the glow of hundreds of firelock matches made covert movement at night difficult. The lack of military experience in the English establishment showed itself immediately in the Civil War. It took time to work out command structures and to devise tactics for use in battle. In the opening weeks neither side seemed to have a workable strategy. Both sides, once they had taken the field had difficulty discovering the whereabouts of the opposing army. Supply systems failed to provide for the troops in the field, it being necessary to distribute each army in billets over a wide area to ensure the troops were fed. Considerable time was wasted each day assembling the soldiers for the march or for battle. Regiment of Foot of the period of the English Civil War comprising pikemen and musketeers: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642: picture by Peter Sneyers Campaigning began as soon as the armies were assembled, inhibiting pre-campaign training. While infantry could be trained in the field, this was notoriously difficult for cavalry. It was a military axiom that, during a campaign the infantry improves while the cavalry deteriorates, worn out by the burdens of the march and the reconnaissance duties imposed on horsemen. As the horse was the main means of transport in England a large pool of experienced horsemen, many of whom hunted on horseback for recreation was available for the mounted regiments of each side. The problem was imposing on these individuals, many highly competitive, the discipline necessary to make the cavalry arm an asset rather than a liability, particularly as many officers were as devoid of discipline as the soldiers. Controlling cavalry in the excitement of battle is notoriously difficult and requires extensive training in non-operational circumstances. The Royalists never achieved this, while the Parliamentarians only really did so with the establishment of the New Model Army in 1645. King Charles I, King of England: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: picture by Sir Anthony van Dyck: click here to buy this picture Background: The causes of the Civil War are complex and dealt with in great detail in a number of books. The dispute between the Crown and Parliament began following the accession of the first Stewart to the throne, James I, in 1603. The character of Charles I, the son and successor to James I, acerbated all the latent problems. Charles I appeared to the majority of his subjects as a remote and difficult man, incapable of compromise on the issue of royal supremacy. Charles’ main problem was obtaining the money necessary to run the monarchy and the country, while avoiding the obligations that Parliament attempted to impose upon him, when providing the money. King Charles’s reign is a catalogue of disputes with the various Parliaments and members. On 4th January 1642, King Charles entered Parliament, with a body of armed men, intending to arrest the five members who particularly aggravated him. The five were not present, having taken sanctuary in the City of London. The attempted arrest of the 5 members of Parliament by King Charles I on 4th January 1642, the incident that prompted King Charles to leave London, and triggered the English Civil War: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642: click here to buy this picture On 2nd March 1642, King Charles left London, considering that war was inevitable with Parliament, and that London was firmly in the Parliamentary camp. He travelled north, reaching York on 19th March 1642. Over the next few months, there was a fruitless sequence of negotiations between King Charles and Parliament. During this time, each side assembled its forces. Parliament possessed a number of major advantages; London was firmly for Parliament, providing a major source of financial support, and the only Trained Bands in the country that could be relied upon; Parliament controlled all the main armouries, and also the navy, thereby inhibiting the Royalists in their efforts to obtain weapons, either domestically or from abroad. The only city in England considered to be wholeheartedly for the King was Oxford. King Charles was handicapped by his lack of financial resources, from the commencement of the war. This made the raising of troops difficult, as they could not be paid, nor equipped, nor maintained. Every Royalist supporter, that could be contacted, was pressed for financial assistance to the Crown. Clarendon tells the wryly amusing tale of how the King sent Lord Capel to see the wealthy Earl of Kingston, and John Ashburnham, Groom of the Bedchamber, to see the equally well endowed Lord Deincourt, both with estates near Nottingham, to request a loan. Capel journeyed to see the Earl of Kingston, who said he regretted that he did not have the resources to comply with His Majesty’s request, but that he had a neighbor, who was extremely wealthy, and would definitely be able to assist – Lord Deincourt. View of the site of the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War Meanwhile, Ashburnham was visiting Lord Deincourt. Deincourt was dismayed to have to tell Ashburnham that he was a poor man, without the means to provide the King with a loan …. However he knew a rich nobleman, living just up the road, who was more than able to assist His Majesty – the Earl of Kingston. Clarendon points out the irony that Kingston was killed fighting for the King. He was prepared to die for him, but was not prepared to assist the King financially. Deincourt’s estates were later sequestered by Parliament, due to his Royalist sympathies, and he died in poverty. Radway Church : Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War It was Clarendon’s view, that the failure of many Royalist magnates to assist the King with their financial resources was a significant cause for the loss of the war. However, in the summer of 1642, a group of Catholic gentry in Shropshire and Staffordshire combined to provide the King with an advance payment of their fines for being recusants (refusing to attend Church of England worship). A wealthy Shropshire squire, Sir Richard Newport, provided the King with £6,000 in exchange for being advanced to a barony. The Earl of Essex, the Parliamentary commander at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: click here to buy this picture The universities of Oxford and Cambridge contributed their silver and gold plate to the Royalist cause, and subsequently made generous cash payments to King Charles. The Cambridge plate was intercepted by Cromwell on its way to the King on 10th August 1642. These sums enabled the King to take the field in the summer of 1642, in an attempt to recover London. On 12th June 1642, King Charles issued his Commission of Array, summoning his subjects to serve on his behalf. This was in effect the King’s declaration that he was recruiting an army On 15th July 1642, Parliament appointed the Earl of Essex as its captain general, to command its field army. On the same day, Queen Henrietta Maria, who had fled to the Netherlands, appointed Prince Rupert of the Rhine, as King Charles’s general of the horse. Prince Rupert, and his brother Prince Maurice, spent the rest of the month and much of August, in evading the naval ships of the Parliament, and sailing to Newcastle, from where they rode to join King Charles. Prince Rupert, an important Royalist commander throughout the Civil War, was born on 17th December 1619, and was 22 years old in 1642, when he arrived in England to fight for his uncle, King Charles. Prince Rupert was 6 foot 4 inches in height, and the son of the Elector Palatine and Elizabeth, sister of King Charles. Prince Rupert saw service during the Thirty Years War on the Continent of Europe, before being captured by the Imperialists. The Emperor thought sufficiently highly of Rupert to offer him a generalship, if he would convert to Catholicism, an offer Prince Rupert rejected. By 22nd August 1642, King Charles was in Nottingham, where he raised his standard. Prince Rupert joined the King with engineer and artillery officers from the Continent. Scots officers joined and the army grew. Difficulty lingered in raising and equipping the expensive cavalry regiments, although the arrival of the Prince gave this arm a considerable fillip. King Charles I raises his standard: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War In Nottingham, King Charles was considered to be at risk to any determined Parliamentary attempt on his person. On 13th September 1642, King Charles marched with his army to Derby, and then, on 20th September, to Shrewsbury, to meet up with the troops raised in Wales, and from there to Chester to consolidate the Royalist hold on this important city on the Welsh border, before returning to Shrewsbury. Sir John Byron marched to Worcester, on 19th September 1642, to hold the city with his regiment of horse for the King. He brought with him the plate donated by Oxford University. King Charles I addresses his officers in September 1642: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 during the English Civil War Parliament began to form its army in June 1642. Some 80 troops of horse were raised, with 2 regiments of dragoons and 20 regiments of foot, from the Midlands and the South East of England. On 23rd September 1642, Essex marched his Parliamentary army to Worcester, to take the city, and to interpose his army between the King and support from Wales. Powick Bridge 23rd September 1642: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 during the English Civil War: drawing by C.R.B. Barrett Battle at Powick Bridge: A feature of that period of the war was the inadequacy of each side’s intelligence services, allowing ignorance of the other side’s position and intended actions. Prince Rupert arrived in Worcester on 23rd September 1642, the same day as but in advance of Essex and ignorant of the proximity of the Parliamentary army. As a result, the small but significant action of Powick Bridge took place. Nathaniel Fiennes, Parliamentary Bridge skirmish on 23rd September 1642: click here to buy this picture On his arrival in Worcester Prince Rupert saw that the city was without viable defences and ordered a withdrawal of the Royal forces, with the Oxford University plate. The Parliamentary advance guard comprised a strong party of horse and dragoons. One of the troop commanders was Nathaniel Fiennes. Clarendon describes the action which resulted when Fiennes arrived at Worcester, by way of Powick Bridge: “On the sudden while [Prince Rupert] was reposing himself in the field in front of the town with Prince Maurice, his brother and the principal officers – some of his wearied troops (for they had had a long march) being by, but the rest, and most of the officers, being in the town – he espied a fair body of horse [Fiennes’ detachment] consisting of nearly five hundred, marching in very good order up a lane within a musket shot of him. In this confusion the prince and his officers had scarce time to get upon their horses, and none to consult of what was to be done, or to put themselves into their several places of command. And it may be that it was well they had not, for if all those officers had been at the heads of their various troops, it is not impossible it might have been worse. But the prince instantly declaring that he would charge, his brother, and all those officers and gentlemen whose troops were not present or ready, put themselves beside him, the other wearied troops coming in order after them. And in this manner the prince charged the enemy as soon as they came out of the lane, and though the rebels, being gallantly led and completely armed both for offence and defence, stood well, yet in a short time many of their best men were killed and the whole body was routed and pursued by the conquerors for the space of above a mile.” Clarendon puts the Parliamentary casualties at 40 to 50, mostly officers. The Royalist casualties seem to have been low with no officers seriously wounded or killed. Clarendon states that this was particularly surprising as the Royalists did not have time to put on their defensive armour. Prince Rupert (on the right) with his brother, Prince Karl Louis, the Elector Palatine: picture by Sir Anthony van Dyck: click here to buy this picture Prince Rupert withdrew from Worcester leaving the city to the Parliamentary army. Powick Bridge laid the basis of the reputation for invincibility that Prince Rupert and the Royalist cavalry acquired and which lasted until the Ironsides Cavalry took the field. Map of the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: map by John Fawkes Battle of Edgehill: On 12th October 1642, King Charles left Shrewsbury with his army, for the march to London. He took 10 regiments of horse, 13 regiments of foot, 3 regiments of dragoons and a train of 20 cannon. Essex was at Worcester. Parliamentary garrisons from Essex’s army held Hereford, Coventry, Northampton, Banbury and Warwick. While such dispersal of force was ill-advised from a military perspective, the Parliament needed to hold as much ground as possible, to ensure its support and finances. The Tower on Edgehill: Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War During this time there was negotiation between Parliament and the King, to see if the dispute could be settled without all out war. The bona fides of both sides are questionable, but each sought to convince the country that it was the intransigence of the other that was the cause of the continued hostilities. The Royalist march was hampered by wet weather, and having to travel along a network of muddy tracks, with columns of wagons, coaches, pack horses, heavy guns, infantry and horsemen. Essex left Worcester in pursuit on 19th October 1642, suffering the same problems for his army. Bullet Hill in front of Edgehill: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War King Charles and the Royalist army arrived in Edgecote, a village outside Banbury, on Saturday 22nd October 1642. A council of war decided that the army would rest in billets, in the area to the north of Banbury, for the next day, while Sir Nicholas Byron’s Brigade, with 4 of the army’s largest cannon, assaulted Banbury, where the Parliamentary garrison comprised the Earl of Peterborough’s Regiment of foot and a troop of horse. Map of the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: map by John Fawkes A reconnaissance by Lord Digby found no sign of the main Parliamentary army. In fact the two armies were converging on Banbury. After dark on 22nd October, Essex’s army arrived at Kineton, approximately 10 miles away to the West, on the far side of the Warwick to Oxford road. The Royalist army went into billets in villages to the North of Banbury. Prince Rupert encountered Parliamentary officers in Wormleighton, where he was proposing to billet his regiments of horse. Prisoners taken in the ensuing skirmish revealed that the main Parliamentary army was arriving at Kineton, information then confirmed by a Royalist patrol. Adoniram Byfield, the chaplain of Sir Henry Cholmondeley’s Regiment of Foot, a prominent Parliamentarian Edgehill on 23rd October 1642: click here to buy this picture Prince Rupert sent this news to the King, with his advice that an attack be launched immediately. King Charles consulted his other senior officers, and issued orders that the army assemble on Edgehill, overlooking Kineton, the next morning, ready for battle. The Edgehill ridge, running west to east, lay across the road from Kineton to Banbury, rising steeply to 300 feet above Kineton. Prince Rupert reached Edgehill at dawn, his regiments of horse arriving during the morning, and the infantry began marching in, from their billets, around midday. The Royalist army was first seen by the Parliamentary troops at around 8am, as they were assembling for Sunday worship. Adoniram Byfield, the chaplain of Sir Henry Cholmondeley’s regiment, described watching the Royalists from the top of a hill with a ‘prospective glass’. The alarm was given and Essex’s army began to assemble to the south-east of Kineton. Adoniram Byfield, the chaplain of Sir Henry Cholmondeley’s Regiment of Foot, a prominent Parliamentarian clergyman, and one of the first to see the assembling Royalist army on Edgehill on 23rd October 1642. The Parliamentary army was delayed in the same way as the Royalists, by the overnight billeting of the soldiers across a wide spread of villages. Some of Essex’s regiments were too far away to arrive in time for the battle. Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War Essex formed his army across the Kineton to Banbury road, a mile short of the base of Edgehill. Lord Feilding’s regiment of horse took the extreme right flank, covered by 2 regiments of dragoons. Then came Sir William Fairfax’s regiment of foot. The Parliamentary centre was drawn up in two lines. In the first line was the brigade of foot of Sir John Meldrum, comprising the regiments of Robartes, Constable and Meldrum; and then the brigade of foot of Colonel Charles Essex, comprising the regiments of Essex, Wharton, Mandeville and Cholmondeley. As the Earl of Essex had seen his continental service with the Dutch Prince Maurice of Dessau, it is likely that the Parliamentary foot adopted the 8 rank system of the Dutch. In the Parliamentary second line, were, from the right, the regiments of horse of Sir Philip Stapleton and Sir William Balfour, and then Colonel Thomas Ballard’s brigade of foot, comprising the regiments of the Earl of Essex, Ballard, Brooke and Holles. Sir James Ramsey held the Parliamentary left flank, to the north of the road, with 24 troops of horse and 500 musketeers detached from Ballard’s brigade. These musketeers held the hedges, and were positioned between the troops of horse, a common practice in Europe. Contemporary drawing of the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War illustrating the formation of regiments of Foot with clumps of pikemen surrounded by musketeers and Horse discharging pistols Essex’s artillery train comprised some 40 cannon. It is not clear how many were present on the battlefield. No authority states how the Parliamentary artillery was disposed, but it is likely the cannon were stationed between the regiments of the first line of foot. Essex was restrained from advancing to the attack by a number of factors; the hill up to the Royalist position was too steep for anything but a difficult approach; his army was far from complete, due to the distribution of his regiments in billets over a wide area, with 3 regiments of foot, 11 troops of horse and 5 to 10 guns still to reach the point of assembly. Finally there were political constraints. It was far from clear that the possibility of resolving the dispute between King and Parliament by negotiation was ended. During the frenetic months of recruiting troops for the King’s army, little planning had been devoted to formations to be adopted in battle. The King’s appointed Lord General, the Earl of Lindsey, on the morning of Edgehill, proposed to adopt the 8 rank infantry formation of the Dutch Prince Maurice, with whom he had served (with the Earl of Essex). King Charles I with his advisers before the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: picture by Charles Landseer: click here to buy the full picture Prince Rupert proposed the Swedish tactics of fewer ranks and more flexible formations. Rupert was supported by Patrick Ruthven, Lord Forth, who served in the Swedish army under King Gustavus Adolphus. Sir Jacob Astley, the Sergeant Major General, with command of the foot, had served with the Dutch, but supported Prince Rupert, whose tutor Astley had been, or rather said nothing to contradict him. Robert Bertie, First Earl of Lindsey, Lord General of King Charles I’s army at the Battle of Edgehill and mortally wounded in the battle: click here to buy this picture The King overruled Lindsey, and accepted Prince Rupert’s advice. Offended at having his authority set aside, Lindsey resigned his office of Lord General, and returned to command his regiment, asking that it be placed in a prominent position in the line. The King’s army came down from Edgehill, and formed up on the north-west side of Radway village, facing the Parliamentary army. The front line of the Royal army comprised 3 brigades of foot. The second line comprised 2 brigades of foot, which covered the gaps between the front line brigades. The brigades of foot in the first line, were, from the right; the brigades of Colonel Charles Gerard, Colonel Richard Feilding and Colonel Henry Wentworth. Those of the second line, from the right, were the brigades of Colonel John Belasyze and Sir Nicholas Byron. The Royal horse were divided into two divisions of 5 regiments each, with the division posted on the right flank commanded by Prince Rupert, and the division on the left by Henry Wilmot. The ‘Gentlemen Pensioners’, a life guard troop, commanded by Sir William Howard, were positioned to the rear of the centre of the lines of foot, together with Colonel Legge’s firelock musketeers, who will have been providing an escort for the heavy cannon. The 3 regiments of dragoons, under Sir Arthur Aston and Colonel James Usher, held positions in the hedges on the extreme flanks, Aston on the left with 2 regiments, and Usher on the right with 1. The Royal artillery comprised 20 cannon, commanded by Sir John Heydon, the lieutenant general of the train. As the formation adopted was in the Swedish style, the light guns will have been distributed among the infantry regiments, and the heavier cannon placed in battery at some central point. The Royalist cavalry attacking at the Battle of Edgehill The battle began with a mutual discharge of cannon, which appears to have been of little effect, although Parliamentary accounts claim a greater impact for their gunfire. Prince Rupert intended to launch a cavalry attack, on his wing, at the first opportunity. Wilmot, on the left wing, was of a like mind. The Royalist dragoons advanced on foot to clear away the ‘commanded musketeers’, accompanying and covering the Parliamentary horse on each flank. Once this operation was complete, Prince Rupert ordered his regiments of horse to advance. As Rupert’s squadrons approached the Parliamentary horse, one of Ramsey’s troops, commanded by Sir Faithful Fortescue changed sides, breaking ranks and galloping up to Prince Rupert’s horsemen, to form up with them. Prince Rupert’s regiments then charged the Parliamentary horse at a full gallop. Ramsey’s regiments received Prince Rupert’s attack at the halt, an acceptable tactic for some schools of warfare of the time, but subsequently considered a grave error in a cavalry action, reacting only with a desultory and ineffective carbine fire. The Parliamentary troopers were either bowled over by the headlong charge of Royal horse, cut down, or fled to the rear, pursued by Prince Rupert’s men. Prince Rupert at the Battle of Edgehill Sir John Byron’s second line of horse followed Prince Rupert into the attack, and the pursuit, leaving the Royalist right wing largely denuded of horse. It is clear that the style of riding in the Royalist cavalry was that used in the hunting field; a loose rein giving the horse its head, so that it gallops at full speed. The horse, maddened with excitement, becomes almost impossible to control, until it stops through exhaustion. There is little possibility of persuading such cavalry to desist from the pursuit of a defeated foe. Sir Jacob Astley, Sergeant Major General of the Royalist Foot at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642, later Lord Reading: picture by an unknown artist: click here to buy this picture Prince Rupert was unable to halt his cavalry, in order to take a further and constructive part in the battle that developed between the central formations of the two armies. The pursuit went through Kineton and beyond. The cavalry action on the Royalist right was replicated on the Royalist left. Wilmot charged through Lord Feilding’s regiment, followed by the second line of Lord Digby, and the Parliamentary horse was chased back through Kineton, in a similar fashion. Prince Rupert managed to halt 3 troops on his wing, while some 200 horse were halted on the left wing. As the horse began their charge, the Royalist foot also advanced, led by the Sergeant Major General, Sir Jacob Astley, albeit at a more measured pace. The Royalist brigades in the second line closed up into the gaps between the front line brigades, so that there was a near solid front. Charles Essex’s brigade, holding the left of the Parliamentary front line of foot, saw the cavalry to their left swept away by Prince Rupert’s headlong charge, and seeing the Royalist foot advancing on them, turned and fled, in spite of the efforts of their officers, from Essex down. Fortunately for the Parliamentary side, the soldiers of Ballard’s brigade in the second line were made of sterner stuff, and they moved forward into the gap left by Essex’s vanishing regiments. Ballard’s brigade was in time to receive the charge of the 10,500 Royalist foot, with the rest of the Parliamentary first line. After the first push of pike, the two sides recoiled, stuck their colours in the ground and began firing at each other, at point blank range. The fight for the Royal Standard at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: click here to buy this picture While the horse on the flanks of Essex’s army had been ignominiously put to flight, two regiments of Parliamentary horse remained on the battlefield, the regiments of Sir William Balfour and Sir Philip Stapleton, positioned to the left in the second line, behind Meldrum’s brigade. These two regiments threw themselves at the advancing Royalist foot. Stapleton’s regiment was held by Sir Nicolas Byron’s brigade, but Balfour’s cut heavily into Feilding’s brigade of Royalist foot, capturing Feilding and two of his colonels, Stradling and Lunsford. Carrying on through the infantry, Balfour’s troopers overran the Royalist heavy guns, but possessing no nails, they were unable to spike them. They cut the drawing traces on the guns and fell back to their position in the second line. Finding that the firelock men guarding the Parliamentary heavy battery and the gunners had fled, Stapleton moved to cover the cannon, and managed to discharge one of them, albeit at Balfour’s returning troopers. The Earl of Essex now determined to exploit the initiative gained by his two regiments of horse, and directed an attack on Sir Nicholas Byron’s Brigade of Foot. Lord Robartes’ and Sir William Constable’s regiments of foot, supported by the horse regiments of Balfour and Stapleton, and the regiments of foot of the Lord General and Lord Brooke, charged Byron’s Royalist brigade, and drove it back, breaking up its ranks. Captain John Smith retrieving the Royal Standard It was at this point, that the Earl of Lindsey, leading his regiment, was shot in the leg and mortally wounded. His son, Lord Willoughby d’Eresby, stood over him, defending his fallen father with his half-pike, until he was taken prisoner. The King’s Life Guard fought with Constable’s Regiment of foot, and during this combat, Sir Edmund Verney, the King’s Knight Marshal, was killed and the King’s Royal Standard, which Verney carried, was taken. In addition, Sir Nicholas Byron was wounded, Lieutenant-Colonel Monro of the Lord General’s regiment killed, and Lieutenant-Colonel Vavasour of the Lifeguard taken prisoner. As the fighting raged in the centre of the battle, Sir Charles Lucas attacked the rear of the Parliamentary line, with the 200 horse he had retrieved from the Royalist cavalry attack on the left wing. While this force captured several colours and killed and wounded numbers of Parliamentary troops, they did not reach the main line, due to the number of fugitives in their way. One of Lucas’s officers, Captain John Smith of Lord Grandison’s Regiment of Horse, saw the Royal Standard and some prisoners being escorted from the field by a party of Parliamentary troopers. Smith, with one other trooper, attacked the party, retrieving the Royal Standard and freeing Colonel Richard Feilding. Royalist attack on the Parliamentary train at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War The Royalist Horse from the right wing, after pursuing the Parliamentary horse as far as Kineton, pillaged the baggage they found there, seizing the coach belonging to the Earl of Essex. They were checked in Kineton by Parliamentary horse and the brigade of foot, commanded by Colonel John Hampden, coming up to take their places in the Parliamentary line, from their distant quarters. Prince Rupert’s troopers returned to the field of battle from their pursuit, their arrival encouraging the Royalist foot to make a firm stand against the steadily advancing Parliamentary line. However the Royalist cavalry could not be persuaded to attack the Parliamentary infantry, claiming their horses were too exhausted. Prince Rupert refused to order a further attack. Darkness was falling, and the battle petered out, both sides exhausted. King Charles was advised that he should withdraw his army from the field, but he refused, supported by the advice of Sir John Culpeper, and spent the night with his troops at the base of the hill. Illustration of the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: drawn in the Restoration period with uniforms of that time: click here to buy this picture It was cold, and many of the Royalist foot left their posts, to seek more comfortable quarters. During the night, the missing Parliamentary regiments came up; Colonel Hampden’s brigade of foot, comprising 2 regiments, and Lord Willoughby’s regiment of horse. Hampden urged a resumption of the battle in the morning, but Essex refused; much of the Parliamentary Horse was missing, and several of the regiments of foot had suffered badly. The casualties on each side seemed much worse than they actually were, due to the numbers of soldiers dispersed, either during the battle, or leaving their ranks to seek quarters, during the night. Prince Rupert at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War The next day, 24th October 1642, Essex left with his army for Warwick, and the Royalists returned to the quarters they occupied before the battle, in the villages immediately to the North of Banbury. During the morning, King Charles sent Sir William le Neve to the Earl of Essex, with an offer of pardon for all members of Essex’s army who would lay down their arms, and return to their allegiance to the Crown. Essex refused this offer, and prevented le Neve from having access to any of the Parliamentary troops. Battle Farm showing the spot where casualties were buried: Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 during the English Civil War: drawing by C.R.B. Barrett Casualties at the Battle of Edgehill: Casualties in the Battle of Edgehill are hard to quantify. Clarendon says the local clergyman, who made himself responsible for burying the dead, stated that there were 3,000 bodies. Clarendon says that, of these, 1,000 were royal troops. Later Clarendon amends his assessment to say that the King’s army suffered around 300 killed. Contemporary drawing of the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War A problem in assessing casualties in the battle was that many of the cavalry were dispersed, either in flight or pursuit, and many of the foot soldiers left their ranks during or after the battle, either to return home or to seek shelter, perhaps resuming their ranks the next day or later. Many of the Parliamentary stragglers and deserters did not return to their army at all. It seems likely that the Army of Parliament suffered higher casualties than King Charles’s army, from the various causes; death, wounds, capture, straggling and desertion. It may be that the casualties of the battle were around 1,500 in dead, wounded and captured for Parliament and 1,000 for the King. Of the senior officers, the Royalists lost the Lord General, Lord Lindsey, who died of his wound, Sir Edmund Verney, the Earl Marshal, and Lord d’Aubigny killed. Several senior officers were wounded or captured. Patrick Ruthven, Lord Forth, was appointed Lord General in place of Lindsey. The Parliamentary side lost Colonel Lord Saint John and Colonel Charles Essex killed. Cannon changed hands during the battle, being lost and retaken, but the only guns to be captured were 4 Parliamentary pieces, which fell into Royalist hands the day after the battle. Robert Devereux Earl of Essex commander of the Parliamentary army at the Battle of Edgehill 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War: picture by Wencelas Hollar: click here to buy this picture Follow-up to the Battle of Edgehill: Following the battle, King Charles captured Banbury on 27th October 1642, and then took his army towards London, but by a circuitous route. The Battle of Edgehill left the Royalists with the upper hand. The rout of the Parliamentary horse on each wing gave a towering reputation to the Royalist cavalry, and, on top of his success at Powick Bridge, in particular to Prince Rupert. It was clearly the view of Lord Clarendon, that for a time it was in the King’s power to end the war, with a settlement favourable to himself. This opportunity was due to the assumption in Parliamentary circles, and in the rest of the country, that the Royalist army had won the battle, and was more powerful than in fact it was. This opportunity was squandered by the Royalist attack on the Parliamentary garrison at Brentford on 12th November 1642, and the illusion as to the power of the Royalist army evaporated in the confrontation with the London Trained Bands on Acton Common during the following week, when it became clear how small King Charles’s army really was, and the King was forced to retreat to Reading. Sir Jacob Astley, Sergeant Major General of the Royalist Foot at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642, later Lord Reading: click here to buy this picture Anecdotes and traditions of the Battle of Edgehill: On the Parliamentary wings at the Battle of Edgehill, the European practice was adopted of ‘interlining’ the horse with groups of ‘commanded musketeers’ on foot. The result was unfortunate. The Parliamentary horse was routed, leaving the musketeers to be cut to pieces. Before leading the Royalist Foot into battle at Edgehill, Sir Jacob Astley, Sergeant Major General of the Royalist Foot, knelt down and uttered the memorable prayer: “Lord, thou knowest how busy I must be this day. If I forget thee, forget thou not me.” He then stood up and shouted “March on lads.” It is the Verney family tradition that when Sir Edmund Verney was cut down, and the Royal Standard taken at Edgehill, Sir Edmund’s hand remained grasping the pike, although severed from the rest of his arm and body. His body was not recovered after the battle. Sir Edmund Verney’s eldest son, Ralph, fought for Parliament. Father and son appear in a joint memorial with their wives, in the family church at Middle Claydon. Captain John Smith was knighted the day after the battle by King Charles, for his feat in rescuing the Royal Standard and freeing Colonel Feilding. In his memoirs, Edmund Ludlow described Smith as recovering the Royal Standard by putting on an orange Parliamentary-style scarf and deceiving the Parliamentary trooper into handing over the Standard. This account seems inconsistent with the description given by Clarendon of Smith cutting down at least one of the Parliamentary escort, while retrieving the Standard. Ludlow fought for Parliament. The memorial in Radway Church to the Royalist Captain Henry Kingsmill killed at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War The memorial in Radway Church to the Royalist Captain Henry Kingsmill killed at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War A memorial in Radway Church erected by his mother commemorates the Royalist Captain Henry Kingsmill killed at the Battle of Edgehill on 23rd October 1642 in the English Civil War. The wording on the tablet reads:HERE LYETH EXPECTING THE SECOND COMING OF OUR BLESSED LORD & SAVIOUR HENRY KINGSMILL ESQ SECOND SONNE TO SIR HENRY KINGSMILL OF SIDMONTON IN THE COUNTY OF SOUTHON KNT. WHOE SERVING AS A CAPTAIN OF FOOT UNDER HIS MAJESTY CHARLES THE FIRST OF BLESSED MEMORY WAS AT THE BATTEIL OF EDGEHILL IN THE YEAR OF OUR LORD 1642 AS HE WAS MANFULLY FIGHTING IN BEHALF OF HIS KING & COUNTRY UNHAPPILY SLAINE BY A CANNON BULLET IN MEMORY OF WHOM HIS MOTHER THE LADY BRIDGET KINGSMILL DID IN THE FORTY SIXTH YEARE OF HER WIDDOWHOOD IN THE YEAR OF OUR LORD 1670 ERECT THIS MONUMENT. The King’s Life Guard contained nobles of such substance that Clarendon considered there was more wealth in that one formation than in both Houses of Parliament. The Battle of Edgehill contained a good example of the dangers attendant on the use of firelocks. Sir Richard Bulstrode, in his memoirs, recounts that a musketeer went to replenish his powder from the regimental budge barrel, and plunged his hand into the barrel, failing to remember that he held his lighted match in his hand. A considerable amount of powder was detonated, and many soldiers killed. Sir Edmund Verney, Knight Marshal to King Charles I: Sir Edmund carried the Royal Standard at the Battle of	i don't know
The Bourbon dynasty began to rule which country from 1700 and still do?	French History of the Bourbon Dynasty Louis-Phillippe, King of the French 1830-1848 With the advent of the Second Republic in 1848, Bourbon monarchy in France ended. The Bourbon pretender to the throne of France, the Comte de Chambord, was offered a restored throne following the collapse of the empire of Emperor Napoleon III in 1870. However the stubborn Chambord refused to accept the throne unless France abandoned the revolution-inspired tricolore and accepted what he regarded as the true Bourbon flag of France, something the French National Assembly could not possibly agree to. (The tricolour, having been associated with the First Republic, had been used by the July Monarchy, Second Republic and Empire.) A temporary Third Republic was established, while monarchists waited for Chambord to die and for the succession to pass to the Comte de Paris, who was willing to accept the tricolour. However Chambord did not die for over a decade, by which public opinion switched to support the republic as the 'form of government that divides us least.' Henry IV of France Henry IV (December 13, 1553 - May 14, 1610) was King of France from 1589-1610, the first of the Bourbon kings of France. He was the son of Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendome and Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre. Henry was born in Pau, PyrÃ©nÃ©es-Atlantiques, in the southwest of France. On August 18 1572 Henry married Marguerite de Valois, sister of the then King Charles IX. In the same year he became king Henry III of Navarre, succeeding his mother Jeanne d'Albret, who had brought him up as a Huguenot. Jeanne herself was also a Protestant, and had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. Henry's marriage was part of a plan to help quell the French Wars of Religion. As part of this plan, he was forced to convert to Roman Catholicism on February 5, 1576, and kept in confinement, but later that year he gained his freedom and resumed Protestantism. He became the legal heir to the French throne upon the death in 1584 of FranÃ§ois, Duke of AlenÃ§on, brother and heir to King Henri III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Since Henry of Navarre was a descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice but to recognize him as the legitimate successor. (Salic law disinherited the king's sisters and all others who could claim descent by distaff line.) In December 1588 King Henry III had the Duke of Guise and that man's brother the Cardinal, murdered. Henry had to flee Paris and joined forces with Henri of Navarre, but died shortly thereafter. On the death of the king in 1589, Henri of Navarre became nominally the king of France. But the Catholic League, strengthened by support from outside, especially from Spain, was strong enough to force him to the south, and he had to set about winning his kingdom by military conquest. He was victorious at Ivry and Arques, but failed to take Paris. With the encouragement of the great love of his life, Gabrielle d'EstrÃ©e, on July 25, 1593 he declared that Paris vaut bien une messe (Paris was worth a Mass) and permanently renounced Protestantism. His entrance into the Roman Catholic Church secured for him the allegiance of the vast majority of his subjects and he was crowned King of France at the Cathedral of Chartres on February 27, 1594. In 1598, however, he declared the Edict of Nantes, which gave circumscribed toleration to the Huguenots. Henry's first marriage was not a happy one, and the couple remained childless. Even before Henry had succeeded to the throne in August, 1589 the two had separated, and Marguerite de Valois lived for many years in the chateau of Usson in Auvergne. After Henry had become king various advisers impressed upon him the desirability of providing an heir to the French Crown in order to avoid the problem of a disputed succession. Henry himself favored the idea of obtaining an annulment of his first marriage and taking Gabrielle d'EstrÃ©e as a bride, who had already borne him three children. Henry's councillors strongly opposed this idea, but the matter was resolved unexpectedly by Gabrielle d'EstrÃ©e's sudden death in April 1599, after she had given birth prematurely to a stillborn son. Henry IV proved to be a man of vision and courage. Instead of waging costly war to suppress opposing nobles, Henri simply paid them off. As king, he adopted policies and undertook projects to improve the lives of all subjects that would make him one of the country's most popular rulers ever. During his reign, Henri IV worked through his right-hand man, the faithful Maximilien de Bethune, duc de Sully (1560-1641) to regularize state finance, promote agriculture, drain swamps to create productive crop lands, undertake many public works, and encourage education as with the creation of the College Royal Louis-Le-Grand in La Fleche (today Prytanee Militaire de la Fleche). He and Sully protected forests from further desecration, built a new system of tree-lined highways, and constructed new bridges and canals. He had a 1200m canal built in the park at the Royal Chateau at Fontainebleau (which can be fished today), and ordered the planting of pines, elms and fruit trees. The king renewed Paris as a great city with the Pont Neuf, which still stands today, constructed over the River Seine to connect the Right and Left Banks of the city. Henri IV also had the Place Royale built (since 1800 known as Place des Vosges) and he added the Grande Galerie to the Louvre. More than a quarter of a mile long and one hundred feet wide, this huge addition was built along the bank of the Seine River and at the time was the longest edifice of its kind in the world. King Henri IV, a promoter of the arts by all classes of peoples, invited hundreds of artists and craftsmen to live and work on the buildingâ€™s lower floors. This tradition continued for another two hundred years until Emperor Napoleon I banned it. King Henri's vision extended beyond France and he financed the expeditions of Samuel de Champlain to North America that saw France lay claim to Canada. Although he was a man of kindness, compassion, and good humor, and much loved by his people, King Henri IV was assassinated on 14 May, 1610 in Paris, by a fanatic called FranÃ§ois Ravaillac, and was buried at Saint Denis Basilica. His widow, Marie de MÃ©dicis, served as Regent to their 9-year-old son, Louis XIII until 1617. While the rest of France marks the end of monarchist rule each year on Bastille Day, in Henri's birthplace of Pau, his reign as king of France is celebrated. Maria de Medici Maria de' Medici (French Marie de MÃ©dicis) (April 26, 1573 - July 3, 1642) was Queen and later Regent of France. Born in Florence, Italy, she was the daughter of Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany. In October 1600 she married Henri IV of France, as his second wife. She brought as part of her dowry, 600,000 crowns. Her eldest son, the future king Louis XIII, was born at Fontainebleau the following year. The marriage was not a successful one. The queen feuded with Henri's mistresses, in language that shocked French courtiers. During her husband's lifetime Marie showed little sign of political taste or ability. Hours after Henri's assassination in 1610 she was confirmed as Regent by the Parlement of Paris. Not very bright, stubborn and growing obese, she was soon entirely under the influence of her unscrupulous Italian favourite, Concino Concini, who was created Marquis d'Ancre and Marshal of France. They dismissed Henri IV's able minister the duc de Sully. Through Concini and the Regent, Italian representatives of the Roman Catholic Church hoped to force the suppression of Protestantism in France. Half Hapsburg herself, she abandoned the traditional anti-Hapsburg French policy. Throwing her support with Spain, she arranged the marriage of both the future king Louis and his sister Elizabeth to members of the Spanish Hapsburg royal family. Under the regent's lax and capricious rule, the princes of the blood and the great nobles of the kingdom revolted, and the queen, too weak to assert her authority, consented (May 15, 1614) to buy off the discontented princes. The opposition was led by Henri de Bourbon~CondÃ©, Duc D'Enghien, who pressured Marie into convoking the Estates General (1614-15), the last time they would meet in France until the opening events of the French Revolution. In 1616 her policy was strengthened by the accession to her councils of Richelieu, who had come to the fore at the meeting of the Estates General. However, in 1617 her son Louis XIII, already several years into his legal majority, asserted his authority, ordering the assassination of Concini, and exiling the Queen to the Chateau Blois and Richelieu to his bishopric. After two years of virtual imprisonment "in the wilderness" as she put it, she escaped from Blois in the night of 21/22 February 1619 and became the figurehead of a new aristocratic revolt headed by Gaston d'Orleans, which Louis' forces easily dispersed. Through the mediation of Richelieu the king was reconciled with his mother, who was allowed to hold a small court at Angers, and resumed her place in the royal council in 1621. The portrait by Rubens (above right) was painted at this time. Marie rebuilt the Luxembourg Palace (Palais du Luxembourg) in Paris, with an extravagantly flattering cycle of paintings (see link) by Rubens as part of the luxurious decor. After the death of his favorite, the duke of Luynes, Louis turned increasingly for guidance to Richelieu. Marie de Medici's attempts to displace Richelieu ultimately led to her attempted coup; for a single day, the journÃ©e des dupes, November 12, 1630, she seemed to have succeeded; but the triumph of Richelieu was followed by her exile to CompiÃ¨gne in 1630, from where she escaped to Brussels in 1631, and later to Cologne, where she died in 1642, scheming against Richelieu to the end. HonorÃ© de Balzac encapsulated the Romantic generation's negative view: "Marie de' Medici, all of whose actions were prejudicial to France, has escaped the shame which ought to cover her name. Marie de' Medici wasted the wealth amassed by Henri IV.; she never purged herself of the charge of having known of the king's assassination; her /intimate/ was d'Epernon, who did not ward off Ravaillac's blow, and who was proved to have known the murderer personally for a long time. Marie's conduct was such that she forced her son to banish her from France, where she was encouraging her other son, Gaston, to rebel; and the victory Richelieu at last won over her (on the Day of the Dupes) was due solely to the discovery the cardinal made, and imparted to Louis XIII., of secret documents relating to the death of Henri IV." (â€”Essay "Catherine de Medicis") Louis XIII Louis XIII (September 27, 1601 - May 14, 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. Born at the ChÃ¢teau de Fontainebleau, Louis was the first child of Henri IV and Marie de MÃ©dicis. He ascended to the throne at age nine after the assassination of his father. His mother, along with Cardinal Richelieu, acted as Regent for the minor Louis until he reached the age of sixteen, when Louis took the reins of government into his own hands. This effectively removed Concino Concini, who had greatly influenced Marie's policymaking, from a position of power. Under Louis' rule, the Bourbon Dynasty continued to flourish, but the question of freedom of religion continued to haunt the country. The brilliant and energetic Cardinal Richelieu played a major role in Louis XIII's administration, decisively shaping the destiny of France for the next 25 years. As a result of Richelieu's work, Louis became one of the first exemplars of an absolute ruler. Under Louis XIII, the Hapsburgs were humiliated, a powerful navy was built, the French nobility was firmly kept in line behind their king, and the special privileges granted to the Huguenots by his father were canceled. He had the port of Le Havre modernized. The King also did everything to reverse the trend for the promising artists of France to work and study in Italy. Louis commissioned the great artists Nicolas Poussin and Philippe de Champaigne to decorate the Luxembourg Palace. In foreign matters, Louis XIII organized the development and administration of New France, expanding the settlement of Quebec westward along the Saint Lawrence River from Quebec City to Montreal. He was married to a Hapsburg, Princess Anne of Austria (1601-1666), daughter of King Philip III of Spain. Their marriage, like French-Austrian relationships, was never a happy one, and for most of it they lived apart. However, fulfilling her duty, after twenty years of marriage, Anne finally gave birth to a son in 1638. It is still not certain that Louis XIV is actually Louis XIII's son. After Louis' death in 1643, his wife Anne acted as regent for their five-year-old son, Louis XIV. Anne of Austria Anne of Austria (September 22, 1601 - January 20, 1666) was Queen of France and Regent for her son, Louis XIV of France. During her relatively brief reign, Cardinal Mazarin served as France's chief minister. She was born in Valladolid, Spain, as the daughter of Hapsburg parents, Philip III, king of Spain, and Margaret of Austria. On November 24, 1615, she was married to King Louis XIII of France (1601-1643), part of the Bourbon Dynasty. They would have two sons, Louis (the dauphin) and Philippe I, Duke of OrlÃ©ans. The marriage was not a happy one, filled with mistrust, and King Louis tried to prevent her obtaining the regency after his death. However, in 1643 Parliament ratified her powers on his death. Their five-year-old son was crowned King Louis XIV of France. Anne assumed the regency but entrusted the government to the prime minister, Jules Mazarin, who was believed to be her lover. With Mazarin's support, Anne overcame the revolt led by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de CondÃ©. In 1651, when her son Louis XIV officially came of age, her regency legally ended. However, she kept much power and influence over her son. In 1659, the war with Spain ended. The following year, peace was cemented by the marriage of the young King Louis to Anne's niece, the Spanish Hapsburg princess Marie-ThÃ©rÃ¨se of Austria. Louis XIV Louis XIV (the