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Of what was 'Frey' the god, in Norse mythology?	Freyr - Norse Mythology for Smart People Norse Mythology for Smart People Freyr “Freyr” by Johannes Gehrts (1901) Freyr (pronounced “FREY-ur;” Old Norse Freyr, “Lord;” sometimes anglicized as “Frey”) is a god who belongs to the Vanir tribe of deities. He’s also an honorary member of the other tribe of Norse gods, the Aesir , having arrived in their fortress, Asgard , as a hostage at the closing of the Aesir-Vanir War . Freyr was one of the most widely and passionately venerated divinities amongst the heathen Norse and other Germanic peoples. One Old Norse poem calls him “the foremost of the gods” and “hated by none.”[1] The reasons for this aren’t hard to understand; their well-being and prosperity depended on his benevolence, which particularly manifested itself in sexual and ecological fertility, bountiful harvests, wealth, and peace. His role in providing health and abundance was often symbolized by his fylgja , the boar Gullinborsti (“Golden-Bristled”),[2] and by his enormous, erect phallus.[3] It shouldn’t be surprising, then, that Freyr was a frequent recipient of sacrifices at various occasions, such as the blessing of a wedding[4] or the celebration of a harvest. During harvest festivals, the sacrifice traditionally took the form of his favored animal, the boar.[5] His father is Njord , and his mother is Njord’s unnamed sister[6] (presumably Nerthus ). Freyr himself has been the lover of numerous goddesses and giantesses , including his own sister, Freya .[7] Apparently incest is a common and acceptable practice among the Vanir (although amongst the historical Germanic peoples it certainly wasn’t). Freyr’s residence is Alfheim , the homeland of the elves .[8] This could mean that Freyr is the ruler of the elves, but since this is never stated explicitly in the surviving sources , it must remain a fascinating conjecture. The relationship between the gods and the elves is sufficiently ambiguous to allow for a number of possible connections between Freyr and the elves. Another one of Freyr’s signature possessions is his ship, Skíðblaðnir, which always has a favorable wind and can be folded up and carried in a small bag.[9] Its name, which means “Assembled from Pieces of Thin Wood,” suggests that it served as the mythological archetype of ships that were constructed for particular ritual purposes and were never meant to be seaworthy. We know from archaeological evidence that ships played a major role in the pre-Christian religious rites of the Germanic peoples,[10] which is perfectly in accordance with the major role played by ships in the Bronze and Iron Ages, particularly among the Scandinavians. On land, Freyr travels in a chariot drawn by boars.[11] This is another mythological feature that was reflected in historical ritual. We know from medieval Icelandic sources that priestesses and/or priests of Freyr traveled throughout the country on a chariot which contained a statue of the god.[12] The significance of such processions is described by the Roman historian Tacitus, who vividly depicts the processions connected with the early Germanic goddess Nerthus, whose name is the Proto-Germanic form of the name of Freyr’s father Njord. When the chariot reached a village or town, the people laid down their arms and “every iron object” and enjoyed a period of peace and joyful festivities, reveling in the deity’s kind presence.[13] Such processions and celebrations appear to have been a common feature of the worship of the deities the Norse called the Vanir from at least as far back as the first century CE through the Viking Age. During Ragnarok , Freyr and the giant Surt destroy each other. Freyr Throughout the Germanic World Much like the name of his sister Freya (Old Norse Freyja, “Lady”), the word “freyr” (“Lord”) is only a title rather than a proper name. Freyr’s original Proto-Germanic name seems to have been *Ingwaz, which became Ing amongst the Anglo-Saxons and Yngvi (or Yngvi-Freyr or Ingunar-Freyr) amongst the Scandinavians. (Unfortunately, the meaning and etymology of this name are unknown.) Whenever he’s mentioned in Germanic literature or in foreign works that describe the Germanic peoples, he’s noted for possessing and dispensing the same qualities: fertility, well-being, and prosperity. His connections with chariots and ships are frequently noted, as is his being the founder of various tribes, groups of tribes (such as the Ingaevones), and royal lines (such as the Yngling dynasty of Sweden).[14][15][16] Thus, it’s hard to overestimate the size of the role played by Freyr in the pre-Christian religion of the Germanic peoples, as well as the esteem with which they thought of him. Looking for more great information on Norse mythology and religion? While this site provides the ultimate online introduction to the topic, my book The Viking Spirit provides the ultimate introduction to Norse mythology and religion period. I’ve also written a popular list of The 10 Best Norse Mythology Books , which you’ll probably find helpful in your pursuit. References: [1] The Poetic Edda. Lokasenna, stanza 35. [2] Snorri Sturluson. The Prose Edda. Gylfaginning 48. [3] Adam of Bremen. c. 1080. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. Translated by Francis Joseph Tschan. p. 207-208. [4] Ibid. [5] Simek, Rudolf. 1993. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Angela Hall. p. 298. [6] The Poetic Edda. Lokasenna, stanza 36. [7] Ibid. Stanza 32. [8] The Poetic Edda. Grímnismál, stanza 5. [9] Snorri Sturluson. The Prose Edda. Gylfaginning 43. [10] Simek, Rudolf. 1993. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Angela Hall. p. 289. [11] Snorri Sturluson. The Prose Edda. Gylfaginning 48. [12] Flateyjarbók. [13] Tacitus, Cornelius. 1948. Germania 40. In The Agricola and Germania. Translated by Harold Mattingly. p. 134-135. [14] Ibid. Germania 2.	Fertility
The 'Hallux' is the medical name for what, in the human body?	Freya - Norse Mythology for Smart People Norse Mythology for Smart People Freya “Freyja and the Necklace” by James Doyle Penrose (1890) Freya ( Old Norse Freyja, “Lady”) is one of the preeminent goddesses in Norse mythology. She’s a member of the Vanir tribe of deities, but became an honorary member of the Aesir gods after the Aesir-Vanir War . Her father is Njord . Her mother is unknown, but could be Nerthus . Freyr is her brother. Her husband, named Odr in late Old Norse literature , is certainly none other than Odin , and, accordingly, Freya is ultimately identical with Odin’s wife Frigg (see below for a discussion of this). Freya is famous for her fondness of love, fertility, beauty, and fine material possessions – and, because of these predilections, she’s considered to be something of the “party girl” of the Aesir. In one of the Eddic poems, for example, Loki accuses Freya (probably accurately) of having slept with all of the gods and elves , including her brother.[1] She’s certainly a passionate seeker after pleasures and thrills, but she’s a lot more than only that. Freya is the archetype of the völva, a professional or semiprofessional practitioner of seidr , the most organized form of Norse magic . It was she who first brought this art to the gods,[2] and, by extension, to humans as well. Given her expertise in controlling and manipulating the desires, health, and prosperity of others, she’s a being whose knowledge and power are almost without equal. Freya presides over the afterlife realm Folkvang . According to one Old Norse poem, she chooses half of the warriors slain in battle to dwell there. (See Death and the Afterlife .) Freya the Völva Seidr is a form of pre-Christian Norse magic and shamanism concerned with discerning destiny and altering its course by re-weaving part of its web.[3] This power could potentially be put to any use imaginable, and examples that cover virtually the entire range of the human condition can be found in Old Norse literature. In the Viking Age, the völva was an itinerant seeress and sorceress who traveled from town to town performing commissioned acts of seidr in exchange for lodging, food, and often other forms of compensation as well. Like other northern Eurasian shamans, her social status was highly ambiguous – she was by turns exalted, feared, longed for, propitiated, celebrated, and scorned.[4] Freya’s occupying this role amongst the gods is stated directly in the Ynglinga Saga, and indirect hints are dropped elsewhere in the Eddas and sagas. For example, in one tale , we’re informed that Freya possesses falcon plumes that allow their bearer to shift his or her shape into that of a falcon.[6] During the so-called Völkerwanderung or “Migration Period” – roughly 400-800 CE, and thus the period that immediately preceded the Viking Age – the figure who would later become the völva held a much more institutionally necessary and universally acclaimed role among the Germanic tribes. One of the core societal institutions of the period was the warband, a tightly organized military society presided over by a king or chieftain and his wife. The wife of the warband’s leader, according to the Roman historian Tacitus, held the title of veleda, and her role in the warband was to foretell the outcome of a suggested plan of action by means of divination and to influence that outcome by means of more active magic, as well as to serve a special cup of liquor that was a powerful symbol of both temporal and spiritual power in the warband’s periodic ritual feasts.[7][8] One literary portrait of such a woman comes to us from the medieval Old English epic poem Beowulf, which recounts the deeds of King Hroðgar and his warband in the land that we today know as Denmark. The name of Hroðgar’s queen, Wealhþeow, is almost certainly the Old English equivalent of the Proto-Germanic title that Tacitus latinised as “veleda.”[9] Wealhþeow’s “domestic” actions in the poem – which are, properly understood, enactments of the liquor ritual described above – are indispensable for the upkeep of the unity of the warband and its power structures. The poem, despite its Christian veneer, “hint[s] at the queen’s oracular powers… The Hrothgar/Wealhtheow association as presented in the poem is an echo of an earlier more robust and vigorous politico-theological conception.”[10] This “politico-theological conception” was based on the mythological model provided by the divine pair Frija and Woðanaz, deities who later evolved into, respectively, Freya/Frigg and Odin. Woðanaz is the warband’s king or chieftain, and Frija is its veleda. In addition to the structural congruencies outlined above, Wealhþeow and Freya even own a piece of jewelry with the same name: Old English Brosinga mene and Old Norse Brísingamen (both meaning something like “fiery/glowing necklace”). That both figures refer to the same ancient archetype, whether on the human or the divine plane, is certain. Freya and Frigg While the late Old Norse literary sources that form the basis of our current knowledge of pre-Christian Germanic religion present Freya and Frigg as being at least nominally distinct goddesses, the similarities between them run deep. Their differences, however, are superficial and can be satisfactorily explained by consulting the history and evolution of the common Germanic goddess whom the Norse were in the process of splitting into Freya and Frigg sometime shortly before the conversion of Scandinavia and Iceland to Christianity (around the year 1000 CE). As we’ve noted above, the Migration Period goddess who later became Freya was the wife of the god who later became Odin. While somewhat veiled, this is ultimately still the case in Old Norse literature. Freya’s husband is named Óðr, a name which is virtually identical to that of Óðinn (the Old Norse form of “Odin”). Óðr means “ecstasy, inspiration, furor.” Óðinn is simply the word óðr with the masculine definite article (-inn) added onto the end. The two names come from the same word and have the same meaning. Óðr is an obscure and seldom-mentioned character in Old Norse literature. The one passage that tells us anything about his personality or deeds – anything beyond merely listing his name in connection with Freya – comes from the Prose Edda, which states that Óðr is often away on long journeys, and that Freya can often be found weeping tears of red gold over his absence.[11] Many of the surviving tales involving Odin have him traveling far and wide throughout the Nine Worlds , to the point that he’s probably more often away from Asgard than within it. Many of Odin’s numerous bynames allude to his wanderings or are names he assumed to disguise his identity while abroad. Thus, it’s hard to see Freya’s husband as anything but an only nominally distinct extension of Odin. Freyja and Frigg are similarly accused of infidelity to their (apparently common) husband. Alongside the several mentions of Freya’s loose sexual practices can be placed the words of the medieval Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus, who relates that Frigg slept with a slave on at least one occasion.[12] In Lokasenna and the Ynglinga Saga, Odin was once exiled from Asgard, leaving his brothers Vili and Ve in command. In addition to presiding over the realm, they also regularly slept with Frigg until Odin’s return.[13][14] Many scholars have tried to differentiate between Freya and Frigg by asserting that the former is more promiscuous and less steadfast than the latter,[15] but these tales suggest otherwise. Frigg is depicted as a völva herself. Once again in Lokasenna, after Loki slanders Frigg for her infidelity, Freya warns him that Frigg knows the destiny of all beings, implying that she also has the power to alter them if she so chooses.[16] Frigg’s weaving activities are likely an allusion to this role as well. And, as it turns out, Freya is not the only goddess to own a set of bird-of-prey feathers for shapeshifting – Frigg is also in possession of one.[17] The word for “Friday” in Germanic languages (including English) is named after Frija,[18] the Proto-Germanic goddess who is the foremother of Freya and Frigg. None of the other Germanic peoples seem to have spoken of Frija as if she were two goddesses; this approach is unique to the Norse sources. It should come as no surprise, therefore, that in the Norse sources we find a confusion as to which goddess this day should have as its namesake. Both Freyjudagr (from Freyja) and Frjádagr (from Frigg) are used. The names of the two goddesses are also particularly interesting in this regard. Freyja, “Lady,” is a title rather than a true name. It’s a cognate of the modern German word Frau, which is used in much the same way as the English title “Mrs.” In the Viking Age, Scandinavian and Icelandic aristocratic women were sometimes called freyjur, the plural of freyja.[19] “Frigg,” meanwhile, comes from an ancient root that means “beloved.”[20] Frigg’s name therefore links her to love and desire, precisely the areas of life over which Freya presides (perhaps a more theologically correct wording would be “within which Freya manifests herself”). Here again we can discern the ultimate reducibility of both goddesses to one another: one’s name is identical to the other’s attributes, and the other name is a generic title rather than a unique name. Clearly, then, the two are ultimately the same goddess. But this raises the question of why they’re portrayed as distinct goddesses in Old Norse literature. Germanic mythology acquired its basic form during the Migration Period, and is, accordingly, a mythology especially suited to the socio-political institutions and prevailing ways of life that characterized that era. The cornerstone of this schema is the divine pair Frija and Woðanaz, the veleda and the *xarjanaz (“warband leader”) respectively. During the Viking Age, the formal warbands of earlier times gave way to informal, often leaderless groups of roving warriors – the vikings. Since the warband was no longer a feature of the lives of the Norse people, the mythological structures that had accompanied it lost much of their relevance. Now that Odin was no longer thought of as the leader of the warband of the gods, nor Freya/Frigg its veleda, the opportunity arose for their roles to be reinterpreted. For unknown reasons, part of this reinterpretation evidently involved splitting Frija into two goddesses, a process that appears to have never been fully completed, but was instead interrupted by the arrival and acceptance of Christianity. Looking for more great information on Norse mythology and religion? While this site provides the ultimate online introduction to the topic, my book The Viking Spirit provides the ultimate introduction to Norse mythology and religion period. I’ve also written a popular list of The 10 Best Norse Mythology Books , which you’ll probably find helpful in your pursuit. References: [1] The Poetic Edda. Lokasenna, stanzas 30, 32. [2] Snorri Sturluson. Ynglinga Saga 4. In Heimskringla: eða Sögur Noregs Konunga. [3] Heide, Eldar. 2006. Spinning Seiðr. In Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives: Origins, Changes and Interactions. Edited by Anders Andrén, Kristina Jennbert, and Catharina Raudvere. p. 166. [4] Price, Neil S. 2002. The Viking Way: Religion and War in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. p. 279-328. [5] Snorri Sturluson. Ynglinga Saga 4. In Heimskringla: eða Sögur Noregs Konunga. [6] Ellis-Davidson, Hilda Roderick. 1964. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. p. 117. [7] Tacitus, Cornelius. Germania 8. [8] Enright, Michael J. 1996. Lady with a Mead Cup: Ritual, Prophecy and Lordship in the European Warband from La Tène to the Viking Age. [9] Ibid. p. 192.	i don't know
Two members of the 'Thrush' family visit Britain in huge numbers during the winter. If one is the 'Fieldfare', what is the other?	Gardensafari Birds (with lots of pictures) SUPPORT GARDENSAFARI Birds [All pictures of garden wildlife on this page are thumbnails. Click on any thumbnail for a large format to be displayed. The animal's English name is usually specified, provided it has one. The scientific name is always mentioned in the caption of the photograph. Click on for sound. For more information on a species click on a bird's name. You will be given a separate page containing more information about the bird's habits, the eggs, extra pictures and also its sound (if available).] This page is divided into chapters, of which the first covers the subject of passerine birds and is by far the biggest. That chapter is divided into 7 smaller ones to keep navigation possible. In the chapter exotic birds we tell you about escaped species. It is doubtful, to say the least, whether these creatures stand a chance to survive in the wild in this part of the world. Contents: 1 Passerine Birds , 2 Pigeons , 3 Woodpeckers , 4 Plovers 5 Exotic Birds , 6 Water Birds and 7 Other Birds 1 Passerine Birds Contents: 1.1 Thrushes , 1.2 Sparrows , 1.3 Titmice , 1.4 Finches , 1.5 Warblers , 1.6 Crows and Jays and 1.7 Other Passerine Birds . 1.1 Thrushes (Turdidae) This is a large family of passerine birds. In general most of its members eat worms and insects. In colder areas they eat nuts and sometimes in winter also berries. Most thrushes have long and pointed beaks. All just hatched thrushes are very speckled. A number of species, such as the Robin and the Blackbird, loose their speckles when they reach the adult age. Others, like the Song Thrush and the Mistle Thrush remain speckled all their life. In the Netherlands the Blackbird is the most common bird. It is estimated that there are around 3.5 milion of them, thus making it even more common than the House Sparrow! The male Blackbird is black indeed with a striking yellow beak. The female is brown with a less striking brown beak. Female Blackbirds (Turdus merula) are brown and not black at all!. The male is in the picture to your left, the female in the picture to your right. Another well-known thrush is the Song Thrush. The majority of thrushes sing beautifully, but the Song Thrush is a credit to its name. Gardeners are happy with Song Thrushes in their neighbourhood because these birs eat snails. The Redwing looks like the Song Thrush very much, but has a red spot around the wing. This species breeds in Scandinavia but spends the winters in Western- and Southern Europe. In the Benelux you can see a lot of them during the migration season in autumn (especially in October and November). (Turdus philomelos), to the left and the Redwing (Turdus iliacus), to the right look rather similar. One of the best known birds in the garden is the Robin. You can often see it from close by as it is not shy at all. Adults have the well known red breast. Males and females look identical and both have their own territory during winter, which they will defend. That's why both sexes sing, which is rare in the world of birds. And what's more: they sing nearly all year round. The young are very speckled, thus showing they actually belong to the Thrushes family. The Robin (Erithacus rubecula), to the left a chick, is a forward and even curious little bird. Other thrushes in our garden include the Mistle Thrush , the Nightingale , the Redstart and the Fieldfare . At the moment we have no good pictures available. 1.2 Sparrows (Passeridae) Once the House Sparrow was the most numerous bird in the Netherlands. But those days are over. Nowadays we contruct and isolate our houses in a different way than in the past and, consequently, there is no place or hole in the roof for the House Sparrow to build its nest. The number of House Sparrows in Holland dropped considerably over the past few years. And not only in Holland, but in Belgium and England as well. In England the species has even been put on the red list of endangered species! The male, below to your right, is richly marked and has a beautiful ash grey cap. The female, depicted below to your left, is less colourful and her cap is like the rest of the body covered with pale browns and beiges. The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is becoming something of a rarity nowadays. Picture's: $ We don't see many House Sparrows around because we live in a small village in a rural arae with lots of forests. That's the territory of the Tree Sparrows. Both species belong to a mainly tropical family of birds. Most of its members build huge and complicated nests. The House Sparrow very rarely builds such a complicated nest in the trees but mainly it nests under the tiles of roofs etc. The Tree Sparrow never weaves a nest for it is a real hole-nesting bird. By the way: in Northern America this family of birds is better known as the Weaver Finches. Usually over there the name sparrows is used to refer to the family of American Sparrows (Emberizidae), non of which live in Europe, let alone in our garden. In winter the Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) often appears in large numbers. The Hedge Sparrow looks like both species of Sparrows and even shares the same name but actually it belongs to an entire different family of birds. 1.3 Titmice (Paridae) Titmice (or simply Tits), are referred to in Northern America as Chickadees as well. In summer they fly about rather unnoticed but as soon as winter comes you will see them virtually everywhere. A number of species can become really tame. Tits are intelligent birds that over the years adapted themselves to the changing environment. For instance they learned how to open milk bottles to get into the tasty cream on top of milk. Most Titmice are resident birds that don't migrate at all or, if they do, it travels short distances only. The best known Tit is perhaps the Great Tit. Like most Tits this is a hole nesting bird. It often competes with the Blue Tit over the ownership of a good nesting hole. And because the Great Tit is just a tiny bit bigger (and stronger) it usually triumphs. All titmice eat insects, spiders and larvae in spring and summer, but switch to berries and nuts once winter approaches. To the left the Great Tit (Parus major) and to the right a Blue Tit (Nowadays: Cyanistes caeruleus, used to be Parus caeruleus). There are two more Tits that frequent our garden. They are less colourful however. The Marsh Tit is just as cheeky as the two blue species. Going from east to west in the Benelux the bird becomes less common. The Crested Tit only lives in woody areas. It prefers older pines and is therefore less common. If the crested Tit visits your garden it won't be very shy but it's also less forward than the three species already mentioned. Two more frequent visitors to out feeding stand: the Marsh Tit (Nowadays: Poecile palustris, used to be Parus palustris) and the Crested Tit (Nowadays: Lophophanes cristatus, used to be Parus cristatus). The smallest Titmouse in Central Europe is the Coal Tit below. It is even slightly smaller than the Blue Tit is. It is not a very striking bird, but can easily be recognized as it really lokks like any other Tit and has a unique big black cap showing a white line in the middle. Its song is soft and not very special, but it sings all year round. And it is not only the male that sings, the females sing just as much. The species lives on pines, so probably it will not turn up in everyone's garden. The Coal Tit is not shy at all, but it is difficult to take a good picture of the animal as it is rather restless. When it visits our feeding table it gives the impression of being nervous and moves frantically. It is mare calm when sitting on a baggy of peanuts. The picture below is not of the best quality, alas. A very nervous species: the Coal Tit (Periparus ater, but used to be Parus ater). Even though it bears the word Tit in its name, the Long-tailed Tit actually is not a Titmouse at all but it belongs to its own family of Passerine Birds. 1.4 Finches (Fringillidae) Many finches are beautiful, colourful and skillful singing birds. Seeds are their main source of food which you can tell by looking at their beak: short, thick and strong, able to crack all kind of seeds and nuts. Chaffinches are common birds all over Europe. In Western Europe they are especially seen in winter when they are less shy and because there are simply more of them in one place. Lots of Chaffinches from Scandinavia migrate to Western Europe in winter. Even the Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) loves to sing from a high position. To the right a young male, not fully coloured yet. The Greenfinch is not as shy as the Chaffinch especially during the breeding season. The bird is very fond of rose-hips and will do everything to get them! The green and yellow colours of the Greenfinch are less prominent during winter. The Greenfinch (Chloris chloris) often is a bit pale in winter. Another regular guest in my garden during winter is the Siskin. It breeds in this part of Europe in small numbers as it actually a bird to be found in pine forests in Northern Europe and Scotland. In winter these birds travel from southwards to England and the Benelux. The bird is not very shy, but it moves a lot which makes it difficult to photograph. In all pictures of the species on our pages a male is depicted. The female is darker, with less yellow colouring. Siskins (Carduelis spinus) are regular visitors to our garden in winter. Goldfinch is a rare visitor in my garden even though this is a rather common bird in this part of the world. The bird prefers more open surroundings and mild climate. It can be found in all parts of Europe except for in colder parts of Scandinavia. The contrasty colours of Goldfinch make it easy to spot this bird in the garden. Other finches that appear in my garden are the Bullfinch , the Brambling ,and the Linnet . Alas, I do not have pictures of these species available yet. 1.5 Warblers (Sylviidae) Warblers are very small birds. Most of them are very dull and some species are very hard to tell apart. All warblers are insect eaters. Most of them come to Europe in summer to breed and in autumn they leave again for Africa. The Chiffchaff below looks very much like the Willow Warbler , which is not depicted here. Even experts listen to them rather than look at them in order to tell them apart. The Willow Worbler is an excellent singer, but the Chiffchaff only says... chiff chaff (Hey, what else should a Chiffchaff say!). The Gold Crest is the smallest bird in the Benelux, weighing about 5 grams only. Gold Crests do not migrate and stay in Europe during winter. Then they regularly mix up with tits and finches. (Phylloscopus collybita) is a very dull bird, but the Gold Crest (Regulus regulus) has quite striking colours. The Blackcap is a frequent visitor of the garden in summer. Its modest colours make it difficult for the photographer to notice that it is actually an interesting bird. 1.6 Crows and Jays (Corvidae) Most Passerine Birds sing beautifully. So it is amazing that the Crow family also belongs to the Passerine Birds: the sounds they utter vary from awful to horrible. The Crow is a very large, black bird. To be precise, the beak is black in Western Europe but in Central and Eastern Europe it is grey and black and the bird is called the Hooded Crow. Strangely enough, Hooded Crows also live in Ireland and Northern Scotland. In other parts of the UK one finds black crows only. It is not very important though as both birds belong to one and the same species. The Magpie is black and white and quite beautiful. Many owners of gardens don't think very positive about this animal because it regularly distroys the nests of smaller Passerine birds and eating their young. On the other hand: the young of the Magpie have to eat as well, don't they? Carrion Crow (or Black Crows) in photo to the left and Hooded Crows in the middle belong to the same species: Corvus corone. Magpies (photo to the right) are not shy really, but they keep their distance from humans. The Jackdaw is very rare in our garden. There are lots of them not far from our house but they seem to avoid our garden. It is the smallest Crow in Western Europe. Because we live in an area with lots of woodlands we see the Jay almost daily. Its main interest seems to be the water in the pond. (Corvus monedula) to the left and the Jay (Garrulus glandarius) to the right visit our garden irregularly. Other members of the Crow family in our garden are the Rook and the Nutcracker . We have no acceptable pictures of these species yet. 1.7 Other Passerine Birds The Passerine birds below all belong to various families and we can not group them in any other way. The Nuthatch (family Sittidae - Nuthatchers) can be a very common bird in your garden, provided there are many trees in the vicinity. The Nuthatch can climb trees but not only that - he can also descend trees with its head pointed downward which is very unique. It feeds mainly on insect and their larvae that live in wood. In winter it eagerly takes the food you offer on a bird feeder. The Hedge Sparrow (family Prunellidae - Hedge Sparrows) resembles other sparrows but actually it is not even closely related to them. It has the same pattern of stripes and colours but, concluding from the shape of the beak, it eats mainly insects. The bird is not shy at all and it is often erroneously assumed to be an ordinary sparrow and as such gets unnoticed. (Sitta europaea) to the left and the Hedge Sparrow (Prunella modularis) to the right are insect eaters mainly. When a bird is called Hedge Sparrows, one automatically assumes, wrongfully, that it is a sparrow. The same goes for the Long-tailed Tit. It belongs to its own family (Aegithalidae - Bush Tits) and is not closely related to the real Tits at all. Anyway, the first part of the name is highly accurate, for the Long-tailed Tit has a very long tail indeed. The animal lives in a kind of family structure and is seldom seen on its own. Long-tailed Tits (Aegithalos caudatus) always live in small groups. The Starling (family Sturnidae - Starlings) is another well known bird. You might not be so fond of Starlings because they often come in large flocks and in no time at all they eat the cherries off your cherry trees. The same flocks however display breathtaking shows of synchronous flying in autumn. The Starling on the picture has fresh feathers and therefore looks extremely speckled. The speckles wear off later showing a green metallic colour. The Pied Flycatcher (family Muscicapidae - Fly Catchers) breeds in our garden regularly. The male arrives from Africa about two weeks before the female does. It spends these two weeks looking for a good nesting place (often a nesting box, which the species adopts without hesitation). When it has found a suitable one, it stays around, singing a lot. First of all to scare away other males, secondly to lure the arriving females. Upon hearing his song the females carefully inspect the place he found. If the female approves the site both birds form a couple. Otherwise she will leave and he will have to wait for the next female he can lure to his residence... (Sturnus vulgaris) to the left rarely visits our garden, but the Pied Flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) even breeds here. In 2003 our first pipit (family Motacillidae) turned up. It was sitting on the ground, could be appraoched easily, performed his role as photo model very well and then took off. In close up this turns out to be a beautiful bird as well. Usually you do not get a chance for a close look like this. The Tree Pipit and the Meadow Pipit are two look-a-likes. Two experts however confirmed our impression that in this case we are talking about a Tree Pipit. This is a very common bird all over Europe, including most of Britain. Very beautiful in a close up: the Tree Pipit (Anthus trivialis) The Wren, also known as Winter Wren or European Wren, is one of the smallest birds in Europe. It looks quite funny: a round body and a very small tail that is held upright most of the time. It is often seen running through high vegetation in a mouse-like way. In our garden it seldom comes to our feeding table and if it does the visits are very brief. The Wren is the only European representative of the Wren family (Troglodytidae). The picture below is of rather poor quality, alas. This bird is called the Winter Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), for it even sings in winter. An occasional guest making acrobaric flights above the garden is Barn Swallow (family Hirundinidae - Swallows). It is very fast so rather difficult to capture with a camera. Luckily, I've managed to take pictures of swallows when visiting Batavia shipyard in Lelystad in the Netherlands where they seemed to be less shy. Also from close by Barn Swallow is a surprisingly beautiful bird. There are other passerine birds in our garden, like White Wagtail (family Motacillidae - Pipits and Wagtails), Small Flycatcher (family Muscicapidae - Fly-catchers) and the Short-toed Tree Creeper (family Certhidae - Creepers). Up till now I have not managed to take good pictures of these birds. 2 Pigeons (Columbidae) Lots of people keep pigeons either because of their beautiful looks or because of the Pigeons ability to return home from afar (Homing Pigeons). In the past there was another reason for keeping pigeons, especially in France, pigeaon meat was considered a delicatecy! Many of these pigeons escaped and mixed with pigeons that lost their way to create a new species: the Town Pigeon. Thus we have no idea whether the one below is such a Town Pigeon or if this is a resting Homing Pigeon. This could be a Homing Pigeon that got lost on the way, or is resting for a bit. There are two species of wild pigeons in our garden: the small, forward and dull Collared Dove and the big and very shy Woodpigeon. Both species are very fond of our pond. Pigeons are remarkable birds indeed because they can actually drink water. In order to get some water most other birds just put their beak into the water and then throw their heads backwards. Pigeons don't do this, they just drink, which you can tell by the movements in their throats. Both species have a terrible monotonous song. The Woodpigeon is popular among meat eaters: weasels, goshawks and even humans appreciate them culinarily. (Columba palumbus) and the Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto) are very common in our garden. 3 Woodpeckers (Picidae) Even though Woodpeckers are well known birds, most often you can hear them before you can actually spot them. They live of the larvae of beetles that live in wood. In order to reach them they hew holes in trees and that's what you hear. Sometimes they simply strike the tree just for the fun of the sound of it. It's also their way of communication. They do make other sounds as well: they 'laugh' loudly. The Great Spotted Woodpecker is a common species in gardens and in winter it will take food from your bird feeder. The Green Woodpecker is a rare species. Unlike the other woodpeckers it is entirely dependant on ants. It visits our garden rarely to eat some of the ants that live in the grassfield. To the left a young Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis) and to the right the very common Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major). The enormous Black Woodpecker visited my garden only once and I was just too late to grab my camera and take a picture of it. 4 Plovers (Charadriidae) An interesting bird is the Northern Lapwing (family Charadriidae - Plovers), that in spring time often flies over my garden screaming the shrieking 'peewit'. 5 Exotic Birds These are birds that appeared in our garden but actually should not have. Most are escapees from cages, breeders etc. and cannot really survive in the wild. Usually the winters are too cold for them (like for the Rosella) or there is not enough suitable food available for them, like for the Peafowl. Other species however are able to live through winters and some species may even become "European" birds, like the Mandarin Duck. The two female Peafowls in the pictures below suddenly and unexpectedly turned up in our garden. They wandered off from the neighbours' garden and into ours. They had quite lucky that day as our bird feeder just fell apart of misery and old age while a lot of bird food was still on it. Needless to add that the Peafowls had a dinner party there! The species below is known as the Indian Peafowl. It usually is blueish, especially the male, but the famous White Peafowl belongs to this species as well. Turning up in our garden by surprise: two hens of the Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus). The Mandarin Duck (family Anatidae) one day suddenly came to our pond and left some two weeks later. The duck does not originally belong in Europe but humans imported it from China. The male has a very beautifully coloured pattern on its feathers. Some animals escape or are set free and in certain areas of Europe and the animal now lives in there in the wild. We have no idea whether the female depicted below is such a wild descendant or if is a bird on the run. The Crimson Rosella (family Platyceridae - Rosellas) certainly is a bird that got astray, for this relative of the parakeet (it is not a parrot) from Australia will never survive the winters in Europe. To the left a female Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata) and to the right a Crimson Rosella (Platycercus elegans) that probably escaped. 6 Water Birds Sea Gulls are among the best known birds in the countries adjacent to the North Sea. Most species are confined to the coastal areas but the Black-headed Gull (family Laridae - Gulls) lives all over Europe. From time to time it visists our garden. On the lawn it behaves like a Blackbird: it walks about quickly, hoping for some Earth Worms to surface. Young Blakheaded Gulls are without the black cap and so are adults in winter. The big Grey Heron (family Ardeidae - Herons and Bitterns) actually is a very unwelcome visitor to our garden, for it is after the life in our pond, including our beautiful fish and the frogs. The Grey Heron is a migrating bird, even though some colonies, especially in the western part of Holland, do not migrate any longer. They find food in abundance there that they do not need to move. The majestic White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) was almost extinct in the Netherlands only 30 years ago. The Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) is after our fish! Black-headed Gulls (Larus ridibundus) are elegant flyers indeed. 7 Other Birds There are still some birds that do sometimes pop up in the garden. First of all we had the Northern Goshawk (family Accipitridae - Hawks) in our garden once. It had just caught a woodpigeon. We quickly made an attempt to take a picture but with not a good result. Another irregular guest that flashes through the garden from time to time is the Common Kestrel (family Falconidae - Falcons) hunting for a blackbird or some other small bird. Sounds ï¿½ CLM "&" Vogelbescherming Nederland, used here by kind permission.	Redwing
In 1994, Conchita Martinez became the first Spanish woman to win the Wimbledon singles title. Who did she beat in the Final?	Bird Library \| Wild Bird Species \| Vine House Farm Learn More The male of the species is jet black with a bright yellow beak, though the beak colour is more brown on younger birds. The female bird is similar in size but its plumage is brown in colour. They are very territorial in nature and if other blackbirds encroach on their territory they are very fast in trying to remove them from their patch. They are one of the first birds in the morning to start the dawn chorus and usually the last bird singing in the evening. Learn More The Blackcap is a small bird in the warbler family, the male having a black cap and a greyish under body with a brownish grey back, grey wings and a grey tail, while the female has a brown cap and a brownish body. The song is a delightful warbling sound, albeit not terribly tuneful. Learn More This is a chameleon of the finch family with its changing plumage through the seasons of the year. In the winter the male bird has a streaked head, orange breast plumage and a white rump, in the spring the males head becomes much darker in colour with a rich orangey red colour on his wings and breast. The females are not so bright and cheerful in colour, though have similar patterns in their plumage. Learn More A fairly large finch compared to other species and also quite shy, the male has a deep pink chest and under parts, black cap and a white rump which is often the only thing seen as it flies off. The female is a greyer version. These birds have the typical strong finch beak and can cause problems to gardeners and soft fruit growers. Learn More The male bird dons spectacular coloured plumage in comparison to the much drabber female bird. They are the second most popular bird in the UK, tending to merge into flocks of all male and all female birds in the winter months. At that particular time of the year they will visit bird tables in large numbers for the seeds and nuts that are provided. However, they tend to be found on the ground foraging for the spilt seeds and nuts that fall from the bird tables and feeders, though will use feeders with circular perches (they find straight perches difficult to balance on). Learn More Both the male and female bird has a black cap, throat and bib. The male bird's bib is slightly larger and triangular in shape in comparison to the female bird. They both have white markings at the back of the head. Their beaks are smaller than the blue or great tits. It is one of the smallest birds in the UK. Learn More The delicately coloured plumage of the collared dove is a blend of pinkish-sandy browns and greys. Both male and female birds have the black half collar finely outlined with white around the nape of the neck. The young do not develop their collar until after their first moult. Learn More They are sedentary birds (meaning they spend their lives largely in the area they were born) and individual birds living only 30km apart and can sing in a different tone. Both male and female are similar in a brown colour but the male is 20% bigger than the female. They tend to look a bit like Skylarks, thougharen'trelated. Learn More Both male and female are alike in their grey colour but the younger birds tend to be more brown and striped. They can also be identified by their thin bill and orange legs. A very common garden bird, they’re normally seen in individually or in pairs. Sometimes also called a Hedge Sparrow, though they’re not related to Sparrows and actually come from a family of birds called accentors. Learn More Fieldfares are a large thrush with a grey head, dark chestnut back and a speckled breast. Their bill is similar to that of the blackbird apart from the tip which is black. They are very sociable birds and are generally seen in flocks in the winter months, before returning to their breeding grounds in Northern Europe and Scandinavia. They also often flock with Redwings (which are also a thrush). Learn More These small birds are highly decorated in colour. Their bodies are fawn in colour, their wings are black and white with a flash of yellow and their heads are a vibrant red with flashes of black and white. They have a long beak which enables them to extract seeds from the teasel and thistles, or niger seed in special feeders put out on the garden. Learn More A very distinctive brightly coloured bird with black and white features with a red patch under the tail. The male has a red patch at the back of his head, while the female has a black nape. Younger birds have a red scull cap. Learn More The Green woodpecker is the largest of the three woodpeckers that breeds in the UK. Unmistakable with distinctive green plumage on its back with a bright red head, with the plumage on its under body a light green. Can be seen feeding on lawns for ants and other insects. Learn More Greenfinches have gradually colonised urban gardens over the last century partly because of the loss of grain and weed seeds due to intensive farming methods. They are identified by their green and yellow plumage, the female being duller in colour. They have a typical seed-eaters powerful triangular beak, are gregarious outside the breeding season, and make a distinctive trilling call. Learn More It is a plump bird with brown back grey flanks and a white chest with an orange face. There is very little difference between male and female birds. The young birds are usually yellowish brown and do lack the markings on the underside of their bodies. Their diet is mainly seed eating however the young do like insects. The parental birds take the young to the edge of the fields to enable them to forage for insects, this being a substantial protein intake for the young birds in their first few days of life. These birds like the ground and when disturbed they will fly up and scatter over a short distance. They tend to colonise in small groups called coveys after the breeding season. This bird is now in decline due to loss of breeding habitat and food. Learn More The House Martin is a smallish bird with a glossy blue-black back and pure white under parts. It has a forked tail (which has not got the long streamers that a swallow has) with white feathers on its legs. The young are slightly different in colour as they are brown on the rump and have some white mottling on the nape. Learn More The male has a black bib with grey cheeks, crown and rump. The female more uniformly brown with a paler front. Juveniles resemble the female. The House Sparrow has a persistent chirping call, particularly when the male is calling to attract a mate. Groups of House Sparrows often gather in the late afternoon and twitter conversationally until darkness falls. Learn More Both the male and the female are very similar in colour. There is a bold band of blue on the wings, the body is a pale pinkish brown in colour and they also have a black moustache. They have a distinctive screeching call, which often gives the location away of this relatively shy member of the crow family. Learn More The Kestrel is a member of the falcon family and has pointed wings and a long tail. There are distinct differences between the male and the female Kestrel, with the male being slightly smaller but much more colourful with its grey head, reddish brown back and grey tail with a black tip. Females are speckled brown in colour. Often see hovering along motorway embankments and other open areas where they hunt for mice and voles. Learn More A small, slim bird of the finch family. The males have a red forehead and breast while the females are much duller in colour usually brown. They are a bird of farm and heathland, where they can be seen perching on hedges and shrubs such as gorse. Learn More They have small bodies of what looks like black and white plumage but on closer inspection they are pinkish and their long tail is black in colour. They have a very small beak which is black. These small birds tend to flock together and keep together, and through the winter they stay close to one another to keep warm. They’re also very vocal and continually make a soft chattering sound which helps them ensure they stay as a flock. Learn More The colour of plumage of this plump little bird is blue/grey upper part with a fawn belly. On the back of the head there is a thick black stripe which follows through to the eye. It has a large bill. Another real give away in identifying this bird is its unusual ability to move down the trunk of a tree head first when looking for food – no other UK bird does this. Learn More The male bird is very brightly coloured with a bright green head and very red face. Their body is brownish with black markings which follow on through into their tail feathers. The females are not so brightly coloured having a mottled plumage of brown and black. The Pheasant in an introduced game bird to our shores and is native to much of Asia. Learn More This bird is small and has black and white feathers with a long tail. An insect eater, it is a bird that darts about, quickly wagging its tail up and down when stood still. Found in many open areas, including supermarket and motorway service station car parks! Learn More Another introduced game bird to the UK, it is larger than the Grey Partridge with a white chin and throat patch, greyish body with bold black flank. The breast of the bird is blue black, their legs, bill and eye ring are red. The young are similar in colour to the young of the Grey Partridge. Learn More A member of the finch family, the males have a small red cap on their forehead black bib and a bright pink belly which gets brighter in the summer. The females differ slightly with only a small amount of red on the foreheads. Both birds have yellow bills with dark tips. Often flocks and can be seen with Siskins. Learn More This is the smallest member of the thrush family to be seen in the UK. It has red undertones on the underside of its wings and a creamy stripe above its eyes. The back of the bird is dark chocolate in colour so are the upper sides of their wings. A winter migrant from Northern Europe and Scandinavia and often seen in large flocks with Fieldfares. Learn More Similar in size to a Sparrow, the male bird is quite distinctive with a black head and white neck collar and a black moustache under his beak. The female is less distinctive with a dull brown head with a pale stripe below the cheeks. Both have a pale breast and darker upper body and wings. Learn More One of the most distinctive birds seen in Britain and certainly the best loved. Both male and female birds are identical with their red breast and olive brown upper parts. The juveniles lack the red breast and has a speckled breast. Learn More A member of the crow family, the the base of the rook’s beak has bare skin. Their plumage is black but will shine with a reddish purple tinge when caught in sunlight. They tend to look scruffy in appearance with their fluffy leg feathers. Their beak is pointed and much longer than the similar Carrion Crow. Learn More Both male and female have broad yellow wing bars and the male has a black cap and bib during the summer months. The female is brown and streaky to keep her hidden when on the nest. A small finch which is increasing in numbers across the UK, and is now a regular visitor to many gardens. Learn More A smallish bird with brown feathers, it has a crest which is raised when the Skylark is excited or alarmed. The wing tips are tinged with white and the tail also has white on the sides. This bird is well known for its spectacular vertical flight, where it produces its beautiful song which is its most distinguishing feature. Learn More Females are larger than the males and they differ slightly in colour. They both have striped under parts but the male has a blue back and the female's back is brown. Their wings are broad and rounded and with their long tail they are able to fly in between trees and branches at great speed. Learn More Both birds are the same in colour with a greyish brown body and the under parts of their wings being pale, and therefore are difficult to tell apart. Despite the bird’s name, the young are the only ones to have a spotted plumage. The bird perches on branches and fence posts in order to catch their prey, and make distinctive circular flights to catch insects as they pass and fly straight back to the same perch. A summer migrant to the UK, Spotted Flycatcher numbers have dropped dramatically in recent decades. Learn More The plumage is shiny black with white speckles during winter, revealing purple and greens glints in the summer sunshine. The young are grey-brown until their first moult. Numbers have declined somewhat in the last few years but it is still possible to witness the sensational aerobatic display of thousands of these birds as they prepare to roost on winter evenings. A vast cloud of thousands of birds can swirl and swoop in perfect unison as each bird follows those beside it. Learn More The Stonechat is similar in size to the robin. The male has a vivid black head with white patches on either side of its neck and a bright orange/red breast. The female bird has a brown head rather than black but otherwise is the same colour as the male.	i don't know
What was the first item of non-stick cookware marketed by 'Teflon'?	10 BEST Non-Stick Cookware Reviews 2017 Cookbooks Non-Stick Cookware Is nonstick the most favorable for your skillets? Non-stick cookware becomes popular for making our life easier these days-for comfy to cook, less oil or butter and breezy cleaning. There’re lots of nonstick types on the market -from traditional nonstick, infused coats to PFOA- and PTFE-free pans for reducing harmful chemicals. Need a brief review? First, the nonstick coat does matter. The type of surfaces tells how quality and safety of the tools. Consider ceramic or non-Teflon pans if you’re health-conscious. Second, consider the construction; the weight and heat conductor play the big rules. Last, remember that each brand does best in different types. Calphalon, Anolon and Circulon are good at in anodized pans, while Scanpan, EarthPan and GreenPan are spotlighted for PFOA-free products. Top 10 Best Non-Stick Cookware 2017 1 Having superior performances like the famous model, Anolon Advanced, yet the Advanced Bronze dresses more style with bronze finish. Great professional cook. This outstanding cookware is recommended by Good Housekeeping and Consumer’s Digest 2011. Full Review ï¿½ 3 WearEver Pure Living Frustrated in find nice safe cookware in payable charges? So, we proudly suggest this stylish Pure Living series for your pleasant cooking with nonstick pans without PTFE, PFOA, Cadmium or lead, as well as good heat distribution from aluminum inside. Full Review ï¿½ 4 Rachael Ray Hard Anodized II No need to be a fan of Rachael Ray, Yet this fantastic non-stick cookware will make falling in love with. This is a good combination of quality and style for family kitchen. Dishwasher-safe is interesting features updated. Full Review ï¿½ 5	Frying pan