Sun King, pronounced "Louie Ka-torz") (September 5, 1638 - September 1, 1715) reigned as King of France from May 14, 1643 to September 1, 1715. Louis did not effectively become ruler until after the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661. His reign generally epitomises European absolutism; in fact, he sometimes has the reputation of "the greatest absolute monarch." Table of contents Quotations about Louis XIV Birth & Childhood His birth at Saint-Germain-en-Laye appeared miraculous, occurring twenty-three years after the marriage of his parents, Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. At the age of 4 (1643), Louis technically became King, although Cardinal Mazarin would rule France as regent for another 18 years. His real assumption of power came after Mazarin's death, in 1661. Louis XIV as King During Louis's adolescence, a class uprising called the Fronde (1648 - 53) took place in France, sparked by the policies of Cardinal Mazarin. This event presumably had an impact upon Louis, as he became determined never to allow such an uprising to occur again. Louis married Maria Theresa of Spain (Marie-ThÃ©rÃ¨se d'Espagne) in 1660. She died in 1683, after which he married (morganatically) FranÃ§oise d'AubignÃ©, marquise de Maintenon. Louis XIV and his advisor Colbert believed strongly in mercantilism and worked to increase France's resources in precious metals. During this period, France fought four major wars -- the War of Devolution (1667 - 1668), the Dutch War (1672 - 1678), the War of the Grand Alliance (1688 - 1697) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1702 - 1713) -- resulting in an almost crippling national debt. In 1674 the French government purchased the island of Martinique from a private French business concern that had acquired the island in 1635. In 1689, King Louis passed the "Code Noir" or "Black Code," which allowed the full use of slaves in France's colonies. At the time of the Louis XIV's death, France's territory had increased and France had become arguably the most powerful state in Europe, as well as its cultural capital. French served as the language of good taste in the 17th and 18th centuries just as English later became the global language of business. In the 18th century, for example, the Russian nobility adopted French habits and generally spoke French rather than Russian. On the other hand, the country had sunk deeply into debt, the poor found themselves heavily taxed and living in worsening conditions, and Louis's successors lacked the powerful memory necessary to run his court. Economics The French treasury stood close to bankruptcy when Louis XIV assumed power in 1661. He proved an incredibly extravagant spender, dispensing huge sums of money to finance his wars and his court. Some estimates suggest that by the end of Louis' reign half of France's annual revenue went to maintaining Versailles. Also, large amounts of money went missing due to corruption within the large French bureaucracy. At this time the principal French taxation devices included the aides, the douanes, the gabelle, and the taille. The aides and douanes taxed trade through customs duties, the gabelle taxed usage of salt, and the taille taxed land. The nobles and clergy claimed exemption from these taxes, so the peasantry and the emerging middle class (the bourgeoisie) had to pay for all -- a remnant of feudal France. The outrage over this taxation would eventually fuel the French Revolution. Louis would appoint the ingenious Colbert as his Minister of Finance. Colbert's efforts to reduce bureaucratic corruption and reorganize the bureaucracy began to generate revenue, although this did not suffice to begin to reverse France's growing national debt. In 1667 Louis abolished the Livre Parisis (Paris Pound) in favor of the much more widely used Livre Tournois (Tours Pound). Reining in the Nobles: Versailles The construction of Versailles formed one of Louis XIV's strategies to centralize power. Continuing the work of Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, Louis XIV worked to create a centralised, and absolutist nation-state. He weakened the nobility by ordering them to serve as members of his court, rather than as regional governors and ministers. To this end, he built Versailles, an enormous and lavish palace outside Paris. On May 6, 1682, the court moved to Versailles. Court etiquette compelled noblemen to spend incredible sums of money on their clothes, and to spend most of their time attending the whirlwind of masses, balls, dinners, performances, and celebrations which made up the routine of the court. Louis XIV allegedly had a memory so acute that he could scan a ballroom on entry and determine exactly who was not there -- so no aristocrat who depended on his favor could risk an absence. The aristocracy necessarily became dissolute, more focused on winning the King's favor, as evidenced by trivial details such as who would have the honor of helping him dress, rather than their own regional affairs or even retaining their power. This allowed Louis to choose less aristocratic individuals to fill those positions once occupied by the traditonal nobility, and to ensure that political power remained firmly in the hands of the king. Reining in the Protestants: The Edict of Fontainebleau Believing that in order to achieve absolute power he must first achieve religious unification, Louis XIV made trouble for the Protestant population, most notably through the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685). This revoked the religiously tolerant Edict of Nantes (1598) of Henri IV and ordered the destruction of (Protestant) Huguenot churches, as well as the closing of Protestant schools. His actions drove many Huguenots to the Low Countries, Prussia, England and North America -- a mistake, for the Huguenots tended to practise highly skilled crafts and, of course, their skills went with them. (In later centuries the Protestant work ethic of the Low Countries, influenced by these French refugees, would increase that region's already considerable wealth.) For Louis XIV and his cardinals, a unified France meant a Catholic France. Death King Louis XIV died on September 1, 1715 and was buried in Saint Denis Basilica in Paris. He outlived his son, the dauphin Louis, and eldest grandson. His great-grandson, who became King Louis XV of France, and who spent his minority under the regency of Philippe II of OrlÃ©ans, succeeded him as king. Grave robbers stole Louis's heart, which came into the possession of Lord Harcourt, who sold it to the Very Reverend William Buckland, the Dean of Westminster. His son, Francis Buckland, inherited the purloined heart, and eventually ate it. Influence on the French Revolution (1789) Louis XIV remains beloved in France for his vigorous promotion of French national greatness. However, his intensive waging of war bankrupted the state, forcing him continually to levy high taxes on the peasantry. According to the French historian Alexis de Tocqueville, Louis XIV's weakening of the nobility, coupled with his oppression of the peasantry, contributed to the political, social and economic instabilities that eventually led to the French Revolution. Quotations Attributed to Louis XIV Contrary to a stubborn legend inside and outside of France, Louis XIV never said: "I am the State!" -- "L'Ã©tat, c'est moi!" Quite the opposite, on his deathbed he is reported to have said: "I am going, but the State shall always remain" -- "Je m'en vais, mais l'Etat demeurera toujours." "I had no intention of sharing my authority." "I urge you not to forget your duty to God....Try to remain at peace....I loved war too much....Do not follow me in that, or in overspending....Take advice in everything....Lighten your people's burden as soon as possible.... [D]o what I have had the misfortune not to do." (upon his deathbed, to Louis XV -- Wolf) "The Pyrenees are no more." -- "Il n'y a plus de PyrÃ©nÃ©es." -- (after his grandson Philip V became King of Spain) "One King, One Law, and One Faith." "One must work hard to reign." "The interest of the State must come first." (Memoirs for the Dauphin) "Up to this moment, I have been pleased to entrust the government...to the late Cardinal. It is now time that I govern....You will assist me...seal no orders except by my command....[R]ender account to me personally." "I almost had to wait." -- J'ai failli attendre. -- attributed to the King, when a carriage barely made it in time to receive him immediately Quotations about Louis XIV "He ceaselessly concerned himself with the most petty details...would even instruct his cooks...like novices...He...was fond of order and regularity...He was served with the utmost exactitude...[his] vanity was without limit or restraint." -- Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon Philippe II Philippe II, Duke of OrlÃ©ans, Philippe Charles (August 2, 1674 - December 2, 1723) called Duke of Chartres (1674-1701), and then Duke of OrlÃ©ans (1701-1723) was Regent of France from 1715 to 1723. His regency being the last in the kingdom of France, he is still commonly referred to as le RÃ©gent and his regency as la RÃ©gence. He was born in Saint-Cloud, the son of Philippe I of OrlÃ©ans and nephew of king Louis XIV. He married FranÃ§oise-Marie de Bourbon in 1698. On the death of Louis XIV, the late king's five-year-old great-grandson was crowned king Louis XV of France and the then forty-one-year-old Philippe became Regent. Philippe was a professed atheist who read the satirical works of FranÃ§ois Rabelais inside a Bible binding during mass, and liked to hold orgies on religious high holidays. He acted in the plays of MoliÃ¨re and Racine, composed the music for an opera, and was a gifted painter and engraver. A liberal and imaginative man, he was however, often weak, inconsistent and vacillating. Nonetheless, as Regent, he changed the manners of the ruler and his nobles from the hypocrisy of Louis XIV to complete candor. He was against censorship and ordered the reprinting of books banned under the reign of his uncle. Reversing his uncle's policies again, Philippe formed an alliance with England, Austria, and the Netherlands, and fought a successful war against Spain that established the conditions of a European peace. Philippe promoted education, making the Sorbonne tuition free and opening the Royal Library to the public. He is most remembered for the debauchery he brought to Versailles and for the John Law banking scandal. He died at the Palace of Versailles and was buried in the city of his birth, Saint-Cloud. Louis XV Louis XV (February 15, 1710 - May 10, 1774) was king of France from 1715-74. He was born at the Palace of Versailles. Until the royal legal age of maturity at fourteen, his uncle, Philippe d'OrlÃ©ans, acted as Regent. Cardinal Fleury, until his death (1743), acted as the chief minister of France. The son of Louis, Duke of Burgundy and Marie-AdÃ©laide of Savoy, and great-grandson of King Louis XIV, Louis was part of the Bourbon Dynasty. At age two, his father, mother and brother all died within one week, leaving him heir to the French throne. He was crowned King of France at the age of five in the Cathedral at Reims. His great-grandfather, Louis XIV, had left France in a financial mess and in a general decline. Louis XV worked hard but unsuccessfully to overcome the fiscal problems. At Versailles, the King and the nobility surrounding him showed signs of boredom that symbolized a monarchy in steady decline. King Louis expended a great deal of energy on the hunt and the pursuit of women. Some of his mistresses such as Madame de Pompadour, and the former prostitute Madame du Barry, are as well-known as the King himself, and his affairs with all five Mailly-Nesle sisters is documented by the formal agreements he entered into. With age, Louis developed a penchant for young girls, keeping several at a time in a house known as the Parc aux Cerfs ("Deer Park"). At first he was known popularly as Louis XV, Le Bien-aimÃ© (the well-beloved) after a near-death illness in Metz in 1744 when the entire country prayed for his recovery. However, his weak and ineffective rule was a contributing factor of the general decline that culminated with the French Revolution. Popular faith in the monarchy was shaken by the scandals of Louis' private life, and by the end of his life he had become the well-hated. In 1757, would-be assassin Robert Damiens entered Versailles and stabbed him in the side with a penknife. In 1743, France entered the War of the Austrian Succession. During Louis' reign Corsica and Lorraine were won, but a few years later, King Louis XV lost the huge colonial empire as a result of the Seven Years' War with Great Britain. The Treaty of Paris (1763), which ended the Seven Years' War, was one of the most humiliating episodes of the French monarchy. France abandoned India, Canada, and the west bank of the Mississippi River. Although France still held New Orleans, lands west of the Mississippi, and Guadeloupe, it was this defeat and signing of the treaty that marked the first stage of a total abandonment of the New World. France's foreign policies were a dismal failure; its prestige dramatically sank. King Louis XV died of smallpox at the Palace of Versailles. He was the first Bourbon whose heart was not cut out as tradition demanded and placed in a special coffer. Instead, alcohol was poured into his coffin and his remains were soaked in quicklime. In a near-surreptitious late night ceremony attended by only one courtier, the body was taken to the cemetery at Saint Denis Basilica. Because Louis XV's son the dauphin had died nine years earlier, Louis's grandson ascended to the throne as King Louis XVI. Louis XVI Louis XVI of France (August 23, 1754 - January 21, 1793) succeeded his grandfather (Louis XV of France) as King of France on May 10, 1774; he was crowned on June 11, 1775. His father, the Louis dauphin son of Marie Leszczynska, had died in 1765. Louis was his father's third son by Marie Josephe of Saxony. On May 16, 1770 he married Marie Antoinette, daughter of Francis I of Austria and Empress Maria Theresa, a Habsburg. The government was deeply in debt, the radical reforms of Turgot and Malesherbes disaffected the nobles (parlements) and Turgot was dismissed and de Malesherbes resigned in 1776 to be replaced by Jacques Necker. Louis supported the American Revolution in 1778, but in the Treaty of Paris (1783) the French gained little except an addition to the country's enormous debt. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced by de Calonne and de Brienne before being restored in 1788. A further taxes reform was sought, but the nobility resisted at the Assembly of Notables (1787). In 1788 Louis ordered the first election of an Estates-General (Ã‰tats GÃ©nÃ©raux) since 1614 in order to have the monetary reforms approved. The election was one of the events that transformed the general malaise into the French Revolution, which began in June 1789. The Third Estate had been admitted to the assembly and had proved radical, Louis' attempts to control them resulted in the Tennis Court Oath (Jeu de Paume, June 20) and the declaration of the National Assembly. In July , an act which provoked the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. In October the royal family were forced to move to the Tuileries palace in Paris. Louis himself was very popular and not unobliging to the social, political and economic reforms of the Revolution. Recent scholarship has concluded that Louis suffered from clinical depression which left him prone to bouts of severe indecisiveness, during which times his wife, the less intelligent and more unpopular Queen Marie Antoinette, assumed effective responsibility for acting for the Crown. The revolution's principles of popular sovereignty, though central to democratic principles of later eras, marked a decisive break from the absolute monarchical principle of throne and altar that was at the heart of contemporary governance. As a result, the revolution was opposed by almost all of the previous governing elite in France, and by practically all the governments of Europe. Leading figures in the initial revolutionary movement themselves were questioning on the principles of popular control of government, some, notably Mirabeau, secretly plotting to restore the power of the Crown in a new form of constitutionality. However Mirabeau's sudden death, and Louis's depression, fatally weakened developments in that area. While Louis was nowhere near as reactionary as his right wing brothers, the comte d'Artois and the comte de Provence, and he sent repeated messages publicly and privately calling on them to halt their attempts to launch counter-coups (often through his secretly nominated regent, former minister de Brienne) he was alienated from the new government both by its challenging of the traditional role of the monarch and in its treatment of him and his family. He was particularly irked by being kept effective prisoner in the Tuileries, where his wife was forced humiliatingly to have revolutionary soldiers in her private bedroom watching her as she slept, and by the refusal of the new regime to allow him to have Catholic confessors and priests of his choice rather than 'constitutional priests' created by the revolution. On June 21, 1791, Louis attempted to flee secretly from Paris to the regions with his family in the hope of forcing a moderate swing in the revolution than was deemed possible in radical Paris but flaws in the escape plan caused sufficient delays to enable them to be recognised and captured at Varennes. He was returned to Paris where he remained nominally as constitutional king though under effective house-arrest until 1792. Louis was officially arrested on August 13, 1792. On September 21, 1792, the National Assembly declared France to be a republic. Louis was tried (from December 11, 1792) and convicted of treason before the National Assembly. He was sentenced to death (January 17, 1793) by guillotine with 361 votes to 288, with 72 effective abstentions. King Louis XVI was guillotined in front of a cheering crowd on January 21, 1793. On his death, his eight-year-old son, Louis-Charles de France, automatically became to royalists and international states the de jure King Louis XVII of France, the 'lost dauphin'. His wife, Marie Antoinette, followed him to the guillotine on October 16, 1793 Louis XVII Louis XVII of France (March 27, 1785 - June 8, 1795) also known as Louis-Charles, Duke of Normandy (1785-1789), Louis-Charles, Dauphin of Viennois (1789-1791), and Louis-Charles, Prince Royal of France (1791-1793), was the son of King Louis XVI of France and Marie Antoinette. During the French Revolution, Prince Louis was imprisoned with his parents. As the eldest living son of King Louis XVI, he was proclaimed king of France on January 28, 1793 by the declaration of his uncle, "Monsieur" (Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, the Comte de Provence) issued in exile in the city of Hamm, near Dortmund, Westphalia, a territory of the Archbishop of Cologne. The legalities of this are unclear, since France was at that time a republic. However, later the country accepted Louis-Stanislas-Xavier as Louis XVIII of France, thereby recognizing Louis XVII's reign through the numbering of kings. Taken from his mother in 1795, the innocent child was held at the forbidding Temple Prison to prevent any monarchist bid to free him. He stayed imprisoned at the prison for his remaining three years of life. He was ironically called a "Capet," the family name that the revolutionaries attributed to the French royals, following their refusal of nobility titles; Hugh Capet was the founder of the ruling dynasty. The little boy was forced into hard work as a cobbler's assistant and was taught to curse his parents. He was officially reported to have died in the prison from what is today recognized to have been tuberculosis. Reportedly, his body was ravaged by tumors and scabies. An autopsy was carried out on the child's frail body at the prison. Following a tradition of preserving royal hearts, his heart was removed by the physician Philippe-Jean Pelletan, smuggled out in a handkerchief and finally preserved in alcohol. His body was buried in a mass grave. Reports, however, quickly spread that the body was not that of Louis XVII and that he had been spirited away alive by sympathizers with another child's body left in his place. When the monarchy was restored in 1814, hundreds of claimants came forward. Would-be royal heirs continued to pop up across Europe for decades, and some of their descendants still have small but loyal retinues of followers today. Popular candidates for the Lost Dauphin included John James Audubon, the naturalist; Eleazer Williams, a missionary from Wisconsin of Mohawk Native American descent; and Karl Wilhelm Naundorff, a German clockmaker. The heart changed hands many times. First stolen by one of Pelletan's students, who confessed on his deathbed, asking his wife to return it to Pelletan. The student's wife sent it to the Archbishop of Paris, where it stayed until the Revolution of 1830. It also spent some time in Spain. In 1975, it was kept in a crystal vase at the royal crypt in the Saint Denis Basilica outside Paris, burial place of his parents and many other members of France's royal families. Philippe Delorme, the contemporary authority on the subject, arranged for DNA testing of the heart. A Belgian genetics professor, Jean-Jacques Cassiman, and Ernst Brinkmann of Germany's Muenster University conducted the two independent tests. After DNA comparison with that reclaimed from the hair of Marie Antoinette proved the identity of the heart in the year 2000, the remains were finally buried in the Basilica on June 8, 2004. Louis XVIII Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755- September 16, 1824) was King of France from 1814 until his death in 1824. Louis-Stanislas-Xavier was born on November 17, 1755 in the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, the fourth son of the dauphin Louis, the son of King Louis XV and Marie Leszczynska. At birth, he received the title of Count of Provence but throughout most of his life he was known as "Monsieur." After the death of his two elder brothers and the accession of his remaining elder brother as Louis XVI of France in 1774, he became heir presumptive. The birth of two sons to King Louis XVI, left him third in line to the throne of France. He was living in exile in Westphalia when the King was guillotined in 1793. On the king's death, Louis-Stanislas-Xavier declared himself Regent for his nephew, the new King Louis XVII. On the 10-year-old king's death in prison on June 8, 1795, Louis-Stanislas-Xavier proclaimed himself as King Louis XVIII. In 1814, he gained the French throne with the assistance of Charles Maurice de Talleyrand after Napoleon's downfall. Eventually, he fled Paris on the news of the return of Napoleon to Ghent, but returned after the Battle of Waterloo had ended Napoleon's rule of the Hundred Days. King Louis' chief ministers were at first moderate, including Armand Emmanuel, Duc de Richelieu, and Ã‰lie Decazes. The ultraroyalists, led by Louis's brother, the Comte d'Artois (later King Charles X), triumphed after the assassination of the count's son, Charles Ferdinand, Duc du Berry. The new ministry headed by the Comte de VillÃ¨le was thoroughly reactionary. Louis XVIII died on September 16, 1824, and was interred in the Saint Denis Basilica. His brother, the Comte d'Artois, succeeded him as Charles X. Charles X Charles X (October 9, 1757- November 6, 1836) was born at the Palace of Versailles son of Louis (the uncrowned dauphin, son of Marie Leszczynska) and Marie-JosÃ¨phe de Saxe. He was crowned King of France in 1824 in the cathedral at Reims and reigned until the French Revolution of 1830 when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. He was the brother of both King Louis XVI and King Louis XVIII, as well as uncle to Louis XVII He married Marie-ThÃ©rÃ¨se de Savoie, the daughter of Victor Amadeus III of Savoy, on November 16, 1773. As Comte d'Artois he headed the reactionary faction at the court of Louis XVI. He left France at the outbreak of the French Revolution, and stayed in England until the Bourbon restoration in 1814. During the reign of Louis XVIII he headed the ultraroyalist opposition, which took power after the assassination of Charles's son the Duc du Berry. The event caused the fall of the ministry of Ã‰lie Decazes and the rise of the Comte de VillÃ¨le, who continued as chief minister after Charles became king. The VillÃ¨le cabinet resigned in 1827 under pressure from the liberal press. His successor, the Vicomte de Martignac, tried to steer a middle course, but in 1829 Charles appointed Jules Armand de Polignac, an ultrareactionary, as chief minister. Polignac initiated French colonization in Algeria. His dissolution of the chamber of deputies, his July Ordinances, which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in the July Revolution. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord, and left for England. However, the Duc d'OrlÃ©ans, whom Charles had appointed Lieutenant-General of France, was chosen as "King of the French." He reigned as Louis Philippe. Fleeing initially to England, he later settled in Prague and then in present-day Slovenia. He died on November 6, 1836 in the palace of Count Michael Coronini Comberg zu Graffenberg at Goritz, Illyria and is buried in the Church of Saint Mary of the Annunciation, Castagnavizza, Slovenia. Louis-Philippe of France Louis-Philippe of France (October 6, 1773 - August 26, 1850), served as the "Orleanist" King of the French from 1830 to 1848. Born in Paris, Louis-Philippe, as the son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duc d'OrlÃ©ans (known as "Philippe Ã‰galitÃ©"), descended directly from King Louis XIII. During the French Revolution and the ensuing regime of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis-Philippe remained mostly outside France, travelling extensively, including in the United States where he stayed for four years in Philadelphia. His only sister, Princess Louise Marie Adelaide EugÃ¨nie d'OrlÃ©ans, married in the US. In 1809 Louis-Philippe married Princess Marie Amalie of Bourbon-Sicilies (1782-1866), daughter of King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies. After the abdication of Napoleon, Louis-Philippe returned to live in France, claiming sympathy with the liberated citizens of the country. With the restoration of the monarchy under his cousin King Louis XVIII and then under the reign of Louis' brother, King Charles X, the popularity of Louis-Philippe grew. King of the French In 1830, the July Revolution overthrew the repressive regime of Charles X. Charles abdicated in favour of his grandson, whom monarchists regarded as the legitimate Bourbon king. (Supporters of the Bourbon pretender, called 'Henry V', came to be called Legitimists. His grandson was offered the throne again in the 1870s but declined over a dispute over the French tricolour.) Due to Louis-Philippe's Republican policies and his popularity with the masses, the Chamber of Deputies ignored the wishes of the legitimists that Charles's grandson be accepted as king and instead proclaimed Louis-Philippe as the new French king. The new monarch took the style of "King of the French", a constitutional innovation known as Popular monarchy which linked the monarch's title to a people, not to a state, as the previous King of France's designation did. In 1832, his daughter, Princess Louise-Marie ThÃ©rÃ¨se Charlotte Isabelle (1812-1850), became Belgium's first queen when she married King Leopold I. For a few years, Louis-Philippe ruled in a unpretentious fashion, avoiding the arrogance, pomp and lavish spending of his predecessors. Despite this outward appearance of simplicity, Louis-Philippe's support came from the wealthy middle classes. At first, he was much loved and called the 'Citizen King', but his popularity suffered as his government was perceived as increasingly conservative and monarchical. Under his management the conditions of the working classes deteriorated, and the income gap widened considerably. An economic crisis in 1847 led to the citizens of France revolting against their king once again. Abdication On February 24, 1848, to general surprise, King Louis-Philippe abdicated in favour of his young grandson (his son and heir, Prince Ferdinand, having been killed in an accident some years earlier). Fearful of what had happened to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, he quickly disguised himself and fled Paris. Riding in an ordinary cab under the name of 'Mr Smith', he escaped to England. The National Assembly initially planned to accept his grandson as king. However, pulled along by the tide of public opinion, they accepted the Second Republic proclaimed in controversial circumstances at Paris City Hall. In a popular election, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected as President. In 1851 he declared himself president for life. Within a year, he named himself Emperor Napoleon III and resurrected the concept of a "Napoleonic Empire". Louis-Philippe and his family lived in England until his death on August 26, 1850), in Claremont, Surrey. He is buried with his wife Amelia (April 26, 1782 - March 24, 1866) at the Chapelle Royale, the family necropolis he had built in 1816, in Dreux, France. The Clash of the Pretenders The clashes of 1830 and 1848 between the Legitimists and the Orleanists over who was the valid monarch had its epilogue in the 1870s when, after the fall of the Empire, the National Assembly with the support of public opinion offered a reconstituted throne to the Legitimist pretender, 'Henry V', the Comte de Chambord. As he was childless, it was expected (and agreed by all but the most extreme Legitimists) that the throne would then pass to the Comte de Paris, Louis-Phillippe's grandson, so healing the ancient rift between France's two royal families. However Chambord, with infamous stubbornness, refused to accept unless France abandoned the flag of the revolution, the Tricolore, and replaced it with what he regarded as the flag of pre-revolutionary France. This the National Assembly was unwilling to do. A temporary Third Republic was established, to be disestablished and replaced by a constitutional monarchy when Chambord died and the more moderate Comte de Paris became the agreed pretender. However Chambord lived far longer than expected. By the time of his death in 1883 support for the monarchy had declined, with most people accepting the Third Republic as the form of government that 'divides us least', in Adolphe Thiers's words. Thus France's monarchical tradition came to an end, though some, notably Dwight D. Eisenhower, did suggest a monarchical restoration under a later Comte de Paris after the fall of the Vichy regime. Instead however, the Third Republic was briefly resurrected before being replaced by the Fourth Republic in 1946. Most French monarchists regard the descendants of Louis Philippe's grandson, who hold the title Comte de Paris, as the rightful pretender to the French throne. A small minority of Legitimists however insist on a nobleman of Spanish birth, Don Luis-Alfonso de Borbon, Duke of Anjou (to his supporters, 'Louis XX') as being the true legitimist pretender. Both sides even challenged each other in the French Republic's law courts, in 1897 and again almost a century later, in the latter case, with Henri, Comte de Paris (d. 1999) challenging the right of the Spanish-born 'pretender' to use the French royal title Duc d'Anjou. The French courts disagreed with the Comte de Paris and threw out his claim. ***** With the advent of the Second Republic in 1848, Bourbon monarchy in France ended. The Bourbon pretender to the throne of France, the Comte de Chambord, was offered a restored throne following the collapse of the empire of Emperor Napoleon III in 1870. However the stubborn Chambord refused to accept the throne unless France abandoned the revolution-inspired tricolore and accepted what he regarded as the true Bourbon flag of France, something the French National Assembly could not possibly agree to. (The tricolour, having been associated with the First Republic, had been used by the July Monarchy, Second Republic and Empire.) A temporary Third Republic was established, while monarchists waited for Chambord to die and for the succession to pass to the Comte de Paris, who was willing to accept the tricolour. However Chambord did not die for over a decade, by which public opinion switched to support the republic as the 'form of government that divides us least.'	Spain
What was abolished in Russia in 1861?	The Economic History of Mexico The Economic History of Mexico Some History of Mexico Historical Background It has been pointed out that many of the problems of Mexico, particularly problems of government, stem from the fact that for the first three centuries of its existence the major function of government in Mexico was to squeeze as much wealth from the country as possible and send it to Spain. Although Mexico achieved independence from Spain in the early nineteenth century there was not an abrupt change in the way the society functioned. Until 1700 the Viceroyalty of New Spain included not only what is now Mexico and its northern territories which became the states of California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas but also Central America to Panama and the Spanish Caribbean possessions of Cuba, Hispanola, Puerto Rico and what is now the state of Florida and also the Philippine Islands. The Viceroy of New Spain resided in Mexico City. One factor that created tensions between Spain and its Empire was the replacement of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the Bourbon dynasty from France. This change occured as a result of the War of Spanish Sucession. Once the Bourbon king Charles III gained the Spanish throne he set about to reform the administration of the Empire based upon practices developed in France. The sentiment for independence from Spain was stimulated by the example set by the British North American colonies which became the United States. The sentiment became much stronger in 1808 when Napoleon Bonaparte deposed King Fernando VII and put his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne. The elites of the Empire were used to the institutions and traditions created by those most Catholic of monarchs Charles V and his son Philip II. The elites were uncomfortable with the new institutions and administrators appointed by the Bourbon kings. For example, before the 1780's local government took the form of small districts governed by mayors, called alcaldes or corregidors. Charles III abolished the alcaldes and created 18 large intendancias for New Spain which were partitioned into partidos. The troop requirements in Spain left insufficient manpower for security in New Spain and forced offcials in New Spain to raise local militias from among the Creoles, the Spanish born in New Spain. The cost of maintaining these militias was reduced by granting participants a special status, called fuero, which gave them exemption from taxes. At the same time the Creoles were getting arms and military training they and the intellectuals of New Spain were getting indoctrination with the ideas of the American and French Revolutions. And there was the ongoing problem of the elites not feeling entirely comfortable with the new Bourbon dynasty. In 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte's troops captured Spain and put the Bourbon King Ferdinand VII in prison. Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte was made King of Spain. This did not set well with the subjects of the Empire. The representative assembly of Spain, the Cortes, which had not functioned for a very long time was revived to govern Spain. This Cortes even included representatives from the colonial areas. In New Spain there was opposition to what was going on in Spain by people who felt loyalty to the king Napoleon had deposed, Ferdinand VII. But there was also opposition in New Spain to to the status quo. Open rebellion broke out the little town of Dolores in September of 1810 under the leadership of the Catholic priest, Father Miguel Higalgo y Costilla. Father Hidalgo called for: An end to special status of Amerindians as wards of the throne without the rights of Spaniards An end to rule from Spain, in part because Spaniards were bringing the ideas of the godless French to New Spain A redistribution of land. The revolutionaries captured Guadalajara and Guanajuato, a mining center. In Guanajuato the followers of Father Hidalgo massacred the Creoles. This massacre lost Father Hidalgo the support of Creoles elsewhere in Mexico. Father Hidalgo marched on Mexico City with a large but disorganized army of 80,000. The Spanish army defeated the rebel mob in November of 1810 so this first Mexican revolution lasted less than two months. Father Hidalgo was shot in 1811 along with his major supporters. Another priest, Father José María Morelos, tried to continue the revolution in southern Mexico. In 1812 the Cortes in Madrid adopted a constitution for Spain and its Empire which had notably liberal features such as the stipulation that Spain was a constitutional monarchy and the monarch would have to heed the sentiments of an elected representative assembly. Father Morelos' rebellion was still alive in 1813 and in 1814 he and his followers made a formal declaration of independence of New Spain from Spain. But Father Morelos was of mixed European and native ancestry, a mestizo, and his leadership threatened the privileged position of the Creole elite. The Creoles might support a transfer of power from Spain to themselves but not one in which the mestizos gained power. In 1814 Napoleon's troops left Spain and Ferdinand VII returned to the throne of Spain. He abrogated the Constitution of 1812 which the Cortes had promulgated in his absence. Spanish troops were sent to New Spain to destroy the rebellion being led by Father Morelos. Father Morelos was captured by the Spanish authorities in 1815 and shot. In 1820 an uprising against King Fernando VII occurred in Spain and wealthy Creoles in Mexico feared that political changes in Spain could threaten their status in Mexico. This prompted a conservative movement for independence. The leader of these conservative revolutionaries turned out to be Augustín Iturbide, a military officer put in charge of suppressing a rebellion in southern Mexico led by Vincente Guerro. Instead of crushing Guerro's rebellion General Iturbide joined forces with him. In 1821 they issued a declaration of independence and the plan for a Mexican monarchy as the Plan de Iguala. The term of the Plan of Iguala included: Mexico was independent of Spain Roman Catholicism was the sole religion of Mexico No distinction was to be made among the citizens of Mexico on the basis of their place of birth (Spain versus Mexico) Mexico would be a constitutional monarchy to be called the Empire of Mexico A representative assembly would formulate a constitution for Mexico The monarch of Mexico was to be a prince of Spain. In the event that no Spanish prince or other suitable European prince could be found who would accept the throne a Mexican congress would choose the monarch. There general acceptance of this plan among the ruling elite and in the army. The armies of Itrubide and Guerro combined to form the Army of the Three Guarantees (of independence, unity and Roman Catholicism). When a new Spanish captain general, Juan O'Donoju, arrived in Veracruz the Mexican authorities informed him that he could not go to Mexico City because Mexico was now independent of Spain. The Spanish viceroy was forced to sign the Treaty of Córdoba recognizing Mexican independence. Spanish authorities denied the validity of the Treaty of Córdoba but in fact it stood although there was a subsequent invasion years later by Spanish troops. Augustín Iturbide convoked a Congress of representatives of the parts of New Spain in 1822. The representatives of the Central American portion of New Spain, with the exception of Chiapas, announced that they did not want to be part of the Empire of Mexico and withdrew from the Congress. At the time of the Congress a military group announced the selection of Augustín Iturbide as emperor of the Empire of Mexico. The next day the Congress ratified his selection as Emperor Augustín I. Augustín Iturbide was made Emperor of Mexico in 1822 but deposed in 1823 and executed in 1824 when he tried to regain control of the government. After Augustín Iturbide's execution a new constitution was adopted declaring Mexico a republic. The man elected president was named Manuel félix Fernández but who called himself Guadalupe Victoria after the battle cry of Father Hidalgo's revolution. Guadalupe Victoria governed until 1829. The election in 1828 for a new president to succede Guadalupe Victoria resulted in two candidates claiming victory. Manuel Gómez Pedraza apparently won but Vicente Guerrero had himself inaugurated as president in 1829. Meanwhile Spain was not accepting the independence of Mexico and in August of 1829 sent an invasion force from Cuba. The force landed in Tampico and took control of the town. A military officer named Antonio López de Santa Anna Pérez de Lebrón (hereafter Santa Anna) led the Mexican force sent to Tampico to stop the Spanish. Santa Anna's army was victorious and he became a national hero. Santa Anna had political ambitions. After the defeat of the Spanish invasion the Mexican government headed by Vincente Guerrero abolished slavery in Mexico in 1829. The only significant group of slave holders in Mexico was the Americans who had settled in the norther part of the state of Coahuila-Tejas. Clearly the Mexican government was becoming concerned about the growing strength of this settlement. Meanwhile General Santa Anna was manuevering himself into a position of power in the Mexican government. He first helped the Vice President Anastasio Bustamente stage a coup in 1830 deposing President Guerrero. In 1832 Santa Anna staged a coup against President Bustamente and replaced him with Manuel Gómez Pedraza, the true winner of the presidental election of 1828. Pedraza served only a few months in office. In the 1833 elections Santa Anna ran and was elected. After his decisive electoral victory as a liberal federationist in 1833, Santa Anna declined to take office and gave the presidency to the man who had been elected vice president, Valentín Gómez Farías. Gómez Farías was a reformist and proceded to strip the Church and military of some of their traditional rights, such as The compulsory payment of tithes to the Church The sole power of the Church in determining who holds ecclesiastic offices The exemption of the Church and the military from taxes The right of members of the Church or the military to be tried only by judicial institutions of their own group.. Such rights as the above were known as fueros It must be noted at this point that the term liberal meant in the nineteenth century and still means outside of the United States the political position which is called conservative within the United States. The term conservative in the context of nineteenth century Mexico meant a position which is outside of the political spectrum in the United States; i.e., support for special privileges and powers for the Catholic Church and the military. Gómez Farías' liberal reforms brought about an organized opposition that prompted Santa Anna in 1834 to depose Gómez Farías and assume the presidency. Santa Anna not only assumed the presidency, he dismissed the congress that had abetted Gómez Farías in his reforms. Santa Anna then ruled as a dictator, which is perhaps what he had had in mind when he delegated the presidency to Gómez Farías in the first place. The first act of Santa Anna was, of course, to abolish the reforms but he went far beyond that to abrogate the Constitution of Mexico of 1824. He created an extreme for of Centralism with The Seven Laws, which he subsequently incorporated into the Constitution of 1836. These laws among other things, removed the right of the Mexican states to elect their own leadership. The states became military districts with governors appointed by the president; i.e., Santa Anna. There was protest in some states, but the most important for the future of Mexico was the protest of Santa Anna's removal of any vestige of self-government in the territory of Tejas (Texas). After President Santa Anna dissolved the Congress in 1834 , he ruled Mexico as a dictator and dominated Mexican politics for the next twenty years. In 1834 President Santa Anna sent his brother-in-law, General Martín Cos, to Texas to deal with the American immigrants there. Santa Anna continued to amass power. At the end of 1836 he promulgated a new constitution, called The Seven Laws, which took power away from the states of Mexico and enhanced the power of the central government. Instead of states electing their own governors and other state officials these officials would be appointed by the national central government in Mexico City. This was part of an ongoing struggle, not only in Mexico but throughout the world, of advocates of centralized unitary power versus the advocates of regional state autonomy. In the literature these two groups are called the Centrists and the Federalists. Federalist is the wrong term because usually the central government calls itself the federal government and hence Federalist has the conotation of centralized power. The proper term for those who want a federation of autonomous regional states is Federationists. In Mexico sometimes the Centrists were in control and sometimes the Federationists were in control and sometimes people who appreared to be Federationist once they got control of the central government became Centrists. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna was one of the latter. The Rebellions Against Santa Anna's Abrogation of the Constitution of 1824 When Santa Anna promulgated his Seven Laws which took away the right of Mexican states to choose their own governors and administrative officials, several states rebelled, notably Zacatecas and the Tejas part of the state of Coahuila-Tejas. The Zacatecas rebellion was put down easily but Tejas was a different matter. The rebels had captured the city which is now San Antonio. President-General Santa Anna marched on Tejas with a force that has been variously estimated to have been three thousand to six thousand soldiers. Most of the rebel forces in San Antonio evacuated the city. Some four hundred under the command of Colonel James Fannin went to the town of Goliad about 85 miles to the southeast of San Antonio. About 150 of the rebels decided to defend the abandoned fortress called the Alamo. Later they were joined by 32 others. The story of the Battle of the Alamo , the Massacre at Goliad and the Battle of San Jacinto is told elsewhere. All three involved massive blunders on the part of Santa Anna, whose military career after his initial victory over the Spanish invasion force in 1829 was one long string of blunders. After the rout of Santa Anna's army at San Jacinto, Santa Anna tried to flee. He changed from his general's uniform to an ordinary soldier's uniform. But he did not change his shirt and when his captors noticed that the buttons on their captive's shirt were diamond-studded they knew he was no ordinary soldier. Once recognized Santa Anna was induced to sign, as the President of Mexico, two treaties with the rebels. One treaty required the withdrawal of all Mexican military forces to south of the river known now as the Rio Grande (del Norte). The second treaty recognized the independence of Texas. It was to be a secret treaty. The Annexation of Texas and the Outbreak of Hostilities Texas operated as an independent nation, The Republic of Texas, from 1836 to 1845. Texas claimed far more territory than was occupied by the Texans. In particular Texas claimed all land south to the Rio Grande whereas Mexico, while not accepting Texas' independence, treated tne Nueces River as the southern border of the anomalous state of Texas. The Republic of Texas claimed territory up into what are now the states of New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma and Wyoming. In 1845 Texas applied for admission into the United States and Congress passed legislation annexing Texas. While the government of Mexico had been willing to legitimize its recognition of the independence of the territory occupied by the Texans, it rejected the expanded territorial claims of the Republic of Texas. And the government of Mexico had long asserted that the annexation of Texas by the United States would be treated as an act of war. This was bombastic rhetoric and Mexico, in fact, never declared war upon the United States even after the U.S. did declare and wage war upon Mexico. President James K. Polk sent an envoy, John Slidell, to settle the Texas border dispute and to attempt to purchase the territory of California. It should be noted that the Mexican settlements of California and the rest of what became the American Southwest were more closely tied through trade with the U.S. than they were to Mexico City and the rest of Mexico. When President José Joaquín Herrera became aware of Slidell's assignment he refused to meet with him. In the absence of negotiation Mexico began sending troops to the Rio Grande and beyond. American troops occupied positions along the northern bank of the Rio Grande. There had been a previous international confrontation of the United States over Texas. When the U.S. purchased Louisiana from Napoleon it believed that Texas was included. Both France and Spain claimed the Texas area. When the U.S. moved to send troops into Texas, Spain countered with troops. In that case the commanders agreed not to occupy the disputed territory while the issue was settled by negotiation. No such rational resolution prevailed after the annexation of Texas. Troops of both sides were in the disputed territory and a squad of American soldiers was annihilated by a Mexican cavalry unit. Congress treated this as the killing of American citizens on American soil and just cause for the declaration of war. The War Between the U.S. and Mexico (The War of the U.S. Against Mexico) The United States had several times the population of Mexico and was vastly superior in terms of industrial production. Nevertheless the balance of forces between the two countries was not initially so one-sided. Mexico had a larger army at that time than the U.S. and the Mexican cavalry was superior to that of the U.s. But the U.S. had developed the cannister charges which could effectively destroy the Mexican cavalry before they had an opportunity to fight. The U.S. launched a three pronged attack against Mexico. U.S. troops under the command of Zachary Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and attacked the towns in that area. U.S. troops under the command of Stephen Kearney entered the area which is now New Mexico and captured the cities without much resistance. The troops then headed across what is now Arizona for California. Again the was little effective resistance to their advance. The third prong of the attack was the blockading of the Mexican coast in the vicinity of Veracruz. At this time former president, Antonio López de Santa Anna, was in exilel in Cuba. Santa Anna communicated to President Polk that if he, Santa Anna, were allowed to pass through the blockade he would go to Mexico City and organize negotiation and avoid any further bloodshed. Polk agreed to Santa Anna's plan and Santa Anna was allowed to land at Veracruz and pass onto Mexico City. Santa Anna, true to his nature, had been lying all along. When he arrived in Mexico City he was able to convince the political leaders that he should be made president and he would organize the defense. Polk was probably annoyed at being duped by Santa Anna but he should not have been for there was no more effective way of sabotaging the Mexican war effort than letting the ego-maniacal incompetent Santa Anna command it. When no negotiations materialized the U.S. launched an expediationary force from Veracruz under the command of Winfield Scott. To staff this force in the south a substantial share of Zachary Taylor's troops in the north were diverted. This left Taylor's forces weakened. When Santa Anna heard of this he marched an army north through an arduous route. The march took three weeks. When Santa Anna's confronted Taylor's weakened forces the battle was a draw. Taylor's troops were fearful that they would not be able to withstand another attack. To their surprise a second attack did not come. Santa Anna lost his nerve and marched the army back to Mexico City declaring that he had been victorious. In the south the expeditionary force was experiencing some difficulties. Mexican army units were harassing the supply lines from Veracruz. It was crucial that the army pass out of the low-lying coastal areas into the highlands before the yellow fever season came in the lowlands. Santa Anna found a point where the route was narrow and stationed his troops there. The place was called Cerro Gordo (fat hill). One of Santa Anna's commanders advised him that he should put soldiers on top of the hill to prevent the Americans from capturing it and placing a cannon there to bombard the Mexican Army. Santa Anna dismissed the advice. Scott's forces did get a cannon up to the top of the hill and used it to destroy the defensive position of the Mexican troops. Santa Anna's forces were wiped out and Santa Anna himself had to flee. Some years before Santa Anna had lost a leg and wore an artificial leg. Santa Anna had to flee in such a hurry that he left behind his artifical limb. General Winfield Scott made the decision to abandon the supply of the force from Veracruz. The army of about 10,000 would have to find provisions along the way. This strategy proved to be effective and soon the American troops were drawn up south of Mexico City. Santa Anna's forces were arrayed to defend the various entrances to the city. To the front and left of the American troops was a lava field that was thought to be impassable. One of Santa Anna's commanders decided without the permission of Santa Anna to attack the Americans by surprise by passing around the lava field. But Colonel Robert E. Lee, in a feat of incredible personal bravery, found a route through the lava field and led a substantial troop of American soldiers through it. The Mexican general who thought he would launch a surprise attack on the American found that his forces were having to confront from the back as well as in front. When this general sent a message to Santa Anna informing him of predicament his soldiers faced, Santa Anna in a fit of pique refused to come to the aid of the soldiers and they were defeated. Santa Anna's spitefulness cost him a significant fraction of his army. When the American troops did attack they very quickly defeated the defense of the city. Santa Anna and the remnants of his army fled the city. With Mexico City in the hands of Scott's forces Mexico was effectively defeated. An interim government accepted the terms imposed by the Americans. This was formalized in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which was signed on February 2, 1848. The treaty called for the acceptance of the boundary at the Rio Grande and the relinquishing of claims to California and the Southwest for a payment of $15 million and the assumption by the U.S. government of $3 million in claims against the Mexican government. In 1854 when Santa Anna was back in power he accepted a $10 million payment for the territory on the southern border of New Mexico and Arizona known as the Gadsen Purchase. This territory was required for train route. Santa Anna's sale of Mexican territory so angered other political leaders that they ousted Santa Anna. He ended up spending his last years in exile in Jamaica. The Period of Reform, 1855 to 1861 While Santa Anna was still in power a group of Mexican political intellectuals left Mexico to plan for ending Santa Anna's rule. They located in the U.S., in New orleans, Louisiana. The most prominent member of this group was Benito Juarez from Zapoteca. Zapoteca was one of the Mexican states which rebelled against the assumption of dictatorial powers by Santa Anna in 1834. The group formalized their goal of ending the rule of Santa Anna in the Plan of Ayutla (1854). The group returned to Mexico to implement the plan and in August of 1855 Santa Anna resigned. The provisional government which replaced Santa Anna's rule was led by the members of the Ayutla group. This government enacted legislation which, among other things, abolished the special privileges (fueros) of the Church and military restricted Church holdings of property limited the fees which could be charged by the Church. The Ayutla government went on to create a new constitution to replace the 1836 constitution that Santa Anna had created. The 1857 constitution went back to the constitution of 1824 which Santa Anna had abrogated in 1834, but the new constitution contained the additional elements of prohibition of slavery guarantees of civil liberties no re-election to the presidency. The Plan of Ayutla and the Constitution of 1857 were a direct challenge to the power of the Church, military and the elements of society that supported them. The years 1858 to 1861 were the years of the War of Reform. The organized resistance to the Reform dismissed Congress and tried to arrest Juarez. The Reformers set up a government in exile, first in Querétaro and later in Veracruz. The Reformers with control of the major port of Veracruz had better access to supplies and ultimately defeated the forces of the opposition at the end of 1860. Benito Juarez won the presidential election of March 1861. Due to the War of Reform the government of Mexico was broke and heavily in debt. Juarez declared a moritorium the payment of the debt. In October of 1861, Britain, France and Spain sent forces to force Mexico to make payments on is debt. The joint foreign forces took control of the eastern coastal region of Mexico, including Veracruz. Spain and Britain decided to withdraw from this venture, but France decided to conqueror and rule Mexico. The French Imperial Adventure in Mexico of 1861 to 1867 The French troops encountered relatively little effective resistance to their occupation. One notable exception was the defeat they suffered on May 5, 1862 (Cinco de Mayo) at the city of Puebla. This was however only a temporary set back. They subsequently captured Puebla. When the French troops captured Mexico City they set up a government of conservative elements of Mexican society. This government then chose to make Mexico an empire and to invite an Austrian Habsburg, Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph, to be the emperor. In June of 1864 Maximilian and his wife Carlotta arrived in Mexico City to rule the French-imposed empire. Maximilian had, before he left Europe, agreed that his empire would assume the cost of the French occupying troops. Although chosen by conservative elements in Mexico City, Maximilian was something of a liberal. So his support for liberal measures soon alienated the conservative elements of Mexico while not endearing him to the liberals under Juarez who were operating a government-exile in the south of Mexico. Juarez' forces were not successful in overthrowing Maximilian until political necessities in France forced the withdrawal of French troops and the end of the Civil War in the U.S. brought American supplies and support. In May of 1867 Maximilian surrendered and was executed in June of that year. The Restoration Period, 1867-1876 Benito Juarez Juarez returned to Mexico City in June of 1867 and later that year was elected president. Because the conservatives had ultimately opposed Maximilian there was a spirit of commonality between the liberals and conservatives. Juarez promoted improvements in transportation and communication. He strengthened the Rural Defense Force (rurales) to suppress banditry and make the roads safe for commerce. More generally Juarez supported the development of Mexico through reliance on private markets and worked to breakdown the system of monopoly privilege that was inherited the colonial past. Juarez also promoted improvements in the educational system and elementary education was made mandatory. The railroad between Veracruz and Mexico City was completed in 1873. President Juarez' four-term ended in 1871. Despite the principle of no reelection he decided to run for a second term. His opponents were Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada and José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz. No candidate received a majority of the votes in the election so Congress had the power to select the president from the three candidates. Congress selected Juarez as president. Díaz invoked the principle that no candidate can be reelected and staged a revolt. During the rebellion Juarez died of a heart attack at age 66. His death was a great loss to Mexico and to the cause of a constitutional federationist society based upon market principles. The Porfiriato The new election in 1872 was won by Sebastián Lerdo. Lerdo basically continued the policies of Juarez. When his term was up in 1876 Lerdo wanted to run for a second term. Díaz rebelled again on the basis of the no reelection principle. Initially Díaz' revolt was unsuccessful and Díaz had to flee to the U.S., but later he returned and led an army which defeated the government forces. Lerdo went into exile and Díaz took control of Mexico City. He was elected president in 1877. When the first four-year term of Díaz was up in 1881 he, in keeping with the no reelection principle, declined to run for a second term. He chose Manuel Gonzalez to serve in his place, but Díaz was not satisfied with this rule by proxy. When Gonzalez' term was up in 1884 Díaz ran for the presidency again and won. Altogether Díaz ruled Mexico for 34 years, although not always as the official holder of office. Some additional information on Díaz' background is in order here. He was born in Oaxaca in 1830 to a poor mestizo family. He initially intended to go into the priesthood and began training for this career when he was 15 years old. But that was the time of the U.S.-Mexican War. Díaz enlisted in the army. After the war with U.S., Díaz, with the encouragement of Juarez, studied law for a while, but he decided to make the military his career. He continued serving in armies during the War of Reform (1857-1860) and the rebellion against the French-imposed Empire of Maximilian. After the overthrow of Maximilian Díaz decided to retire from the military. He went back to Oaxaca. Soon he had political disagreements with President Juarez and decided to enter politics. When Díaz became president of Mexico in 1877 there were virtually no funds for public projects. Díaz concentrated on building up a political machine and putting down rebellions. He gave government jobs to mestizos. He secured the support of the Creole class by leaving their land holdings alone and giving some positions of honor in his administration. Likewise he gained the support of the Church by leaving Church properties untouched. Since Díaz had no significant amount of funds for the economic development of Mexico he left this field to private industry. He encouraged foreign investment. Writers of a Marxist persuasion decry the profits which foreigners made in Mexico under Porfirio Díaz, but his strategy got railroads built and the minerals mined. Labor benefited from the jobs created. The gains of the foreign investors were more than matched by the gains to Mexico. The notion that because the foreign investors gained Mexico did not gain is sophmoric if not moronic. While Díaz' economic policy may have been reasonable with respect to foreign investment, in trade policy it was highly protectionist. In the political sphere Díaz was a tyrant. He was a centrist and he virtually destroyed the political structures at the state level. In 1910 he told a foreign magazine journalist that he would not run in the next election. But when the time came he did run. However he allowed Francisco I. Madero, a liberal reformist from Coahuila, to run against him. Díaz won the election and imprisoned Madero before releasing him to leave Mexico. Madero went to St. Louis in the U.S. and from there he planned a revolt which was joined by others. Madero created in St. Louis the Plan of San Luis de Potosí. The Plan was distributed in dissident areas of Mexico. Local leaders, particularly Francisco "Pancho" Villa in the state of Chihuahua, decided to join Madero's revolution. Other local leaders joining Madeo were Pascual Orozco of Chihuahua and Emiliano Zapata of Morelos. Rebels captured Cuidad Juarez and other state capitals. Díaz' forces collapsed and Díaz, then eighty years of age, resigned the presidency on May 25, 1911 and went into exile in France, ultimately dying in Paris years later. The States of Mexico The Madero Era Francisco Madero was a well-meaning member of the upper class. For him, the revolution was a political matter; a matter of restoring the constitution of 1857 and so forth. For Emiliano Zapata the revolution was a matter of land reform and a social revolution. Madero was not prepared to deal with the realities of Mexican politics. Madero ordered Zapata to disband his army and Zapata complied. Others in the Madero administration did not think Zapata had disarmed his forces and sent Federal troops to carry out the disarming and disbanding of Zapata's forces. Zapata withdrew with his army into the countryside and no longer supported Madero. He launched another revolution in the southern states. In the north, Pascual Orozco also broke with Madero and launched a revolt. The Mexican army under the command of Victoriano Huerta put down Orozco's revolt. The son of Porfirio Díaz, Félix Díaz, tried to launch a revolt from Veracruz but was arrested and brought to Mexico City. From prison Fé Díaz was able to organize to protests in the streets of Mexico City. General Huerta was called in by Madero to suppress the protests in Mexico City. Huerta realized that he had the power to takeover the government of Mexico and he did so. Huerta had President Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez arrested. He forced their resignations which made him president. Later Madero and Pino Suárez were killed in 1913 while being transferred to prison. As commented earlier, Madero was a well-meaning member of the upper class who was not capable of dealing with the realities of power politics in Mexico. The Huerta Dictatorship Revolutionaries such as Emiliano Zapata who were in revolt against Madero remained in revolt against Huerta. In the north, three rebel groups formed a coalition: Pancho Villa in Chihuahua, Venustiano Carranza in Coahuila and Álvaro Obregón in Sonora. (Obregón is pronounced Oh bray Yon; it is an Hispanization of O'Brien.) Huerta sent troops into the north and carried out assassinations but was unable to suppress the rebels. The government of Woodrow Wilson in the U.S. did not recognize the usurpation of power by Huerta and provided aid to the northern coalition of rebels. In 1914 after an incident in Veracruz, Wilso order the American occupation of the city. The subsequent protests led to the resignation of Huerta on July 8, 1914. The Civil War, the Constitution of 1917 and the Carranza Presidency, 1917-1920 Although Huerta was driven from power more by his inability to counter the American occupation of Veracruz than the military operations of the rebels, once Huera left the effective power was in the hand of the organized resistance. But the resistances were not unified. Once their common enemy of Huerta was gone, their differences became all important. In an attempt to achieve some unification Carranza called a convention of rebel leaders in Aguascalientes (hot springs). Carranza of Coahuila and Obregón of Sonora represented political revolutionaries whereas Villa of Chihuahua and Zapata of Morelos were more radically social revolutionaries. Carranza's convention did not have the intended effect. The convention fell under the sway of the social revolutionaries who chose Eulalia Gutiérrez for provisional president of Mexico. Gutiérrez went to Mexico City to take power. Carranza and Obregón opted to establish an alternate government in Veracruz. Gutiérrez did not last long in Mexico City. He relocated to Neuvo Léon, whereupon Obregón took his place in Mexico City. There were two more governments for Mexico; that of the Zapatistas in the south and Villa in Guanjuato. But it was Carranza who made the shrewder choice of location. In Veracruz Carranza fell heir to the munitions of the American occupying force. These munitions gave him a advantage over the other contenders and he emerged victorious and was recognized as the legitimate president of Mexico by the United States. Pancho Villa expressed his rage at the U.S. recognition of Carranza by carrying out raids on border towns in New Mexico. President Woodrow Wilson reacted by sending an expeditionary force into Mexico to hunt down Villa. The force failed to capture Villa. Carranza presented a proposed constitution based upon the constitution of 1857 but going farther in the direction of radical social institutions. After the formal acceptance of this constitution of 1917 Carranza ran for the office of the president and won. In office Venustiano Carranza was much more conservative than would be expected from his support of the constitution of 1917 and its radical provisions. In particular, President Carranza not only did not choose to carry out the land redistribution provisions of the constitution but even returned land that had been confiscated during the civil war period. This back pedaling on the issue of land reform and redistribution put him at odds with Emiliano Zapata and his supporters. The Death of Emiliano Zapata Emiliano Zapata Zapata issued an open letter to Carranza on the matter of land redistribution, hoping by this means to bring irresistable public pressure on Carranza to carry forward land reform. Carranza reacted viciously. He sent a representative who supposedly going to negotiate with Zapata but who had been given the express assignment of assassinating Zapata. Zapata came to the supposed negotiation site in good faith. When Zapata appeared at the site a squad of soldiers who were thought to be there to give Zapata a military salute instead fired their rifles into Zapata's chest. In that moment on April 10, 1919 Mexico and the world lost one of its authentic heroes. The Presidency of Álvaro Obregón, 1920-1924 Carranza did not long survive after his assassination of Zapata. In 1920 Carranza tried to pass on the presidency to someone who would serve as his puppet. Adolfo de la Huerta and Plutarco Elías Calles raised an army in northern Mexico and marched on Mexico City under the banner of constitutionalism. Carranza fled from Mexico City, heading for exile, but was assassinated in his flight. De la Huerta served for a short while as a provisional president but was replaced by Álvaro Obregón who was elected as president. As was the case of Carranza, Álvaro Obregón in office was more conservative than might have been expected. He chose to go slow on the land reform because he believed that land reform would impair agricultural production. He also chose not to implement articles of the 1917 constitution which restricted ownership of land by foreigners, again because he feared that to do so would interfer with production. The one area of public policy in which Obregón made some rather radical departures from the past was in public education. Under Obregón's appointee to head the ministry of eduation, José Vasconcelos, an extensive program of the building of schools and libraries was carried out. School teachers were sent to remote villages to bring literacy to the rural population. And Obregón's most radical action was to choose Plutarco Elías Calles as his successor. The Presidency of Plutarco Elías Calles, 1924-1928 Plutarco Elías Calles was a real radical. He was most notably radical in his treatment of the Catholic Church. Many of the Mexican leaders of that time were anticlerical but Calles anticlericalism was virulent. In 1926 the archbishop of Mexico City asserted that Roman Catholics could not comply with the religious provisions of the 1917 constitution. Calles reacted by implementing some of the most drastic of those provisions; i.e., Convents and monasteries were closed Religious schools were closed Foreign priests and nuns were deported Religious processions were prohibited Priests were required to register with the government before performing their duties The Church then countered by prohibiting priests from performing the religious services that a devout Catholic population considers essential for life. This prohibition continued for three years. Priests were persecuted by the government and had to lead an undercover life. This era was the basis for Graham Greene's novel, The Power and the Glory. The persecution of the Church by Calles eventually led to armed revolts in some of the southern states. The rebels were known as Cristeros. Calles used the army to suppress these revolts and encouraged anticlerical militias, called Red Shirts, to attack the Cristeros. By 1929 the Cristeros were subdued. Calles vigorously pursued land reform, redistributing about eight million acres. He continued Obregón's program of school building. He supported organized labor which had become a major force in Mexican politics and had supported him. Political Turmoil and the Maximato, 1928-1934 During Calles' presidency the term of office for the president was changed from four years to six years (Sexenio) starting with the 1928 election. After being out of office for four years Álvaro Obregón again wanted to be president. Calles supported Obregón's reelection bid in violation of the no reelection principle. Álvaro Obregón did win reelection but was assassinated by a religious extremist before he could take office. Obregón's assassination took place in a quite dramatic manner. A party was given in Obregón's honor. At the party an artist was drawing cartoons of the guests. He drew an excellent cartoon of Obregón and when he came close to Obregón to give him the drawing he pulled a pistol and placed it against Obregón's body and fired. For many this assassination must have seemed like divine punishment for violating the no reelecation principle. In any case Calles decided not to violate that principle and appointed Emilio Portes Gil to serve as an interim president until another election could be held. However it was Calles who was running the government. Calles institutionalized the political machine he had built up into a real political party in 1929. He called it the Partido Nacional Revolucionario PNR (the National Revolutionary Party). It went through several name changes but it was the political party that ruled Mexico for 70 years. Calles, as the supreme leader, of the PNR was all powerful politically. Calles chose Pascual Ortiz Rubio to be the PNR candidate in the 1929 election to serve the rest of Obregón's term. Ortiz Rubio won the election with 99.9 percent of the vote thanks to PNR election fraud. In office Ortiz Rubio proved to be less of a puppet than Calles intended so in 1932 Calles had him removed from office and replaced with Abelardo Rodríguez. Calles had over the years become less radical. The land distributions were halted because Calles feared agricultural production would suffer. Labor unions also lost favor with Calles. But Calles did placate the radical left of his party by nominating Lázaro Cárdenas to be the PNR candidate for the 1934-1940 term for president. The Sexenio of Lázaro Cárdenas, 1934-1940 Lázaro Cárdenas Lázaro Cárdenas' background had been as a brigadier general in the constitutionalist army. From the military he had gone into state pollitics and had been the governor of the state of Michoacán. As governor he had supported the expansion of public education. He also pursued land reform. He was supported by labor unions and peasant organizations. As president Cárdenas proved to be far more radical than anyone anticipated. Cárdenas began implementing land reform on a much larger scale that any had expected. Some of his measures involved stepping on Cárdenas' toes such as when he closed a chain of gambling casinos owned by Calles supporters. He began firing Calles supporters working in government jobs. When in 1936 Calles openly opposed his policies, Cárdenas forced Calles to leave Mexico. With Calles out of the picture Cárdenas could reorganize the political party. He renamed it the PRM, the Partido de la Revolucion Mexicana (Party of the Mexican Revolution). He expanded the membership and organized it into four corporate sectors: Labor (union members) Agrarian (peasants and rural farm workers) Military Popular (the middle class, civil servants and merchants) He also reorganized the labor union movement. He created the Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos, CTM (Confederation of Mexican Workers) to be the more or less official organization to represent Mexican workers. It replaced the old CROM which had been created shortly after the end of the civil wars. Cárdenas is most remembered for his expropriation of foreign oil companies. This was the result of an escalation of actions and reactions between the government and the petroleum companies. The employees of the foreign petroleum companies were agitating for higher wages through training in more technical jobs. The employees went out on strike. Cárdenas intervened and demanded that the companies train the workers in more technical jobs. The companies, seeing this as merely a preliminary to expropriation of their operations declined to do so. Cárdenas responded to this refusal by nationalization with compensation based upon the value of facilities as reported for tax purposes. The companies had recorded low values to reduce their tax burden. Cárdenas may have gained the properties but it cost more than the compensation paid. Other companies declined to invest in Mexico and those already invested in Mexico began to liquidate their holding and drain their capital out of Mexico. Thus for two decades Mexico suffered a lack of capital as a direct result of the expropriation of the foreign petroleum companies' assets. The Sexenio of Ávila Camacho, 1940-1946 After the extreme anticlericalism and radicalism of Calles and Cárdenas it was a real political surprise for the Mexican public that Cárdenas chose Ávila Camacho, a moderate and devout Catholic, to succeed him. In contrast to the previous administrations Camacho promoted private ownership of land rather than the collective farms known as ejidos. He also promoted private education rather than public education. His administration was famous for a literacy campaign which called for each literate person to teach one other person to read. The close mutual support between the government and organized labor was moderated. All in all Camacho was a moderate. World War II was raging during Camacho's term as president. He kept Mexico out of the conflict until German submarines sank two Mexican tankers. Mexico then declared war. During Camacho term the braceros program commensced which brought Mexican farmworkers into the United States to replace the Americans taken from the farm areas to fight the war. Another feature of Camacho's political moderation was that business and industry were encouraged to participate in the ruling party. The party was renamed in 1946 to the Partido Revolucionario Instituticional PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), the name that it known by to this day. The Sexenio of Miguel Alemán Valdés, 1946-1952 Miguel Alemán Valdés continued the trend of moderation set by Camacho. Alemán focused his administration's attention on public works; flood control, hydropower development, irrigation projects, road building and improving and the creation of a national university. Alemán unfortunately fell into the trap of trying to promote economic development through import substitution. The promotion of domestic industry to replace imports necessitates either import restrictions or subsidization of domestic industry. The first, import restrictions, clearly leads to price increases. The second, subsidization, requires either tax increases on viable industries to support the subsidies or the creation of money. Both of these lead to price increases. Alemán tried to cope with the inflation by using government control of the labor unions to suppress real wages. The government intervention gave rise to opportunities for government officials to extract bribes and the Alemán administration was noted for its political corruption. The Sexenio of Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, 1952-1958 After the public outcry at the corruption of public officials Mexico needed someone of noted incorruptibilty to deal with the problem and Alemán chose Adolfo Ruiz Cortines for that very reason. Ruiz Cortines continued the generally moderate policies of his immediate predecessors, but he continued the misguided import substitution policy. The interventionist role of the government made business location in the vicinity of the capital, Mexico City, a necessity. If businesses had to fequently seek government approval they had to be located near the seat of power. With businesses concentrated in the Mexico City area then jobs were located there as well so job seekers had to settle in the vicinity of Mexico city as well. This led to troublesome urban problems for Mexico City, one of which was the slum areas which surrounded the city. Playing upon the economic troubles of the masses, former president Cárdenas was able to persuade the PRI to run someone from its leftist faction for president in 1958. The Sexenio of Adolfo López Mateos, 1958-1964 Adolfo López Mateos was a candidate promoted by Lázaro Cárdenas to bring back an agenda of land reform, social welfare programs and nationalism in foreign policy. López Mateos did that but with a more moderate style than that of Cárdenas. He bought up foreign utility operations rather than expropriating them. For examples see the table below: Mexican Company Industria Eléctrica Mexicana California Power Co. López Mateos distributed over 30 million acres to the ejidos. On left wing radicalism López Mateos had a split approach. He supported or a least accepted communist movements outside of Mexico but persecuted communists within Mexico. In international politics López Mateos supported Fidel Castro in Cuba. There seemed to be a tacit agreement with Castro that if Mexico supported him in international politics he would not support leftist guerilla movements within Mexico. The Sexenio of Gustavo Diáz Ordaz, 1964-1970 Gustavo Diáz Ordaz had been a prominent member of the government of López Mateos and so he more or less continued the policies of López Mateos, which is probably why López Mateos selected him. But political unrest escalated during Diáz Ordaz' Sexenio. The persecution of leftists within Mexico while supporting leftist movements internationally was bound to create dissent. Students at the Autonomous National University of Mexico in Mexico City began organizing large scale demonstrations in 1968. Mexico was the host of the 1968 Olympic Games and the protestors thought they would have special leverage in forcing the Mexican government to adcede to their demands. They thought wrong. A major demonstration brought about a half million demonstrators to the main plaza of Mexico City. Diáz Ordaz and his minister of the interior Luis Echeverría Álvarez ordered the Mexican army to take control of the university and arrest the student leaders of the demonstration. On October 2, 1968 the hardcore demonstrators gathered in the Plaza of the Three Cultures in defiance of the government prohibitions against public demonstrations. There were only five thousand of them raher than the half million of the previous demonstration. At the Plaza it was the most radical of the demonstrators confronting an adamant government force. For reasons not entirely clear the crowd and the soldiers panicked. The soldiers had lethal weapons and they used them. The number of demonstrators killed was in the hundreds and the massacre left a scar on Mexican politics. The Sexenio of Luis Echeverría Álvarez, 1970-1976 Luis Echeverría Álvarez was deeply involved in the events that led to the massacre in the Plaza of the Three Cultures, nevertheless he was elected president without any difficulty. From Echeverría Álvarez' past history it was widely expected that he would continue the previous regimes emphasis on order and stability. But contrary to those expectations he courted the left by emmphasizing leftist programs. Perhaps this was as a sense of guilt about the Mexican government's persecution of leftists. Perhaps it was because he feared that the left would create an ongoing insurgency in Mexico that would trouble the government for decades. Echeverría Álvarez distributed more land to the ejidos despite the fact that production decreases substanially under a communal farming arrangement. The rule of thumb is that collective farming has about fifty percent of the yield of private farming. So converting land from private ownership to collective ownership is like destroying half of the land involved. Echeverría tried to regain the loyalty of middle class leftists by enacting a variety of social welfare programs. He co-opted the leftist intelligentsia by providing jobs for them in the government. He also initiated diverse government development programs such as a steel complex in the state of Michoacán. He promoted extensive subsidies for public and private enterprises. These programs could not all be funded out of existing tax funds so he had the central bank create money. One effect then of Echeverría's policies was the creation of substantial inflation. By the end of Echeverría's sexenio Mexico was experiencing serious inflation and economic crisis. The Sexenio of José López Portillo y Pacheco, 1976-1982 By the time of the sexenio of José López Portillo y Pacheco Mexico's chronic economic problems had been escalated by Echeverría's deficit financing of his social welfare and government intervention programs into a serious crisis. Even the discovery of new oil fields in the south (the states of Tabasco and Chiapas and in the Bay of Campeche) did not alleviate the problem of inflation. Because of the discovery of the new petroleum reserves and the rising international price of petroleum, foreign bankers were willing to lend Mexico vast amounts of money. But the capacity to borrow was based upon the proven oil reserves not the level of current production. This means that the interest payment on the foreign debt could exceed the funds earned from current production of petroleum. Therefore the petroleum discoveries did not necessarily mean the end of the economic crisis. By 1982 almost half of the petroleum exports earning were going to pay the interest and other scheduled payments for the foreign debt. The ready availability of funds led to unwise funding of various projects of dubious value. The annual rate of inflation hit 100 percent percent. The continuing inflation in Mexico in excess of the inflation in other countries eventually forced a devaluation of the Mexican peso. This devaluation of 55 percent panicked the holders of Mexican pesos and they began to convert their pesos into other currencies. This is called capital flight. In an attempt to hault the capital flight López Portillo nationalized the banks of Mexico in September of 1982. Just when the domestic economic problems of Mexico were becoming severe international developments exacerbated the problems. The price of petroleum began to fall in rsponse to the increased quantity of petroleum being supplied as a result of the higher price of petroleum. When the value of Mexico's exports dropped as a result of the decrease in the price of petroleum and the value of imports continued at a high level Mexico suddenly had an balance of trade problem, a current account deficit. These international trade problems of Mexico translated into a higher cost of living and a lower standard of living for the general public of Mexico. The Sexenio of Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado, 1982-1988 When Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado came into office Mexico's economic house was in a great state of disarray. There was excessive foreign debt requiring excessive amounts of foreign currency credit to service. The rate of inflation was at a record high level. The value of the Mexican peso in foreign exchange had to be devalued. On the very day of his inauguration Miguel de la Madrid promulgated a program of economic austerity which included: increases in tax rates reduction in the federal government budget reduction of subsidies for some commodities postponement of many public projects increase in some interest rates relaxation of capital transfer restrictions Miguel de la Madrid was accused of complying with the dictates of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). FOr more on the financial and economic crisis of 1982 click here . De la Madrid made financial corruption by government officials a target of his policy, at least in term of publicity. The program was called moral renewal. But the reality was that only a few high profile cases were prosecuted and the only legislation enacted effectively targeted corruption of union officials. There was a lessening of electoral corruption and during his term non-PRI candidates began to win and hold political office. But the gains in electoral reforms in 1983 were offset to some extent by a relapse in 1984. Under his predessors elections in which opposition candidates won were nullified. The de la Madrid sexenio had a moderately troubled relationship with the United States over the anti-drug policy and illegal immigration to the U.S. It is notable that the moves toward privatization started in the de la Madrid administration. Financial necessity forced the selling off of about two hundred government enterprises. The Sexenio of Carlos Salinas de Gotari, 1988-1994 Carlos Salinas When Carlos Salinas was campaigning for the office of president the financial, economic and political crises of Mexico had reached catastrophic levels. There was effectively a devaluation of the pesos in November of 1987. The government had allowed the peso exchange rate to be determined by the market and immediately its value fell almost 20 percent. This made foreign goods cost more for Mexicans so the devaluation itself produced inflation. Along with the other sources this drove the annual inflation rate up to nearly 150 percent. The general public suffered a substantial loss in the buying power of their incomes. With the decline in what they could afford to buy the general population of Mexico suffered a substantial decline in their standard of living. For people living at a minimal standard any drop meant real hardship. Even for those whose standard of living was significantly above poverty levels the decline in their standard of living was painful and frightening. Over the 1982-1988 sexenio of Miguel de la Madrid the real income of Mexicans had fallen 40 percent. This was a greater drop than occured for Americans with the onset of the Great Depression from 1929 to 1932. The political scene of Mexico before the campaign for the 1988-1994 sexenio was in turmoil. The major factor in this turmoil was, Cauhtémoc Cárdenas, the son of the radical president of the 1930's. Cauhtémoc Cárdenas had become governor of the state of Michoacácan and had aspirations to follow in his father's footsteps and become president of Mexico. He knew he could command popular support but the nomination to the candidacy of the PRI was in the hand of the president. He doubted that he would be the choice of de la Madrid. Cauhtémoc Cárdenas and others then tied to force a change in the system. They formed, within the PRI, a caucus known as the Corriente Democrático (CD). The members of the CD felt that the austerity measures of the de la Madrid administration were not dictated by necessity but were the result of the concentration of political power in the hands of the inner circle of the PRI. The inner circle of the PRI did not react sympathetically to the CD. It in fact expelled them from the party. De la Madrid nominated Carlos Salinas de Gotari as the PRI candidate for president of Mexico. Carlos Salinas was a young técnico (technocrat) with a Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University. His selection was somewhat of a surprise but not if the criterion was in expertise for dealing with Mexico's financial and economic problems. Cauhtémoc Cárdenas decided not to accept the decision of the inner circle of the PRI as to whom should be the next president of Mexico. Cauhtémoc Cárdenas chose to create his own political party and with the backing of other leftist parties campaign for the presidency. The political party which was more business-oriented, the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) also fielded a candidate. The campaign for the 1988-1994 sexenio was hard fought, both in the public campaign and the vote tabulation. Salinas and the PRI emerged victorious from the two battle grounds. The official but disputed vote tally gave Carlos Salinas 50.36% to 31.1 for Cauhtémoc Cárdenas. Cauhtémoc Cárdenas and the PAN candidate tried to force a recount but to no avail. Carlos Salinas became the president of Mexico. In his augural address he made a rhetorical allusion to renegotiation of the Mexico's foreign debt which could have been interpreted as a possible threat to stop payment on that debt, but in reality it was just a bit of political rhetoric. Salinas was probably under a bit of pressure to make some rhetorical flourish in as much as at that inaugural address the supporters of Cauhtémoc Cárdenas made a public display of walking out of his speech and the supporters of PAN, while staying, made a point of not expressing any signs of approval. Cauhtémoc Cárdenas created a party organization called Partido Revolucionario Democrático (PRD). PRD is a strange amalgamation of former PRI members and former socialist and communist party members. About this time in the nineties there was a story that circulated. Supposedly in the mid-1980's Mikhail Gorbachev, Ronald Reagan and the Mexican president Miguel de la Madrid were on an airplane together and God appeared to the trio. God told them that He would answer any questions any one of them had about the future. Gorbacheve asked how long communism would last in the Soviet Union. God replied that it would only last a few more years and Gorbachev cried. Reagan asked how long capitalism would last in the U.S. and God replied that it would only last a few more decades and Reagan cried. Then de la Madrid asked how long corruption would last in Mexico and God cried. It was also about this time that Carlos Salinas in a speech said, "Pity poor Mexico, so far from God and so close to the United States." As an economist-president Carlos Salinas immediately removed the price controls that had been enacted under de la Madrid. Salinas continued de la Madrid's efforts to have Mexico join what is now known as the World Trade Organization (WTO). Salinas initially had some notion of diversifying Mexico's trade relations such as with Europe and Japan, but a tour of Europe convinced him that Mexico's economic futures was inevitably linked to closer trade relations with the United States. Carlos Salinas deserves credit for initiating the dialogue that eventually matured into the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Salinas was successful in securing loans for Mexico to deal with economic crises. The Brady Plan allowed Mexico to rearrange the payments associated with its foreign debt. As an economist Carlos Salinas gave attention to breaking the abusive power and corruption of labor unions. Unions had forced government enterprises to hire unneeded employees and the burden that unnecessary cost was burden the government which had to subsidize those enterprises or face the collapse of the enterprises. With privatization enterprises layed off workers, which resulted in protests, but the laying off of excess workers avoided the more traumatic closing of enterprises in which all of the jobs are lost. One particularly strong and corrupt union was that of the employees of the state petroleum company Pemex. This union was controlled by Joaquín Hernandez Galicia, known by the nickname La Quina (The Queen). Salinas sent police to arrest La Quina at union headquarters on charges which included murder. The arrest turned into a fullfledged gun battle, but La Quina was arrested, tried and sentenced to thirty five years in prison. Pemex is a crucial sector for the government of Mexico because its profits are a major sorce of revenue for the government. Pemex's problems were not just those associated with the labor union and La Quina, but those were important. Salinas forced a restructuring of Pemex which resulted in a layoff of 94 thousand employees and reduced its payroll by 40 percent. Salinas made some modifications in the organizational structure of Pemex which would promote efficiency and could allow the spin-off and privatization of parts of Pemex such as petrochemicals. Leftist political activists from Mexico City relocated to Chiapas tried to use the political vulnerability of the government in an election year. They were able to convince Chiapans, who had real and serious grievances with the Mexico City government, to act a pawn army for the political activists to act out their guerilla-leader fantasies. For more on the situation in Chiapas click here . The Sexenio of Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León, 1994-2000 Ernesto Zedillo When the history of the late twentieth century in Mexico is written in the future Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León will probably judged as one of the great heroes of Mexico, heroic not for what he did but for what he didn't do. He didn't use the power of the state to perpetuate the rule of the PRI. He was a modest man whose simple honesty was noble. Mexico can be very proud of him. Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León was not the original choice of Salinas and the inner circle of PRI. That selection was Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta, but he was assassinated while campaigning in Tijuana in March of 1994. Ernesto Zedillo had been the Secretary of Programming and the Budget (1988-1992) and the Secretary of Public Education (1992-1993) in the Salinas government. He was the campaign manager for Luis Donaldo Colosio so his candidacy made political and organizational sense. Ernesto Zedillo was perceived to be an honest, hard-working technocrat. He had spent his early life in Mexico City but later raised in the northwest (Mexicali) so he had ties to those two major power centers. He studied economics at the National Polytechnic Institute in Mexico City and then went on to earn a master's degree and doctorate in economics at Yale University. The election which zedillo won was deemed the most honest one in Mexican history. Zedillo got 49 percent of the vote, the PAN candiate 29 percent and the PRD candidate 16 percent. After the election the peso was again devalued. The devaluation spurred a flight of capital which put more pressure on for further devaluations. For more on this 1994 crisis click here . Ernesto Zedillo tried hard to cope with the economic depression that followed the devaluation, but problems were too severe to remedied by simple measures in a short period of time. The Sexenio of Vicente Fox Quesada, 2000-2006 Mexico has not seen before a politician with the machismo and charisma of Vicente Fox Quesada. His father was Mexican of Irish-American ancestry and his mother was directly from Spain. His father was a successful rancher in Guanajuato state where Vicente grew up, although he was born in Mexico City. Vicente Fox is six feet, five inches tall and cultivates a cowboy image. He took courses at the Iberian-American University in Mexico City where some of the lecturers were from the Harvard Business School. He chose to pursue a career in business rather than go on with a university education. He started working for the Coca Cola Company in Mexico. He started at an entry-level position as a route truck-driver and worked his way to the level of president for the Coca Cola Company in Mexico and then the president of company that served not only Mexico but all of Latin America. Before he became president of the company Pepsi Cola was more popular in Mexico than Coca Cola. Vicente Fox changed that. He is a successful business man. In the 1980's Vicente Fox became active in PAN, Partido Accion Nacional. In 1988 he ran for Congress for the city of León in his state of Guanajuato and won. In 1991 he ran for governor of Guanajuato and the election was disputed and Carlos Salinas gave the election to another man on an interim basis. Vicente Fox again ran for governor of Guanajuato and won by a landslide. He is a natural campaigner. It wasn't until 1994 that Vicente Fox was elegible to run for the presidency of Mexico. The Constitution of Mexico required that a president of Mexico must be the child of two Mexican citizens. Because Vicente Fox's mother was a citizen of Spain he could not run for president until that restriction was eliminated in 1994. Vicente Fox announced in 1997 his intention of seeking the candidacy of the PAN for the 2000 election. He was not a favorite of the leaders of PAN but he campaigned so well that there was no denying the candidacy. Vicente Fox fought a hard campaign against his major opponent, PRI candidate Francisco Labastida, and his lesser opponent, PRD candidate Cauhtémoc Cárdenas. Although Vicente Fox is the candidate of the party that is characterized as right-of-center and as conservative he is not ideologically oriented. He is a pragmatist. He is mainly concerned with whether a policy works. His opponent Francisco Labastida said, Fox is ninety percent image and ten percent ideas. Fox said that Labastida is a sissy and a transvestite. Vicente Fox During the campaign Vicente Fox emphasized his Catholicism. PAN is the party that is more closely associated with the Catholic Church. Vicente Fox's machismo image, reputation as a successful entrepreneur, devout Catholicism and tireless campaign translated into an upset victory over the PRI candidate. In his inauguration speech Vicente Fox projected an image of a unifier. He included members of the opposition parties in his cabinet. He went so far in this direction that his initial selection did not include any members of his own party. In his first four years he continued the policies and programs of Ernesto Zedillo. He has been criticized for not implementing enough of his own programs. However he is faced with a legislature dominated by the opposition PRI. The Geographic Setting of Mexico Mexico is a political entity defined not by regional coherence but by conquests. The Spanish conquistadores conquerered as far north as they could and claimed territory far beyond what they could control. What is now the political entity of Mexico was a portion of the viceroyalty of New Spain. It is an artifact of historical events rather than a coherent unit dictated by geography or the culture of the indigenous population. There are, in effect, three Mexicos: The Mexico of the north, dry and mountainous, the Mexico of the south, wetter and mixed in terrain, and Yucatan, wetter lowland forest. The terrain of the north is dominated by two mountain chains. The western chain, the Sierra Madre Occidental, can be consider an interrupted extention of the Coastal Range of California. The California Coastal Range also extends into the peninsula of Baja California. The eastern chain, the Sierra Madre Oriental, is an uninterrupted extention of the Rocky Mountains of New Mexico. Between the two ranges is a high plain, the Altoplano. There is a lesser range that cuts across the Altoplano connecting the western and eastern ranges. In the south where the two ranges of the north merge the range is oriented west to east and is designated as the Sierra Madre del Sur along the southern coast and the Cordillera Neovolcánica in the interior. The plains of the Yucatan Peninsula are geographically distinct from the rest of Mexico. The Climates of Mexico Northern Mexico is dry and southern Mexico is relatively wet. In the north the annual rainfall averages aout 30 to 60 cm, whereas in the southern state of Tabasco the annual rainfall is 200 cm per year. The other southern states have comparably high rainfall levels. Mexico City is near the dividing line between the dry climates of the north and the wet climates of the south. It has average rainfall in the range of 60 to 100 cm per year. Almost all of Mexico has pronounced dry and wet seasons. The dry season starts around the end of October and runs to the end of May. July is generally the wettest month and February the driest. Mexico is often in the path of hurricanes having their origin in the western Caribbean Sea. The average temperatures are determined largely by altitudes. In the altoplano the altitudes are about 1000 to 2000 meters and average temperatures range from 16° C (60° F) to 20° C (68° F). Mexico City, at an altitude of 2300 meters has an average temperature of about 16° C (60° F). The Techtonics of Mexico The mainland mass of Mexico is on the North American plate. Baja California in on the Pacific plate which is moving north with respect to the North American plate. These plates grind and catch creating the same potential for earthquakes in Baja California as on the San Andras fault in California. But the most serious earthquake threat comes from the Cocos plate being subducted under the North American plate along Mexico's southern Pacific coast. In 1985 there was an 8.1 magnitude (Richter scale) earthquake in the region off the coast from Acapulco. The most severe damage from this earthquake was in Mexico City where about four thousand people were killed. The seismic activity due to the subduction of the Cocos plate is not limited to earthquakes. The enormous forces involved in the subduction melt the stone and some of this lava comes to the surface in a band called the Cordillera Neovolcánica. There have been volcanic eruptions in this region. One volcano, Paricutín, began as a vent in an open corn field and grew to be a 2700 meter peak. There were major eruptions in 1983 (El Chichón) and in 1994 (Colima). Land Tenure and the Communal Farming Movement in Mexico Background on the Problems of Collective Farming In farming the ideal situation for economic efficiency is that when an individual makes a productive effort then that individual should get the full benefit of that productive effort. Anything less than the full benefit discourages the individual from making the justified effort. The collection of taxes or an individual being in a collective may result in discouragement of effort. The distortion can be visualized by considering what would happen in a university class if all students scores on examinations and assignments were added together and each student given the average score. One can imagine how academic performance would suffer. Or, suppose in a restaurant five individuals who do not care for each other decide to share the bill equally. One can imagine how the nature of what is ordered under that arrangement would differ from what is ordered when each individual pays his or her own bill. If individuals are put into a group decision-making unit with people for whom the individuals do not care then there may be a distortion leading to economic inefficiency. For the sake of explanation suppose ten individuals who do not care about one another are put together into a collective farm in which the gains are divided equally. Suppose each individual can produce $10 worth of output in an hour. Under individual farming if an individual works an addition hour that individual gets $10. But in a collective of ten that individual gets only one tenth of $10; i.e., $1. It is essential to note that the cost of the labor effort of the individual in the collective is fully borne by the individual. In a collective, costs may also get distorted. Suppose a tool costs $20 and this is deemed too high for for its benefit. Under individual farming the tool is not purchased. But in a collective of ten the tool may get purchased because the cost is shared among the ten. Thus collectivization greatly distorts the effective prices thereby decreasing productive effort and hence output. On the other hand collectivization results in the excessive spending because the price of inputs is similarly distorted. But people care not only for themselves. They may care for specific other people such as family and friends. In collective farming if the benefit on an individual's effort goes to others who the individual cares about then the discrepancy between benefit and effort is reduced. If among the ten collective members each member is part of a couple then the benefit of an hour's effort is $1+$1=$2. Thus the distortion of the benefit is in a ratio of five to one rather than ten to one. This is less of a distortion but still a distortion. There may be potential economies of scale that the collective could benefit from but the production of the collective is hampered by the discouragement of individual effort. And the nonlabor costs tend to be excessive if individuals have any say in their determination. It is therefore an empirical question as to whether or not the economies of scale offset the discouragement of production and the encouragement of excessive costs. The rule of thumb for collective farming is that the yields are only 50 percent of the yields of private farming. Private farming may not be farming by one individual. Most likely private farming is family farming. Individuals do belong to groups such that the well-being of the other group members is as important as the well-being of the individuals themselves. In modern times in developed economies the nuclear family constitutes such a group. In traditional societies it is the extended family. In ancient times the tribe constituted such a group. It is very natural for such groups to be the very basis of production. Land Tenure in Mexico Agriculture was independently discovered in the New World in among other places in what is now Mexico. This agriculture revolution in Mexico was based upon the corn plant. Social life at the time was tribal; it was very natural that corn cultivation should be tribal. The land was farmed tribally and the control of land was tribal. With the Conquest the land was apportioned feudalistically among the conquistadores. The indigenous population was apportioned with the land to serve as labor on the conquistadores' haciendas. The original meaning of hacienda was not remote estate but production unit for hacer, to make. Under such a system it was obvious that the indigenous population would not have tenure of land. During the nineteenth century, after independence, the distribution of land tenure was one of the two most important political issues. The other major political issue was the role of the Catholic church in Mexican society. The two issues were tied together in as much as the Church was one of the major land holders in Mexico. The Mexican Revolution of 1910-1915 seemingly resolved both of these issues. The Agrarian Reform Act of 1915 and the Constitution o 1917 asserted that all agricultural land is under the control of the government and that private agricultural land in excess of specific sizes should be redistributed. The Ejido Movement Two institutions were created for land redistribution. Ejidos were communally farmed parcels. Villagers acting as a collective could petition the government to be granted parcels of land. The government retained title to the land and so the had only the use of the land, not its ownership. In southern Mexico villagers could petition to establish that their ancestors had farmed a plot of land communal before it was taken to be part of an hacienda. If the government agreed with the petitioners it established a communidad agraria, agrarian community. The communidad agraria is essentially the same as an ejido and the government statistics do not differentiate between the two. Hereafter ejido refers to both ejido and communidad agraria. The ejidos had the option of allowing its members to farm individually parcelas (parcels) and/or farm collectively. The parcelas often were often too small for a family to survive. In 1982 about 30 percent of the ejido members had parcelas. But frequently members had to work for hacienda owners. There were widely different attitudes among the presidents of Mexico toward land redistribution and the . 1958-64 12 million Some presidents avoided land redistribution because of concern for what it would do to agricultural production. Although by the early 1990's there were thirty thousand ejidos and communidades agrarias utilizing about half of the agricultural land of Mexico, the three to four million members of these organizations were some of the poorest farmers in Mexico. The communal farming program of Mexico thus managed to take half the agricultural land of Mexico, devote it supposedly to the welfare of a small fraction of the population and still leave them in poverty. For most their income from their ejidos is a suplemental income. Their main source of income comes from working as laborers for large land owners or as seasonal migrants to the cities of Mexico or the United States. Over the years some ejidos began renting land to other farmers. This very reasonable practice was illegal until 1992. In 1992 the government gave the ejidos greater freedom on how to use their land, coming closer to giving them effective title to their land. It was the title to the land that the poor should have received instead of only the use of the land. They could have then decided whether their farming of the land was the use of it that was in their best interest. (To be continued.)	i don't know
Near which city in Russia did the greatest tank battle of World War II take place in July 1943?	1943: Battle of Kursk Today in WW II: 14 Jan 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt begin the Casablanca conference . Battle of Kursk: 5ï¿½19 July 1943 Battery of Red Army 152mm howitzers preparing to fire during the Battle of Kursk. 3,000 guns and aircraft severely disrupted the German deployment at the outset of Operation Citadel. The German push into Russia had been stopped at the gates of Moscow in the winter of 1941-42 and again at Stalingrad on the Volga a year later. In February 1943, the Battle of Stalingrad ended with over 300,000 German soldiers dead or captured. Soviet forces moved on Kharkov but a German counterattack stopped that Winter Offensive. To bolster morale in Germany and hold his allies in line, Hitler needed a clear cut victory in Russia. To erase the pain of Stalingrad, Hitler decided to order a massive force to regain the initiative against the Red Army. Hitler and his generals looked for a place where a decisive victory could be purchased relatively cheaply. They chose to cut off a 90 mile bulge in the Eastern Front between the cities of Orel and Kharkov that included the small city of Kursk at its pivot, using a gigantic pincer movement. Hitler's key military leaders wanted to stage this offensive (Operation Citadel) in May 1943, but bickering and interference by Hitler delayed it until early July. Months of preparation under the eyes of the Soviet army eliminated any surprise when Operation Citadel launched on 5 July. The Germans failed in their objective to pinch off the Kursk salient and suffered irreplacable losses of men and materiel in the process. Now that both German and Soviet records are available, it is clear that the German plan was based on faulty assumptions. After two years of fighting inside Soviet territory, the Germans assumed that a well-prepared offensive would be able to penetrate the Soviet defense and that superior German tactics, staff work, and weaponry would compensate for greater Soviet numbers. Furthermore, they thought that adverse weather would hamper any Soviet offensive, and that if such an offensive occurred, the mobile German counterattack could halt it. The Germans were badly mistaken. The Soviet army of mid-1943 had evolved far from the Soviet army of 1941. They had learned from their mistakes, more than the Germans had learned about the Reds. The Kursk salient contained Soviet forces that were hardened and ready, strong and complete units that would be difficult to encircle and erase even under the best of circumstances. For the German army of 1943, Operation Citadel was far too ambitious to succeed. The Soviet's plan was much more realistic and actionable. They anticipated the German lines of attack and prepared the battlefield with dense mine fields, trenches, and camouflaged gun positions. An enormous reserve force was assembled with plans to absorb the German attack and exhaust them, then counterattack with overwhelming force when the Germans were weakened and without reserves. The Battle at Kursk Unfolds The Germans massed tanks, guns and tens of thousands of troops on the front. From the north, the Wehrmacht's Ninth Army was poised to move from the south of Orel toward Olkhovatka. In the south, the Fourth Panzer Army would move from east of a line joining Kharkov and Belgorod toward Prokhorovka. At dawn on 5 July German guns opened up a huge bombardment, and masses of German tanks moved into the battle supported by Stuka fighters overhead. Soviet artillery, T-34 tanks and Katyusha rockets answered. German Tigers did well, but the lighter Mark IV and Panthers were decimated. Guns tanks and infantry fought for more than a week in vicious battles of total war. More than 2.2 million men were engaged on both sides, along with 5,000 airplanes and 6,000 armored vehicles. Soviet minefields channeled German tanks into prepared fields of artillery fire. Panzers would make progress in one area but be immediately challanged and attacked by Soviet planes or by infantry with explosives. The Soviet defenses held. Tank Battle at Prokhorovka, 12 July 1943 The greatest tank battle of World War II, unsurpassed until Operation Desert Storm in February 1992, was fought at Prokhorovka during the Battle of Kursk. Approximately 6,000 to 6,500 AFV's were involved, with about one-quarter to one-half actually engaged at any one time (compared to 10,000 AFV's in the Kuwait-Iraq area in 1992.) The Russians are credited with more than half the total, perhaps 2,700 German and 3,500 Russian vehicles. Elements of the 4th Panzer Army, on the southern battlefield, made their final attack in the direction of Prokhorovka but the Soviet forces stopped them short of their objective. Soviet counteroffensives threatened to annihilate the Germans in both the north and south sectors. After the day's action on 12 July, Hitler ordered an end to the German offensive. Aftermath of the Battle of Kursk The Germans suffered tremendous losses at Kursk, their last offensive operation in Soviet territory, including about 30,000 dead and 60,000 wounded. After the German failure, the Russians launched their own Summer Offensive to take the Belgorod-Kharkov area and cross the Dnieper to cut off the German withdrawal, an extensive and decisive campaign along the Orel-Kursk-Belgorod line which extended directly south of Moscow. After fierce battles, the Germans had to abandon Kharkov because of their heavy losses and Russian advances elsewhere on the front. The Soviet offensive that began after Kursk continued westward until the fall of Berlin in 1945. Recommended Book about the 1943 Battle of Kursk The Battle of Kursk, by David M. Glantz and Jonathan M. House Find More Information on the Internet There are many fine websites that have additional information on this topic, too many to list here and too many to keep up with as they come and go. Use this Google web search form to get an up to date report of what's out there. For good results, try entering this: kursk 1943. Then click the Search button.	Kursk
At the battle of Ashdown, in A.D 871, the Danes were defeated by forces under which famous king?	Timeline of events in 1943 during World War 2 Two Russian armies attack the Germans at Kharkov in the Ukraine. 14 Jan The start of the Casablanca Conference. Churchill and Roosevelt agreed to increase American bombing of Germany, and to transfer of British military resources to the Far East once Italy had been defeated. Stalin, not invited, was left out in the cold! The Casablanca Conference The Germans evacuate Tripoli in North Africa. 31 Jan Despite being promoted to the rank of field marshal the previous day, General Paulus surrenders the southern group of the German VI Army at Stalingrad. Hitler is furious that his commander chose surrender over suicide. 8 Feb The Russians retake the city of Kursk 9 Feb After six months of fierce fighting on land, sea and air, Guadacanal is taken by American forces. The campaign ended Japanese expansion plans and perhaps signified the turning point of the war in the Pacific theatre. 13 Feb Orde Wingate along with 3,000 of his Chindits cross the Chindwin River on their march into Burma, taking the fight to the Japanese in an attempt to disrupt their advance into India. Orde Wingate The Germans, led by Manstein, launch a counter-offensive against the Russians. 2 March Germans destroy the Russian 3rd Tank Army. 3 March Manstein masses four Panzer corps south-west of Kharkov to launch another attack on the Russians. 15 March The Germans re-capture Kharkov. 31 March An early spring thaw prevents Manstein from making further gains, but in five weeks he has managed to push the Russians back 100 miles on the south-eastern Russian front 13 April The first news of the Katyn Wood Massacre was broadcast. The Germans had discovered a mass grave of 4,500 Polish soldiers in Russia. 19 April Start of the Warsaw Uprising. 7 May The German army in North Africa surrender to the British and Americans. 5 June Start of Operation Citadel; the German attempt to cut off the Kursk salient (a bulge in the Russian battle-line). 10 July Allied forces invade Sicily in Operation Husky. Six weeks of fierce fighting would drive Axis (Italian and German) forces from the island, opening up the Mediterranean's sea lanes. 12 July One of the greatest tank battle in history takes place at Kursk between the German Fourth Panzer Arms and the Soviet Red Army's 5th Guards Tank Army. Expecting nothing more than a few anti-tank guns, the advancing German forces were suprised to find almost 1,000 tanks blocking their way. 16 July The start of the German withdrawal from Kursk. 17 July Rome receives its first major bombing raid of the war. 24 July The fascist Grand Council agree that military power in Italy should rest with the king, Victor Emmanuel. 25 July Mussolini 28 July A bombing raid on the German industrial port of Hamburg results in a firestorm that kills more than 40,000 people. Almost 40% of Hamburg's factories are destroyed. 3 Aug Italy signals the potential for a peace settlement with the Allies. 6 Aug German troops pour into Italy to stop any chance of a peace settlement that would take Italy out of the war. 22 Aug The Germans begin to withdraw from Kharkov, the Russians enter the city the next day. 3 Sept British and Canadian forces under the command of General Bernard Montgomerry invade mainland Italy in Operation Baytown. 8 Sept The main Allied invasion of Italy is landed at a little town just south of Naples called Salerno. It was soon obvious that tactical suprise had not been achieved when the first wave of US forces ashore were greeted by a loudspeaker announcing in English "Come on in and give up. We have you covered." Undeterred that attack continued. 25 Sept In Russia Smolensk is liberated. 1 Oct	i don't know
What did Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, die of?	Prince Albert's death finally solved 150 years, he was suffering Crohn's disease \| Daily Mail Online comments His sudden death 150 years ago this week propelled his adoring wife, Queen Victoria, into life-long mourning. And until now it had always been thought that Prince Albert’s unexpected passing on December 14, 1861 - at the age of just 42 - had been caused by a virulent bout of typhoid fever. Now an acclaimed historian, who has spent the last three years researching the death of the Prince Consort, believes he actually succumbed to a very modern affliction – Crohn’s Disease. Mystery solved: Historian Helen Rappaport who has uncovered details about the death of Prince Albert Crohn’s is a serious – and sometimes fatal - form of inflammatory bowel disease that today affects one in 500 people. While the exact cause is unknown, the condition is linked to a problem with the body’s immune system response. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share A person’s genes and environmental factors seem to play a role in the development of Crohn’s disease, but it usually occurs in people between ages 15 - 35. Symptoms can come in waves and include debilitating and crampy abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, loss of appetite, chronic diarrhoea, liver inflammation and weight loss. So were the Royal Family simply mistaken about Albert’s death or was there a cover up? According to author Helen Rappaport - who has been given unrivalled access to contemporary records including both Albert and Victoria’s private letters, the Royal Archives and records of the Royal Household – the Queen’s husband had been chronically sick on and off all his adult life and suffered from long-standing gastric problems. Deep bond: Queen Victoria was distraught after Prince Albert's death at the age of 42 This was never verified by doctors after his death, however, as grieving Victoria refused to allow a post-mortem to be carried out on her beloved husband. So Rappaport took her findings, contained in a detailed 14-page medical dossier, to the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford where Dr Chris Conlon, consultant in infectious diseases including typhoid, and Dr Simon Travis, consultant in gastroenterology, examined them in detail. Having looked at the evidence, both doctors dismissed typhoid fever and cancer as possible causes of death and concluded the evidence for Crohn’s looked very strong. They pointed out that there are a number of similarities between the symptoms displayed by those suffering from typhoid fever and Crohn’s disease, including fever and severe abdominal pain, which may have accounted for confusion at the time. QUEEN VICTORIA'S GRIEF Her grief over the loss of her husband, Prince Albert, came to define her entire reign. The extent of Queen Victoria’s despair has been laid bare in a previously unseen letter, in which she expresses the hope that she will go to an early grave. The remarkably candid letter, which has been acquired by London auctioneers Argyll Etkin, is thought to be the first in the public domain in which the Queen yearns for her own death, so she can be reunited with her husband. Victoria wrote the ‘astonishing’ letter in March 1863, some 15 months after Albert’s death, to 82-year-old Viscount Gough. The hospital will be holding a seminar into the issue entitled ‘What Killed Prince Albert?”’ next month. The author then went to a Crohn’s specialist in Belgium, Philippe van Hootegem of the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Leuven. In his written reply, he says: ‘You were able to collect from letters and diaries a lot of details concerning the health problems of the Prince. These data clearly demonstrate the presence of a chronic condition with several years of intermittent episodes of symptoms such as fatigue, abdominal cramps, inability to eat for several days, attacks of diarrhoea etc… leading eventually to a more serious situation of acute illness with rapid deterioration and death at the age of 42. ‘A chronic inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn’s disease could certainly explain a lot of the symptoms, with episodes of intestinal (sub-)obstruction, diarrhoea, also the “rheumatic” joint symptoms … and finally a complication such as a bowel perforation and sepsis leading rather quickly to the lethal outcome. ‘The hypothesis of Prince Albert suffering from Crohn’s disease looks very attractive and seems to be more likely than the “official” cause of death : typhoid fever.’ In the last weeks of his life, Albert suffered from terrible muscular pains and insomnia. A visit to the new Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst in the pouring rain added to his woes, as did highly emotional a meeting at Cambridge two days later with his son, Bertie, the future King Edward V11, over his scandalous affair with a young actress, Nellie Clifden. He returned to Windsor tired, emotional and in enormous pain where doctors made their diagnosis of typhoid fever. He died at 10.50 p.m. on December 14, 1861 in the castle’s Blue Room in the presence of the inconsolable Queen and five of their nine children. Fortunately bowel conditions such as Crohn’s, which were a mystery to earlier science, are treatable today thanks to advances in modern medicine. But Miss Rappaport hopes her new findings, outlined in her book, Magnificent Obsession: Victoria, Albert and the Death that Changed the Monarchy, [must keep in] will add to our knowledge of his ‘highly underrated man’. She said: ‘“Crohn’s disease doesn’t necessarily kill people, but there is a direct correlation between stress and flare-ups. ‘All the anxiety and stress about Bertie and politics seem likely to have caused a major flare-up. ‘Crohn’s disease was a totally unknown condition in the Victorian period, so the doctors had nothing to go on. And of course they were desperate for a diagnosis. ‘What actually killed him though, in the last few days, was what killed so many people at the time, especially when weakened by illness: congestion of the lungs and pneumonia. ‘It’s time this highly underrated man was given the credit he’s due. Prince Albert was King in all but name, and had been for many years before 1861. ‘But ironically, his sudden death was the making of Victoria as a Queen. ‘Although it took her many years, she did recover from his death, went on to lead the nation and Empire and set her seal on a whole generation.’	Typhoid fever
Who was the first monarch of the House of Tudor?	Magnificent Obsession: Victoria, Albert And The Death That Changed The Monarchy \| Daily Mail Online comments Prince Albert was King in all but name and when he died, the nation mourned like never before. Here – drawing on a wealth of contemporary papers, some buried deep in the Royal Archives – the acclaimed historian and expert on the Victorian era, HELEN RAPPAPORT, reveals for the first time the drama of his death, the Queen’s devastating grief, and the ‘lost’ decade that helped define the Royal Family as we know it today... Regal bearing: Emily Blunt and Rupert Friend as Victoria and Albert in the 2009 film The Young Victoria It was the coldest Christmas for 50 years, they said, a bitter winter hard on the heels of a sunless summer. In the final weeks of 1860, country people talked of birds frozen on trees and song thrushes dying in their thousands. The week before, the Royal Family had transferred from Buckingham Palace to their private apartments at Windsor Castle, a medieval fortress that came into its own at this time of year. The silence along its Grand Corridor, muffled by the red carpets and huge damask curtains, was broken by the sound of laughter and children’s voices. Fires blazed with beech logs in the reception rooms – the Queen did not like the smell of coal – and the Royal apartments gave pride of place to a host of Christmas trees imported from Prince Albert’s native Germany. In the Oak Room, where presents were exchanged, large ornamental trees were decorated with little cakes, bonbons, gilt walnuts and gingerbread, the effect completed with coloured ribbons, wax tapers and a frosting of artificial snow and icicles. Outside, the castle rose up like a fairytale citadel in the dazzling white of the surrounding landscape. No matter that the aristocracy disliked Prince Albert and his ‘disdainful’, reserved German manner. Once he had been dismissed as a pauper prince; now he and Victoria, with their nine pretty children, were idolised by the respectable classes as the domestic ideal. At the age of 42, Victoria had enjoyed 20 years of happy marriage. Britain’s Queen adored her husband with a fierce devotion that no one dared criticise and nothing could dim. He was everything to her: surrogate father, best friend and teacher – King in all but name. No one who was at Windsor that year could have failed to be impressed by the conviviality of the British Royal Family at home. But for the Queen, it would prove to be the last truly happy Christmas she would see. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share The detail of the unfolding tragedy to come, the astonishing national response and the depth of the crisis that followed can only be revealed here thanks to neglected and unseen correspondence from the time, much of it in diary form, including Queen Victoria’s moving – and unpublished – private account of her husband’s death. The festivities were approaching once again the following December, 1861, when the Prince Consort found himself labouring with ‘a nasty, feverish sort of influenza and a deranged stomach’, as Victoria described it. Albert’s health had been fragile for years and he succumbed regularly to stomach problems, fevers and chills. The Royal doctors had seemed confident of a recovery, but by Friday, December 13 pneumonia had set in and by the following morning he was gravely ill. Loyal friend: The widowed Queen Victoria with her dog Sharp at Balmoral As the afternoon wore on, he became delirious. At 5.30pm, the Royal Household gathered. By 9pm, a telegram was sent from Windsor to London announcing Albert’s condition was desperate. In the King’s Room the Queen longed for some sign of recognition from her husband. She leant forward and in German, the language she had grown up speaking, whispered in Albert’s ear: ‘Es ist kleines Frauchen’ – It is your little wife – and asked for ‘ein Kuss’ – a kiss – but he could barely raise his head from the pillow. She retired to the anteroom, where she sank to the floor, her hair awry and her face buried in her hands. ‘Why?’ she asked plaintively, ‘Why must I suffer this? It is like tearing the flesh from my bones,’ she sobbed. Within half an hour a rapid change had set in; Prince Albert was now bathed in sweat. The only sound in the King’s Room was the dying Prince’s struggle for breath. Their daughter Princess Alice recognised it: ‘That is the death rattle,’ she whispered. Victoria had heard Albert’s heavy breathing from the next room. ‘I’m afraid this takes away all our hope,’ Alice told her. Upon which, Victoria – as Alice later wrote – ‘started up like a Lioness rushed by every one, and bounded on the bed imploring him to speak and to give one kiss to his little wife’. Even now the doctors were fruitlessly trying to dose him with brandy on a sponge. Distraught, Victoria kissed Albert passionately and clung to him. His breathing became gentle. ‘Oh, this is death,’ she cried out, taking his left hand, which already felt quite cold. ‘I know it. I have seen this before,’ she sobbed as she knelt by his side. He was just 42. It took some persuasion to get her to leave the room; upon which she rushed straight up to the nursery, followed by the children, calling out as she went: ‘Oh! Albert, Albert! Are you gone?’ Midnight struck as the Queen, deranged by grief, still sat in the nursery. According to one of the Queen’s dressers, Annie Macdonald, she was ‘gazing wildly and as hard as a stone’. The following morning there was a terrible tolling of bells. It had begun just after midnight when the great bell of St Paul’s Cathedral had begun sounding a long, slow lament across the wintry streets. Everyone knew what it signified. The Prince Consort was dead. A bulletin issued at 8am by the Mansion House confirmed the news. For most of Britain, the first intimation came with the slow tolling of more bells, many of them muffled, at intervals of half a minute, which rang out as people made their way to Sunday-morning service. The dark arts: Prince Albert's death in 1861 sparked a booming trade for jet jewellery, made in workshops such as this one in Whitby, North Yorkshire Across London the blinds of private houses were drawn, the brass plates on doors surrounded with black, and mirrors and lamps indoors also covered. Omnibus drivers tied scraps of crape, a matt gauze of silk and cotton tightly crimped like the crepe paper named after it, to their whips; in the countryside even beehives were draped in the fabric, as part of the age-old superstition of telling bees of a death. The nation mourned as it had never mourned before. Many tradesmen either entirely or partially closed their businesses. London was like a city struck by the plague. At Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, where she had retreated, the Queen was beyond consolation. The Royal Household was adrift, affairs of state abandoned. Since birth, she had relied on others. She had never acted alone until the first months of her reign, after which she had quickly accepted the guidance of her Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne. Then Albert had come along and, as the children arrived, assumed many responsibilities of state. With Albert gone, Victoria’s courtiers and Ministers feared a catastrophe; there was no one to replace him in the day-to-day work of running the Monarchy. And the true extent of the Queen’s unquenchable mourning was only just beginning to make itself known. ‘They cannot tell what I have lost,’ she kept insisting. She was obsessed with one thought: to die, to ‘join what was the sunshine of her existence, the light of her life’. Obsessive love: Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, left, pictured in 1854 re-enacting their wedding ‘There is no one to call me Victoria now,’ she had wept, though the version she used with her German-speaking relatives was more wrenching: ‘I have no one now in the world to call me “du” [the friendly, intimate form of you].’ It was at night that she missed Albert’s presence most. She was still young and her ardour had been overwhelming. ‘What a dreadful going to bed!’ she wrote. ‘What a contrast to that tender lover’s love. All alone!’ She envied her eldest daughter Vicky, who had a husband ‘on whose bosom you can pillow your head when all seems dark’. Shortly before New Year, she gave instructions that the public mourning for the Prince Consort should be ‘for the longest term in modern times’; members of the Royal Household would not appear in public out of mourning for a year. The year 1862 was a very good one for Jay’s London General Mourning Warehouse in Oxford Circus. Thanks to the unprecedented demand for its ‘Noir Impériale’ black silks and its best patent crape, Jay’s was forced to enlarge its premises. Although general mourning had officially ended on February 10, there was no let-up in what had become an ‘almost incalculable demand’ for mourning goods. Drapers, haberdashers, milliners and tailors filled their shops with black. British manufacturing went into mass production of commemorative items: plaques and busts, plates, handkerchiefs, pot lids, jugs, bookmarks, even special mourning tea sets. HE NEEDS GERMANISING When Prince Albert died aged just 42 the public and the medical profession were shocked. But officials blocked the release of any details about his death. The Royal doctors were not certain of their diagnosis and the Queen refused to allow a post-mortem. So began 150 years of acceptance that typhoid had killed Albert. However, in 1993 an obscure article in a medical journal suggested the Prince may have suffered from Crohn’s disease, a gastric condition. Albert’s worry over his wayward son Bertie might have provoked a flare-up leading to septicaemia and finally pneumonia, which killed him. Photographic dealers did a roaring trade in images of the late Prince Consort. Victoria had stated that ‘The Queen intends to wear her weeds (if she lives) at least till the beginning of 1864’ and such was the level of public sympathy for her that many of the middle classes decided to follow suit. Victoria soon determined she would remain in mourning for the rest of her life. The Victorian textile manufacturers were in overdrive, offering a vast range of fabrics. There was a huge demand, too, for the dye to make them black. As the trade in jet mourning jewellery expanded, so did the fortunes of a small fishing village, formerly a whaling port. Layers of shale around Whitby had long been a rich source of fossils and petrified wood, of which jet had been the most prized. Much of this jet was washed up on the beach, and, as demand escalated, it was also mined inland on the North Yorkshire Moors. Jet jewellery manufacture rapidly extended to cover every aspect of Victorian mourning, including beading for bodices, hair combs and headdresses, as well as jet birds, insects and clasps for hats and bonnets. The business of government was increasingly under threat; Victoria refused to discuss matters of state with her Ministers, let alone perform her full constitutional duties. She increasingly spent time at her favourite homes: Balmoral in Scotland and Osborne on the Isle of Wight. Buckingham Palace was deserted. She was also creating diplomatic problems. Victoria flatly refused to entertain visiting royalty. The King of Sweden was obliged to stay at the Swedish legation on a visit to London. When Prince Humbert of Italy visited Windsor, he had to be entertained with a modest lunch at the White Hart Inn rather than at the castle. As time went on, the case for the Queen’s seclusion was becoming hard to argue; she looked well. Yet any disruption to her routine was a provocation and when a favourite lady-in-waiting decided to marry, she was beside herself with rage. Such had been the rising levels of Victoria’s perceived tetchiness that by the end of 1864, her doctors suggested a new form of therapy: pony rides. It was recommended that Victoria’s Scottish ghillie, John Brown – indefatigable in his care of her – should be brought down from Balmoral with her favourite pony, Lochnagar, for the winter. A strong and protective male was needed who would look after Victoria as Albert had done. This role now fell to the blond-haired, blue-eyed Brown, who after his arrival at Windsor slowly began to break down the Queen’s incapacitating grief. His therapeutic effect was a simple one: like Albert, he brooked no nonsense, spoke his mind and treated her with a kind of male machismo she admired. Grief: Queen Victoria mourned the death of Bertie until her own death in 1901 Meanwhile, public sympathy was on the wane. Practical jokers tied placards to the gateposts at Buckingham Palace announcing: ‘These commanding premises to be let or sold, in consequence of the late occupant’s declining business.’ The British people had been patient for three years, but now the Queen was needed and missed. As spring turned to summer, rumours continued to circulate: the Queen was ill, or mad; she would never live in London again, and – according to French newspapers – was about to abdicate. Victoria was mortified, but she did not want to look or feel better and was convinced that she ate nothing and never slept. She even hoped that her hair would turn a suitable grey. Victoria had very good reason not to wish to recover, for when this happened she would be expected to take up her ceremonial responsibilities as Monarch – a thing she dreaded. Her refusal to re-enter public life was throwing the Monarchy into crisis; republican sentiment was mounting. Victoria had been hissed and booed en route to the State Opening of Parliament in 1867. She saw at last the ugly faces of anger in the crowd. Yet still she failed to connect it with her own behaviour. She remained oblivious to the everyday realities of hunger, poverty and political unrest (while lauding the homely Scots as being infinitely superior to the English). Trade unionists and socialist-minded politicians began to call for the Queen to be deposed. Republican clubs were springing up in major cities across the country. By the late summer of 1871, even the Queen’s children were alarmed that their mother was prejudicing the future of the throne and composed a letter assuring her ‘that some danger is in the air, that something must be done . . . to avert a frightful calamity’. A RIDDLE FOR 150 YEARS When Prince Albert died aged just 42 the public and the medical profession were shocked. But officials blocked the release of any details about his death. The Royal doctors were not certain of their diagnosis and the Queen refused to allow a post-mortem. So began 150 years of acceptance that typhoid killed Albert. However, in 1933 an obscure article in a medical journal suggested the Prince may have suffered from Crohn's disease, a gastric condition. Albert's worry over his wayward son Bertie might have provoked a flare-up leading to septicaemia and finally pneumoni, which killed him. Grave illness once again proved a turning point, this time the near-death of her eldest son Bertie (later Edward VII) from typhoid fever. He survived, and by February 1872 was well enough to attend a Service of National Thanksgiving in his honour at St Paul’s Cathedral that would prove a celebration of nationhood and Monarchy. Victoria and Bertie – still very weak and haggard and walking with a limp (the result of a severe attack of gout) – traversed streets festooned with flags and bunting. And they were received with huge acclaim. The best vantage points were sold at a premium, from ten shillings to 40 guineas for a balcony view on Fleet Street. Many who climbed trees in St James’s Park for a better view ended up in hospital with broken limbs, as did others who fell from windows and scaffolding. Afterwards, gratified by ‘a most affecting day’, the Queen appeared on the balcony at Buckingham Palace to loud cheers. It was from this point on, more than a decade since the death of her husband, that the Queen finally began to re-emerge. True, she continued to avoid Buckingham Palace at all costs. But now she understood how crucial her public popularity was. The lost years had seen a hardening of her (mistaken) image as the dour, prudish, humourless and repressive Widow at Windsor. But out of so much darkness there finally emerged a Monarch with great virtues – lack of vanity, human sympathy, absolute honesty and sound common sense. The true Victorian age – of pageantry, pride and empire – was still to come. The Monarchy retained the affection of the middle classes, who could relate to the Queen’s motherliness. And through her, they felt related in some degree to something that was socially great – their very own Royal Family. © Helen Rappaport 2011. Magnificent Obsession: Victoria, Albert And The Death That Changed The Monarchy by Helen Rappaport is published on Thursday by Hutchinson, priced £20. To order your copy at the special price of £16.99 with free p&p, please call the Review Bookstore on 0843 382 1111 or visit www.MailLife.co.uk/Books. The stress of that 'stupid boy' and naughty Nellie 'Poor Bertie': Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Ever a martyr to self-induced stress, Albert was consumed with anxiety about his eldest son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. ‘Poor Bertie’, as his mother referred to him. He was a ‘stupid boy’ whose attention could not be fixed on anything useful, ‘even at a novel’. In 1861, aged 21, Bertie, then finishing a training course with the Grenadier Guards, had attended a party at the Mansion House in Dublin. His fellow officers arranged a farewell present for the Prince, smuggling a ‘woman of the town’, Nellie Clifden, into his quarters. He ensured her surreptitious exit via the window of his hut and arranged further assignations back in England – right under his parents’ noses at Windsor. The gossips were quick to dub Nellie ‘The Princess of Wales’, for she bragged about her conquest. The scandal soon hit the London clubs and appeared in the papers on the Continent. Bertie’s parents were deeply shocked. His puritanical father’s stress levels went haywire: Victoria would ever blame her son for the devastating effect on Albert’s health. The episode had awakened Albert’s innermost fears of a return to the profligate habits of the British Royalty. This led to his suffering insomnia and nerve-related pain. On the morning of November 25, Albert managed to take a special train to Cambridge, where Bertie was studying, for a man-to-man talk. Bertie had seemed oblivious to his father’s ill health, and his poor sense of direction had got them lost during their walk. When Albert returned to Windsor the following day, he was racked with pain. Three weeks later he was dead.	i don't know