Which European nation finished third in football's 1974 and 1982 World Cup Tournaments?	Best Nonstick Cookware - Best Non Stick Pans and Skillet Reviews Best Nonstick Cookware The Best Kitchen Knives view gallery If you're considering picking up a few extra pots and pans or replacing a whole set, now — before the end-of-year cooking marathon — is the time to do it. We evaluated 10 lines of traditional cookware with stainless steel interiors. Here, the ones that best handled the heat. More Earth Pan II Sandflow Nonstick Earth Pan II Sandflow Nonstick Excellent performance at an unbeatable price, this aluminum cookware is nonstick inside and out and comes in terracotta or espresso. The nonstick finish is made without PTFE and without using PFOA (from $19.99 for an 8-inch pan to $149.99 for a 10-piece set, available at amazon.com ). 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Pros: Distributes heat evenly on gas and electric ranges Maintains a steady simmer Nonstick finish easily releases foods cooked without fat Handles and knobs stay cool when used on the stovetop Pans and lids are safe in the oven to 400°F Easy to clean by hand Exterior doesn't stain from use Thorough owner's manual Only comes with a bronze finish Handles are attached with rivets, creating additional crevices to clean Manufacturer's Warranty: Limited Lifetime 1 Of 27 Earth Pan II Sandflow Nonstick Excellent performance at an unbeatable price, this aluminum cookware is nonstick inside and out and comes in terracotta or espresso. The nonstick finish is made without PTFE and without using PFOA (from $19.99 for an 8-inch pan to $149.99 for a 10-piece set, available at amazon.com ). Pros: Distributes heat evenly on gas and electric ranges Maintains a steady simmer Nonstick finish easily releases foods cooked without fat Glass lids let you see into the pan during cooking Handles and lids stay cool on the rangetop Pans and lids are safe in oven to 500°F Dishwasher safe Exterior doesn't stain from use Thorough owner's manual Handles are attached with rivets, creating additional crevices to clean Manufacturer's Warranty: Quality Assurance Guarantee Courtesy of Meyer Cookware 2 Of 27 Anolon Advanced Bronze Collection Nonstick This nonstick, anodized aluminum cookware offers unbeatable performance, for a price (from $24.99 for an 8-inch pan to $299.99 for a 10-piece set, available at amazon.com ). Pros: Distributes heat evenly on gas and electric ranges Maintains a steady simmer Nonstick finish easily releases foods cooked without fat Handles and knobs stay cool when used on the stovetop Pans and lids are safe in the oven to 400°F Easy to clean by hand Exterior doesn't stain from use Thorough owner's manual Only comes with a bronze finish Handles are attached with rivets, creating additional crevices to clean Manufacturer's Warranty: Limited Lifetime 3 Of 27 Sur La Table Hard Anodized Nonstick An excellent all-around value, this anodized aluminum cookware heats evenly on gas and electric ranges and maintains a perfectly-steady simmer. At less than $250 for a complete set, it offers excellent value (from $49.95 for a skillet set to $249.95 for a 10-piece set, available at amazon.com ). Pros: Distributes heat evenly on gas and electric ranges Maintains a steady simmer Nonstick finish easily releases foods cooked without fat Handles and lids stay cool on the stovetop Pans and lids safe in the oven to 400°F Easy to clean by hand Exterior doesn't stain from use Cons: Handles are attached with rivets, creating additional crevices to clean Manufacturer's Warranty: Limited Lifetime Courtesy of Sur La Table 4 Of 27 Paula Deen Signature Porcelain Enamel This porcelain enamel stick aluminum cookware, with a nonstick finish, offers excellent performance with a traditional look. The design was inspired by Paula Deen's memories of poring through antiques with her Aunt Peggy (from $14.99 for an 8-inch pan to $119.99 for a 12-piece set, available at amazon.com ). Pros: Available in orange, red, green, robin's egg blue, and butter Distributes heat evenly on gas and electric ranges Maintains a steady simmer Nonstick finish easily releases foods cooked without fat Handles and lids stay cool on the stovetop Pans and lids are safe in the oven to 350°F Easy to clean by hand Exterior doesn't stain from use Thorough owner's manual The lightweight construction makes this cookware appear to be of lower quality Handles are attached with rivets, creating additional crevices to clean Manufacturer's Warranty: Limited Lifetime Courtesy of Paula Deen Cookware Advertisement - Continue Reading Below 5 Of 27 The Pampered Chef Hard Anodized with Ti Nonstick This hard-anodized aluminum cookware has silicone handles and glass lids. It heats evenly, simmers steadily, and has a nonstick surface that easily releases foods cooked without fat, making it a good choice if you're willing to splurge a bit. Don't forget the tempered glass lids (from $48.00 for an 8-inch sauté pan to $450.00 for a 7-piece set, available at pamerpedchef.com ). Pros: Distributes heat evenly on gas and electric ranges Maintains a steady simmer Nonstick finish easily releases foods cooked without fat Handles and lids stay cool on the stovetop Pans and lids are safe in the oven to 400°F Easy to clean by hand Thorough owner's manual Handles are attached with rivets, creating additional crevices to clean Stains from use, though the stains can be removed with an abrasive cleaner Manufacturer's Warranty: Lifetime	i don't know
In what units are household electricity bills measured?	How is Electricity Measured? \| Union of Concerned Scientists Union of Concerned Scientists How is Electricity Measured? Understanding watts, megawatts, kilowatt-hours, and more Watts are a measurement of power, describing the rate at which electricity is being used at a specific moment. For example, a 15-watt LED light bulb draws 15 watts of electricity at any moment when turned on. Watt-hours are a measurement of energy, describing the total amount of electricity used over time. Watt-hours are a combination of how fast the electricity is used (watts) and the length of time it is used (hours). For example, a 15-watt light bulb, which draws 15 watts at any one moment, uses 15 watt-hours of electricity in the course of one hour. Kilowatts and kilowatt-hours are useful for measuring amounts of electricity used by large appliances and by households. Kilowatt-hours are what show up on your electricity bill, describing how much electricity you have used. One kilowatt (kW) equals 1,000 watts, and one kilowatt-hour (kWh) is one hour of using electricity at a rate of 1,000 watts. New, energy-efficient refrigerators use about 300-400 kilowatt-hours per year. The typical American home uses about 7,200 kilowatt-hours of electricity each year [1]. Megawatts are used to measure the output of a power plant or the amount of electricity required by an entire city. One megawatt (MW) = 1,000 kilowatts = 1,000,000 watts. For example, a typical coal plant is about 600 MW in size. Gigawatts measure the capacity of large power plants or of many plants. One gigawatt (GW) = 1,000 megawatts = 1 billion watts. In 2012, the total capacity of U.S. electricity generating plants was approximately 1,100 GW [2]. Notes and References We Need Your Support to Make Change Happen We can shift our nation away from dirty fossil fuels and toward cleaner, renewable sources of power—but not without you. Your generous support helps develop science-based solutions for a healthy, safe, and sustainable future. $25	Watt
What is the chemical formula for the gas , nitrous oxide?	Electrical units of measurment (V,A,Ω,W,...) Volt (V) Volt is the electrical unit of voltage . One volt is the energy of 1 joule that is consumed when electric charge of 1 coulomb flows in the circuit. 1V = 1J / 1C Ampere (A) Ampere is the electrical unit of electrical current . It measures the amount of electrical charge that flows in an electrical circuit per 1 second. 1A = 1C / 1s Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance. 1Ω = 1V / 1A Watt is the electrical unit of electric power . It measures the rate of consumed energy. 1W = 1J / 1s 1W = 1V ï¿½ 1A Decibel-milliwatt (dBm) Decibel-milliwatt or dBm is a unit of electric power , measured with logarithmic scale referenced to 1mW. 10dBm = 10 ï¿½ log10(10mW / 1mW) Decibel-Watt (dBW) Decibel-watt or dBW is a unit of electric power , measured with logarithmic scale referenced to 1W. 10dBW = 10 ï¿½ log10(10W / 1W) Farad (F) Farad is the unit of capacitance. It represents the amount of electric charge in coulombs that is stored per 1 volt. 1F = 1C / 1V Henry is the unit of inductance. 1H = 1Wb / 1A siemens is the unit of conductance, which is the opposite of resistance. 1S = 1 / 1Ω Coulomb is the unit of electric charge . 1C = 6.238792×1018 electron charges Ampere-hour (Ah) Ampere-hour is a unit of electric charge . One ampere-hour is the electric charge that flow in electrical circuit, when a current of 1 ampere is applied for 1 hour. 1Ah = 1A ï¿½ 1hour One ampere-hour is equal to 3600 coulombs. 1Ah = 3600C Tesla is the unit of magnetic field. 1T = 1Wb / 1m2 Weber is the unit of magnetic flux. 1Wb = 1V ï¿½ 1s Joule (J) Joule is the unit of energy. 1J = 1 kg ï¿½ 1(m / s)2 Kilowatt-hour (kWh) Kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy. 1kWh = 1kW ï¿½ 1h = 1000W ï¿½ 1h Kilovolt-amps (kVA) Kilovolt-amps is a unit of power. 1kVA = 1kV ï¿½ 1A = 1000 ï¿½ 1V ï¿½ 1A Hertz (Hz) Hertz is the unit of frequency. It measures the number of cycles per second. 1 Hz = 1 cycles / s	i don't know
"Besides Sir Anthony Hopkins, which other ""Tony"" starred in the 1998 swashbuckler, 'The Mask Of Zorro'?"	The Mask of Zorro (Film) - TV Tropes The Mask of Zorro You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account Share Film / The Mask of Zorro × WMG The Mask of Zorro is a 1998 film which depicts the retirement of the aging Don Diego de la Vega as Zorro ( Anthony Hopkins ), and his training of a young punk ( Antonio Banderas ) as his replacement. There have so far been two films in the current treatment of the franchise, The Mask of Zorro and The Legend of Zorro (2005). The Mask of Zorro begins with the departure of the Spanish government from California, Northern Mexico. Don Rafael Montero, the Spanish governor of California, makes one last attempt to defeat the legendary outlaw Zorro but fails. Zorro returns home to his wife and baby daughter Elena, telling them that with the Spaniards out of Mexico, Zorro will retire. Not so fast : enter Don Rafael, who has deduced that Zorro is Don Diego. In the struggle that follows, Diego's wife is killed, his house burned to the ground and Rafael absconds with the baby. Zorro is arrested and thrown into prison. Twenty years later Diego escapes and, now a bitter, impoverished old man with nothing to live for, returns in secret to California. Unfortunately, so has Don Rafael, who has been put back into power by the wealthy Mexican landowners who are still loyal to him; he also has brought Elena ( Catherine Zeta-Jones ), whom he has raised as his own daughter. Meanwhile, young outlaw Alejandro Murieta (Antonio Banderas) has lost his older brother Joaquin to corrupt Texas lawman Captain Harrison Love ( Matt Letscher ). Later, Diego meets up with Alejandro and offers to train him to become the new Zorro. Rafael and Love, in the meantime, hatch a scheme to purchase California from the President of Mexico, using gold secretly mined from California itself, and then destroy the mine and all the workers inside , forcing Zorro to race to the rescue. In 2005, the sequel The Legend of Zorro was released. This film provides examples of: Action Girl : The audience was delighted to discover Elena wasn't just going to let Zorro take that map. Oh no. It didn't go down like that. And while the sequel is inferior, it was great fun to watch her go Action Mom and have just as many action scenes as her husband. All Girls Want Bad Boys : OK, Zorro is really a nice guy and a gentleman; but when Elena sees him for the first time, she mistakes him for a bandit or someone dangerous, and it's because of this that she is instantly smitten by him. Arch-Enemy : Don Rafael Montero to Don Diego and Captain Love to Alejandro. Aristocrats Are Evil : Don Rafael and the rest of the Dons Averted with Zorro as Diego De La Vega is himself an aristocrat, though he fights for the people and seems fairly cynical towards his social class. Authority Equals Asskicking : Montero and Love are both leagues above their regular mooks. Especially Montero, who seems to be tied with Don Diego for best pure swordsman in the movie yet still remains a Combat Pragmatist . Award Bait Song : "I Want To Spend My Lifetime Loving You" by Marc Anthony and Tina Arena. And written by James Horner and Will Jennings, the team responsible for the Titanic (1997) theme, to boot. Babies Ever After : In the closing sequence, Alejandro and Elena are shown to be living together with a son named Joaquin, in honor of Alejandro's brother. Zorro qualifies by accident when he improvises his way through Elena's confession while hiding in the confessional. The original Zorro disguises himself as a monk in the prologue before revealing himself. Badass Beard : Captain Love Badass Grandpa : Diego de La Vega and his archenemy Don Rafael (Stuart Wilson) in The Mask of Zorro. Both of them are capable of going one on one with the much younger Alejandro. Badass Moustache : Diego and Rafael both feature very Badass moustaches. Batman Gambit : Don Diego crashed Montero's party to spy on the dons, get the map, get some payback by setting the adjacent fields on fire, and even get close to his daughter. All came in handy later on. Bastardly Speech : By Montero upon his return to California. Battle Couple : What Alejandro and Elena become by the end of the second movie. Belligerent Sexual Tension : To the extent that it's difficult to tell whether Alejandro and Elena's duel constitutes a fight to the death, or a very elaborate and violent form of foreplay. Big Bad : Don Rafael. Big "NO!" : Rafael does this twice: first when one of his men tries to shoot Diego and he realizes that Esperanza is in the way; second when Captain Love attempts to shoot Diego with Elena being dangerously close to the old man. The second time, he manages to stop the would-be shooter before history repeats itself . Blood Knight : Captain Love is clearly in search of a Worthy Opponent throughout the movie, and once he becomes convinced that Zorro is one, he tosses away a perfectly good chance to shoot Zorro in exchange for a sword-fight. Blown Across the Room : An especially egregious example has Three-Fingered Jack ride down a mine cart and leap off the track with a pickaxe to attack Captain Love. Love pulls a revolver and shoots him with no visible recoil, and Jack's momentum reverses in midair, sending him tumbling to the ground in a heap. Bookends : Before the Time Skip , Don Diego tells a Zorro story to baby Elena. In the film's ending, Alejandro tells a Zorro story to baby Joaquin, his son with Elena. But for Me, It Was Tuesday : Rafael tries to play this straight, telling Diego that he "hasn't given him a second thought" since he had him imprisoned. The fact that his very first action on returning to California was to visit the prison to make sure Diego was dead, however, strongly implies that he was lying and was in fact quite afraid of him, even after twenty years. Butt Monkey : Corporal Garcia, always being outwitted, embarrassed, and outright humiliated in every encounter he is involved in. Choice moments includes being stripped and tied to a cactus, enveloped by a giant map without getting so much as a single strike in, and slamming gutfirst into a tree branch at speed. Call Back : In the Action Prologue , a young boy runs into a hooded man, assuming he's just another bystander in the crowd, before looking closer and realizing the hooded man is Zorro. Twenty years later in a gold mine, a slave worker is brought some water by another hooded man, who once again, upon closer inspection, is Zorro. The particularly heartwarming part, the boy who noticed the former Zorro became the latter one twenty years down the line. Twice in he movie, Montero and Diego have a confrontation with a woman they both care about in the same room when The Dragon pulls a pistol and tries to shoot Diego. The first time, Esperanza dies, ending the fight and sending Diego into BSOD while Montero kills the man, but the second time, Montero slaps Love's gun away while screaming "Nooooo!" It's a nice touch that continues to show why Montero, while still evil himself, wasn't a bad parent to Elena. Montero receives a wound in his left shoulder in both duels with Don Diego. Chekhov's Gun : When Alejandro is still with his brother and 3-fingered Jack there's a short discussion between the gang and the Mexican authorities explaining that the primary reason why they're wanted is because they were horse thieves (and reputedly very good ones). This provides an explanation for why he's so good with horses later on in the film. If you were looking for one. Clark Kenting : When Diego assumes the guise of Alejandro's manservant "Bernardo". Lampshaded / Hand Waved with this bit of dialog: Alejandro: We'll never get away with this... What if [Rafael] Montero realizes who you are? Diego: Montero thinks of himself as a true nobleman; he will never look a servant in the eye . Click Hello : In the prologue, the only warning that Don Rafael has come to arrest Diego is when one of his men cocks his gun. Combat Pragmatist : Don Rafael has no problem bringing a gun to a Sword Fight . Indeed, basically half the movie's fight scenes start with "hey, there's a sword at this guy's throat, drop your guns". Confessional : Elena confesses her lust at seeing the new Zorro for the first time... only it's actually Zorro in the booth with her instead of the priest. Cool Horse : Tornado, the horse of the original Zorro. Same goes for the Tornado of the New Zorro. Creepy Souvenir : Captain Love keeps body parts of his enemies in jars and drinks from them. To add to the creep factor, he invites Alejandro to drink from the jar containing his brother Joaquin's head. The real-life Love did, in fact, keep Joaquin and Jack's head and hand in jars of alcohol. He displayed them, rather than drank from them, however. Cruel Mercy : Montero lets Diego live in prison rather than killing him so that he can dwell on how everything he loves has been taken from him. Diego returns the favor at the end, having taken back Elena and ended Montero's schemes. It doesn't prevent Montero from suffering a Karmic Death , however. Darker and Edgier : The original Alcalde is a grubby, greedy thief. Rafael Montero sees no problem with stealing other men's children, treason, and mass murder (though he does balk somewhat at the last one). Captain Pasquale is a saint compared to Captain Love. Dead Guy Junior : Alejandro and Elena name their son Joaquin, after Alejandro's brother. Deceptive Legacy : Rafael steals Diego's baby girl Elena, tells her that her mother died in childbirth, and raises her to believe he is her father. Diego is able to set the record straight with a little help from the woman who was baby Elena's nursemaid. Defeat by Modesty : The (in)famous first duel between the new Zorro and Elena which ended with plenty of Clothing Damage and Godiva Hair . Double Take : Rafael does one at his party when speaking with the Dons and glances at Elena and Alejandro's dance. After a moment, he realizes who is dancing and how passionate the dance is. The Dragon : Captain Love. Drowning My Sorrows : This is what Alejandro is doing when Diego first meets him, right after his brother was killed. Establishing Character Moment : For the first part of the movie, Captain Love appears to just be a snobby soldier who has no qualms about killing when he needs to. It's only later when we see that he drinks out of jars with human body parts in them, that we realize that he's actually crazy. Even Evil Has Loved Ones : Montero with Elena. Also the main reason of taking the kid . Montero: Did you really think I would kill my own daughter? Even though she married Don Diego, Don Rafael still had affection for Esperanza, and he is remorseful that she will have to live without a husband when he comes to arrest Diego. When Esperanza is killed (accidentally) by one of Rafael's men, Rafael is visibly shocked and angered and kills the shooter. Even Evil Has Standards : Even Montero looks a little shocked at the suggestion that all the workers in the mine should die. He also seems genuinely amazed that Diego considers him capable of killing Elena. Evil Parents Want Good Kids : Montero raised Elena to be an Action Girl (she's had "the proper training" since she was four) Spirited Young Lady confident and educated enough to make her biological father proud of her, and she is clearly shocked at Montero's own moral alignment. Fashions Never Change : Averted. Napoleonic-esque costumes and uniforms in the first few minutes of the film has largely changed to more Victorian styles in the the rest of the movie, set 20 years later. Fate Worse Than Death : Don Rafael tells Don Diego that he wants Diego to live, knowing he has lost everything, to suffer as Rafael had suffered, knowing Diego's child should have been his. First Kiss : After beating her in their sword duel Zorro kissed Eléna big time. Both because he loved her and to daze her into no longer wanting to fight. Flaming Emblem : A particularly epic example occurs when Diego burns a giant Z into the countryside, to let Rafael know he's returned. Flynning : Parodied when Alejandro flails his sword around, and Diego just knocks it out of his hand with a mere flick of his own sword. The rest of the movie plays Flynning straight, being a Swashbuckler and all, but there's a little bit more scuffling and dirty tricks than in the classic Flynning movies of the 30s and 40s. Gaussian Girl : Elena. Somewhat justified during her first fight with Zorro in a dusty, pre-dawn barn. Giant Mook : Alejandro encounters one in the fort while stealing a horse for himself, whom he defeats by bludgeoning the Mook's head with cannonballs. Said Mook falls over, spitting out his own teeth. Gratuitous Spanish : Given it takes place in California, during both "Mexican province" and "joining the US" phases, justified. He Cleans Up Nicely : Alejandro goes from being messy looking to looking like Antonio Banderas over the course of the movie. It is a testament to Antonio Banderas' acting skills that he manages to seem not charming until the makeover point. Old, rather unkempt Don Diego gradually cleans up as Alejandro's training progresses. By the time he assumes the guise of Bernardo, his hair is pulled back, he's clean shaven, and he looks elegant even in servant's garb. Historical Hero Upgrade : Three-Finger Jack and Joaquin Murieta were historical outlaws operating in California during the Gold Rush, and their gang was believed responsible for most of the murders in the Mother Lode area of the Sierra Nevadas. In the film they form a cheery band of outlaws with Joaquin's brother Alejandro, (who was invented for the film) who use guile to steal from the corrupt soldiers serving the government of California and seem content with humiliating their victims. The case of Murrieta, however, is more complicated due to how his figure was already drenched in myths and urband legends way before the movie was made. According to The Otherwiki, depending on the point of view, he was considered an infamous bandit or a Mexican patriot, even nicknamed "The Mexican Robin Hood". Historical Villain Upgrade : Harrison Love is based loosely on California Ranger Capt. Harry Love, a veteran of the Mexican-American War who was tasked to bring down the "Five Joaquins" gang, of whom Murieta was the chief member. After successfully hunting down Murietta and killing him and Three-Fingered Jack in a shootout, Murieta's head and Jack's hand were preserved in alcohol and turned over for proof. Love was not exactly a psychotic killer as shown in the film, and the historical events occurred in 1853, well after California became a member of the United States (Mask of Zorro takes place over 10 years earlier). I Am Spartacus : Early in the film, after Zorro has been in prison for decades, Don Rafael returns to find him. Cue all the prisoners declaring "I Am Zorro!" (although, contrary to the trope's common usage, it doesn't appear that they were doing so to protect Zorro, as it was never implied they even knew that the real Zorro was among them). It's also implied that Montero knew every single one of them was full of crap, as the real Zorro would have recognized the man who killed his wife. I'm a Humanitarian : Captain Love likes to keep the severed body parts of his enemies in his drinking water and wine bottles, in hopes that consuming his enemies will allow him to see what he looks like through their eyes. Implausible Fencing Powers , complete with lots and lots of Flynning , Blade Locking and (of course) Zorro Marking . In the Hood : Don Rafael when he returns to California. It's Personal with the Dragon : Alejandro doesn't care that much about Don Rafael, it's Captain Love who is his Arch-Enemy . Captain Love: After all, it's only one man... Don Rafael: It isn't just one man, damn it. It's Zorro! Kick the Dog : Captain Love keeps the heads of his enemies in jars, including Alejandro's older brother. Also, it was his idea to blow up the mine with all the peasant workers (including children) inside. Truth in Television , sort of... Captain Love was based upon a real life person named Harry Love - A member of the California Rangers - who did kill Joaquin Murrieta (Zorro's older brother in the film) in a fire fight; and history states that he did cut off Murrieta's head. However, it wasn't because he wanted the trophy, but because he needed the proof that the deed had been done. Subverted when Rafael holds Elena at gunpoint during his final fight with Diego. Turns out he was bluffing—he would never harm Elena. He even seems genuinely surprised that Diego would find him willing to carry out such a threat. Not Even Bothering with the Accent : Stuart Wilson (Don Rafael) and Anthony Hopkins (Diego). Karmic Death : Two of them: Captain Love is stabbed with his own sword, and Rafael is caught in the straps of a wagon full of gold which then drags him to his death. For bonus points, the wagon load of gold slams into Captain Love on the way down. Land in the Saddle : Alejandro tries to summon his horse, Tornado, with a whistle, so he can jump out of a window onto its back. The horse comes at the whistle, but is having none of this "leaping onto his back" stuff, and steps aside, causing Alejandro to land with a painful set of Amusing Injuries . This is also a throwback to an earlier scene where the previous Zorro did it without a hitch. The Lost Lenore : Esperanza is this to both Diego and Rafael, as Diego's beloved wife and the woman that Rafael wanted to marry. Luke, I Am Your Father : Diego reveals this to her by completing an anecdote only he would know . Married to the Job : A prominent issue in the sequel that leads to Elena and Alejandro's marriage issues. Mating Dance : Elena and Alejandro at the ball. Don Rafael, who witnesses it, is not happy. Mock Millionaire : Alejandro poses as a Spanish aristocrat, with Diego pretending to be his valet. Moody Mount : Tornado (the second one). Mundane Made Awesome : The scene in which Zorro unsheathes his sword for the final showdown VS Captain Love. Mythology Gag : Diego's alias as Alejandro's manservant is Bernardo, who in the original series was the name of Diego's manservant. Other elements like the giant flaming Z and Zorro hiding in a confessional also appeared in older Zorro movies. The title "The Mask of Zorro" itself is just one letter away from the first Zorro movie, The Mark of Zorro . Alejandro's brother is a bandit named Joaquín Murrieta. There was a real bandit in California named Joaquín Murrieta (although he was active years after the film is set), and that Murrieta is considered a likely inspiration of the literary Zorro. Naked People Are Funny : When Elena gets her dress cut off by Zorro she is left in a state of half undress (she wears a modest form of old fashioned underwear but her upper half is completely exposed but for very long hair placed over her chest) we are invited, rightly or wrongly, to chuckle at her predicament, especially after she went in believing that she would win the duel, and even more so when she briefly forgets how embarrassed she is after Zorro kisses her passionately - only to be reminded of indecent exposure when Zorro snatches his hat from her (which she was using to cover herself) and then she is almost caught topless by her foster father and his mooks. To be fair, she held her own pretty well before Zorro stripped her. In Alejandro's introduction, the military officer present, Corporal Armando Garcia, winds up tied together with his men around a cluster of cacti, stripped naked. Noble Demon : Rafael is an evil aristocrat , but he's also a loving father who refuses to harm children and expresses disgust at his Dragon's sadism. Even his Moral Event Horizon moment—holding Elena at gunpoint—is a subversion because it turns out to be a bluff. Non-Human Sidekick : If the horses in this movie could talk, it would make for very snarky conversation. Also weird... The Old Convict : Don Diego becomes one of these, after he gives up hope when he is arrested, his home destroyed, and his wife and child apparently killed. After twenty years, though, he finds the strength to break out. Alejandro: All that shooting guns, racing around on horses - gives me a frightful headache. Itï¿½s hardly the work of a gentleman. Elena: What is? Climbing in and out of carriages? Alejandro: No, but increasing one's holdings so as to provide comfort to ladies. Such as yourself. Passing the Torch : The entire point of the film seemed to involve this. Pet the Dog : Coupled with Papa Wolf , Rafael genuinely loves Elena, despite the fact that she isn't really his daughter. He takes her in, raises her well (to the point of distancing her from his dirty dealings), all without spoiling her. Two good examples of how genuine it is are when Captain Love takes an opportunity to try and shoot Diego, and Rafael, fearing that Love may accidentally shoot Elena, immediately pushes him away; and when he holds her at gunpoint to get Diego to drop his sword, then bluntly and angrily reveals that he never intended to shoot her. Pragmatic Adaptation : The film neatly introduced Zorro to a new generation by making Don Diego the mentor to a new Zorro and adding healthy lashings of tongue-in-cheek humour. Recycled In Space : Main character is a hopeless loser who gets trained up to be awesome by an old master? Not a particularly common plot for a swashbuckler, but extremely popular for kung fu movies . In a similar vein, during Alejandro's fight in the outpost with the dozens of guards, everybody stops swordfighting for a second and just pauses, going this way and that based on how Alejandro moves. A little reminiscent of Jidai Geki swordfights. Red Oni, Blue Oni : Archenemies Don Diego and Don Rafael. Diego is the passionate Non-Idle Rich with a more aggressive dueling style while Rafael is pragmatic, Aristocrats Are Evil , with a more defensive dueling style. Relative Button : Captain Love taunts Zorro with this during their duel after learning that he is Alejandro, the surviving Murrieta brother. Captain Love: You're doing well. Your brother would have shot himself by now. Reluctant Fanservice Girl : Elena becomes one after Zorro gives her a very humbling Shameful Strip . Revealing Injury : Don Rafael proves Don Diego de la Vega is Zorro when he grabs Diego's left arm, causing him pain, and the arm starts bleeding. And Rafael knows Zorro was injured in the same spot earlier that day... Don Rafael: Blood never lies...Zorro. Say My Name : At the climax Diego and Rafael have an understated version, where it's practically a whisper. It actually makes it more powerful. Rafael: de la Vega. Diego: Rafael. (punches him). Screams Like a Little Girl : Captain Love does this— a lot. The biggest one is just before the cart full of gold flattens him. Self-Proclaimed Knight : Don Diego de la Vega as the mysterious black-clad rider who fights injustice in Spanish California in The Mask of Zorro and Don Alejandro Murrieta de la Vega takes up this role, continuing it to The Legend of Zorro. Slap-Slap-Kiss : Played rather cleverly during and after Elena and Zorro's swordfight. Shameful Strip : Zorro stripping Elena at the end of their sword fight most definitely counts. Spirited Young Lady : Elena wants to keep the commandments and tries to behave the way her father would like her to but her heart is too wild. She can both dance gracefully with Captain Harrison Love or sword fight with Zorro. She also makes her view of politics knows at dinner. Stuff Blowing Up : Alejandro's Zorro has a strange way of making this happen a lot. Sword Cane : Alejandro has one when he poses as a Don. He doesn't use it though. In fact, the only reason we know it's a swordstick at all is that he checks it briefly before attending the banquet. Sword Fight : Duh. It's Zorro . Taking the Bullet : A rare unintentional example: Esperanza hears baby Elena crying and rushes across the room to get to her at the exact same time one of Rafael's men fires at Don Diego. Taking the Kids : In an unusual (and villainous) example, Don Rafael takes Diego's daughter Elena and raises her as his own, telling her that her mother died in childbirth . There Is No Kill Like Overkill : Not only does Captain Love get stabbed clean through by Zorro (with his own sword, no less), but he also gets piledriven by a wagon loaded with gold bricks. Title Drop : "There are many who would proudly wear The Mask of Zorro." Trickster Mentor : Diego, who employs Training from Hell towards Alejandro. Unfriendly Fire : In the prologue, Zorro makes his presence known to the crowd when he wraps his whip around the muskets of the firing squad, forcing them to fire at the squad commander.	Antonio Banderas
Often used as bedding or house plants, how is Impatiens walleriana better known?	Zorro Zorro Zorro’s debut in The Curse of Capistrano . First appearance Californian / Mexican Zorro (Spanish for “fox”) is the secret identity of Don Diego de la Vega, a fictional character created in 1919 by pulp writer Johnston McCulley . He is a Californio nobleman living in Los Angeles during the era of Mexican rule (between 1821 and 1846), [1] although some movie adaptations of Zorro’s story have placed him during the earlier Spanish rule . The character has undergone changes through the years, but the typical image of him is a dashing black-clad masked outlaw who defends the commoners and indigenous peoples of the land against tyrannical officials and other villains. Not only is he too cunning and foxlike for the bumbling authorities to catch, but he also delights in publicly humiliating them. The character has been featured in numerous books, films, television series, and other media. Tiburcio Vásquez , Juan Nepomuceno Cortina and Joaquin Murrieta are cited as inspirations for Zorro. [2] [3] Contents 11 External links Publishing history Zorro debuted in McCulley’s 1919 story The Curse of Capistrano , serialized in five parts in the pulp magazine All-Story Weekly . [4] At the denouement , Zorro’s true identity is revealed to all. Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford , on their honeymoon , selected the story as the inaugural picture for their new studio, United Artists , beginning the character’s cinematic tradition. The story was adapted as the film The Mark of Zorro (1920), which was a commercial success. McCulley’s story was rereleased by publisher Grosset & Dunlap under the same title, to tie in with the film. In response to public demand fueled by the film, McCulley wrote more than sixty more Zorro stories, beginning in 1922. The last, “The Mask of Zorro” (not to be confused with the 1998 film), was published posthumously in 1959. These stories ignore Zorro’s public revelation of his identity. McCulley died in 1958, just as the Disney-produced Zorro television show was becoming popular. Fictional character biography The Mark of Zorro , starring Douglas Fairbanks , the first Zorro film, was instrumental in the early success of the character In The Curse of Capistrano, Don Diego Vega becomes Señor Zorro in the pueblo of Los Angeles in California “to avenge the helpless, to punish cruel politicians”, and “to aid the oppressed.” He is the title character , as he is dubbed the “Curse of Capistrano.” The story involves him romancing Lolita Pulido, an impoverished noblewoman. While Lolita is unimpressed with Diego, who pretends to be a passionless fop , she is attracted to the dashing Zorro. His rival is Captain Ramon. Other characters include Sgt. Pedro Gonzales, Zorro’s enemy but Diego’s friend; Zorro’s deaf and mute servant Bernardo; his ally Fray (Friar) Felipe; his father Don Alejandro Vega; and a group of noblemen (caballeros) who at first hunt him but are won over to his cause. In later stories, McCulley introduces characters such as pirates and Native Americans, some of whom know Zorro’s identity. In McCulley’s later stories, Diego’s surname became de la Vega. In fact, the writer was wildly inconsistent. The first magazine serial ended with the villain dead and Diego publicly exposed as Zorro, but in the sequel the villain was alive, and the next entry had the double identity still secret. Several Zorro productions have expanded on the character’s exploits. Many of the continuations feature a younger character taking up the mantle of Zorro. Although McCulley’s stories were set in Los Angeles during the era of Mexican rule (between 1821 and 1846), some movie adaptations of Zorro’s story have placed him during the earlier Spanish era . Characteristics In The Curse of Capistrano, Diego is described as “unlike the other full-blooded youths of the times”; though proud as befitting his class (and seemingly uncaring about the lower classes), he shuns action, rarely wearing his sword except for fashion, and is indifferent to romance with women. This is, of course, a sham. This portrayal, with minor variations, is followed in most Zorro media. A notable exception to this portrayal is Disney’s Zorro (1957–59), where Diego, despite using the original facade early in the series, instead becomes a passionate and compassionate crusader for justice and simply masquerades as “the most inept swordsman in all of California”. In this show, everyone knows Diego would love to do what Zorro does, but thinks he does not have the skill. The Family Channel’s Zorro (1990–1993) takes this concept further. While Diego pretends to be inept with a sword, the rest of his facade is actually exaggerating his real interests. Diego is actually well versed and interested in art, poetry, literature, and science. His facade is pretending to be interested in only these things and to have no interest in swordplay or action. Zorro also has a well-equipped laboratory in his hidden cave in this version of the story. Character motifs The character’s visual motif is typically a black costume with a flowing Spanish cape, a flat-brimmed black sombrero cordobés , and a black cowl sackcloth domino mask that covers the top of the head from eye level upwards. In his first appearance, he wears a cloak instead of a cape, and a black cloth veil mask with slits for eyes covers his whole face. Other features of the costume may vary. His favored weapon is a rapier , which he often uses to leave his distinctive mark, a Z cut with three quick strokes. He also uses a bullwhip . In his debut, he uses a pistol . The fox is never depicted as Zorro’s emblem. It is used as a metaphor for the character’s wiliness, such as in the lyrics “Zorro, ‘the Fox’, so cunning and free …” from the Disney television show theme. His heroic pose consists of rearing on his horse Tornado , sword raised high. (The logo of Zorro Productions, Inc. uses an example of this pose.) Skills and resources Zorro ( Guy Williams ) and Bernardo ( Gene Sheldon ) in Walt Disney ‘s 1950s Zorro television series Zorro is an agile athlete and acrobat, using his bullwhip as a gymnastic accoutrement to swing through gaps between city roofs, and is very capable of landing from great heights and taking a fall. Although he is a master swordsman and marksman, he has more than once demonstrated his prowess in unarmed combat against multiple opponents. His calculating and precise dexterity as a tactician has enabled him to use his two main weapons, his sword and bullwhip, as an extension of his deft hand. He never uses brute strength, more his fox-like sly mind and well-practiced technique to outmatch an opponent. In some versions, Zorro keeps a medium-sized dagger tucked in his left boot for emergencies. He has used his cape as a blind, a trip-mat and a disarming tool. Zorro’s boots are also sometimes weighted, as is his hat, which he has thrown, Frisbee-style, as an efficiently substantial warning to enemies. But more often than not, he uses psychological mockery to make his opponents too angry to be coordinated in combat. Zorro is a skilled horseman. The name of his jet-black horse has varied through the years. In The Curse of Capistrano, it was unnamed. Later versions named the horse Tornado/Toronado or Tempest. In other versions, Zorro rides a white horse named Phantom. McCulley’s concept of a band of men helping Zorro is often absent from other versions of the character. An exception is Zorro’s Fighting Legion (1939), starring Reed Hadley as Diego. In Douglas Fairbanks’ version, he also has a band of masked men helping him. In McCulley’s stories, Zorro was aided by a deaf-mute named Bernardo. In Disney’s Zorro television series, Bernardo is not deaf but pretends to be, and serves as Zorro’s spy. He is a capable and invaluable helper for Zorro, sometimes wearing the mask to reinforce his master’s charade. The Family Channel ‘s Zorro television series replaces Bernardo with a teenager named Felipe, played by Juan Diego Botto , with a similar disability and pretense. Inspirations The historical figure most often associated with the Zorro character is Joaquin Murrieta , whose life was fictionalized in an 1854 dime novel by John Rollin Ridge . In the 1998 film The Mask of Zorro Murrieta’s (fictitious) brother Alejandro succeeds Diego as Zorro. As a hero with a secret identity who taunts his foes by signing his deeds, Zorro finds a direct literary predecessor in Sir Percival Blakeney, hero of the Scarlet Pimpernel pulp series by Emma Orczy . The character recalls other figures, such as Robin Hood , Reynard the Fox , Salomon Pico , [5] Manuel Rodríguez Erdoíza , and Tiburcio Vasquez . Another possible historical inspiration is William Lamport , an Irish soldier who lived in Mexico in the seventeenth century. His life was the subject of a fictive book by Vicente Riva Palacio ; The Irish Zorro (2004) is a recent biography. Another is Estanislao , a Yokuts man who led a revolt against the Mission San Jose in 1827. The 1890s penny dreadful treatment of the Spring-heeled Jack character as a masked avenger may have inspired some aspects of Zorro’s heroic persona. Spring Heeled Jack was portrayed as a nobleman who created a flamboyant, masked alter ego to fight injustice, frequently demonstrated exceptional athletic and combative skills, maintained a hidden lair and was known to carve the letter “S” into walls with his rapier as a calling card. Like Sir Percy in The Scarlet Pimpernel , Don Diego avoids suspicion by playing the role of an effete dandy who wears lace, writes poetry, and shuns violence. The all-black Fairbanks film costume, which with variations has remained the standard costume for the character, was likely adapted from the Arrow serial film character The Masked Rider (1919). This character was the first Mexican black-clad masked rider on a black horse to appear on the silver screen. Fairbanks’s costume in The Mark of Zorro, released the following year, resembled that of the Rider with only slight differences in the mask and hat. [6] Appearances in media Books Johnston McCulley ‘s original magazine serial, The Curse of Capistrano from All-Story Weekly , was published in 1924 as a novel [7] by Grosset & Dunlap under the title The Mark of Zorro. It was reprinted by MacDonald & Co. in 1959 and by Tor books in 1998, ISBN 978-0-8125-4007-9 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ]. Johnston McCulley’s Zorro novels and short stories are being reprinted by Bold Venture Press in a series of trade paperback editions. Zorro: The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume One March 2016 ISBN 978-1530392445 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro: The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume Two June 2016 ISBN 978-1534602007 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro: The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume Three September 2016 Zorro: The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume Four November 2016 Zorro: The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume Five January 2017 Zorro: The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume Six March 2017 Johnston McCulley’s Zorro short stories were reprinted by Pulp Adventures Inc. in a series of trade paperback editions. Zorro The Master’s Edition Volume One (1932–1944) February 2000 ISBN 1-891729-20-9 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro The Master’s Edition Volume Two (1944–1946) January 2002 ISBN 1-891729-21-7 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro The Master’s Edition: A Task For Zorro (1947) July 2002 ISBN 1-891729-31-4 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] A series of paperback novels were published by Tom Doherty Associates, Inc. Books in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Zorro and the Jaguar Warriors by Jerome Preisler September 1998 ISBN 978-0-8125-6767-0 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro and The Dragon Riders by David Bergantino March 1999 ISBN 978-0-8125-6768-7 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro and the Witch’s Curse by John Whitman April 2000 ISBN 978-0-8125-6769-4 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Gerard Ronan’s Biography of William Lamport “The Irish Zorro” was published by Brandon Books in 2004. ISBN 978-0-86322-329-7 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ]. Minstrel Books published A series of young reader novels based on the motion picture The Mask of Zorro . The Treasure of Don Diego by William McCay 1998 ISBN 978-0-671-51968-1 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Skull and Crossbones by Frank Lauria 1999 ISBN 978-0-671-51970-4 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] The Secret Swordsman by William McCay 1999 ISBN 978-0-671-51969-8 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] The Lost Temple by Frank Lauria 1999 Zorro filmographic books have also been published: The Legend of Zorro by Bill Yenne 1991 Mallard Press ISBN 978-0-7924-5547-9 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro Unmasked The Official History by Sandra Curtis 1998 Hyperion ISBN 978-0-7868-8285-4 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] The Mark of Zorro (1974), a made for television movie with Frank Langella as Zorro that reuses the Alfred Newman theme from 1940′s The Mark of Zorro. Zorro, The Gay Blade (1981), a parody , with George Hamilton . Diego, Jr., breaks his leg shortly after launching his career as a new Zorro, and his gay twin brother Ramon, now calling himself Bunny Wigglesworth, volunteers to fill in while he recuperates. The Mask of Zorro (1998), played against tradition, with Anthony Hopkins as an aged Don Diego de la Vega and Antonio Banderas as Alejandro Murrieta, a misfit outlaw/cowboy who is groomed to become the next Zorro. The Legend of Zorro (2005), the sequel to 1998′s The Mask of Zorro, again starring Antonio Banderas. In 2014 20th Century Fox were reported to be working on a reboot Zorro film called Zorro Reborn with Gael Garcia Bernal in the title role, set in the future with a script by Glen Gers, Lee Shipman, and Brian McGeevy. Sony were also reported in 2014 to be planning their own film, with a script by Christopher Stetson Boal based on the novel by Isabel Allende. This treatment created a new backstory and featured lethal fighting systems that combined swords, daggers, grappling and bare knuckles. [9] [10] [11] Sony were also reported to be planning a Django Unchained and Zorro crossover movie as of December 2014. [12] As of February 2016 Lantica Media and Sobini films are producing a Zorro film called Z with Jonas Cuaron to write and direct the film. [13] Bernal was once again courted to star as the masked hero. [14] Production is expected to begin in the fall. Mexican films La Gran Aventura Del Zorro (1976), Mexican Western with Rodolfo de Anda , the first Mexican actor to play the role; with Pedro Armendáriz Jr. as the villain and set in a very primitive San Francisco Bay Area . A similar character was “The Black Wolf” set in Monterey, California in 1846. El lobo negro (1981) Spain & Mexico Fernando Allende Duelo a muerte/Revenge of the Black Wolf (1981) Spain Fernando Allende European films In addition to a variety of Zorro films, European producers also used a similar character called the Coyote . [15] À la manière de Zorro / In the Way of Zorro (1926) Belgium William Elie Il sogno di Zorro (1952) Italy Walter Chiari La montaña sin ley (1953) Spain José Suárez (Suárez is the first Spanish actor to play the role) Zorro alla corte di Spagna / Zorro at the Spanish Court (1962) Italy George Ardisson La venganza del Zorro / Zorro the Avenger (1962) Spain Frank Latimore L’ombra di Zorro / The Shadow of Zorro (1962) Italy, Spain & France Frank Latimore Le tre spade di Zorro / The Three Swords of Zorro (1963) Spain & Italy Guy Stockwell Zorro (1975) Italy & France Alain Delon La marque de Zorro (1975) France Monica Swinn Ah sì? E io lo dico a Zzzzorro! / Mark of Zorro (1976) Italy & Spain George Hilton The Coyote of “ El Coyote ” was a creation of Spanish novelist José Mallorquí Figuerola writing as Carter Mulford beginning with a novel of the same name in 1943. El coyote (1955) Spain & Mexico Act Odón Alonso La justicia del Coyote / Judgement of Coyote (1956) Spain & Mexico Odón Alonso Il segno del coyote / The Sign of the Coyote (1963) Italy & Spain Fernando Casanova La vuelta de El Coyote / The Return of El Coyote (1998) Spain José Coronado Film serials Zorro , a 2009 TV series from the GMA Network of the Philippines . The lead role is portrayed by Richard Gutierrez [17] with leading ladies Rhian Ramos , Bianca King , and Michelle Madrigal . Zorro: The Chronicles, an animated series (2016) [18] Audio/radio dramas Walt Disney’s Zorro: [1. Presenting Señor Zorro; 2. Zorro Frees The Indians; 3. Zorro And The Ghost; 4. Zorro's Daring Rescue] (1957) released by Disneyland Records . This album retold stories from the Disney Zorro television series and featured Guy Williams as Zorro and Don Diego, Henry Calvin as Sergeant Garcia, Phil Ross as Monastario, Jan Arvan as Torres, Jimmie Dodd from The Mickey Mouse Club as Padre Felipe, with other voices by Dallas McKennon and sound effects by Jimmy Macdonald and Eddie Forrest. Record story adaptations by Bob Thomas and George Sherman. Music composed and conducted by William Lava. The Adventures of Zorro. (1957) Based on the original Johnston McCulley story The Curse of Capistrano (aka The Mark of Zorro). It was written by Maria Little, directed by Robert M. Light and produced by Mitchell Gertz. This short-lived radio show was a series of short episodes. Only a handful of episodes are known to have survived. The Mark of Zorro. (1997) [No longer available] Produced by the BBC it starred Mark Arden as Zorro, Louise Lombard as Lolita and Glyn Houston as Friar Felipe. It aired in 5 parts. 