Who crowned Napoleon as Emperor?	Napoleon Bonaparte - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com Google Napoleon’s Education and Early Military Career Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. He was the second of eight surviving children born to Carlo Buonaparte (1746-1785), a lawyer, and Letizia Romalino Buonaparte (1750-1836). Although his parents were members of the minor Corsican nobility, the family was not wealthy. The year before Napoleon’s birth, France acquired Corsica from the city-state of Genoa, Italy. Napoleon later adopted a French spelling of his last name. Did You Know? In 1799, during Napoleon’s military campaign in Egypt, a French soldier named Pierre Francois Bouchard (1772-1832) discovered the Rosetta Stone. This artifact provided the key to cracking the code of Egyptian hieroglyphics, a written language that had been dead for almost 2,000 years. As a boy, Napoleon attended school in mainland France, where he learned the French language, and went on to graduate from a French military academy in 1785. He then became a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment of the French army. The French Revolution began in 1789, and within three years revolutionaries had overthrown the monarchy and proclaimed a French republic. During the early years of the revolution, Napoleon was largely on leave from the military and home in Corsica, where he became affiliated with the Jacobins, a pro-democracy political group. In 1793, following a clash with the nationalist Corsican governor, Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807), the Bonaparte family fled their native island for mainland France, where Napoleon returned to military duty. In France, Napoleon became associated with Augustin Robespierre (1763-1794), the brother of revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), a Jacobin who was a key force behind the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a period of violence against enemies of the revolution. During this time, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the army. However, after Robespierre fell from power and was guillotined (along with Augustin) in July 1794, Napoleon was briefly put under house arrest for his ties to the brothers. In 1795, Napoleon helped suppress a royalist insurrection against the revolutionary government in Paris and was promoted to major general. Napoleon’s Rise to Power Since 1792, France’s revolutionary government had been engaged in military conflicts with various European nations. In 1796, Napoleon commanded a French army that defeated the larger armies of Austria, one of his country’s primary rivals, in a series of battles in Italy. In 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the French. The following year, the Directory, the five-person group that had governed France since 1795, offered to let Napoleon lead an invasion of England. Napoleon determined that France’s naval forces were not yet ready to go up against the superior British Royal Navy. Instead, he proposed an invasion of Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade routes with India. Napoleon’s troops scored a victory against Egypt’s military rulers, the Mamluks, at the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798; soon, however, his forces were stranded after his naval fleet was nearly decimated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798. In early 1799, Napoleon’s army launched an invasion of Ottoman-ruled Syria, which ended with the failed siege of Acre, located in modern-day Israel. That summer, with the political situation in France marked by uncertainty, the ever-ambitious and cunning Napoleon opted to abandon his army in Egypt and return to France. The Coup of 18 Brumaire In November 1799, in an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon was part of a group that successfully overthrew the French Directory. The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial enemies, the Austrians, and drove them out of Italy. The victory helped cement Napoleon’s power as first consul. Additionally, with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, the war-weary British agreed to peace with the French (although the peace would only last for a year). Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. He centralized the government; instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education; supported science and the arts; and sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution. One of his most significant accomplishments was the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined the French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day. In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first consul for life. Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Napoleon’s Marriages and Children In 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814), a stylish widow six years his senior who had two teenage children. More than a decade later, in 1809, after Napoleon had no offspring of his own with Josephine, he had their marriage annulled so he could find a new wife and produce an heir. In 1810, he wed Marie Louise (1791-1847), the daughter of the emperor of Austria. The following year, she gave birth to their son, Napoleon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811-1832), who became known as Napoleon II and was given the title king of Rome. In addition to his son with Marie Louise, Napoleon had several illegitimate children. The Reign of Napoleon I From 1803 to 1815, France was engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, a series of major conflicts with various coalitions of European nations. In 1803, partly as a means to raise funds for future wars, Napoleon sold France’s Louisiana Territory in North America to the newly independent United States for $15 million, a transaction that later became known as the Louisiana Purchase . In October 1805, the British wiped out Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar . However, in December of that same year, Napoleon achieved what is considered to be one of his greatest victories at the Battle of Austerlitz, in which his army defeated the Austrians and Russians. The victory resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Beginning in 1806, Napoleon sought to wage large-scale economic warfare against Britain with the establishment of the so-called Continental System of European port blockades against British trade. In 1807, following Napoleon’s defeat of the Russians at Friedland in Prussia, Alexander I (1777-1825) was forced to sign a peace settlement, the Treaty of Tilsit. In 1809, the French defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram, resulting in further gains for Napoleon. During these years, Napoleon reestablished a French aristocracy (eliminated in the French Revolution) and began handing out titles of nobility to his loyal friends and family as his empire continued to expand across much of western and central continental Europe. Napoleon’s Downfall and First Abdication In 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System. In retaliation, Napoleon led a massive army into Russia in the summer of 1812. Rather than engaging the French in a full-scale battle, the Russians adopted a strategy of retreating whenever Napoleon’s forces attempted to attack. As a result, Napoleon’s troops trekked deeper into Russia despite being ill-prepared for an extended campaign. In September, both sides suffered heavy casualties in the indecisive Battle of Borodino. Napoleon’s forces marched on to Moscow, only to discover almost the entire population evacuated. Retreating Russians set fires across the city in an effort to deprive enemy troops of supplies. After waiting a month for a surrender that never came, Napoleon, faced with the onset of the Russian winter, was forced to order his starving, exhausted army out of Moscow. During the disastrous retreat, his army suffered continual harassment from a suddenly aggressive and merciless Russian army. Of Napoleon’s 600,000 troops who began the campaign, only an estimated 100,000 made it out of Russia. At the same time as the catastrophic Russian invasion, French forces were engaged in the Peninsular War (1808-1814), which resulted in the Spanish and Portuguese, with assistance from the British, driving the French from the Iberian Peninsula. This loss was followed in 1813 by the Battle of Leipzig , also known as the Battle of Nations, in which Napoleon’s forces were defeated by a coalition that included Austrian, Prussian, Russian and Swedish troops. Napoleon then retreated to France, and in March 1814 coalition forces captured Paris. On April 6, 1814, Napoleon, then in his mid-40s, was forced to abdicate the throne. With the Treaty of Fontainebleau, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria. Hundred Days Campaign and Battle of Waterloo On February 26, 1815, after less than a year in exile, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to the French mainland with a group of more than 1,000 supporters. On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds. The new king, Louis XVIII (1755-1824), fled, and Napoleon began what came to be known as his Hundred Days campaign. Upon Napoleon’s return to France, a coalition of allies–the Austrians, British, Prussians and Russians–who considered the French emperor an enemy began to prepare for war. Napoleon raised a new army and planned to strike preemptively, defeating the allied forces one by one before they could launch a united attack against him. In June 1815, his forces invaded Belgium, where British and Prussian troops were stationed. On June 16, Napoleon’s troops defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny. However, two days later, on June 18, at the Battle of Waterloo near Brussels, the French were crushed by the British, with assistance from the Prussians. On June 22, 1815, Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate. Napoleon’s Final Years In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to the remote, British-held island of Saint Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. He died there on May 5, 1821, at age 51, most likely from stomach cancer. (During his time in power, Napoleon often posed for paintings with his hand in his vest, leading to some speculation after his death that he had been plagued by stomach pain for years.) Napoleon was buried on the island despite his request to be laid to rest “on the banks of the Seine, among the French people I have loved so much.” In 1840, his remains were returned to France and entombed in a crypt at Les Invalides in Paris, where other French military leaders are interred. Tags	he crowned himself
Which World War II General was nicknamed The Desert Fox?	Napoleon Bonaparte - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com Google Napoleon’s Education and Early Military Career Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. He was the second of eight surviving children born to Carlo Buonaparte (1746-1785), a lawyer, and Letizia Romalino Buonaparte (1750-1836). Although his parents were members of the minor Corsican nobility, the family was not wealthy. The year before Napoleon’s birth, France acquired Corsica from the city-state of Genoa, Italy. Napoleon later adopted a French spelling of his last name. Did You Know? In 1799, during Napoleon’s military campaign in Egypt, a French soldier named Pierre Francois Bouchard (1772-1832) discovered the Rosetta Stone. This artifact provided the key to cracking the code of Egyptian hieroglyphics, a written language that had been dead for almost 2,000 years. As a boy, Napoleon attended school in mainland France, where he learned the French language, and went on to graduate from a French military academy in 1785. He then became a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment of the French army. The French Revolution began in 1789, and within three years revolutionaries had overthrown the monarchy and proclaimed a French republic. During the early years of the revolution, Napoleon was largely on leave from the military and home in Corsica, where he became affiliated with the Jacobins, a pro-democracy political group. In 1793, following a clash with the nationalist Corsican governor, Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807), the Bonaparte family fled their native island for mainland France, where Napoleon returned to military duty. In France, Napoleon became associated with Augustin Robespierre (1763-1794), the brother of revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), a Jacobin who was a key force behind the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a period of violence against enemies of the revolution. During this time, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the army. However, after Robespierre fell from power and was guillotined (along with Augustin) in July 1794, Napoleon was briefly put under house arrest for his ties to the brothers. In 1795, Napoleon helped suppress a royalist insurrection against the revolutionary government in Paris and was promoted to major general. Napoleon’s Rise to Power Since 1792, France’s revolutionary government had been engaged in military conflicts with various European nations. In 1796, Napoleon commanded a French army that defeated the larger armies of Austria, one of his country’s primary rivals, in a series of battles in Italy. In 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the French. The following year, the Directory, the five-person group that had governed France since 1795, offered to let Napoleon lead an invasion of England. Napoleon determined that France’s naval forces were not yet ready to go up against the superior British Royal Navy. Instead, he proposed an invasion of Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade routes with India. Napoleon’s troops scored a victory against Egypt’s military rulers, the Mamluks, at the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798; soon, however, his forces were stranded after his naval fleet was nearly decimated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798. In early 1799, Napoleon’s army launched an invasion of Ottoman-ruled Syria, which ended with the failed siege of Acre, located in modern-day Israel. That summer, with the political situation in France marked by uncertainty, the ever-ambitious and cunning Napoleon opted to abandon his army in Egypt and return to France. The Coup of 18 Brumaire In November 1799, in an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon was part of a group that successfully overthrew the French Directory. The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial enemies, the Austrians, and drove them out of Italy. The victory helped cement Napoleon’s power as first consul. Additionally, with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, the war-weary British agreed to peace with the French (although the peace would only last for a year). Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. He centralized the government; instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education; supported science and the arts; and sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution. One of his most significant accomplishments was the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined the French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day. In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first consul for life. Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Napoleon’s Marriages and Children In 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814), a stylish widow six years his senior who had two teenage children. More than a decade later, in 1809, after Napoleon had no offspring of his own with Josephine, he had their marriage annulled so he could find a new wife and produce an heir. In 1810, he wed Marie Louise (1791-1847), the daughter of the emperor of Austria. The following year, she gave birth to their son, Napoleon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811-1832), who became known as Napoleon II and was given the title king of Rome. In addition to his son with Marie Louise, Napoleon had several illegitimate children. The Reign of Napoleon I From 1803 to 1815, France was engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, a series of major conflicts with various coalitions of European nations. In 1803, partly as a means to raise funds for future wars, Napoleon sold France’s Louisiana Territory in North America to the newly independent United States for $15 million, a transaction that later became known as the Louisiana Purchase . In October 1805, the British wiped out Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar . However, in December of that same year, Napoleon achieved what is considered to be one of his greatest victories at the Battle of Austerlitz, in which his army defeated the Austrians and Russians. The victory resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Beginning in 1806, Napoleon sought to wage large-scale economic warfare against Britain with the establishment of the so-called Continental System of European port blockades against British trade. In 1807, following Napoleon’s defeat of the Russians at Friedland in Prussia, Alexander I (1777-1825) was forced to sign a peace settlement, the Treaty of Tilsit. In 1809, the French defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram, resulting in further gains for Napoleon. During these years, Napoleon reestablished a French aristocracy (eliminated in the French Revolution) and began handing out titles of nobility to his loyal friends and family as his empire continued to expand across much of western and central continental Europe. Napoleon’s Downfall and First Abdication In 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System. In retaliation, Napoleon led a massive army into Russia in the summer of 1812. Rather than engaging the French in a full-scale battle, the Russians adopted a strategy of retreating whenever Napoleon’s forces attempted to attack. As a result, Napoleon’s troops trekked deeper into Russia despite being ill-prepared for an extended campaign. In September, both sides suffered heavy casualties in the indecisive Battle of Borodino. Napoleon’s forces marched on to Moscow, only to discover almost the entire population evacuated. Retreating Russians set fires across the city in an effort to deprive enemy troops of supplies. After waiting a month for a surrender that never came, Napoleon, faced with the onset of the Russian winter, was forced to order his starving, exhausted army out of Moscow. During the disastrous retreat, his army suffered continual harassment from a suddenly aggressive and merciless Russian army. Of Napoleon’s 600,000 troops who began the campaign, only an estimated 100,000 made it out of Russia. At the same time as the catastrophic Russian invasion, French forces were engaged in the Peninsular War (1808-1814), which resulted in the Spanish and Portuguese, with assistance from the British, driving the French from the Iberian Peninsula. This loss was followed in 1813 by the Battle of Leipzig , also known as the Battle of Nations, in which Napoleon’s forces were defeated by a coalition that included Austrian, Prussian, Russian and Swedish troops. Napoleon then retreated to France, and in March 1814 coalition forces captured Paris. On April 6, 1814, Napoleon, then in his mid-40s, was forced to abdicate the throne. With the Treaty of Fontainebleau, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria. Hundred Days Campaign and Battle of Waterloo On February 26, 1815, after less than a year in exile, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to the French mainland with a group of more than 1,000 supporters. On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds. The new king, Louis XVIII (1755-1824), fled, and Napoleon began what came to be known as his Hundred Days campaign. Upon Napoleon’s return to France, a coalition of allies–the Austrians, British, Prussians and Russians–who considered the French emperor an enemy began to prepare for war. Napoleon raised a new army and planned to strike preemptively, defeating the allied forces one by one before they could launch a united attack against him. In June 1815, his forces invaded Belgium, where British and Prussian troops were stationed. On June 16, Napoleon’s troops defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny. However, two days later, on June 18, at the Battle of Waterloo near Brussels, the French were crushed by the British, with assistance from the Prussians. On June 22, 1815, Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate. Napoleon’s Final Years In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to the remote, British-held island of Saint Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. He died there on May 5, 1821, at age 51, most likely from stomach cancer. (During his time in power, Napoleon often posed for paintings with his hand in his vest, leading to some speculation after his death that he had been plagued by stomach pain for years.) Napoleon was buried on the island despite his request to be laid to rest “on the banks of the Seine, among the French people I have loved so much.” In 1840, his remains were returned to France and entombed in a crypt at Les Invalides in Paris, where other French military leaders are interred. Tags	i don't know
Which military battle saw eleven Victoria Crosses awarded, the most for any single action?	Rorke's Drift, 1879 - The highest number of Victoria Crosses awarded in a single action You have visited rorkesdriftvc.com times. This action was at Rorke's Drift, Wednesday 22- Thursday 23 January, 1879, when some 150 soldiers defended a supply station against some 4000 Zulus, aided by the Martini-Henry rifle 'with some guts behind it'. Since the Victoria Cross was instigated by Queen Victoria in 1856, only 1358 have been awarded (the double awards for Arthur Martin-Leake , Charles Hazlitt Upham and Noel Godfrey Chavasse are included in the total). UPDATE: RDVC.com supports the forces charity Help for Heroes - you can donate online here: more details : At Rorke's Drift , eleven Victoria Crosses were awarded. Seven to the 2nd Battalion, 24th (2nd Warwickshire) Regiment of Foot, one to the Army Medical Department, one to the Royal Engineers, one to the Commissariat and Transport Department and one to the Natal Native Contingent. (click here to find out more...) There may possibly have been more VC's awarded but the posthumous VC was only started in 1905, among the first recipients in 1907 were Lts Melvill and Coghill who were killed whilst saving the colours from Isandhlwana on the 22nd. of January. One other VC winner on the 22nd. of January was a Private Samuel Wassall from Birmingham. He rescued a comrade who was drowning in the Buffalo River during the retreat from Isandhlwana. He went on to live until he was 70. He is buried in The Barrow-in-Furness cemetery, section 3.B. plot 1952. There was another VC winner who died at Isandhlwana. He was Private William Griffiths, born in Ireland. He won his VC in 1867 at Little Andaman Island. His grave is unmarked on the battlefield at Isandhlwana. The action at Rorke's Drift is well covered by the numerous publications and web sites which are devoted to the subject as well as the details of the lives of the VC recipients and their action in the defence. These are well worth exploring for the information which they give, and there is an extensive list of links available. My only aim, as an amateur enthusiast, is to offer the chance to bring tangible reality to those who have an interest in the subject. To visit the graves of the VC recipients allows one to make some contact with the participants of this historic event. My interest with the individuals involved led me to visit the graves of all the VC winners of Rorke's Drift who are buried in this country, as well as the grave of Dalton in South Africa whilst on our visit to Rorke's Drift . You will also see that there are sections for other interesting aspects of the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, as it is very difficult to remain specialised! My next project is to visit the grave of Bromhead in Allahabad, in India. One, (Cpl. Schiess NNC) , was buried at sea off the coast of Angola. The links on the left form as accurate a guide as I can give to anyone who is interested in visiting the graves of the VC Defenders of Rorke's Drift, along with information about the events leading up to the "immortal defence".	Battle of Rorke's Drift
Who was the English King at the Battle of Agincourt?	Scenario Design Center \| Spotlights \| The Drift 1879: The Battle of Rorke's Drift The Drift Title Info -22 January 1879, along the Buffalo River, Natal- The Drift 1879 models the epic Battle of Rorke's Drift pitting some 140 British soldiers defending an isolated outpost against the onslaught of several thousand Zulu Warriors. Immortalized in the critically acclaimed 1964 film ZULU, the British defense of Rorke's Drift has become the best-known battle of the British Colonial Wars. Under the command of Lieutenant John Chard of the Royal Engineers, the Battle of Rorke's Drift immediately followed the British Army's staggering defeat at the hands of the Zulu at Isandlwana earlier in the day. The defense of Rorke's Drift stands out as one of the most courageous actions in military history. With eleven Victoria Crosses awarded, its legend remains part of British military heritage to this day. 3/30 yards per hex 5 minutes per turn Human players can command either side: the British garrison at Rorke's Drift or the waves of deadly Zulu warriors. The historical default option covers the action as it historically occurred. In addition, players have the ability to create any number of custom "what-if" scenarios by adjusting game values including: Zulu force size, allocation, and command capacity British reinforcement (Stephenson's Native Natal Contingent, Rainforth's Company G) Morale/resolve base levels and breaking points Arms type and munition level and quality Fog of war	i don't know
Who were allied with the French Naval forces during The Battle of Trafalgar?	Battle of Trafalgar \| Military Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) was a naval engagement fought by the Royal Navy against the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies , during the War of the Third Coalition (August–December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). The battle was the most decisive naval victory of the war. Twenty-seven British ships of the line led by Admiral Lord Nelson aboard HMS Victory defeated thirty-three French and Spanish ships of the line under French Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve off the southwest coast of Spain, just west of Cape Trafalgar. The Franco-Spanish fleet lost twenty-two ships, without a single British vessel being lost. The British victory spectacularly confirmed the naval supremacy that Britain had established during the previous century and was achieved in part through Nelson's departure from the prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy , which involved engaging an enemy fleet in a single line of battle parallel to the enemy to facilitate signalling in battle and disengagement, and to maximise fields of fire and target areas. Nelson instead divided his smaller force into two columns directed perpendicularly against the larger enemy fleet, with decisive results. Nelson was mortally wounded during the battle, becoming one of Britain's greatest war heroes. The commander of the joint French and Spanish forces, Admiral Villeneuve, was captured along with his ship Bucentaure . Spanish Admiral Federico Gravina escaped with the remnant of the fleet and succumbed months later to wounds sustained during the battle. Contents Main article: Trafalgar Campaign In 1805, the First French Empire , under Napoleon Bonaparte , was the dominant military land power on the European continent, while the Royal Navy controlled the seas. During the course of the war, the British imposed a naval blockade on France, which affected trade and kept the French from fully mobilising their own naval resources. Despite several successful evasions of the blockade by the French navy, it failed to inflict a major defeat upon the British. They were able to attack French interests at home and abroad with relative ease. When the Third Coalition declared war on France, after the short-lived Peace of Amiens , Napoleon was determined to invade Britain. To do so, he needed to ensure that the Royal Navy would be unable to disrupt the invasion flotilla , which would require control of the English Channel. The main French fleets were at Brest in Brittany and at Toulon on the Mediterranean coast. Other ports on the French Atlantic coast harboured smaller squadrons . France and Spain were allied, so the Spanish fleet based in Cádiz and Ferrol was also available. The British possessed an experienced and well-trained corps of naval officers. [3] By contrast, most of the best officers in the French navy had either been executed or dismissed from the service during the early part of the French Revolution . As a result, Vice-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve was the most competent senior officer available to command Napoleon's Mediterranean fleet. However, Villeneuve had shown a distinct lack of enthusiasm for facing Nelson and the Royal Navy after the French defeat at the Battle of the Nile in 1798. Napoleon's naval plan in 1805 was for the French and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and Cádiz to break through the blockade and join forces in the Caribbean. They would then return, assist the fleet in Brest to emerge from the blockade, and together clear the English Channel of Royal Navy ships, ensuring a safe passage for the invasion barges. The Caribbean Edit Early in 1805, Admiral Lord Nelson commanded the British fleet blockading Toulon. Unlike William Cornwallis , who maintained a tight grip off Brest with the Channel Fleet, Nelson adopted a loose blockade in the hope of luring the French out for a major battle. However, Villeneuve's fleet successfully evaded Nelson's when the British were blown off station by storms. While Nelson was searching the Mediterranean for him, erroneously supposing that Villeneuve intended to make for Egypt , Villeneuve passed through the Strait of Gibraltar, rendezvoused with the Spanish fleet, and sailed as planned for the Caribbean. Once Nelson realised that the French had crossed the Atlantic Ocean, he set off in pursuit. [4] Cádiz Edit Villeneuve returned from the Caribbean to Europe, intending to break the blockade at Brest, but after two of his Spanish ships were captured during the Battle of Cape Finisterre by a squadron under Vice-Admiral Sir Robert Calder , Villeneuve abandoned this plan and sailed back to Ferrol . There he received orders from Napoleon to return to Brest according to the main plan. Napoleon's invasion plans for Britain depended entirely on having a sufficiently large number of ships-of-the-line before Boulogne in France. This would require Villeneuve's force of 33 ships to join Vice-Admiral Ganteaume 's force of 21 ships at Brest, along with a squadron of five ships under Captain Allemand, which would have given him a combined force of 59 ships-of-the-line. When Villeneuve set sail from Ferrol on 10 August, he was under orders from Napoleon to sail northward toward Brest. Instead, he worried that the British were observing his manoeuvres, so on 11 August he sailed southward towards Cádiz on the southwestern coast of Spain. With no sign of Villeneuve's fleet by 26 August, the three French army corps' invasion force near Boulogne broke camp and marched into Germany, where it was later engaged. The same month, Nelson returned home to Britain after two years of duty at sea, for some rest. He remained ashore for 25 days, and was warmly received by his countrymen, who were nervous about a possible French invasion. Word reached Britain on 2 September about the combined French and Spanish fleet in Cádiz harbour. Nelson had to wait until 15 September before his ship, HMS Victory , was ready to sail. On 15 August, Cornwallis decided to detach 20 ships-of-the-line from the fleet guarding the English Channel and to have them sail southward to engage the enemy forces in Spain. This left the Channel drastically reduced of large vessels, with only 11 ships-of-the-line present. Nevertheless, this detached force formed the nucleus of the British fleet that would fight at Trafalgar. This fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Calder, reached Cádiz on 15 September. Nelson joined the fleet on 29 September to take command. The British fleet used frigates (faster, but too fragile for the line of battle), to keep a constant watch on the harbour, while the main force remained out of sight 50 miles (80 km) west of the shore. Nelson's hope was to lure the combined Franco-Spanish force out and engage them in a "pell-mell battle". The force watching the harbour was led by Captain Blackwood, commanding HMS Euryalus . He was brought up to a strength of seven ships (five frigates and two schooners) on 8 October. Battle of Trafalgar By William Lionel Wyllie , Juno Tower, CFB Halifax , Nova Scotia, Canada Supply situation Edit At this point, Nelson's fleet badly needed provisioning. On 2 October, five ships-of-the-line, HMS Queen , Canopus , Spencer , Zealous , Tigre , and the frigate HMS Endymion were dispatched to Gibraltar under Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Louis for supplies. These ships were later diverted for convoy duty in the Mediterranean, although Nelson had expected them to return. Other British ships continued to arrive, and by 15 October the fleet was up to full strength for the battle. Nelson also lost Calder's flagship , the 98-gun Prince of Wales , which he sent home as Calder had been recalled by the Admiralty to face a court martial for his apparent lack of aggression during the engagement off Cape Finisterre on 22 July. Meanwhile, Villeneuve's fleet in Cádiz was also suffering from a serious supply shortage that could not be easily rectified by the impecunious French. The blockade maintained by the British fleet had made it difficult for the Franco-Spanish allies to obtain stores, and their ships were ill-equipped. Villeneuve's ships were also more than two thousand men short of the force needed to sail. These were not the only problems faced by the Franco-Spanish fleet. The main French ships-of-the-line had been kept in harbour for years by the British blockade with only brief sorties. The French crews included few experienced sailors, and, as most of the crew had to be taught the elements of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, gunnery was neglected. The hasty voyage across the Atlantic and back used up vital supplies. Villeneuve's supply situation began to improve in October, but news of Nelson's arrival made Villeneuve reluctant to leave port. Indeed, his captains had held a vote on the matter and decided to stay in harbour. On 16 September, Napoleon gave orders for the French and Spanish ships at Cádiz to put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join with seven Spanish ships-of-the-line then at Cartagena, go to Naples and land the soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops there, then fight decisively if they met a numerically inferior British fleet. The fleets Edit On 21 October, Admiral Nelson had 27 ships-of-the-line. His flagship, HMS Victory, was one of three 100-gun first rates in his fleet. He also had four 98-gun second rates and twenty third rates . One of the third rates was an 80-gun vessel and sixteen were 74-gun vessels. The remaining three were 64-gun ships, which were being phased out of the Royal Navy at the time of the battle. Nelson also had four frigates of 38 or 36 guns, a 12-gun schooner and a 10-gun cutter. Franco-Spanish Edit Against Nelson, Vice-Admiral Villeneuve fielded 33 ships-of-the-line, including some of the largest in the world at the time. The Spanish contributed four first-rates to the fleet. Three of these ships, one at 136 guns ( Santisima Trinidad ) and two at 112 guns (Principe de Asturias, Santa Ana), were much larger than anything under Nelson's command. The fourth first-rate carried 100 guns. The fleet had six 80-gun third-rates, (four French and two Spanish), and one Spanish 64-gun third-rate. The remaining 22 third-rates were 74-gun vessels, of which fourteen were French and eight Spanish. In total the Spanish contributed 15 ships of the line and the French 18. The fleet also included five 40-gun frigates and two 18-gun brigs , all French. The battle Edit This article does not contain any citations or references. Please improve this article by adding a reference. For information about how to add references, see Template:Citation . The prevailing tactical orthodoxy at the time involved manoeuvring to approach the enemy fleet in a single line of battle and then engaging broadside in parallel lines. Before this time the fleets had usually been involved in a mixed mêlée. One reason for the development of the line of battle system was to facilitate control of the fleet: if all the ships were in line, signalling in battle became possible. The line also allowed either side to disengage by breaking away in formation; if the attacker chose to continue, their line would be broken as well. This often led to inconclusive battles, or allowed the losing side to minimise its losses; but Nelson wanted a conclusive action. His solution to the problem was to deliberately cut the opposing line in three. Approaching in two columns, sailing perpendicular to the enemy's line, one towards the centre of the opposing line and one towards the trailing end, his ships would break the enemy formation into three, surround one third, and force them to fight to the end. Nelson hoped specifically to cut the line just in front of the flagship; the isolated ships in front of the break would not be able to see the flagship's signals, hopefully taking them out of combat while they reformed. The intention of going straight at the enemy echoed the tactics used by Admiral Duncan at the Battle of Camperdown and Admiral Jervis at the Battle of Cape St Vincent , both in 1797. "The Battle of Trafalgar" by Clarkson Stanfield The plan had three principal advantages. First, the British fleet would close with the Franco-Spanish as quickly as possible, reducing the chance that they would be able to escape without fighting. Second, it would quickly bring on a mêlée and frantic battle by breaking the Franco-Spanish line and inducing a series of individual ship-to-ship actions, in which the British were likely to prevail. Nelson knew that the superior seamanship, faster gunnery and better morale of his crews were great advantages. Third, it would bring a decisive concentration on the rear of the Franco-Spanish fleet. The ships in the van of the enemy fleet would have to turn back to support the rear, which would take a long time. Additionally, once the Franco-Spanish line had been broken, their ships would be relatively defenceless against powerful broadsides from the British fleet, and it would take them a long time to reposition to return fire. The main drawback of attacking head-on was that as the leading British ships approached, the Franco-Spanish fleet would be able to direct raking broadside fire at their bows, to which they would be unable to reply. To lessen the time the fleet was exposed to this danger, Nelson had his ships make all available sail (including stuns'ls ), yet another departure from the norm. He was also well aware that French and Spanish gunners were ill-trained, would probably be supplemented with soldiers, and would have difficulty firing accurately from a moving gun platform. The Combined Fleet was sailing across a heavy swell, causing the ships to roll heavily and exacerbating these problems. Nelson's plan was indeed a gamble, but a carefully calculated one. During the period of blockade off the coast of Spain in October, Nelson instructed his captains, over two dinners aboard Victory, on his plan for the approaching battle. The order of sailing, in which the fleet was arranged when the enemy was first sighted, was to be the order of the ensuing action, so that no time would be wasted in forming a precise line. The attack was to be made in two bodies; one, led by his second-in-command Cuthbert Collingwood , was to throw itself on the rear of the enemy, while the other, led by Nelson, was to take care of the centre and vanguard. In preparation for the battle, Nelson ordered the ships of his fleet to be painted in a distinctive yellow and black pattern (later known as the Nelson Chequer ) that would make them easy to distinguish from their opponents. Nelson was careful to point out that something had to be left to chance. Nothing is sure in a sea battle, so he left his captains free from all hampering rules by telling them that "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy." In short, circumstances would dictate the execution, subject to the guiding rule that the enemy's rear was to be cut off and superior force concentrated on that part of the enemy's line. Admiral Villeneuve himself expressed his belief that Nelson would use some sort of unorthodox attack, stating specifically that he believed—accurately—that Nelson would drive right at his line. But his long game of cat and mouse with Nelson had worn him down, and he was suffering from a loss of nerve. Arguing that the inexperience of his officers meant he would not be able to maintain formation in more than one group, he chose not to act on his assessment. Departure Edit The Combined Fleet of French and Spanish warships anchored in Cádiz and under the leadership of Admiral Villeneuve was in disarray. On 16 September 1805 Villeneuve received orders from Napoleon to sail the Combined Fleet from Cádiz to Naples. At first Villeneuve was optimistic about returning to the Mediterranean, but soon had second thoughts. A war council was held aboard his flagship, Bucentaure , on 8 October. While some of the French captains wished to obey Napoleon's orders, the Spanish captains and other French officers, including Villeneuve, thought it best to remain in Cádiz. Villeneuve changed his mind yet again on 18 October 1805, ordering the Combined Fleet to sail immediately even though there were only very light winds. [5] The sudden change was prompted by a letter Villeneuve had received on 18 October, informing him that Vice-Admiral François Rosily had arrived in Madrid with orders to take command of the Combined Fleet. Stung by the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, Villeneuve resolved to go to sea before his successor could reach Cádiz. At the same time, he received intelligence that a detachment of six British ships (Admiral Louis' squadron), had docked at Gibraltar, thus weakening the British fleet. This was used as the pretext for sudden change. The weather, however, suddenly turned calm following a week of gales. This slowed the progress of the fleet leaving the harbour, giving the British plenty of warning. Villeneuve had drawn up plans to form a force of four squadrons, each containing both French and Spanish ships. Following their earlier vote on 8 October to stay put, some captains were reluctant to leave Cádiz and as a result they failed to follow Villeneuve's orders closely and the fleet straggled out of the harbour in no particular formation. It took most of 20 October for Villeneuve to get his fleet organised; it eventually set sail in three columns for the Straits of Gibraltar to the southeast. That same evening, Achille spotted a force of 18 British ships-of-the-line in pursuit. The fleet began to prepare for battle and during the night, they were ordered into a single line. The following day, Nelson's fleet of 27 ships-of-the-line and four frigates was spotted in pursuit from the northwest with the wind behind it. Villeneuve again ordered his fleet into three columns, but soon changed his mind and ordered a single line. The result was a sprawling, uneven formation. File:Nelson's prayer on Victory timber.jpg The British fleet was sailing, as they would fight, under signal 72 hoisted on Nelson's flagship. At 5:40 a.m., the British were about 21 miles (34 km) to the northwest of Cape Trafalgar, with the Franco-Spanish fleet between the British and the Cape. At 6 a.m. that morning, Nelson gave the order to prepare for battle. At 8 a.m., Villeneuve ordered the fleet to wear together (turn about) and return to Cádiz. This reversed the order of the allied line, placing the rear division under Rear-Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley in the vanguard. The wind became contrary at this point, often shifting direction. The very light wind rendered manoeuvering virtually impossible for all but the most expert seamen. The inexperienced crews had difficulty with the changing conditions, and it took nearly an hour and a half for Villeneuve's order to be completed. The French and Spanish fleet now formed an uneven, angular crescent, with the slower ships generally to leeward and closer to the shore. By 11 a.m. Nelson's entire fleet was visible to Villeneuve, drawn up in two parallel columns. The two fleets would be within range of each other within an hour. Villeneuve was concerned at this point about forming up a line, as his ships were unevenly spaced and in an irregular formation. The Franco-Spanish fleet was drawn out nearly five miles (8 km) long as Nelson's fleet approached. As the British drew closer, they could see that the enemy was not sailing in a tight order, but rather in irregular groups. Nelson could not immediately make out the French flagship as the French and Spanish were not flying command pennants. Nelson was outnumbered and outgunned, the enemy totalling nearly 30,000 men and 2,568 guns to his 17,000 men and 2,148 guns. The Franco-Spanish fleet also had six more ships-of-the-line, and so could more readily combine their fire. There was no way for some of Nelson's ships to avoid being "doubled on" or even "trebled on". As the two fleets drew closer, anxiety began to build among officers and sailors; one British sailor described the time before thus: "During this momentous preparation, the human mind had ample time for meditation, for it was evident that the fate of England rested on this battle". [6] Battle The battle progressed largely according to Nelson's plan. At 11:45, Nelson sent the famous flag signal, " England expects that every man will do his duty ". “ His Lordship came to me on the poop, and after ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, he said, "Mr. Pasco , I wish to say to the fleet, ENGLAND CONFIDES THAT EVERY MAN WILL DO HIS DUTY" and he added "You must be quick, for I have one more to make which is for close action." I replied, "If your Lordship will permit me to substitute 'expects' for 'confides' the signal will soon be completed, because the word 'expects' is in the vocabulary, and 'confides' must be spelt," His Lordship replied, in haste, and with seeming satisfaction, "That will do, Pasco, make it directly." [8] ” The term 'England' was widely used at the time to refer to the United Kingdom; the British fleet included significant contingents from Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Unlike the photographic depiction (right), this signal would have been shown on the mizzen mast only and would have required 12 'lifts'. As the battle opened, the French and Spanish were in a ragged curved line headed north. As planned, the British fleet was approaching the Franco-Spanish line in two columns. Leading the northern, windward column in Victory was Nelson, while Collingwood in the 100-gun Royal Sovereign led the second, leeward, column. The two British columns approached from the west at nearly a right angle to the allied line. Nelson led his column into a feint toward the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet and then abruptly turned toward the actual point of attack. Collingwood altered the course of his column slightly so that the two lines converged at this line of attack. Just before his column engaged the allied forces, Collingwood said to his officers: "Now, gentlemen, let us do something today which the world may talk of hereafter." Because the winds were very light during the battle, all the ships were moving extremely slowly, and the foremost British ships were under heavy fire from several of the allied ships for almost an hour before their own guns could bear. At noon, Villeneuve sent the signal "engage the enemy", and Fougueux fired her first trial shot at Royal Sovereign. [9] [10] [11] Royal Sovereign had all sails out and, having recently had her bottom cleaned, outran the rest of the British fleet. As she approached the allied line, she came under fire from Fougueux, Indomptable , San Justo and San Leandro, before breaking the line just astern of Admiral Alava's flagship Santa Ana , into which she fired a devastating double-shotted raking broadside. The second ship in the British lee column, Belleisle , was engaged by L'Aigle , Achille, Neptune and Fougueux; she was soon completely dismasted, unable to manoeuvre and largely unable to fight, as her sails blinded her batteries, but kept flying her flag for 45 minutes until the following British ships came to her rescue. For 40 minutes, Victory was under fire from Héros , Santísima Trinidad , Redoutable and Neptune; although many shots went astray, others killed and wounded a number of her crew and shot her wheel away, so that she had to be steered from her tiller belowdecks. Victory could not yet respond. At 12:45, Victory cut the enemy line between Villeneuve's flagship Bucentaure and Redoutable; she came close to the Bucentaure, firing a devastating raking broadside through her stern which killed and wounded many on her gundecks. Villeneuve thought that boarding would take place, and with the Eagle of his ship in hand, told his men, "I will throw it onto the enemy ship and we will take it back there!" However Victory engaged the 74-gun Redoutable; Bucentaure was left to be dealt with by the next three ships of the British windward column: Temeraire , Conqueror and Neptune. Nelson is shot on the quarterdeck of Victory A general mêlée ensued and, during that fight, Victory locked masts with the French Redoutable. The crew of Redoutable, which included a strong infantry corps (with three captains and four lieutenants), gathered for an attempt to board and seize the Victory. A musket bullet fired from the mizzentop of Redoutable struck Nelson in the left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches below his right scapula in the muscles of his back. Nelson exclaimed, "They finally succeeded, I am dead." He was carried below decks. Victory's gunners were called on deck to fight boarders, and she ceased firing. The gunners were forced back below decks by French grenades . As the French were preparing to board Victory, Temeraire, the second ship in the British windward column, approached from the starboard bow of Redoutable and fired on the exposed French crew with a carronade , causing many casualties. At 13:55, Captain Lucas , of Redoutable, with 99 fit men out of 643 and severely wounded himself, surrendered. The French Bucentaure was isolated by Victory and Temeraire, and then engaged by Neptune, HMS Leviathan and Conqueror; similarly, Santísima Trinidad was isolated and overwhelmed, surrendering after three hours. As more and more British ships entered the battle, the ships of the allied centre and rear were gradually overwhelmed. The allied van, after long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration and then sailed away. The British took 22 vessels of the Franco-Spanish fleet and lost none. Among the captured French ships were L'Aigle, Algésiras , Berwick , Bucentaure, Fougueux, Intrépide , Redoutable, and Swiftsure . The Spanish ships taken were Argonauta, Bahama, Monarca, Neptuno, San Agustín , San Ildefonso, San Juan Nepomuceno , Santísima Trinidad , and Santa Ana. Of these, Redoutable sank, and Santísima Trinidad and Argonauta were scuttled by the British. Achille exploded, Intrépide and San Augustín burned, and L'Aigle, Berwick, Fougueux and Monarca were wrecked in a gale following the battle. The Battle of Trafalgar, situation at 1700h As Nelson lay dying, he ordered the fleet to anchor, as a storm was predicted. However, when the storm blew up, many of the severely damaged ships sank or ran aground on the shoals. A few of them were recaptured, some by the French and Spanish prisoners overcoming the small prize crews, others by ships sallying from Cádiz. Surgeon William Beatty heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty"; when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak. [12] He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Nelson's chaplain, Alexander Scott , who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country." [13] It has been suggested by Nelson historian Craig Cabell that Nelson was actually reciting his own prayer as he fell into his death coma, as the words 'God' and 'my country' are closely linked therein. Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after being hit. [12] Battle of Trafalgar (1805) French and Spanish Casualties Green = The Weather Column, led by Nelson Grey = Lee Column, led by Collingwood The number, is the order in the column. Towards the end of the battle, and with the combined fleet being overwhelmed, the still relatively un-engaged portion of the van under Rear-Admiral Dumanoir Le Pelley tried to come to the assistance of the collapsing centre. After failing to fight his way through, he decided to break off the engagement, and led four French ships, his flagship the 80-gun Formidable , the 74-gun ships Scipion , Duguay Trouin and Mont Blanc away from the fighting. He headed at first for the Straits of Gibraltar, intending to carry out Villeneuve's original orders, and make for Toulon. [14] On 22 October he changed his mind, remembering a powerful British squadron under Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis was patrolling the straits, and headed north, hoping to reach one of the French Atlantic ports. With a storm gathering in strength off the Spanish coast, he sailed westwards to clear Cape St Vincent , prior to heading north-west, and then swinging eastwards across the Bay of Biscay, aiming to reach the French port at Rochefort. [14] These four ships remained at large until their encounter with and attempt to chase a British frigate brought them in range of a British squadron under Sir Richard Strachan , which captured them all on 4 November 1805 at the Battle of Cape Ortegal . [14] Storm and sortie File:Trafalgar, ships scattered.jpg Only eleven ships escaped to Cádiz, and of those, only five were considered seaworthy. The seriously wounded Admiral Gravina passed command of the remainder of the fleet over to Captain Julien Cosmao on 23 October, who determined to make an attempt to recapture some of the prizes. He ordered the rigging of his ship, the 74-gun Pluton , to be repaired and reinforced her crew (which had been depleted by casualties from the battle), with sailors from the French frigate Hermione . Taking advantage of a favourable northwesterly wind, he took the Pluton, the 80-gun Neptune and Indomptable, the Spanish 100-gun Rayo and 74-gun San Francisco de Asis , together with five frigates and two brigs, out of the harbour towards the British. [15] [16] The British cast off the prizes Edit Soon after leaving port, the wind shifted to west-southwest, raising a heavy sea with the result that most of the British prizes broke their tow-ropes, and drifting far to leeward, were only partially re-secured. The combined squadron came in sight at noon, causing Collingwood to summon his most battle-ready ships to meet the threat. In doing so, he ordered them to cast off towing their prizes. He had formed a defensive line of ten ships by three o'clock in the afternoon and approached the Franco-Spanish squadron, covering the remainder of their prizes which stood out to sea. [16] [17] The Franco-Spanish squadron chose not to approach within gunshot and then declined to attack. [18] Collingwood also chose not seek action, and in the confusion of the powerful storm, the French frigates managed to retake two Spanish ships-of-the-line which had been cast-off by their British captors, the 112-gun Santa Ana and 80-gun Neptuno , taking them in tow and making for Cádiz. [19] On being taken in tow, the Spanish crews rose up against their British prize crews, putting them to work as prisoners. [11] [20] [21] Despite this initial success the Franco-Spanish force, hampered by battle damage, struggled in the heavy seas. The Neptuno was eventually wrecked off Rota in the gale, while the Santa Ana reached port. [22] The French 80-gun ship Indomptable was wrecked on the 24th or 25th off the town of Rota on the northwest point of the bay of Cádiz. [21] At the time the Indomptable had 1,200 men on board but no more than 100 were saved. The San Francisco de Asís was driven ashore in Cádiz Bay, near Fort Santa-Catalina, although her crew was saved. The Rayo, an old three-decker with more than 50 years of service, anchored off Lucar, a few leagues to the northwest of Rota. There, she lost her masts; they had been damaged by shot earlier. [21] Heartened by the approach of the squadron, the French crew of the former flagship Bucentaure also rose up and retook the ship from the British prize crew, but she was wrecked later on 23 October. The Aigle , escaped from the British ship HMS Defiance but was wrecked off the port of Santa María on 23 October, while the French prisoners on the Berwick cut the tow cables, but caused her to founder off Sanlúcar on 22 October. The crew of the Algesiras rose up and managed to sail into Cádiz. [11] Painting depicting the French frigate Thémis towing the re-taken Spanish first-rate ship of the line Santa Ana into Cádiz. Auguste Mayer , 19th century. Observing that some of the leewardmost of the prizes were escaping towards the Spanish coast, Leviathan asked for and was granted permission by Collingwood to try to retrieve the prizes and bring them to anchor. Leviathan chased the Monarca , but on 24 October she came across the Rayo, dismasted but still flying Spanish colours, at anchor off the shoals of San-Lucar. [23] At this point the 74-gun HMS Donegal , en route from Gibraltar under Captain Pulteney Malcolm , was seen approaching from the south on the larboard tack with a moderate breeze from northwest-by-north, and steered directly for the Spanish three-decker. [23] At about ten o'clock, just as the Monarca had got within little more than a mile of the Rayo, Leviathan fired a warning shot wide of the Monarca, to oblige her to drop anchor. The shot fell between the Monarca and the Rayo. The latter, conceiving that it was probably intended for her, hauled down her colours, and was taken by HMS Donegal, who anchored alongside and took off the prisoners. [23] Leviathan resumed her pursuit of the Monarca, eventually catching up and forcing her to surrender. On boarding her, her British captors found that she was in a sinking state, and so removed the British prize crew, and nearly all of her original Spanish crew members. The nearly empty Monarca parted her cable and was wrecked during the night. Despite the efforts of her British prize crew, the Rayo was driven onshore on 26 October and wrecked, with the loss of twenty-five men. The remainder of the prize crew were made prisoners by the Spanish. Aftermath Edit In the aftermath of the storm, Collingwood wrote: The condition of our own ships was such that it was very doubtful what would be their fate. Many a time I would have given the whole group of our capture, to ensure our own... I can only say that in my life I never saw such efforts as were made to save these [prize] ships, and would rather fight another battle than pass through such a week as followed it. —Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood to the Admiralty , November 1805. [24] On balance, the allied counter-attack achieved little. In forcing the British to suspend their repairs to defend themselves, it influenced Collingwood's decision to sink or set fire to the most damaged of his remaining prizes. [19] Cosmao retook two Spanish ships of the line, but it cost him one French and two Spanish vessels to do so. Fearing their loss, the British burnt or sank the Santisima Trinidad, Argonauta, San Antonio and Intrepide . [11] Only four of the British prizes, the French Swiftsure, the Spanish Bahama, San Ildefonso , and the Spanish San Juan Nepomuceno survived to be conducted to Britain. [19] After the end of the battle and storm only nine ships-of-the-line were left in Cádiz. [15] [25] Results of the battle Edit Nelson's overwhelming triumph over the combined Franco-Spanish fleet ensured Britain's protection from invasion for the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars When Rosily arrived in Cádiz, he found only five French ships, rather than the 18 he was expecting. The surviving ships remained bottled up in Cádiz until 1808, when Napoleon invaded Spain. The French ships were then seized by the Spanish forces and put into service against France. HMS Victory made her way to Gibraltar for repairs, carrying Nelson's body. She put into Rosia Bay, Gibraltar and after emergency repairs were carried out, returned to Britain. Many of the injured crew were brought ashore at Gibraltar and treated in the Naval Hospital. Men who subsequently died from injuries sustained at the battle are buried in or near the Trafalgar Cemetery , at the south end of Main Street, Gibraltar . One Royal Marine officer was killed on board Victory; Captain Charles Adair. Royal Marine Lieutenant Lewis Buckle Reeve was seriously wounded and lay next to Nelson. [26] The battle took place the day after the Battle of Ulm , and Napoleon did not hear about it for weeks—the Grande Armée had left Boulogne to fight Britain's allies before they could combine a huge force. He had tight control over the Paris media and kept the defeat a closely guarded secret. In a propaganda move, the battle was declared a "spectacular victory" by the French and Spanish. [27] Vice-Admiral Villeneuve was taken prisoner aboard his own flagship and taken back to Britain. After his parole in 1806 he returned to France, where he was found dead in his inn room during a stop on the way to Paris, with six stab wounds in the chest from a dining knife. It was officially recorded that he had committed suicide. Despite the British victory over the Franco-Spanish navies, Trafalgar had negligible impact on the remainder of the War of the Third Coalition . Less than two months later, Napoleon decisively defeated the Third Coalition at the Battle of Austerlitz , knocking Austria out of the war and forcing the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire . Although Trafalgar meant France could no longer challenge Britain at sea, Napoleon proceeded to establish the Continental System in an attempt to deny Britain trade with the continent. The Napoleonic Wars continued for another ten years after Trafalgar. [28] Nelson's body was preserved in a barrel of brandy for the trip home to a hero's funeral. [6] A broadside from the 1850s recounts the story Consequences Edit Detail from a modern reproduction of an 1805 poster commemorating the battle Following the battle, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement. Napoleon had already abandoned his plans of invasion before the battle and they were never revived. The battle did not mean, however, that the French naval challenge to Britain was over. First, as the French control over the continent expanded, Britain had to take active steps with the Battle of Copenhagen in 1807 and elsewhere in 1808 to prevent the ships of smaller European navies from falling into French hands. This effort was largely successful, but did not end the French threat as Napoleon instituted a large scale shipbuilding programme that produced a fleet of 80 ships of the line at the time of his fall from power in 1814, with more under construction. In comparison Britain had 99 ships of the line in active commission in 1814, and this was close to the maximum that could be supported. Given a few more years, the French could have realised their plans to commission 150 ships of the line and again challenge the Royal Navy, compensating for the inferiority of their crews with sheer numbers. [29] For almost 10 years after Trafalgar, the Royal Navy maintained a close blockade of French bases and anxiously observed the growth of the French fleet. In the end, Napoleon's Empire was destroyed before the ambitious buildup could be completed. Nelson became – and remains – Britain's greatest naval war hero, and an inspiration to the Royal Navy, yet his unorthodox tactics were seldom emulated by later generations. The first monument to be erected in Britain to commemorate Nelson may be that raised on Glasgow Green in 1806, albeit possibly preceded by a monument at Taynuilt , near Oban in Scotland dated 1805, both also commemorating the many Scots crew and captains at the battle. [30] [31] The Script error tall Nelson Monument on Glasgow Green was designed by David Hamilton and paid for by public subscription. Around the base are the names of his famous victories: Aboukir (1798), Copenhagen (1801) and Trafalgar (1805). In 1808, Nelson's Pillar was erected by leading members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy in Dublin to commemorate Nelson and his achievements (between 10% and 20% of the sailors at Trafalgar had been from Ireland [1] [2] ), and remained until it was destroyed in a bombing by "Old IRA " members in 1966. [3] Nelson's Monument in Edinburgh was built between 1807 and 1815 in the form of an upturned telescope, and in 1853 a time ball was added which still drops at noon GMT to give a time signal to ships in Leith and the Firth of Forth. In summer this coincides with the one o'clock gun being fired. The Britannia Monument in Great Yarmouth was raised by 1819. London's famous Trafalgar Square was named in honour of Nelson's victory, and his statue on Nelson's Column , finished in 1843, towers triumphantly over it. The statue of Lord Nelson in Bridgetown, Barbados, in what was also once known as Trafalgar Square, was erected in 1813. The disparity in losses has been attributed by some historians less to Nelson's daring tactics than to the difference in fighting readiness of the two fleets. [4] Nelson's fleet was made up of ships-of-the-line which had spent a considerable amount of sea time during the months of blockades of French ports, whilst the French fleet had generally been at anchor in port. However, Villeneuve's fleet had just spent months at sea crossing the Atlantic twice, which supports the proposition that the main difference between the two fleets' combat effectiveness was the morale of the leaders. The daring tactics employed by Nelson were to ensure a strategically decisive result. The results vindicated his naval judgement. The Royal Navy proceeded to dominate the sea for the remaining years of sail. Although the victory at Trafalgar was typically given as the reason at the time, modern analysis by historians suggest that relative economic strength was an important underlying cause of British naval mastery. Nelson on top of his column in Trafalgar Square in London 100th anniversary Edit In 1905, there were events up and down the country to commemorate the centenary, although none were attended by any member of the Royal Family, apparently to avoid upsetting the French, with whom the United Kingdom had recently entered the Entente cordiale . [5] King Edward VII did support the Nelson Centenary Memorial Fund of the British and Foreign Sailors Society , which sold Trafalgar centenary souvenirs marked with the Royal cypher . A gala was held on 21 October at the Royal Albert Hall in aid of the fund, which included a specially commissioned film by Alfred John West entitled "Our Navy". [6] The event ended with God Save the King and La Marseillaise [7] The first performance of Sir Henry Wood 's Fantasia on British Sea Songs occurred on the same day at a special Promenade Concert . [8] 200th anniversary Edit In 2005, a series of events around the UK, as part of the Sea Britain theme, marked the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar. The 200th anniversary of the battle was also marked by six days of celebrations in Portsmouth during June and July, and at St Paul's Cathedral (where Nelson is entombed) and in Trafalgar Square in London in October ( T Square 200 ), as well as across the UK. On 28 June, the Queen was involved in the largest Fleet Review in modern times in the Solent, in which 167 ships from 35 nations took part. The Queen inspected the international fleet from the Antarctic patrol ship HMS Endurance . The fleet included six aircraft carriers - (modern capital ships): Charles De Gaulle , Illustrious , Invincible , Ocean , Príncipe de Asturias and Saipan . In the evening a symbolic re-enactment of the battle was staged with fireworks and various small ships playing parts in the battle. Lieutenant John Lapenotière 's historic voyage in HMS Pickle bringing the news of the victory from the fleet to Falmouth and thence by post chaise to the Admiralty in London, was commemorated by the inauguration of The Trafalgar Way and further highlighted by the New Trafalgar Dispatch celebrations from July to September, in which an actor played the part of Lapenotière and re-enacted parts of the historic journey. On 21 October, naval manoeuvres were conducted in Trafalgar Bay, near Cádiz, involving a combined fleet from Britain, Spain and France. Many descendants of those men who fought and died in these waters, including members of Nelson's family, were present at the ceremony. [9] In popular culture The Battle of Trafalgar by J. M. W. Turner (oil on canvas, 1822–1824) combines events from several moments during the battle In Sharpe's Trafalgar , by Bernard Cornwell, Sharpe finds himself at the Battle of Trafalgar aboard the fictitious HMS Pucelle. Le Chevalier de Sainte-Hermine , by Alexandre Dumas , is an adventure story in which the main character is alleged to be the one who shot Nelson. In the Horatio Hornblower series, by C. S. Forester, Hornblower (in the unfinished novel Hornblower and the Crisis), delivers false orders to Villeneuve who sends his fleet out of Cádiz to the destruction that takes place at Trafalgar. Hornblower is put in charge of Admiral Nelson's funeral in London. In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode " The Best of Both Worlds ", Captain Jean-Luc Picard discusses the naval tradition of touring a ship before a battle with his confidant Guinan . Guinan points out that a captain would only do so for a hopeless battle; Picard mentions that Horatio Nelson toured HMS Victory before the Battle of Trafalgar. When Guinan points out that Nelson was killed in the battle, Picard retorts that the battle was still won by the British. In the film Star Trek Generations , Picard reveals that one of his ancestors fought at Trafalgar for the French. In James Clavell 's novel Tai-Pan, the Scots chieftain of Hong Kong, Dirk Struan, reflects on his experiences as a five year old powder monkey onboard HMS Royal Sovereign at Trafalgar. The Bee Gees ninth studio album was inspired by The Battle of Trafalgar and simply entitled Trafalgar. In the anime series One Piece there is a character by the name of Trafalgar Law, an infamous pirate and surgeon. His main mode of transport happens to be a submarine (a possible reference to the Royal Navy's Trafalgar class of submarines , named after the battle). Jonathan Willcocks composed a major choral work, "A Great and Glorious Victory," about the Battle of Trafalgar. In the novel His Majesty's Dragon , the first of the historical fantasy Temeraire series in which aerial dragon-mounted combat units form major divisions of European militaries during the Napoleonic Wars, the Battle of Trafalgar is actually a massive feint by Napoleon to distract British forces away from the aerial and seaborne invasion of Britain near Dover. See also Clayton, Tim; Craig, Phil. Trafalgar: The Men, the Battle, the Storm. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-83028-X . Desbrière, Edouard, The Naval Campaign of 1805: Trafalgar, 1907, Paris. English translation by Constance Eastwick, 1933. Fernandez, Juan Cayuela, Trafalgar. Hombres y naves entre dos épocas, 2004, Ariel (Barcelona) ISBN 84-344-6760-7 Frasca, Francesco, Il potere marittimo in età moderna, da Lepanto a Trafalgar, 1 st ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4092-4348-9 , 2 nd ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, ISBN 978-1-84799-550-6 , 3 rd ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4092-6088-2 , 4th ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4092-7881-8 . Gardiner, Robert (2006). The campaign of Trafalgar, 1803–1805. Mercury Books. ISBN 1-84560-008-8CITEREFGardiner . Harbron, John D., Trafalgar and the Spanish Navy, 1988, London, ISBN 0-85177-963-8 . Howarth, David, Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch, 2003, Phoenix Press, ISBN 1-84212-717-9 . Huskisson, Thomas, Eyewitness to Trafalgar, reprinted in 1985 as a limited edition of 1000; Ellisons' Editions, ISBN 0-946092-09-5 —the author was half-brother of William Huskisson Lambert, Andrew, War at Sea in the Age of Sail, Chapter 8, 2000, London, ISBN 1-55278-127-5 Pocock, Tom, Horatio Nelson, Chapter XII, 1987, London, ISBN 0-7126-6123-9 Pope, Dudley, England Expects (US title Decision at Trafalgar), 1959, Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Warner, Oliver, Trafalgar. First published 1959 by Batsford – republished 1966 by Pan. Warwick, Peter (2005). Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. David & Charles Publishing. ISBN 0-7153-2000-9CITEREFWarwick . </dl>	Spain
Who was the Supreme Allied Commander during the D Day landings of 1944?	The Battle of Trafalgar The Battle of Trafalgar Nelson's crushing defeat of the French and Spanish Navies, establishing Britain as the dominant world naval power for a century. The French ship Redoubtable during her magnificent resistance at the Battle of Trafalgar. It was a musket shot from Redoubtable that mortally wounded Nelson. Place: At Cape Trafalgar off the South Western coast of Spain, south of Cadiz. Combatants: The British Royal Navy against the Fleets of France and Spain. Admirals: Admiral Viscount Lord Nelson and Vice Admiral Collingwood against Admiral Villeneuve of France and Admirals d’Aliva and Cisternas of Spain. The Beginning of the Battle of Trafalgar Size of the fleet: 32 British (25 ships of the line, 4 Frigates and smaller craft), 23 French and 15 Spanish (33 ships of the line, 7 Frigates and smaller craft). 4,000 troops including riflemen from the Tyrol were posted in small detachments through the French and Spanish Fleets. His Majesty's Ship Victory Winner: Memorably, the Royal Navy. British Ships: Nelson's Division: HMS Victory (Flagship), Temeraire, Neptune, Conqueror, Leviathan, Ajax, Orion, Agamemnon, Minotaur, Spartiate, Euryalus, Britannia, Africa, Naiad, Phoebe, Entreprenante, Sirius and Pickle. Collingwood's Division: HMS Royal Sovereign (Flagship), Belleisle, Mars, Tonnant, Bellerophon, Colossus, Achilles, Polyphemus, Revenge, Swiftsure, Defiance, Thunderer, Prince of Wales, Dreadnought and Defence. His Majesty's Ship Britannia French Ships: Bucentaure (Flagship), Formidable (Flagship), Scipion, Intrepide, Cornelie, Duguay Truin, Mont Blanc, Heros, Furet, Hortense, Neptune, Redoubtable, Indomitable, Fougueux, Pluton, Aigle, Swiftsure, Argonaute, Berwick, Hermione, Themis, Achille and Argus. Spanish Ships: Santa Anna (Flagship), Santissima Trinidad (Flagship), Neptuno, Rayo, Santo Augustino, S. Francisco d’Assisi, S. Leandro, S. Juste, Monarca, Algeciras, Bahama, Montanes, S. Juan Nepomucano, Argonauta and Prince de Asturias. The Battle of Trafalgar Ships and Armaments: Sailing warships of the 18th and 19th Century carried their main armaments in broadside batteries along the sides. Ships were classified according to the number of guns carried or the number of decks carrying batteries. Nelson’s main force comprised 8 three decker battleships carrying more than 90 guns each. The enormous Spanish ship Santissima Trinidad carried 120 guns and the Santa Anna 112 guns. The size of gun on the line of battle ships was up to 24 pounder, firing heavy iron balls or chain and link shot designed to wreck rigging. Trafalgar was a close fleet action. Ships manoeuvred up to the enemy and delivered broadsides at a range of a few yards. To take full advantage of the close range guns were “double shotted” with grape shot on top of ball. It is said that the crews in some French ships were unable to face this appalling ordeal, closing their gun ports and attempting to escape the fire. For more details on this picture or how to buy it, click here or on the image. Ships manoeuvred to deliver broadsides in the most destructive manner, the greatest effect being achieved by firing into an enemy’s stern, so that the shot travelled the length of the ship wreaking havoc and destruction. The first broadside, loaded before action began, was always the most effective. Admiral Lord Nelson struck down on the deck of HMS Victory at Trafalgar Collingwood’s Royal Sovereign fired its first broadside at Trafalgar into the rear of the Spanish ship Santa Anna causing massive damage. Ships carried a variety of smaller weapons on the top deck and in the rigging, from swivel guns firing grape shot or canister (bags of musket balls) to hand held muskets and pistols. With these weapons each crew sought to annihilate the enemy officers and sailors on deck. Click here or on image to buy a print Wounds in Eighteenth Century naval fighting were often terrible. Cannon balls ripped off limbs or, striking wooden decks and bulwarks, drove splinter fragments across the ship causing great injury. Falling masts and rigging inflicted crush injuries. Sailors stationed aloft fell into the sea from collapsing masts and rigging and were drowned. Heavy losses were caused when a ship finally succumbed and sank or blew up. The discharge of guns at close range easily set fire to an opposing vessel. Fires were difficult to control in battle and several ships were destroyed in this way, notably the French ship Achille. Admiral Lord Nelson Click here or on image to buy a print The ultimate aim in battle was to lock ships together and capture the enemy by boarding. Savage hand to hand fighting took place at Trafalgar on several ships. The crew of the French Redoubtable, living up to the name of their ship, boarded Victory but were annihilated in the brutal struggle on Victory’s top deck. Ships’ crews of all nations were a tough bunch. The British with continual blockade service against the French and Spanish were particularly well drilled. British gun crews could fire three broadsides or more to every two fired by the French and Spanish. The British officers were hard bitten and experienced. A young officer joining the Royal Navy in 1789, when the French Wars began, would have served for 16 years of warfare by the time of Trafalgar. British captains were responsible for recruiting their ship’s crew. Men were taken wherever they could be found, largely by means of the press gang. All nationalities served on British ships including French and Spanish. Loyalty for a crew lay primarily with their ship. Once the heat of battle subsided there was little animosity against the enemy. Great efforts were made by British crews to rescue the sailors of foundering French and Spanish ships at the end of the battle. Life on a warship, particularly the large ships of the line, was crowded and hard. Discipline was enforced with extreme violence, small infractions punished with public lashings. The food, far from good, deteriorated as ships spent time at sea. Drinking water was in constant short supply and usually brackish. Shortage of citrus fruit and fresh vegetables meant that scurvy easily and quickly set in. The great weight of guns and equipment and the necessity to climb rigging in adverse weather conditions frequently caused serious injury. Nelson as a Post Captain in 1781 Above all a life primarily carrying out blockade duty was monotonous in the extreme. The prospect of a decisive battle against the French and Spanish put the British Fleet in a state of high excitement. Account: In July 1805 Napoleon Bonaparte secretly left Milan and hurried to Boulogne, where his Grande Armée waited in camp to cross the Channel and invade England. Napoleon only needed Admiral Villeneuve to bring the French and Spanish Fleets from South Western Spain into the Channel to enable the invasion to take place. The First Sea Lord appointed Admiral Lord Nelson Commander in Chief of the British Fleet assembling to attack the French and Spanish ships. Nelson selected His Majesty’s Ship Victory as his flagship and sailed south towards Gibraltar. As the British ships intended for the Fleet were made ready they sailed south to join Nelson. In October 1805 Villeneuve was still in harbour in Cadiz. He received a stinging rebuke from Napoleon accusing him of cowardice and Villeneuve steeled himself to leave harbour and make for the Channel. He was encouraged in his resolve by the belief that there was no strong British Fleet nearby and that Nelson was still in England. Other than picket frigates watching the harbour Nelson kept his main fleet well out to sea. The gun deck on H.M.S. Victory On 19th October 1805 at 9am HMS Mars relayed the signal received from the frigates that the Franco-Spanish Fleet was leaving Cadiz in line of battle. At dawn on 21st October 1805, with a light wind from the West, Nelson signalled his fleet to begin the attack. The British captains understood fully what was required of them. Nelson had explained his tactics over the previous weeks until every ship knew her role. At 6.40am the British Fleet beat to quarters and the ships cleared for action: cooking fires thrown overboard, the movable bulkwarks removed, the decks sanded and ammunition carried to each gun. The gun crews took their positions. The French and Spanish Fleets were sailing in line ahead in an arc like formation. The British Fleet attacked in two squadrons in line ahead; the Windward Squadron led by Nelson and the Leeward (southern or right squadron) headed by Collingwood in Royal Sovereign; the ships of the Fleet divided between the two squadrons. Nelson aimed to cut the Franco-Spanish Fleet at a point one third along the line with Collingwood attacking the rear section. In the light wind the van of the Franco-Spanish Fleet would be unable to turn back and take part in the battle until too late to help their comrades. Click here or on image to buy a Restrike Etching In his long and eventful naval career Nelson had lost an arm and an eye. Perhaps, like Wolfe at Quebec, he preferred to die at the moment of supreme victory rather than live on in a disabled state. The two British squadrons, led by the Flagships, sailed towards the Franco-Spanish line, Collingwood’s Royal Sovereign significantly ahead of Victory. Anxious that the admiral should not be excessively exposed to enemy fire, the captain of Temeraire attempted to overtake Victory, but was ordered back into line by Nelson. The Battle of Trafalgar The first broadside was fired by the French ship Fougueux into Royal Sovereign as Collingwood burst through the Franco-Spanish line. Royal Sovereign held her fire until she sailed past the stern of the Spanish Flagship, Santa Anna. Royal Sovereign raked Santa Anna with double shotted fire, a broadside that is said to have disabled 400 of her crew and 14 guns. Royal Sovereign swung round onto Santa Anna’s beam and the two ships exchanged broadsides. The ships following in the Franco-Spanish line joined in attacking Collingwood: Fougueux, San Leandro, San Justo and Indomptable, until driven off by the rest of the Leeward Squadron as they came up. Royal Sovereign forced Santa Anna to surrender when both ships were little more than wrecks. Click here or on image to buy a print Victory led the Windward Squadron towards a point in the line between Redoubtable and Bucentaure. The Franco-Spanish Fleet at this point was too crowded for there to be a way through and the Victory simply rammed the Redoubtable, firing one broadside into her and others into the French Flagship Bucentaure and the Spanish Flagship Santissima Trinidad. The British ship Temeraire flanked Redoubtable on the far side and a further French ship linked to Temeraire, all firing broadsides at point blank range. Trafalgar The following ships of Nelson’s squadron, as they came up, engaged the other ships in the centre of the line. The leading Franco-Spanish squadron continued on its course away from the battle until peremptorily ordered to return by Villeneuve. During the fight with Redoubtable the soldiers and sailors in the French rigging fired at men exposed on the Victory’s decks. A musket shot hit Nelson, knocking him to the deck and breaking his back. The admiral was carried below to the midshipmen’s berth, where he constantly asked after the progress of the battle. Eventually Hardy was able to tell him before he died that the Fleet had taken 15 of the enemy’s ships. Nelson knew he had won. British Royal Navy : Sailors and officers laying a gun before firing into the enemy The battle reached its climax in the hour after Nelson’s injury. Neptune, Leviathan and Conqueror, as they came up, battered Villeneuve’s Flagship Bucentaure into submission and took the surrender of the French admiral. Temeraire while fighting the Redoubtable fired a crippling broadside into the Fougueux. Leviathan engaged the San Augustino bringing down her masts and boarding her. His Majesty's Ship Neptune in action at the Battle of Trafalgar In the Leeward Squadron Belleisle was stricken into a wreck by Achille and the French Neptune until relieved by the British Swiftsure. Achille was then battered by broadsides until fires reached her magazine and she blew up. Click here or on the image to buy a print All the French and Spanish ships of that part of the line were destroyed, captured or fled: of the 19 ships, 11 were captured or burnt while 8 fled to leeward. Many of these ships fought hard. Argonauta and Bahama lost 400 of their crews each. San Juan Nepomuceno lost 350. When she blew up Achille had lost all of her officers other than a single midshipman. The resistance of the French ship Redoutable was was quite in keeping with her name. The Franco-Spanish van commanded by Admiral Dumanoir passed the battle, firing broadsides indiscriminately into comrade and enemy, and returned to Cadiz. Click here or on image to buy a Print Follow-up: Following the battle a storm blew up wrecking many of the ships damaged in the action. Of those captured only 4 survived to be brought into Gibraltar. The consequences of the battle were far reaching. Napoleon’s plan to invade Britain was thwarted. He broke up the camp at Boulogne and marched to Austria where he won the great victory of Austerlitz against the Austrians and Russians. Trafalgar ensured that Britain’s dominance at sea remained unchallenged for the rest of the 10 years of war against France and continued worldwide for a further 120 years. Nelson dying in the cockpit of HMS Victory Admiral Villeneuve was taken a prisoner to England. On his release he travelled back to France but died violently on the journey to Paris. Lord Nelson’s body was brought to England and the admiral given a state funeral. His body is entombed in St Paul’s cathedral in London. His Majesty's Ship Belleisle after the Battle of Trafalgar. Anecdotes and traditions: As the British Fleet bore down on the Franco-Spanish line Nelson directed Lieutenant Pascoe, the signal officer of Victory, to send the signal to the Fleet “Nelson confides every man will do his duty.” Captain Hardy and Pascoe suggested this be changed to “England expects every man will do his duty”. Nelson agreed. As the signal ran up Victory’s halyard the Fleet burst into cheers. Nelson followed this with his standard battle signal “Engage the enemy more closely”. Nelson was a remarkable man. He combined a gentleness of character with an extreme ruthless aggression in action. This combined with his technical brilliance at sea made him an invincible enemy. Nelson’s tactic at Trafalgar was simple but devastatingly effective. Nelson was widely feared. If Villeneuve had known that the British admiral was present outside Cadiz harbour it seems unlikely that even the scathing messages from Napoleon would have enticed him to sea. An American captain sailing into Cadiz assured the French admiral that Nelson was still in London. Nelson default instruction to his officers was “No captain can do wrong if he puts his ship alongside the nearest enemy”. HMS Victory, Nelson’s Flagship, lies in Portsmouth Harbour preserved as it was at the time of the battle. In his final letter Nelson asked that the Nation look after his mistress, Lady Emma Hamilton, and their daughter, Horatia. Nelson’s brother was ennobled and his wife awarded a pension. Nothing was done for Lady Hamilton. She died in reduced circumstances in Calais in 1815. The naming of the warships: Many of the Spanish ships carried religious titles: Santa Anna, Santissima Trinidad, Santo Juan Nepomuceno. Classical labels were popular with the British and French: Mars, Ajax, Agamemnon, Minotaur (British); Scipion, Pluton, Hermione, Argus, Neptune (French). There were Swiftsures and Achilles in the British and French Fleets. The French had an Argonaute and the Spanish an Argonauta. Three British ships held French names: Belleisle, Tonnant and Bellerophon, marking that these ships or their predecessors had been captured from France. The French took names from heroic characteristics: Redoutable, Indomitable, Intrepide. Two British names reflected great size: Colossus, Leviathan. All three navies had a ship named after the classical god Neptune You can trace any member of the British Fleet by searching on this web site: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/trafalgarancestors/results.asp Turner's magnificent representation of the Battle of Trafalgar Trafalgar : The end of the battle Designed and maintained by Chalfont Web Design © Britishbattles.com 2002 - 2016;	i don't know
What RAF squardron number was nicknamed The Dambusters?	RAF - Operation Chastise_new Operation Chastise Attack on Ruhr Dams by aircraft of 617 Squadron on the night of 16-17 May 1943 Concept: The Air Ministry originally considered the Ruhr dams as a possible target early as 1937. A number of proposals and studies were undertaken between 1938 and 1941, though none produced a proper plan with all the necessary components of a viable weapon and feasible means of delivery. Command: Wing Commander Guy Gibson The Squadron: A new squadron was formed at Scampton on 21st March 1943, initially known as “X” Squadron and latterly as 617 Squadron, and the 24 year old Wing Commander Guy Gibson was personally selected to lead it by none other than Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur “Bomber” Harris, the Commander-in-Chief of Bomber Command. Gibson had flown 71 bomber sorties and an entire tour of 99 sorties on night fighters and was already the holder of four gallantry awards - the Distinguished Service Order and bar and the Distinguished Flying Cross and bar. Despite the “elite” tag and the presence of some very experienced airmen – e.g. the two flight commanders, Sqn Ldrs Dinghy’ Young and ‘Henry Maudslay, and experienced pilots such as Dave Shannon, ‘Hoppy’ Hopgood, Les Knight and Joe McCarthy - NOT all 617 Sqn air crew were veterans. Some had flown fewer than 10 missions and one less than 5 and some of the flight engineers on the raid were flying their first operational sortie. Not all had volunteered for 617, and not all were known to or selected by Gibson: one entire flight of 57 Squadron was simply posted en masse to 617 Squadron. The Weapon: Codenamed “Upkeep” The brainchild of Barnes Wallis of Vickers Armstrong, who had been working separately on some method of attacking dasince 1940 but probably did not conceive of the “bouncing bomb” idea until March 1942. He was given access and assistance by a variety of research bodies, including the National Physical Laboratories at Teddington, the Road Research Laboratory at Harmondsworth and the Building Research Station at Garston near Watford. Experiments which involved exploding charges against model dams at these sites, and the destruction of a real 180 foot disused dam in Wales, gave Wallis valuable data, but also showed that the task was far from easy and that any explosion preferably needed to take place in contact with the dam wall. He persisted with a series of experiments and meanwhile attempted to persuade the powers that be of the project’s viability in the face of various bureaucratic hurdles and military scepticism. Nevertheless, prior to final approval on February 26th 1943 a full-scale weapon was, in the words of one noted historian, “scarcely more than an inventor’s dream”. However, because the optimum time to attack the dams was in the spring, when the reservoirs were full, when approval did come it left very little time to design and produce the weapons themselves. On 26th February 1943 there were neither modified aircraft nor weapons, nor drawings of either. Wallis began to draw the first full-scale drawing of an Upkeep mine only on 27th February, just eleven weeks before the raid took place. “Upkeep “was effectively a 9250lb cylindrical mine or depth charge containing 6,600 lbs of Torpex underwater explosive and three hydrostatic pistols set to explode at 30ft below the surface. It was just under five feet long and just over four feet in diameter. The mine was held in the bomb-bay between twin sprung callipers, and a hydraulic motor imparted back spin at a rate of 500 rpm. The mine was intended to bounce across the water rather like a skipping stone, thus avoiding any torpedo nets. When it struck the dam wall the backspin would cause it to remain in contact with the face of the dam as it sank thus focusing the force of the explosion against the wall sufficient to rupture the massive stone structure. Aircraft: Modified Avro Lancaster B Mk III Special known as “Type 464 Provisioning”. The mid-upper gun turret along with the bomb-bay doors was removed and callipers along with a drive motor and belt fitted in the aircraft to hold and spin the bomb. Twin spotlights were fitted [see below] along with VHF radio telephone which allowed direct speech communication between aircraft, which was not normal for bomber aircraft at the time. This would allow Wg Cdr Gibson personally to direct the raid. The final approval to start modifying just three Lancasters to conduct experiments came only on 26th February 1943 with conversion sets to be prepared for thirty, later reduced to twenty, aircraft. The first plans for the necessary modifications being drawn up on 1st March and the order for the conversion of the first aircraft being signed on 8th March. The Role of Industry With such short timescales the firms involved, some of them natural rivals, had to co-operate or the project would be stillborn. Under the direction of the Chief Designer, Roy Chadwick, Avros set to work on modifying the three Lancasters and making the additional conversion sets, whilst Vickers-Armstrong in Barrow and Newcastle made the mine casings and the small drive engine for spinning the bombs. The Royal Ordnance Factory at Chorley in Lancashire would fill the casings with the torpex explosive. The Oxley Engineering company provided the steel for the “Upkeep” mines and the Hoffman Manufacturing company made the bearings for the drive mechanism. All these components and modifications had to be designed, manufactured and delivered in the eighty days between the 26th February and 17th May. The first modified Lancasters were delivered on 8th April and the last on 13th May just three days before the raid, and one aircraft used on the raid had been used in the experimental trials and arrived at Scampton only on the day itself. Vickers Armstrong at Barrow delivered the last of its fifty “Upkeep” mines to Chorley for filling with explosive on 9th April. Trials After initial trials dropping scaled down prototype weapons from a Wellington at Chesil Beach (Dec 1942 – March 1943), modified Lancasters were utilised during April and May to fly a series of tests dropping inert Upkeeps at Reculver on the Kent coast. The first trial drop was made on 13th April, just over a month before the raid. The mines were dropped at varying height and speed and differing bomb rotation speeds while Wallis attempted to work out the optimum approach height and speed for the raid. He also had to establish that spinning a massive four ton cylinder at several hundred rpm would neither rip it from the calliper arms, nor seriously affect the aircraft’s flying characteristics. These trials also established that the original design of the “Upkeep”, which included a spherical outer wooden casing held in place by metal rings like a beer barrel, was not robust enough to survive initial impact with the water. Although designed to make sure the mine would bounce for a greater distance, and run true, the wooden outer sphere repeatedly shattered leaving just the inner metal cylinder which had often continued bouncing along the surface during the trials after the casing broke away. On 21st April Wallis decided to dispense with the wooden casing and run “Upkeep” as a bare cylinder. The disadvantage was that if a cylindrical “Upkeep” was dropped on any plane but the horizontal it was likely to bite into the water on one side and either not bounce as well or go off line, or both. Even the cylinders, however, broke up and sank if they were dropped from too great a height or speed. On 24th April Wallis asked Gibson if he could drop the mine at 60’ and 232 miles per hour. At this speed and if it was dropped at the right distance, the mine would survive the impact with the water, the aircraft would be clear of the splash as it hit the surface, the weapon would carry all the way to the dam, and the aircraft would be flying fast enough to have some chance of getting through the defences. Air crew and Training: Number of air crew participating - 133 Number killed – 53 Number PoW: 3 RAF – 90; Royal Canadian Air Force – 29; Royal Australian Air Force – 12; Royal New Zealand Air Force – 2. Included in these figures were one American [RCAF] and one Anglo-American [RAF] and one Australian in the RAF. The crews, who had trained to operate their bombers at heights above 15000’, with a measured approach to the target allowing accurate navigation, were put through an intensive training programme involving extensive low-level flying and cross-country navigation eventually moving on to do the same thing at night, flying at 150’ over water, along with bombing practice. However, night-flying at that height with no moon was a a major problem and there were not enough moonlit nights, so four aircraft were fitted with an American system involving sheets of blue celluloid inside the Perspex and orange goggles, which gave the impression of moonlight when flying in the day. The aircraft flew very low, returning with dents and bits of foliage hanging off them and on at least two occasions birds smashed through the cockpit windscreens which could have been disastrous. However, despite many close shaves there were no serious accidents. Attack Method This varied depending on the type of dam. For the Mohne and Eder aircraft approached at SIXTY feet above the water IN THE DARK flying at 220 mph. For the earthen Sorpe dam aircraft flew along the dam very low at 180 mph and dropped the bomb, without spin, in the water alongside the middle of the dam. The barometric altimeters were not sensitive enough to give that accurate a reading and in any case the pilot could not look at the instrument panel at that height for fear of hitting the water. The aircraft therefore carried two spotlights which were angled so that when the beams met on the surface of the water the aircraft was flying at sixty feet, roughly twice the height of a normal house. The navigator watched the beams and called out “up” or “down” to the pilot. Flying very fast and very low with no modern radar aids with lights burning on your aircraft to show the enemy where you were was extremely hazardous. The wingspan of a Lancaster is 102’ so there was a real danger of hitting the water as the aircraft made the tight turns on the approaches to the dams. At the Eder and Sorpe the topography of the surrounding countryside with steep hills and the dams in the valleys made the approach in the dark to drop the bomb accurately in a large bomber very, very difficult. At the Eder the aircraft had to drop down from over 1000 feet to the lake and fly a curving approach hopping over a spit of land which rose to 50 feet less than a mile from the target, and then line up at the correct height and speed, before pulling up steeply to avoid the 300 feet hill which rose precipitously immediately behind the dam. To get the Lancaster down to 60 feet round and over the spit and lined up properly at right angles to the dam at 220 mph, and then make a climbing turn to getaway in the dark, was very challenging flying. At the Sorpe the aircraft had to fly over a 180-foot hill and dip down steeply to the dam just a quarter of a mile beyond to fly along and drop the bomb before climbing out using full power over another 300-foot hill immediately behind the dam. To make matters even more difficult a tall church steeple was exactly in line with the correct line of approach to the dam. The approach at the Mohne was slightly less daunting but still involved lifting the aircraft over a spit of land which rose to some 180 feet, but did provide some cover from the flak, and then dropping down to the surface of the lake to line up on the dam about a mile away. After dropping the mine the aircraft crossed the dam and then the pilot had to turn the big bomber round to the left away from flak positions to the right. Outward Flight to Target The route to and from dams was also flown at very low level to avoid the defences. Their primitive radio navigation aids were usually jammed over enemy territory though some apparently worked up to the River Rhine – most navigation after crossing the Dutch coast was done by map reading and dead reckoning. This was extremely difficult at low level in moonlight, and very dangerous – two, aircraft hit power cables and crashed, and one hit the surface of the sea, lost its bomb and was very lucky to make it back to Scampton. Some aircraft flew beneath power cables on their way to the target and others flew along roads below the level of the surrounding trees. Others strayed off course by just a few miles, which it was almost impossible to avoid doing, but the route had been designed to avoid flak defences, though not all were known, and some of the unlucky ones who strayed in the wrong place were shot down. Three waves of aircraft were sent to attack. First Wave – 9 aircraft in 3 “vics” of 3. To attack the Mohne, Eder and Sorpe dams. Aircraft Captains: Gibson, Martin, Hopgood; Young, Shannon, Maltby; Maudslay, Knight, Astell. Second Wave – 5 aircraft. To attack the Sorpe. Aircraft Captains: Barlow, Munro, Rice, Byers, McCarthy. Third Wave – 5 aircraft. Airborne reserve. Aircraft Captains: Ottley, Burpee, Brown, Townsend, Anderson. Despatched: 19 Attacking dam: 11 Lost: 8 Aborted mission: 2 The waves followed different routes and the second wave actually took off first as it had the longest route. The weather produced stronger winds than forecast and this caused serious problems for the second wave, which actually crossed the Dutch coast first. Unforecast winds had pushed the aircraft south of their intended track. One aircraft, that of Byers, strayed over the heavily defended island of Texel, rather than the intended landfall at the apparently undefended but similar looking island of Vlieland. Byers’ aircraft was shot down and the crew were all killed. A short while later Munro’s aircraft flew over Vlieland, but was hit by fire from a flak battery whose presence was not known. Munro’s aircraft was damaged and he was forced to return to Scampton. A different disaster befell Rice, whose aircraft hit the surface of the sea, ripping the Upkeep mine free and flooding the back of the aircraft with seawater. A shaken but very lucky Rice and crew also returned to Scampton. Some while later Barlow’s aircraft hit power lines, possibly after being struck by flak, and crashed with the loss of all on board. Four out of five aircraft from the second wave had thus been lost or had aborted within a short space of time. The fifth crew, McCarthy’s, had hurriedly had to change aircraft at Scampton because of a technical problem and were flying twenty minutes behind the others in the second wave. They crossed at Vlieland and were fired on but not hit, McCarthy reporting that he sank down to fly between two large dunes to provide cover from the flak! Later in the trip the aircraft was hit by a cannon shell which hit the undercarriage nacelle and burst the starboard tyre. Red Aircraft (8) were lost, Grey Aircraft (3)turned back and Blue Aircraft (8) made it home The first wave, unlike the second, took-off in vics of three and tried to maintain this loose formation on the way to the target, which was very unusual for a night operation. Like the second wave, some of these aircraft were also pushed off-course and the first vic, led by Gibson, crossed the coast at the ominously and appropriately named island of Overflakee, which was heavily defended. Flying very fast and very low they were luckier than the aircraft of the second wave and caught the Germans by surprise and went across unscathed. The second vic, ten minutes behind, had climbed higher to use their radio aids and discovered the unforecast wind, so were on course. However, climbing to use the radio aids probably exposed them to the German radars, and although they crossed at the right place, the defences were awake and fired on the aircraft. The third trio, Maudslay, Astell and Knight, were on course and crossed the coast unscathed. En route to the Mohne Gibson’s vic came under fire several times and Hopgood’s aircraft was damaged. - Young’s vic made it to the dam without damage despite being fired on, although Shannon’s aircraft was hit as it arrived at the Mohne by flak from one of the towers on the dam. The third vic was not so lucky and Astell’s aircraft collided with high tension cables north of the Ruhr. The aircraft crashed in flames and all the crew were killed. The third wave took off some time after the first two with the first aircraft taking off shortly after midnight. Each aircraft was detailed to one of the alternative targets and was also to be prepared to attack the Mohne or Eder if they did not receive a direct order in the air to attack the alternative dam. The first aircraft off was Ottley’s, and it was instructed by radio at 0230 to attack the Lister dam, and the message was acknowledged by the aircraft, but two minutes later another message changed this to the Sorpe. No acknowledgement was received. Ottley had strayed over the heavily defended town of Hamm in the Ruhr and his aircraft was hit and caught fire, crashed, and the fuel tanks and then the mine exploded. Incredibly, the rear gunner, Sergeant Tees was blown clear still inside his turret by one of the explosions and survived, badly burned, to become a PoW. The aircraft’s demise was witnessed by other crews, including that of Gibson who was passing to the north of Hamm on his return journey and who hoped, vainly, that the exploding aircraft was a night fighter. The second aircraft in the wave, piloted by Burpee, also strayed off course, and flew over a German airfield at Gilze-Rijen near Tilburg where it was hit by flak, caught fire and exploded, before crashing on the edge of the airfield, killing all