1. July 3 97 Night of the Fox: 2. July 10 97 Deadly Reckonings: 3. July 17 97 The Avenging Blade 4. July 24 97 The Place of Skulls 5. July 31 97 The Gathering Storm Zorro and the Pirate Raiders. (2009) Based on the D.J. Arneson adaptation of Johnston McCulley’s The Further Adventures of Zorro. Produced by Colonial Radio Theatre on the Air. Published by Brilliance Audio. It features Kevin Cirone, Shonna McEachern, Hugh Metzler, J.T. Turner, Sam Donato, Joseph Zamperelli Jr., and Dan Powell. Zorro Rides Again. (2011) Based on the D.J. Arneson adaptation of Johnston McCulley’s “Zorro Rides Again”. Produced by Colonial Theatre on the Air. It features the voice talents of Kevin Cirone, Jeremy Benson, Shonna McEachern, Shana Dirk, Sam Donato, and Hugh Metzler. The Mark of Zorro. (2011) Based on The Curse of Capistrano. Produced by Hollywood Theater of the Ear for Blackstone Audio.It features the voice talents of Val Kilmer as Diego de la Vega/Zorro, Ruth Livier as Lolita Pulido, Elizabeth Peña as Doña Catalina Pulido, Armin Shimmerman as the Landlord, Mishach Taylor as Sgt Pedro Gonzalez, Keith Szarabajka as Cpt Ramone, Ned Schmidtke as Don Carlos Pulido, Scott Brick as the Governor, Stefan Rudnicki as Fray Felipe, Kristoffer Tabori as Don Alejando de la Vega, Philip Proctor as Don Audre, John Sloan as the Magistrado, and Gordo Panza in numerous roles. Toys Due to the popularity of the Disney TV series, in 1958, The Topps Company produced an 88-card set featuring stills from that year’s movie. The cards were rare and became collectors’ items. In the same year the Louis Marx company released a variety of Zorro toys such as hats, swords, toy pistols and a playset with the Lido company also making plastic figures. A major toy line based on the classic Zorro characters, motifs and styling, was released by Italian toy giant, Giochi Preziosi , master toy licensees of the property. The toy range was developed by Pangea Corporation and released worldwide in 2005 and featured action figures in various scales, interactive playsets and roleplaying items. New original characters were also introduced, including Senor Muerte, who served as a foil to Zorro. In 2007, Brazilian toymaker Gulliver Toys licensed the rights to Zorro: Generation Z , which was co-developed by BKN and Pangea Corporation . The toy range was designed concurrent and in association with the animated program. In 2011, US-based collectibles company Triad Toys released a 12-inch Zorro action figure. Comics Zorro#01, 2008, by Dynamite Entertainment Zorro has appeared in many different comic book series over the decades. In Hit Comics # 55 published by Quality Comics in November 1948, Zorro is summoned by Kid Eternity , in this version has only a whip and does not wear a mask. [19] Dell Comics published Zorro in Four Color Comics # 228 (1949), 425 (1952), 497 (1953), 538 (1954), 574 (1954), 617 (1955) and 732 (1957), This stories featured artwork by Everett Raymond Kinstler (497, 538, and 574), Bob Fujitani, Bob Correa and Alberto Giolitti . [20] In 1958, it resumed publication in Four Colors, based on the Disney’s TV series, with the first stories featuring artwork by Alex Toth . [21] Zorro was given his own title in 1959, which lasted 7 more issues and then was made a regular feature of Walt Disney’s Comics and Stories (also published by Dell) from #275 to #278. From 1965 to 1974, through Disney Studio Program , the Walt Disney Studio had a unit producing comic book stories exclusively for foreign consumption, to meet the demand, other countries produced Zorro comics under license from Disney: Brazil , Germany , Netherlands , Denmark and the United Kingdom . [22] Gold Key Comics began a Zorro series in 1966, but, like their contemporaneous Lone Ranger series, it featured only material reprinted from the earlier Dell comics, and folded after 9 issues, in 1968. The character remained dormant for the next twenty years until it was revived by Marvel Comics in 1990, for a 12-issue tie-in with the Duncan Regehr television series Zorro . Many of these comics had Alex Toth covers. Over the years, various English reprint volumes have been published. This include but are not limited to: Zorro In Old California Eclipse Books ISBN 978-0-913035-12-2 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro The Complete Classic Adventures By Alex Toth. Volume One, Image Comics 1998. ISBN 9781582400143 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro The Complete Classic Adventures By Alex Toth. Volume Two, Image Comics 1998. ISBN 978-1582400273 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro The Dailies – The First Year By Don McGregor , Thomas Yeates . Image Comics 2001. ISBN 1-58240-239-6 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Alex Toth’s Zorro: The Complete Dell Comics Adventures. Hermes Press 2013. ISBN 978-1613450314 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] Zorro: The Complete Dell Pre-Code Comics. Hermes Press 2014. ISBN 9781613450666 [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ] In 1993 Topps Comics published a 2-issue mini-series Dracula Versus Zorro followed by a Zorro series that ran 11 issues. Topps published two miniseries of Lady Rawhide, a spin-off from the Zorro stories created by writer Don McGregor and artist Mike Mayhew. [23] [24] [25] McGregor subsequently scripted a miniseries adaptation of The Mask of Zorro film for Image Comics . A newspaper daily and Sunday strip were also published in the late 1990s. This was written by McGregor and rendered by Tom Yeates . Papercutz once published a Zorro series and graphic novels as well. This version is drawn in a manga style. Dynamite Entertainment relaunched the character in 2008 with writer Matt Wagner first adapting Isabel Allende’s novel before writing his own stories. The publisher also released an earlier unpublished tale called “Matanzas” by Don McGregor and artist Mike Mayhew. Zorro also appears in the 2013 Dynamite title Masks alongside Green Hornet , Kato , The Shadow , and The Spider . Written by Chris Roberson with art by Alex Ross and Dennis Calero . [26] It was announced on June 18, 2014 that Quentin Tarantino would co-write a series with Matt Wagner teaming Zorro with Tarantino’s character Django Freeman from the movie Django Unchained . [27] The character also appeared in European comics and is beloved in Latin America, usually in licensed, translated reprints of American comics. In the Netherlands, Zorro was drawn by Hans G. Kresse for the weekly Pep . Stage productions Approximately 65 separate Zorro live productions have been produced. These have included traditional stage plays, comedies, melodramas, musicals, children’s plays, stunt shows, and ballets. Some examples include: Ken Hill wrote and directed the musical production of Zorro, which opened on 14 February 1995 at the East Stratford Theater in London. Ken Hill died just days before the opening. [28] Michael Nelson wrote a stage adaptation of Zorro for the Birmingham Children’s Theater in 1996. Beaufort County Now called it “a fun and fast paced production perfect for children 6 and up.” Abe Reybold directed with scenic design by Yoshi Tanokura and costume designs by Donna Meester. Jay Tumminello provided an original score. [29] Theater Under the Stars in Houston, Texas, put on Zorro, the Musical as an opera in 1998. It was written and directed by Frank Young and starring Richard White as Zorro. [30] In 1999, Anthony Rhine and Joseph Henson wrote Zorro Live!, which was performed at the Riverside Light Opera theater. [31] In 2002, playwright Michael Harris wrote The Legend of Zorro, which has been performed in many high schools. Michael Smuin ‘s critically lauded modern ballet version of Zorro premiered in the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco in 2003. Composer Charles Fox provided the score, and Matthew Robbins wrote the libretto. Ann Beck was costume designer and Douglas W. Schmidt was set designer. Smuin himself choreographed. [32] Culture Clash ‘s Zorro in Hell opened in 2005 in the Berkeley Repertory theater, then in 2006 in the La Jolla Playhouse and the Montelban Theater in Los Angeles. Zorro In Hell was written and performed by Richard Montoya, Ric Salinas and Herbert Siguenza. Culture Clash used the legend of Zorro as a lens to examine California’s cultural, economic and historical issues. The LA Times called it “a zany bicultural send-up of California history.” [33] Award-winning playwright Bernardo Solano wrote a modern adaptation of Zorro for TheatreWorks at the University of Colorado in 2007. Robert Castro directed and Justin Huen starred as Zorro. The Denver post called the production “a fresh take,” and “a formula other companies should emulate.” [34] In Uppsala, Sweden, Erik Norberg wrote a Zorro stage adaptation for the Stadsteatern Theatre directed by Alexander Oberg and starring Danilo Bejarano as Zorro. The production opened in 2008. [35] The Scottish children’s theater troupe Visible Fictions put on a touring production of The Mask of Zorro in 2009. Davey Anderson wrote the script and Douglas Irvine directed. Robin Peoples designed the sets, which The New York Times called “a triumph.” [36] Lifehouse Theater, a Redlands, CA-based company, put on ‘Zorro, written and scored by Wayne Scott. Zorro opened in 2009. [37] In 2012, Janet Allard and Eleanor Holdridge produced and directed Zorro at the Constellation Theatre in Washington, DC. Holdridge directed and Danny Gavigan played Zorro. The Washington Post said of the production, “Constellation augments its classical thrust in a thoughtful way with ‘Zorro,’ which continues the company’s laudable efforts at delivering intimate theater with high standards for design.” [38] The Oregon-based ballet troupe Ballet Fantastique produced Zorro: The Ballet as an opener to their 2013 season. Eugene Weekly called the ballet “zesty, fresh, fantastic treat.” [39] Z – The Musical of Zorro by Robert W. Cabell was released in 1998 as a CD. The CD premiere with Ruben Gomez (Zorro) and Debbie Gibson (Carlotta) is published as a CD. The stage premiere took place on June 13, 2013 at the Clingenburg Festspiele in Klingenberg am Main, Bavaria, Germany, with Karl Grunewald and Philip Georgopoulos as alternating Zorros, Judith Perez as Carlotta, Daniel Coninx as Governor Juan Carlos, Daniel Pabst as Capitàn Raphaél Ramerez and Christian Theodoridis as Sergeant Santiago Garcia. This production was directed by Marcel Krohn and premiered in the presence of the composer. A musical titled Zorro opened in the West End in 2008. It is directed by Christopher Renshaw , choreographed by Rafael Amargo and features music composed by the world famous Gipsy Kings . It was nominated for 5 Oliviers, including Best Musical. [40] It has since enjoyed professional productions in Tokyo, Paris, Amsterdam, Moscow, Prague, Warsaw, Tel Aviv, Seoul, Shanghai, São Paulo and elsewhere. The US premiere production took place in 2012 at Hale Centre Theatre in Salt Lake City, Utah, with a further production at the Alliance Theater in Atlanta Georgia, where it won five awards including Best Musical. In 2015, The M7 Con Western Convention, held at the Los Angeles Convention Center featured a segment on the history of Zorro in film and television. The presentation focused on the great Zorro actors including Douglas Fairbanks , Tyrone Power , Guy Williams , and Duncan Regehr . Maestro Ramon Martinez and actor Alex Kruz gave a live demonstration of the Spanish style of fencing known as La Verdadera Destreza . The two dueled live as Zorro and the Comandante much to the delight of the crowd. [41] Music On the commercial release of the Zorro 1957 Disney TV series’ Zorro theme, the lead vocal was by Henry Calvin , the actor who played Sergeant Garcia on the program. The song was written by Jimmie Dodd . The Chordettes sang the single version of the song, complete with the “Sounds of the Z” and the clip clopping of Zorro’s horse, which is heard at the song’s end. The song hit Number 17 in 1958 according to the Billboard Charts. In 1964, Henri Salvador sang “Zorro est arrivé.” It tells from a child’s point of view how exciting it is whenever a villain threatens to kill a lady in the television series. But every time again, to his relief, the “great and beautiful” Zorro comes to the rescue. An early music video was made at the time. Alice Cooper ‘s 1982 album Zipper Catches Skin includes the song “Zorro’s Ascent” which is about Zorro facing his death. The 1999 song “El Corona” by Suburban Legends tells the story of “Don Diego”, the “hombre en negro”, a “tall Spaniard with a sharp sword” who was “down and out in LA” and defending the people from an unnamed corrupt ruler. Computer and video games Zorro: Quest for Justice (2009), Nintendo DS There is a Zorro themed poker machine at gaming establishments in Australia and New Zealand. Role-playing games In July 2001, the Gold Rush Games published The Legacy of Zorro Introductory Adventure Game (ISBN 1-890305-26-X [ Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK ]) by Mark Arsenault for Fuzion . Copyright and trademark disputes The Mark of Zorro , starring Douglas Fairbanks , is out of copyright The copyright and trademark status of the Zorro character and stories are disputed. Zorro Productions, Inc., asserts that it “controls the worldwide trademarks and copyrights in the name, visual likeness and the character of Zorro.” [44] It further states “[t]he unauthorized, unlicensed use of the name, character and/or likeness of ‘Zorro’ is an infringement and a violation of state and federal laws.” [45] In 1999, TriStar Pictures Inc. sued Del Taco, Inc., due to a fast-food restaurant advertising campaign that allegedly infringed Zorro Productions’ claims to a trademark on the character of Zorro. In an August 1999 order, the court ruled that it would not invalidate Zorro Productions’ trademarks as a result of the defendant’s arguments that certain copyrights in Zorro being in the public domain or owned by third parties. [46] A dispute took place in the 2001 case of Sony Pictures Entertainment v. Fireworks Ent. Group. [47] On January 24, 2001, Sony Pictures , TriStar Pictures and Zorro Productions, Inc. sued Fireworks Entertainment , Paramount Pictures , and Mercury Entertainment , claiming that the Queen of Swords television series infringed upon the copyrights and trademarks of Zorro and associated characters. Sony and TriStar had paid licensing fees to Zorro Productions, Inc., related to the 1998 film The Mask of Zorro . Queen of Swords was a 2000–2001 television series set in Spanish California during the early 19th century and featuring a hero who wore a black costume with a red sash and demonstrated similarities to the character of Zorro, including the sword-fighting skills, use of a whip and bolas , and horse-riding skills. Zorro Productions, Inc., argued that it owned the copyright to the original character because Johnston McCulley assigned his Zorro rights to Mitchell Gertz in 1949. Gertz died in 1961, and his estate transferred to his children, who created Zorro Productions, Inc. Fireworks Entertainment argued that the original rights had already been transferred to Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. in 1920 and provided documents showing this was legally affirmed in 1929, and also questioned whether the copyright was still valid. The court ruled that “since the copyrights in The Curse of Capistrano and The Mark of Zorro lapsed in 1995 or before, the character Zorro has been in the public domain “. [48] Judge Collins also stated that: “Plaintiffs’ argument that they have a trademark in Zorro because they licensed others to use Zorro, however, is specious. It assumes that ZPI had the right to demand licenses to use Zorro at all.” In another legal action in 2010, Zorro Productions, Inc., sued Mars, Incorporated , makers of M&M’s chocolate candies, and ad agency BBDO Worldwide over a commercial featuring a Zorro-like costume. [49] The case was settled with “each party shall bear its own costs incurred in connection with this action, including its attorney’s fees and costs” on August 13, 2010. [50] In March 2013, Robert W. Cabell, author of Z – the Musical of Zorro (1998), filed another lawsuit against Zorro Productions, Inc. The lawsuit asserted that the Zorro character is in the public domain and that the trademark registrations by Zorro Productions, Inc., are therefore fraudulent. [51] In October, 2014, Cabell’s lawsuit was dismissed, with the judge ruling that the state of Washington (where the case was filed) did not have jurisdiction over the matter. [52] [53] However the judge later reversed his decision and had the case transferred to California. [54] In June 2015, Robert W. Cabell’s legal dispute with Zorro Productions, Inc. resulted in the Community Trade Mark for “Zorro” being declared invalid by the European Union’s Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market for goods of classes 16 and 41. [55] This follows the ‘Winnetou’ ruling of the Office’s First Board of Appeal [56] in which the Board of Appeal ruled that the name of famous characters cannot be protected as a trademark in these classes. Both rulings are currently being appealed. Zorro Productions, Inc. owns approximately 1300 other ZORRO related trademarks worldwide. Legacy Texas Tech ‘s The Masked Rider Bob Kane has credited Zorro as part of the inspiration for Batman . [57] Like Zorro, Bruce Wayne is affluent , the heir of wealth built by his parents. His everyday persona encourages others to think of him as shallow, foolish and uncaring to throw off suspicion. Frank Miller ‘s The Dark Knight Returns and The Dark Knight Strikes Again both include multiple Zorro references like the Batman inscribing a Z on a defeated foe. In later tellings of Batman‘s origins, Bruce Wayne’s parents are murdered by a robber as the family leaves a showing of the 1940 film The Mark of Zorro , starring Tyrone Power . The Masked Rider, the primary mascot of Texas Tech University , is similar to Zorro. Hanna-Barbara Productions’ Pixie and Dixie cartoon featured a Zorro-like character with a mask, cape and sword known in the episode “Mark of the Mouse.” Hanna-Barbara Production’s El Kabong character, an alternate persona of Quick Draw McGraw is loosely based upon Zorro. A cave that was used as a filming location in various Zorro productions is now known as “Zorro’s Cave” and remains in place, now hidden behind a condominium complex, on land that was once the Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, Calif. , recognized as the most widely filmed outdoor shooting location in the history of Hollywood. References	i don't know
Which Roald Dahl novel features the 'Oompa Loompas'?	The Oompa-Loompas - Roald Dahl Roald Dahl Description "'Of course they're real people,' Mr Wonka answered. 'They're Oompa-Loompas.'" - Charlie and the Chocolate Factory The Oompa-Loompas feature in two of Roald Dahl's stories: Charlie and the Chocolate Factory - which has since been adapted for two films, an opera and a stage musical - and Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. The Oompa-Loompas are from Loompaland, which Mr Wonka describes as a terrible place. "Nothing but thick jungles infested by the most dangerous beasts in the world - hornswogglers and snozzwangers and those terrible wicked whangdoodles," he tells Charlie Bucket and the other Golden Ticket winners. Loompaland is such a terrible place that when Mr Wonka invited the Ooompa-Loompas to come back to his Chocolate Factory, they leapt at the chance. Now they live and work there, helping Mr Wonka with his experiments and generally keeping his Chocolate Factory going. The Oompa-Loompas enjoy singing and dancing. They're always making up songs. Their favourite food is the cacao bean, the central ingredient in a bar of chocolate, and in the Wonka Factory they have access to as many cacao beans as they could possibly wish for. In the original book, the Oompa-Loompas are described as "tiny" people with "funny long hair." The iconic visual representation of them having orange skin and green hair comes from the 1971 film adaptation. About Charlie and the Chocolate Factory	Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
French mariner, Jacques Cartier, left home in 1534 to sail across the Atlantic, to explore which river?	Roald Dahl's 'Charlie and the Chocolate Factory' strikes right notes - latimes YOU ARE HERE: LAT Home → Collections → Musical Roald Dahl's 'Charlie and the Chocolate Factory' strikes right notes With 'The Golden Ticket' playing at Opera Theatre of St. Louis and a rumored Broadway musical in the works, it's clear the beloved children's classic was destined for musical fame. June 20, 2010 \|By James C. Taylor, Special to the Los Angeles Times Daniel Okulitch as Willy Wonka with the Chorus of Oompa Loompas in Opera… (Ken Howard ) Reporting from St. Louis — — Roald Dahl's "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory" has always yearned to burst into song. The 1964 novel features a healthy serving of Oompa-Loompa verse ditties, and both of its film adaptations boast numbers by notable songwriters: Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse in the 1971 movie and Danny Elfman in the 2005 Tim Burton- Johnny Depp blockbuster. Now it's become clear that with these songs, Dahl's characters were just warming up. Last month rumors circulated that Sam Mendes is planning to direct a Broadway musical of "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory" with music and lyrics by the "Hairspray" team of Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman. (Reached by phone in New York and asked about the "Charlie" musical project, Shaiman said simply: "Yes, it exists.") FOR THE RECORD: 'The Golden Ticket': An article last Sunday about the opera "The Golden Ticket," based on Roald Dahl's novel "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory," said it was commissioned by Timothy O'Leary, Opera Theatre of St. Louis' general director, Wexford Opera and American Lyric Theater. It was actually commissioned by American Lyric Theater and Felicity Dahl, Roald Dahl's widow, and the world premiere production was co-produced by Opera Theatre of St. Louis and Wexford Opera. — And this week, Willy Wonka made the leap to the lyric stage in Opera Theatre of St. Louis' world premiere production of "The Golden Ticket," the first full-length opera based on Dahl's beloved book. As it turns out, "Charlie" was destined to be a music drama: "Roald always felt it was the one book that should be made into a musical," says Felicity Dahl, the author's widow. "I don't think he ever dreamt of an opera, but to be honest, I think he would be thrilled that it's an opera, because classical music was his passion." The men Dahl entrusted to adapt her husband's story were composer Peter Ash and writer Donald Sturrock. Sturrock met the Dahls in 1985 when making a BBC documentary about the writer. (He's also finishing a Dahl biography, "Storyteller," that will be published this fall.) Since the author's death in 1990, Sturrock and Ash have worked with the medical charity that Dahl founded and runs in her late husband's name. Part of the Roald Dahl Foundation's mission is to fund new music to be performed for children. Sturrock recalls getting a demo track in the mail from one of the many people wanting to set "Charlie" to music. "I played it to Peter to see what he felt and he said, 'I'd like to do it,'" Sturrock recalls, "Peter went for it like a dog with a bone, I can remember the look in his eye. He just came out and said, 'I'd like to make an opera out of this story.' It was clearly a project that sang to him." This was in 1997. Their first move was to ask Dahl. "She said she would 'let us have a go,'" Ash says during rehearsals at St. Louis' Virginia Jackson Browning Theatre. "She told us, 'Show me something. Excite me.'" But before the men could fully dive into an operatic "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory," they had to go to Los Angeles, where Ash and Sturrock were part of the creative team(as conductor and librettist, respectively) of Tobias Picker's opera based on Dahl's "The Fantastic Mr. Fox," which premiered at Los Angeles Opera in 1998. It was in Los Angeles that parts of the operatic "Charlie" started coming together. First, Ash says he began writing the part of Willy Wonka for baritone Gerald Finley, who played Mr. Fox at L.A. Opera. While in Los Angeles, Ash had a member of the Los Angeles Children's Choir, who played one of the fox cubs in "The Fantastic Mr. Fox," make a recording of the aria that would become "Charlie's Song." Six years later, Sturrock was in L.A. again and the head of the Children's Choir, Anne Tomlinson, told him she'd like to commission a new opera for children. "She told me, 'I remember listening to that song in the rehearsal room at Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, and that was when I first got this idea: I'd like you and Peter to write something for us.'" That opera, "Keepers of the Night," opened in 2007 at the Alex Theatre in Glendale. In the nine years between "Mr. Fox" and "Keepers of the Night," Ash and Sturrock kept working on the opera of "Charlie." There were workshops of it at the National Theatre in London and a recording of extracts — plus a defining moment at a concert production in Manchester. "It was billed as 'Charlie and the Chocolate Factory: A Concert Performance of a New Opera' and people just didn't see the small print," Sturrock recalls. "It was a rather disastrous experience of an audience coming, thinking they were going to see the familiar music from the film. From that moment on we thought: We've got to give this another title so it's quite clear this is something new and something unfamiliar."	i don't know
First sighted by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, he named it then 'Cape of Storms'. What is it now called?	Bartolomeu Dias \| Portuguese explorer \| Britannica.com Portuguese explorer Alternative Titles: Bartholomew Dias, Bartolomeu Dias de Novais, Bartolomeu Diaz Bartolomeu Dias Ferdinand Magellan Bartolomeu Dias, in full Bartolomeu Dias de Novais, Bartolomeu also spelled Bartholomew, Dias also spelled Diaz (born c. 1450—died May 29, 1500, at sea, near Cape of Good Hope), Portuguese navigator and explorer who led the first European expedition to round the Cape of Good Hope (1488), opening the sea route to Asia via the Atlantic and Indian oceans. He is usually considered to be the greatest of the Portuguese pioneers who explored the Atlantic during the 15th century. Portuguese navigator and explorer Bartolomeu Dias. Photos.com/Thinkstock Bartolomeu Dias, from a Portuguese postage stamp, 1945 The Granger Collection, New York Early life and prelude to the expedition Almost nothing is known of Dias’s early life. His supposed descent from one of Prince Henry the Navigator ’s pilots is unproved, and his rank was the comparatively modest one of squire of the royal household. In 1474 King Afonso V entrusted his son, Prince John (later John II ), with the supervision of Portugal ’s trade with Guinea and the exploration of the western coast of Africa . John sought to close the area to foreign shipping and after his accession in 1481 ordered new voyages of discovery to ascertain the southern limit of the African continent. The navigators were given stone pillars (padrões) to stake the claims of the Portuguese crown. Thus, one of them, Diogo Cão , reached the Congo and sailed down the coast of Angola to Cape Santa Maria at 13°26′ S, where he planted one of John’s markers. Cão was ennobled and rewarded and sailed again: that time he left a marker at 15°40′ S and another at Cape Cross, continuing to 22°10′ S. Royal hopes that he would reach the Indian Ocean were disappointed, and nothing more is heard of Cão. John II entrusted command of a new expedition to Dias. In 1486 rumour arose of a great ruler, the Ogané, far to the east, who was identified with the legendary Christian ruler Prester John . John II then sent Pêro da Covilhã and one Afonso Paiva overland to locate India and Abyssinia and ordered Dias to find the southern limit of Africa. The voyage Dias’s fleet consisted of three ships: his own São Cristóvão, the São Pantaleão under his associate João Infante, and a supply ship under Dias’s brother Pêro (Diogo in some sources). The company included some of the leading pilots of the day, among them Pêro de Alenquer and João de Santiago, who earlier had sailed with Cão. A 16th-century historian, João de Barros , places Dias’s departure in August 1486 and says that he was away 16 months and 17 days, but since two other contemporaries, Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Christopher Columbus , put his return in December 1488, it is now usually supposed that he left in August 1487. Britannica Stories Scientists Ponder Menopause in Killer Whales Dias passed Cão’s marker, reaching the “Land of St. Barbara” on December 4, Walvis Bay on December 8, and the Gulf of St. Stephen (Elizabeth Bay) on December 26. After January 6, 1488, he was prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast and sailed south out of sight of land for several days. When he again turned to port, no land appeared, and it was only on sailing north that he sighted land on February 3. He had thus rounded the Cape without having seen it. He called the spot Angra de São Brás (Bay of St. Blaise , whose feast day it was) or the Bay of Cowherds, from the people he found there. Dias’s black companions were unable to understand those people, who fled but later returned to attack the Portuguese. The expedition went on to Angra da Roca (present-day Algoa Bay). The crew was unwilling to continue, and Dias recorded the opinions of all his officers, who were unanimously in favour of returning. They agreed to go on for a few days, reaching Rio do Infante, named after the pilot of São Pantaleão; this is the present Great Fish (Groot-Vis) River . Human Exploration: From Earth to Space Faced with strong currents, Dias turned back. He sighted the cape itself in May. Barros says that he named it Cape of Storms and that John II renamed it Cape of Good Hope . Duarte Pacheco, however, attributes the present name to Dias himself, and that is likely, since Pacheco joined Dias at the island of Príncipe. Little is known of the return journey except that Dias touched at Príncipe, the Rio do Resgate (in the present Liberia ), and the fortified trading post of Mina. One of Dias’s markers, at Padrão de São Gregório, was retrieved from False Island, about 30 miles (48 km) short of the Great Fish River , in 1938. Another marker once stood at the western end of the Gulf of St. Christopher, since renamed Dias Point. Later life Dias returned to Portugal in December 1488. Nothing is known of Dias’s reception by John II. Dias was later employed to supervise the construction of the São Gabriel and the São Raphael vessels used for Vasco da Gama ’s 1497 expedition to India. He was allowed to sail with da Gama’s expedition only as far as the Cape Verde Islands . Dias later sailed with Pedro Álvares Cabral , part of the expedition that landed on the coast of Brazil on April 22, 1500—Cabral is generally credited as the first European to do so—while en route to India. The next month Dias died after his ship was lost at sea near the Cape of Good Hope during a storm.	Cape of Good Hope
What was the name of the little girl in the popular children's novel by Johanna Spyri?	Bartholomew Dias Timeline \| Preceden Bartholomew Dias was Born 1450 Bartholomew Dias was born around 1450. No one really knows much about his early life and childhood, so they guess the year when he was born. Leaving for Expedition 1487 Bartholomew Dias left for his expedition to journey around the Southern tip of Africa. The Portuguese wanted to find an easier way to travel to Asia for trade. They also wanted to see if how far the southern tip of Africa extended. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope (Cape of Storms) 1487 Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope. He called it the Cape of Storms though because he went around it without even knowing during a storm on his way through his journey. When he came home after his voyage King John 2 said to name is Cape of Good Hope instead of Cape of Storms because then no one would want to go there. It was named after- Bartholomew Dias's followers' rounded Cape of Storms with hope saying they were almost to their destination. Bartholomew Dias Meets Africans 1488 Bartholomew Dias meets Africans when his team stops on shore from rounding the Cape of Good Hope when he put a pole marker there. Bartholomew Dias tried to kill the Africans and the Africans tried to attack them. Coming Home December 1488 - January 1489 Bartholomew Dias came home from his first expedition in 1488 (December) or 1489 (January). He tells King John \|\| all the information he gathered about his trip. Bartholomew Dias Goes On Last Expedition & Dies 1500 Bartholomew Dias goes on his last expedition at sea. He rounded Cape of Good Hope again and he ran through another storm there. The storm killed him and 4 out of 13 ships in his last expedition were sunk.	i don't know
Known scientifically as Triflorum hybridum and white or pink in colour, what type of flower is 'Alsike'?	Full text of "Pasture plants and pastures of New Zealand" See other formats S5 ZEALAND PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. 7a, md O F- NEW ZEALAND '/'>. k aW. /Ja Cornell University Library SB 199.H64 Pasture plants and pastures of New Zeala 3 1924 003 373 804 Hntt afallege of ^^gticulture 3^t OJorncll MniaecBtts Strata, I?. % IGtbrarvi NEW ZEALAND PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF NEW ZEALAND BY F. W. HILGENDORF, M.A.. D.Sc. (N.Z.) Sometime Senior Scholar and First Class Honoursman in Natural Science of the University of New Zealand. Biologist to the Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln, N.Z. Auckland, Chrlstchurch, Dunedin and Wellington ; Melbourne and London : WHITCOMBE & TOMBS LIMITED The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003373804 PREFACE. nnmS llttle volume is published in the hope that it may prove useful to both farmers and students. No other crop approaches grass in importance, and yet in many parts of the country no other crop is so little studied. A good deal of attention has been devoted in the following pages to the means of recognising the various grasses, as it is considered that the ability to recognise the different varieties is the surest way to induce a study of their habits and capabilities. On this study depends the solution of the most important of all problems facing the New Zealand farmer, namely : " What is the best grass mixture to sow on my land ?" F.W.H. Lincoln, 1918. CONTENTS. PAGE Chap. I. Description of Botanical and Agri- cultural Characters of Common Pasture Grasses 5 Chap. II. Description of Weed Grasses and Native Grasses 31 Chap, III. Key for Identification of all Com- mon Grasses 44 Chap. IV. Description of Clovers and other Pasture Plants with Key for . Identification 50 Chap. V. Management of Pastures : Grass Mixtures 68 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF NEW ZEALAND. CHAPTER I. THE COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. The majority of the pastures in New Zealand will be found clothed with only some four or five grasses, but in exceptional circumstances some dozen additional species may be found. It is the design of this chapter to describe these grasses so that they may be recognised and named, to discuss their value as fodder, and their suitability to difEerent classes of soils. In the description of a grass, the leafage is of most im- portance because that is to be found all the year round, while the flowers can be found for only a short period. The following terms are used in describing the leafy portion of a grass : — The sheath is the part in which aU the leaves are folded together to make a kind of a stem from which the blades of the leaf spring. The ligule is a transparent mem- branous flap standing up at the junction of the sheath and the blade. Its presence or absence and its shape when present are very important points in identifying grasses. It can be very plainly seen in Cocksfoot and Prairie Grass for example. The ears are a pair of hooked structures springing from the base of the leaf blade and more or less enfolding the sheath. They are very well developed in barley. A rhizome is an underground creeping stem, giving off roots downwards and frequently leaves upwards at ■ c Fig. 1.— A : Base of blade. B : Ligule. C : Sheath. Note pointed ears between B and C in the right-hand specimen {after Ward). 6 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. each knot. All grasses with rhizomes are called "Twitches." A stolon is an overground creeping stem rooting where the knots touch the ground. A common example is found in the Strawberry, and among grasses, stolons are often found in Creeping Bent. A spikelet is one of the small clusters in which the flowers of grasses are arranged. They are familiar objects in the Rye grasses, being the structures on which children count " Tinker, Tailor, etc." In most grasses they are smaller and more crowded together than in the Rye grasses. An awn is a hair-like projection from part of the spikelet. Awns are well seen in Italian Rye. The habits of growth of grasses in New Zealand are often very different from their habits in England, and English books are therefore often misleading in estimating the value of a grass for local conditions. The following grasses are those commonly or occasionally sown in New Zealand pastures. Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata). — A strong-growing, broad-leaved, perfectly hairless grass, with a bluish tinge on the leaves. The sheath is strongly compressed so as to have almost cutting edges. Ligule fairly developed and some- what pointed. Upper surface of the blade practically ribless but with a rather deep groove. Blade gradually tapering to the tip. This is one of the most valuable grasses used in New Zealand. It is quite permanent, and produces a very large amount of palatable fodder. It can be profitably sown on every class of ground. The only real disadvantage it suffers from is that it dies down almost entirely in winter, at any rate in the South, and starts into growth late in spring. It has, besides this, several fancied disadvantages, which are almost universally held to limit its usefulness. These are that it always grows in tufts, leaving bare ground between the tufts, and that it takes about three years to establish itself, so COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. that it is useless for temporary pastures. Both of these disadvantages are due, not to the character of the grass, but to the manner of treating it. Cocksfoot is very com- monly sown at the rate of three or four pounds to the acre, in a mixture containing 20 or 25 pounds of Perennial Rye. It is no wonder that the Cocksfoot grows in tufts. If a sufficient seeding were applied it would form a turf at least as good as that provided by Perennial Rye. The fact that Cocksfoot usually takes two to three years to establish itself is again due to the thin seeding of this grass in a mixture. The Rye Grass develops earlier in summer and runs to seed. It thus becomes less palatable and the sheep leave it and feed almost exclusively on the Cocksfoot, worrying the life out of the few scattered plants. The wonder is that the Cocksfoot ever becomes established. If it is sown pure (or with Dogstail) at the rate of 14 or 15 pounds per acre, and grazed in the least degree reasonably it will estabhsh itself in the first season. It is not intended by' these remarks to advocate the sowing of Cocksfoot pure, but to show that its chief reputed disadvantages belong not to the grass itself but to the method of sowing it. This at least is true, that Cocksfoot is used far too sparingly. Three or four pounds to the acre leads to a waste of money — much more does the sowing of one pound such as one often sees. About 10 to 12 B A Fig. 2. — Cocksfoot. A : Flower Head. B : Base of blade. (after Percival). PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. pounds to the acre, mixed with Rye Grasses and Dogstail, will give a permanent pasture of great value, but this matter will be referred to more fully under the heading of ' ' Grass Mixtures. ' ' Cocksfoot seed is harvested with the sickle and flail on Banks Peninsula and elsewhere in very large quantities, the average area saved for seed during the last ten years having been 30,000 acres. The seed varies in weight from 12 to 17 pounds per measured bushel, and the price varies accordingly. An average in normal years is about 7^d. per pound. This and all other quotations in this chapter refer to the price of dressed seed as sold by seed merchants to farmers, and no notice is taken of rise in price induced by war and drought. Perennial Rye (Lolium ■perenne). — A rather small grass, distinctly red at the base of the leaf sheath, just below where it enters the ground. Blade and sheath hairless. Sheath just underneath the leaves distinctly compressed into an oval shape. This fact is most easily distinguished by gently rolling the sheath between the fingers. Ligule very short and cut off square. Small clasping ears. Upper surface of blade dis- tinctly ridged, lower side shiny. This is the most populai grass in England and New Zealand, and one of the most valuable. It pro- duces a large amount of feed of high palatability and Fig. 3. — Perennial Rye Grass. „ j. -x* i ta j_-i_ • (alter Fream). nutntivc Value. It thrives COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 9 extraordinarily under the trampling of stock, and on roadsides may be seen occupying the land next to the metal, while Cocksfoot thrives nearer the fences, where the tl-amp- ling of stock is less severe. Rye grass remains green all the winter, and starts growth very early in Spring, being much superior to Cocksfoot in these respects. This long list of good qualities, together with the cheapness of its seed, have led to the very extensive use of this grass, and perhaps it would not be too much to say that 70 to 80 per cent, of the grass seed sown in New Zealand is Perennial Rye. The wide range of utility of this grass cannot be denied, and yet it is quite certain that it is used too widely and without sufiicient discrimination. From the list of its virtues given above that of permanence is absent. It is shallow rooted, and on light land with a rainfall of under 30 inches its life is very short, often httle exceeding two or three years. Even within this period it becomes thin and patchy, and a paddock is often unprofitable for many months before it is ploughed up. Again, on the heaviest lands, although Rye Grass is permanent there, other grasses such as Timothy and Foxtail will give a much greater bulk of feed. In making up mixtures for thehghtest and heaviest lands, then. Perennial Rye should be very much reduced in amount, and perhaps it would be a good thing if it were somewhat reduced in the great majority of the mixtures used in New Zealand. In the Chfton Park system of grassing to which reference will be made later, this grass is entirely rejected on account of its short life and shallow-root system. On heavy lands, ind in wet seasons, Perennial Rye tends to be attacked by rust, which causes considerable scouring in stock. Rye Grass seed is gathered in aU the agricultural districts either by means of the reaper and binder, or very frequently by strippers, an average of 50,000 acres of this grass and Italian Rye having been annually saved for seed during the 10 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. past ten years. Seed from old pastures is preferred by buyers, as this tends to ensure that the seed has been saved from plants of a truly perennial nature. Poverty Bay seed is in great demand because of this factor. Other named strains are Pacey's, and Devonshire Evergreen, but their vogue in New Zealand is only slight. The seed from old plants tends to be small and shotty, and so the weight per measured bushel is an indication of the age of the plant whence the seed was gathered. Good seed runs about 29 pounds to the bushel, and an average price is 4s. 9d. per bushel of 20 pounds. Italian Rye {Lolium iialicum). — A stronger growing grass than Perennial Rye. It is similar in all its botanical characters except that the sheath just underneath the blades is round instead of compressed. In the flowering stage a noticeable difference occurs in that the flowers of Italian Rye have the hair-like projections called "awns," which are absent from Perennial Rye. Italian Rye produces much more feed than does Perennial, and is very weU liked by stock of all kinds. It, however, lasts only one or two years, except on the very heaviest and richest ground when it may become almost permanent. It is sometimes used alone (at about 40 pounds per acre) or with Red Clover, for sow- ing in Autumn to obtain a Fig. 4. — Italian Kye Grass, (after Fream). COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 11 large amount of fresh grass in the Spring, and given a moist and warm Autumn is very successful when so used. It is I chiefly employed however, in mixtures, at the rate of about five to ten pounds per acre to give feed during the early part of a pasture's first season, with the idea that as it dies out, more permanent grasses will develop and occupy the space it leaves. About five pounds per acre is usually quite enough. More seed does not produce very much more feed, and is apt to leave the pasture patchy. The numerous varieties of Italian Rye that have appeared of late years have been only a quahfied success. Giant Italian proves a giant only where given good land and plenty of moisture, but is certainly a better strain than some others on the market. Perenniahzed Italian has no claims to its name, as it lasts little longer than the common strain and is pro- bably less productive. Westernwolth's is certainly a vigor- ous grower in its first season, and is of great value when it is sown to last only a single season, but its life is too short to allow it to be used in mixtures, for under many conditions it becomes almost strictly an annual. The seed, like that of Perennial Rye, is gathered with the binder, or occasionally with the stripper. In favourable circumstances yields of 50 to 60 bushels are not uncommon, and the crop then becomes more profitable than wheat. The life of the pasture is, however, always shortened by cutting a crop of seed. Many of the ' ' awns ' ' are knocked off in threshing, and the best of samples do not usually show more than 80 per cent, of awned seeds, while the usual run of seeds has probably less than 50 per cent, of seeds with awns. Such seed is difficult to distinguish accurately from that of Perennial Rye. The average price of the seed is 4s. 9d. per bushel of 20 pounds. 12 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. Timothy {Phleum pratense). — A strong growing grass with a bluish tinge on the leaf. At the base of the leaf sheath under the ground, and just above the roots, is a single or at most two bulb-like swellings. This is very characteristic. The leaf sheath is round and the hgule conspicuous. There are no ears. Timothy will last for six years or longer de- pending on the nature of the soil. It thrives best on heavy lands, and will succeed on wet clays where other grasses often fail, or on medium lands with a rainfall of about 30 inches. It is quite unsuited for light soils or dry districts. Under suitable con- ditions the abundance of feed it produces is hardly excelled by that of any other grass in cultivation. The fodder is of the greatest palatabihty especially to cattle and horses. In general it is more a cattle than a sheep grass, just because it thrives best on the heavier soils. It is very economical to sow for several reasons. The seed is small, and there are about 1,100,000 of them to the pound, whUe in Perennial Rye for instance 240,000 seeds go to the pound. Thus if 28 pounds of Ryegrass is sufficient for an acre, about 6J pounds of Timothy should be sufficient also. But the seed is rounded and solid, and so is very easily covered too deeply Fig. 5. — Timothy, (after Fream). COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 13 in the soil. For this reason eight pounds per acre are used when Timothy is sown pure. More usually four or five pounds are sown in mixtures, and this quantity gives a considerable bulk of feed. A striking result often occurs in such mixtures. The Timothy appears to have failed, owing to its great palat- tability. It is grazed more closely than the other grasses, and therefore escapes notice, until by accident or design a piece of the field is protected from stock. The high pro- ductivity of Timothy, its palatability, the cheapness of its seeding, and its relatively long Hfe make this one of our most valuable grasses. On any lands the least inclined to be heavy, or on medium lands with over 30 inches of rainfall, Timothy should replace a large quantity of the Perennial Rye usually shown. The seed costs about 6Jd. per pound. Crested Dogstail {Cynosurus cristatus). — Dogstail is rather a small grass, much like Perennial Rye in growth. It usually has a faint, but unmistakable yeUow tinge at the base of the sheath, just under the ground, and this colour is sometimes more distinctly seen when the outer dead sheaths are stripped off. For the rest it is much like Rye Grass in the ears, ligule and ribs. Dogstail is a strictly permanent grass on prac- tically all classes of land. The amount of feed pro- duced is rather small — distinctly less than in the case of Rye Grass, and while fairly palatable it is Fig. 6. — Crested Dogstail (after Fream). 14 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. also highly nutritious. It grows low and dense, and is useful for forming a close turf and filling up spaces between other grasses. While it, of course, thrives best on the heavier soils, it will hold its own indefinitely on all soils but the very lightest, and is therefore of great value in securing permanent pastures on such land. The seed stalks are very wiry, and are unan- imously rejected by stock. A very important result of this is that Dogstail ripens its seed even while the paddock is being depastured, unless, of course, the stocking is unusually heavy. Thus the seed is scattered so that new plants occupy all vacant spaces. If a field then is designed for a permanent pasture only a little Dogstail need be sown at first, and it will spread and occupy the spaces left by the shorter Kved grasses as the latter die out. For instance a field sown in a mixture containing only half a pound of Dogstail to the acre was found in nine years to be clothed with that grass almost entirely. A pound or so per acre of Dogstail should always be mixed with Cocksfoot in mixtures for permanent pastures for second class lands, as it tends to lessen the bad effect of the tufty nature of that grass under the usual conditions of sowing. Its close growth and turfy habit make it a valuable constituent of lawn mixtures. It is useless for temporary leys as it is somewhat slow in maturing, and as mentioned before of only moderate growth. Growing Dogstail for seed is a feature of the district near Palmerston North. Colonial seed is better than English, which fre- quently contains dog daisy as an impurity. The normal price of the seed in recent seasons has been about Is. 4d. per pound. Meadow Fescue {Festuca pratensis). — A grass of robust growth, with coarse, stiff, and rather pale green leaves. At the base of the sheath there is a distinct red coloura- tion. The sheath is rounded, but the ears and ligule are COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 15 as in Rye Grass. The chief distinguishing character of this grass is the distinct roughness of the upper surface and edges of the blade when it is drawn from tip to base over the tongue or Up. This test needs to be made carefuUy or blood wiU flow. Meadow Fescue is a perfectly permanent grass, suited to medium heavy soils. It produces a con- siderable quantity of fodder, and is well hked by stock in spite of the coarseness of its leaf. These features make it one of the most admired grasses in England, but in New Zealand it has not proved itself of great utility. It establishes its full growth but slowly, and does not yield its maximum return until two or three years after sowing. When once estabhshed, however, it appears to hold its place long after many other grasses have disappeared. This feature and its excellent EngHsh reputation justify wider trials of this grass in different locaUties where permanent pasture is desired on land of fair quaUty or with good rainfall. Its past performances in New Zealand, however, do not warrant its being sown in more than experimental quantities. A seeding of about 15 pounds per acre in a mixture should be tried on a smaU area, rather than a very light seeding on a larger area. The seed is almost entirely of American origin, and costs about lid. per pound. Fig. 7. — Meadow Fescue, (after Fream). 16 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. Tall Fescue {Festuca elatior). — In leaf characters this grass is merely a coarse and robust form of Meadow Fescue, although the two grasses are very different in general appearance. It grows most freely on swampy land where it will form great clumps five feet in height. As a pasturegrass TaU Fescue is Uttle used. In swamps it is now generally looked upon as a nuisance, though it has done much good in carrying a certain quantity of stock until the swampswere drained. Sown upon hills indistrictsof sufficient rainfall it grows weU, and then assumes much the habit of Meadow Fescue. Its extended use cannot be recommended. Che wings Fescue {Festuca saburicola). — Of all the species similar in growth to Sheep's Fescue, Chewings is the only one at all largely used here, and it will be taken to serve as a type of the whole group. It is a very small, low growing grass, its leaves rarely exceeding 6 inches in length, while they are often shorter, even when fully grown. There is frequently a shght red colouration at the base of the sheath. The leaf is very narrow, and is rolled towards the middle so that it becomes quite hke a bristle or a pine needle. The ligule is very small, and is often barely visible. There are two rounded shoulder-like ears, not enfolding the steiji, and these give one of the best identification marks of the species (v. fig. 9, p. 17). Fig. 8.— Chewings Chewings Fescue is an absolutely A: Section of bristle- permanent grass that grows on every class like Made. ■^, ., tv r ux ^ j j • .l tt B: Base of leaf shew- of soil, even the lightest and driest. Here ears. indeed, it appears to thrive better than on C : Flower head. , , . ., . . , i , , , . , (after Fream). "etter soils, sincc in the latter case it has COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 17 to stand the competition of numerous other grasses, while on dry shingle it reigns alone. This is its chief, if not its only virtue. The bulk of feed produced is very small, and what there is, has a distinctly low palatability. When turned on to plots of various grasses, sheep will, if hard pressed, positively paw up the creeping stems of white clover before they will touch Chewings Fescue. On arable ground it forms a close growing twitch, which ploughs up into solid sods very difficult to work down into a tUth. For these reasons one cannot recommend the sowing of Chew- ings Fescue except on the very poorest and biadirf'ch^Xga Ughtest soils, where nothing else will thrive. fh^o'S?der-ukeTa« Even in such locaUties it is open to question ^^^grw^^d). whether one of the Danthonias would not be more profitable, especially if an occasional crop is con- templated ; though it is true that the Chewings Fescue will come again after the crop without sowing any seed. For lawns, however, Chewings Fescue cannot be ex- celled. It is fine leaved, dark green, slow growing, forms a close turf that tends to prevent the ingress of weeds, and suffers very Uttle from the ravages of grass grub. The seed is cheap enough to be applied at the rate of 150 lbs. per acre without undue expense, and if this grass is sown pure it will give an infinitely better lawn than many of the elaborate and expensive mixtures usually sold. Of course it has dis- advantages. It is somewhat slow to establish itself, and it turns brown unless watered in the height of summer. For the rough sort of lawn that is rarely if ever mowed this grass is quite unequalled. Chewings Fescue is largely grown is Southland, where it was first accidentally introduced and afterwards separated out by Mr. Chewing. It is extensively saved for seed, which in 18 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. normal seasons is sold at about 6^d. per pound. The seed is apt to lose a large proportion of its germination capacity after the first season. Prairie Grass {Bromus uniohides). A very strong grow- ing grass, with broad, Ught green leaves. The sheath is compressed into an oval shape, and is covered with velvety hairs, while the blade is usually quite hairless. Prairie grass produces a great wealth of fohage of the highest palatability to cattle, horses and sheep ahke. It starts into growth extremely early in the season, if, indeed, one should not rather say extremely late, for it often produces a great deal of feed in early winter. It has, however, the grave disadvantage that when sown in mixtures it is immediately eaten out. How far this is due to the nature of the grass, and how far to the small amount introduced in the mixture one is not prepared to say. It is true, however, that the grass appears to be permanent along hedges and ditches where the stock cannot easily reach it (though this maybe largely due to self -seeding), and that in one or two districts it is sown pure, and then appears to survive stocking perfectly. If it is sown pure, the stock can be removed when the Prairie Grass is nearly bare ; but if sown in a mixture, it will, owing to its great palatabihty, be eaten right out while there is still abundance of feed in the paddock. It would, therefore. Fig. 10. — Prairie Grass. COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 19 seem to be a grass well worth giving a trial under favourable conditions of stocking, especially where winter grass is of great importance. The seed is very large, and therefore a considerable weight, say 40 pounds, should be sown per acre. Owing to the difficulty of covering the seed when it is broadcast, it should be drilled in 7 in. rows, and then cross-drilled, sowing half the seed at each operation. Some seed is grown locally, and it is always better than the imported article, which often produces plants that suffer from smut. At Moumahaki Experimental Farm a pure strain was isolated by Mr, W. S. HUl, and this has given very satisfactory results from the point of view of increased jdeld. The seed averages in price 5s. 3d. per bushel of 20 lbs. Meadow Foxtail {Alopeourus pratmsis). A strong growing grass with bluish-green leaves growing only on damp land or in moist cHmates. From the main plant go off rhizomes a couple of inches in length, and the ends of these are upturned and produce leaves. The sheath is round, the ligule short and obtuse, the ribs on the upper surface of the blade are noticeably flat, not sharp. The whole plant is hair- less and the leaf has a tendency to roll up on hot days. The dead sheaths at the base have a purplish tinge in their brown. Foxtail is a permanent grass producing a great wealth of feed. It starts into growth very early in spring. It is highly palatable and improves under stocking, there being several pastures over 40 years old even in so new a country as New Zealand. 7 Fig. 11. Foxtail. 20 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. The small rhizomes, while never forming anything Uke a twitch, enable the grass to obtain a good hold on the ground and to spread slightly as it reaches its full growth. The three striking disadvantages of this grass, that prevent its being more widely sown are as follows : (1) It is suited only to lands where there is always sufficient moisture without water- logging. A heavy rainfall is not essential if the soil has a high water retaining capacity, and on the other hand it will succeed on medium soils with a rainfall approaching 60 inches. The grass is quite useless in hght or medium soils where the rainfall is under 40 inches. (2) It takes a year or two to estabUsh its full growth, and therefore is useful for only permanent pastures. (3) The seed is Ught and fluffy, difficult to sow, and of very low germinating capacity, as a rule not over 50 per cent., and sometimes as low as 10 per cent. Thus many attempts at using this grass profitably have failed. But is clear that Meadow Foxtail has a distinct sphere of great usefulness, and indeed it is regarded in England as absolutely the best grass for permanent pasture in heavy land^such as drained swamps. In mixtures for such soils Foxtail should always be included, as there are numerous examples of its great success in both Islands of New Zealand. Seed was formerly largely imported but is now harvested, chiefly by hand, in the Manawatu District. Although this seed is better than that imported from Europe, yet its germination is uncertain, and it should always be tested before purchase. Samples germinating 60 per cent, are good. The seed is bulky, weighing about 10 pounds per bushel, and an average price is Is. 4d. per pound. European seed is often adulterated, and Colonial seed impure, so that a sharp look out should be kept for worthless admixtures. Creeping Bent, Fiorin or Brown Top. — {Agrostis alba and other species). — An exceedingly variable grass, which. COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 21 beside the above names, has the following applied to it, viz., Black Bent, Red Top, Waipu Brown Top, and Water Twitch. The grass, as the last name impUes, produces creeping stems which in some varieties are subterranean, and in others sprawl over the ground, and strike roots wherever a knot comes in contact with the soil. The sheath is round, the ligule distinct, and the blade tapers regularly from base to tip. There are acute and prominent ribs on the upper side of the blade, and no groove along its middle hne. But all these characters are somewhat obscure (except the taper- ing blade), and while there is no grass easier to recognise, there is none for which it is harder to detail diagnostic characters. Creeping Bent is a perfectly permanent grass producing a rather small amount of feed which is fairly well Uked by sheep — and this seems truer of Brown Top than of the other varieties. It is thought in the North Island to have poor fattening quaUties, but this is not at all a universal experi- ence. It thrives best on very wet or swampy soils, but does very well on light soUs with a rainfall of 50 inches or over. It be- comes estabhshed in its first season from seed, but starts into growth rather late in each season. Owing Pig. 12. — Flower head of Creeping Bent, (after Percival). 22 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. to its twitchy habit it is never sown in arable land, though it often becomes a serious weed there ; on unploughable land of the better quality the twitchy habit tends to cause Creeping Bent to crowd out other grasses and to become sod-bound itself. But on really poor land with a good rain- fall this grass is one of the most valuable, and along the foothills of Canterbury its spontaneous spread into the tussock is responsible for greatly increased sheep carrying capacity. In swamps, too. Creeping Bent is of great value as in some circumstances it thrives better than any other grass. There are a very large number of strains or varieties recognisable, and a useful piece of work could be done in isolating the best of these for varying conditions. The variety known as Waipu Brown Top has a distinct and possibly deserved vogue in some districts. This name, and the American one of Red Top refer to the brownish pink tinge that is very striking when masses of the grass are in flower. Creeping Bent makes a very useful lawn grass, standing a good deal of wear, and making a fine turf not liable to be injured by grass grub. It is therefore almost universally included in lawn mixtures, and could profitably be used in larger proportions. Some seed is saved in the north and east of the North Island, but nearly aU is imported. It is very small and light, and six pounds are sufficient to sow an acre com- pletely. An average price of the seed is Is. 4d. per pound. Poa Pratensis or Kentucky Blue Grass {Poa fratmsis). — This grass is usually called by its botanical name in New Zealand, but is often called merely "twitch" — a most indefinite term. It is rather low and creeping, has very distinct rhizomes well developed, a compressed sheath, and leaves of the characteristic "poa" build. That is, they are flat and ribless, but have a pair of fine narrow lines like tram lines running in a shallow depression along COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 23 the top of the midrib ; the sides of the blade are parallel to near their top, and then rapidly contract to a point, so that the blade has usually a canoe-shaped tip. Poa pratensis is quite permanent, and produces a close com- pact turf. The amount of feed it gives is only moderate, but its palatability is high. It is never sown on land intended for crop- ping, where indeed it forms one of the best known twitches. Though the grass has the very highest repu- tation in America for permanent pasture — forming the famous Kentucky Blue Grass, yet it has here not a wide sphere of usefulness. On light dry lands it does not thrive, and in places where there is much moisture it can be replaced with Creeping Bent ; between these two extremes, however, is a large area of land where Poa pratensis might be employed for pastures which are intended to lie down permanently, but this is just the class of land where Cocksfoot thrives. Despite American practice, then, Poa pratensis should be used in only small quantities, say half a pound per acre, to form a turf between Cocksfoot tufts. It is a question, how- ever, whether Dogstail cannot do all that Poa pratensis can, and at the same time give more feed, and less prospect of subsequent trouble. Fig. 13. — Poa prstensiB, (alter Fream). 24 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. The seed is very small and light, and its germination is usually very poor. Any test of its germination capacity should, however, be conducted with the seeds exposed to light. The seed is mostly of American origin. Poa Trivialis or Rough Stalked Meadow Grass {Poa trivialis). — This grass is very much like the former in all points regarding its leafy parts, but it never produces rhizomes, and therefore is not a twitch. It is permanent, but produces only a moderate amount of feed which, however, is of fair quality. It succeeds best in warm moist climates on rather good soil. Here it makes a close sole of grass, and for this reason is more or less regularly used in Taranaki and northern parts of WeUington Districts. It is useful in the same way as Dogstail is, that is, for forming a close turf among taUer growing grasses ; but while Dogstail combines best with Cocksfoot, Poa trivialis finds its best companion in Foxtail. The seed is still smaller and lighter than that of Poa pratensis and its germination better. Seven pounds will completely sow an acre, and therefore it must be sparingly used (about half-a-pound) in mixtures. An average price of the seed is Is. 5d. per pound. Paspalum {Paspalum dilatatutn). — This grass also is known by its botanical name. It is of very robust growth, and is practically confined to the northern half of Auckland Province. It has very strong rhizomes, a compressed sheath, and the edges of the ensheathing part of the leaves are fringed with long spiky silken hairs. There is a large Ugule with a sparse fringe of long hairs behind it, and the blade of the leaf is cigar-shaped, that is, distinctly broader in the middle than at either end. Paspalum is a permanent grass producing a large quantity of fodder on suitable soils. It thrives only in the warmest portions of the Dominion, since in other COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 25 parts it takes most of the summer to recover from the unfavourable effects of the winter, and so produces feed only in Autumn. Even in Auckland this objection holds to a considerable degree, so that Paspalum is purely a summer grass. Rich and heavy swampy soils are most suited to its growth, and in pure swamps it effects a wonderful transformation in a few years, solidifying and binding them, and covering them with a luxuriant growth. Its very strong rhizomes, however, make it quite unsuitable for land which is likely to come under the plough, and the fear has been expressed that there is by far too much Paspalum in North Auckland. Foxtail or Cocksfoot would be much more profitable. The seed is largely imported from Victoria, and owing to its irregular ripening is often of very low germinating capacity. Seed shaken out, not cut, is much better, but of course more expensive. The rhizomes are sometimes planted instead of sowing seed, but the planting method is applicable to only very small areas. Seed sown in Autumn very often lies dormant tiU next summer, but then germinates quite satisfactorily. The average price is about Is. Id. per pound. Danthonia {Danihonia semiannularis and D. pilosa). — The above two species, which are natives of New Zealand, are confused under the name Danthonia, and from the farmer's point of view one description will apply to Fig. 14. Paspalum dilatatum. 26 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. both. The grass is low growing, and is of a greyish green colour. It has usually some sparse hairs on the sheath and blade, but its most notable character is a tuft of long silky hairs round the base of the blade near where the ligule appears in most grasses. There is no lateral expansion of the base of the blade suggesting ears, and this last point is necessary to differentiate it from Microloena. Danthonia is a perfectly permanent grass, producing a smaU amount of feed of rather low palatability. In the South Island, therefore, it is usually looked upon as a weed to be burned or ploughed out so as to make room for better grasses. This is especially the case where of recent years Danthonia has shown a tendency to spread into pastures whence it was banished by the plough when the tussock was first broken up. It is there thought to be kiUing out the English grasses, whereas it is probably only fiUing up bare spaces caused by the death of the plants unsuitable for per- manent pastures. The seed is easUy carried in the wool of sheep. Danthonia is commonest on dry, clay hills, or stony flats, and has the great merit of being able to thrive in districts too dry to support almost any other grass. Chewings Fescue is its only rival in this respect, and of the two Danthonia is the less unpalatable, and has the advantage of being easily got rid of if it is desired to bring the land again under the plough. Fig. 16. -Danthonia semlannnlariB. COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 27 In the North Island, on the other hand, Danthonia is often looked upon as a valuable pasture grass, and is sown either broadcast, or by buying sheep in autumn off Danthonia country such as Nelson. On the hills north of Wellington Danthonia country is reported to have a carrying capacity of two ewes per acre. Danthonia seed is saved to some extent in New Zealand. It is very Ught and fluffy, and difficult to sow by hand or machine. The two varieties are mixed in most samples purchased. Where it is possible to buy them separate D. pilosa is very much the better variety. An average price of the seed is about Is. 2d. per pound, but it varies con- siderably from year to year. Rice Grass or Microloena {Microloena stipoides). — This is another native grass. It is rather low growing, has rounded sheaths, and a noticeable tuft of hairs in the position of the hgule. There are sometimes seen properly formed ears, but always at the base of the blade are two expansions different in colour from the blade, and suggesting the bases of ears. The leaf is broad and of a rather hght green colour. Microloena is a permanent grass occurring chiefly in the Auckland Districts. It is useful only for poor lands, and indeed is usually sown for only one particular purpose. In some cases manuka when cut and burnt comes up again so thickly as to choke out all the grasses usually sown. It is then that Microloena is used, and it is found to resist the manuka to a greater degree than any other grass avail- able. The seed sells at about Is. 3d. per lb. Tall Oat Grass {Arrhenatherum avenaceum) . — A taU growing dark-green grass with long and wide but thin and papery leaves. On the upper surface of the leaves the hairs are disposed in Unes, as can be seen if the leaf is held with an end in each hand and then looked at lengthways with one eye closed and the other at a level with the blade. 28 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. Tall Oat Grass has a certain popularity in parts of Europe. In England it is called ' ' French Rye Grass. ' ' It grows very quickly and produces a considerable amount of fodder. Further it will withstand the very driest conditions, but it is apparently unpalatable to the highest degree. A horse confined in a paddock of less than one tenth of an acre every day for several years had bared all the ground except that occupied by a few tufts of tall oat grass, which were left to grow in full vigour, and several similar examples might be quoted. However, when forming a con- stituent of a mixture sheep will eat it, but it is probable that if it were introduced into a mixture in sufi&ciently large proportions to be of any importance, its unpalatability would make itself apparent in the faUing-off in condition of the sheep. Even in France and Switzerland where the grass is largely used, it is recognised that cattle will not eat it green, but when mixed up in hay it is not rejected. All the seed used in New Zealand is im- ported. It has long twisted awns Uke that of wild oats. The price is about Is. 3d. per pound. Canary Grass {Phalaris bulbosa). — A very tall, strong growing perennial grass, with one or more swellings less than the size of a pea, above the roots. From these swelUngs Fig. 16. very numerous branches are given out. The Taii°^oat "Grass blade is broad, and flat, and bluish, and the (unexpanded). Hguie One of the longcst in our farm grasses, (after Percival). , . ^ , , j_-i_ i f ■ ■ i being almost as long as the leaf is wide. COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. 29 Phalaris is a somewhat recent introduction. It grows very luxuriantly, and makes its chief growth in the winter. During its first season stock eat it greedily, but from the secortd season onwards so many seed stalks are produced 'that the grass is less reHshed. Still it produces a large amount of fodder that is sufficiently palatable. It is often said that Phalaris is difficult to eradicate after being down some years. It is true that if the land is ploughed and only slightly worked the Phalaris will come up again, and the same is true to a certain extent of Cocksfoot. The roots of any strong growing grass will require a good deal of working down before the land is ready to sow again, and incorporating the copious sod of Phalaris with the soil wiU in many cases be a considerable advantage. It seems therefore that anyone wishing to assist the production of winter feed in permanent ^^e. i7. '^ 1,1 T->1 1 ■ Phalaris bulbosa. pastures should try Phalans. The seed is now becoming more plentiful, and sells at about Is. 6d. per pound. REFERENCES. The general characters of the agricultural grasses as grown in England are well described in " Agricultural Botany " by John Percival. For characteristics of growth of grasses in New Zealand see Cockayne, Journal N.Z. Department of Agriculture, March, 1914. Elaborate descriptions and beautiful plates of grasses will,l be found in " The Best Forage Plants," by Stebler and Schroeter, translated by McAlpine. 30 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. For the identification of common grasses by the leaves, etc., the best book available is " Grasses," by Marshall Ward (Cambridge Press, at about 5s.) For Native Grasses Buchanan's " Grasses of New Zealand " is valuable because of its plates. CHAPTER II. WEED GRASSES AND NATIVE GRASSES. Section I. Weeds. It is very difficult to say what grasses are weeds, for what is regarded as a valuable plant under some circum- stances becomes a noxious weed elsewhere. A weed is a plant growing out of place, and any grass, no matter how good it is, is a weed if it is occupying ground that would support some better grass. On the other hand, grasses almost universally regarded as weeds become of great utiUty under special circumstances, and therefore at once lose their objectionable distinction. Several of the grasses mentioned in the last chapter, e.g., Chewings Fescue, Poa pratensis. Creeping Bent and Danthonia are often regarded as weeds, while some to be mentioned here among the weeds, e.g^, Agropyrum repens, have a distinct Sphere of utility. The terms "weed" and "pasture grass" are therefore only relative to the condition under which the grasses are found. Occasionally grasses and other plants that are not of sufficient value to sow, come up spontaneously, and occupy- ing spaces that would otherwise be vacant, provide valuable fodder. Such plants are then hardly weeds, but are known as volunteers. Examples are Poa annua and TrifoUum minus. Twitch or Conch is a name that is given to any grass with a rhizome or creeping underground stem. Such a grass, once it is in the ground, is very hard to get out, for the instruments of cultivation break and scatter the rhizomes, and each piece becomes a new plant. There are some six or seven twitches common in New Zealand, and frequently 32 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. the one that is prevalent in a district is called "Twitch," without any further distinction. This leads to considerable confusion, for different men are calling different grasses by the same name. The following case that occurred within the last two years will emphasise this point : — A prospective buyer of a farm found the land covered with a certain grass. He asked the seller ' ' Is that Twitch ? " " Oh no, " was the reply, "that's not Twitch, that's Chewings Fescue. There is a patch of Twitch on the place, I'll show it to you," and the buyer was led to a small patch of Poa pratensis. An agreement to buy the farm was therefore signed, but on being informed by a friend that the commonest grass on the farm was Twitch after all, the buyer repudiated the agree- ment, and the seller sought damages therefor, the buyer finally paying several hundred pounds to esca pe from his bargain. The seller thought of Poa pratensis as cwitch and the purchaser's friend thought of Chewings Fescue under that name. Hence the trouble. Since the various twitches differ in feeding value, habits of growth, and difficulty of eradication, it is advisable to be able to identify them, and to give them distinctive names. The following seven are the commonest : — (1) Agropyrum repens. — Twitch or Couch, sometimes called long twitch or white twitch. The rhizomes are very thick and of great length. They will easily penetrate potato tubers. The sheath and blade of the leaf are often but not invariably hairy. There is a pair of clasping ears. No other twitch common in this country has ears. The flower heads are superficially a good deal like those of Perennial Rye, but observation will disclose that while the spikelets of Ryegrass are set edgewise to the stem, those of Agropyrum are set broadside on. The general height of the stems is 1 foot or 18 inches, but when growing in a crop of wheat or oats they may reach a height of 3 ft. 6 in. or 4 ft. WEED GRASSES. 33 This is without doubt one of the most difficult twitches to eradicate on arable land. The great length of the rhizomes makes them very difficult to remove entire from the ground, and when they are dragged to the surface their great vitality makes it very difficult to secure their destruction. On a certain Canterbury farm whose records have been well kept, there is an instance of one side of a particular paddock being worked for twitch in 1886, and intermittently on till 1916 — a period of 30 years. In another instance this twitch had been worked out of the ground, raked into heaps and set fire to. After the fires had got a good hold rainy weather set in, and there was to be seen the curious sight of the heaps burning in the middle and on the outside pro- ducing a vigorous crop of green blades. As with many weeds this grass has some good points. It is undoubtedly rehshed by stock, as patches of it in a grass paddock are always closely grazed. Then there are two circumstances in which it is advantageous to introduce Agropyrum, and both these are cases where an unbreakable turf is the chief requisite in the grassy covering of the soil. (aftoPercivai) ^^ grasscd sandhills, where stock are apt to break through the turf and expose the sand, thus forming holes which the wind may indefinitely enlarge. Dr. L. Cockayne recommends this twitch. Ageiin on race- courses where the hoofs of the galloping horses tend to destroy the turf, Agropyrum would undoubtedly give good results. The seed is however almost unprocur- able, as even where it occurs, it is very commonly either quite infertile or else destroyed by ergot. The repens. Flower head and ears at 34 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. best way to introduce the grass would be to secure a supply of rhizomes, chop them up and harrow or trample them into the soil. (2) Poa pratensis. — This is also a common twitch : It is described on page 22. (3) Festuca saburicola. — Chewings Fescue is another twitch. It is described on page 16. (4) Agrostis alba is often called Water Twitch, but is better known under the names of Creeping Bent, Florin, Red Top, etc. It is described on page 20. (5) Holcus mollis.. — Creeping Fog, is one of the worst Twitches we have, but fortunately it is not very common in most districts. It is very Uke Yorkshire Fog in its over- ground parts, having the same velvety leaf, red and white leaf sheath, and pinkish feathery flower head. Underground, however, it displays thick and strong creeping stems that are very difficidt to kill. The leaves are disliked by stock wherever better grasses are available, and on the whole this twitch seems to have no merit of any kind. (6) Avena bulbosa. — Onion rooted twitch. This grass is, above ground, much Uke Tall Oat Grass (v. p. 27). Below ground, however, it displays a very characteristic structure. There is a string of 6 or 8 onion-Uke sweUings. These are reaUy knots, and vary in size from that of a pea to that of a hazel nut. Each knot is capable of independent growth when broken off from the parent stem. The grass is not really a twitch because it has no rhizomes, and it will not spread at aU if it is not disturbed. Ploughs and harrows, however, break up the strings of knots and scatter them far and wide, so that in arable land the grass soon takes possess- ion. It is very difficult to eradicate, for harrows cannot drag the knots to the surface in the same way as they do ordinary long rhizomes. The only way is to continuously cultivate the ground where it occurs, destroying the green WEED GRASSES. 35 shoots as often as they appear, so as to finally exhaust the plant food stored in the knots. In the circumstances in which it occurs scattered among other grasses Avena bulbosa seems quite palatable to sheep, for it never flowers in a pasture, while in a cereal crop its feathery heads may be seen as high as the those of wheat or oats. (7) Paspalum dilatatum, usually called by its botanical name, is a most decided twitch, and in the northern-most parts of New Zealand is considered practically ineradicable. It is described on page 24. Beside the twitches, the following eleven grasses are commonly found in pastures and are usually regarded as weeds owing to their low palatabiUty : — (1) Yorkshire Fog [Holms lanatus). — Both blade and sheath are clothed with velvety hairs, and distinct red and white veins are to be seen at the bottom of the sheath. The flower head is pinkish and feathery. This grass is one of the best known, as it occurs in practically all situations. It is, however, chiefly found in moist locaUties, and in wet land or in damp cHmates it often becomes the dominant grass in old pastures. Its seed is a common impurity in that of Cocksfoot, and may occur with the husks on, when it appears as a rather broad flat ' ' seed, ' ' or with the husks threshed off, when it isa gooddealsmaUer,Ught grey and shiny. Yorkshire Fog is generally considered highly unpalatable and it is certain that it is avoided where Rye Grass, Timothy, or Cocksfoot are available. StiU Fog is eaten to a certain extent, and it probably provides more fodder than it is usually credited with. (2) Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). — A rather low-growing grass with a fairly close seed head growing about a foot high. The leaves and sheath are somewhat hairy, and there is a noticeable ring of hairs 36 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. round the conspicuous ligule. The flower heads are formed so early in spring that this is usually the first grass to be noticed in flower, its only rival in this respect being Meadow Foxtail. The whole plant when cut smells strongly of cou- marin, theessential oil to which the smell of new mown hay is due. The hay like smell can usually be observed by chewing the grass, and this often forms a means of identification. This worthless weed is very widely distributed in the agricultural areas and those near by. Owing to its unpalatability, its early seeding, and its twisted awns it is easily spread by sheep, and seems almost in- eradicable without ploughing. It is said that in England Sweet Vernal is sometimes mixed with hay to improve the aroma, but the grass has no utility in New Zealand. (3) Goose Grass (Bromus hor- daceus). — The name"Goose Grass" appears to be purely Colonial. In England the common name is Soft Brome, while the term "Goose Grass" is appUed Pig. 19. Sweet Vernal, A ; Flower head. B : Base of blade. Pig. 20. Soft Brome or Goose Grasg. (after Percival) WEED GRASSES. 37 to a straggling and climbing road-side weed. Bromus hordaceus has a velvety leaf similar to that of Fog but has no red and white veins at the base of the sheath. As it is an annual the flower heads can usually be found either exposed or hidden in the sheath. The flowers have their husks or glumes fringed with white, and are provided with awns that are shorter than the flowers. The grass is almost never eaten by stock, and is universall ' i egarded as a worthless weed. Its seeds are a common impurity of Italian Rye Grass, as the awns on both grasses are of about equal length, but its seed is easily distinguished from that of the Rye Grass by its greater breadth and boat-hke shape. (4) Hair Grass (Festuca bromoides). — This is again a Colonial name and is apphed to a different grass from that bearing the same name in England. Colonial Hair Grass is a fescue with very fine leaves like those of Sheep's or Chewings Fescue. The flower heads stand about a foot high in ordin- ary circumstances and have narrow seeds with long awns. The excessively fine leaves give almost no feed so that the grass is quite worthless. It is commonest on medium to light soil, and is very widely distributed. When the land is not well packed in the ploughing Hair Grass may actually beat the cereal crops, and will then grow three or more feet high. Its seed, too, is not uncommon as an impurity in that of Itahan Rye, and is to be distinguished by being much narrower and longer. (5) English Hair Grass {Aira caryophyllea) . — This is the grass called Hair Grass in England. Like Colonial Hair Grass it has leaves so fine as to be almost unnoticeable. The flower stalks are only three or four inches high and the heads are pinkish and feathery. The grass usually grows in a mass in old pasture on hght land. It is quite worthless. 38 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. (6) Bailey Grass (HoTdeummurinum). A very well-known weed with hairy leaves distinguished by large clasping ears at the base of the blade. The flower heads stand about 8 inches high and have very long straight awns Uke those of cultivated barley. The grass is very widely spread and at mid-summer can be seen to occupy many thousands of acres in a block. It is not troublesome on land under the plough, but thrives in old thin neglected pastures. Its seed possesses remarkable burrowing power, and is used by boys to put up their fellows' sleeves, when the seed or seed heads will travel to the shoulder. In the same way seed getting between the locks of sheep's "■* wool will penetrate the pelt and must ^ cause extreme irritation, while occasionally they may get in between a dog's toes, and piercing the skin, travel upwards through the muscle until they emerge at the elbow. Dogs on barley grass country should therefore have their feet examined at frequent intervals. That the grass is freely carried by sheep is plainly seen from its prevalence on sheep camps, but it is only very rarely nibbled by stock. (7) Barren Brome {Bromus sterilis). — An annual, with drooping heads and very long awns. The blades frequently, and the expansions at the bottom of the blade always, are coloured purple, and the leaves are covered with long hairs. This is a worthless weed common on roadsides or on sandy pastures. (8) Floating Sweet Grass (Glyceria fluitans). — This grass occurs only in slow running or standing water, where it may often quite hide the water with its broad light WEED GRASSES. 39 green leaves. These have almost the ' ' Poa ' ' shape described on p. 22, and are very palatable to cattle, which will often wade up to their girths to reach them. The heads bear a few sausage-shapedspikelets. Regarded as choking up water- courses this grass is a weed ; where the free flow of the stream is not important it is a valuable volunteer (V. p. 31.) (9) Annual Poa {Poa annua). — A small annual grass growing 6 or 8 inches high. It has a distinct poa blade with many of the leaves transversely crinkled. The heads are sometimes feathery. This is perhaps the commonest weed grass occurring in gateways and by roadsides, and also occupying bare spaces in pasture land and lawns. It is much liked by stock and is a valuable volunteer. It is never sown owing to its very short life, which may, at the height of summer, be over in six or eight weeks from the germination of the seed. Its commonness is accounted for by its prohfic seeding practically aU the year round. In winter time it may often be found providing feed for sparrows and goldfinches. (10) Ratstall {Sporobolus indicus). — A perennial, growing almost as a native from Marlborough northwards : sheath slightly compressed ; ligule reduced to a ring of hairs ; blade tough, finely ribbed, somewhat downwards rough. Fig. 21. — ^Bromis eterilis (after Fream). 40 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. hairless except for about half-an-inch at the base where silky hairs occur on the edges ; leaves about 12 in. high ; flower heads 2 feet high, producing a very narrow and long spike like a rat's tail 6 inches long ; the reddish seeds escaping freely from the husks. This grass is distinctly a weed : owing to the harshness of its blades it is not liked by stock, and when forced to eat it sheep are found to have their teeth rapidly worn out. The grass is stiU sown in some quantity on the East Coast of the North Island, but that is a practice that should be rigorously dis- couraged. (11) Indian Doab {Cynodm dactylon). — This weed is also called Bermuda Grass. It is common in the warmer parts of the South Island and all over the North occurring as a Fig. 2lA — Indian Doab. weed of pastures and roadsides, as well as being purposely included in lawns. It is perennial, deep-rooting, drought resisting, and has long rhizomes or stolons that root pro- fusely. Leaves about 1 inch long but sometimes up to NATIVE GRASSES. 41 3 inches ; flat with long taper from base to tip ; down- wards rough ; hgule not seen, being replaced by a very strong ring of hairs — the only hairs on the plant ; flower stalks up to 18 inches high, ending in 4 or 5 stiff spikes one to two inches long, on which the spikelets are closely arranged. This grass is usually a weed, but its drought resistance accounts for its occasional inclusion in lawn mixtures in dry and warm districts. Section 2. Native Grasses. Some of the most important native grasses have been mentioned in Chapter I., but a few others have a certain feeding value and occupy vast areas of land, so that they merit a brief description. The chief ones are as follows : — (1) Danthonia spp., see page 25. (2) Mieroloena stipoides, see p. 27. (3) Tussock or Silver Tussock (Festuca novae zealandiae and Poa caespitosa) . — These tussocks are estimated to cover six million acres of land, or one seventh of aU the occupied country in New Zealand. Their yellowbristly leaves are about 18 inches high, and as the name implies, they grow in tufts. The two species are hardly ever separated by the grazier, but the Festuca grows on higher country and the flowers have awns, while the Poa belongs chiefly to the plains and the flowers are broader and awnless. It seems to be agreed that sheep never eat silver tussock except immediately after it is burnt. Cattle, however, eat it freely, and pull much more than they eat, so that if closely grazed by cattle the tussock is in time exterminated. Rabbits, too, wiU eat Tussock, but for sheep country, the only suggested use of this grass when unburnt is to shelter other and better grasses. The question of burn- ing Tussock land is dealt^with by Cockayne (see reference at end of Chapter V.) and some suggestions for the improve- ment of Tussock land will be found near the end of this work. 42 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. (4) Blue Tussock {Poa Colensoi). — This is a fine-leaved grass growing either in Tussocks or as a turf among the Silver Tussock. It has a bluish tinge, and its leaves grow about 8 inches high. It is usually considered good sheep feed, but a close examination of the Blue Tussock on land fairly heavily stocked shows that this grass is little liked by sheep. It is nibbled here and there, or may be found closely grazed in patches, but on the whole it is neglected in favour of what one usually regarded as worthless weeds, e.g., Cat's Ear or Cape Weed (Hypochaeris). (5) Blue Wheat Grass {Agropyrum scabrum). — This grass has broad bluish leaves that attain a height of 12 to 18 inches. The flower head is taller and is distinguished by the spikelets being set broadwise on to the stem and by hav- ing long, stiff, gently curved awns. It chiefly grows among the Silver Tussocks and is a valuable sheep feed where it occurs in any quantity. (6) Snow Grass {Danthonia raoulii). — This is another Tussock, growing 4 to 6 feet high. It has broad leaves shin- ing below, and feathery oat-like heads. It is found only in high country, though at the southern extremity of New Zealand it may descend to near sea level. Its presence in quantity frequently marks the limit above which it is not safe to carry sheep in winter, and therefore it is almost purely a summer country grass, as indeed its popular name of Snow Grass would indicate. Considering its great size it is freely browsed upon by sheep, and horses are inordinately fond of the seed heads. REFERENCES, For Weed Grasses consult Percival and Ward, as mentioned at end of Chapter I. For Native grasses Buchanan is still the best authority available; Fjg. 22. — Seeds of various grasses and clovers : — 1 Perennial Rye ; 2 Italian Rye ; 3 Meadow Foxtail ; 4 Meadow Fescue ; 5 Creeping Bent ; 6 Timothy ; 7 Cocksfoot ; 8 Sheep's Fescue ; 9 Crested Dogstail ; 10 Sweet Vernal ; 11 Poa tHvidlis ; 12Alsike; 13 White Clover ; 14 Lucerne ; 15 Another Lucerne ; 16 Red Clover ; 17 Sainfoin. Diagram No. 17 is four times natural size, and all the others ten times. (after Percival). CHAPTER III. KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON GRASSES. Grasses are scientifically distinguished chiefly by their flowers. However, since the flowers are present for only a month or so in each year, the following key has been constructed to assist in the identification of the common grasses by their roots, stems, and leaves alone, and the recognition of grasses by their flowers has been left to the figures scattered through the preceding pages. In the case of annual grasses, however, the flower characters are used for identification, since the flower can nearly always be found either exposed or wrapped in the sheath. To use the following key it is necessary first to have complete specimens, including a good portion of the root, and next it is necessary to make careful observations, not on a single leaf but on several, before deciding that any particular structure is absent. Under each of the figures on the left hand of the page in the following scheme will be found two alternatives. Within one or other of these alternatives every grass must faU. When close examination has determined within which of the alternatives the specimen under study is included, follow that line out to the right hand side of the page, where there wiU be found either the name of the grass, or the figure under which (when appearing on the left of the page) the investigation must be pursued. For instance take Cocksfoot. It has no hairs, no rhizome, no colouration at the base, but it has a strongly compressed sheath. Now turn to the key. Under figure 1 on the left Cocksfoot faUs within the second alternative, hairless — and so we run out to figure 14 on the right of the page. Now find 14 KEY TO COMMON GRASSES. 45 on the left of the page and consider the two alternatives. No rhizomes takes us to 19. Here no colouration takes us to 22. At 22 no yellow colouring takes us to 23. Here no sweUings at the base leads us to 25. Leaf sheath is com- pressed so go to 26. Not a "Poa" blade so go to 27, where the total absence of hairs finally identifies the grass as Cocksfoot. 1. Hairy on leaf, or sheath, or both, or only round ligule 2 Hairless 14 2. Hairs at least as conspicuous on leaf as on sheath, or chiefly near ligule 3 Hairs long and numerous on sheath ; much less con- spicuous on blade Prairie Grass 3. Hairs long and silky round hgule, shorter or absent elsewhere 4 Hairs not chiefly round ligule 7 4. Ligule very small if present at all (see note) 5 Ligule quite obvious, withhairs in front of or behind it. 6 5. Thick ring or tuft of hairs round mouth of blade. Blade rather narrow, sometimes hairy. No clasping ears Danthonla Thin ring of hairs ; blade broad and Ught green ; distinct though not large clasping ears Microloena (see note) 6. Very large ligule ; hairs long and silky behind it ; strong rhizomes ; often a few scattered silky hairs on edges of sheathing parts of leaves Paspalum Moderate Ugule ; hairs round mouth of blade ; often hairy elsewhere ; no rhizomes ; taste suggesting smell of hay. Sweet Vernal 7. Distinct red and white veins at base of sheath, best seen when sheath stripped backwards 8 Note. — Ratstail and Indian Doab both fall here, as well as Microloena and Danthonla. See detailed descriptions on pp. 39-40. 46 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. No distinct red and white veins 9 8. No rhizomes Yorkshire Fog Strong rhizomes — a serious twitch Creeping Fog 9. With distinct clasping ears 10 With no sign of clasping ears, though there may be present unmistakable rounded shoulder-like projections (v. fig. 9 p. 17) 11 10. With strong rhizomes — a serious twitch Agropyrum repens Without rhizomes (an annual, with a barley-like head, usually visible or enwrapped in the leaves) Barley Grass 11. Hairs on the blade short and in distinct lines (usually only to be seen by method described on p. 27) 12 Hairs long, often velvety, and always quite obvious 13 12. With a string of 3-8 onion-like swellings about the size of peas at the base of the plant Onion Twitch With no string of onion-like swellings Tall Oat Grass 13. With purple colouring over blade, or at least on the ear-Uke expansions at base of blade ; an annual ; waste land only. Spikelets with awns about one inch in length Barren Brome With no purple colouring at ears ; an annual on waste land or in old pastures ; awns about quarter of an inch long Goose Grass 14. With distinct rhizomes or sometimes stolons 15 No rhizomes or stolons 19 15. With clasping ears Agropyrum repens Without clasping ears 16 16. Growing almost exclusively in slow running water ; broad soft blade ; compressed sheath Floating Sweet Grass Growing on dry land 17 KEY TO COMMON GRASSES. 47 17. Very fine bristle-like blade ; rounded shoulder-like ears (v. fig. 9 p. 17) Chewings Fescue Blades of ordinary width 18 18. With Poa blade (v. p. 22) Poa Pratensis Blade with distinct ribs and tapering from base to tip Creeping Bent 19. Distinct red colour on underground part of sheath ; colour brighter when dead sheaths stripped off 20 No red colouration 22 20. Sheath distinctly compressed just below base of leaves • Perennial Rye Sheath just below base of leaves virtually round 21 21. Upper surface edges of leaves when rubbed down- ward on lip distinctly cutting Tall Fescue or Meadow Fescue Leaf only rough, not cutting Italian Rye 22. Underground part of sheath with faint but un- mistakable yellow colour, both on withered sheaths and on the fresh ones underneath (many specimens may need examination to see this) Crested Dogstail Sheaths not yellow at the base 23 23. With one or at most two distinct swelUngs about the size of a pea, at base of sheath 24 With no swellings at the base 25 24. With one or at most two swellings ; length of Hgule less than half the width of the blade Timothy With one swelling ; ligule almost as long as the blade is wide Phalaris bulbosa 25. With leaf sheath compressed 26 With leaf sheath round 31 26. With Poa blade (v. p. 22) 28 Without Poa blade 27 48 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. 27. Quite hairless ; leaf sheath so strongly compressed as to have almost cutting edges ; no rhizome Cocksfoot A few spiky, silky hairs behind hgule ; strong rhizomes Paspalum 28. With Rhizomes 30 Without rhizomes 29 29. An annual, usually only on waste land ; usually flowers all the year round ; about 50 per cent, of the leaves transversely crinkled Poa annua A perennial in pastures ; flowers only in summer ; few or none of the leaves tranversely crinkled Poa trivialis 30. Growing on dry land, blades rather narrow Poapratensis Found onlj' near slow running water ; broad soft blades Floating Sweet Grass 31. Blades very narrow, often bristle-like 32 Blades broad 34 32. An annual, often growing in tufts or waste ground or among crops ; awned spikelets nearly always exposed or enwrapped in sheaths Hair Grass Perennials forming a turf in pastures 33 33. With rhizomes which are often weak, but forming a very dense mat Che wings Fescue Without rhizomes Sheep's Fescue or Hard Fescue 34. Ridges high and sharp ; no sign of medial groove on upper side of blade ; stolons or rhizomes present Creeping Bent Medial groove, if present, very shallow ; no stolons or rhizomes 35 35. Dead sheaths at base of plant dark purplish brown ; ribs flat ; a broad, shallow medial groove on upper side of leaf always present but often indis- tinct ; on damp heavy land Foxtail KEY TO COMMON GRASSES. 49 Base of sheaths white or Ught grey ; thin papery leaf ; medial groove frequently absent ; almost ribless ; examination of numerous leaves usually discloses short hairs in lines on upper side of leaf Tall Oat Grass The common cereals may be identified by the following simple key : — 1. With ears 2 Without ears Oats 2. With moderate-sized ears, bearing scattered long silky hairs Wheat Large ears bearing no hairs Barley CHAPTER IV. CLOVERS AND OTHER PASTURE PLANTS. Section I. — Clovers and Allied Plants. Besides the grasses treated of in the preceding chapters, there are several other important pasture plants, chiefly various members of the order Leguminosse or the clover family. Most of these plants have flowers similar in structure to that of the Sweet Pea, although the individual flowers A BO Fig. 23. — Stipules In different varieties of Clovers, (alter Percival), A : Eed Clover ; B : Alsike ; G : Crimson Clover. may be small and crowded together in a head, as in Red and White Clover. The fruit is a pod which may contain many seeds, as in Lucerne, or only one, as in Red Clover, etc. The leaves are divided into leaflets, each leaflet with its CLOVERS AND ALLIED PLANTS. 51 own little stalk. If there are only three leaflets the leaf is said to be trifoUate, and this character is so general among the clovers that their botanical name is TrifoUum. In other plants of the order there may be five or a dozen leaflets. At the base of the leaf stalk, where it joins the main stem are a pair of structures hiterto un- mentioned in this work. They are membranous or leaf-hke expansions, always paired, and a.Te called stipules. Differences among the stipules are the easiest way of distinguishing between certain clovers when only their leaves are present. One of the chief characters of plants of the order Leguminosae is the possession of nodules on their roots. These nodules are usually about the size of Turnip seeds, and may occur singly or in groups up to the size of a hazel nut or larger. The nodules are the result of the action of certain bacteria Uving in the roots of the plants. These bacteria have the power of causing the free nitrogen gas of the air to com- bine with other substances to form proteids, which are stored up during the hfe of the bac- terium and remain in the nodules when the bacterium goes into its resting stage. These compounds now form the very kind of food that the clover needs in large quantities, and so they are seized on by the clover, which thus indirectly uses the nitrogen of the air. As an accompaniment of the plentiful and direct supply of available nitrogen, the Fig. 24. — ^Nodules on root of bean, (after Percival) 52 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N Z. Leguminosae have acquired the pecuharity of containing in their stems and leaves a much higher proportion of nitrogen compounds than the grasses or the other pasture plants contain. Thus when a clover plant is ploughed into the soil, it actually enriches the soil in nitrogen compounds, seeing that it puts into the soil nitrogen which was originally drawn from the air, and of course the same is true if only the stubble of the clover is ploughed in, or if the clover is returned to the soil as the excrement of animals. Since nitrogen in compounds suitable for food for all other kinds of plants is one of the substances in which soil is very frequently lacking, and since it is most easily suppUed by growing clovers and other leguminosae, this order of plants is of the highest importance. A mixture, or an alternation, of clovers and grasses will allow more grasses to be grown than if the clovers were omitted, and we have at the same time the added feed from the clovers as well. Further the clovers with their higher nitrogen content form a particularly nutritious food for stock, and for aU these reasons the plants of this order deserve detailed study in order, if possible, to extend their culture. The following are those most commonly used : — Red Clover {Trifolium pratense). — A strong growing clover ; leaves with three leaflets ; stems ascending, not creeping ; leaves and stems hairy ; stipules terminating in two long points that are usually hairy. This is one of the most useful clovers. The amount of feed it produces is very large, even its first season, and it is in the highest degree palatable and nutritious. It is largely used for hay, and makes an article of the highest quahty. It has deep penetrating tap-roots which work their way down into the stiffest sub-soils, and so have a largely in- creased space from which to draw food stuffs, especially CLOVERS AND ALLIED PLANTS. 53 water. Red Clover starts into growth fairly early in the season, though it does not grow at all during winter. Its chief weak point is that it usually lasts only about two years and then quite dies out. It is stated, however, that when stocked exclusively with cattle, its life is longer, and that there is distinct evidence that if it were sown pure and grazed judiciously it would last for several years even when grazed by sheep. Seed is harvested in all the agricultural districts, but the supply is not equal to the New Zealand demand. Much seed comes from Europe, and this is very frequently of a somewhat low grade. The price in normal seasons averages lid. per pound. Cow Grass [Trifolium pratense perenne). — Cowgrass differs from ordinary Red Clover only in that it flowers later in the season, produces its bulk of feed later, and so affords, when mown, only one cut in the season, and in that it will last for six years instead of two. The two varieties cannot be distinguished by the hoUowness of the stem or by the number of hairs, as these characters are very variable. True Cow Grass is not obtainable from colonial seed, nor indeed from any one except professional seed growers, because under farming conditions bees cross-fertilize Red Clover and Cow Grass and the result is a hybrid. It follows then that it is not advisable to spend extra money on a sample of seed merely because it is called Cow Grass by the vendor. If, on the other hand, seed were guaranteed to come from a pasture that had been sown say six years that had never been allowed to flower until the season of harvesting, the seed submitted for sale then would be worth much more money than usual, because it would be practically certain to pro- duce a long-lived plant. Such conditions as these are, however, practically never realized. 54 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. White Clover {Tnfolmm repens). — White Clover has hairless leaves and stems, and the stems are stolons — that is they creep along the ground and root at each node. The leaflets are heart-shaped. White Clover is one of the most valu- able pasture plants we have. Its palatabiUty is of the highest order, though the amount of feed produced is only moderate. White Clover is not strictly perennial, as the orig- inal plant dies out in a year or two, but the new plants formed by the stolons carry on its hfe, and besides this the numerous seeds produced from new plants wherever there is a vacant space. The seeds have extraordinary vitaUty, and will pass through cattle uninjured and germinate freely in the dung. Fields that have not borne white clover for many years will produce an abundance of plants if they happen to be under a fallow crop or a late sown cereal crop in a moist spring. In fields, on hght or medium lands, where White Clover has once thriven it is quite unnecessary to sow it again, at least for a great number of years, and the custom of sowing a pound or two of White Clover every time a field is laid down to tem- porary pasture doubtless leads to much waste. For per- manent pasture one or two pounds are usually sown. In districts where White Clover thrives very well so that an Pig. 25. — White Clover, showing stolon and root (r). (after Peroival). CLOVERS AND ALLIED PLANTS. 55 occasional crop of seed can be obtained, it pays to sow four or five pounds of seed with practically all mixtures in the hope of getting so thick a strike as to produce a seed crop. Few crops pay so well as White Clover seed if a yield of anything like a sack to the acre can be secured. Seed is harvested in all the agricultural districts, but much is still imported. An average price charged to farmers is Is. 2d. per pound. Alsike [Trifolium hybridum). — Leaves and stem hair- less, stems ascending, not creeping hke those of White Clover, flowers pink. Alsike produces an amount of feed midway between the product of Red and White Clovers. In the heaviest and dampest soils ploughed for pasture it is practically permanent or at least seeds itself, and so may always be found in the herbage. Its palatabiUty is high, and in all respects Alsike ranks as one of the most valuable of our clovers. It is, however, quite impatient of medium or dry soils, and does not last more than two years in such situations. Thus it lasts no longer than Red Clover, and does not give so much feed. But in heavy damp land it flourishes, and should always be included in mixtures for such soils. Where Timothy and Foxtail thrive Alsike thrives too. The seed is mostly imported, large quantities coming from Canada. It very frequently con- tains Californian Thistle as an impurity. The cost of seed to farmers averages Is. per pound. Little TrefoD or Suckling Clover {Trifolium minus.) — An annual, with slender trailing stems, not stolons ; leaflets Fig. 86. — Little Treloil and pod. (after Fream). 56 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. small, heart-shaped ; the midrib not produced into a spike sticking from the niche of the heart ; flowers in small heads, yellow. Although rarely sown this is a very valuable Clover, often forming the bottom of thin pastures on dry land, and affording one of our best examples of a " volunteer." It seeds itself with great freedom and the seed will pass through sheep uninjured, so that once in a field this plant will recur whenever the weather conditions are favourable. It gives a fair bite in Spring and Autumn, dying down in Winter and in the heat of Summer. It is almost universally dis- tributed where grasses and clovers have been sown, because its seed occurs as a common impurity in that of White Clover. Wherever Little Trefoil is found to be absent from permanent pastures on poor and light land, such as that of the sheep runs of the South Island, it should be surface sown. Two to four ounces per acre would be enough. The seed is on the market, and in normal times sells at about 4d. per pound. Strawberry Clover {Trifolium fragiferum) . — Much like White Clover in leaves and habit of growth, but the leaflets are a true oval instead of being heart-shaped or narrower at the base. It has the same kind of stolons as White Clover has. When in seed the heads become swollen and compact, then looking much like a strawberry. Strawberry Clover is quite as valuable as White Clover, and indeed may be depended upon to retain its position in a pasture much more constantly than White Clover will. It has, however, the great disadvantage that its seed is very difficult to harvest and thresh, and is therefore seldom on the market. When it can be obtained by purchase or by hand picking it should be used for permanent pasture on medium lands. Subterranean Clover {Trifolium suhterraneum). — A rather small prostrate annual, clothed with long spreading hairs ; CLOVERS AMD ALLIED PLANTS. 57 stipules broad ; the flowers white or pale pink ; after flowering the flower stalks turn down and press against or into the soil where the seeds germinate. This clover is one of the class of volunteers. It produces a certain amount of palatable food and grows even on dry gravelly soils. Its habit of burying its seed secures its per- manence in any land it occurs in, and it often becomes a valuable constituent of thin dry pastures. In some places in the Auckland Province it is said to take possession of pastures. The seed is not usually on the market owing to the difficulty of gathering it, but a little of it could be with advantage sown on poor land in permanent pasture. Crimson Clover {Trifolium incar- natum) . — An erect hairy annual, with broad stipules, red or green veined andnot endingin a long point (see fig. 23, p. 50). Flowers bright scarlet on a long rather thin head. This Clover, while commonly used in Europe and America, is very httle sown here. It grows quickly, and in warm climates can be drilled directly on the stubbles of cereal crops to give Autumn feed, or to be ploughed in. In Canterbury where it might be of much use it can hardly be grown because of the uncertainty of Autumn rains. It should never be sown in pastures of even temporary character because its place could be more profit- ably taken by Red Clover in almost all circumstances. Lucerne is sometimes used as a pasture plant, but is usually employed for forage. Its use in pasture is outlined on p. 78. Fig. 27.— Crimson Clover, (after Fream). 58 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. Black Medick, Non-Such Clover or English Trefoil {Medicago lupulina). — An annual with trailing stems, more or less clothed with short, soft hairs. Leaflets heart-shaped and Fig. 28. — Lucerne (Note twisted pods), (after Fream). Fig.29. Black Medick (Note spike from end of leaflet, (after Freara). with the midrib produced into a Uttle spike protruding from the niche of the heart. The flowers are bright yellow, and the httle one-seeded pods are quite black when ripe. Black Medick is occasionally sown as a pasture plant in temporary leys. The amount of feed it produces is, how- ever, small, and its self-seeding is not very prohfic. Money spent on it would be much better devoted to Red Clover in most cases. On limestone soils, however. Black Medick flourishes, and is one of the best indicators of soils lying on limestone. On permanent pasture in such country Black Medick could be broadcast very profitably if it does not occur already. CLOVERS AND ALLIED PLANTS. 59 Burr Clover {Medicago denticulata). — An annual with spreading stems, usually 'quite hairless. Stipules bordered with fine teeth. The pod is spir- ally twisted, and is edged with two rows of hooked or curved prickles— the whole form- ing a burr. This is a vol- unteer, occurr- ing in scattered locaUties. The burrs cause Httle or no inconveni- ence in New Zea- land, while the f ohage gives good feed in Spring and Autumn, It is never sown. Spotted Burr Clover (Medicago macuhta) . — Very much hke the precedingspecies except that the pod is more compact and globular in shape, and that there is usually a dark spot in the middle of each leaflet. It also is a volunteer. Sainfoin {Ondbrychis vtcimfolia). — A perennial of a few years' duration with stems 1 to 2 feet high ; stipules brown, thin, finely pointed ; leaflets a dozen or more ; flowers bright pink. Fig. 30.— Burr Clover. (Prom N.Z. Department of Agriculture, Leaflet 6). 60 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. This plant has been largely used in England and the Continent of Europe both as a pasture and a forage plant. It succeeds only on limestone country. Many trials of it in New Zealand have con- vinced growers that it is not worth bothering about. Birds-foot Trefoil {Lotus corniculatus, L. major, L. an- gustissimus, SiTid L. hispidus). — These four species may be dealt with together as they have but one common name. They are slender branching plants with bright green leaves of three leaflets. The stipules, however, are broad and hke the leaflets, so that at first glance the leaves appear to have fine leaflets and no stipules. The flowers are large and bright yellow, and the slender pods spread out like the toes of a bird's foot. Lotus corniculatus is a perennial, and establishes very deep and firm roots, which penetrate deep into the sub- soil. The feed produced is plentiful, practically equal to that provided by Red Clover. It is fairly palatable and nutritious. The plant will stand dry conditions excellently, and there is little doubt that it should be given a thorough trial in ])ermanent pastures in medium to very dry soils. Lotus major is also a perennial, but it grows well only in damp, shady situations. It again is fairly palatable, and produces a large amount of feed. Its importance, however, is not so great as that of L. corniculatus, because there are many plants that will do well in the only positions suitable Fig. 31. — Sainfoin, (after Fream) . CLOVERS AND ALLIED PLANTS. 61 to L. major. It might, however, be broadcasted in small quantities in creek beds and gullies, and is somewhat in- tensively used for bush burns. Lotus an- gustissimusand L. hispidus are annuals with flowers about half the size of those of the per- ennial species. They have also only about two to four flowers to the head, instead of from five to ten or more. It would seem that these two plants being annuals would not be suitable for permanent pastures, yet they are said to be increas- ingly popular in the North Island. Kidney Vetch [Anthyllis vulneraria) is sometimes re- ommended for pastures on account of its deep root system. A is, however, practically valueless from either a fodder producing or a sub-soiUng point of view. Fig. 32. — liotus corniculatuB. Common Birds-foot Trefoil, (after Fream. For figures of certain Clover Seeds see p. 43. 62 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. Section II. — Other Pasture Plants. Besides the Leguminosae there are a few other plants used in conjunction with the grasses to form pastures. It must be remembered that all the Leguminosae are more important than they look, in that they feed the soil, as weU as feeding the stock. This added importance does not belong to the plants about to be mentioned. Yarrow {Achillea millefolium). — A well-known perennial plant, with a creeping underground stem, so that it is usually regarded as a troublesome twitch. The leaves are large and are divided into very fine segments, so that they are almost fem-Uke. When crushed the leaves have a distinctive aroma usually considered pleasant. The flower stalks are two or three feet high, and the clustered flowers are white, pink, or scarlet. As mentioned above Yarrow is, when it occurs on arable land, considered a twitch. In permanent pasture on second- class land, however, it becomes a somewhat valuable constituent of the herbage. It produces a moderate amount of feed, is quite permanent, tends to fill up vacant spaces, and is highly palatable to sheep. This last fact often leads to its importance being over- looked. On certain lands then which are unploughable and tend to become bare in dry seasons, so as to be occupied Pig. 33. — Yarrow, (after Fream). OTHER PASTURE PLANTS. 