on board. Brown and Townsend were also sorely troubled by flak but survived unscathed, not least by flying below the height of the trees on occasion. The last to leave Scampton was Cyril Anderson, who was also plagued by searchlights and flak which drove him away from his prescribed route and his rear guns also malfunctioned. Deep over enemy territory Anderson and his crew could not pinpoint their position as mist obscured many of the landmarks they were looking for. Eventually, shortly after three in the morning they abandoned the mission and turned for home to fly back the way they had come whilst it was still dark. The Attacks The Mohne The first dam to be attacked was the Mohne. Gibson flew over the dam once and then informed the other aircraft circling out of range of the flak that he was going to attack. As the aircraft passed over the spit of land, so low that the bomb-aimer told Gibson he was going to hit the trees, the navigator turned on the spotlights and gave Gibson instructions of “down…down” until the aircraft was at 60’, meanwhile the mine was spinning at 500 rpm and the bomb-aimer using the primitive but effective home-made sight waited for the right moment to release the bomb. The flak towers on the dam opened fire and the front-gunner of Gibson’s Lancaster fired back. Gibson admitted to being very frightened as his brightly lit aircraft became the target for every gun in the area but concentrated on keeping the aircraft lined up and rock steady at 60’ while his flight engineer adjusted the speed. At 28 minutes past midnight they dropped their Upkeep mine at 230 mph on a bearing of 330 degrees. It bounced three times, but sank short of the wall. After a short delay the hydrostatic pistols detonated the bomb at the correct depth and a great spout of water surged up and over the dam wall. At first it was thought the dam had collapsed, but as the water subsided it was seen still to be intact. After allowing the waters of the lake to settle, Gibson called Hopgood in to attack. The flak gunners now knew what to expect and the aircraft was seen to be hit several times on the approach. The bomb-aimer knew that their orders were to be sure to drop the mine correctly and was considering ordering another run when the aircraft was hit. Hopgood ordered the mine to bereleased. This, unsurprisingly, resulted in the bomb being dropped late, and it bounced right over the dam and exploded, wrecking the main power house. Hopgood’s aircraft was on fire and he ordered the crew to bale out as the Lancaster struggled to 500’ and then exploded. Only the rear gunner and the bomb-aimer baled out successfully and both men had chosen to pull the ripcord of their parachutes inside the aircraft, which undoubtedly saved their lives – all the other crewmembers perished. Martin attacked next, with Gibson flying alongside him to distract the flak gunners, and the mine was dropped at 38 minutes past midnight on a bearing of 335 degrees at 217 mph. It veered to the left and exploded near the bank of the reservoir twenty yards from the dam. Gibson now called up Young. Martin flew on Young’s left to distract the gunners while Gibson flew parallel to the dam on the downstream side hoping to divide the fire from the defences on and beyond the dam. Young made the perfect approach and drop, and his bomb hit the centre of the dam. The dam was apparently intact after the attack, and Maltby was making his bomb run with Martin and Gibson both acting as decoys when he saw the centre of the dam crumbling. Maltby veered to one side and dropped his mine which bounced, struck the dam and exploded. The dam was already failing before Maltby’s mine exploded, and now millions of gallons of water were pouring through the breach and down the valley and beyond. Gibson, who had already ordered Shannon to prepare to attack, cancelled the order and instructed Shannon, Maudslay, and Knight to accompany him to the Eder dam, along with Young, who was to act as deputy leader if anything happened to Gibson. The Sorpe Meanwhile the sole survivor of the second wave, McCarthy, had arrived at the Sorpe which had been difficult to find because of low mist in the valleys. It was immediately apparent that the approach to the dam was extremely challenging, and so it proved. McCarthy flew the approach nine times but found it difficult to clear the high hill and then bring the Lancaster down low enough, with the church steeple on the approach proving particularly troublesome, and either McCarthy himself or his bomb-aimer were not satisfied that all was right and called for the aircraft to go around again. The other members of the crew became restless as the bomber had now been circuiting the dam for half an hour and they were also puzzled that no other aircraft from the second wave had appeared. Eventually, on the tenth approach both McCarthy and his bomb-aimer were satisfied that the approach was perfect and dropped the bomb alongside the dam. Two and a half hours later Brown, who had received a radio message directing his aircraft to attack the Sorpe while in the air, arrived at the dam and found that the ground mist was now even thicker. Brown found the approach no easier than McCarthy, and the thickening mist made flying the circuit correctly difficult even though the dam itself was clear, and after flying into a mist-bound nearby valley and nearly crashing he ordered that incendiaries be dropped round the circuit to help him. In all Brown flew five separate approaches before dropping the mine on his sixth attempt. Although both mines exploded close to the dam and caused considerable damage, no breach occurred. The loss of so many from the second wave had seriously weakened the assault on the Sorpe and it survived the attack. The Eder The aircraft flying to the Eder all had difficult finding it in the thickening mists and when Gibson eventually located it he fired a red flare to attract the other crews. As at the Sorpe the approach proved very difficult. Shannon flew three or four approaches without being able to get the Lancaster low enough after the steep dive and sharp turn. Maudslay then tried twice with similar results. Shannon flew two more approaches before he and his bomb-aimer were satisfied, dropping his mine at 1.39 in the morning. Maudslay then flew down the valley for the third time. The watching Gibson thought that he saw something hanging from the Lancaster as if it had previously been damaged. The mine was released but probably too close to the dam and exploded on hitting the parapet shortly after Maudslay’s aircraft passed over it. It is not clear whether the aircraft was caught in the explosion of its own Upkeep or not, as the eyewitnesses differed. Maudslay made brief and indistinct radio contact with Gibson and is known to have left the area immediately, suggesting his aircraft may indeed have been damaged. Knight attacked next, making one dummy run, before dropping his mine at the correct height, speed and alignment. It hit the dam, sank, and exploded at the correct depth. The dam crumbled and collapsed and the water poured into the valley beyond. The Ennepe/Bever Apart from Brown, the only other aircraft of the third wave to make an attack was Townsend, who believed he dropped his mine at the Ennepe dam. As with the other dams he found flying the right approach at the right speed and height difficult and made three dummy runs before dropping the weapon on his fourth approach. It exploded short of the dam and no significant damage resulted. It is almost certain that Townsend actually attacked another dam in the area, the Bever, as German sources report an attack on this dam but none on the Ennepe. Homeward Bound Of the nineteen aircraft which left Scampton eleven had made attacks, resulting in breaches at the Mohne and Eder and damage to the Sorpe. Two aircraft had returned early, five had been lost on the outward journey and one at the Mohne dam. The surviving aircraft, including one which could not find its target, still had to make their way home across hundreds of miles of hostile territory. On the return trip two more aircraft were to be shot down. The victims were two of the most senior and experienced members of the Squadron. Maudslay’s aircraft may or may not have been caught in the explosion of its own weapon over the Eder and suffered further damage. Two radio messages were heard from the aircraft after the attack and it is clear that it headed for home as soon as it had dropped its mine. Probably damaged it strayed too close to the oil refineries at Emmerich on its return journey and was shot down by the flak defences. Young very nearly made it home but fell victim to German flak batteries on the coast of Holland and crashed into the sea. There were no survivors from either aircraft. McCarthy’s aircraft also nearly came to grief when it strayed over the heavily defended marshalling yards of Hamm, flying through them so low that a member of the crew remarked that the Germans didn’t need flak they only needed to change the points. Other aircraft were fired on by flak batteries on the return journey and at the coast. In all eight aircraft from the raid were lost resulting in the deaths of 53 men: three more became PoWs. The Results The flooding from the breached dams affected a wide area inundating many factories and damaging or destroying power stations, road and rail bridges, and other facilities. The loss of power and water for the Ruhr, crucial to many manufacturing processes, was also significant. Among a large number of towns temporarily deprived of water were Hamm, Hagen, Bochum and Dortmund. The Germans had to draft in tens of thousands of workers to repair the damaged dams and other facilities, including at least 7000 workers removed from building the Atlantic Wall defences against Allied invasion with direct positive results a year later during the D-Day invasion. Both ammunition and coal production fell after the attack, just at the point that the Germans mounted their last significant offensive on the Eastern Front. The raid also had political consequences. Prime Minister Winston Churchill was visiting America at the time, and news of the attack’s success was telephoned through to him. He was able to make considerable capital from the attack and specifically referred to it in an address to the American Congress. American and British newspapers also made much of the attack with it appearing on the front page of British papers and the New York Times. The Germans also constructed elaborate defences at all the dams in the Ruhr and elsewhere, diverting considerable military and construction resources in the process. These included anti-aircraft batteries covering every dam – prior to the raid only the Mohne had any guns protecting it. The dams were also protected by mine barrages, ramps to deflect Upkeep mines, and wire net curtains strung in front to down low flying aircraft. Although the human cost of the raid was high, and unsustainable on a regular basis, it should be remembered that it represented less than a 1000th of Bomber Command’s total losses, and the results of the attack, politically, economically and militarily undoubtedly made it worthwhile. Decorations: Air crew decorated 34 Victoria Cross – 1; Distinguished Service Order – 5; Distinguished Flying Cross – 10; Bar to Distinguished Flying Cross – 4; Conspicuous Gallantry Medal – 2; Distinguished Flying Medal 11; Bar to Distinguished Flying Medal – 1.	six hundred and seventeen
The Seiges of Ladysmith and Mafeking were military actions during which war?	Dambusters final flight - News stories - GOV.UK Dambusters final flight Afghanistan and Afghanistan This news article was published under the 2010 to 2015 Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition government An RAF squadron famous for carrying out one of the most daring raids of the Second World War has flown its final Afghanistan mission. A 617 Squadron Tornado aircraft on the runway at Kandahar Airfield More than 70 years after its creation, the RAF ’s 617 Squadron, known as ‘The Dambusters’, has completed its last operational mission as a Tornado squadron with a flight in the skies over Afghanistan. This last flight was a mission in support of coalition troops that involved providing protection and relaying information from above directly to commanders on the ground; a task that has now been handed over to No 2 (Army Co-operation) Squadron from RAF Marham. 617 Squadron is due to disband on 1 April, but will reform as the RAF ’s first Lightning II squadron in 2018. A 617 Squadron Tornado aircraft at Kandahar Airfield [Picture: Sergeant Si Pugsley RAF , Crown copyright] Now their mission in Afghanistan is over, Wing Commander David Arthurton will bring the Dambusters back home to RAF Lossiemouth. He said: It is fitting that this milestone event occurred on operations, delivering decisive air power much as our forebears did in 1943. Back then the squadron was employed on offensive operations whereas today we’re trying to set the conditions for enduring security and peace. I think there are many parallels – the team spirit that existed back then endures to this day and I think the focus on getting the job done is exactly the same. During their final operational tour, the Dambusters flew 188 missions, clocking up more than 1,500 flying hours supported by 11,352 engineering man-hours. Squadron Leader Mark Jackson carries out pre-flight checks before his last operational flight aboard a Tornado [Picture: Sergeant Si Pugsley RAF , Crown copyright] The pilot selected to lead the final flight, Squadron Leader Mark Jackson, said: As I stepped down from the aircraft for the last time, my emotions were mixed. Tinged with sadness is an overwhelming sense of achievement for what the squadron have accomplished. I am sure that the original Dambusters felt a similar poignancy at the end of their iconic raid and would echo how very proud I am of those that serve today. The Dambusters have a legacy of low-level flying from their origins in the Second World War. In Afghanistan they carried out 14 ‘shows of force’ that involved flying fast and low to deter enemy forces from attacking coalition ground troops. Some of the air and ground crew of 617 Squadron shortly after the last operational Tornado flight [Picture: Sergeant Si Pugsley RAF , Crown copyright] Squadron Leader Jackson added: Most of us on the squadron asked to come here for a specific reason. Hopefully in some way we’re honouring the original Dambusters by continuing to be on operations. Even though we’re due to disband in March this year, we will reform as the RAF ’s first Lightning II Squadron in 2018. The squadron will continue to be at the forefront of air combat in defence of the UK. VIDEO: Dambusters final operational Tornado flight	i don't know
What is the first name of the American professional tennis player with the surname Fish.	Mardy Fish \| The Official Web Site BENEFITING: MARDY FISH FOUNDATION INC EVENT DATE: Nov 01, 2015 When former U.S. #1 Tennis Professional Mardy Fish picked up his first tennis racquet, his father Tom Fish was right by his side, using tennis as a means to show Mardy a way to accomplish great things. Now, as Mardy wraps up his career at this year’s US Open in NYC, Tom will be with him, honoring his son’s accomplishments, and setting the stage to accomplish even more important things in their future. And what better way to honor Mardy's accomplishments than to offer other children the opportunity to recognize their own potential to accomplish great things? MFCF uses health and fitness programs to teach the same important lesson Tom taught Mardy all those years ago when Mardy picked up that first racquet – that every child has potential for greatness. Mardy and Tom are honored to celebrate their accomplishments by helping children discover the greatness in themselves. You can help Tom honor Mardy by pledging your support to Tom’s NYC Marathon run. In doing so, you help Mardy and Tom make important and lasting differences in the lives of others. Discover your own potential to be great by helping another child discover their own. Visit mffkids.org to learn more. No donation is too small. Mardy wants to thank everyone for all their support and encouragement. It is greatly appreciated. Great story of courage, Congratulations Fish. Big respect for a huge talented player..... All the best to you Mardy! You're a great guy and we've missed seeing you play on the tour. Kudos for all it has taken you to return and enjoy tennis and life in general again. Great performance on your match after a long while, Mardy. Welcome back. Looking forward to your next tournament. Thank you, Mardy Fish for being a much-needed role model for those people dealing with mental/anxiety disorders! Bravo to your comeback! Nice, tough guy. No doubt. His personal win is more important than winning, say, 17 slams. You are the hero. You set a GREAT model to my two children. Good luck and have fun on courts. So very happy to see Mardy back on the court. He is by far my most favorite American tennis player. It was a joy to watch him. I wish him only the best for his life on and off the court. But hope it is on the court. Congratulations Mardy on your journey back. Wishing good health and many more matches to Mardy Fish! :) The best for Mardy Fish after struggling so hard !! He is a great player and person! Respect!	Mardy
In which country is Fishoek, a wine producing coastal area.	Mardy Fish \| The Official Web Site BENEFITING: MARDY FISH FOUNDATION INC EVENT DATE: Nov 01, 2015 When former U.S. #1 Tennis Professional Mardy Fish picked up his first tennis racquet, his father Tom Fish was right by his side, using tennis as a means to show Mardy a way to accomplish great things. Now, as Mardy wraps up his career at this year’s US Open in NYC, Tom will be with him, honoring his son’s accomplishments, and setting the stage to accomplish even more important things in their future. And what better way to honor Mardy's accomplishments than to offer other children the opportunity to recognize their own potential to accomplish great things? MFCF uses health and fitness programs to teach the same important lesson Tom taught Mardy all those years ago when Mardy picked up that first racquet – that every child has potential for greatness. Mardy and Tom are honored to celebrate their accomplishments by helping children discover the greatness in themselves. You can help Tom honor Mardy by pledging your support to Tom’s NYC Marathon run. In doing so, you help Mardy and Tom make important and lasting differences in the lives of others. Discover your own potential to be great by helping another child discover their own. Visit mffkids.org to learn more. No donation is too small. Mardy wants to thank everyone for all their support and encouragement. It is greatly appreciated. Great story of courage, Congratulations Fish. Big respect for a huge talented player..... All the best to you Mardy! You're a great guy and we've missed seeing you play on the tour. Kudos for all it has taken you to return and enjoy tennis and life in general again. Great performance on your match after a long while, Mardy. Welcome back. Looking forward to your next tournament. Thank you, Mardy Fish for being a much-needed role model for those people dealing with mental/anxiety disorders! Bravo to your comeback! Nice, tough guy. No doubt. His personal win is more important than winning, say, 17 slams. You are the hero. You set a GREAT model to my two children. Good luck and have fun on courts. So very happy to see Mardy back on the court. He is by far my most favorite American tennis player. It was a joy to watch him. I wish him only the best for his life on and off the court. But hope it is on the court. Congratulations Mardy on your journey back. Wishing good health and many more matches to Mardy Fish! :) The best for Mardy Fish after struggling so hard !! He is a great player and person! Respect!	i don't know
In Finding Nemo, what was the name of Nemo's father.	Nemo \| Disney Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia — Marlin Nemo is a very energetic young clownfish. He's very eager to go to school at the beginning of the movie, but lazy at the end. He is also quite friendly with anyone he meets. His father's overprotectiveness leads to him being frustrated most of the time. He leads him into being captured by fishermen. Adventuring and exploring are some of his likes. He can also be very brave, as shown when he was willing to risk his life to jam the filter after hearing about all his father had done to come and save him and when he willingly entered a net that captured a school of fish to lead them to freedom. His relationship with his father is what defines the film. Although Nemo loves his father, initially, he felt suffocated and confined by his father's overprotectiveness, which led him to tell Marlin "I hate you." However, after being kidnapped by some scuba divers and placed in a fish tank, he felt sorry for what he did but did not believe his father would come to get him due to his paranoia and fear of danger. However, after learning of his father's bravery, he became braver and hopeful, wanting to quickly meet up with and reconcile with his father, which he managed to do at the end of the film. He also demonstrated remarkable leadership, as shown when he led a school of fish to direct them to swim downward to break the net that captured them. Appearances Finding Nemo Nemo is a young clownfish who lives with his father, Marlin in a sea anemone. Before he hatched from his egg, Nemo's mother, Coral , and the other eggs were killed in an attack by a barracuda . Only Nemo's egg survived, albeit slightly cracked. As a result of the crack, one of Nemo's fins is smaller than the others, thus Marlin worries about him. One day, Nemo heads off to his first day of school. At one point, he boldly leaves the reef to go to a boat on the open ocean. Marlin, who is watching (and also alerted by the student Kathy ), orders Nemo to come back, when Nemo is suddenly taken by a diver to a fish tank in a dentist's office in Sydney, Australia. In the tank, Nemo meets the Tank Gang, and their leader, Gill . The fish are horrified when they learn that Nemo, whom they have dubbed "Sharkbait," is to be a gift for the dentist's niece, Darla . Darla has a past history as a "fish-killer" and so the Tank Gang decides to help Nemo avoid that fate. The initial plan to make the tank dirty fails when the dentist installs a new cleaner. While the plan is being carried out, however, Nemo learns from Nigel the pelican that his father is looking for him, which lifts the young fish's spirits. When Darla arrives, Nemo is placed in a bag. Nemo is able to fool the dentist by playing dead, causing the dentist to flush Nemo into a drain. However, an observing Marlin believes that Nemo has really died and swims off. In the ocean, Nemo runs into Dory , who has earlier helped Marlin in his search for Nemo. Though Dory does not initially remember Marlin's goal, due to a short-term memory loss issue, she soon recalls it and leads Nemo to Marlin who is still brokenhearted. Marlin and Nemo are thrilled to see each other, but Dory is suddenly caught in a fisherman's net with a school of grouper. Nemo is able to use the skills he obtained from his time in the tank to save Dory. This gives Marlin a new-found respect for his son's abilities, and Marlin becomes less protective of him. He smiles as he watches Nemo going to school. Finding Dory Nemo reappears in the sequel where he is neighbors with Dory and actually tolerates her memory condition. After a field trip with his school, he hears an unconscious Dory talk about the Jewel of Morocco Bay, California and when this escalates to Dory remembering her parents, Nemo is willing to help in contrast to his more reluctant dad. When they arrive, they are attacked by a Giant Squid awoken by Dory, resulting in Nemo getting injured, causing Marlin to snap and insult her greatly, causing her to swim off in despondency. Needless to say, Nemo heard his dad and becomes quite upset with him for this for a majority of the film. Video Games Nemo appears in Disney Universe as a costumed character. Nemo also appears in Kinect Disneyland Adventures as a main character in the mini game Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage based on the real life ride of the same name. Disney Parks Nemo as he appears at the Disney Parks. Nemo appears in several Disney attractions including the Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage at Disneyland , which is apparently a sequel to the film. The Seas with Nemo & Friends , located in Epcot at Walt Disney World Resort , also features Nemo. The ride's storyline has various characters from the film searching for Nemo, who has apparently become lost once again. Nemo and other characters are featured as articulated puppets in Finding Nemo: The Musical at Disney's Animal Kingdom . Duplicates of the Nemo puppet have appeared in various parades at other parks. Gallery The Disney Wiki has a collection of images and media related to Nemo . Trivia Nemo is Disney's first ever titular tritagonist. In Monsters, Inc. , Nemo appears as one of the toys that Boo gives to Sulley after she returns to her room . He also appears on the wall of the Trailer Son and Mom 's trailer when Sulley and Mike throw Randall through the door. A Nemo sticker is seen on Andy 's toy chest in Toy Story 3 . Nemo's name could very well be a reference to Captain Nemo from Jules Verne's novel 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea and Disney's 1954 film adaptation . Nemo, in turn, is actually Latin for "no one." In the aforementioned novel, Captain Nemo was so called since nobody ever knows what his real name is if he ever had one. For the record, he was an Indian prince named Dakkar. This could also be why Nemo is not included on posters for the first movie. Nemo's friend Sandy Plankton could be a reference to Nickelodeon's SpongeBob SquarePants franchise, as "Sandy" and "Plankton" are names of characters from that show.	Marlin
Which progressive rock band had a track called The Fish on their 1971 album Fragile, their 4th album, but the first to feature Rick Wakeman.	Marlin \| Disney Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Marlin is the protagonist of Disney / Pixar 's 2003 animated film Finding Nemo , and the tritagonist of its 2016 sequel . Contents [ show ] Background Marlin is a clownfish who makes his home inside a sea anemone in the Great Barrier Reef. He once had a mate Coral who died in a barracuda attack, along with almost all of his children. Also, as a result of the attack, he has one son, Nemo . Marlin can be somewhat overprotective of Nemo. He also tends to be neurotic, worrisome and pessimistic, believing Nemo can't swim well when he actually can swim pretty well for a fish with a small pectoral fin. However, this does not stop him from going on a journey to find his lost son, proving his determination. Personality Marlin was initially a very playful, happy, and easygoing clownfish as shown through the interaction with his wife. He was shown to be slightly lazy, as he wanted to name half of his children Marlin Jr. and the other half of his children Coral Jr. However, he was also shown to be very brave, as he attempted to defend his wife against the barracuda who sought to eat his children and his mate, but was ultimately repelled and knocked unconscious and into the sea anemone before he could do anything. This protected him, but also cost him his entire family, with the exception of Nemo, who was left with a crack in his egg, which could have caused his "lucky fin". From this moment on, Marlin became overprotective, neurotic, paranoid, worrisome, and pessimistic, as he made several practices and conditions for Nemo and himself to follow to make sure they were protected and safe. He became paranoid and neurotic about any potential danger that could occur to Nemo and as such rarely left Nemo alone due to the traumatic experience of losing the rest of his family to a barracuda attack, and not wanting the same thing to happen to Nemo. However, this overprotectiveness is what put somewhat of a strain between him and Nemo, as Nemo felt suffocated and oppressed by it. He also seems to, initially, be very serious, as shown when he couldn't tell a proper joke to some of Nemo's classmates' parents because he kept explaining obvious aspects of the joke, causing him to be considered unfunny despite the apparent notion that all clownfish were supposed to be funny, which became a recurring gag throughout the movie as others state, "He's not very funny for a clownfish". During his journey, Marlin was on the verge of losing Nemo, the only family he had left, and was rushing as fast as he could to save Nemo. This caused him to have little patience for Dory's antics and to other sidetracks. However, despite these qualities, Marlin has proven to love his son more than anything and anyone in this world, and it is this love that fuels his determination, strength, courage, and bravery as he journeyed throughout the sea to find his son after he is kidnapped by humans. Marlin overcame with the bravery and courage not seen in his previous behavior to recover the person he loved most in the world despite the odds being against him. Throughout the journey, he makes several friends and begins to understand that he should have given Nemo more freedom, particularly through his interactions with Dory and Crush because, as Dory states, "You can't let nothing happen to him, because then nothing will happen to him", meaning if Marlin doesn't let Nemo grow up and get out in the world, he won't be able to live life to the fullest. He also begins to enjoy himself throughout his journey, and slowly sheds his serious personality, as shown when he had fun when he competed with Dory in racing to see who could get out of the jellyfish valley first and finally managed to have fun with his son Nemo by the end of the film. Appearances Finding Nemo At the beginning of the film, Marlin and his mate, Coral are expecting 400 children, which are due to hatch soon. The two are discussing names for their children, when a barracuda attacks. While Coral disappeared, and most of the eggs perish, Marlin and one slightly damaged egg survive. Marlin chooses to name his remaining child Nemo , a name Coral had liked. As Nemo grows, Marlin becomes very overprotective of him, in part due to Nemo's unusually small right fin, which was a result of the earlier attack. One day, Marlin reluctantly sends Nemo to school. At one point, thanks to the alert of one student, Kathy , Nemo swims out into the open ocean to touch a boat as a result of a dare, much to the horror of Marlin. Nemo is captured by a diver . However, the diver drops a mask which bears his address, though Marlin can't read it. Marlin is able to obtain the help of Dory , who is able to read the address but has short term memory loss, and learns that Nemo has been taken to Sydney, Australia . Marlin, along with Dory, sets out for Sydney in an attempt to rescue his son. At one point on their journey, Dory is injured by jellyfish . Marlin swims through the jellyfish and is able to rescue her. (He explains that since he lives in an anemone, he is resistant to stings.) Marlin soon passes out, and awakens on the back of a sea turtle named Crush , who is riding the East Australian Current (EAC). After Marlin shares his story with some young sea turtles, word of mouth soon reaches Sydney and eventually, Nemo. Marlin eventually reaches Sydney's harbor by way of a whale , after becoming lost in the polluted water. Nigel , a pelican who has heard of Marlin, and knows Nemo, takes Marlin and Dory to a dentist's office where Nemo was taken. There, they find Nemo, apparently dead (Nemo was actually faking it in an attempt to escape). Saddened, Marlin leaves for home, leaving Dory behind despite her claims that her memory is better with him. Later, while swimming through a fishing area, he hears a familiar voice calling out to him. He soon realizes that it's Dory and a still alive Nemo. Dory had met Nemo and soon remembered everything, leading him to Marlin. Marlin happily reunites with his son, but the moment is cut short when Dory is caught in a fishing net. Marlin watches as Nemo is able to successfully rescue her with skills he learned while in the tank at the dentist's office. Marlin had disobeyed himself and becomes less overprotective. The end of the film shows Marlin, along with Dory, waving goodbye as Nemo goes off to school. Finding Dory In the sequel, Marlin, along with Nemo , accompanies Dory to the Jewel of Morro Bay, California, in her journey to find her parents , whom she suddenly remembers. When Dory gets kidnapped by the volunteers of the Marine Life Institute, the father-son clownfish duo goes on a quest to find her. Disney Parks Marlin features in both the Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage at Disneyland , which features Marlin searching for Nemo, who has become lost once again. He is also in The Seas with Nemo & Friends at Epcot , which features a similar storyline. He also appears in Finding Nemo: The Musical as an articulated puppet, which is used to retell the film's story in the style of a Broadway play. Duplicates of the puppet were also used in the Pixar Play Parade , and the Paint the Night Electrical Parade . Marlin also appears with Dory in Nigel 's mouth in the Mickey's Storybook Express parade. Gallery The Disney Wiki has a collection of images and media related to Marlin . Trivia In Monsters, Inc. , a painting of Marlin can be seen on the wall behind the Sushi Chef . As pointed out by Nigel , a marlin is actually a type of billfish (such as the sailfish and swordfish) that is popularized by sport fishing. In reality, clownfish are protandrous hermaphrodites (meaning they are born male but can change sex later in life), so whenever a female clownfish within a school of fish dies, a male will change gender to make up for the death and mate with the other male. Scientifically speaking, if Finding Nemo had been more accurate to nature, Marlin would have become female shortly after his wife's death. This would have made him Nemo's mother, not his father. Common or Ocellaris Clownfish are considered good beginner fish for salt water aquarists.	i don't know
Who starred in the 1991 movie The Fisher King	Super Reviewer ½ An intriguingly original mix of fantasy, drama, and comedy concerning a brash radio host (Jeff Bridges) who feels responsible once one of his listeners goes off the edge and goes on a shooting spree. One of those affected by this tragedy, now a crazed homeless man (Robin Williams), crosses paths with the now haunted DJ, and the radio host feels this is his chance at redemption, even though his girlfriend (Mercedes Ruehl) is not supportive of it at first. Director Terry Gilliam is well known for being fairly whimsical and goofy with his material, and this film is no exception. It feels a tad unnecessary at times, but the script itself is so strong, and the performances are all so, so good, that this film remains likeable throughout its running time. It balances a lot of heavy material such as loneliness, madness, and depression very well, and New York City proves to be the perfect backdrop for a story such as this one. Dan Schultz Super Reviewer ½ With the death of Robin Williams, in review this film may be one of his performances that leave you heartbroken. Williams plays Parry, a homeless vagrant who is still reeling from the murder of his wife three years prior, via an insane mass shooter. Bridges is a shock jock whose thoughtless antics leads said mass shooter to do the deed. Playing on this achingly pathetic set-up, director Gilliam leads us by the hand through his mystical world, created by the bitterness of grief, the terror of self-actualization, and the wonder of change. Bridges and Williams both engender the sympathy of the audience with their human performances, symbiotic and yet complete opposites. The symbolism of the Red Knight is mythological but also telling of the psychological trauma induced by his wife's death. It is both the driving fear of the unknown and also the self-hatred that lends itself to Parry's psychosis. This symbol can be regarded as everyone's true fear, anyone's anxiety inducing parallel, and that not only is very touching when regarded as a metaphor for mental illness, but for those running from something in general. Very beautiful in execution, and always heartbreaking, no matter the context, Gilliam created a vivid world, and an even wilder set of characters for us to fall in love with. Spencer S. Super Reviewer Leave it to Terry Gilliam to take a story about redemption and turn it into something quirky and off the wall. Jack Lucas is a radio shock jock whose rantings lead to a psychotic listener embarking on a mass shooting spree at a nightclub. Three years later, Jack is still detached , depressed, and suicidal. During a drunken attempt to end his life, Jack is saved by a crazed street person named Parry who styles himself as a medieval style night on the quest to claim the Holy Grail. When Jack discovers that he is inadvertently responsible for this man's nuttiness (the man's girlfriend was killed at the night club), he takes it upon himself to help him out and redeem himself. Like I said, leave it to Gilliam to bring you on a wild journey, one that, like a lot of his works, blurs the line between reality and fantasy. This actually might be Gilliam's most down to Earth film, but it's far from normal. Overall, I really liked it. It is overlong, sometimes incoherent, and maybe a bit too ambitious for its own good. However, the film is shot well, has a lot of neat ideas, and we get some great performances from Jeff Bridges as Jack, and Robin Williams as Parry. This is easily one of Bridges's strongest performances, and he really fits the bill perfectly. Williams gets a little too characteristically off the rails at times, but he and Bridges do have some strong moments together, and I have to give him props for being willing to run around Central Park completely naked on a very cold night. Amanda Plummer is good as Lydia- the object of Parry's desire, and Mercedes Ruehl is nice as Jack's girlfriend Anne. I also loved Michael Jeter as a homeless cabaret singer, and Tom Waits as a wheelchair-bound veteran. Give this one a look. It's wild, offbeat, and a good mix of comedy and drama. Chris Weber	Robin Williams
What is the currency name in Bulgaria?	Watch The Fisher King Online Free Putlocker \| Putlocker - Watch Movies Online Free Stars: Jeff Bridges , Robin Williams , Adam Bryant Synopsis: A madman carries out a massacre in a popular New York bar, after hearing the popular DJ Jack Lucas rail against Yuppies. Dejected by remorse, the DJ strikes up a friendship with Perry, former professor who became unhinged and then homeless after witnessing his wife's violent death in the bar shooting. Jack seeks redemption by helping Perry in his quest to recover what he believes is The Holy Grail, from the private Library of a New York Socialite and to win the heart of Lydia, the girl Perry has fallen in love with. Watch The Fisher King - Version 1 The video keeps buffering? Just pause it for 5-10 minutes then continue playing! Sponsored Content	i don't know
Which comedian, writer & actor had the character Loadsamoney' which he played on his TV shows?	Harry Enfield - IMDb IMDb Official Photos » Harry Enfield was born on May 30, 1961 in Horsham, Sussex [now West Sussex], England. He is an actor and writer, known for Kevin & Perry Go Large (2000), Ruddy Hell! It's Harry and Paul (2007) and Churchill: The Hollywood Years (2004). He has been married to Lucy Lyster since February 1997. They have three children. See full bio » Born:	Harry Enfield
Which actress played Miss Moneypenny in the James Bond films fourteen times, from Dr. No (1962) until her final performance of the character in A View to a Kill (1985).	Harry Enfield - IMDb IMDb Official Photos » Harry Enfield was born on May 30, 1961 in Horsham, Sussex [now West Sussex], England. He is an actor and writer, known for Kevin & Perry Go Large (2000), Ruddy Hell! It's Harry and Paul (2007) and Churchill: The Hollywood Years (2004). He has been married to Lucy Lyster since February 1997. They have three children. See full bio » Born:	i don't know
The lyric I was born in the wagon of a travellin show, my mama used to dance for the money they'd throw' is from which song?	CHER LYRICS - Gypsies, Tramps And Thieves "Gypsies, Tramps And Thieves" lyrics CHER LYRICS I was born in the wagon of a travellin' show My mama used to dance for the money they'd throw Papa would do whatever he could Preach a little gospel, sell a couple bottles of Doctor Good We'd hear it from the people of the town They'd call us Gypsys, tramps, and thieves But every night all the men would come around And lay their money down Picked up a boy just south of Mobile Gave him a ride, filled him with a hot meal I was sixteen, he was twenty-one Rode with us to Memphis And papa woulda shot him if he knew what he'd done [CHORUS] I never had schoolin' but he taught me well With his smooth southern style Three months later I'm a gal in trouble And I haven't seen him for a while, uh-huh I haven't seen him for a while, uh-huh She was born in the wagon of a travellin' show Her mama had to dance for the money they'd throw Grandpa'd do whatever he could Preach a little gospel, sell a couple bottles of Doctor Good	Gypsys, Tramps & Thieves
True Cashmere is a product of which kind of animal?	Cher - Gypsys, Tramps Thieves - YouTube Cher - Gypsys, Tramps Thieves Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Apr 17, 2010 Find these lyrics at: http://easylyrics.org/?artist=Cher&ti... "Cher - Gypsys, Tramps Thieves" I was born in the wagon of a travellin show My mama used to dance for the money theyd throw Papa would do whatever he could Preach a little gospel, sell a couple bottles of doctor good Chorus Wed hear it from the people of the town Theyd call us gypsys, tramps, and thieves But every night all the men would come around And lay their money down Picked up a boy just south of mobile Gave him a ride, filled him with a hot meal I was sixteen, he was twenty-one Rode with us to memphis And papa woulda shot him if he knew what hed done Chorus I never had schoolin but he taught me well With his smooth southern style Three months later Im a gal in trouble And I havent seen him for a while, uh-huh I havent seen him for a while, uh-huh She was born in the wagon of a travellin show Her mama had to dance for the money theyd throw Grandpad do whatever he could Preach a little gospel, sell a couple bottles of doctor good Chorus chorus fades	i don't know
Which 1964 film, starring Stanley Baker and Jack Hawkins depicted the 1879 Battle of Rorke's Drift?	Zulu (1964) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Outnumbered British soldiers do battle with Zulu warriors at Rorke's Drift. Director: Famous Directors: From Sundance to Prominence From Christopher Nolan to Quentin Tarantino and every Coen brother in between, many of today's most popular directors got their start at the Sundance Film Festival . Here's a list of some of the biggest names to go from Sundance to Hollywood prominence. a list of 30 titles created 05 Oct 2010 a list of 47 titles created 09 Sep 2011 a list of 39 titles created 01 Jan 2013 a list of 28 titles created 03 Nov 2013 a list of 21 titles created 8 months ago Search for " Zulu " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 BAFTA Film Award. See more awards » Photos A dramatization of the Battle of Isandlwana, where the British Army met its match against the Zulu nation. Director: Douglas Hickox Comic caper movie about a plan to steal a gold shipment from the streets of Turin by creating a traffic jam. Director: Peter Collinson Operation Market Garden, September 1944: The Allies attempt to capture several strategically important bridges in the Netherlands in the hope of breaking the German lines. However, mismanagement and poor planning result in its failure. Director: Richard Attenborough In 1940, the British Royal Air Force fights a desperate battle to prevent the Luftwaffe from gaining air superiority over the English Channel as a prelude to a possible Axis invasion of the UK. Director: Guy Hamilton Facing the decline of everything he has worked to obtain, conqueror Napoleon Bonaparte and his army confront the British at the Battle of Waterloo. Director: Sergey Bondarchuk A British team is sent to cross occupied Greek territory and destroy the massive German gun emplacement that commands a key sea channel. Director: J. Lee Thompson Directors: Ken Annakin, Andrew Marton, and 3 more credits » Stars: John Wayne, Robert Ryan, Richard Burton Policemen Ali Sokhela and Brian Epkeen investigate the brutal murder of a young white woman, apparently provoked by the availability of a new illegal drug and somehow connected to the disappearance of black street children. Director: Jérôme Salle Allied agents stage a daring raid on a castle where the Nazis are holding an American General prisoner... but that's not all that's really going on. Director: Brian G. Hutton Two British soldiers in India decide to resign from the Army and set themselves up as deities in Kafiristan--a land where no white man has set foot since Alexander. Director: John Huston When his brother dies under mysterious circumstances in a car accident, London gangster Jack Carter travels to Newcastle to investigate. Director: Mike Hodges A German plot to kidnap Winston Churchill unfolds at the height of World War II. Director: John Sturges Edit Storyline Two Lieutenants, Chard of Engineers and Bromhead find that their 140 man contingent in Natal has been isolated by the destruction of the main British Army column and that 4,000 Zulu warriors will descend on them in hours. Each has a different military background in tactics and they are immediatly in conflict on how to prepare for the attack. Nearly a third of the men are in the infirmary, as the welsh company tries to somehow survive with no help in sight. Based on a true story. See All (180) » Taglines: These are the days and nights of fury and honor and courage and cowardice that an entire century of empire-making and film-making can never surpass! See more » Genres: 17 June 1964 (USA) See more » Also Known As: 138 min Sound Mix: 4-Track Stereo (35 mm magnetic prints)\| 70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints)\| Mono (35 mm optical prints) Color: Did You Know? Trivia Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi , who came from a long line of Zulu warriors and royalty, played the part of his ancestor, King Cetywayo in the film. "I played my great-grandfather. The director had actually identified a radio announcer [to play the part] but when he saw me he said that he saw a family resemblance and persuaded me to take part as an extra". See more » Goofs The young soldier guarding Witt addresses Color Sergeant Bourne as "Sir." Bourne was not a commissioned officer at this time and would not have been addressed as "Sir." See more » Quotes Cpl. Frederic Schiess, NNC : A Zulu regiment can run, run, 50 miles and fight a battle at the end of it. Pvt. William Jones : Well, there's daft, it is then. I don't see no sense in running to fight a battle. "And introducing Michael Caine" See more » Connections (oregon) – See all my reviews There can be no "War Movie" which is not at the same time an "Anti-war Movie". The nearly unique aspect of this movie is that it depicts that rare event in human conflict; a battle in which both sides may be said to have won. And both sides lost, of course. Lives, hopes, aspirations. Incredible performances by Stanley Baker, a very YOUNG Michael Caine. Jack Hawkins plays a credible drunken minister, and Nigel Greene delivers the eternally memorable line; when asked by a frightened soldier "why us?" Color Sergeant Bourne implacably replies "Because we're here, lad. Because we're here." It's as impossible to ignore the fine, sensitive scripting as the surprisingly lucid depiction of The Battle of Roark's Drift. Historical inaccuracies are in petty details only; the sense of simultaneous exaltation and shame that a soldier feels after surviving his first battle has never been more accurately portrayed. Where else can you watch the making of heroes from such obviously human material? Stanley Baker's determination to make this film has earned him a place in theater history. 56 of 74 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Zulu