63 by worthless weeds, Yarrow can be sown to advantage. The seed is very small, and so a little goes a long way. Its cost is about 3s. 6d. per pound. Chicory {Cichorium intybus). — The root is thick, white and somewhat like a parsnip, except that it has no transverse crinkles. The leaf is large, tender, green, and slightly Uke the leaf of dock. The flower stalks when ungrazed are about three feet or three feet six inches high, and the flower the size of a florin, with a light blue colour. Chicory is a perennial, chiefly grown for its roots, which are dug and ground to mix with coffee. For this purpose the plant is sown in drills and inter-cultivated, but two or three hundred acres is all that the Dominion grows each year. As a pasture plant Chicory produces a rather small amount of feed, which is, however, dis- tinctly palatable. The great virtue of the plant lies in the penetrating power of its tap-root. This grows to a depth of two feet six inches or more, and wiU burst its way straight through the stiffest clays, so that it opens up the subsoil, making its food stuffs and water available to the grasses and other weaker rooted plants. The seed costs about 2s. per pound. Sheep's Burnet {Poterium sanguisorba) . — A perennial with strong tap-root. The leaves are long and consist of many leaflets, 9 to 19 to each leaf. The leaflets are oval and coarsely toothed. When crushed they smell strongly of cucumber. The Fig. 34. — Sheep's Burnet, (after Fream). 64 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. flowers are small, green, and crowded together in a rounded head a good deal like that of the native Piri Piri or bidi-bid. Sheep's Burnet has been recommended for inclusion in pastures, because it provides a certain amount of palatable feed, and because it has a deep penetrating tap-root that will break up the sub-soil. The penetrating power of its root is, hovewer, not great, and stiff clay pans will turn the root so that it runs along the surface of the pan instead of going through it. In this case Burnet has nothing left to recommend it. The seed is large and four winged ; each so called ' ' seed " contains several seeds, so that its germination exceeds 100 per cent. Its cost is about Is. 3d. per pound. KEY FOR IDENTIFICATION OF CLOVER-LIKE PLANTS. [An identification should never be made on a single leaf or stem, but these should be examined from several parts of the same plant, or if possible from different plants. For instructions for using this kind of key see p. 44.] L Plants practically hairless 2 . Plants — stems and leaves hairy 11 2. Creeping stems rooting at the joints 3 Stems upright or spreading, but not rooting 4 3. Leaflets round or heart-shaped White Clover Leaflets long, oval in shape Strawberry Clover 4. Leaflets 5, or 3 and the stipules shaped exactly Uke the leaflets 5 Leaflets 3, and the stipules quite unlike the leaflets 6 KEY TO CLOVER-LIKE PLANTS. 66 5. Spreading stems — growing in dry situations Lotus Corniculatus Almost upright stems — growing in damp and shady places L. Major 6. Stipules transparent and membranous, veined with green, or at mostgreenover lessthan half theirarea 7 Stipules membranous only at tip ; more than half their area leafy green ''\ 8 7. Stalks of the 3 leaflets almost or quite equal in length ; leaflets large, growing in damp places ; stems ascending ; flowers pink Alsike Stalk of terminal leaflet three times as long as stalks of basal leaflets ; leaflets small ; stems ascending ; flowers small and yellow Little Trefoil 8. With dark spot in middle of each leaflet Spotted Burr Clover With no dark spot in middle of each leaflet 9 9. Leaflets large and long, oval in shape ; toothed on edge in upper half, midrib carried on one-tenth inch to one-quarter inch past bases of lower leaflets Lucerne Leaflets heart-shaped or round. Projections of midrib past basal leaflets not nearly so marked^V.10 10. Pods dense black — as big as a wheat grain Black Medick Pods yellowish — as big as a hazel nut and spirally twisted Burr Clover 11. Leaflets 5, or 3 with the stipules shaped exactly hke the leaflets Lotus angustissimus and Lotus hispidos Leaflet 3, with stipules quite unMke leaflets 12 12. Small spike protruding from niche at end of leaflets Black Medick No spike protruding from end of leaflet 13 66 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. 13. Stalk of terminal leaflet three times as long as the stalks of the basal pair ; hairs usually few ; a spreading yellow-flowered annual Little Trefoil Stalks of all leaflets nearly equal in length 14 14. Stipules ending in distinct long points 15 Stipules hairy, but with no long points ; a downy annual with upright stems Crimson Clover 15. Plant downy ; annual ; prostrate stems ; flowers turning into the ground Subterranean Glover Stems upright ; perennial ; flowers purphsh red Red Clover Some of the Clover-like plants are difficult to identify by the leaves alone, and these may vary in a single species in different conditions, or may be practically similar in different species. Thus at 10 in the above key, identification by leaves breaks down, and the characters of the pods have been resorted to. This matters Uttle in the particular case of the annuals described under 10, as in these cases pods are to be found at almost all times that the plants are above ground. The following points may assist in some identifications : Tritolium — Stipules usually membranous and trans- parent over most of their area ; veined or tipped with red, green or purple. Leaflets with stalks practically aU of the same length, except in T. minus, where the terminal leaflet has the longest stalk, and so is distant from the basal pair. Medicago. — Stipules usually green and leaf-like over most or the whole of their area. Leaflets with the terminal one distinct from the basal pair. This is due, not to the extra length of the stalk of KEY TO CLOVER-LIKE PLANTS. 67 the terminal leaflet, but to the fact that the main midrib of the leaf is carried on past the basal leaflets, and to its end the terminal leaflet is joined by a short leaf stalk. Lotus. — The stipules are like leaflets, so that the leaf appears to have five leaflets, the basal pair being sUghtly separated from the upper pair. REFERENCES. Stebler and Schroeter, mentioned at the end of Chapter I., deal as fully with Clovers as with Grasses. Percival's " Agricultural Botany " is again useful, and for botanical descriptions Hooker's " British Flora," or Kirk's Students' " Flora of New Zealand " are convenient for beginners CHAPTER V. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. Animal products are as a rule more highly concentrated and therefore more valuable than vegetable products, so that whUe meat may cost sixpence per pound and butter a shilling, wheat costs less than a penny per pound. In an agricultural country, then, far from its markets, so that the cost of carriage is considerable, animal products are hkely to be the chief form of agricultural produce. Grass is the cheapest form of animal food, so that we might have ex- pected that in New Zealand with its generally abundant rainfall and mild winters, pastures would occupy a very im- portant place. This expectation is borne out to a striking degree in the following figures : — TABLE I. Acreage in grasses and other crops (1910-11): North Island South Island Total Natural Grasses Grasses Surface Sown Grasses Sotto after Ploughing 7,159,558 7,444,191 1,728,356 16,812,678 1,774,324 3,271.860 23,972,236 9,218,515 5,000,216 Total Grasses Total Crops other than Grasses 16,332,105 441,055 21,858,862 1,606 104 38,190,967 2,047,159 Total Land in Occupation ... 16,773.160 23,464,966 40,238.126 The largely preponderating area under grass, and the further consideration that a grass crop is intended to occupy the ground for at least three or four years, makes MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 69 it clear that care in choosing the seed and in sowing the crop is of much more importance than in the case of cereals, or of annual forage crops. In many cases, however, as after bush burns, grass is sown down once for all, and, owing to the unploughable nature of the land no further opportunity will ever occur of renew- ing the pasture ; in this case a right choice of grasses becomes by far the most important problem that the land- holder is confronted with. The dif&culty of making a right choice of grasses is very great ; of two mixtures one may give much more feed than another, but \|owing to the lack of keeping accurate records of the stock carried, definite in- formation for the guidance of other farmers is not available. Even where accurate records are kept the length of time over which the crop remains in the ground makes the information very slowly available. In the cases of cereals, root crops, or ordinary manures, the trials are very simple. The experi- ments are in most cases concluded in a single season, and the product of variety or manurial trials can be accurately weighed. Yet in these cases we have often arrived at no definite conclusion as to what is the best variety of wheat, or oats, or turnips, or what is the best manure to use with these crops, in any particular district. What wonder is it, then, that definite information in the matter of choice of seed and treatment of the land in the case of grasses, is almost entirely lacking. Each district foUows some estab- hshed custom, and there is little doubt that in many cases the most profitable grass is not used. One of the most valuable Hnes of experiment that could be embarked upon would be the sowing down of fields in different districts in different mixtures of grasses, and keeping a record of the stock carried by each plot. The plots, of course, would have to be duplicated to avoid experimental error ; each would have to be separately fenced so as to prevent stock from 70 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. injuring the grasses by over feeding, and the trial would have to be continued for many years. This kind of thing has been done at Ruakura Farm of Instruction in the case of top-dressing pastures, and the results have given informa- tion of the greatest value. Temporary and Permanent Pastures. — Grass seed is sown with the object of producing either a temporary pasture to last from two to six years, or a permanent pasture to last ten years or longer. In the grazing districts, of course, permanent pastures are always aimed at, but in the agri- cultural areas, it is often considered more profitable to sow mixtures that will last only a few years, but which will give a large bulk of rapidly growing palatable feed ; then when the pasture weakens, it is ploughed up, roots or cereals are taken from the land, and a new crop of grass sown. There is little doubt that where mixed farming is possible, this system of short grass leys is the most profitable, though, of course, even here it is advisable to have a certain number of paddocks in permanent pasture, if only because the fields laid down permanently are off one's hands, so that more care and time can be given to securing the best returns from the rest of the farm. The temporary pasture does, if the varieties are wisely selected, give feed that is greater in quantity and higher in nutritive value than would be produced by a permanent pasture during the same season. But a proper selection of grasses to be sown needs consider- able knowledge and experience. The peculiar advantage of a temporary pasture is lost if any slow maturing grasses are sown in the mixture, and the chances of securing a successful permanent pasture are much reduced by the inclusion of any considerable proportion of short-lived grasses. To secure the best results it is necessary to make a sharp distinction between the two types of grass land. This is contrary to the prevailing practice in our agricultural MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 71 areas where it may be stated, with a rough approximation to the truth, that fields are usually laid down in pasture to stay in this condition as long as they will do so, and then they are put in root crops and cereals largely as a preparation for a new grass crop. Therefore the mixtures usually sown are such as will give a high yield of fodder in the first two seasons, and other grasses are included in less amount on the chance that they may establish themselves and so persist for five or six years. It is contended here that this is un- sound practice, that in the first year or two the slow matur- ing grasses are occupying the land unprofitably, and that in the later years, the bare spaces left by the short-Hved grasses are pure waste. A field laid down in : — Italian Rye 6 pounds Perennial Rye 8 Cocksfoot 2 Timothy 6 Meadow Fescue 4 Red Clover 2 White Clover 1 and thus containing long and short-Uved grasses in about equal proportions, was found three years from the date of sowing to contain 39 per cent, of bare land, all the ItaHan Rye and Red Clover, and much of the Perennial Rye having died out. In this field 39 per cent, of the rent and taxes, cost of maintenance, and initial cultivation were all being lost. If no Cocksfoot, Timothy, or Fescue had been sown the pasture would certainly have been ploughed after its second year and a new sole of grass provided for. In the adjacent half of the same field 14 pounds of Cocksfoot were sown and both Rye Grasses were left out, and in this part of the field there were only 16 per cent, of bare spaces. A seed mixture designed to produce the advantages of both tempor- ary and permanent pasture rarely gives economical results. 72 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. The chief weakness of temporary pastures has been pointed out in the preceding paragraph, namely that they tend to become thin and unprofitable before they are ploughed up. This weakness is particularly serious where cows are kept, for the stock loses condition during the Winter so that they are unable to take advantage of the flush of feed provided in the Spring and Summer. If the system of sowing short-lived grasses is to realize its full profit one must keep the plough going hard, as is done specially in some parts of the Waikato, where Italian Rye or Westernwolths is sown definitely for a single season, and then the land reploughed. Sowing Pure or in Mixtures. — The question of sowing grasses pure or in mixtures is one of the greatest im- portance. In Europe and New Zealand the sowing of mixtures more or less elaborate has been the almost universal custom. For instance, in England, for permanent pastures at least a dozen species are sown together, and in many cases in sowing New Zealand bush burn, as many as eight or nine grasses and clovers are mixed. In the United States, on the other hand, grasses are sown practically pure. Both customs have strong and weak points. In mixtures there can be included plants that mature in their first year, and then die out, giving place to the more vigorous growth of the perennial species. There can be included grasses providing a large amount of food early in Spring, and others that come on later in Summer. There can be included strong growing tufted grasses, and others with turf-forming habits to fill the spaces between the tufts. Thus in ideal conditions the pasture will provide feed in all the years of its existence, at all seasons of the year, and the ground will be completely covered. Further, the mixture of grasses and clovers allows for more vigorous growth for each, and at the same time provides more palatable feed for stock. On the other hand pastures laid down on these lines MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 73 require much more careful treatment than our customs favour. If sheep are put on the field in its first year, our almost universal custom, the slower growing grasses are trampled out, and the more palatable ones are eaten out. If on the other hand cattle are put on, the ground being soft becomes poached. Such pastures should be shut up for hay until the ground is firm, then grazed by cattle so that only the rankest grasses are eaten off, and not until the slowest grasses are well established should sheep be put on the land. This treatment is almost impossible under our system of farming, and as a result we lose from our mixtures the grasses slowest to mature, and especially those that are most palatable. The grasses slowest to establish themselves are usually those of permanent habit, and thus the best grasses are lost from the mixture, and after the short-lived grasses are gone, we get a field more or less occupied by bare patches, or inferior grasses, or sundry weeds. This is largely the explanation of the failure of Cocksfoot to establish itself when there is sown say three pounds of Cocksfoot with twenty pounds of Perennial Rye, and of the failure of Prairie Grass to stand stocking. It may be taken as certain that it is waste of money to include a small quantity of a highly palatable grass with a large quantity of one less palatable. Such a field will appear to have plenty of feed, because of the quantity of the less Uked grass present, and so the stock will be left on it, while in reality the more palatable grass is being eaten so bare that it will never recover. It is often the case that the less of a grass there is obvious in a field sown down in a mixture, the better that grass is. Instances of this are common. In a mixture of Chewings Fescue and Cocksfoot the Cocksfoot will be eaten right out and the Chewings Fescue left to occupy the land, or in a mixture of Timothy and Ryegrass the Timothy will be hardly apparent except upon the closest investigation. In fields sown in mixtures 74 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. it is often a wise plan to enclose a patch of land in a triangle of wire netting, say two or three yards on the side, so that the grasses that are growing best may be observed. Where grasses are sown pure none of these difficulties is encountered. Grasses that mature in their first year may be put in one field and those that mature later on in another field ; winter grasses in one field and summer grasses in another, and so on. In fact the mixture of grasses is on the farm, and not in each paddock. The total product of grass will be greater, and the management of each field much easier. It is not meant to suggest by this that one variety should be sown strictly by itself, but that grasses of only one habit should be sown to- gether. For instance Italian Rye and Red Clover might be mixed, but to mix a little Foxtail with a large quantity of Italian Rye would in many cases be to waste the Foxtail. The plan here suggested is of course suitable only to those farms that are divided into suitable paddocks. Whatever may be thought of the relative merits of sowing seeds pure and in mixtures, it cannot be denied that to sow the same mixtures in all classes of ground in any district is unwise. And yet that is an exceedingly common practice. Where land runs from light shingle to heavy swamp in the same district one finds the same mixtures used on both soils. And in surface sowing bush burns the same mixture is often sown on the dry sunny faces and in the dark damp guUies. Much study of the behaviour of the different grasses under different conditions is still needed, and the information we require cannot be obtained until careful experiments are made on the lines suggested earlier in this Chapter. In the meantime it is well to note that the grass that does best on any land is the best grass for that land. This may seem a truism, but it is one whose teaching is often neglected. If the headlands and roadsides run to Cocksfoot or Rye Grass, or Danthonia or Timothy, then that is the grass that wiU succeed best if sown down for permanent pasture. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 75 Cost of Seed. — The cost of grass seed for various mixtures is very often given a place of too much importance in decid- ing upon the mixtures to be used. If one mixture cost 10s. per acre and another cost 20s. per acre, the resultant feed does not need to be double as good in the latter case to pay for the extra expenditure. The cost of clearing or cultivat- ing, the cost of fencing and maintenance, the rents or interest and the rates and taxes remain the same whether a good sole of grass or a bad one is secured. Let us take an instance from agricultural land valued at £30 per acre. There the cost of a crop of grass to last four years is roughly as follows : — i s. d. Rent or interest, 4 years, at 30s. per acre Taxes, rates, etc., 4 years, at 6s. Maintenance — hedges and ditches, etc. at Is. Cultivation and sowing, say* Seed Total Now suppose th& seed cost 20s. instead of 10s. the cost of the crop will be £9 4s., that is an increase under 6 per cent. Thus, though the increased cost of seed is 100 per cent, the increased cost of the crop is only 6 per cent., and it must be a poor selection of grasses that wiU not, for double the money, yield 6 per cent, more feed. It is from this point of view that one should not hesitate to use good varieties, good seed, and sufficient of it, when laying land down to grass even for a short le3,. For permanent pasture the argument is infinitely .nore cogent. Weight of Peed. — Grass seeds vary greatly in the number of seeds that go to a pound as well as in their average germination capacity. Thus the amount of seed required to sow an acre varies greatly also. * Most of the cost of cultivation will be debited against the crop (oats, rape, etc.) with which the grass is sown. 6 10 1 4 4 6 10 £8\|4 76 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. The following table mostly taken from Cockayne (see reference at end of Chapter) gives the approximate number of seeds per pound in the different varieties. This table will be found strikingly different from the tables given in European works, but it is, of course, a record of the character of the seeds that are on the New Zealand market. The figures are only averages, various samples departing greatly from the means here recorded. TABLE II. No. ol Seeds per pound. Average germina- tion % No. of living Seeds per pound. No. of pounds average seed to completely sow 1 acre. Perennial Rye . . . 240,000 80 192,000 28 Italian Rye 270,000 80 216,000 25 Cocksfoot 540,500 70 378,000 16 Dogstail 900 000 75 675,000 10 Timothy 1,100,000 90 990,000 8 Foxtail 650 000 55 357,000 17 Meadow Fescue 220,000 80 176,000 31 Chewings Fescue 540,000 75 405,000 14 Poa pratensis ... 2,000,000 40 800,000 12 Poa trivialis ... 2,400,000 60 1,440,000 7 Creeping Bent... 3,000,000 70 1,750,000 6 Danthonia pilosa 550,000 60 330,000 18 D. semiannulahs 960,000 60 570.000 12 Prairie Grass ... 40,000 90 36,000 40* Paspalum 440,000 25 110,000 54 Red Clover 220,000 90 198,000 27 White Clover ... 650,000 85 552,000 11 Alsike 600,000 90 540,000 12 Birdsfoot Trefoil 800,000 70 560,000 12 ♦Drilled as oats are : 20 lbs. sown first and 20 lbs. cross drilled. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 77 In the last column are given the number of pounds necessary to completely sow an acre with average commercial seed. The figures are based on the quantities of seeds sown in the mixtures commonly used in the country, from which it is found that from five millions to ten millions living seeds are sown per acre. For instance the following are typical mixtures, one of Canterbury fields and one of Auck- land bush burns. TABLE III. Mixture. No. ol Seeds. Mixture. No. of Seeds. Perennial Rye 16 lbs. 3.072,000 Perennial Rye 10 lbs. 1.920.000 Italian Rye 5 lbs. 1.080.000 Italian Rye 4 lbs. 864.000 Red Clover 3 lbs. 594.000 Cocksfoot 8 lbs. 3,024.060 White Clover lib. 552.000 Dogstail 1 lb. Timothy 1 lb. Poa pratensis Jib. Poa trivialis ilb. Red Clover 1 lb. White Clover lib. 675.000 990,000 400,000 720,000 198,000 552,000 Total 25 lbs. 5.298,000 Total 27 lbs. 9,343,000 In the last column of Table II. then, the calculations are based on the assumption that five millions of the large seeds up to 12 millions of the smallest are necessary to sow an acre. The smaller seeds are more easily buried, or their tiny plants more easily destroyed, and thus in practice greater quantities of these seeds are sown than their number to the pound would necessitate. Since these seeds are never sown pure, and since conditions veiry immensely, the figures in the last column are to be taken merely as an indication that in general the quantities of different seeds required for an acre vary greatly, and that certain seeds are much more economical in use than others are. 78 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. The Clifton Park System. — This system of laying land down to temporary pasture was devised by Elliot, for the purpose of renovating or improving dry upland pastures with thin soil and hard clay subsoil, the soil being either naturally poor in organic matter, or impoverished by over much cropping. In New Zealand there are large areas of land with thin soil, poor in humus and underlaid by stiff clays, and it is probable that the apphcation of Elliot's principles may bring these lands within the limits of cultivation and largely increase their productivity. If a soil is poor in humus this may most quickly and cheaply be supplied by growing grasses that produce a thick and bulky turf, which, while they support stock weU during their growth, enrich the land in organic matter when the turf is ploughed under. For this purpose the Rye Grasses, with their shallow root systems on poor land, are quite unsuited, but Cocksfoot is eminently adapted for the purpose. The habits of Phalaris bulbosa suggest that it too would give satisfactory results, but so far as we know it has not yet been used for the purpose here discussed. The supply of organic matter may be further augmented, and the stiff subsoil broken up at the same time, by the use of plants with deep penetrating tap-roots. These not only enrich the surface soil by conveying water and food supplies from the subsoil upwards, but by their bursting action tend to increase the depths to which the tender roots of the grasses may go. Of such plants Chicory is one of the most profitable. It provides a moderate amount of very palatable feed, and its roots, which are bulky, will burst through some of the hardest clays. Lucerne too might well be employed. The extraordinary penetrating power of its roots is well known, and while it is impossible to secure a close crop of lucerne under heavy grazing, yet a few scattered plants will always persist in a pasture, where their strong MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 79 growth is attested by the thickness of the roots seen at the next ploughing. Success nearly always follows the use of these plants on poor soils underlain by clays. When broken out of their present grass they might be put in rape, or turnips followed by rape, and then sown in Cocksfoot, about 15 pounds, Chicory say 5 pounds, and Lucerne 3 pounds, or if it is preferred, the Cocksfoot may be sown quite pure. On a small area it would be worth trying Phalaris bulbosa at say 8 pounds per acre to replace one-third of the Cocksfoot, but this should be tried on a purely experimental scale at present. Two objections are levelled against this plan of grassing, one by those who have tried it and one by those who have not. Some who have tried the plan find that several plants recommended by Elliot are not suitable for New Zealand conditions. This is quite true, since Meadow Fescue does not succeed on light dry soils. Tall Oat Grass is not palatable, and Sheep's Burnet and Kidney Vetch are not capable of penetrating our stiff clay subsoils. While all this is true the method as modified by colonial experience remains of great value, and Cocksfoot, Chicory and Lucerne have proved themselves. The objection made by some who have not tried the system is that the Cocksfoot will not carry sufficient stock to be payable during its first few years. This, as pointed out before, is a pure fallacy, based on observations made on the growth of Cocksfoot when sown in mixtures with Rye Grass. One can say with assurance that Cocksfoot sown pure wiU carry, even in its first year, though not so early in its first year, as much stock or more than the ordinary Rye Grass mixtures, and its superi- ority increases with time. In South Taranaki a field of Cocksfoot sown pure, 15 pounds to the acre, was 18 inches high, and ready to be cut for hay seven months from sowing. At Lincoln a field was laid down in seven plots of about 80 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. two acres each. One plot was almost pure Cocksfoot, 14 pounds per acre, and in its first season both cattle and sheep crowded on to it, so that it carried more than any other plot. It has still, after three years, much the best sole of grass. In another field a bag of Cocksfoot was sown pure by mistake, while most of the paddock was sown in an ordinary mixture. It was never noticed that the Cocksfoot side of the paddock carried less sheep than the other part, and the Cocksfoot side is now, after three years, much the best. In South Canterbury, on light land, 10 acres in a 50 acre field were sown in Cocksfoot pure, with the idea of saving it for seed. From its first to its third year it was estimated that the 10 acres of Cocksfoot carried more sheep than the remaining 40 acres of the paddock, which were sown in a Rye Grass mixture. The ploughing up of the part not in Cocksfoot terminated the experiment. It appears hkely that the adoption of Cocksfoot and deep rooting plants may materially increase the stock carr3dng capacity of much of our poorer lands, and at the same time the soil may be permanently enriched in humus by the ploughing in of a thick turf, and deepened by the opening up of the subsoil. A system promising so great a reward is well worth a trial. Grass Mixtures. — The characters of the various grasses and clovers have been sufficiently described in Chapters I. and IV. From this information may be deduced suitable mixtures for different leys on different classes of land, and it would be much the most satisfactory plan to leave the matter at that, so that each farmer might work out the grass mixture most suitable for his own conditions. For the sake of definiteness, however, there are appended hereto tables showing the mixtures usually employed, and some mixtures suggested for trial. The main differences between these suggested mixtures and those in common use are (1) the GRASS MIXTURES. 81 greater distinction between mixtures intended for temporary and those intended for permanent pastures ; (2) the greater distinction between mixtures intended for different classes of land ; (3) the omission of small quantities of many grasses ; (4) the much greater use of Cocksfoot and the lessened use of Perennial Rye. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that these sugges- tions are merely for generalised conditions, and that in every particular circumstance some modification will almost cer- tainly be necessary. TABLE IV. Grass Mixtures Usually Employed. For 3 to 6 years :- Perennial Rye Italian Rye Cocksfoot Red Clover White Clover 16 pounds per acre o ,, ,, 3 „ 3 ,, >> 2 ., For Permanent Pasture : — On Light to Medium Land. Perennial Rye 12 pounds per acre Italian Rye 4 „ Cocksfoot . 8 „ Dogstail 1 „ Red Clover . 3 „ White Clover . 2 .. 82 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. On Heavy Land. Italian Rye Cocksfoot 4 „ 8 „ Dogstail Timothy Poa pratensis Poa trivialis 1 „ 1 4 „ Red Clover 1 „ White Clover 1 „ TABLE V. Mixtures Suggested for Trial. Notes. — 1 . Medium soils with rainfall of over 40 inches would best be treated as heavy soils. 2. Where a fine tilth has not been obtainable the quantities of seed must be increased proportionately. Climates or seasons unfavourable for working the land may demand an increase of up to 50 per cent, in the quantities indicated below. For 1 year : — Light to Medium Soils. Italian Rye . . 20 pounds per acre Red Clover . . 5 ,, „ Heavy Soils. Italian Rye Red Clover For two or three years : — Light to Medium Soils. ( ItaUan Rye . . 7 pounds per acre \ Perennial Rye ..13 Red Clover .. 3 ,, 20 pounds per acre 5 „ See foot-note on page 84. GRASS MIXTURES. 83 Heavy Soils. * J ' Italian Rye Perennial Rye Timothy Red Clover 3 pounds per acre 10 „ 3 .. For three to six years : — Light and Medium Soils. * i ' Italian Rye Perennial Rye Cocksfoot ^ Red Clover 3 pounds per acre 12 ,. 4 .. Heavy Soils. Italian Rye Perennial Rye Timothy Red Clover Alsike For permanent pastures : — Light Soils. ' Cocksfoot Red Clover Lotus Corniculatus , Dogstail Medium Soils. * - 4 pounds per acre 4 „ 6 „ 3 „ 2 .. 14 pounds per acre 5 „ 3 „ 1 .. f Cocksfoot * \ Red Clover [ Dogstail 14 pounds per acre 5 „ 2 .. * See foot-note on page 84. 84 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. Heavy Soils. Foxtail Cocksfoot Timothy Alsike Perennial Rye Italian Rye 7 pounds per acre 3 „ 3 „ 5 „ 3 „ 3 Heavy and Wet Soils. 'f Timothy . . 3 pounds per acre Foxtail Creeping Bent Alsike Perennial Rye Bush Burns. ■f Perennial Rye ItaUan Rye Cocksfoot Dogstail Poa trivialis Timothy Red Clover White Clover 10 „ 3 „ 5 „ 3 5 pounds per acre 3 10 1 1 1 2 1 With Hard Dry Subsoils. ' Cocksfoot . . 14: pounds per acre Red Clover . . 3 „ I Chicory . . 3 „ Lucerne . . 3 ,, ^Dogstail .. 1 „ * To all mixtures marked thus add one pound White Clover if this has not already been found growing on the land under con- sideration. t The mixtures marked thus may be increased till they are nearly doubled when local conditions demand it. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 85 Testing of Seeds. — When the grass mixture has been decided on, the seed has to be bought. It will be observed that the quantities given in the mixtures are based upon average germination capacity as given in the third column of Table II., p. 76. It is clear from this that the quantities of seed used must be increased or diminished as the germina- tion of the sample falls below or exceeds that stated in the Table. Thus if one determines to use 20 pounds of average Perennial Rye in a mixture and the germination of the sample proves to be 90 per cent., then instead of 20 pounds only 18 pounds of seed are needed, while if the germination of the sample proves to be 70 per cent, then 22 pounds of seed must be used. It is therefore necessary to know the germination percentage of a sample before determining the amount of seed to be sown, and of course the same knowledge is necessary before determining on the sample to be chosen when several samples of different prices are submitted for purchase. This is quite obvious, and yet the testing of seeds for germination capacity is very seldom done. It is not that the trouble is too great, for few farmers would grudge the small amount of time requisite to make so simple a test, but because the buying of seed is usually put off till the field is ready for sowing, and then there is no time to test samples before placing the order. Certain of the higher class of seed merchants in the Dominion, however, are wiUing to certify to the germination capacity of the seeds they sell, and this matter is obviously worth inquiring into. If a merchant will not state the germination percentage of the seed, it is probably not because the seed is extra- ordinarily good. Ten per cent, difference in the germina- tion of a seed means a difference of about one penny per pound in the price of the clovers, and about 6d. per bushel in the price of Rye Grass — a difference that no buyer is wiUing to ignore. When it is stated that samples of certain 86 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. seeds commonly vary by as much as 50 per cent, in the ger- mination capacity, it is clear that this is often the ruling factor in the value of the seed, and appearances count for but little. It cannot be too often emphasised that in sowing grasses to remain down for six to twenty years everything should be done to secure a good start, and a small extra initial outlay is justified a hundred times over if bare patches and an indifferent herbage are thereby avoided. A farmer will studiously avoid sowing shrivelled wheat, or turnip seed reputed to be old — it is very much more important that he should avoid grass seed with a low germination. To test seeds is the simplest of matters. Take a square of cloth or of blotting paper, damp it thoroughly, and lay it on a plate. On this place about 100 seeds, spreading them out slightly. On these place another piece of damp blotting paper or flannel, and cover the whole with an inverted plate to keep the moisture in. The temperature of an ordinary Uving room — about 60 degrees F. — is best for germination, and during the trial the upper plate should be removed for a second or two each day to allow free admission of air, and the escape of foul gases generated when the plates fit too closely. Certain grasses germinate better in the light than in the dark, for example Poa pratensis, and for these the following plan is perhaps the easiest : Take a piece of porous roofing tile, lay it on the flat, and immerse it for half its depth in a dish of water. On the tile spread out the seeds which will then need no further attention than to keep the water in the dish replenished as it evaporates. This plan is really easier than that of the blotting paper, if only a piece of porous earthenware is available. The above methods of seed testing are quite good enough for common use. The best results, however, are obtained when blotting paper is used between glass dishes, and this method must be adopted for accurate determinations. The MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 87 time required for complete germination of various farm seeds is shown in the following table, though of course the greater proportion of good seed will have germinated in about half the time noted below : — TABLE VI. Maximum Period Required for Germination OF Farm Seeds. Cereals, Clovers, Turnips, Rape, etc. . . 10 days Mangels, Rye Grass, Timothy, Cocksfoot, Agrostis, and Meadow Fescue . . 14 „ For Grasses not mentioned above or below . . 21 ,, Poa trivialis and Poa pratensis . . 28 „ In many samples of Clovers certain seeds will be found faihng to germinate though they have remained perfectly firm and hard. These seeds will germinate in the soil, and in estimating the germination capacity of such samples, the number of hard seeds is usually divided by three, and the number thus obtained added to the seeds that have actually germinated. Methods of Sowing. — For surface sowing of bush burns, etc., a broadcasting machine carried strapped to the shoulders is usually employed. The "fiddle" a special broadcasting machine, is also often used, and either of these devices gives a more even distribution of the seed than does broadcasting by hand ; when the hand method is adopted the seed is usually carried in the bottom half of a sack, the top half of one side of which has been cut away. A sUt is made in the remaining top half, and through this sht the head is thrust, so that the bag hangs on the shoulders and leaves both hands free for sowing. 88 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. In arable areas grass seed is usually sown from special grass seed sowers. The box containing the seed is frequently mounted on a special machine in which case the seed falls between boards that hang to within a few inches of the ground. Between the boards are numberless httle pegs so that the seed becomes thoroughly distributed in its passage downward, and leaves the boards so close to the surface of the land that it has httle chance of being scattered irregularly by the wind. These machines are drawn by one horse and sow a width of about 15 feet at a stroke. Perhaps more frequently the grass seed box is made to fit on to a grain drill or even a roller, and then the seed has to fall some distance through the air before it reaches the land and is often blown about by the wind. A grain driU itself with the tubes lead- ing to the coulters detached, and the coulters hooked up, can be used with fairly satisfactory results. Of course in all these methods the width sown at a stroke is governed by the width of the implement to which the seed box is attached. The question of the kind of surface to have on the land before and after the sowing of the seed is one that leads to much argument. Whether the soil should be loose or rolled before the seed is sown, or loose or rolled after the seed is sown are both matters that are open to question. Certain facts are clear. (1) Grass seed sown by the plants themselves are not covered at all, but merely lie on the surface, or are covered at most by a few fallen leaves. Grass seeds then are suited for germination with the slightest covering, and that they will do this is proved by the success of surface sowing. (2) As a corollary to this it may be taken for granted that grass seed sown deep wiU not germinate, or at least will not produce plants. In a trial in this matter Timothy seed was sown on the surface, and at depths of quarter of an inch, one inch, and two inches. The rows on the surface and at quarter of an inch grew perfectly, while the rows sown MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 89 at depths of one inch and two inches did not produce a single plant that reached the surface. (3) When grass seed is sown by falling from the plants themselves and germinates thus, it is lying on a firm surface in which the moisture from the soil below rises to the surface. If it lies on a loose surface it wiU not be moistened from below, will dry up after every shower, and so will perish. A good example of this is often seen when the seed sown on a harrowed field strikes much best in the horses' hoof marks. (4) When grass seed is sown on a loose or harrowed surface and then harrowed in, a large number of seeds must fall and be shaken through the crevices in the soU to the depths of one inch or more. This is specially true with the smaller and more compact seeds such as Timothy, and the quantity of seed thus lost must be very great. It is for this reason that in computing the numbers for the last column in Table II., double as many seeds per acre were allowed for the grasses with small seeds easily buried, as for those with large seeds that are unlikely to fall below germinating depth. It would thus seem that an ideal condition for sowing grass seed would be to finish the cultivation of the field by rolling, then sow the seed, and then cover it as lightly as possible. If the land were finished with the Cambridge roUer the seed would tend to fall into the little ridges formed by the roller, and if then a brush harrow consisting of a few boughs were dragged over the land the ridges would be rubbed down to fill the hollows. No seed would be lost through burying, it would receive moisture from below and so would germinate. It would be covered from birds, and the light powdering of soil above it would tend to reduce to some extent loss of water by evaporation. In certain districts, however, where heavy rains usually follow seeding time, and where the land cakes badly, this plan of sowing after the roller is inadvisable. In such a case the 90 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. heavy rolling might be succeeded by a light harrowing, then the seed, then the brush harrows. By these means we shall approach most nearly Nature's method of sowing her seeds. Time of Sowing. — As a general rule Autumn is the best time for sowing grasses. Surface sowing after burns must, of course, be done in Autumn, and on arable land also, the following considerations point to Autumn as being the best time. (1) If the sowing is postponed till Spring it is often so late before one can get on to the land with horses, owing to the Winter rains, that sowing has to be put off till unduly late. (2) If the young grass is wanted in Spring as is usually the case, it must be sown in Autumn. (3) In Autumn the nitrates so essential to vigorous growth of grass are in their maximum quantity in the soil, having being formed by the soil bacteria during the Summer warmth. In Spring the soil nitrates are at their minimum, production having ceased during the Winter cold, and all those formed during the preceding Summer having been washed out by the Winter rains. Where grass is sown alone as a special crop it is usually sown in Autumn, and the earlier the better, the determining factor in most districts being the presence of sufficient moisture in the soil to secure germination. If sown at the end of February or early in March it may often be fed off before Winter. On arable land most of the grass is sown down with oats in Autumn, broadcasting the grass after drilling the oats, and this usually gives a fair strike, though of course it is less likely to succeed than if the grass were sown alone. Occasionally the grass starts well, and then if a dry Summer supervenes, dies away because all the available moisture is seized on by the oats. Occasionally grass is sown with wheat in Autumn, but this is rare. For Spring sowing several methods are used. (1) The grass may be sown alone in September, or as soon as the land is dry enough. (21 It may be sown with barley. (3) It MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 91 may be sown on top of wheat that has just been fed off, and then the seed harrowed in. Neither of methods (2) and (3) has much to recommend it. (4) It is very often sown at the same time as rape is drilled. There is one very distinct advantage in this method in districts that are affected with grass grub. For the cultivation in October kills all the brittle pupae that are in the soil, and the sheep are on the rape in December, so that the beetles will not lay their eggs in the new sown grass. Thus at least one season of grass free from grub is assured. Of course the frequent lack of moisture in October, and the excessive trampUng of the young grass while the sheep are on the rape are dis- advantages of this time of sowing, but these are in certain districts quite overbalanced by the probability of immunity from attack by grub. (5) Grass is also occasionally sown with turnips — chiefly in those districts where white turnips are grown on the flat. Where there is a sufficient rainfall in Midsummer and Autumn, and where cereals are not grown, sowing with turnips often gives the best results. Improvement of Native Pastures. — The improvement of native pastures in the North Island is chiefly a matter of manuring and so does not come within the scope of this little book. The native pastures that occur so widely in the South Island are almost entirely unimproved. Their carrying capacity is about one sheep to three acres, and has not materially changed in the last 45 years. The reasons for this state of things are threefold. (1) The native pasture is held in largeblocksrunningfrom 10,000 acres to 100,000 acres. (2) The tenure of the land is almost entirely that of short leaseholds with revaluations at the end of the period, so that a run-holder hesitates to effect improvements for which he is Ukely to be fined in the shape of increased rentals. (3) The attempts at improving the pastures that have been made in the past have often failed and have still more often appeared to fail. 92 PASTURE PLANTS AND PASTURES OF N.Z. The land that has been occupied but unimproved for 50 or 60 years is of course not of the best quality, and the best sole of grass cannot be expected to grow upon it. Profitable results are obtained if the carrying capacity is increased by an amount that more than pays for the cost of labour and material. Yet one often sees back country ploughing condemned because the resultant pasture is poor, or thin, or obscured by sorrel. It, however, cannot be doubted that the poorest of improved pastures is often superior in carry- ing capacity to unimproved tussock. On the tussock there appears to be ample feed, where in reahty there is very little, owing to the unpalatability of the tussock and the associated plants. Where attempts at improving tussock really do fail is where weed grasses, such as Sweet Vernal, take possession of the ploughed land. This result probably foUows the sowing of short-lived grasses such as the Rye Grasses for permanent pasture. Cocksfoot in liberal proportions — 12 to 14 pounds per acre, with one pound each of Crested Dogstail and Poa pratensis is the type of mixture required, so that a close andpermanent turf may be formed. Of course ploughing, working and seeding on such a scale does not look profitable for the poor land we are considering, but it has many more chances of being profitable than has the plan of ploughing, and then saving a small expense by sowing unsuitable grasses that soon die out, that admit the ingress of worthless weeds and that need ploughing again in a few years' time. There is much of the tussock land of the South Island, however, that is stony, or too steep or poor to pay for ploughing, and which yet can be improved. The introduc- tion of Danthonia pilosa by the means suggested on p. 27. is well worth considering, but should not be resorted to until the following plan has been tried. Broadcast Cocksfoot over the tussocks in as great quantities as convenient, say MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. 93 6 to 8 pounds per acre. Then grub with a heavy, spring-tined cultivator so as to shake down the seed and loosen the sur- face soil, but not destroy the tussocks. Then, if possible, drive large mobs of sheep over the land thus treated so as to press in the seed, and when the Cocksfoot has germinated give it a good chance to become firmly rooted before turning sheep on to graze it. If Cocksfoot does not succeed, Poa pratensis or Creeping Bent almost surely wiU, but Cocksfoot should be tried first. No runholder can have noted the heavily grazed weed grasses by roadsides or sheep camps without being convinced that the carrying capacity of the flatter parts of his run could be doubled if an economical way of estabUshing such grasses could be found. Burning and surface sowing fail because of the thin covering of ashes, and because of the exposure to drought while the young plants are establishing them- selves. The light cultivation and the preservation of the sheltering tussock here suggested are very hopeful means of avoiding these difficulties. REFERENCES. Grass mixtures for New Zealand have been dealt ■with in recent years chiefly by Cockayne and the Author. Cockayne's articles are in the " Journal, N.Z. Department of Agriculture " in various places. Among others are Bush burns. Vol. viii., No. 3 ; Surface sown grasses. Vol. xiv.. No. 3 ; Paspalum, Vol. xv. No. 6, and special reference is due to "Transactions N.Z. Institute," Vol. 48, for an article on Tussock lands. The Author's papers are mostly in the Magazine of the Canterbury Agricultural College, and Cocksfoot especially is dealt with in the Journal, Canterbury A. and P. Association for I9i6and 1917. [Since this work has been in the Press Cockayne has published a series of articles on " The Grass Lands of New Zealand " in " The Journal of Agriculture," N.Z. Department of Agriculture, March and following numbers, 19 18]. INDEX Achillea millefolium, 62-63. Acreage in grasses, etc., 68. Agropynim repens, 30, 32-34, 46. ,, scabrum, 42. Agrostis alba, 20-22, 34. Aira caryophyllea, 37. Alopecums pratensis, 19-20. Alsike, 55, 65. Annual Poa, 39-40. Anthoxanthum odoratum, 35-36. Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 27-28. Auckland Province — Microlaana in, 27. Paspalum dilatatum in, 2 4. Subterranean clover in, 57. Avena bulbosa, 34-35. Banks Peninsula, 8. Barley, 49. Barley grass, 38, 46. Barren Brome, 38, 46. Bermuda grass, 40. Birds-foot Trefoil, 60-61. Black Medick, 58, 65 Blue Tussock, 42. Blue Wheat Grass, 43. Bromus hordaceus, 37. ,, sterilis, 38. ,, unioloides, 18-19. Brown Top, 20-22. Bucnanan, 30, 42. Burr Clover, 59, 65. Bush Burns, sowing of, 69, 72, 77, 93. Californian Thistle, 55. Canada, supplies Alsike seed, 55. Canary Grass, 28-29. Canterbury Poot Hills, 22. Cape Weed, 42. Cat's Ear, 42. Chewing, Mr., 17. Chewings Fescue, 16-18, 26, 31, ^7, 48. Chicory, 63. Cichorium intybus, 63. Clovers, etc., 50-61. Clover Seeds illustrated, 43. Clifton Park system, 9, 78-80. Cockayne, A. H., 29, 41, 76, 93. Cockayne, Dr. L., 33. Cocksfoot, 5, 6-8, 14, 24, 29, 48, 71, 73, 79. Colonial Hair Grass, 37. Cost of seed, 75. Couch Grass, 31. Coumarin, 36. Cow Grass, 53. Creeping Bent, 6, 20-22, 31, 47, 48. Creeping Fog, 34, 46. Crested Dogstail, 13-14, 47. Crimson Clover, 57, 66. Cynodon dactylon, 40-41. Cynosunis cristatus, 13-14. Dactylis glomerata, 6. Danthonia, 17, 31, 41, 45. ,, pilosa, 25, 27. raoulii, 42. , , semiannularig, 2 5-27. Devonshire Evergreen, 10. Dogstail, 8, 13-14, 24. English Plair Grass, 37. English Trefoil, 58. Ergot, 33. Festuca bromoides, 37. elatior, 16. novae zealandiae, 41, pratensis, 14-15. saburicola, 16-18, 34. Fiorin, 20-22. Floating Sweet Grass, 38-39, 46, INDEX 95 Foxtail, 9, 24, 48, 55, 74. French Rye Grass, 28. G-ermination of Seeds, 76, 87. Giant Italian Eye, 11. Glyeeria fluitans, 38, 39. Goose Grass, 36-37, 46. Grass Mixtures, 72, 80-84. Hair grass, 37, 48. Hard Fescue, 48. Hill, W. S., 19. Holcus lanatus, 35. ,, mollis, 34. Hordeum murinum, 38. Hypochaeris, 42. Indiau Doab, 40-41. Italian Eye, 9, 10-11, 37, 47, 71, 72. Kentucky Blue Grass, 22-24. Key to tile identification of Common Grasses, 44-49. Key to the identification of Clover- like plants, 64-67. Kidney Vetch, 61. Lawn Grass, 17. Legruminosre, 51, 62. Limestone Soils, 58. Lincoln, 79. Little Trefoil, 55-56, 65, 66. Lolium italicum, 10-11. ,, perenne, 8-10. Lotus, 67. ,, angustissimus, 60-61, 65. ,, corniculatus, 60-61, 65. hispidus, 60-61, 65. ,, major, 60-61, 65. Lucerne, 50, 57, 65. Marlborough, 39. Meadow Fescue, 14-15, 47. Meadow Foxtail, 19-20, 36. Medicago, 66. ,, denticulata, 59. ,, maculata, 59. Methods of sowing, 87-90. Microlffina, 26, 27, 45. ,, stipoides, 27, 41. Mixtures of grasses, 72, 80-84. Meumahaki Experimental Farm, 19. Native grasses, 41, 42. ,, Pastures, Improvement of, 91-98. Non-Such Clover, 58. Oats, 49. Onion Twitch, 34, 46. Onobrychis vicisefolia, 59-60. Pastures, Management of, 68-93. Pasture Grasses, 5-29. Pacey's Eye grass, 10. Palme.rston North, 14. Paspalum dilatatum, 24-25, 35, 45, 48. Perennialized Italian Eye, 11. Perennial Rye, 7, 8-10, 32, 47, 73. Permanent Pastures, 70, 81-82, 83-84. Phalaris bulbosa, 28-29, 47, 78, 79. Phleum pratense, 12-13. Poa annua, 31, 39, 48. caespitoBa, 41. Colensoi, 42. ,, pratensis, 22-24, 31, 34, 47, 48. ,, trivialis, 24. Poterium sanguisorba, 63-64. Poverty Bay Rye Seed, 10. Prairie Grass, 5, 18-19, 45, 73. Ratstail, 39-40. Bed Clover, 10, 52-53, 57, 66. Rice Grass, 27. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 24. Ruakura Farm of Instruction, 70. Rust in Perennial Eye, 9. Eye Grasses, 6, 8, 35, 71. Sainfoin, 59-60. Seeds illustrated, 43. Sheep's Burnet, 63-64. Sheep's Fescue, 16, 48. Silver Tussock, 41. Smut, 19. Snow Grass, 42. Soft Brome, 36. Southland, 17. Sporobolus indicus, 39-40. Spotted Burr Clover, 59, 65. Strawberry Clover, 56, 64. 96 INDEX Subterranean Clover, 56-57, 66. Suckling Clover, 55-56. Sweet "Vernal Grass, 35-36, 45. Tall Fescue, 16, 47. Tall Oat Grass, 27-28, 34, 46, 49. Taranaki, Cocksfoot in, 79. ,, Poa trivialis in, 24. Temporary Pastures, 70, 72, 82. Testing of Seeds, 85-87. Time of Sowing, 90-91. Timothy, 9, 12-13, 35, 47, 55, 71. Top-dressing Pastures, 70. Trifolium, 66. fragiferum, 56. hybridum, 55. incamatum, 57. minus, 31, 55-56, 66. pratense, 52-53, Trifolium pratense perenne, 53. ,, repens, 54-55. ,, subterraneum, 56-57. Tuss-ck, 41, 42. Twitches, 6, 21, 22-24, 31, 32, 62. Victoria, supplies Paspalum dila- tatum seed, 25. Volunteer grasses, 31, 56, 59. Waikato, Italian Eye in, 72. Waipu Brown Top, 21. Weed Grasses, 31-41. Weight of Seed, 75-77. Westemwolth's Rye, 11, 72. Wheat, 49. White Clover, 54-55, 64. Yarrow, 62-63, Yorkshire Fog, 34, 35, 46. Printed by Whitcorabe & Tombs Limited. G32530 Wright, Stephenson &C' Limited Grain, Seed & General Merchants Stock and Station Agents CHRISTCHURCH HEAD OFFICE; DUNEDIN And at INVEHCARGILL, GORE, BALFOUR, EDENDALE, KELSO, BALCLUTHA, OAMARU, ASHBURTON. PICTON, BLENHEIM, WELLINGTON,MASTERTON,WANGANUI, AUCKLAND & LONDON LONDON OFFICE; 31 Walbrook, E.C. SEEDS of guaranteed quality, bought direct from the producer and specially selected for our farmer clients. MANURES for any crop and every soil. Our Manures are recog- nised money-makers. Special analysis of your soil can be made, and manure prepared, when required. WOOL Our up-to-date methods of handling this department of our business have been favourably commented upon by growers and buyers alike. We ask those who have not yet given us a trial, to do so during the coming season. LAND We are the best farm salesmen. Always in touch with Farmers, we know their requirements. Buyers and sellers are assured special attention in this Department. Our success in the sale of landed property is well- known. LIVE STOCK Auction sales are conducted by us in various centres. Clients can rely on having their Stock drafted and displayed in a manner that will command highest prices. We watch your interests all the time. For all Farm Requirements consult Wright, Stephenson ® Co. Ltd. Produce Big Results OUR Cocksfoot, Perennial Ryegrass, Italian Ryegrass, Timothy, Western Wolth's, White Clover, Cow- (Jrass, and Fescue are purchased direct from the pro- ducers. The best lines are selected and dressed in our own store. Here the latest and most approved grass-seed machinery is in operation. Weeds and rubbish are elimin- ated. The seeds are tested by the Government Biologist for germinatiorv and purity, and the lines of higest quality are then reserved for sale to our farmer clients. As "Challenge" Seeds are controlled from the producer to the ultimate buyer, we know the history of the Seeds we offer you. After many years of patient effort in building up this trade, we have now secured the farmers' confidence, and intend to hold it. "Challenge" Seeds stand for quality, germination and purity. For your own protection see that every bag is branded . . . " CHALLENGE " Wright, Otephenson & Co. Limited CHRISTCHURCH And at Dunedin, Invercargill, Gore, Balfour, Edendale, Kelso, Balclutha, Oamaru, Ashburton, Picton, Blenheim, Wellington, Masterton, Wanganui, Auckland '3? London. A RELIABLE DIP with a world - wide sale To keep your flocks absolutely free from parasites, to strengthen the growth and increase the weight of the fleece, you cannot do better than dip with Lawes' Sheep Dips. All vermin will be destroyed and re- infection by ticks or lice prevented. The use of Lawes' Dips ensures a beautiful lustrous appearance and softness to the touch Lawes' Sheep Dip Means Better Prices for your Wool Lawes' Powder Dip Lawes' Non-Poisonous Fluid Dip Lawes' Poisonous Fluid Dip Lawes' Paste Dip Feed your Soil and .. Reap Big Crops .. EVERY crop taken off the soil reduces its agricultural value. Unless the necessary elements are replaced in the soil, your future crops will be thin and stunted. Our "Challenge" Manures are sold under Guaranteed Analysis as supplied to the Minister of Agriculture, under "The Fertilisers Act." 1908. We manufacture a manure for every purpose. Read this list and send us a note of your requirements: Turnip Manures Grain Manures Rape Manures Rape and Grass Manures Potato Manures Bone Manures Superphosphate Basic Super Guano Use "Challenge" Manures and benefit by bigger and better crops, not once, but every year. We prepare Manures to suit all soils. Wright, Stephenson & Co. Limited CHRISTCHURCH, and allsBranches. 'Challenge" Manures for Results. A Swede that is Disease Resisting AT a time when the pests and diseases of farm crops ■'^ are becoming an ever-growing menace, the qualities of certain varieties of Swedes with regard to disease-resistance should receive serious attention. For this reason the marked resistance of Carton's "Superlative" Swede is of the utmost importance to every Farmer. It was the resistance of Carton's "Superlative" Swede to Club Root, or Finger and Toe, that first brought it under prominent notice. The discovery was made at the Moun\ahaki State Farm. It has been borne out by experience at the Ruakura Farm and in the chief root-growing districts of the Dominion. This opinion speaks for itself. Mr. Gillanders, late Manager of the Moumahaki State Farm, states — " Again the same two varieties turned out to be largely resistant, more especially the "Superlative," which showed little or no sign of being attacked by the malady, while many of the other varieties were completely destroyed. For three seasons the " Superlative " has resisted the disease." Carton's "Superlative" Swede is unquestionably the most popular Swede grown in New Zealand. Yields up to 80 tons per acre have been obtained. Chief Agents for New Zealand : Wright, Stephenson ® Co. Ltd. 198 Cashel Street, Christchurch, and all Branches. The Heaviest Cropper is Carton's " Hardy Green Globe " THIS Turnip is a great favourite with Farmers through- out New Zealand. It is admirably suited for the climatic conditions of this country, and thrives in any part of the Dominion. Experiments prove that Carton's Hardy Green Globe is the heaviest cropper of all white fleshed turnips. One farmer advises that no turnip in his paddock weighed less than 16 pounds. This turnip keeps in perfectly sound condition for many months, and is a great favourite with cattle. Chief Agents for New Zealand : Wright, Stephenson 32 Co. Ltd. CHRISTCHURCH And at Dunedin, Invercargill, Gore, Balfour, Edendale, Kelso, Balclutha, Oamaru, Ashburton, Picton, Blenheim, Wellington, Masterton, Wanganui, Auckland, and London Crop of Garten's "Hardy Green Globe" grown by Mr. Peter Short, West Plains. Farmers ! ! Be up-to-date and simplify your method of Book-keeping. Save Time, Labour 8i. Worry by investing in one of our . . . F armers Account Books The Sheep Farmers' Account Book - 20/- The General Farmers' Account Book - 9/6 The Smaller Farmers' Financial Position Book 7/6 The Dairy Farmers' Account Book - 12/6 The Sheep Farmers' Wages Ledger - 20/- The above Account Books supply a simple Book-keeping method for every Farmer. WHITCOMBE 'S TOMBS Ltd. Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin and Wellington BOTANY FOR NEW ZEALAND READERS L Cockayn,' Ph.D., F.fl.S Rain Forest (kauri). North Auckland. By p. NEVE, M.A., LL.B., B.Sc. Second edition, revised. Illustrated by half-tones and numerous admirable line drawings. 269 pages. Price 4/- WHITCOMBE ® TOMBS LTD. Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin and Wellington New Zealand Practical • • Handbooks "yhis is an entirely new series of cheap and popular handbooks on a great variety of .subjects, written by practical experts for the practical mian. Two books of the series are now on sale, and others will be ready shortly. . ^^ Vegetable Growing in New Zealand Illustrated. Price 1/6. Postage 2d. extra. (2) Pasture Plants and Pastures of New Zealand Illustrated. Price 2/6. Postage 3d. eztm. Succeeding titles are : Flower Gardening in New Zealand, Fruit Growing in New Zealand, Soils and Manures in New Zealand, Farm Crops, Farmers' Foes, Farm Practice, Dairy Farming, Sheep Farming, Potato Growing, Cattle Farming, Poultry Farming. Order (rem your Bookicller or tb Publishers WHITCOMBE & TOMBS LTD.	The Clover
Whom did Estelle Morris replace as Secretary of State for Education?	Free Flashcards about GK 11 Whose album was 1959's "Time Out"? The Dave Brubeck Quartet What was the signature tune of The Dave Brubeck Orchestra? Take Five Who released the 1957 album "Birth Of The Cool"? Miles Davis Who released the 1958 album "Lady In Satin"? Billie Holliday Called the "The Musical Pope", "El Rey de los Timbales" and "The King of Latin Music", which Mambo musician and Latin jazz composer lived 1923-2000? Tito Puente How was the Latin jazz musician Francisco 'Frank' Grillo better known? Machito "The Moon and the Melodies", "Blue Bell Knoll" and "Heaven or Las Vegas" were albums by who? The Cocteau Twins Whose album was 1990's "En-Tact"? The Shamen Paco Rabanne was born in which country? Spain In which year was the Battle of Spion Kop? 1900 Which gauge bosons carry gravity? Gravitons Moldoveanu, Romanian's highest peak, lies in which range? Fagaras Mountains The grand-daughter of Victoria, who was the spouse of King Ferdinand I of Romania? Marie of Romania In which year was Thomas A Becket murdered? 1170 In which decade was the Empire State Building completed? 1930s Who was the Czechoslovak leader at the time of the 'Prague Spring' of 1968? Dubcek Which spy did Potter and Randle help to escape from Wormwood Scrubs in 1966? George Blake Which river once formed the northern border of Mercia? Mersey In which US state is Camp David? Maryland Which place in East Sussex derives its name from the French phrase 'Beau Chef'? Beachy Head Which capital city has a name meaning 'Sleeping place'? Manama Which country's name means 'Two Seas'? Bahrain What is the name of the compulsory morning prayer of Islam? Fajr What is the name of the compulsory midday prayer of Islam? Dhuhr/Zuhr What is the name of the oldest-known Arabic script, derived from Nabataean? Kufic Which country worldwide has immigrants comprising the greatest percentage of its population? UAE Which civilisation was based in Bahrain from about the 4th Millennium BCE and 538BCE? Dilmun What connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron? Soo Canals (Sault St Marie) Repoussage is the working of malleable metal from the back to create low relief - what is the opposite, where the metal is worked from the front to create a depression? Chasing Which city was the traditional coronation site of Kings of France? Rheims Derived from the Latin word "vitulinum" meaning "made from calf", what name is given to parchment made of animal skin? Vellum Which technique, similar to glazing, uses instead a coating that is opaque, and is just painted on very thinly to allow bits of the paint below to shine through? Scumbling Which style of syncopated piano music was coined in 1995 by modern ragtime composer David Thomas Roberts - the term is also an Early Renaissance art term? Terra verde Who wrote one of the earliest works described as Surrealist, the play "The Breasts of Tiresias" (1917)? Guillaume Apollinaire Which art movement, focused on basic geometric forms, such as circles, squares, lines, and rectangles, painted in a limited range of colors, was founded by Kazimir Malevich in Russia, around 1913? Suprematism Which humanist scholar was the first person to develop the concept of the "Dark Ages"? Petrarch Who wrote the poem "Locksley Hall"? Tennyson Who wrote 1850's "The Stones Of Venice"? Ruskin Gradgrind appears in which Dickens work? Hard Times Which author also wrote "The Shortest Way With Dissenters"? Defoe Who wrote "Casa Guidi Windows"? Elizabeth Barrett Browning Which Pope (reigned 1088-99) led the appeal to join the First Crusade? Urban II Leuthen was a battle in which war? Seven Years' War Jimmu was the probably-legendary first Emperor of which country? Japan How is the first Australopithecus Afarensis specimen to be discovered better known? 'Lucy' Which German town of about 11,000 inhabitants in the district of Helmstedt, Lower Saxony is famous for four ancient wooden spears found in an opencast mine, the world's oldest human-made wooden artifacts, as well as the oldest weapons, ever found? Schoningen In which country was King Carlos of Spain born? Italy Who succeeded Hussein as King of Jordan in 1999? Abdullah II In which year was the US Declaration of Independence? 1776 What was the nickname of the 11th Hussars of the British Army? Cherrypickers In which county was Alfred the Great born? Oxfordshire Which American bought London Bridge, and took it to Arizona? Robert McCulloch In which year was Chicago's St Valentine's Day Massacre? 1929 Who wrote the play "A Man For All Seasons"? Robert Bolt Who is the main character in play "A Man For All Seasons"? Thomas More Which Irish author wrote the novel "Brooklyn"? Colm Toibin Rosalind is a character in which of Shakespeare's plays? As You Like It Who wrote the book upon which the TV series "Band Of Brothers" was based? Stephen E. Ambrose Who wrote the poem "Upon Westminster Bridge"? Wordsworth In which year did Charles Dickens die? 1870 Who wrote "The Heart Of The Matter"? Graham Greene Who is the hero of "The Heart Of The Matter"? Harry Scobie AR Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) was active in which field? (Social) Anthropology Which area of Athens is home to several socialist, anarchist, and antifascist groups, and was the site of the shooting of 15 year old Alexandros Grigoropoulos, an event that triggered riots in 2008? Exarcheia Which is the largest of the San Juan Islands in Washington state, USA? Orcas Island Who was the first composer to be created a British life peer? Britten Which musical features the song "Adelaide"? Guys and Dolls Which musical features the songs "Ain't Got No - I Got Life" and "Aquarius"? Hair Which musical features the song "As Long As He Needs Me"? Oliver Which chemical element takes its name from the German for "copper devil"? Nickel Which silicate mineral's name takes its name from Greek for "untouchable"? Asbestos "GLU" is the abbreviation for which amino acid? Glutamic Acid Which letter is the most recent addition to our alphabet? J What does "hic jacit" mean? Here lies What is the highest layer of the ionosphere? F Layer (Appleton Layer) How many sides does an enheadecagon have? Nineteen The phylum porifera consists of which creatures? Sponges Which duck is also known as a 'grey mallard'? Gadwall Which duck, that lives in the UK, has a sawbill, eats fish and nests in holes in trees? Goosander, common merganser The char belongs to which family of fish? Salmon A tetrakaidecagon has how many sides? 14 Which business people use "Glass's Guide"? Car dealers What name links a UK butterfly & a UK fish? Grayling Which chemical element is called 'wassertoff' in German? Hydrogen Alpha particles are doubly ionised particles of which element? Helium What is a Brazilian tanager? Bird What is a Deadly Nightshade also called? Belladonna Conkers come from which tree? Horse Chestnut Which Italian nuclear physicist gives his name to both an element and subatomic particles? Enrico Fermi In what year was the QE2's maiden voyage? 1969 What is the more common name for a "foul marten"? Polecat Which letter is represented by a single dash in Morse? T Which acid is made in "the contact process"? Sulphuric Which conifer sheds, in the family Pinaceae, its leaves its winter? Larch What part of a car's carburettor reduces the air supply? Choke What shape is the piston in a Wankel engine? Triangular What does the computing term WORM stand for? Write Once Read Many Which zodiac sign is the first air sign of the calendar year? Aquarius Which layer of atmosphere lies between the troposphere and mesosphere? Stratosphere How many bits are in a byte? Eight What is the name given to a hook or tail ( ¸ ) added under certain letters as a diacritical mark to modify their pronunciation, usually 'c', as in the word garçon? Cedilla What was the name of the power station that is now the home of the Tate Modern Gallery in London? Bankside Which children's author's works - she sold over 600 million books - did the BBC refuse to broadcast from the 1930s until the 1950s because they were perceived to lack literary merit? Enid Blyton Whose autobiography was "Every Other Inch A Lady"? Beatrice Lillie Give a year in the life of Arab scientist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher Alhazen. 965-1040CE Tylos was the Greek name for which island country, famed for its pearls? Bahrain What was the name used, from 1820 to 1971, for a group of sheikhdoms in the south eastern Persian Gulf, previously known to the British as the 'Pirate Coast', which were signatories to treaties with the British government? Trucial States Give a year in the rule of Frederick the Great, Frederick II of Prussia? 1740-86 Who (1729-86) was the German Jewish philosopher - whose descendants include a famed composer - to whose ideas the Haskalah, the 'Jewish enlightenment' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is indebted? Moses Mendelssohn Which Enlightement German writer, philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic's works included plays "Miss Sara Simpson", "Philotas" and "Nathan The Wise", and the book about drama "Hamburgische Dramaturgie"? Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Fed by the Rivers Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse, which estuary is one of the UK's largest? The Wash Which King of England succeeded Richard I? John Which company were responsible for the Bhopal chemical disaster? Union Carbide In 1984, which US trumpeter became the first man to win Grammys in Jazz and Classical Music in the same year? Wynton Marsalis Which Russian composer, and member of 'The Five' was a professor of chemistry? Borodin In the popular song, who rode to glory at the throttle of the Cannonball Express? Casey Jones The song "Sailing" by Rod Stewart appeared on which, aptly named, album? Atlantic Crossing Dom Bernando Vincelli is credited with creating which drink in 1510? Bendictine How is French pianist Philippe Pagès better known? Richard Clayderman Which composer died aged just 31 in 1828, officially of typhoid, although it may have been syphilis? Franz Schubert Give a year in which Robert Walpole was Prime Minister. 1721-42 Which French king, owing to control of SE England, styled himself "King Of England" from 1216 to 1217? Louis VIII Which treaty of 1259 conceded King John and King Henry III's loss of French territory? Treaty of Paris 'Rzeczespopolita' is an archaic or formal term for the territory controlled by which nation? Poland Which famous horse race takes place in the Piazza del Campo in Siena? Palio "Childe Harold" is an epic poem written by who? Byron In which year was Queen Elizabeth II's consort, Prince Philip, born? 1921 Which Italian scholar & humanist was responsible for rediscovering and recovering a great number of classical Latin manuscripts, mostly forgotten in monastic libraries - his most famous find was De rerum natura, the only surviving work by Lucretius? Poggio Bracciolini In which century was the Dominican monastic order founded? 1200s Members of the Dominican order generally carry which two letters after their names? O.P. Sir Rodney Ffing features in which Carry On movie? Don't Lose Your Head Which Bond film's plot centres around a stolen Faberge egg? Octopussy Which three films earned William Wyler Academy Awards for Best Director? Ben-Hur (1959), The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), and Mrs. Miniver (1942) Which CBS News Anchorman broke the news of JFK's assassination to the US nation, was often cited as "the most trusted man in America" after being so named in an opinion poll? Walter Kronkite Who both wrote and produced the music for the film "Brief Encounter"? Noel Coward Which Goon said, as one of many catchphrases: "You dirty rotten swine - you have deaded me"? Bluebottle Which three actresses played "The Witches of Eastwick"? Cher, Susan Sarandon and Michelle Pfeiffer Which character was played by Catherine Ross in the film "The Graduate"? Elaine Robinson Who created both Mr Benn and King Rollo for BBC TV? David McKee Which British sitcom starring Richard O'Sullivan co-starred Tessa Wyatt and David Kelly as a one-armed Irish kitchen hand who always broke more crockery than he cleaned? Robin's Nest What name is given to a watering-hole in the Australian outback, usually an isolated pond left behind after a river changes course? Billabong The Seychelles are chiefly composed of what mineral or rock, believed to be among the oldest and hardest examples of it in the world? Granite Which chain of Japanese islands stretches southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan? Ryukyu Islands Which Parisian island lies almost adjacent to the Ile De La Cite? Ile St-Louis Which island, best known for various theories about possible buried treasure or historical artifacts, lies off the South shore of Nova Scotia, in Lunenburg County? Oak Island The former penal colony of Devil's Island is now part of which country or territory? French Guiana Andreanof, Fox, Near and Rat are four of the islands in which archipelago? Aleutian Paxos, Ithaca and Zante are all part of which Greek island group? Ionian Bougainville Island belongs to which nation? Papua New Guinea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico together comprise what? Greater Antilles The Alexander Archipelago are part of which US state? Alaska Bimini, renowned for good fishing, is the westernmost district of which island group? Bahamas Which is the most heavily-touristed of the Ionian Islands? Corfu Which island was once a possession of the UK, and Denmark, but has been German since 1890? Heligoland Marinique, Dominica and Grenada are all part of which island group? Windward New Britain and New Ireland are part of which archipelago? Bismarck Archipelago What is the capital of Vanuatu? Port Vila Diego Garcia is part of which larger archipelago? Chagos Archipelago Desolación Island is an island at the western end of which strait? Strait of Magellan Djerba is an island off the coast of, and belonging to, which country? Tunisia Fatu Hiva, Hiva oa and Nuku Niva are all islands in which group? Marquesas (French Polynesia) The Bismarck Archipelago is part of which country? Papua New Guinea Which equally-famous man replaced Tycho Brahe as imperial mathematician to Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1601? Johannes Kepler Stefan Zweig committed suicide in which country? Brazil What was the pen name of Dr. Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches? Louis-Ferdinand Céline Which Austrian prodigy, a novelist, librettist, poet, dramatist, narrator, and essayist wrote libretti for many of Richard Strauss' works, and the 1911 play 'Jedermann'? Hugo von Hofmannsthal Who wrote 1940's Darkness at Noon, an anti-totalitarian work that gained him international fame? Arthur Koestler Ben Ainslie won silver at the 1996 Olympic Games and gold in the 2000 Summer Olympics in which yachting class? Laser What name is given to wedge-shaped monumental towers, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India? Gopuram Which jockey rode Nijinsky to the Triple Crown in 1970? Lester Piggott Which three races comprise the UK Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing? St Leger, 2000 Guineas, Epsom Derby Which golfer won the first World Matchplay Championship in 1964? Arnold Palmer The Chiefs are a professional rugby union team from which country? South Africa At age eighteen which future Heavyweight World Champion was disqualified for passivity at the Helsinki 1952 Summer Olympics? Ingemar Johansson Which cricketer, the spearhead of England's bowling attack through much of the 1990s, took 229 wickets in his 58 Test matches, including taking the 23rd hat-trick in Test cricket against Australia at Sydney in 1999? Darren Gough In which country did the first rulebook for the card game Bridge originate? England/UK In which country did Baccarat originate? France Which former footballer's real first names were Sulzeer Jeremiah? Sol Campbell What is Emile Heskey's middle name? Ivanhoe What is the name of Pittsburgh's NHL team? Pittsburgh Penguins What is the name of St Louis' NHL team? St Louis Blues Who said that sport "was like war minus the shooting"? George Orwell The Green Monster is a wall around which baseball stadium's outfield? Fenway Park For whom did Toby Flood play between 2008 and 2014? Leicester Tigers Which former European and Commonwealth Games champion athlete set a UK record for the 400m with a time of 44.36 seconds in Birmingham in 1997? Iwan Thomas Sugar Ray Leonard lost 3 fights in his career - to Roberto Duran, Terry Norris and who else? Hector Camacho At which athletics event did Britain's Chris Brasher win 1956 Olympic gold? Steeplechase In which year did Steffi Graf win her 7th and last Wimbledon singles title? 1996 In American Football, how many points are scored for a touchdown? Six The entrance to which UK racecourse lies near the entrance to the Channel Tunnel? Folkestone The iconic 1961 photograph - entitled Double Standard - was taken by which Hollywood actor (1936-2010)? Dennis Hopper Which Soviet leader was seen fighting with Ronald Reagan in the infamous music video accompanying the song Two Tribes? Konstantin Chernenko Named for the 1st Marquess of Pombal, who was instrumental in rebuilding the city in the mid 18th century, Baixa Pombalina is the name given to the famous planned central district of which European city? Lisbon The Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt was ended in the 17th century BC with the crowning of Salitis, the king of which people, expert archers and charioteers from Western Asia who had taken over the eastern Nile Delta? They ruled Egypt for around 100 years. Hyksos In the popular American television series The Mentalist, the titular character is attempting to track down the killer of his wife and children. The serial killer is referred to throughout the show by what nickname? Red John Which franchised fast-food restaurant brand based in Denver, Colorado, is the second-largest submarine sandwich shop chain in North America, after Subway? Quiznos What is the alphanumeric name of the 5,800 km long A-road which connects Cork in the west with Omsk in the east? E30 In June 2015, which Russian cosmonaut became the man who has spent the most time in space when he surpassed Sergei Krikalev's record of 803 days? Gennady Padalka Flowing through the city of Hangzhou, which river - which formed the southern terminus of the ancient Grand Canal - is home to the world's largest tidal bore? Qiantang Although looking very cactus-like, the African milk barrel is a member of which genus of flowering plants? Although many of the genus's species look rather cactus like, the best-known member of the genus is the uncactus-like poinsettia. Euphorbia From the Greek for 'divination by hand' what is another name for a palm reader? Chiromancer Which is the largest of the flatfish? (Pacific) Halibut Until split in 2006, what was the national air carrier of Brazil? Varig In computing, what is ADSL? Asynchronous Digital Stream Link What is the mobile communication interface 'Bluetooth' named after? A 10thC Danish king In which decade was the Highway Code first published? 1930s What colour are copper sulphate crystals? Blue Which introduced animal, one of the largest in the Outback, has an Australian feral population of over 500,000? Camel Which yellow flower, of the genus Taraxacum, is used in French salads? Dandelion In which year was the longitude problem solved? 1773 Which man is generally credited with solving the longitude problem? John Harrison Which British businessman and, as of 2015, the Chairman of the Arcadia Group, unsuccessfully bid for M&S in 2004? Philip Green What is the organisation TAMBA concerned with? Twins and multiple births What is the family name of the Dukes of Westminister? Grosvenor In total, how many letters and numbers make up a UK National Insurance number? Nine An isohelm is a line on a map drawn between places of equal what? Sunshine duration What two word term is used to describe the continual flow of charged particles from the Sun? Solar Wind Stilted and lanced are both forms of which architectural feature? Arch What name is given to a deliberately fattened and castrated cockerel? Capon Which unit of measurement is exactly equal to the Sun-Earth distance? An AU (Astronomical Unit) In which English county is Stonehenge? Wiltshire Maiden Castle, the UK's largest Iron Age hillfort, is located 2.5km SW of which town? Dorchester Middleham Castle, a favourite of King Richard III, lies in which English county? North Yorkshire The area of Queens in New York City is named after which queen? Catherine of Braganza On which road is the London branch of the Imperial War Museum? Lambeth Road Which English pier, built in 1859, was the first to be built solely for pleasure? Southport In the SW USA, which Spanish word refers to a dry creek, stream bed or gulch that temporarily or seasonally fills and flows after sufficient rain? Arroyo On which ship did Amundsen set sail on his trip to become the first man to the South Pole? Fram Which animal appears on a Victoria Cross? Lion In which Canadian province is Whistler? British Columbia In which year was the first English county cricket championship? 1890 In the 2009 Brazilian Grand Prix, in which position in the race did Jenson Button finish in order to clinch the drivers' World Championship? 5th Which man bowled the first ball in test cricket? B Alfred Shaw The 19th Century Australian cricket bowler Fred Spofforth had what nickname? The Demon In which paper was the obituary that led to the creation of "The Ashes" created? The Sporting Times As of 2010, how many British F1 World Champions had there been? Ten Who holds a unique place in cricket history as the only cricketer to have played for Australia and England in Test Matches against each other? Billy Midwinter Who was the first cricketer to play 100 Test matches, celebrating the occasion with a century against Australia in 1968? Colin Cowdrey Which man took 19 wickets in a 1956 Old Trafford Ashes Test? Laker Which Australian cricketer who played eight Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1929 and 1931, a contemporary of Don Bradman, died aged 23 of TB? Archie Jackson The Nigel Barton Plays are two semi-autobiographical television dramas, and were the first successful works by which screenwriter? Dennis Potter Pieter Bruegel the Elder was a member of the artistic 'school' named after which city? Antwerp What name is given to the technique of wall decor, from the Latin for 'to scratch', produced by applying layers of plaster tinted in contrasting colours to a moistened surface? Sgraffito What general name is given to an altarpiece that has more than 3 panels? Polyptych Which man coined the art term 'Gothic'? Vasari In formal painting, what is a 'cartoon'? Preliminary sketch for a painting Louis Leroy coined the initially derisive term "impressionism" in which French satirical newspaper? Le Charivari Which art critic invented the term "pop art"? Lawrence Alloway Aouda is an Indian widow in which classic novel? Verne's "Around The World In 80 Days" In which classic novel is Kostoglotov the central character? Cancer Ward Who wrote the children's novel "The Borrowers"? Mary Norton Which artist painted "The Last Of England"? Ford Madox Brown Charles Ryder is the central character in which classic novel? Brideshead Revisited Who wrote the play "The Shadow of A Gunman"? Sean O'Casey Who wrote the poem "A Tocatta of Galuppi's"? Robert Browning Which work by Charles Lyell, written in 1830, was the early standard work in his scientific field? Principles of Geology About which fictional Hall did Tennyson write a celebrated work in 1835, although it was not published until 1842? Locksley Hall What is the correct term for the dot above a small letter 'i'? Tittle In fiction, which character is adopted by Mr Brownlow? Oliver Twist Blacksmith Joe Gargary features in which novel? Great Expectations Which man was the leader of victorious forces at the Battle of Actium? Augustus/Octavian The combined forces of which two historical figures were decisively defeated at the Battle of Actium? Marc Antony and Cleopatra Who was the last of the Julio-Claudian Roman Emperors? Nero Which battle thought to have occurred in the 5th or 6th century when Britons beat Anglo-Saxons, is chiefly known today for the supposed involvement of King Arthur, a tradition that first appeared in the 9th Century 'Historia Brittonum'? Battle of Mount Badon Attila the Hun was defeated in 451 at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (or Fields; or Battle of Châlons) by combined forces of Romans and which tribe? Visigoths (under Theodoric I) Who both founded Canterbury Cathedral, in 597AD, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury? Augustine of Canterbury (not to be confused with Augustine of Hippo) The Islamic calendar starts in 622AD, which marks what? The date of the Hejira, or flight from Mecca to Medina Which Ecclesiastical council affirmed the date of Easter, when King Oswiu of Northumbria ruled that his kingdom would calculate Easter according to the customs of Rome, rather than the customs practised by Irish monks at Iona and its satellites? Synod of Whitby Nebuchadnezzar II, who sacked Jerusalem in 586BCE, was a leader of which Empire? (Neo-)Babylonian Offa, after whom the eponymous dyke is named, was a king of which country or region? Mercia In economics and trade, what is the TTIP? Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership In which century did Dick Whittington die? 15th (1423) In which decade was the first Guinness Book of Records published? 1950s The Land Rover Defender was first launched in which decade? 1940s (1948) The flag of Honduras predominantly features which two colours? Blue and white Modern historians regard him as the first King of England and one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings - who consolidated power in 937 at the Battle of Brunanburh? Æthelstan What is South Africa's executive capital? Pretoria What is South Africa's legislative capital? Cape Town What is South Africa's judicial capital? Bloemfontein Which American socialist philosopher and advocate of various left-wing and civil liberties causes was the Chairman of National Council of American-Soviet Friendship starting from the early 1940s but wrote "Why I Am Not a Communist" in 1952? Corliss Lamont In Greek myth, how many Argonauts were there? Fifty In Teutonic myth, Ymir was the father of which race? The Giants What was the mythical Norse home of the Gods? Asgard In Greek myth, who turned items invisible merely by touching them, was the son of Hermes, and possessed a helmet that made himself invisible? Autolycus In Greek myth, who was Jason's wife? Medea Tiffin is served, traditionally, at which meal time? Lunch Which famous composer had a patron who was a widow that he was not allowed to meet, called Nadezhda von Meck? Tchaikovsky Who was the original drummer for The Beatles from 1960 to 1962? Pete Best How many strings does a balalaika have? Three In Greek myth, which married couple were turned into kingfishers by the gods? Alcyone (halcyon) and Ceyx What is the formula of nitrous oxide? N2O Alsike or triflorum hybridum is more commonly known by what name? Clover Where do demersal animals live? Seabed Which Swiss group helping those with terminal illness and severe physical and mental illnesses to die was founded in 1998 by Ludwig Minelli? Dignitas In which month is US Labor Day? September Linn, MartinLogan and Krell make what? Hi-fi systems In law, which one-word term means 'related by marriage'? Affinity In which year was the £1 coin introduced in the UK? 1983 Zenith and Ulysse Nardin are companies that make what? Watches Ring, open and box are all types of what implement? Spanner Who immediately preceded Ted Hughes as Poet Laureate? John Betjeman Which author, who wrote classics for both adults and children, died on Samoa on 3rd December 1894? Robert Louis Stevenson An Anglo-Saxon who cared for the animals at the double monastery of Streonæshalch (Whitby Abbey) during the abbacy (657–680) of St. Hilda (614–680), who was the first English poet whose name is known? Caedmon Which US poet's (October 14, 1894 – September 3, 1962), works sometimes did not contain punctuation - his name is sometimes spelled without capitals or punctuation itself? E.E. Cummings (ee cummings) "Ragged Dick" is a typical rags-to-riches story by which once-popular and prolific 19th-century American author? Horatio Alger Jr Which Russian author was subjected to a mock execution in December 1849? Fyodor Dostoyevsky Which English physician is best known for publishing "The Family Shakspeare", such an expurgated version that his name has become a verb meaning "to remove material that is considered improper, with the result that the text becomes weaker"? Thomas Bowdler Who wrote the famous phrase "Ou Sont Les Neiges D'Antan"? François Villon Who painted "The Menin Road", "Dead Sea" and "Battle of Britain"? Paul Nash Who painted "Resurrection Cookham" and "Swan Upping"? Stanley Spencer Which Scottish portraitist (13 October 1713 – 10 August 1784) painted both Rousseau and David Hume? Allan Ramsay Christine Ann Wellington OBE is a former four-time World Champion at which sporting discipline? Ironman Triathlon At which weight did Marvin Hagler fight? Middleweight What was Marvin Hagler's nickname, that he actually later added to his real name by deed poll? Marvellous The family of Naseem Hamed - both parents - hailed from which country? Yemen What was the nickname of Audley Harrison? A-Force Which Japanese boxer was an undisputed flyweight and bantamweight boxer in the 1960s? Masahiko Harada "Fighting Harada" Which horse won the UK Triple Crown in 1918? Gainsborough Who did Prince Naseem Hamed beat in 1995 to win the WBO Featherweight crown? Steve Robinson Against which Mexican boxer did Prince Naseem Hamed achieve unification of the Featherweight World Title in October 1999? Cesar Soto Born in La Place, Louisiana, in 1886, which jazz pioneer's recording of "Society Blues" in LA in 1922 is considered by some to be the first recording by a black New Orleans jazz band? Kid Ory "Black And Tan Fantasy" is a 1927 jazz composition best associated with which jazz performer? Duke Ellington When he left Chicago in 1924 for New York, Louis Armstrong played for the orchestra ked by which pianist, bandleader, arranger and composer, important in the development of big band jazz and swing music? Fletcher 'Smack' Henderson Nicknamed The Empress of the Blues, which woman (April 15, 1894 – September 26, 1937) was the most popular blues singer of the 1920s and 1930s? Bessie Smith Which blues singer was born Gertrude Malissa Nix Pridgett? Ma Rainey What was the forename of jazz pianist "Jelly Roll" Morton? Ferdinand What was the forename of jazz player "Bix" Beiderbecke? Leon With which instrument was "Bix" Beiderbecke most associated? Cornet What was the real forename of jazz cornettist "Red" Nichols? Ernest Which clarinettist and band leader (May 30, 1909 – June 13, 1986) was known as the "King Of The Swing"? Benny Goodman Guarino (1374 – December 14, 1460) a scholar who translated Greek in the Renaissance, and thus uncovered many works previously forgotten, was best known by which sobriquet, from his town of birth? Guarino Da Verona Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, and described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation, which Roman Catholic ecumenical council was held between 1545 and 1563? Council of Trent To the nearest whole day, how long is a cycle of the Moon? 29 days The most recent Pope to date to take his papal name, which pontiff was involved in a controversy with Galileo and his theory on heliocentrism? Urban VIII The Accademia dei Lincei in Rome is an Italian academy specialising in which field? Science Which German-born humanist wrote "De Arte Cabbalistica" in 1517, in which he did much to introduce Kabbalistic theory to Christian Europe? Johann Reuchlin Which Biblical character, later prominent in Gnosticism,and viewed by Irenaeus as the source of all heresies, first appears in Acts 8.9-24? Simon Magus The towns of Kassel and Buxtehude in Germany both bill themselves as the world capital of what kind of literature? Fairy Tales Which goddess developed a cult after the Sibylline oracle recommended her conscription as a key religious component in Rome's successful second war against Carthage? Cybele Before he was ordained a priest, he also wrote a quantity of mildly pornographic poetry as well as a novel in much the same vein, but this didn't stop him becoming Pope from 1458-1464 and authoring the famous "Commentaries" - who? Pope Pius II Who became the coach of the Australian cricket team in 2013, taking over from Mickey Arthur? Darren Lehmann Which former Indian Cricket Captain was nicknamed The Wall, was the first man to score a century in all 10 Test-playing countries, and in 2012 claimed the record for most Test catches by a non wicketkeeper? Rahul Dravid Who founded the IPL (Indian Premier League) of T20 Cricket in 2007? Lalit Modi Which cricketer controversially bowled underarm in a match between Australia and New Zealand in 1981, an incident which led to condemnation from the NZ Prime Minister? Greg Chappell Which cricketer had a short-lived spell as captain of the one-day team from June 2007 to August 2008 - he his retirement from Test cricket in January 2011? Paul Collingwood Which former manager of Blackpool and Leeds United has a brother that was the coach of Essex County Cricket team for 8 years? Simon Grayson One of 8 founding members of the IPL, which team represents Mumbai? Mumbai Indians One of 8 founding members of the IPL, which team represents Delhi? Delhi Daredevils Which IPL team did Andrew 'Freddie' Flintoff represent briefly in 2009? Chennai Super Kings Who was England's Test Cricket Captain from 1977 to 1980 and then again in 1981? Mike Brearley Who played Test cricket for England from 1975 to 1995 - he also scored a List A cricket tally of 22,211 runs? Graham Gooch Who took 325 wickets for England between 1971 and 1984? Bob Willis Which two fences are jumped only once in the Grand National? The Chair and The Water Jump Which footballer famously initiated the "rocking baby" celebration after a goal at the 1994 World Cup? Bebeto Who captained the Australian cricket team to 1981 Ashes defeat? Kim Hughes Which county did legendary cricketer WG Grace play for? Gloucestershire In 2002 Warwickshire were the last county cricket team to win which trophy? Benson & Hedges Cup Who was the first England football player to be sent off while playing for the national team at Wembley? Paul Scholes Which footballer made his England debut in 1999 after just eleven first team starts? Wes Brown Tessenjutsu is a martial art based around the use of what? A fan Whose 2006 album was "Alright, Still"? Lily Allen Who composed aria "O Mia Babbino Caro"? Puccini Who directed the video for Blur's 1995 "Country House" video? Damien Hirst General Miltiades the Younger helped mastermind which victory for the Greeks against the Persians? Marathon Who commanded the American Expeditionary Force in WW1? Pershing Which part of the UK did the Romans call Sarnia? Guernsey Which city in England did the Romans call 'Corinum'? Cirencester In the judiciary, which position is immediately below Lord Chief Justice? Master of the Rolls Which rank lies between Baron and Earl? Viscount In which county is Billericay? Essex What was the original name of Camp David? Shangri-La Which city is nicknamed "The Athens of America"? Boston The Tank Museum was opened in 1947 in which UK town? Bovington, Dorset In which country is there an area called "Arnhem Land"? Australia Which Turkish UNESCO World Heritage Site was once the capital of the Hittite Empire? Hattusha Which islands were seized by the USA from Spain in 1898? Philippines Bruges is the capital of which Belgian region? West Flanders On which island group is the Ring of Brogar? Orkneys What is the name of the lantern that sits in the clock tower of the Palace of Westminister? Ayrton Light Which Australian highway bisects the Red Centre, running from Darwin, Northern Territory, in the north, via Tennant Creek and Alice Springs, to Port Augusta, South Australia, in the south? Stuart Highway Who was the first actor to be knighted? Henry Irving Which comedian used to say "Allo - I won't take me coat off, I'm not stopping"? Ken Platt Which 1950s radio show was a sitcom about a ventriloquist? Educating Archie Who directed The Miracle Of Morgan's Creek, The Power and the Glory and The Great McGinty? Preston Sturges Apart from "One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest", for which other film did Milos Forman win a Best Director Academy Award? Amadeus Which planet are Dr Who's Daleks from? Skaro Catherine Deneuve played "Tristana" in a 1970 film by which Spanish director? Luis Buñuel Who was the second lead actor with Jim Carrey in "Dumb and Dumber"? Jeff Bridges In which breakthrough 1970 film did Jack Nicholson play Robert Dupea? Five Easy Pieces Which producer won a Best Documentary Academy Award for "Woodstock"? Bob Maurice Who played Batman in "Batman Begins" and "The Dark Knight"? Christian Bale Pierce Brosnan, Colin Firth and who else were the three men who were the possible fathers in "Mamma Mia"? Stellan Skarsgard Who played Annie Oakley in 1950s "Annie Get Your Gun!"? Betty Hutton Who won an Oscar playing the butler in "Arthur"? John Gielgud In the Dudley Moore film what was "Arthur"'s surname? Bach In which 1962 film does a confidence trickster set up a marching band? The Music Man "Wart" is the hero of which 1963 Disney film? The Sword In The Stone What was the profession of Hale and Pace before they became "comedians"? PE Teachers Who played Olive in "On The Buses"? Anna Karen What was the dismembered hand in the Addams Family called? Thing "Gloags" were popular early examples of what? Cigarettes What offspring is produced by a mare and a male ass? Mule An RC Circuit consists of which two components? Resistor, Capacitor What is a female donkey called? Jenny What does the computing term 'DAT' stand for? Digital Audio Transport Who invented the railway air brake? George Westinghouse Which American was the first of only three people to fly to the Moon twice, the only one to have flown there twice without making a landing, and was also the first person to fly in space four times? Jim Lovell What were the four ancient 'bodily humors', as suggested by Galen, among others? Black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, blood Which Italian fashion designer is regarded as one of the most prominent figures in fashion between the two World Wars, and invented the term 'shocking pink'? Elsa Schiaparelli What was invented by James Bonsack in 1880? Cigarette-rolling machine What is detected by Marsh's Test? Arsenic Who wrote 'A History of British Birds', and had a species of swan named after him? Thomas Bewick What was the name given to a steam locomotive with a 4-4-2 configuration? Atlantic Which perfume base is produced from sperm whales? Ambergris What are the alternative names for a lapwing? Green plover, peewit In botany, how is antirrhinum also known? Snapdragon The 'cranesbill' belongs to which plant family? Geranium Which is the largest turtle species? Leatherback Which vegetable has varieties called "Tender & True", "Exhibition" and "Avon Resistor"? Parsnip What was the first name of car maker, Mr Bentley? Walter From which country did the British take control of Guyana in 1814? Netherlands From 1912 to 1927 Libya was a colony of which country? Italy What name is given to the system where the first-born child inherits everything? Primogeniture Which Saxon system saw the estates of the deceased divided equally between sons? Gavelkind What is the name of traditional Russian dumplings consisting of a filling wrapped in thin, unleavened dough? Pelmeni Who wrote "Prisoner of the Caucasus"? Pushkin In which country is the famous Cricova wine area? Moldova "Smoke Gets In Your Eyes" and "The Great Pretender" were originally hits for who? The Platters Who recorded the song "Be-Bop-A-Lula" in 1956? Gene Vincent and his Blue Caps Abundant in Wales, what name is given to a variety of sandstone generally characterized by its hardness, dark color, and poorly sorted angular grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments or lithic fragments set in a compact, clay-fine matrix? Greywacke The bulk of the New Testament consists of whose letters? Paul The Achaemenid Dynasty ruled where between 550BCE and 330BCE? Persia Which Italian astronomer and Jesuit is known, among other things, for his experiments with pendulums, for his discussion of 126 arguments concerning the motion of the Earth, and for introducing the current scheme of lunar nomenclature? Giovanni Riccioli Attalus I Soter ("Savior") ruled over which Greek polis from from 241 BC to 197 BC and founded the Attalid dynasty? Pergamon Which three countries took part in the 1949-52 Antarctic expedition? Norway, Britain, Sweden With which God was the Egyptian Pharaoh traditionally identified? Horus Who were the primordial Egyptian gods of the Earth and Sky? Geb and Nut Which ancient port city's ruins are now located at Ras Shamra, Syria? Ugarit Famed for his loss to Hercules during that demigod's 12 Labours, which God of Greek and Berber origin was the half-giant son of Poseidon and Gaia, and married to the goddess Tinge? Antaeus Centred on the upper Tigris river, which important Mesopotamian empire spanned the mid to early Bronze Age until its collapse around the Iron Age, between 612 BC and 599 BC? Assyrian Empire In which year was William Wallace executed? 1305 Give a year in the reign of Edward II of England, 1307-1327 Which woman was famously the mistress of Edward III, having met him originally in her capacity as a lady-in-waiting to Edward's consort, Philippa of Hainault? Alice Perrers At which 1328 treaty did Edward III sign over Scotland's independence? Treaty of Northampton William Merlee of Oxford was one of the first men to attempt to do what on a scientific basis? Weather forecasting 'Staples' were concerned with the medieval assessment of which commodity? Wool On 17 October 1346, the English defeated the Scots where? Neville's Cross Which battle of the Hundred Years War occurred on 19 September 1356? Poitiers Who is the Patron Saint of the Order of the Garter? St George Which English king was nicknamed "Longshanks"? Edward I Which chemical element takes its name from the Greek for 'hidden'? Krypton What did Eli Whitney invent in 1793? Cotton Gin What is an oribi? An antelope What is the name given to the seed-bearing part of a flower, consisting of the ovary, stigma and style? Pistil What is a petronel? A gun (a rifle) In meteorology, what is the name given to a warm front overtaken by a cold front moving rapidly round a low pressure centre? Occluded front What name is given, in meteorology, to a system of winds blowing round an area of high pressure? Anticyclone Which is both the heaviest and softest of the common metals? Lead Which was the first all-metal, iron-hulled battleship, launched in 1860? HMS Warrior Who used the slogan "one day all watches will be made this way"? Seiko Which museum is located at 111 South Michigan Avenue in the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District? Art Institute of Chicago Who painted both "Self Portrait with A Pug" and "The Roast Beef Of Old England"? William Hogarth In which village was the artist John Constable born? East Bergholt, Suffolk In which Norfolk village was Lord Nelson born? Burnham Thorpe Who wrote the art treatise "Analysis of Beauty" in 1753? William Hogarth Give a year in the life of Joshua Reynolds. 1723-1792 In a famous painting, which married woman did Joshua Reynolds depict as "the tragic muse"? Sarah Siddons In which building is Joshua Reynolds buried? St Paul's Cathedral Who was Al Gore's running mate in the 2000 US Presidential Election? Joe Lieberman Which controversial private American military company and security consulting firm was renamed "Xe Services" in 2009, and "Academi" in 2011? Blackwater What is the meaning of 'yokozuna', the highest rank in sumo? Horizontal rope Later superseded by 'electrons', what term did JJ Thomson use to describe the negatively charged sub-atomic particles discovered during his study of cathode rays? Corpuscles Which philosopher wrote "Liberty In The Age Of Terror"? AC Grayling Who gave the 'Tamworth Manifesto' speech in 1834? Sir Robert Peel In the Tamworth Manifesto, what was described as a 'final and irrevocable settlement, which no friend to peace would attempt to disturb'? 1832 Great Reform Act Meissner's corpuscles are spring-like nerve endings found in which organ of the body? Skin Which British scientist published his corpuscular theory of light in 1704? Newton Which lake in Ethiopia is the source of the Blue Nile? Lake Tana Which 1976 earthquake that measured 7.8 on the Richter scale killed at least 255,000 residents in the city for which it is named, in Hebei Province, China? Tangshan What was George Eliot's first full-length novel, published in 1859, and featuring the character Hetty Sorrel? Adam Bede How many Ivy League universities are there? Eight Which is the oldest of the Ivy league universities, founded in 1636? Harvard Founded in 1865, which is the newest of the Ivy League universities? Cornell In which Booker-prize winning novel do the title characters become involved in a wager to transport a glass church into the Australian bush? Oscar and Lucinda (Carey) Who directed the 1982 film "Fitzcarraldo"? Werner Herzog Based on a novel of 1950, which Henri-Georges Clouzet film concerns an attempt to transport nitroglycerine by jeep across South America? The Wages Of Fear Which discrete probability distribution takes the value 1 with probability p, and the value 0 with probability 1 minus p? Bernoulli Distribution Which continuous probability distribution is obtained as a limit of binomial distributions as n tends to infinity but p does not tend to 0? Normal distribution The first successful version of what device was built by Theodore Maiman in Malibu in 1960? LASER What name is given to rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit regular beams of electromagnetic radiation, usually at radio frequencies? Pulsars What is the literal translation, from the German, of the name of the musical instrument the flugelhorn? Wing horn In astrophysics, what term is used to describe highly red-shifted active galactic nuclei surrounding a supermassive black hole? Quasars Named after a Welsh physicist, what devices are used in a large integrated circuit to speed the passage of signals by electron tunnelling? Josephson Junctions What is the common name of songbirds of the genus motacilla? British species include the yellow, grey and pied. Wagtail Which Austrian physicist gives his name to an illusion of 1866 consisting of an ambiguous line drawing of a folded sheet of paper? Ernst Mach (Mach bands or Mach effect) What nationality was Joseph Jastrow, a psychologist with an interest in optical illusions? Polish Whose first sociological work was "The Division of Labour in Society" (1893) although he is perhaps best known for his 1897 monograph "Suicide"? Emile Durkheim Which is the easternmost of the lesser Antilles? Barbados Which poet wrote "L'Invitation Au Voyage"? Baudelaire Which novel, a classic of the 20th century, was part-written in each of Trieste, Zurich and Paris? Ulysses (James Joyce) Which US band, formed in Michigan, are known as The Saboteurs in Australia? The Raconteurs Joe Zawinul was best known for performing on which instrument? Keyboard What nationality was the composer Joe Zawinul? Austrian What is comprised of two parts gin, one part lemon juice, sugar, syrup and carbonated water? Tom Collins Who (November 14, 1900 – December 2, 1990) was known as "The Dean of American Composer"? Aaron Copland Captain Vere features in which opera? Billy Budd Which opera is set in 16th century Mantua and features the titular hero's daughter Gilda? Rigoletto Rusalka, with music written in 1900, first performed in 1901, is probably the best known opera by who? Dvorak Give a year in the life of Vivaldi. 1678-1741 What name is given to a person who writes down music on behalf of a composer? Amanuensis Humans usually have how many milk teeth? Twenty Which botanical term, coined by de Necker in 1790, refers to the structures, usually green, that typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom? Sepals What are furbelows and dabberlocks examples of? Seaweeds Which pest is known by the Latin name musca domestica? Housefly Candlemas, Martinmas and Lammas are three of the Scottish quarter days - which is the other? Whitsunday Who laid out the laws of geometry in his book "Elements" circa 300BCE? Euclid Which word means both 'the right to vote in elections' and 'the right to trade using someone else's copyrighted name'? Franchise In which town was John Bunyan born? Bedford What is the blue variety of corundum called? Sapphire Which Imperial measure is equal to 550 foot pounds per second? One horsepower How is the actress born Caryn Elaine Johnson on November 13, 1955 best known? Whoopi Goldberg Which comic actor played Baron Von Richthofen in Blackadder Goes Forth? Ade Edmondson Who narrated the children's TV show "Roobarb" often (incorrectly) known as "Roobarb and Custard"? Richard Briers Which former Neighbours star has won an Emmy, and appeared in films such as The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, L.A. Confidential, Memento, The Count of Monte Cristo, The Road, The King's Speech, Prometheus, and Iron Man 3? Guy Pearce Who took over from Michael Aspel as Antiques Roadshow presenter in 2008? Fiona Bruce Which former model from Andover, Hampshire is reknowned for a March 2008 attack when sulphuric acid was thrown in her face, causing permanent disfigurement? Katie Piper What was the final film to be directed by David Lean, released in 1984? A Passage To India Which film sequel of 2008, the last in a trilogy, was subtitled "Senior Year"? High School Musical 3 Which Hungarian-born motion picture screenwriter, director and producer, who had a probably more-famous brother, directed "The Four Feathers" generally considered his best film? Zoltan Korda Which character was played by Michael Madsen in "Reservoir Dogs"? Mr Blonde Which Catholic coeducational independent day and boarding school, opened in 1802 as a boys' school, and run by the Benedictine monks and lay staff of the nearby abbey, is in North Yorkshire near Thirsk? Ampleforth Which Spanish town lies on the eastern isthmus of the Bay of Gibraltar, north of the Gibraltar-Spain border - its inhabitants traditionally find work in Gibraltar? La Linea What event has been celebrated, since 1748, by the 'Trooping Of The Colour'? Monarch's official brthday Which island, claimed in Dad's Army to be the birthplace of private Frazer - and which he described as 'a wild and lonely place' - is the southernmost of the Outer Hebrides to have a substantial population? (The Southernmost inhabited island is Vatersay) Barra Which is the southernost of the Outer Hebrides, an uninhabited island featuring an automated lighthouse designed by Robert Louis Stevenson? Barra Head (Barra is a different island) or Berneray Which city in the USA contains, as of 2016, the most Druze anywhere outside Lebanon or Syria? Los Angeles Two Iron Age forts, or 'castles', in the UK - one in Somerset and one in Devon - share which name, also that of a multinational company founded in Birmingham in 1824? Cadbury What is mainland Europe's most Northernly capital? Helsinki What is the hereditary position that is the eighth of the Great Officers of State in the UK, ranking beneath the Lord High Constable and above the Lord High Admiral - responsibilities include organising state funerals and the monarch's coronation? Earl Marshal Which is the first of the Great Officers of State in England, ranking above the Lord Chancellor - it has generally remained vacant since 1421, and is now an ad hoc office that is primarily ceremonial and is appointed only during a coronation? Lord High Steward A member of the Cabinet and, by law, responsible for the efficient function and independence of the courts, which UK post is the 2nd highest ranking of the Great Officers of State (in practice the highest as the top position is normally vacant)? Lord Chancellor In which English county is Ilkley Moor? West Yorkshire Friedrichshafen and Lindau are two of the bigger towns that lie on which body of water? Lake Constance (Bodensee) What is the name given to an inhabitant of Los Angeles? (eg like Mancunian or Livepudlian) Angeleno In which African country is the largest population of the Hausa people? Nigeria The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge connects Staten Island to which New York borough? Brooklyn Barry is the largest town in which Welsh county borough and unitary authority? Vale of Glamorgan Which British town was called "Sagadunum" by the Romans? Wallsend Which peer owns Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfries? Duke of Buccleuch (and Queensberry) What is the capital of St Lucia? Castries Which university, founded in 1966, is based in Uxbridge, London? Brunel Which symbol appears on the Irish presidential flag? A harp Which stately home was built over 12 years by John Thynne, completed in 1580? Longleat Which English county's coat of arms features three swords? Essex Which two rivers converge at Wentworth, New South Wales, Australia? Murray and Darling Devil's Island was a penal colony that was infamously owned by which country in the 19th Cetury? France As of 2016, which country is the world's highest dam? China The Nurek Dam, until 2013 the highest dam in the world, is in which country? Tajikistan Who is the LCJ in English law? Lord Chief Justice Which Cumbrian town is famed for its horse fair and gathering of gypsies? Appleby In which stadium have Bristol Rovers played home games since 1996? Memorial Ground What was the name under which Bristol Rovers were first founded in 1883? Black Arabs FC What is the name of Carlisle United FC's home ground? Brunton Park What is the nickname of Colchester United? The U's Where did Colchester United play from 1910 to 2008? Layer Road What is the name of Exeter City's home stadium? St James Park Which English football team were once called Eastville Rovers? Bristol Rovers What is the nickname of Southend United FC? The Shrimpers Which rugby union player was involved in the 2009 "Bloodgate" scandal whilst playing in the Heineken Cup? Tom Williams Which rugby union team was involved in the 2009 "Bloodgate" scandal whilst playing in the Heineken Cup? Harlequins Which artist painted "The Blind Girl" (1854-6)? Millais Give a year in the life of William Blake. 