These were "star-cross'd lovers" whose deaths ultimately unite their feuding families. What were their names?	Zulu (1964 film) - Wikipedia, Photos and Videos Zulu (1964 film) NEXT GO TO RESULTS [51 .. 100] WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE Not to be confused with Zulu (2013 film) . Zulu Box office $8 million (US) [3] Zulu is a 1964 epic war film depicting the Battle of Rorke's Drift between the British Army and the Zulus in January 1879, during the Anglo-Zulu War . It depicts 150 British soldiers, many of whom were sick and wounded patients in a field hospital, who successfully held off a force of 4,000 Zulu warriors. The film was directed by American screenwriter [4] Cy Endfield and produced by Stanley Baker and Endfield, with Joseph E. Levine as executive producer. The screenplay is by John Prebble and Endfield, based on an article by Prebble, a historical writer. The film stars Stanley Baker and introduces Michael Caine , in his first major role, with a supporting cast that includes Jack Hawkins , Ulla Jacobsson , James Booth , Nigel Green , Paul Daneman , Glynn Edwards , Ivor Emmanuel and Patrick Magee . Future South African political leader Mangosuthu Buthelezi played Zulu King Cetshwayo kaMpande , his great grandfather. The opening and closing narration is spoken by Richard Burton . The film was first shown on the 85th anniversary of the actual battle, 22 January 1964 at the Plaza Theatre in the West End of London . Contents Plot[ edit ] In 1879, a communiqué from Lord Chelmsford to the Secretary of State for War in London ( voice-over narration by Richard Burton) details the crushing defeat of a British force at the hands of the Zulus at the Battle of Isandlwana . In the aftermath of the battle, the victorious Zulus walk amongst the scattered bodies of dead British soldiers and gather their rifles. At a mass Zulu marriage ceremony witnessed by missionary Otto Witt (Jack Hawkins) and his daughter (Ulla Jacobsson), Zulu King Cetewayo (Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi) is also informed of the great victory. A company of the British Army's 24th Regiment of Foot is using the missionary station of Rorke's Drift in Natal as a supply depot and hospital for their invasion force across the border in Zululand . Receiving news of Isandhlwana from the Natal Native Contingent Commander Adendorff, who warns that an army of 4,000 Zulu warriors is advancing to the British position, Lieutenant John Chard (Stanley Baker) of the Royal Engineers assumes command of the small British detachment. Lieutenant Gonville Bromhead (Michael Caine), an infantry officer, is rather put out to find himself subordinate to an engineer due to the latter's slightly earlier commission. Realising that they cannot outrun the Zulu army with wounded soldiers, Chard decides to make a stand at the station, using wagons, sacks of mealie , and crates of ship's biscuit to form a defensive perimeter. Witt becomes drunk and demoralises the men with his dire predictions; the soldiers of the Natal Native Contingent desert. Chard orders Witt to be locked in a supply room. As the Zulu impis approach, a contingent of Boer horsemen arrives. They advise Chard that defending the station is hopeless. They retreat in haste, despite Chard's desperate pleas for them to stay. The Zulu army approach and then charge. The British open fire, but Adendorff informs them that the Zulus are only testing the British firepower. Witt again predicts the soldiers' inevitable fate, before escaping the battle with his daughter. Chard is concerned that the northern perimeter wall is undermanned and realises that the attack will come from all sides. The defenders are surprised when the Zulu warriors open fire on the station with rifles, taken from the British dead at Isandlwana. Throughout the day and night, wave after wave of Zulu attackers are repelled. The Zulus succeed in setting fire to the hospital, leading to intense fighting between British patients and Zulu warriors as the former try to escape the flames. Private Henry Hook (James Booth) takes charge and successfully leads the patients to safety. The next morning, the Zulus approach to within several hundred yards and begin singing a war chant; the British respond by singing " Men of Harlech ". In the final assault, just as it seems the Zulus will finally overwhelm the tired defenders, the British soldiers fall back to a small redoubt constructed out of mealie bags. With a reserve of soldiers hidden within the redoubt, they form into three ranks and fire volley after volley, inflicting heavy casualties; the Zulus withdraw. After a pause of three hours, the defenders are still recovering when the Zulus re-form again on the Oscarberg . Resigned to another assault, the British are astonished when the Zulus instead sing a song to honour the bravery of the defenders before departing. The film ends with another narration by Richard Burton, listing the eleven defenders who received the Victoria Cross for the defence of Rorke's Drift, the most awarded to a regiment in a single action up to that time. Production[ edit ] Cy Endfield was inspired to make the film after reading an article on the Battle of Rorke's Drift by John Prebble. He took it to actor Stanley Baker with whom he had made several films and who was interested in moving into production. Endfield and Prebble drafted a script, which Baker then showed to Joseph E. Levine while making Sodom and Gomorrah (1962) in Italy. Levine agreed to fund the movie, which was produced by Baker's company, Diamond Films. [2] It was shot using the Super Technirama 70 cinematographic process, and distributed by Paramount Pictures in all countries excluding the United States, where it was distributed by Embassy Pictures . [4] Most of Zulu was shot on location in South Africa. The mission depot at Rorke's Drift was recreated beneath the natural Amphitheatre in the Drakensberg Mountains (considerably more precipitous than the real Rorke's Drift , which is little more than two small hills). The set for the British field hospital and supply depot at Rorke's Drift was created near the Tugela River with the Amphitheatre in the background. The real location of the battle was 100 kilometres (60 mi) to the northwest, on the Buffalo River near the isolated hill at Isandhlwana. Other scenes were filmed within the national parks of KwaZulu-Natal . Interiors and all the scenes starring James Booth were completed at Twickenham Film Studios in Middlesex , England. The film was compared by Baker to a Western movie , with the traditional roles of the United States Cavalry and Native Americans taken by the British and the Zulus respectively. Director Endfield showed a Western to Zulu extras to demonstrate the concept of film acting and how he wanted the warriors to conduct themselves. [4] It has been rumoured that due to the apartheid laws in South Africa , none of the Zulu extras could be paid for their performance and that, consequently, Endfield circumvented this restriction by leaving them all the animals, primarily cattle, used in the film. This allegation is incorrect, as all of the Zulu extras were paid in full - the main body of extras were paid the equivalent of nine shillings per day each, additional extras eight shillings, and the female dancers slightly less. [7] [8] Michael Caine, who at this early stage in his career was primarily playing bit parts, was originally up for the role of Private Henry Hook, which went to James Booth. According to Caine, he was extremely nervous during his screen test for the part of Bromhead, and director Cy Endfield told him that it was the worst screen test he had ever seen, but they were casting Caine in the part anyway because the production was leaving for South Africa shortly and they had not found anyone else for the role. [4] Caine also believed that he was fortunate that the film was directed by an American (Endfield), because "no English director would've cast me as an officer, I promise you, not one," due to his Cockney roots. [9] Caine's performance in Zulu won him praise from reviewers, and his next film role would be as the star of The Ipcress File in which he was reunited with Nigel Green. [4] Historical accuracy[ edit ] Historical picture of Zulu warriors from about the same time as the events depicted in Zulu The basic premises of the film are true and largely accurate. The heavily outnumbered British successfully defended Rorke's Drift more or less as portrayed in the film. Writer Cy Endfield even consulted a Zulu tribal historian for information from Zulu oral tradition about the attack. [4] There are, however, a number of historical inaccuracies in the film, most of which are of minor importance and some of which were added for dramatic effect: The regiment[ edit ] The 24th Regiment of Foot is described as a Welsh regiment: in fact, although it was based in Brecon in South Wales , its designation was the '24th (The 2nd Warwickshire) Regiment of Foot'. It did not become the South Wales Borderers until 1881. Of the soldiers present, 49 were English, 32 Welsh, 16 Irish and 22 others of indeterminate nationality. [10] [11] [12] The song " Men of Harlech " features prominently as the regimental song; it did not become so until later. At the time of the battle, the regimental song was " The Warwickshire Lad ". There was no "battlefield singing contest" between the British and the Zulus. [13] The Witts[ edit ] There are several inconsistencies with the historical record concerning the Swedish missionaries, the Witts. In the film, Witt is depicted as a middle-aged widower, a pacifist and drunkard, who has an adult daughter called Margareta. In reality, Otto Witt was aged 30 and had a wife, Elin, and two infant children. Witt's family were 30 kilometres (19 mi) away at the time of the battle. On the morning of the battle, Otto Witt, with the chaplain, George Smith and Surgeon-Major James Henry Reynolds had ascended Shiyane, the large hill near the station, and noticed the approach of the Zulu force across the Buffalo River. Far from being a pacifist, Witt had co-operated closely with the army and negotiated a lease to put Rorke's Drift at Lord Chelmsford's disposal. Witt made it clear that he did not oppose British intervention against Cetshwayo. He had stayed at Rorke's Drift because he wished "to take part in the defence of my own house and at the same time in the defence of an important place for the whole colony, yet my thoughts went to my wife and to my children, who were at a short distance from there, and did not know anything of what was going on". He therefore left on horseback to join his family shortly before the battle. [14] The men of the regiment[ edit ] Lieutenants John Chard and Gonville Bromhead: Chard had received his commission in April 1868, making Bromhead the junior officer and second-in-command at the Drift even though he was an infantryman and Chard was an engineer. In the film, it is stated that Bromhead received his commission only three months after Chard when, in fact, it was a full three years after Chard. Surgeon Reynolds : During the Battle of Rorke's Drift, Reynolds went around the barricades, distributing ammunition and tending to the wounded there, something that is not shown in the film. [15] During the closing voiceover, he is also incorrectly referred to as "Surgeon-Major, Army Hospital Corps"; Reynolds was of the Army Medical Department, and was not promoted to the rank of Surgeon-Major until after the action at Rorke's Drift. [15] The pacifism apparent in Magee's portrayal is also somewhat anachronistic and not based on the historical Surgeon Reynolds. Private Henry Hook VC is depicted as a rogue with a penchant for alcohol; in fact he was a model soldier who later became a sergeant; he was also a teetotaller . While the film has him in the hospital "malingering, under arrest", he had actually been assigned there specifically to guard the building. [16] The filmmakers felt that the story needed an anti-hero who redeems himself in the course of events, but the film's presentation of Hook caused his daughter to walk out of the film premiere in disgust. [17] Conversely, Corporal William Allen is depicted as a model soldier; in fact, he had recently been demoted from sergeant for drunkenness. Colour Sergeant Frank Bourne (1854–1945) is depicted as a big, hardened, middle-aged veteran; in fact, he was of modest stature and, aged 24, the youngest colour sergeant in the British Army. [18] He was called "The Kid" by his men. [19] Colour Sergeant Bourne would not have worn medals on his duty uniform. Moreover, Green's costume has the chevrons on the wrong arm. After the battle Bourne was offered a commission but turned it down because he lacked the money necessary to serve as a commissioned officer; he did accept a commission in 1890. He was the last British survivor of the Battle and died as a full Colonel. The Zulus[ edit ] The attack on the mission station was not ordered by King Cetshwayo, as the audience is led to believe in the film. Cetshwayo had specifically told his warriors not to invade Natal, the British Colony. The attack was led by Prince Dabulamanzi kaMpande , the King's half-brother, who pursued fleeing survivors at Isandlwana across the river and then moved on to attack Rorke's Drift. Although almost 20,000 rounds of ammunition were fired by the defenders, just under 400 Zulus were killed at Rorke's Drift. A similar number were left behind when the Zulus retreated, being too badly wounded to move. Comments from veterans many years after the event suggest the British killed many of these wounded men in the battle's aftermath, raising the total number of Zulu deaths to over 700. Ending[ edit ] The ending of the film is somewhat fictitious. There was no Zulu attack at dawn on 23 January 1879, which in the film led to the singing of "Men of Harlech". There was only sparse fighting with a few remaining Zulus. However at roughly 7:00 am, an Impi suddenly appeared, and the British manned their positions again. No attack materialized, as the Zulus had been on the move for six days prior to the battle. In their ranks were hundreds of wounded, and they were several days march from any supplies. Around 8:00 am, another force appeared, the defenders abandoned their breakfast and manned their positions again. The approaching troops were the vanguard of Lord Chelmsford's relief column. The Zulus did not sing a song saluting fellow warriors, and they did not depart peacefully. They departed at the approach of the British relief column. [13] [16] Reception[ edit ] Zulu received highly positive reviews from critics. Robin Clifford of Reeling Reviews gave the film four out of five stars, while Brazilian reviewer Pablo Villaça of Cinema em Cena (Cinema Scene) gave the film three stars out of five. Dennis Schwartz of Ozus Movie Reviews praised Caine's performance, calling it "one of his most splendid hours on film" and graded the film 'A'. Although actual participants of the battle are named characters in the film, they bear little resemblance to historical accuracy. The most controversial portrayal is the one of Private Hook who is depicted as a thief and malingerer (the real Hook was a model soldier and teetotaller ). His elderly daughters were so disgusted with the Zulu character, they walked out of the London premiere in 1964. The fictional depiction has led to an ongoing campaign to have the historical reputation restored to the real Private Hook. [17] [23] The film's producers admitted they chose Hook simply because "they wanted an anti-hero who would come good under pressure". [24] Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 93% based on reviews from 15 critics. [25] Presentation format[ edit ] Zulu was filmed in Technirama and intended for presentation in Super Technirama 70, as shown on the prints. In the UK however, the only 70mm screening was a press show prior to release. While the vast majority of cinemas would have played the film in 35mm anyway, the Plaza's West End screenings were of the 35mm anamorphic version as well rather than, as might have been expected, a 70mm print. This was due to the UK's film quota regulations which demanded that cinemas showed 30% British films during the calendar year (the regulations only applied to 35mm presentations). By 1964 the number of British films available to a cinema like the Plaza could be limited and Zulu gave them several weeks of British quota qualification if played in 35mm. In other countries the public did get to see the film in 70mm. Awards and honours[ edit ] Ernest Archer was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Colour Art Direction on the film. [4] The magazine Total Film (2004) ranked Zulu the 37th greatest British movie of all time, and it was ranked eighth in the British television programme The 100 Greatest War Films. [26] Empire magazine ranked Zulu 351st on their list of the 500 greatest films. Home video releases[ edit ] In the US, Zulu lapsed into the public domain from 1991 until 2000,[ citation needed ] so that there were several releases of the film on home video/Laserdisc/DVD in North America — most notably a LaserDisc release by The Criterion Collection which retains the original stereophonic soundtrack taken from a 70mm print. An official DVD release (with a mono soundtrack as the original stereo tracks were not available), was later issued by StudioCanal through Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer . The film was released on Blu-ray in the UK in 2008; this version is region-free and will work in any Blu-ray player. On 22 January 2014, Twilight Time issued a limited-edition Blu-ray of Zulu in the US [27] with John Barry's score as an isolated track; [28] the release date being the 50th anniversary of the film and the 135th anniversary of the actual battle. Merchandising[ edit ] A soundtrack album by John Barry featuring one side of the film score music and one side of "Zulu Stamp" was released on Ember Records in the UK and United Artists Records outside the Commonwealth. The choreographer Lionel Blair arranged a dance called the 'Zulu Stamp' for Barry's instrumentals. [29] A computer game entitled Zulu Wars was released on home formats during the 1980s. A comic book by Dell Comics was released to coincide with the film that features scenes and stills not in the completed film. [30] [31] [32] Conte toy soldiers and playsets decorated with artwork and stills from the film were produced. [33] In popular culture[ edit ]	i don't know
What is the name of the only Canadian province to have French as its sole official language?	Canada is Bilingual but What Does this Really Mean? Canada's Provinces & Territories \| Quebec Travel Overview Despite being an officially bilingual country, the most prominent language used in Canada is English. Just under a quarter of the country's population speaks French - most of whom live in Quebec . Aside from English and French, several other languages, including Chinese, Punjabi, Arabic and Aboriginal languages are the mother tongues of Canadians. Bottom Line for Visitors Unless you are travelling to less touristy and more remote parts of Quebec, understanding only English is good enough to navigate around Canada. Of course, if you are visiting Quebec, especially outside Montreal, knowing some key French travel phrases is helpful, not to mention courteous. Canadian Bilingualism in Depth Canada - as a country - has two official languages: English and French. This means that all federal services, policies and laws must be enacted and available in both French and English. Some common examples of Canadian bilingualism that visitors encounter are road signs, TV and radio, product packaging, and bus and tour groups. continue reading below our video Tipping Etiquette Around the World However, the status of English and French as Canada's official languages does not mean that both languages are widely spoken across the country or that every Canadian is bilingual. Canadian bilingualism is more official designation than everyday reality. The fact is that most Canadians speak English. First of all, each of Canada's 10 provinces and three territories adopts its own official language policy. Only Quebec recognizes French as its sole official language and is the only place in Canada where this is the case. New Brunswick is the only bilingual province, recognizing both English and French as official languages. Other provinces and territories conduct affairs mostly in English but may also recognize or offer governmental services in French as well as Aboriginal languages. In Quebec, English is widely spoken in its largest city, Montreal , and other major tourist destinations. Non-French-speaking visitors to Quebec can also easily get by in Quebec City; however, once you get off the beaten track, French tends to be the language spoken, so study up or get a phrase book. Looking at Canada as a whole, about 22% of Canadians use French as their first language (Statistics Canada, 2006). The majority of the country's French-speaking population lives in Quebec, but other high concentrations of French speakers live in New Brunswick, northern Ontario and Manitoba. The mother tongue of about 60% of Canada's population is English (Statistics Canada, 2006). French is not required learning at school outside of Quebec. However French immersion is a popular choice of education - mostly in central and eastern Canada - where elementary students who are enrolled in French immersion schools use French at school either partially or exclusively. French/English Language Conflict The French and English were two of the earliest cultures to arrive in Canada and often went to battle over land. Finally, in the 1700's, with fewer French coming to Canada and in the aftermath of the Seven Year' War , the British gained full control of Canada. Though the new British - and of course, English-speaking - rulers vowed to protect much of the property, religious, political, and social culture of the French, an underlying conflict continues to this day. For example Francophones in Quebec have launched several initiatives to protect their rights, including holding two provincial referendums in which Quebeckers voted on seceding from the rest of Canada. The most recent one in 1995 failed only by a margin of 50.6 to 49.4. Other Languages The prominence of languages other than English and French varies across the country, mostly influenced by immigration. In western Canada, namely British Columbia and Alberta, Chinese is the second most common language spoken after English. Punjabi, Tagalog (Filipino), Cree, German and Polish are other languages heard in BC and the Prairie Provinces . In the northern parts of Canada, including its three territories , Aboriginal languages, such as South Slave and Inuktitut rank next to English and French as top languages spoken, though looking at Canada as a whole, their use is minimal. In central Canada, Italians have retained their language to a large degree and moving east, you'll hear more Arabic, Dutch and Micmac.	Quebec
Which Christian name links Brown, Champagne and Aunt?	Official Language of Quebec Official Language of Quebec By Rachel Hanson M.A. French In Quebec City, French is the dominant language. The official language of Québec is often confused with the official languages of Canada. While Canada is officially a bilingual country (French and English), Québec is officially a unilingual province; the official language of Québec is French. Similar to the situation in the US, where national and state laws sometimes differ from one another, so it is also with the provinces of Canada. Officially, Canada is a bilingual country, which means that all governmental services have to be available in both official languages of the country. However, in the Province of Québec, the local, provincial law overrides the national law. Officially, Québec only has one language, and it is legally only required to offer governmental services in French. In practice, there are regions of Québec where many English speakers live, and English speakers who do not speak French are not left stranded every time they need official paperwork. The Province of Québec is just one of the many French speaking areas of the world where French is an official spoken language. Bilingualism in Québec While only about 7.5% of English-speaking Canadians are also fluent in French, some 40% of Québec's French-speaking population is also fluent in English. This discrepency is sometimes cause for debate. In Québec, where the official language is French, many citizens, especially those in the metropolitan region of Montréal, become bilingual. This is not only a result of living in a metropolitan area where both languages are prevalent, it is also the case that residents of this region can have difficulties finding a job if they are not officially bilingual. In more rural regions of Québec, it is much more common to come across native French speakers who are not fluent in English. Rules on the Official Language of Québec In the 1970s drastic measures were taken to further protect the French language within the Province of Québec. Since Québec had been able to hold on to the French language for so long (since Britain took over Québec/Canada from France), the Quebecois were not willing to lose their language after hundreds of years of protecting it. The French language is a crucial element of the French Canadian culture , and the majority of the citizens of Québec were eager to protect the language. For this reason, an official law was put into place in 1974, followed by a revision in 1977, which made the following requirements on language use in Québec: French is the official language for signs: While signs may have other languages on them as well, all signs must be in French, and if an additional language is added to the sign, the French text must be larger than the other language French is the official language of business: An English native speaker must become bilingual so that he can participate in business in French. French is the official school language (through high school graduation): All children in Québec must attend (public) schooling offered in French. Only children who have one (or both) parent(s) who also attended an English-instruction primary school are allowed to choose for an English primary school. This means that an American English-speaking immigrant would have to attend a French-speaking school. French is the official language of government and law and all laws and governmental dealings are officially required to be in French While these are only officially four rules, they encompass many aspects of life in Québec. The laws are disputed by some, but heavily protected by the strong desire to protect French as Québec's one and only official language. Was this page useful?	i don't know
According to Greek Mythology, what was the name of the mountain nymph who falls in love with Narcissus?	NARCISSUS (Narkissos) - Thespian Youth of Greek Mythology Narcissus, Greco-Roman fresco from Pompeii C1st B.C., Naples National Archaeological Museum NARKISSOS (Narcissus) was a youth of the town of Thespiai (Thespiae) in Boiotia, a son of the river-god Kephisos (Cephisus) and the fountain-nymph Liriope. He was celebrated for his beauty and attracted many admirers but, in his arrogance, spurned them all. The suffering of two of these, however, would bring down a curse upon him. The nymphe Ekho (Echo) --a girl cursed by Hera to repeat only the last words of what was said before--was rejected by the boy and fading away in despair left behind nothing but an echoing voice. The other admirer was the youth Ameinias who became distraught when Narkissos cruelly spurned him. He killed himself before his beloved's door, calling on the goddess Nemesis to avenge him. His prayer was answered when Narkissos fell in love with his own reflection in a pool. Gazing endlessly at the image, he slowly pined away and was transformed by the nymphs into a narcissus flower. Others say he was instead filled with remorse and killed himself beside the pool--and from his dying life's blood the flower was born. Narkissos' name was the ancient Greek word for the narcissus or daffodil flower. The boy's mother Leiriope was named after another species of daffodil--the leirion--and his spurned love Ameinias for the ameinasis. According to Hesychius s.v., ameinasis was another name for the sweet-smelling herb duosmon--either dill, anise or cummin. Presumably these two were also transformed into their namesake plants. Such a group of sympathetic metamorphoses is not uncommon in Greek myth. FAMILY OF NARCISSUS [1.1] KEPHISOS & LIRIOPE (Ovid Metamorphoses 3.340) [1.2] KEPHISOS (Hyginus Fabulae 271, Statius Thebaid 7.340, Claudian Proserpine 2.130) [2.1] ENDYMION & SELENE (Nonnus Dionysiaca 48.582) ENCYCLOPEDIA NARCISSUS (Narkissos), a son of Cephissus and the nymph Liriope of Thespiae. He was a very handsome youth, but wholly inaccessible to the feeling of love. The nymph Echo, who loved him, but in vain, died away with grief. One of his rejected lovers, however, prayed to Nemesis to punish him for his unfeeling heart. Nemesis accordingly caused Narcissus to see his own face reflected in a well, and to fall in love with his own image. As this shadow was unapproachable Narcissus gradually perished with love, and his corpse was metamorphosed into the flower called after him narcissus. This beautiful story is related at length by Ovid (Met. iii. 341, &c.). According to some traditions, Narcissus sent a sword to one of his lovers, Ameinias, who killed himself with it at the very door of Narcissus' house, and called upon the gods to avenge his death. Narcissus, tormented by love of himself and by repentance, put an end to his life, and from his blood there sprang up the flower narcissus (Conon, Narrat. 24). Other accounts again state that Narcissus melted away into the well in which he had beheld his own image (Paus. ix. 31. § 6); or that he had a beloved twin sister perfectly like him, who died, whereupon he looked at his own image reflected in a well, to satify his longing after his sister. Eustathius (ad Hom. p. 266) says that Narcissus was drowned in the well. Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES Echo, Narcissus and Anteros, Greco-Roman mosaic from Daphne C3rd A.D., Hatay Archaeology Museum Pausanias, Description of Greece 9. 31. 7 - 9 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "In the territory of the Thespians is a place called Donakon (Donacon, Reed-Bed). Here is the spring of Narkissos (Narcissus). They say that Narkissos looked into this water, and not understanding that he saw his own reflection, unconsciously fell in love with himself, and died of love at the spring. But it is utter stupidity to imagine that a man old enough to fall in love was incapable of distinguishing a man from a man's reflection. There is another story about Narkissos, less popular indeed than the other, but not without some support. It is said that Narkissos had a twin sister; they were exactly alike in appearance, their hair was the same, they wore similar clothes, and went hunting together. The story goes on that Narkissos fell in love with his sister, and when the girl died, would go to the spring, knowing that it was his reflection that he saw, but in spite of this knowledge finding some relief for his love in imagining that he saw, not his own reflection, but the likeness of his sister. The flower narcissus grew, in my opinion, before this, if we are to judge by the verses of Pamphos [i.e. the Homeric Hymn to Demeter]. This poet was born many years before Narkissos the Thespian, and he says that Kore (Core, the Maid) [Persephone], the daughter of Demeter, was carried off when she was playing and gathering flowers, and that the flowers by which she was deceived into being carried off were not violets, but the narcissus." Conon, Narrations 24 (trans. Atsma) (Greek mythographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Ameinias was a very determined but fragile youth. When he was cruelly spurned by Narkissos (Narcissus), he took his sword and killed himself by the door, calling on the goddess Nemesis to avenge him. As a result when Narkissos saw the beauty of his form reflected in a stream he fell deeply in love with himself. In despair and believing that he had rightly earned this curse for the humiliation of Ameinias, he slew himself. From his blood sprang the flower." [N.B. A similar story is found on a C1st B.C. Greek papyrus fragment from Oxyrrhynchus .] Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead 8 (trans. Fowler) (Greek satire C2nd A.D.) : "[Menippos, arriving in the underworld, asks the god Hermes to show him the great beauties of myth.] Menippos : Where are all the beauties, Hermes? Show me round; I am a new-comer. Hermes : I am busy, Menippos. But look over there to your right, and you will see Hyakinthos (Hyacinthus), Narkissos (Narcissus), Nireus, Akhilleus (Achilles), Tyro, Helene, Leda,--all the beauties of old." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 1. 23 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd A.D.) : "[Ostensibly a description of an ancient Greek painting at Neapolis (Naples) :] Narkissos (Narcissus). The pool paints Narkissos, and the painting represents both the pool and the whole story of Narkissos. A youth just returned from the hunt stands over a pool, drawing from within himself a kind of yearning and falling in love with his own beauty; and, as you see, he sheds a radiance into the water. The cave is sacred to Akheloüs (Achelous) and the Nymphai (Nymphs), and the scene is painted realistically. For the statues are of a crude art and made from a local stone; some of them are worn away by time, others have been mutilated by children of cowherds or shepherds while still young and unaware of the presence of the god. Nor is the pool without some connection with the Bakkhic rites of Dionysos, since he had made it known to the Nymphai of the wine-press; at any rate it is roofed over with vine and ivy and beautiful creeping plants, and it abounds in clusters of grapes and the trees that furnish the thyrsoi, and tuneful birds disport themselves above it, each with its own note, and white flowers grow about the pool, not yet in blossom but just springing up in honour of the youth. The painting has such regard for realism that it even shows drops of dew dripping from the flowers and a bee settling on the flowers--whether a real bee has been deceived by the painted flowers of whether we are to be deceived into thinking that a painted bee is real, I do not know. But let that pass. As for you, however, Narkissos, it is no painting that has deceived you, nor are you engrossed in a thing of pigments or wax; but you do not realize that the water represents you exactly as you are when you gaze upon it, nor do you see through the artifice of the pool, though to do so you have only to nod your head or change your expression or slightly move your hand, instead of standing in the same attitude; but acting as though you had met a companion, you wait for some move on his part. Do you then expect the pool to enter into conversation with you? Nay, this youth does not hear anything we say, but he is immersed eyes and ears alike, in the water and we must interpret the painting for ourselves. The youth, standing erect, is at rest; he has his legs crossed and supports one hand on the spear which is planted on his left, while his right hand is pressed against his hip so as to support his body and to produce the type of figure in which the buttocks are pushed out because of the inward bend on the left side. The arm shows an open space at the point where the elbow bends, a wrinkle where the wrist is twisted, and it casts a shadow as it ends in the palm of the hand, and he lines of the shadow are slanting because the fingers are bent in. Whether the panting of his breast remains from his hunting or is already the painting of love I do not know. The eye, surely, is that of a man deeply in love, for its natural brightness and intensity are softened by a longing that settles upon it, and he perhaps thinks that he is loved in return, since the reflection gazes at him in just he way that he looks at it. There would be much to say about he hair if we found him while hunting. For there are innumerable tossings of the hair in running, especially when it is blown by a wind; but even as it is the subject should not be passed over in silence. For it is very abundant and of a golden hue; and some it clings to the neck, some is parted by the ears, some tumbles over the forehead, and some falls in ripples to the beard. Both the Narcissi are exactly alike in form and each repeats the traits of the other, except that one stands out in the open air while the other is immersed in the pool. For the youth stands over the youth who stands in the water, or rather who gazes intently at him and seems to be athirst for his beauty." Callistratus, Descriptions 5 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd to 4th A.D.) : "[A description of an ancient Greek statue :] On the statue of Narkissos (Narcissus). There was a grove, and in it an exceedingly beautiful spring of very pure clear water, and by this stood a Narkissos made of marble. He was a boy, or rather a youth, of the same age as the Erotes (Loves); and he gave out as it were a radiance of lightning from the very beauty of his body. The appearance of the statue was as follows:--It was shining with gilded hair, of which the locks encircled the forehead in a curve and hung free down the neck to the back; and its glance did not express unmixed exultation nor yet pure joy, for in the nature of the eyes art had put an indication of grief, that the image might represent not only both Narkissos but also his fate. He was clothed like the Erotes, and he resembled them also in that he was in the prime of his youth. The garb which adorned him was as follows: a white mantle, of the same colour as the marble of which he was made, encircled him; it was held by a clasp on the right shoulder and reached down nearly to the knees, where it ended, leaving free, from the clasp down, only the hand. Moreover, it was so delicate and imitated a mantle so closely that the colour of the body shone through, the whiteness of the drapery permitting the gleam of the limbs to come out. He stood using the spring as a mirror and pouring into it the beauty of his face, and the spring, receiving the lineaments which came from him, reproduced so perfectly the same image that he two other beings seemed to emulate each other. For whereas the marble was in every part trying to change the real boy so as to match the one in the water, the spring was struggling to match the skilful efforts of art in the marble, reproducing in an incorporeal medium the likeness of the corporeal model and enveloping the reflection which came from the statue with the substance of water as though it were the substance of flesh. And indeed the form in the water was so instinct with life and breath that it seemed to be Narkissos himself, who, as the story goes, came to the spring, and when his form was seen by him in the water he died among the water-nymphs, because he desired to embrace his own image, and now he appears as a flower in the meadows in the spring-time. You could have seen how the marble, uniform though it was in colour, adapted itself to the expression of his eyes, preserved the record of his character, showed the perception of his senses, indicated his emotions and conformed itself to the abundance of his hair as it relaxed to make the curls of his locks. Indeed, words cannot describe how the marble softened into suppleness and provided a body at variance with its own essence; for though its own nature is very hard, it yielded a sensation of softness, being dissolved into a sort of porous matter. The image was holding a syrinx, the instrument with which Narkissos was wont to offer music to the gods of the flock, and he would make the desert echo with his songs whenever he desired to hold converse with stringed musical instruments. In admiration of this Narkissos, O youths, I have fashioned an image of him and brought it before you also in the halls of the Mousai (Muses). And the description is such as to agree wit the statue." [N.B. There is an extant statue of Narkissos in the Vatican by Phaidimos which agrees in almost all respects with this description.] Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 271 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Youths who were most handsome. Adonis, son of Cinyras and Smyrna, whom Venus [Aphrodite] loved. Endymion, son of Aetolus, whom Luna [Selene] loved. Ganymede, son of Erichthonius, whom Jove [Zeus] loved. Hyacinthus, son of Oebalus, whom Apollo loved. Narcissus, son of the river Cephisus, who loved himself. Atlantius, son of Mercury [Hermes] and Venus, who is called Hermaphroditus . . ." Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 339 - 509 (trans. Brookes More) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Tiresias' [of Thebes'] fame of prophecy was spread through all the cities of Aonia [Boeotia], for his unerring answers unto all who listened to his words. And first of those that harkened to his fateful prophecies, a lovely Nympha, named Liriope, came with her dear son, who then fifteen, might seem a man or boy--he who was born to her upon the green merge of Cephissus' stream--that mighty River-God whom she declared the father of her boy.--She questioned him, imploring him to tell her if her son, unequalled for his beauty, whom she called Narcissus, might attain a ripe old age. To which the blind seer answered in these words, ‘If he but fail to recognize himself, a long life he may have, beneath the sun,’--so, frivolous the prophet's words appeared; and yet the event, the manner of his death, the strange delusion of his frenzied love, confirmed it. Three times five years so were passed [i.e. he was fifteen yeard old]. Another five-years, and the lad might seem a young man or a boy. And many a youth, and many a damsel sought to gain his love; but such his mood and spirit and his pride, none gained his favour. Once a noisy Nympha, (who never held her tongue when others spoke, who never spoke till others had begun) mocking Echo, spied him as he drove, in his delusive nets, some timid stags.--For Echo was a Nympha, in olden time,--and, more than vapid sound,--possessed a form : and she was then deprived the use of speech, except to babble and repeat the words, once spoken, over and over. Juno [Hera] confused her silly tongue . . . and, ever since, she only mocks the sounds of others' voices, or, perchance, returns their final words. One day, when she observed Narcissus wandering in the pathless woods, she loved him and she followed him, with soft and stealthy tread.--The more she followed him the hotter did she burn, as when the flame flares upward from the sulphur on the torch. Oh, how she longed to make her passion known! To plead in soft entreaty! to implore his love! But now, till others have begun, a mute of Nature she must be. She cannot choose but wait the moment when his voice may give to her an answer. Presently the youth, by chance divided from his trusted friends, cries loudly, ‘Who is here?’ and Echo, ‘Here!’ Replies. Amazed, he casts his eyes around, and calls with louder voice, ‘Come here!’ ‘Come here!’ She calls the youth who calls.--He turns to see who calls him and, beholding naught exclaims, ‘Avoid me not!’ ‘Avoid me not!’ returns. He tries again, again, and is deceived by this alternate voice, and calls aloud; ‘Oh let us come together!’ Echo cries, ‘Oh let us come together!’ Never sound seemed sweeter to the Nympha, and from the woods she hastens in accordance with her words, and strives to wind her arms around his neck. He flies from her and as he leaves her says, ‘Take off your hands! you shall not fold your arms around me. Better death than such a one should ever caress me!’ Naught she answers save, ‘Caress me!’ Thus rejected she lies hid in the deep woods, hiding her blushing face with the green leaves; and ever after lives concealed in lonely caverns in the hills. But her great love increases with neglect; her miserable body wastes away, wakeful with sorrows; leanness shrivels up her skin, and all her lovely features melt, as if dissolved upon the wafting winds--nothing remains except her bones and voice--her voice continues, in the wilderness; her bones have turned to stone. She lies concealed in the wild woods, nor is she ever seen on lonely mountain range; for, though we hear her calling in the hills, 'tis but a voice, a voice that lives, that lives among the hills. Thus he deceived the Nympha and many more, sprung from the mountains or the sparkling waves; and thus he slighted many an amorous youth.--and therefore, some one whom he once despised [probably the youth Ameinias], lifting his hands to Heaven, implored the gods, ‘If he should love deny him what he loves!’ and as the prayer was uttered it was heard by Nemesis, who granted her assent. There was a fountain silver-clear and bright, which neither shepherds nor the wild she-goats, that range the hills, nor any cattle's mouth had touched--its waters were unsullied--birds disturbed it not; nor animals, nor boughs that fall so often from the trees. Around sweet grasses nourished by the stream grew; trees that shaded from the sun let balmy airs temper its waters. Here Narcissus, tired of hunting and the heated noon, lay down, attracted by the peaceful solitudes and by the glassy spring. There as he stooped to quench his thirst another thirst increased. While he is drinking he beholds himself reflected in the mirrored pool--and loves; loves an imagined body which contains no substance, for he deems the mirrored shade a thing of life to love. He cannot move, for so he marvels at himself, and lies with countenance unchanged, as if indeed a statue carved of Parian marble. Long, supine upon the bank, his gaze is fixed on his own eyes, twin stars; his fingers shaped as Bacchus might desire, his flowing hair as glorious as Apollo's, and his cheeks youthful and smooth; his ivory neck, his mouth dreaming in sweetness, his complexion fair and blushing as the rose in snow-drift white. All that is lovely in himself he loves, and in his witless way he wants himself:--he who approves is equally approved; he seeks, is sought, he burns and he is burnt. And how he kisses the deceitful fount; and how he thrusts his arms to catch the neck that's pictured in the middle of the stream! Yet never may he wreathe his arms around that image of himself. He knows not what he there beholds, but what he sees inflames his longing, and the error that deceives allures his eyes. But why, O foolish boy, so vainly catching at this flitting form? The cheat that you are seeking has no place. Avert your gaze and you will lose your love, for this that holds your eyes is nothing save the image of yourself reflected back to you. It comes and waits with you; it has no life; it will depart if you will only go. Nor food nor rest can draw him thence--outstretched upon the overshadowed green, his eyes fixed on the mirrored image never may know their longings satisfied, and by their sight he is himself undone. Raising himself a moment, he extends his arms around, and, beckoning to the murmuring forest; ‘Oh, ye aisled wood was ever man in love more fatally than I? Your silent paths have sheltered many a one whose love was told, and ye have heard their voices. Ages vast have rolled away since your forgotten birth, but who is he through all those weary years that ever pined away as I? Alas, this fatal image wins my love, as I behold it. But I cannot press my arms around the form I see, the form that gives me joy. What strange mistake has intervened betwixt us and our love? It grieves me more that neither lands nor seas nor mountains, no, nor walls with closed gates deny our loves, but only a little water keeps us far asunder. Surely he desires my love and my embraces, for as oft I strive to kiss him, bending to the limpid stream my lips, so often does he hold his face fondly to me, and vainly struggles up. It seems that I could touch him. 'Tis a strange delusion that is keeping us apart. Whoever thou art, Come up! Deceive me not! Oh, whither when I fain pursue art thou? Ah, surely I am young and fair, the Nymphs have loved me; and when I behold thy smiles I cannot tell thee what sweet hopes arise. When I extend my loving arms to thee thine also are extended me--thy smiles return my own. When I was weeping, I have seen thy tears, and every sign I make thou cost return; and often thy sweet lips have seemed to move, that, peradventure words, which I have never heard, thou hast returned. No more my shade deceives me, I perceive 'Tis I in thee--I love myself--the flame arises in my breast and burns my heart--what shall I do? Shall I at once implore? Or should I linger till my love is sought? What is it I implore? The thing that I desire is mine--abundance makes me poor. Oh, I am tortured by a strange desire unknown to me before, for I would fain put off this mortal form; which only means I wish the object of my love away. Grief saps my strength, the sands of life are run, and in my early youth am I cut off; but death is not my bane--it ends my woe.--I would not death for this that is my love, as two united in a single soul would die as one.’ He spoke; and crazed with love, returned to view the same face in the pool; and as he grieved his tears disturbed the stream, and ripples on the surface, glassy clear, defaced his mirrored form. And thus the youth, when he beheld that lovely shadow go; ‘Ah whither cost thou fly? Oh, I entreat thee leave me not. Alas, thou cruel boy thus to forsake thy lover. Stay with me that I may see thy lovely form, for though I may not touch thee I shall feed my eyes and soothe my wretched pains.’ And while he spoke he rent his garment from the upper edge, and beating on his naked breast, all white as marble, every stroke produced a tint as lovely as the apple streaked with red, or as the glowing grape when purple bloom touches the ripening clusters. When as glass again the rippling waters smoothed, and when such beauty in the stream the youth observed, no more could he endure. As in the flame the yellow wax, or as the hoar-frost melts in early morning 'neath the genial sun; so did he pine away, by love consumed, and slowly wasted by a hidden flame. No vermeil bloom now mingled in the white of his complexion fair; no strength has he, no vigor, nor the comeliness that wrought for love so long: alas, that handsome form by Echo fondly loved may please no more. But when she saw him in his hapless plight, though angry at his scorn, she only grieved. As often as the love-lore boy complained, ‘Alas!’ ‘Alas!’ her echoing voice returned; and as he struck his hands against his arms, she ever answered with her echoing sounds. And as he gazed upon the mirrored pool he said at last, ‘Ah, youth beloved in vain!’ ‘In vain, in vain!’ the spot returned his words; and when he breathed a sad ‘farewell!’ ‘Farewell!’ sighed Echo too. He laid his wearied head, and rested on the verdant grass; and those bright eyes, which had so loved to gaze, entranced, on their own master's beauty, sad Night closed. And now although among the nether shades his sad sprite roams, he ever loves to gaze on his reflection in the Stygian wave. His Naiad sisters mourned, and having clipped their shining tresses laid them on his corpse : and all the Dryades mourned : and Echo made lament anew. And these would have upraised his funeral pyre, and waved the flaming torch, and made his bier; but as they turned their eyes where he had been, alas he was not there! And in his body's place a sweet flower grew, golden and white, the white around the gold. Narcissus' fate, when known throughout the land and cities of Achaea, added fame deserved, to blind Tiresias,--mighty seer." Ovid, Fasti 5. 222 ff (trans. Frazer) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Chloris, goddess of flowers, speaks of the metamorphosis of handsome youths into flowers :] I was the first to make a flower out of Therapnaean blood [i.e. Hyacinthus of Therapne], and on its petals the lament remains inscribed. Thou, too, Narcissus, hast a name in the trim gardens, unhappy thou in that thou hadst not a double of thyself. What need to tell of Crocus, and Attis, and [Adonis] the son of Cinyras, from whose wounds by my art doth beauty spring?" Statius, Thebaid 7. 340 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "[The Boiotians gather for the War of the Seven Against Thebes :] Thou too, Cephisus, wouldst have sent Narcissus, pre-eminent in beauty, but already, stubborn-hearted boy, he is a pale flower in a Thespian field : thou, O father [the river-god Kephisos (Cephisus)], dost lave it with thy childless waves . . . [O spring of] Lilaea that sends forth the ice-cold springs of Cephisus." Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 2. 130 ff (trans. Platnauer) (Roman poetry C4th A.D.) : "[Persephone and her nymphs gather flowers :] Thee also, Hyacinthus, they gather, thy flower inscribed with woe, and Narcissus too--once lovely boys, now the pride of flowering spring. Thou, Hyacinthus, wert born at Amyclae, Narcissus was Helicon's child; thee the errant discus slew; him love of his stream-reflected face beguiled; for thee weeps Delos' god with sorrow-weighted brow; for him Cephisus with his broken reeds." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 11. 322 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "Leave your mourning; the Naiades may sigh by that fountain of death, but Narkissos (Narcissus) hears not." [N.B. The "fountain of death" is the pool in which Narkissos became enamoured of his reflection.] Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 582 ff : "There were the clustering blooms which have the name Narkissos (Narcissus) the fair youth, whom horned Selene's bridegroom Endymion begat on leafy Latmos." ANCIENT GREEK & ROMAN ART	Echo
A discovery by Professor Wilhelm Roentgen in the 1890s led to which amazing medical invention?	1000+ images about GREEK MYTHOLOGY on Pinterest \| Nymphs, Caravaggio and Eros and psyche Forward Upon seeing his reflection in a pool of water, Narcissus is so entranced that he forgets to eat or sleep, slowly dying of self-neglect. Echo, ever loyal, echoes his cries of pain with her own. At last, rather than seeing such beauty lost, the gods transform the boy into a flower, the narcissus. See More	i don't know

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