1757-1827 Who painted "Hadleigh Castle" in 1829? Constable Who painted "The Scapegoat" (1854-6)? Holman Hunt Who was Jan Van Eyck's brother, also a painter, who lived c. 1385–90 – 18 September 1426? Hubert Van Eyck The two Van Eyck brothers were responsible for which altarpiece, also known as Adoration of the Mystic Lamb or The Lamb of God, named for a Belgian city? Ghent Altarpiece Which painter died, fighting at WW1 at Verdun in 1916? Franz Marc Which painter died aged 26 in 1428, rumoured to have been poisoned by his rivals? Masaccio One of Elizabeth I's portraits, by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, c. 1576, is named after which bird? Pelican Which character is arrested and tried in Kafka's "The Trial"? Josef K Which fictional detective owned a bloodhound called Pedro? Sexton Blake What was the ‘day job’ of Alfred Gordon Clark, who wrote a number of well-received detective stories under the pseudonym Cyril Hare? County Court Judge Which fictional detective was often assisted by the reformed criminal Hercule Flambeau? Father Brown In which eponymous process is a solution of caustic soda used to improve the strength and lustre of cotton fibres? Mercerisation Which Anglo-American theoretical physicist has given his name to the hypothetical megastructure in which an artificial sphere completely encloses a star? Freeman Dyson Designed to disorientate and delay, in which everyday location might you be subjected to a Gruen Transfer? Shop/Retail outlet/Shopping mall/IKEA store Which author, who changed his name to hide his descent from a notorious judge at the Salem witch trials, was appointed US consul to Liverpool in 1853 Nathaniel Hawthorne Which US author, thrice nominated for a Nobel Prize in Literature, settled in England and became a UK citizen one year before his death in 1916? Henry James Which author served as US ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846? Washington Irving Celebrated in song on account of his controversial execution for murder in November 1915, which US trade-union activist coined the phrase ‘Pie in the Sky’? Joe Hill Members of the militant organization Industrial Workers of the World were commonly known by what name? Wobblies Who is the only trade-union leader to have become President of the USA, as of 2016? Ronald Reagan In 1910, which writer disguised herself as a member of the Abyssinian royal family to make a hoax visit to the Royal Navy flagship HMS Dreadnought? Virginia Woolf Who appeared at the 2002 Newport Folk Festival wearing a wig and false beard, possibly as a reference to events 37 years earlier? Bob Dylan (Booed in 1965 for playing electric guitar) Which notoriously reclusive US author was depicted on The Simpsons wearing a paper bag over his head? Thomas Pynchon Fourteen-year old Susie Salmon, who is raped and murdered in the first chapter, provides the narration to which 2002 book? The Lovely Bones Joe Gillis, whose body is found floating in a swimming pool, provides the narration to which 1950 film? Sunset Boulevard After taking her own life in the pilot episode, Mary Alice Young served as the dead narrator of which TV series? Desperate Housewives As used in the traditional Caribbean dish ackee and saltfish, the ackee fruit has a Latin name derived from that of which noted mariner, who took the fruit from Jamaica to Kew Gardens in 1793? Captain William Bligh (Blighia sapida) Which amber-coloured fruit, a close relative of the blackberry and raspberry, is used to make the Finish liqueur Lakkalikööri? Cloudberry In which year was Michael Foot accused of inappropriate attire at the Cenotaph? 1981 Which was the first state in the world to adopt Christianity? Armenia Who succeeded David Blunkett as Labour Home Secretary in 2004; he in turn was replaced by John Reid? Charles Clarke Which judge headed the enquiry into the Profumo affair? Lord Denning Who was president of the NUS fro 1969 to 1971; he was later a member of Blair's cabinet? Jack Straw Which Prime Minister was the MP for Lymehouse Stepney from 1922 to 1950? Clement Attlee Who was the Chancellor when VAT was introduced in the UK in 1973? Anthony Barber Who was Chancellor of the Exchequer for just a month in 1970, before dying of a heart attack - he coined the term 'nanny state'? Iain Macleod Which former Tory MP appeared as a child in a Ribena advert in 1961? Michael Portillo Alben W Barkley was Vice-President to which US President? Harry S Truman Who used the phrase "It's the economy, stupid" in their US Presidential campaign? Bill Clinton In the Falklands War, which ship was nicknamed "The Great White Whale"? SS Canberra Which conspirators famously met at the Duck & Drake Inn? Those behind the Gunpowder Plot Which nomadic people were overwhelmed by the Huns in 375AD, and ended up migrating westwards, in 428AD they migrated over the Straits of Gibraltar, and ended up living in North Africa with the Vandals? Alans Which foodstuff did Samuel Pepys bury in his garden to save it from the Great Fire of London? Parmesan Cheese Which Pharaoh's head is believed to be on the Sphinx's body? Chephren/Khafra Which Indian mogul had the Taj Mahal built? Shah Jahan In memory of which woman was the Taj Mahal built? Mumtaz Mahal Which palace was seized from Cardinal Wolsey by Henry VIII, to replace Westminister as his main palace? Whitehall Which man burned down the 'Temple of Artemis' that was one of the Seven Ancient Wonders in order to 'immortalise himself'? Herostratus Which number Dvorak symphony was written for, or about, London? Seventh In Greek myth, which God carried the caduceus? Hermes Who wrote the popular song "Stardust" in 1927? Hoagy Carmichael Who wrote the soundtrack for, and starred in, the 1980 film "The Jazz Singer"? Neil Diamond Which composer, born in 1873, stood 6 foot 6 inches tall, with a 12-inch handspan that allowed him to write fiendishly difficult piano pieces? Rachmaninov Which actor fronts the band "30 Seconds to Mars"? Jared Leto Forming part of a series of parody retellings collectively known as Laugh It Up, Fuzzball, the Family Guy episode Something, Something, Something, Darkside is based on which particular film in a series? The Empire Strikes Back The traditional rhyme detailing what a bride should have for good luck has a final line that is often omitted. It says she should have something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue and a silver what in her shoe? Sixpence Which word used for an unspecified belief in a transcendent force is equivalent to the phrase ‘spiritual but not religious’ and is derived from the Dutch for ‘something-ism’? Ietsism The demonym for which major US city is a 13-letter word that ends with -neapolitan? Minneapolis A Leopolitan is somebody from which European city? Lvov Who is the subject of a monumental 19-foot sculpture, perhaps the best known work of the American sculptor Daniel Chester French (1850-1931), which is located in a building that was purpose-designed to house it by the architect Henry Bacon? Abraham Lincoln She was born in Texas in 1964 with the surname French, but is better known with the surname of her husband since 1994. In 2013 she was appointed an honorary DBE, and in 2005 was jointly named as Time magazine’s Person of the Year. Who is she? Melinda Gates The architect Joseph Nathaniel French is best known for the Fisher Building, a 30-storey ornate art deco landmark which has been called which US city’s “largest art object”? Detroit Which substance, once used as an anaesthetic, but now superseded in that role by less reactive agents, has the chemical formula C3H6 and is one of the smallest hydrocarbon molecules to feature a ring of carbon atoms? Cyclopropane C3H6 is the formula of which non-ringed hydrocarbon, the raw material for a variety of products in the petrochemical industry, including the plastic whose name is formed by prefixing with poly-? Propene/propylene Hydrocarbons are divided into two classes: those which contain a stable ring of atoms such as benzene are described as aromatic, while all others are called by which other name? Aliphatic Which South African city takes its name from the surname of the Voortrekker leader whose forenames were Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus? The city was founded in 1855 by his son who shortly afterwards became the first president of the South African Republic. Pretoria This Roman general was the nephew of Tiberius, father of Caligula, brother of Claudius and grandfather of Nero. He became best known by which name, honouring the location of several of his father’s military victories? Germanicus Although he himself was born and grew up in other parts of the same country, which acclaimed writer adopted the place where his father had been born in 1879 as his professional first name? Tennessee Williams In written Modern Greek, which punctuation mark is used - instead of a question mark - to indicate that a question has been asked? Semi-colon According to the APA, the five most cited psychologists of the 20th century were Skinner, Piaget, Freud, Bandura, and which American social psychologist best known for his theory of cognitive dissonance and for developing social comparison theory? Leon Festinger Immediately prior to gaining independence from France, Mali (then known as French Sudan) joined a short-lived federation (the Mali Federation of 1959-60) with which other African nation? Senegal Which Japanese sportswear and sports equipment company has an acronymic name formed from a Latin phrase meaning 'a healthy mind is a healthy body'? ASICS The Russian astrophysicist Nikolai Kardashev is best-remembered today for having given his name to a well-known scale measuring… what? A civilisation's level of technological advancement Named for a 19th century German explorer, which species of vulture of the Sahel region of central Africa is considered to be the world's highest flying bird, reaching a maximum altitude of around 11,300 metres? Rüppell's vulture Which 1988 comedy sports film tells the story of a minor league baseball team from North Carolina? Bull Durham Separated from the mainland by the Hecate Strait, what is the former name of the Canadian archipelago which was officially renamed Haida Gwaii in 2010? Queen Charlotte Islands Considered one of the greatest ever field hockey players of all time, which Pakistani legend (who won 350 caps between 1998 and 2012) became the first man ever to score 300 international goals? Sohail Abbas Performed in order to exorcise sins and uncleanness, harae are the purification rituals central to which religion? Shinto Which Brazilian aviation pioneer built - and flew - the world's first practical dirigible and became world famous in 1901 when he flew his craft around the Eiffel Tower? Albert Santos-Dumant Which traditional barbecued dish serves as the national dish of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay? The term is also used to refer to the barbecue - and attendant social gathering - itself. Asado By what stage-name is the Italian comedian, actor, and singer-songwriter Antonio Focas Flavio Angelo Ducas Comneno De Curtis di Bisanzio Gagliardi better known? Toto The Tunisian tourist complex of Port El Kantaoui - the site of the 2015 attacks which left 39 people dead - lies 10 km north of which city, best-known for its medina, which has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1988? Sousse What is the name of the desert planet - nicknamed Dune - on which the action of Frank Herbert's 1965 Hugo Award-winning novel Dune is set? Arakis The first known human immortal cell line for medical research is known as the HeLa cell line after which African-American woman who unwittingly provided it when cells from her cancerous tumour were cultured by George Otto Gey? Henrietta Lacks Despite a population of only 2.5 million, which city in Inner Mongolia is, with an area of over 260,000 square kilometres, the world's largest city by area? Hulunbuir Discovered by Italian archaeologists in 1964 and described as the first recorded world power, the city-state of Ebla (also known as Tell Mardikh) is to be found in which modern-day country? Syria Which American author wrote the 1913 autobiographical novel John Barleycorn which detailed his lifelong struggle with alcoholism? Jack London Named for a Polish physicist, which type of diagram illustrates the electronic states of a molecule and the transitions between them? Jablonski diagram The French-born Argentine singer-songwriter and tango legend Carlos Gardel died in a plane crash in which country in 1935? Colombia Healthy human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair is an allosome, which determines sex, while the other 22 pairs are given what name? Autosomes Described as "the first mainstream musical about a young lesbian", which musical - based on Alison Bechdel's 2006 graphic memoir of the same name - won five Tony Awards including Best Musical Award earlier this year? Fun Home Known as the 'David Beckham of ____', the Argentinian sportsman and model Nacho Figueras is one of the world's most famous players of which sport? Polo Headquartered at Washington D.C.'s Union Station, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation is better known by what one-word name? Amtrak Which painter, born in Le Havre in 1883, but based in England, painted an award winning portrait of Flora Robson, and became one of the few female official war artists of WW2? Ethel Gabain Which type of late Renaissance or Baroque instrumental composition, meaning to 'search out', is an early kind of fugue? Ricercar The 1987 TV movie, A Simple Man, was about which artist? LS Lowry For what do the initials WOMAD stand, in the name of the arts festival established in 1982 by Peter Gabriel? World of Music Arts and Dance Which film was Clark Gable's talking debut? The Painted Desert What was the name used by the sculptor born Naum Neemia Pevsner, partly to distinguish him from his brother Antoine? Naum Gabo "Selling England By The Pound" of 1973, is an album by which band? Genesis Which Hungarian won the 1971 Nobel Prize for Physics for developing holography? Dennis Gabor The "Realistic Manifesto" of 1920 was written by which Russian artistic movement? Russian Constructivists The French writer Emile Gaboriau is best known as a pioneer of detective fiction, with which detective, first seen in "L'Affaire Lerouge"? Monsieur Lecoq Which unit of measurement is equal to one-tenth of a nautical mile? A cable The gun known as a Pistole Parabellum 1908 or Parabellum-Pistole is better-known by which one word name? Luger What is the common name for the garden plant 'lavatera'? Mallow Which garden plant is 'mesambryanthenum cordifolium'? Livingstone Daisy Where in the human body is the lunula? The base of the nail Which man is credited with inventing the microwave oven in 1945? Percy Spencer Whose quote was "before God we are all equally wise and equally foolish"? Albert Einstein On what date is St Andrews Day? 30th November What was the first name of the frozen food pioneer, Mr Birdseye (1886-1956)? Clarence In which year was the RSPCA founded? 1824 The dandelion is a member of which plant family? Asteracea or Daisy (accept sunflower or aster) Where are galoshes worn? The feet (they are a type of rubber boot that is slipped over shoes to keep them from getting muddy or wet) What colour are the flowers of a forsythia shrub? Yellow Which type of shoe, with a name deriving from the Algonquian language Powhatan is a type of outdoor slipper associated with Native Americans? Moccasins Which symbol appears on a computer keyboard on the '7' key, just above the number itself? & (ampersand) In which street were the TV duo Steptoe & Son based? Oildrum Lane, Shepherd's Bush Who played the Austrian ambassador, Mersi, in 2006's "Marie Antoinette"? Steve Coogan Who was Oscar nominated for a Best Supporting Actor for playing Harlee Claiborne, the Con-Man, in 'The Towering Inferno'? Fred Astaire Who played Gary Cooper's bride in the film "High Noon"? Grace Kelly In 'One Foot In The Grave', what was Victor Meldrew's occupation immediately before he retired? Security Guard Which screenwriter and producer won BAFTAs for the TV series "Cracker", "Clocking Off" and "Shameless"? Paul Abbott Who designed the Oscar statuette? Cedric Gibbons Which children's TV show was created by Keith Chapman and ran from 1998 to 2012? Bob The Builder Who took over as editor of British Vogue in 1992 and was still in charge as of April 2016? Alexandra Shulman From which country is the actress Michelle Gomez from? Scotland Where is there a transporter bridge over the River Usk? Newport Which is the highest of the five ranks of the peerage ranks? Duke Which city was famously described as having "dreaming spires" by Matthew Arnold? Oxford In which English county are the Farne Islands? Northumberland Bellagio is a resort on which lake? Como There are just three Cayman Islands - Grand Cayman, Little Cayman and which other? Cayman Brac Which Hampshire town, about 37 mi (60 km) southwest of London, has been called "Home Of The Army"? Aldershot Where in the UK is St Magnus Cathedral? Kirkwall, Orkney What is the longest river in Afghanistan? Helmand Where are the Wills Memorial Tower and British Empire Museum? Bristol In which year was the Economics Nobel Prize established? 1968 What was Marie Curie's maiden name? Skłodowska Most famous for discovering the structure of benzene, who has been described as the principal founder of the theory of chemical structure? Friedrich August Kekulé Which German mathematician (1777-1855), the first to prove the quadratic reciprocity law and claimed to have discovered the possibility of non-Euclidean geometries but never published it? Carl Friedrich Gauss Who became King of Sweden on 15 September 1973 on the death of his grandfather Gustaf VI Adolf? Carl XVI Gustaf Which award, popularly called "genius grants" is given to between 20 and 30 individuals, working in any field, who have shown "extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction"? MacArthur Fellowship Which award, named after a US-born British entrepreneur, has been given since 1972 to ""has made an exceptional contribution to affirming life's spiritual dimension, whether through insight, discovery, or practical works"? Templeton Prize Which French literature prize has been awarded since 1903? Prix Goncourt How often is the Fields Medal awarded? Every four years The Wolf Prize is an international award granted in which nation to living scientists and artists, since 1978? Israel Who was the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne? Marie Curie The Balzan Prize, awarded to 4 people annually in a range of subjects, is named after a family from which nation? Italy Two members of the Swedish Academy, who appoint Nobel Prizes, resigned in 1989 in protest over the Academy's refusal to denounce what? Iran's fatwa on Salman Rushdie Which author (1888-1964) was Finland's first Nobel Laureate, winning the Literature Prize in 1939? Frans Eemil Sillanpää Who wrote the novel "The Rescue" (1919-20)? Joseph Conrad Who received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903, becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate, and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death? Svante August Arrhenius Who, famous for other things, wrote the plays "In Lightest Africa" and "The Bacillus Patient"? Alfred Nobel Which Russian and American poet and essayist, expelled ("strongly advised" to emigrate) from the Soviet Union in 1972 was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize in Literature and was appointed United States Poet Laureate in 1991? Joseph Brodsky What Latin name (meaning "course of offices") represents the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire? Corsus honorum The Maya megacity El Mirador is in which country? Guatemala The Gare De Cornavin is the main train station in which European city? Geneva Theodoros Vryzakis (1819-1878) a Greek painter, known mostly for his historical scenes, was one of the founders of the which school, composed of Greek artists who had studied in the city of that name? Munich school The Heptanese School of painting is associated with which country? Greece Considered by some Muslims to be the fourth-holiest place in Islam, and the holiest mosque outwith Saudi Arabia, in which city is the Umayyad Mosque? Damascus In which Chinese province does the Yellow Sea reach the sea? Shandong Who the first Westerner (1771-1806) known to have travelled to the central portion of the Niger River? Mungo Park Which capital city's name translates as "New Flower"? Addis Ababa In which city is the Griffith Observatory, opened in 1935? Los Angeles Which is Estonia's largest island? Saaremaa Considered some of the first inhabitants of Botswana and South Africa, also called Bushmen or Basarwa, are members of various indigenous hunter-gatherer people of Southern Africa? San What is the nickname of Walsall FC? The Saddlers What was the home of Walsall FC until 1990, when they moved to the Bescot Stadium? Fellows Park What is the name of Wycombe Wanderers home ground? Adams Park What is the nickname of Wycombe Wanderers FC? The Chairboys What is the name of Yeovil's ground? Huish Park Which trophy is awarded to the Man of the Match in the English Rugby League Challenge Cup Final? Lance Todd Trophy Yelena Isinbayeva was a double Olympic gold medallist and three time world champion at which athletic event? Pole Vault Which football team did Italy beat in the World Cup Final in 1934? Czechoslovakia In which nation was the 1954 World Cup held? Switzerland Which Australian test cricketer died on 27 November 2014 after being hit by a cricket ball two days earlier? Phillip Hughes In which decade did Harold Pinter the Literature Nobel Prize? 2000s (2005) Who painted "Nighthawks" in 1942? Edward Hopper Who painted "The Night Café" in 1888? Vincent Van Gogh Which poet, for his celebratory representations of the English countryside and his lamentation of its disruption, died in 1864 in a Northampton asylum? John Clare Captain Frederick Wentworth is a character in which Jane Austen novel? Persuasion Captain Cuttle is a character in which Charles Dickens novel? Dombey And Son What does "oc" mean in the name of the place "Languedoc"? Yes Monna Vanna is an unfinished opera by which composer after a play by Maurice Maeterlinck? Sergei Rachmaninoff Who painted the 1866 "Monna Vanna" that hangs in the Tate in London? Gabriel Dante Rossetti Give a year in the life of Dante Alighieri. 1265 – 1321 In which geological epoch did Neanderthals live? Pleistocene Alfred Jingle is a comic character in which novel? The Pickwick Papers "Cloud Cuckoo Land" first appears as a concept in which literary work? Aristophanes' "The Birds" At which battle did Henry V of England receive a facial arrow wound? Shrewsbury Who did Henry V of England marry? Catherine of Valois On what date was the Battle of Agincourt? 25th October 1415 Which treaty of 1420 stated that Henry V of England would inherit France? Treaty of Troyes To which French king did Paris fall in 1436, when he re-captured it from the English? Charles VII Which Lollard leader, believed to have been the inspiration for Shakespeare's Falstaff, escaped from the Tower of London and then led a rebellion against King Henry V, but was eventually captured and executed in London in 1417? John Oldcastle Which sea is bounded by Corsica and Sardinia (to the west), the Italian peninsula (regions of Tuscany, Lazio, Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria) to the east, and Sicily (to the south)? Tyrrhenian Which British artist's "The Holy Virgin Mary", which featured a pregnant black Mary surrounded by cutouts from pornographic magazines and elephant dung was blocked by Rudolph Giuliani from being exhibited in New York in 1996? Chris Ofili What is the name of the Rene Magritte work that depicts a pipe with the words "Ceci n'est pas une pipe" underneath? The Treachery Of Images (La trahison des images) The "Ocean Park" paintings were the later works of which US artist? Richard Diebenkorn In which year was the Google search engine launched? 1998 Established in 2000 by Robin Li and Eric Xu, what is China's most used search engine? Baidu Its name chosen to honour a famous library, which website, founded in 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat provides commercial web traffic data, rankings of most visited sites, and analytics? Alexa Internet Which grouping of artists was founded by Paul Nash in 1933, and included the sculptors Barbara Hepworth and Henry Moore? Unit One What nationality was the sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901-66)? Swiss Who built the first reflecting telescope in 1668? Isaac Newton Which equation summarises Newton's second law of motion? F = ma In which year did Hurricane Katrina devastate New Orleans? 2005 Kolya, a 1996 film that won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film was made in which country? Czech Republic Episode 13 in Series 4 of which US TV series based on a British character was called "A Study In Charlotte"? Elementary Which US company has the stock market initials AAPL? Apple Which US company has the stock market initials HOG? Harley-Davidson North Foreland and South Foreland are chalk headlands in which English county? Kent The company United States Steel has which single-letter stock market abbreviation? X What name is given to one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language? Phoneme Which sportsperson once famously defined their race with the portmanteau word "Cablinasian" on The Oprah Winfrey Show? Tiger Woods Which design, still used today, is based on a layout created for the Sholes and Glidden typewriter and sold to Remington in 1873? QWERTY keyboard The Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, which has produced 29 Nobel winners as of 2016, is named after which British chemist and physicist? Henry Cavendish (Cavendish Laboratory) Carl Anderson won the 1936 Nobel Prize for Physics after discovering which particle - 'accidentally' - he later said? Positron Which Bengali physicist (1894-1974) specialising in mathematical physics has a whole class of particles, whose statistics do not restrict the number of them that occupy the same quantum state, named after him? Satyendra Nath Bose (Bosons) In which year did Norway attempt independence in the 19th century, but was later force to accept the Swedish King as Monarch? 1814 The inelastic scattering of a photon by a charged particle, usually an electron, that results in a decrease in energy (increase in wavelength) of the photon is known by what name after a US physicist? Compton Effect Who wrote "The Double Helix" in 1968, angering his famous co-discoverer? James D Watson Whose hand bones were featured in a famous photograph, shown in newspapers worldwide, relating Roentgen's famous discovery of X-rays? Mrs Roentgen Who wrote the 1953 novel "The Unnamable"? Samuel Beckett The Kikuyu are the largest ethnic group in which country? Kenya "Kuroi Ame" of 1966 or Black Rain, later a film of 1989, directed by Shohei Imamura, is the most famous work by which Japanese writer (1898-1993)? Masuji Ibuse Awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1994, which Japanese author, born 1935 and "A Personal Matter" and "The Silent Cry"? Kenzaburō Ōe Which Japanese writer, playwright, photographer and inventor wrote "The Woman In The Dunes" and "The Face Of Another"? Kobo Abe Who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968, the first Japanese author to receive the award? Yasunari Kawabata Who, (24 July 1886 – 30 July 1965) one of the major writers of modern Japanese literature, wrote "The Key", "Diary of a Mad Old Man", "The Makioka Sisters" and "The Secret History of the Lord of Musashi"? Jun'ichirō Tanizaki Best known for his novels "Kokoro", "Botchan", "I Am a Cat" and his unfinished work "Light and Darkness", whose portrait from 1984 to 2004, appeared on the front of the Japanese 1000 yen note? Natsume Sōseki The novellists Julio Cortazar and Jorge Luis Borges were natives of which country? Argentina Who was awarded the 1989 Nobel Prize in Literature and wrote 1951's "The Hive"? Camilo José Cela Who was the first Latin American winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature? Gabriela Mistral Who played Joey LaMotta, brother of Jake, in "Raging Bull"? Joe Pesci Which football team have the words "FLOREAT SALOPIA" on their crest? Shrewsbury Town Which mathematician and astronomer gives his name to the positions in an orbital configuration of two large bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies? Joseph-Louis Lagrange Quadrilatero della moda is considered by some to be the world's most important fashion district. It is to be found primarily on which upscale shopping street in Milan? Via Montenapoleone Aphrodite's Child's debut single Rain and Tears was a reworking of which piece of Baroque classical music? Pachelbel's Canon in D The last geological period of the Proterozoic Eon, which period is named for a range of hills in South Australia famous for its fossils dating from that time? Ediacaran Deontay Wilder is a champion in which sport? Boxing Which Catalan cellist is best-remembered for his recordings of the Bach Cello Suites between 1936 and 1939? Pablo Casals His tomb playing a major role in Dan Brown's novel Inferno, which Doge of Venice led the Venetian contingent at the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 despite being ninety years old and blind? Enrico Dandolo Appearing in such films as Contempt, The Little Soldier, and A Woman Is a Woman among others, Anna Karina was the wife and muse of which French director? Jean-Luc Godard Its interior renovated by Louis Comfort Tiffany, a house in Hartford, Connecticut is named for which famous American author who lived there between 1874 and 1891? Mark Twain Despite being nominated for a Nobel Prize a record 84 times, he was never awarded the honour - which German theoretical physicist (1868-1951) introduced the azimuthal quantum number, the spin quantum number, fine-structure constant and X-ray wave theory? Arnold Sommerfeld The PIDE were a secret security police that existed from 1945-69 in which country? Portugal Two members of the awarding committee resigned in protest at the decision to award the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to which two men? Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho Dagens Nyheter is, as of 2016, the most popular morning newspaper in which country? Sweden Meaning "great thing" or "great council" what is the name of the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway? Storting King of Sweden from 1771 until his assassination in 1792, who established the Swedish Academy? Gustav III One of the first contemporary writers of Arabic literature, along with Tawfiq el-Hakim, to explore themes of existentialism, which Nobel Laureate's imprtant works include "The Cairo Trilogy"> Naguib Mahfouz Which winner of the 1954 chemistry Nobel Prize subsequently won one in 1962 for Peace, for protesting atomic bombs? Linus Pauling In which country was Albert Einstein born - he left aged sixteen? Germany The physicist Max Born, born in Germany, was listed as which nationality when awarded his Nobel Prize - he had fled to that country when Hitler was in power? British/Britain In which city was TS Eliot born? St Louis, Missouri What is the smallest of the seven United Arab Emirates? Ajman Which town or city was the first in the UK to introduce a congestion charge? Durham Which canal joins London to Birmingham? Grand Union Canal What is the main town on the Isle of Sheppey? Sheerness Harvard University is located in which US state? Massachussetts Ponta Delgada is the largest city in which island group? Azores Washington is a town in the municipal area of which UK city? Sunderland In which Welsh county is Newport? Gwent What is New Zealand's third island? Stewart Island The English use of the word 'taboo' comes from James Cook's 1777 visit to which island? Tonga Which high-security psychiatric hospital is located at Crowthorne in Berkshire, England? Broadmoor What links Coningsby (Lincs), Leaming (N Yorks) and Valley (Anglesey)? RAF stations "Can Queen Victoria Eat Cold Apple Pie" is a well-known mnemonic for what? Seven hills of Rome In which US state is Fort Knox? Kentucky To which UK court are foreign ambassaors credited? Court of St James Cabot Tower is in which US city? Bristol Which county has its administrative HQ at Kingston-Upon-Thames? Surrey As of 2016, which is the only private university in the United Kingdom operating under a royal charter? University of Buckingham Which Scottish town was made a city in 2002? Stirling Frogmore House is a 17th-century English country house in which county? Berkshire Which town in Northern Ireland lies on the stretch of river between Upper Lough Erne and Lower Lough Erne? Enniskillen The Coast to Coast Walk runs from St Bees Head on the Irish Sea to where? Robin Hood's Bay Odumegwu Ojukwu was President of which short lived country in 1967? Biafra Which word is missing from the first line of text on the inside cover of a UK Passport "Her ??? Majesty's Secretary of State"? Britannic Hiroshi Hoketsu was the oldest competitor at the 2012 Olympics - in which specific discipline? Dressage Who plays the girlfriend, then wife, of Michael Corleone in 1972 film "The Godfather"? Diane Keaton Who made the cake on the cover of the Rolling Stones "Let It Bleed"? Delia Smith What type of establishment was the setting for BBC comedy "Early Doors"? A pub Who is the twin sister of Sebastian in Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night"? Viola The AN-2 and AN-24 aircraft were manufactured by which company? Antonov What is the minimum number of points needed to win a game of badminton? 21 In which English county is Stilton, famed for its cheese? Cambridgeshire In which country is Mainland Europe's highest point outwith the Alps and (if counted as Europe) the Caucasus? Spain Cannon International Airport was, until 1994, the name of the airport that serves which US city? Reno A proposed extension to which building was shelved after it was described by Prince Charles as a "monstrous carbuncle"? National Gallery Which building now stands on the site of the very first Waldorf-Astoria Hotel? Empire State Building Which maitre d'hotel of the original Waldorf Astoria credited with having created the Waldorf salad, and for aiding in the popularization of the Thousand Island dressing? Oscar Tschirky Sex and Violence, which aired on ABC on March 19, 1975, was the improbably-named pilot of which show? The Muppet Show What is the currency of Papua New Guinea? Kina In which English county are the Sizewell nuclear power stations? Suffolk Where is the ESA's spaceport at Kourou? French Guiana Four wars by which name took place between 1652-1674 and 1781-1784? Anglo-Dutch Wars In which town or city was footballer Christiano Ronaldo born - the Museu CR7 opened there in 2013? Funchal Pico Ruivo is the highest point on which island group? Madeira Devil's Island, the former penal colony in French Guiana, is part of which island group? Iles de Salut What is the capital of the Chinese province of Xinjiang? Urumqi Which body of water in the Lake District lies between Grasmere Water and Lake Windermere? Rydal Water Aira Force is a small waterfall near which Lake District lake? Ullswater Britain's first transporter bridge and the largest of its type ever built in the world, it continued in use until 1961 when it was replaced by a through arch bridge, now known as the Silver Jubilee Bridge. This bridge connected which two towns? Widnes and Runcorn Founded in 1947, which Trade Union is USDAW? Union of Shop, Distributive and Allied Workers Which Mexican boxer is the greatest ever fighter at strawweight, winning 51 and drawing 1 out of 52 professional fights, was the third champion in history to retire undefeated and the first to do so as both an amateur and professional fighter? Ricardo Lopez What is the name given to various forms of folk and popular music originating among the Mexican-American populations of Central and Southern Texas? Tejano music Two-up is a gambling game that originated in which country? Australia How many shots are fired in the shooting element of the modern pentathlon? Twenty Which foil is used in the fencing part of the modern pentathlon? Epee What name is given to a word spelled from the first letters of a poem's lines? Acrostic Which value of cards is the objective for players of baccarat? Nine How many dice are used in a game of backgammon? Five How many pieces does each player start with in a game of backgammon? Fifteen Which game used to be called "housey-housey"? Bingo First held in 1950, but now contested only on odd-numbered years, what is the name of the biennial world championship contract bridge tournament for national teams? Bermuda Bowl Naval engineer Samuel Bentham, and Immanuel Nobel, father of Alfred, are both credited with inventing types of what, designed to be stronger than traditional wood? Plywood In which decade did the Suez canal open? 1860s (1869) Which mutiny, named for an anchorage near Portsmouth, that ran from 16 April to 15 May 1797 inspired the more violent Nore mutiny of the same year? Spithead mutiny Which smokeless propellant, made from two high explosives, nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. was invented by Alfred Nobel? Ballistite Which family of smokeless propellants were developed and produced in the United Kingdom from 1889 to replace gunpowder as military propellant - the invention provoked legal action from Alfred Nobel, who had invented a similar (but not identical) product? Cordite Also the name of a Brazilian football team, what is the demonym meaning "from the state of Rio de Janeiro"? Fluminense What is the name given to an inhabitant of Madrid? Madrileno The Cenci, A Tragedy, in Five Acts (1819) is a verse drama in five acts by who? Shelley What links Mark Twain, Alfred Nobel, Marcus Garvey and Ernest Hemingway, in terms of the popular press? They all read their own premature obituaries Which Scottish-American steel industrialist, who gave away about 90 per cent of his fortune, wrote the 1889 article "The Gospel of Wealth" that called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and which stimulated a wave of philanthropy? Andrew Carnegie Magnus Gustaf (Gösta) Mittag-Leffler was a Swede reknowned in which field - it is claimed that Alfred Nobel disliked him so much he refused to set up a Nobel Prize in that field solely because of him? Mathematics Site of the country's oldest and largest university, what is Sweden's fourth largest city? Uppsala Probably a record, there were 34 nominations on behalf of which French mathematician and physicist in 1910 for a Nobel Prize - he never won one? Henri Poincare The Prize is a novel written by who in 1962 concerning the annual prize-giving ceremony of the Nobel Prize? Irving Wallace Which Norwegian author, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920, wrote works such as Hunger (1890), Mysteries (1892), Pan (1894), and Victoria (1898)? Knut Hamsun The major work of which Norwegian novelist, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1928, is Kristin Lavransdatter, a trilogy about life in Scandinavia in the Middle Ages, portrayed through the experiences of a woman from birth until death? Sigrid Undset What nationality was Maria Wisława Anna Szymborska, winner of a 1996 Nobel Prize in Literature? Polish In 1907, at the age of 41, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize, and its youngest recipient to date (May 2016)? Rudyard Kipling Félix Rubén García Sarmiento (January 18, 1867 – February 6, 1916), known as Rubén Darío, was a poet from which country - he was very influential in Spanish modernism? Nicaragua The Dwight Chapel and Harkness Tower are found at which Ivy League university? Yale How many Ivy League universities are there in total? Eight The Genius of Christianity (French: Génie du christianisme) is a work by which French author, written during his exile in England in the 1790s as a defence of the Catholic faith? François-René de Chateaubriand Who served as the Austrian Empire's Foreign Minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation? Klemens von Metternich "The Eve of St. Agnes" is a poem (42 stanzas) by who, written in 1819 and published in 1820? Keats Jump to: navigation, search Yniol shows Prince Geraint his ruined castle in Gustave Doré's illustration Idylls of the King, published between 1859 and 1885, is a cycle of twelve narrative poems by which English poet? Tennyson Complete the title of the 1889 novel by Mark Twain, from which two words have been omitted: A ------ in King Arthur's Court? Connecticut Yankee Who wrote the 1920 play "Saint Joan"? George Bernard Shaw The Stones of Venice is a three-volume treatise on Venetian art and architecture by who, written 1851-3? John Ruskin The painter Jacques-Laurent Agasse (1767-1849), famed for depicting animals in particular, was born in which modern-day country, although he worked mainly in England? Switzerland What does the ABC stand for in ABC News? American Broadcasting Company Who wrote 1943's "A Theory of Human Motivation"? Abraham Maslow Alexandra Kosteniuk is a former Women's World Champion at what? Chess What nationality is author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie? Nigerian Who says "the law is an ass" in Oliver Twist? Mr Bumble In Dickens novel "Oliver Twist", what is the profession of Mr Sowerberry, to whom Oliver is apprenticed? Undertaker In Dickens novel "Oliver Twist", what is the 'Artful Dodger's real name? Jack Dawkins In which publication was Oliver Twist first serealised? Bentley's Miscellany In Dickens novel "Oliver Twist", what is the profession of Mr Bumble? Parish beadle Robert Harris's novel "Lustrum" is a sequel to which of his books? Imperium Until 1999 La Paz's El Alto Airport, in Bolivia, was named for which non-Bolivian? John F Kennedy In which US state is the city of Milwaukee? Wisconsin The A1 incorporates parts of which Roman road, with sections - particularly the section from Alconbury to Water Newton - still following its course almost exactly? Ermine Street What is the currency used in Malaysia? Ringgit Which ancestral home is the seat of the Duke of Richmond? Goodwood Where does the Salmon Weir Bridge cross the River Corrib? Galway The Roman Fosse Way joined which two towns? Exeter and Lincoln The Mardyke is an area in which city - the Mardyke Walk was once a fashionable promenade? Cork (City) John Player & Sons, the tobacco manufacturer, were originally based in which UK city? Nottingham Which currency is used in Morocco? Dirham in which city is the building of the European Court of Human Rights? Strasbourg In which country did the nonsense poet Edward Lear die? Italy How is the game Cluedo known in North America? Clue Which self-proclaimed Serb parastate within the territory of the Republic of Croatia during the Croatian War of Independence was established in 1991, but was overrun by Croatian forces in 1995 and thus disbanded? Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) There are two constitutional and legal entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina - one is the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is the other? Republika Srpska What is the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina? Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark Whose 1967 debut album was entitled "Blowin' Your Mind!"? Van Morrison "Twist and Shout", "Piece of My Heart" and "Everybody Needs Somebody to Love" were all written by which American songwriter and record producer of the 1960s who died aged 38 from heart problems? Bert Berns The cover photo for which album, frequently cited in polls as one of the best LPs of all time, was taken in February 1966 by George Jerman at San Diego Zoo? Pet Sounds by The Beach Boys The Kafue, the longest river lying wholly within Zambia, is the largest tributary of which river? Zambezi What nationality was former high jumper Rosie Ackermann representing when she became the first woman to jump over 2m? East Germany As of 2016, which county was the most recent to join the first-class English cricket County Championship? Durham (1992) A marathon is traditionally run over 26 miles and how many yards? 385 What apposite nickname was given to 19th century boxer Hen Pearce? The Game Chicken On 20 July 1871, in the offices of The Sportsman newspaper, C. W. Alcock proposed that which competition begin? The FA Cup The Courtney Goodwill Trophy was a former competition, indeed possibly the first to be played for by international teams, in which sport? Rugby League Englishwoman Gillian Gilks (formerly Gillian Perrin, and later Gillian Goodwin) is a former champion in which sport? Badminton Which year saw the only non-English winner of the FA Cup to date (as of 2016)? 1927 (Cardiff City) Who was the owner of Red Rum, the famous Grand National winning horse? Noel Le Mare What is the name of Detroit's MLB franchise? Tigers Which King of Spain moved the capital to Madrid in 1561? Felipe II Which Spanish film director first achieved international recognition for his black comedy-drama film Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown in 1988, which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film? Pedro Almodóvar Barajas Airport serves which city? Madrid Renfe Operadora is which country's state-operated train company? Spain The oldest part of Madrid is knows as Madrid de la -------, with which city filling in the blank? Austrias From which plaza in Madrid are all distances in Spain measured? Puerta del Sol A tourist attraction whose name translates as "Monastery of the Barefoot Royals" can be found in which capital city? Madrid What is the name of Sainsbury's own brand clothing line? Tu Its name may derive from a Royal hunting lodge near Madrid, which Spanish lyric-dramatic genre that alternates between spoken and sung scenes, incorporates operatic and popular song, as well as dance? Zarzuela Which UK shipping forecast area comes first alphabetically? Bailey How many noggins are there in a pint? Four Chervil, chives, parsley and what else make up 'fines herbes'? Tarragon 'Malis pumula' is the Latin name for which fruit? Apple A stinger cocktail is crème de menthe with which spirit? Brandy Chitterlings is a dish principally made from which part of a pig? Intestines Chicory has been used as a substitute for which drink, including in WW2? Coffee Also called 'Ata rodo' by Yoruba natives of Nigeria, a scotch bonnet is a type of which foodstuff? Chili Pepper Brandy Alexander comprises cognac, crème de cacao, nutmeg and what else? Cream 'Savoury ducks' is an alternative name for which foodstuff, especially in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Lancashire? Faggots What is a mortadella? A sausage Born Madrid 1600, and dying there in 1681, which dramatist, poet and writer of the Spanish Golden Age was also a priest, and wrote "El médico de su honra (The Surgeon of his Honor)" and "El pintor de su deshonra (The Painter of His Dishonour)"? Pedro Calderón (de la Barca) Found in few dietary sources, which vitamin is nonetheless present in fish oils and egg yolks? D Miss You Nights was a brief-lived perfume marketed by which singer? Cliff Richard Which moon of Jupiter shares its name with a character's alias in "As You Like It"? Ganymede Which country was second, after Great Britain, to issue postage stamps? Switzerland Which was the first country outside Europe to issue postage stamps, releasing a "Bulls Eye" stamp on 1st August 1843? Brazil What first did Louis Bleriot achieve in 37 minutes in 1904? Crossing the Channel by aeroplane 1972's HMS Wilton (m1116) was the first warship in the world entirely made of what? (glass-reinforced) Plastic What is the name of the short, square-headed bolt that is shot from a crossbow? Quarrel How was Florence Nightingale Graham (1878-1966) better known? Elizabeth Arden Which capital city was once known as Pressburg (in German) or Pozsony (in Hungarian)? Bratislava Its basic step is the swingout - which American dance, possibly named for a famous aviator, that evolved in Harlem, New York City, in the 1920s and 1930s in tandem with the jazz music of that time? Lindy hop Featured in a Guinness advert, which social movement, famed for colourful and expensive suits and centred in Brazzaville, Congo, embodies the elegance in style and manners of colonial predecessor dandies as a means of resistance? La Sape Which politician, poet and member of the Hungarian Parliament (1815-56) was the leader of the Slovak national revival in the 19th century, and the author of the Slovak language standard, writing "Nauka reči slovenskej"? Ľudovít Štúr In which year did Slovakia become independent of Czechoslovakia? 1993 The original centre of Berlin was built on which river? Spree Which city became the capital of the newly-founded German Empire in 1871? Berlin The CMYK and RGB are both models used when precision is required in describing what? Colours Which architect led the reconstruction of the Reichstag building on German reunification in 1990? Norman Foster Carl Gotthard Langhans is best known for being the architect of which structure, completed 1791, and a symbol of Germany? Brandenburg Gate	i don't know
Who replaced Dr. John Reid as Secretary of State for Scotland?	The dark horse \| Politics \| The Guardian Politics The dark horse He's Tony Blair's Mr Fix-It, the self-professed hard man of Labour politics and a shameless self-publicist. Now, having put his years of drinking behind him, John Reid is a contender for the Labour leadership. But will he dare stand against his enemy Gordon Brown? Tom Bower investigates Friday 22 September 2006 19.22 EDT First published on Friday 22 September 2006 19.22 EDT Share on Messenger Close In 1991, John Reid's reputation appeared to be in tatters. Drunk one day in the House of Commons, he tried to force his way on to the floor to vote. When an attendant stepped forward to stop him, Reid threw a punch. What the MP for Motherwell North did not realise was that he had taken aim at a former SAS soldier. As bemused colleagues looked on, he was effortlessly wrestled to the ground. The humiliating spectacle proved what they all suspected: that Reid had a serious problem. He went slinking off to the Westminster bar to console himself and feed a drinking habit that many believed would eventually wreck his career in politics. Fast forward 15 years and Reid has not only recovered from the alcoholism that threatened to ruin him, but is now touted as a key Blairite "Stop Gordon candidate" in the race for the new Labour leadership. As Home Office minister, this summer, he executed the most astonishing publicity coup against John Prescott, claiming much of the credit for the thwarted Heathrow bombings. It was not the first time that Reid, a shameless self-publicist (he is commonly referred to as minister for the Today programme), had eclipsed the deputy prime minister. Nine years earlier, the sound of Reid's voice on BBC radio's flagship show so incensed Prescott that he shouted at one of his civil servants, "Why the hell is he going on? It should be me." Prescott's jealousy confirmed Reid's emerging importance as Tony Blair's Mr Fix-It. Equally important among Labour's clan, Reid's promotion signalled the final pardon for his conduct during what a friend calls "The Darkness" - his years of alcoholism. The benefit of Reid's resurrection is now acknowledged by George Galloway: "John's a very good political operator - remorseless, unremitting and practical. Just like Stalin." The comparison to the Soviet dictator is intended as a compliment. "John knows how to make the leftwing case for a rightwing argument," adds Galloway. "He's not ideological. He weighs votes and decides who to eliminate. He made himself indispensable in the 1970s and it's the same now." Those qualities were honed during Reid's turbulent years, during which time he was transformed from uneducated ordinariness into a disciplined communist and then into a dedicated servant of the Scottish Labour party. Contemporary eyewitnesses describe Reid in the same breath as "rough" and "outstanding". The conundrum is whether Reid can shed the consequences of "The Darkness" years and realistically challenge the favourite for the leadership. Until the early 1980s, Brown and Reid were, Galloway witnessed, "thick as thieves". Then they simply stopped speaking to each other. Both men have remained tight-lipped about what, seemingly overnight, turned them from friends to sworn enemies. But it's a fair guess that whiskey played its part in wrecking their relationship. Now, the thought of a battle between the two Scotsmen sparks a foreboding frisson among insiders. On the one side is Brown and his gang of loyalists and sycophants. On the other is Reid, a "gregarious loner", who has arrived at the top without an identifiable hinterland, constituency or notable soulmate. His solitariness reflects his fractured life and character. Born on May 8 1947 in Cardowan, a mining village clustered around a colliery near Glasgow, John Reid's mother worked in factories and as a cleaner. Interested principally in music and football, her only child did not excel academically at St Patrick's, his secondary school in Coatbridge. Posing as an Elvis look-alike, Reid was a guitarist and singer in a group called The Graduates. He is remembered by Michael Connarty, a contemporary who would subsequently also be elected as a Labour MP, as an average Catholic who swam with the mainstream and showed special interest in girls. Among them was Cathie McGowan, an intelligent, attractive daughter of a Labour councillor. Soon after the couple's marriage in 1969, Reid gave up working as a labourer to become a clerk in an insurance company. One night, mindlessly bored, he spotted Connarty on a television news programme commenting about a student strike. "If Connarty can get to university, anyone can," Reid exclaimed. In 1971, he registered at Stirling University to study history. Like many working-class children whose families lacked experience of higher education, university revolutionised the 24-year-old. First, there was the hectic social life. Financed by a substantial government grant, his wife's earnings as a teacher and helped by a low-interest mortgage, Reid headed for the students' union bar, winning popularity among his younger fellow students. Kenny Ferguson, a communist and friend, regularly found Reid partying on campus with a succession of girls until 4am, and then returning to his wife at dawn. "He was a huge womaniser," Ferguson laughs. The social and sexual freedom excluded any interest in politics until, in 1972, Stirling became the focus of an outrage. During a visit to the university by the Queen, a group of protesting students spat at the monarch. In the ensuing expulsions, uproar and sudden death of the university's principal, the students "occupied" the campus. In the midst of the strife, elections became due for the rector, or president, of the students' union. Reid saw his chance. One year's exposure to studying history and discussions about politics had awakened his consciousness. Articulate and popular, not least because of his repertoire of Irish Republican songs, Reid stood in the elections. Success depended upon support not only from Labour students but also from the communists. Approaching Jim White, the secretary of the Young Communist League, Reid professed to be a convert seeking membership. "He told us he was a Leninist and Stalinist," White recalls. "Although I was suspicious about his transition, we couldn't tell if he was acting. We let him join." With White's support and Reid's good organisation, he won the vote. John Reid's political career was launched. With hindsight, White condemns Reid as "an opportunist", an opinion echoed by Kenny Ferguson. "He wasn't political," Ferguson insists, "but I wasn't as cynical as other comrades." Compared with other students, Ferguson observed, Reid "was a semi-polished pearl among a lot of mud. He wasn't an intellectual power house, but he could wing it." In that febrile era, membership of the Scottish Communist party was an entrée to extraordinary political activity. The miners and shipbuilders were campaigning and striking against the Heath government's anti-trades union legislation. The militancy among the working classes and their defiance of the new Housing Finance Act enhanced the Communist party's influence. One week's exposure to the speeches, arguments and tactics of those seasoned politicians was worth more to Reid than five years at university. Then there were the lessons in Marxism provided by John Foster, a college teacher and party member. "In class, his probing of Marxism was mild but apparently committed," Foster recalls. Reid's conversion was noted during his first meeting in 1974 with George Galloway at the Festival of Marxism. "You're wasting your time in the sink of reformism," Reid scathingly told the Labour supporter. Reid's commitment was noted by Robin Law, a Marxist historian at Stirling who supervised Reid's research and dissertation for a PhD. His Marxist analysis of a west African economy in the 19th century, Law says, was "highly competent". Others have classified the work, completed in 1987, as "ideological claptrap". Reid has since clung tenaciously to his academic success by asking to be addressed as "Dr Reid". He left Stirling in 1979, just as Labour was routed by Margaret Thatcher. Student politics fed Reid's ambition to become a career politician. The foundations were secure. As a polemicist, he could argue persuasively and intellectually for any position he took. Political realism and financial imperatives had persuaded him to abandon the communists and join Labour. No one witnessed any sentiment or hesitation during the transition. "I used to be a communist," he would later say with contrived flippancy. "I also used to believe in Santa Claus." Briefly employed by the trade unions, Reid was spotted by Helen Liddell, the general secretary of the Scottish Labour party and coincidentally also a fellow pupil at St Patrick's. She offered Reid a post as researcher. At the SLP, the uncultivated, chain-smoking working-class "boy" was introduced to Gordon Brown, Doug Henderson and George Galloway. Reid was "an exceptional researcher", says Galloway, who, while identifying Reid's potential to rank among the party's intellectual cabal, noted his intelligence was inferior to Brown's. Over the next four years, Reid spread his net-work across Scotland, becoming the party's indispensable operator. To gain a victory of ideas, he knew, required organisation. "Reid's image of 'Take your jacket off and come outside' is pure theatre," Ferguson says, laughing. "He's not a thug," agrees Bill Spiers, the former Scottish trade union leader, "because if he was, he would long ago have had his nose smashed in." Reid's self-interpretation is credible. "If people want to caricature me as a cross between Al Capone and Tony Soprano, that's fine," he would say. "But it struck me that if you're a PhD with a middle-class accent, you're an intellectual; and if you're a PhD from Glasgow with a working-class accent, then you're a thug." Reid's pride as an intellectual bully propelled him from the provinces into the heart of power. According to folklore, a chance encounter during the 1983 Labour party conference after the disastrous general election defeat was Reid's golden opportunity. It is said that he had a fierce debate with a hard left critic in the bar, witnessed by Charles Clarke, Kinnock's chief of staff. According to Reid, he was asked that night to report to Kinnock's office,where he delivered an impressively pithy analysis of Labour's problems: "Leaderless, unpatriotic, dominated by demagogues, policies 15 years out of date." Reid was recruited as Kinnock's speechwriter, but he was more, remoulding Kinnock's image from a shallow, insecure and uneducated interloper into the party's saviour. "He taught us," Kinnock recalls with admiration of Reid's deep understanding of the Labour movement, "to organise winning the vote before the actual vote." Based on cunning and muscle, Reid advised Kinnock: "Get the synthesis right, pick the moment and then kick the shit out of them." Long before Brown and Blair began to plot New Labour, Reid advocated turning the party towards the middle classes: "If we're going to help the have-nots, we must get the support of the haves and haven't got enoughs," he argued. By working and arguing with Clarke, Brown and others about Chile, apartheid, the Bomb and one-member-one-vote, Reid became a Blairite before Blair. "Polish your shoes," was Kinnock's requirement of an inspiring collaborator to rid Labour of Militant Tendency, "and admire Antonio Gramsci." Reid devoured the Italian philosopher's writings. The battle was joined by Brown, who in 1983 was finally elected to the Commons and identified by Kinnock as a potential star for rapid promotion to the front bench. In the mid-1980s, Reid's image was compelling. As an operator, he mixed easily among party members, always remembering faces and personal details, displaying impressive political antennae. His talent was rewarded. At the end of his speech during the 1982 Hillhead byelection, he was approached by Mary McKenna, the party secretary for the Motherwell constituency. Over a curry, McKenna explained that the sitting MP would soon retire and she wanted to nominate Reid for the safe seat. Few aspiring politicians are blessed with such luck. To win nomination, said McKenna, depended on securing the support of Tommy Brennan, a trade unionist controlling the biggest block of votes. Among Brennan's tests would be Reid's agreement to walk 500 miles in 16 days from Scotland to London to protest about the closure of a local steelworks. Thereafter, Brennan got to work. There were six candidates at the selection conference, but, Brennan admits, "It was all fixed before." In 1987, Reid was elected with a near 24,000 majority. Yet the 40-year-old new MP, admired by Kinnock and certain of success, instantly sabotaged his destiny. Since his arrival in Stirling, Reid had drunk heavily. Not just beer but also whiskey. During his four years at the SLP, his achievements were regularly blunted by his volatile temper fuelled by alcohol. Reid, it was said, enjoyed "the craic", an Irishism describing convivial conversation lubricated by booze. Reid's misfortune was that his ferocious arguments about politics spilled into vicious personal abuse. Among the casualties were his close relationships with Gordon Brown and Doug Henderson. As an MP in London, he was soon isolated. Living in Toynbee Hall in east London and separated from his family, he sat miserably in Westminster's all-night bars. Kinnock's defeat in the 1992 election tipped Reid into depression. "All that bloody effort," he complained to Kinnock the following morning. On his return to Westminster, Reid was, according to one observer, "pissed off and pissed". Michael Connarty found his school friend at the Stranger's bar, "in a bad way. He took defeat as a deep body blow. It was sad to see him in despair." Consumed by purposelessness, alcoholism increasingly isolated Reid. By contrast, Brown had risen to become shadow chancellor and was tipped as the leader-in-waiting, although many noted Tony Blair's potent challenge for the top job. The outsider's only consolation was his appointment as Labour's spokesman on defence. Reid was enamoured by the army, in particular by what he called "The Job" of soldiering - his father had served in the Scots Guards during the second world war and two uncles had died fighting. During rigorous debates in the empty Commons chamber, he built a reputation as a serious politician. There were only two threats to Reid's prospects: his daily drunkenness and his judgment. The latter was called into question after his decision in 1993 to spend a weekend in Geneva with Radovan Karadzic, the Serbian war criminal, as well as his subsequent failure to declare that the bill for the trip had been paid by a lobbyist. The Labour leader John Smith's ultimatum in April 1994 to stop drinking was the watershed. Overnight, Reid pledged to abandon alcohol. Three weeks later, Smith was dead. Devastated, Reid went to a pub and drank a bottle of whiskey. But soon after he gave up for ever, later quipping, "I never had a problem with alcohol. I loved the stuff." Smith's death was Reid's opportunity. As a supporter of New Labour, he had already identified Blair as the moderniser's champion and Brown as the man to be humiliated. "Brown would be a disaster," he told a Labour MP, and urged Blair to declare his candidature. After his victory, however, Blair did not invite Reid into the inner circle - now hated by Brown, Reid remained tarred as an unreliable alcoholic. Nevertheless, he was asked to persuade party members to abolish Clause 4. At a crucial debate in Inverness in 1995, he watched Galloway deliver a rousing speech that, much to Galloway's delight "brought the house down". Reid's speech followed. To Galloway's astonishment, his arguments were comprehensively and "brutally" demolished by Reid's brilliant "body blows". The members voted for abolition. Reid had proved his worth and loyalty - his reward in May 1997 was to be appointed minister for armed services under George Robertson. On the civil servants' network, Reid was praised for mastering his brief, being tough and making decisions. No one begrudged his lust for the spotlight to promote the message and himself, even posing as Action Man in a tank. Unlike other ministers, the defence chiefs encouraged Reid to meet soldiers. "He was a man's man," Helen Liddell attests. Success was contaminated by tragedy, however. During a visit to Cyprus, his wife suddenly died. At the funeral, Brown and Henderson led the mourners. Reid's mother volunteered to care for his two sons, Kevin and Mark. One year later he was linked to Carine Adler, a wealthy Brazilian film director, whom he married in 2002. His journey from a Lanarkshire pit village to London's high life was as colourful as her erotic films. In July 1998, George Robertson discovered his colleague tearful in Speaker's courtyard. "I'm going to Transport and I love Defence," whimpered Reid. "But you're on the way to the cabinet," consoled Robertson. Sidelined by John Prescott after advocating the interests of Mondeo Man rather than the environment, Reid eagerly accepted Alastair Campbell's anointment as the government's hardman communicator on TV and radio. Spouting New Labour philosophy in Old Labour language, he performed equally well on Westminster's tea room circuit, reaching out on Blair's behalf to ordinary MPs. Yet his exposure revealed a fundamental deficiency. Despite his intelligence and education, Reid lacked political substance. Unlike Brown, he was not part of Labour's inner jigsaw and lacked any individual vision for Britain. His life had not yet produced a glorious moment in the party's history. There was no speech, book, article or even rhetorical phrase identifiable as Reidism. He was just a Downing Street loyalist, delivering impulsive soundbites to the media. His new exposure offered the opportunity to create the foundations of a legacy. At the first hurdle, he fell. In 1999, Reid's 29-year-old son Kevin, a lobbyist, was accused of offering clients privileged access to his father and other Scottish politicians. Kevin had been secretly taped by an Observer journalist. In the fall-out, Reid, then the secretary of state for Scotland, was harmed and argued violently in public with Donald Dewar, Scotland's first minister, about Dewar's demand for an independent inquiry. Reid's questionable judgment was again highlighted soon after. He was accused of wrongly using parliamentary funds to pay three researchers, including his son Kevin, to work for the Labour party in Scotland. Elizabeth Filkin, the parliamentary commissioner for standards, declared that the evidence proved that Reid had broken the rules. After criticising Kevin Reid for giving misleading evidence, Filkin accused his father for not cooperating, giving evidence that "falls short of a candid and complete account" and, worse, for placing "pressure of various kinds" on witnesses to change their testimony. Although Filkin's report was not endorsed by a Labour-dominated committee of MPs, Reid's reputation was tarnished. In the backwash, Labour MPs sympathised with Reid's passionate defence of his son, while Conservatives concluded that Reid was as sleazy as his other colleagues. Blair chose to ignore the embarrassment. In January 2001, after Peter Mandelson's second resignation, Reid was appointed as the secretary of state for Ireland. His record is controversial. Reid's 21 months in the province is damned by the Protestants, inevitably suspicious of a self-proclaimed "Glasgow Taig" fond of quoting Gramsci. David Trimble, the loyalist leader, accuses Reid of refusing to endorse the Union's value. Worse, Trimble accuses Reid of relying on false intelligence deliberately to destroy the Ulsterman's political credibility by siding with the IRA and refusing to enforce the disarmament of the Republicans. "Every Northern Ireland secretary," says Trimble's adviser, "had positive achievements, except Reid. He wasted Mandelson's rich legacy." Others, including Kate Hoey, are more generous: "He didn't want to rock the boat," she says. By 2003, after uninspiring stints as party chairman and then leader of the Commons, Reid had proved his credentials as a safe fireman and conciliator, if not as a potential statesman. When Alan Milburn resigned as health minister, to "spend more time with his family", Reid was the inevitable choice to be parachuted into the empty office. Reid arrived in the midst of a crisis. Vast new funds had been approved by the Treasury for the NHS, but the consultants and GPs had rejected Milburn's new contracts. Reid did not properly examine his complex inheritance. Instead, ignoring repeated warnings that succumbing to the doctors would deny taxpayers value for money, he "paid out to GPs", according to John Chisholm, the BMA negotiator, "more than was anticipated, and that was after a 32% pay increase". Paul Miller, the BMA negotiator for the consultants, also discovered that Reid severely, "under-estimated the huge amounts consultants would earn in overtime". Having inhaled his media reputation as crisis-solver, Reid focused on the public kudos of posing as Mr Fix-It and plunged the NHS into its current financial crisis. Inevitably, his performance was always overshadowed by Brown's success as chancellor. "I've come back home," Reid told George Robertson in May 2005 on his appointment as defence secretary. "I've had to go through six departments to get back here." The MoD and the army welcomed Reid's return, too, not least because, according to one defence chief, "he loves the army", and because he quickly secured a 1% real increase in the budget. The downside for Reid was the litany of dubious statements he uttered as Tony Blair became beleaguered after the invasion of Iraq. Crudely, Reid denounced those questioning the government's false dossiers about Iraq's WMDs as being inspired by "rogue elements" in MI5 and MI6. There was no evidence for Reid's calumny but, according to a mentor, "John believes you should go for the throat when you're in a corner." Hence that comparison to Stalin. Reid's loyalty to Blair has left other unfortunate legacies. His announcement about sending soldiers to Afghanistan is memorable for his prediction that, as reconstructors, they would return without firing a shot. "That raised eyebrows all over the place," says the senior officer involved in the operation. "He wasn't naive - he knew the mission was counter-terrorism. The spin was Downing Street's plan to delude Labour's backbenchers." Reid's unquestioning devotion sustained his image. Challenged by Jeremy Paxman as Labour's "attack dog", Reid lashed back, unintentionally justifying the label. During the 12 years since he stopped drinking, Reid has had ample opportunity to prove his substance as a politician. His unexpected arrival at the Home Office in May 2006 - his ninth job in nine years - was the ultimate test. Yet within four weeks he appeared to have blown it. His brash condemnation of his legacy as "not fit for purpose", albeit accurate, was bad politics. His seesaw on Megan's Law and housing paedophiles, the drugs laws, his suggestion - later retracted - that the public "have a go" at criminals, and his attacks on judges and the Human Rights Act, confirmed his love of soundbites rather than policy. Yet since the hiatus and headlines about U-turns, there has been silence, suggesting that Reid is strenuously reforming the Home Office and might even use his achievement to challenge Brown. For those desperate to "Stop Gordon", Reid could well be the best candidate. Unlike Alan Johnson, for example, he knows how to hit Brown; he would also relish the battle. Admirers such as Helen Liddell are generous: "John is still a work in progress. We haven't seen the end of the John Reid story." A contest between two chieftains of the Scottish Raj may not appeal to uncommitted English voters, but 20 years after their falling-out, there would be a perfect symmetry to a contest that Reid would hate to lose. · Additional research by Mark Hollingsworth.	Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke
Who marries 'Petruccio' in Shakespeare's, 'The Taming Of The Shrew'?	BBC News \| SCOTLAND \| Helen Liddell: Profile Wednesday, 24 January, 2001, 21:54 GMT Helen Liddell: Profile Helen Liddell is the new Scottish Secretary Helen Liddell has returned to politics north of the Border as the new secretary of state for Scotland. The former minister for energy and competitiveness in Europe steps into the shoes of Dr John Reid who has been appointed Northern Ireland secretary following the resignation of Peter Mandelson. It is nearly two years since Mrs Liddell was last involved in Scottish politics as deputy Scottish secretary. During a stormy 12 months in the post she clashed with the country's teaching unions over the implementation of Higher Still and earned the moniker "Nat-basher-in-chief" for her gloves-off approach to the Scottish National Party. She replaces Dr John Reid Mrs Liddell, 50, was born in the Scottish Labour heartland of Lanarkshire. She started work in the economics department of the Scottish Trades Union Congress before joining BBC Scotland as an economics correspondent. The married mother-of-two spent 11 years as general secretary of the Labour Party in Scotland while it was in opposition. She then started work as personnel director for the Scottish Daily Record and Sunday Mail when both papers were owned by Robert Maxwell. By-election She became the Westminster MP for the Lanarkshire constituency of Monklands East in 1994 after the death of former Labour leader John Smith sparked a by-election. After a fiercely contested battle Mrs Liddell beat the SNP into second place with a majority of less than 2000. She was re-elected in 1997 to the new Airdrie and Shotts constituency, with a majority of more than 15,000. When Labour swept to power in May 1997, the politician's stock began to rise. She spent a period at the Treasury where her "no-nonsense style" was put to use naming and shaming financial institutions accused of mis-selling pensions. In July 1998 she joined the then Scottish Office - now known as the Scotland Office - as education minister and deputy secretary of state for Scotland to Donald Dewar. Search BBC News Online	i don't know
In Shakespeare's, 'The Merchant Of Venice', who has servants named 'Balthasar' and 'Stefano'?	SparkNotes: The Merchant of Venice: Character List The Merchant of Venice Plot Overview Analysis of Major Characters Shylock - A Jewish moneylender in Venice. Angered by his mistreatment at the hands of Venice’s Christians, particularly Antonio, Shylock schemes to eke out his revenge by ruthlessly demanding as payment a pound of Antonio’s flesh. Although seen by the rest of the play’s characters as an inhuman monster, Shylock at times diverges from stereotype and reveals himself to be quite human. These contradictions, and his eloquent expressions of hatred, have earned Shylock a place as one of Shakespeare’s most memorable characters. Read an in-depth analysis of Shylock. Portia - A wealthy heiress from Belmont. Portia’s beauty is matched only by her intelligence. Bound by a clause in her father’s will that forces her to marry whichever suitor chooses correctly among three caskets, Portia is nonetheless able to marry her true love, Bassanio. Far and away the most clever of the play’s characters, it is Portia, in the disguise of a young law clerk, who saves Antonio from Shylock’s knife. Read an in-depth analysis of Portia. Antonio - The merchant whose love for his friend Bassanio prompts him to sign Shylock’s contract and almost lose his life. Antonio is something of a mercurial figure, often inexplicably melancholy and, as Shylock points out, possessed of an incorrigible dislike of Jews. Nonetheless, Antonio is beloved of his friends and proves merciful to Shylock, albeit with conditions. Read an in-depth analysis of Antonio. Bassanio - A gentleman of Venice, and a kinsman and dear friend to Antonio. Bassanio’s love for the wealthy Portia leads him to borrow money from Shylock with Antonio as his guarantor. An ineffectual businessman, Bassanio proves himself a worthy suitor, correctly identifying the casket that contains Portia’s portrait. Gratiano - A friend of Bassanio’s who accompanies him to Belmont. A coarse and garrulous young man, Gratiano is Shylock’s most vocal and insulting critic during the trial. While Bassanio courts Portia, Gratiano falls in love with and eventually weds Portia’s lady-in-waiting, Nerissa. Jessica - Although she is Shylock’s daughter, Jessica hates life in her father’s house, and elopes with the young Christian gentleman, Lorenzo. The fate of her soul is often in doubt: the play’s characters wonder if her marriage can overcome the fact that she was born a Jew, and we wonder if her sale of a ring given to her father by her mother is excessively callous. Lorenzo - A friend of Bassanio and Antonio, Lorenzo is in love with Shylock’s daughter, Jessica. He schemes to help Jessica escape from her father’s house, and he eventually elopes with her to Belmont. Nerissa - Portia’s lady-in-waiting and confidante. She marries Gratiano and escorts Portia on Portia’s trip to Venice by disguising herself as her law clerk. Launcelot Gobbo - Bassanio’s servant. A comical, clownish figure who is especially adept at making puns, Launcelot leaves Shylock’s service in order to work for Bassanio. The prince of Morocco - A Moorish prince who seeks Portia’s hand in marriage. The prince of Morocco asks Portia to ignore his dark countenance and seeks to win her by picking one of the three caskets. Certain that the caskets reflect Portia’s beauty and stature, the prince of Morocco picks the gold chest, which proves to be incorrect. The prince of Arragon - An arrogant Spanish nobleman who also attempts to win Portia’s hand by picking a casket. Like the prince of Morocco, however, the prince of Arragon chooses unwisely. He picks the silver casket, which gives him a message calling him an idiot instead of Portia’s hand. Salarino - A Venetian gentleman, and friend to Antonio, Bassanio, and Lorenzo. Salarino escorts the newlyweds Jessica and Lorenzo to Belmont, and returns with Bassanio and Gratiano for Antonio’s trial. He is often almost indistinguishable from his companion Solanio. Solanio - A Venetian gentleman, and frequent counterpart to Salarino. The duke of Venice - The ruler of Venice, who presides over Antonio’s trial. Although a powerful man, the duke’s state is built on respect for the law, and he is unable to help Antonio. Old Gobbo - Launcelot’s father, also a servant in Venice. Tubal - A Jew in Venice, and one of Shylock’s friends. Doctor Bellario - A wealthy Paduan lawyer and Portia’s cousin. Doctor Bellario never appears in the play, but he gives Portia’s servant the letters of introduction needed for her to make her appearance in court. Balthasar - Portia’s servant, whom she dispatches to get the appropriate materials from Doctor Bellario. More Help	Thomson Financial
Nineteenth century Japanese artist, Hokusai, made a series of 36 prints of what?	Tales from Shakespeare/The Merchant of Venice - Wikisource, the free online library Tales from Shakespeare/The Merchant of Venice From Wikisource 187355 Tales from Shakespeare — The Merchant of VeniceMary Lamb Shylock, the Jew, lived at Venice: he was an usurer, who had amassed an immense fortune by lending money at great interest to Christian merchants. Shylock, being a hard-hearted man, exacted the payment of the money he lent with such severity that he was much disliked by all good men, and particularly by Antonio, a young merchant of Venice; and Shylock as much hated Antonio, because he used to lend money to people in distress, and would never take any interest for the money he lent; therefore there was great enmity between this covetous Jew and the generous merchant Antonio. Whenever Antonio met Shylock on the Rialto (or Exchange), he used to reproach him with his usuries and hard dealings, which the Jew would bear with seeming patience, while he secretly meditated revenge. Antonio was the kindest man that lived, the best conditioned, and had the most unwearied spirit in doing courtesies; indeed, he was one in whom the ancient Roman honour more appeared than in any that drew breath in Italy. He was greatly beloved by all his fellow-citizens; but the friend who was nearest and dearest to his heart was Bassanio, a noble Venetian, who, having but a small patrimony, had nearly exhausted his little fortune by living in too expensive a manner for his slender means, as young men of high rank with small fortunes are too apt to do. Whenever Bassanio wanted money, Antonio assisted him; and it seemed as if they had but one heart and one purse between them. One day Bassanio came to Antonio, and told him that he wished to repair his fortune by a wealthy marriage with a lady whom he dearly loved, whose father, that was lately dead, had left her sole heiress to a large estate; and that in her father's lifetime he used to visit at her house, when he thought he had observed this lady had sometimes from her eyes sent speechless messages, that seemed to say he would be no unwelcome suitor; but not having money to furnish himself with an appearance befitting the lover of so rich an heiress, he besought Antonio to add to the many favours he had shown him, by lending him three thousand ducats. Antonio had no money by him at that time to lend his friend; but expecting soon to have some ships come home laden with merchandise, he said he would go to Shylock, the rich money-lender and borrow the money upon the credit of those ships. Antonio and Bassanio went together to Shylock, and Antonio asked the Jew to lend him three thousand ducats upon any interest he should require, to be paid out of the merchandise contained in his ships at sea. On this, Shylock thought within himself- 'If I can once catch him on the hip, I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him; he hates our Jewish nation; he lends out money gratis, and among merchants he rails at me and my well-earned bargains, which he calls interest. Cursed be my tribe if I forgive him!' Antonio finding he was musing within himself and did not answer, and being impatient for the money, said: 'Shylock, do you hear? will you lend the money?' To this question the Jew replied: 'Signior Antonio, on the Rialto many a time and often you have railed at me about my monies and my usuries, and I have borne it with a patient shrug, for sufferance is the badge of all our tribe; and then you have called me unbeliever, cut-throat dog, and spit upon my Jewish garments, and spurned at me with your foot, as if I was a cur. Well then, it now appears you need my help; and you come to me, and say, Shylock, lend me monies. Has a dog money? Is it possible a cur should lend three thousand ducats? Shall I bend low and say, Fair sir, you spit upon me on Wednesday last, another time you called me dog, and for these courtesies I am to lend you monies.' Antonio replied: 'I am as like to call you so again, to spit on you again, and spurn you too. If you will lend me this money, lend it not to me as to a friend, but rather lend it to me as to an enemy, that, if I break, you may with better face exact the penalty.' 'Why, look you,' said Shylock, 'how you storm! I would be friends with you, and have your love. I will forget the shames you have put upon me. I will supply your wants, and take no interest for my money.' This seemingly kind offer greatly surprised Antonio; and then Shylock, still pretending kindness, and that all he did was to gain Antonio's love, again said he would lend him the three thousand ducats, and take no interest for his money; only Antonio should go with him to a lawyer, and there sign in merry sport a bond, that if he did not repay the money by a certain day, he would forfeit a pound of flesh, to be cut off from any part of his body that Shylock pleased. 'Content,' said Antonio: 'I will sign to this bond, and say there is much kindness in the Jew.' Bassanio said Antonio should not sign to such a bond for him; but still Antonio insisted that he would sign it, for that before the day of payment came, his ships would return laden with many times the value of the money. Shylock, hearing this debate, exclaimed: 'O, father Abraham, what suspicious people these Christians are! Their own hard dealings teach them to suspect the thoughts of others. I pray you tell me this, Bassanio: if he should break this day, what should I gain by the exaction of the forfeiture? A pound of man's flesh, taken from a man, is not so estimable, nor profitable neither, as the flesh of mutton or beef. I say, to buy his favour I offer this friendship: if he will take it, so; if not, adieu.' At last, against the advice of Bassanio, who, notwithstanding all the Jew had said of his kind intentions, did not like his friend should run the hazard of this shocking penalty for his sake, Antonio signed the bond, thinking it really was (as the Jew said) merely in sport. The rich heiress that Bassanio wished to marry lived near Venice, at a place called Belmont: her name was Portia, and in the graces of her person and her mind she was nothing inferior to that Portia, of whom we read, who was Cato's daughter, and the wife of Brutus. Bassanio being so kindly supplied with money by his friend Antonio, at the hazard of his life, set out for Belmont with a splendid train, and attended by a gentleman of the name of Gratiano. Bassanio proving successful in his suit, Portia in a short time consented to accept of him for a husband. Bassanio confessed to Portia that he had no fortune, and that his high birth and noble ancestry was all that he could boast of; she, who loved him for his worthy qualities, and had riches enough not to regard wealth in a husband, answered with a graceful modesty, that she would wish herself a thousand times more fair, and ten thousand times more rich, to be more worthy of him; and then the accomplished Portia prettily dispraised herself, and said she was an unlessoned girl, unschooled, unpractised, yet not so old but that she could learn, and that she would commit her gentle spirit to be directed and governed by him in all things; and she said: 'Myself and what is mine, to you and yours is now converted. But yesterday, Bassanio, I was the lady of this fair mansion, queen of myself, and mistress over these servants; and now this house, these servants, and myself, are yours, my lord; I give them with this ring'; presenting a ring to Bassanio. Bassanio was so overpowered with gratitude and wonder at the gracious manner in which the rich and noble Portia accepted of a man of his humble fortunes, that he could not express his joy and reverence to the dear lady who so honoured him, by anything but broken words of love and thankfulness; and taking the ring, he vowed never to part with it. Gratiano and Nerissa, Portia's waiting-maid, were in attendance upon their lord and lady, when Portia so gracefully promised to become the obedient wife of Bassanio; and Gratiano, wishing Bassanio and the generous lady joy, desired permission to be married at the same time. 'With all my heart, Gratiano,' said Bassanio, 'if you can get a wife.' Gratiano then said that he loved the lady Portia's fair waiting gentlewoman Nerissa, and that she had promised to be his wife, if her lady married Bassanio. Portia asked Nerissa if this was true. Nerissa replied: 'Madam, it is so, if you approve of it.' Portia willingly consenting, Bassanio pleasantly said: 'Then our wedding-feast shall be much honoured by your marriage, Gratiano.' The happiness of these lovers was sadly crossed at this moment by the entrance of a messenger, who brought a letter from Antonio containing fearful tidings. When Bassanio read Antonio's letter, Portia feared it was to tell him of the death of some dear friend, he looked so pale; and inquiring what was the news which had so distressed him, he said: 'O sweet Portia, here are a few of the unpleasantest words that ever blotted paper; gentle lady, when I first imparted my love to you, I freely told you all the wealth I had ran in my veins; but I should have told you that I had less than nothing, being in debt.' Bassanio then told Portia what has been here related, of his borrowing the money of Antonio, and of Antonio's procuring it of Shylock the Jew, and of the bond by which Antonio had engaged to forfeit a pound of flesh, if it was not repaid by a certain day: and then Bassanio read Antonio's letter: the words of which were: Sweet Bassanio, my ships are all lost, my bond to the Jew is forfeited, and since in paying it is impossible I should live, I could wish to see you at my death; notwithstanding use your pleasure; if your love for me do not persuade you to come, let not my letter.' 'O, my dear love,' said Portia, 'despatch all business, and begone; you shall have gold to pay the money twenty times over, before this kind friend shall lose a hair by my Bassanio's fault; and as you are so dearly bought, I will dearly love you.' Portia then said she would be married to Bassanio before he set out, to give him a legal right to her money; and that same day they were married, and Gratiano was also married to Nerissa; and Bassanio and Gratiano, the instant they were married, set out in great haste for Venice, where Bassanio found Antonio in prison. The day of payment being past, the cruel Jew would not accept of the money which Bassanio offered him, but insisted upon having a pound of Antonio's flesh. A day was appointed to try this shocking cause before the duke of Venice, and Bassanio awaited in dreadful suspense the event of the trial. When Portia parted with her husband, she spoke cheeringly to him, and bade him bring his dear friend along with him when he returned; yet she feared it would go hard with Antonio, and when she was left alone, she began to think and consider within herself, if she could by any means be instrumental in saving the life of her dear Bassanio's friend; and notwithstanding when she wished to honour her Bassanio, she had said to him with such a meek and wifelike grace, that she would submit in all things to be governed by his superior wisdom, yet being now called forth into action by the peril of her honoured husband's friend, she did nothing doubt her own powers, and by the sole guidance of her own true and perfect judgement, at once resolved to go herself to Venice, and speak in Antonio's defence. Portia had a relation who was a counsellor in the law; to this gentleman, whose name was Bellario, she wrote, and stating the case to him, desired his opinion, and that with his advice he would also send her the dress worn by a counsellor. When the messenger returned, he brought letters from Bellario of advice how to proceed, and also everything necessary for her equipment. Portia dressed herself and her maid Nerissa in men's apparel, and putting on the robes of a counsellor, she took Nerissa along with her as her clerk; and setting out immediately, they arrived at Venice on the very day of the trial. The cause was just going to be heard before the duke and senators of Venice in the senatehouse, when Portia entered this high court of justice, and presented a letter from Bellario, in which that learned counsellor wrote to the duke, saying, he would have come himself to plead for Antonio, but that he was prevented by sickness, and he requested that the learned young doctor Balthasar (so he called Portia) might be permitted to plead in his stead. This the duke granted, much wondering at the youthful appearance of the stranger, who was prettily disguised by her counsellor's robes and her large wig. And now began this important trial. Portia looked around her, and she knew the merciless Jew; and she saw Bassanio, but he knew her not in her disguise. He was standing beside Antonio, in an agony of distress and fear for his friend. The importance of the arduous task Portia had engaged in gave this tender lady courage, and she boldly proceeded in the duty she had undertaken to perform: and first of all she addressed herself to Shylock; and allowing that he had a right by the Venetian law to have the forfeit expressed in the bond, she spoke so sweetly of the noble quality of mercy, as would have softened any heart but the unfeeling Shylock's; saying, that it dropped as the gentle rain from heaven upon the place beneath; and how mercy was a double blessing, it blessed him that gave, and him that received it; and how it became monarchs better than their crowns, being an attribute of God Himself; and that earthly power came nearest to God's, in proportion as mercy tempered justice; and she bid Shylock remember that as we all pray for mercy, that same prayer should teach us to show mercy. Shylock only answered her by desiring to have the penalty forfeited in the bond. 'Is he not able to pay the money?' asked Portia. Bassanio then offered the Jew the payment of the three thousand ducats as many times over as he should desire; which Shylock refusing, and still insisting upon having a pound of Antonio's flesh, Bassanio begged the learned young counsellor would endeavour to wrest the law a little, to save Antonio's life. But Portia gravely answered, that laws once established must never be altered. Shylock hearing Portia say that the law might not be altered, it seemed to him that she was pleading in his favour, and he said: 'A Daniel is come to judgement! O wise young judge, how I do honour you! How much elder are you than your looks!' Portia now desired Shylock to let her look at the bond; and when she had read it, she said: 'This bond is forfeited, and by this the Jew may lawfully claim a pound of flesh, to be by him cut off nearest Antonio's heart.' Then she said to Shylock: 'Be merciful: take the money, and bid me tear the bond.' But no mercy would the cruel Shylock show; and he said: 'By my soul I swear, there is no power in the tongue of men to alter me.' 'Why then, Antonio,' said Portia, 'you must prepare your bosom for the knife': and while Shylock was sharpening a long knife with great eagerness to cut off the pound of flesh, Portia said to Antonio: 'Have you anything to say?' Antonio with a calm resignation replied, that he had but little to say, for that he had prepared his mind for death. Then he said to Bassanio: 'Give me your hand, Bassanio! Fare you well! Grieve not that I am fallen into this misfortune for you. Commend me to your honourable wife, and tell her how I have loved you!' Bassanio in the deepest affliction replied: 'Antonio, I am married to a wife, who is as dear to me as life itself; but life itself, my wife, and all the world, are not esteemed with me above your life; I would lose all, I would sacrifice all to this devil here, to deliver you.' Portia hearing this, though the kind-hearted lady was not at all offended with her husband for expressing the love he owed to so true a friend as Antonio in these strong terms, yet could not help answering: 'Your wife would give you little thanks, if she were present, to hear you make this offer.' And then Gratiano, who loved to copy what his lord did, thought he must make a speech like Bassanio's, and he said, in Nerissa's hearing, who was writing in her clerk's dress by the side of Portia: 'I have a wife, whom I protest I love; I wish she were in heaven, if she could but entreat some power there to change the cruel temper of this currish Jew.' 'It is well you wish this behind her back, else you would have but an unquiet house,' said Nerissa. Shylock now cried out impatiently: 'We trifle time; .I pray pronounce the sentence.' And now all was awful expectation in the court, and every heart was full of grief for Antonio. Portia asked if the scales were ready to weigh the flesh; and she said to the Jew: 'Shylock, you must have some surgeon by, lest he bleed to death.' Shylock, whose whole intent was that Antonio should bleed to death, said: 'It is not so named in the bond.' Portia replied: 'It is not so named in the bond, but what of that? It were good you did so much for charity.' To this all the answer Shylock would make was: 'I cannot find it; it is not in the bond.' 'Then,' said Portia, 'a pound of Antonio's flesh is thine. The law allows it, and the court awards it. And you may cut this flesh from off his breast. The law allows it and the court awards it.' Again Shylock exclaimed: 'O wise and upright judge! A Daniel is come to judgement!' And then he sharpened his long knife again, and looking eagerly on Antonio, he said: 'Come, prepare!' 'Tarry a little, Jew,' said Portia; 'there is something else. This bond here gives you no drop of blood; the words expressly are "a pound of flesh". If in the cutting off the pound of flesh you shed one drop of Christian blood, your lands and goods are by the law to be confiscated to the state of Venice.' Now as it was utterly impossible for Shylock to cut off the pound of flesh without shedding some of Antonio's blood, this wise discovery of Portia's, that it was flesh and not blood that was named in the bond, saved the life of Antonio; and all admiring the wonderful sagacity of the young counsellor, who had so happily thought of this expedient, plaudits resounded from every part of the senate-house; and Gratiano exclaimed, in the words which Shylock had used: 'O wise and upright judge! mark, Jew, a Daniel is come to judgement!' Shylock, finding himself defeated in his cruel intent, said with a disappointed look, that he would take the money; and Bassanio, rejoiced beyond measure at Antonio's unexpected deliverance, cried out: 'Here is the money!' But Portia stopped him, saying: 'Softly; there is no haste; the Jew shall have nothing but the penalty: therefore prepare, Shylock, to cut off the flesh; but mind you shed no blood: nor do not cut off more nor less than just a pound; be it more or less by one poor scruple, nay if the scale turn but by the weight of a single hair, you are condemned by the laws of Venice to die, and all you wealth is forfeited to the senate.' 'Give me my money, and let me go,' said Shylock. 'I have it ready,' said Bassanio: 'here it is.' Shylock was going to take the money, when Portia again stopped him, saying: 'Tarry, Jew; I have yet another hold upon you. By the laws of Venice, your wealth is forfeited to the state, for having conspired against the life of one of its citizens, and your life lies at the mercy of the duke; therefore, down on your knees, and ask him to pardon you.' The duke then said to Shylock: 'That you may see the difference of our Christian spirit, I pardon you your life before you ask it; half your wealth belongs to Antonio, the other half comes to the state.' The generous Antonio then said that he would give up his share of Shylock's wealth, if Shylock would sign a deed to make it over at his death to his daughter and her husband; for Antonio knew that the Jew had an only daughter who had lately married against his consent to a young Christian, named Lorenzo, a friend of Antonio's, which had so offended Shylock, that he had disinherited her. The Jew agreed to this: and being thus disappointed in his revenge, and despoiled of his riches, he said: 'I am ill. Let me go home; send the deed after me, and I will sign over half my riches to my daughter.' 'Get thee gone, then,' said the duke, 'and sign it; and if you repent your cruelty and turn Christian, the state will forgive you the fine of the other half of your riches.' The duke now released Antonio, and dismissed the court. He then highly praised the wisdom and ingenuity of the young counsellor, and invited him home to dinner. Portia, who meant to return to Belmont before her husband, replied: 'I humbly thank your grace, but I must away directly.' The duke said he was sorry he had not leisure to stay and dine with him; and turning to Antonio, he added: 'Reward this gentleman; for in my mind you are much indebted to him.' The duke and his senators left the court; and then Bassanio said to Portia: 'Most worthy gentleman, I and my friend Antonio have by your wisdom been this day acquitted of grievous penalties, and I beg you will accept of the three thousand ducats due unto the Jew.' 'And we shall stand indebted to you over and above,' said Antonio, 'in love and service evermore.' Portia could not be prevailed upon to accept the money; but upon Bassanio still pressing her to accept of some reward, she said: 'Give me your gloves; I will wear them for your sake'; and then Bassanio taking off his gloves, she espied the ring which she had given him upon his finger: now it was the ring the wily lady wanted to get from him to make a merry jest when she saw her Bassanio again, that made her ask him for his gloves; and she said, when she saw the ring, 'and for your love I will take this ring from you.' Bassanio was sadly distressed that the counsellor should ask him for the only thing he could not part with, and he replied in great confusion, that he could not give him that ring, because it was his wife's gift, and he had vowed never to part with it; but that he would give him the most valuable ring in Venice, and find it out by proclamation. On this Portia affected to be affronted, and left the court, saying: 'You teach me, sir, how a beggar should be answered.' 'Dear Bassanio,' said Antonio, 'let him have the ring; let my love and the great service he has done for me be valued against your wife's displeasure.' Bassanio, ashamed to appear so ungrateful, yielded, and sent Gratiano after Portia with the ring; and then the clerk Nerissa, who had also given Gratiano a ring, she begged his ring, and Gratiano (not choosing to be outdone in generosity by his lord) gave it to her. And there was laughing among these ladies to think, when they got home, how they would tax their husbands with giving away their rings, and swear that they had given them as a present to some woman. Portia, when she returned, was in that happy temper of mind which never fails to attend the consciousness of having performed a good action; her cheerful spirits enjoyed everything she saw: the moon never seemed to shine so bright before; and when that pleasant moon was hid behind a cloud, then a light which she saw from her house at Belmont as well pleased her charmed fancy, and she said to Nerissa: 'That light we see is burning in my hall; how far that little candle throws its beams, so shines a good deed in a naughty world'; and hearing the sound of music from her house, she said: 'Methinks that music sounds much sweeter than by day.' And now Portia and Nerissa entered the house, and dressing themselves in their own apparel, they awaited the arrival of their husbands, who soon followed them with Antonio; and Bassanio presenting his dear friend to the lady Portia, the congratulations and welcomings of that lady were hardly over, when they perceived Nerissa and her husband quarrelling in a comer of the room. 'A quarrel already?' said Portia. 'What is the matter?' Gratiano replied: 'Lady, it is about a paltry gilt ring that Nerissa gave me, with words upon it like the poetry on a cutler's knife; Love me, and leave me not.' 'What does the poetry or the value of the ring signify?' said Nerissa. 'You swore to me when I gave it to you, that you would keep it till the hour of death; and now you say you gave it to the lawyer's clerk. I know you gave it to a woman.' 'By this hand,' replied Gratiano, 'I gave it to a youth, a kind of boy, a little scrubbed boy, no higher than yourself; he was clerk to the young counsellor that by his wise pleading saved Antonio's life: this prating boy begged it for a fee, and I could not for my life deny him.' Portia said: 'You were to blame, Gratiano, to part with your wife's first gift. I gave my lord Bassanio a ring, and I am sure he would not part with it for all the world.' Gratiano, in excuse for his fault, now said: 'My lord Bassanio gave his ring away to the counsellor, and then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begged my ring.' Portia, hearing this, seemed very angry, and reproached Bassanio for giving away her ring; and she said, Nerissa had taught her what to believe, and that she knew some woman had the ring. Bassanio was very unhappy to have so offended his dear lady, and he said with great earnestness: 'No, by my honour, no woman had it, but a civil doctor, who refused three thousand ducats of me, and begged the ring, which when I denied him, he went displeased away. What could I do, sweet Portia? I was so beset with shame for my seeming ingratitude, that I was forced to send the ring after him. Pardon me, good lady; had you been there, I think you would have begged the ring of me to give the worthy doctor.' 'Ah!' said Antonio, 'I am the unhappy cause of these quarrels.' Portia bid Antonio not to grieve at that, for that he was welcome notwithstanding; and then Antonio said: 'I once did lend my body for Bassanio's sake; and but for him to whom your husband gave the ring, I should have now been dead. I dare be bound again, my soul upon the forfeit, your lord will never more break his faith with you.' 'Then you shall be his surety,' said Portia; 'give him this ring, and bid him keep it better than the other.' When Bassanio looked at this ring, he was strangely surprised to find it was the same he gave away; and then Portia told him how she was the young counsellor, and Nerissa was her clerk; and Bassanio found, to his unspeakable wonder and delight, that it was by the noble courage and wisdom of his wife that Antonio's life was saved. And Portia again welcomed Antonio, and gave him letters which by some chance had fallen into her hands, which contained an account of Antonio's ships, that were supposed lost, being safely arrived in the harbour. So these tragical beginnings of this rich merchant's story were all forgotten in the unexpected good fortune which ensued; and there was leisure to laugh at the comical adventure of the rings, and the husbands that did not know their own wives: Gratiano merrily swearing, in a sort of rhyming speech, that ... while he lived, he'd fear no other thing So sore, as keeping safe Nerissa's ring.	i don't know
Which of the Greek islands contains the highest point above sea level?	Crete geography Crete - geography Crete, the largest and most mountainous of the Greek islands, is the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean with an area of 8,336 square kilometers (3,219 square miles) and a population of about 650.000. Crete lies at the point where the continents of Europe, Asia and Africa meet and is divided in four prefectures: Chania, Rethymno, Heraklion, Lassithi. The Mountains dominate your view from all angles – to the West the Lefka Ori or White Mountains contain more than 52 summits over 2,000 meters high, with Pachnes (2453m) the highest of the range. Mountain Idi or Psiloritis Range in the center of the island, contains the highest summit of Crete, Timios Stavros at 2,456 meters above sea level. In the east the Dikti Mountain range with Spathi (2148m) the highest summit of the range as well as the mountains of Sitia at the eastern end of the island, form a continuous chain from one end of Crete to the other. These limestone mountains gifted Crete with fertile plateaus like Omalos in the White Mountains, Nida in Psiloritis, and Lassithi plateau in Dikti Mountain range and spectacular caves (more than 3500 have been recorded) that have always been part of Greek Mythology and History, from the birth of Zeus, the Father of Gods, to the most recent European History. The mountain streams formed dramatic gorges, such as the famous Samaria gorge, creating spectacular botanic gardens, places with plants and animals that do not exist anywhere else on the planet.	Crete
Which of the principal Canary Islands contains no peak higher than 700 metres?	Map of ancient Greece Kiotari beach Map of Ancient Greece ...In the beginning, Hesiod says, there was Chaos, vast and dark. Then appeared Gaea, the dep-breasted earth, and finally Eros, ' the love which softens hearts ', whose fructifying influence would thenceforth preside over the formation of beings an things. From Chaos were born Erebus and Night who, uniting, gave birth in their turn to Ether and Hemera, the day. On her part Gaea first bore Uranus, the sky crowned with stars, ' whom she made her equal in grandeur, so that he entirely covered her '. Then she created the high mountains and Pontus, ' the sterile sea ' with its harmonious waves... On a very broad scale, Greece can be divided into two environmental regions: the sub-continental northern part, and southern or Mediterranean Greece and its islands. Another way to describe the country is to divide it into five major traditional and geographical regions: Greek Thrace and Macedonia along the northern border and fronting on the northern Aegean Sea; Northern Peninsular Greece composed of Epirus to the west on the lonian Sea, and Thessaly to the east on the Aegean; Central Greece extending south to the Gulf of Corinth and including the Athens area; Peloponnesus or southernmost Peninsular area, and Insular Greece, a fringe of islands some widely separated from the mainland. Thrace and Macedonia. Thrace, the northeastern corner of Greece, is separated from Turkey by the Evros River and from Macedonia to its west by the Nestos River. Its northern border with Bulgaria runs through the Rhodope Mountains. Partly plateau and partly lowland, in addition to its two major rivers it has a large lagoon, Porto-Lago, connecting with Lake Vistonis, on its Aegean coast. Macedonia, lying between the Nestos River and the Albanian border, shares its mountain ranges with former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria and has important agricultural areas. Its major rivers are the Strymon, Axios and Aliakmon. Its major city is Salonika, the second largest city and port in Greece. Northern Peninsular Greece. Its western section, Epirus, is an isolated area of high mountains of folded sandstones and limestone, poor uplands, and karst. On the windward side of the Pindus Mountains, it has high rainfall. Its soils are poor, but Epirus has some good areas for trout culture. To its east, and extending to the Aegean, is Thessaly which consists essentially of two basins linked by the Penios River. Its plains are the most important agricultural lands in Greece, constituting both granaries and cattle raising regions. Central Greece. To the south, and extending to the Gulf of Corinth, is a more Mediterranean area, characterized by olive rather than oak trees. This region of plains, foothills, mountains, and rocky coasts supports the largest city and port area of Greece, the Athens-Piraeus complex. Peloponnesus. Separated completely from the upper peninsula by the Gulf of Corinth and Corinth Canal, this is a mountainous area of few lowlands and a narrow indented coastal fringe. Partly karstic with underground drainage, its rivers, including the major Evrotas and Alphios, go dry in the summer. Insular Greece. The 1 400 Greek islands are widely distributed throughout the surrounding seas, occupying 24 796 km2 (almost 20 percent) of the total area. Crete, the largest island (8 336 km2) is the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean. Other large islands are: Euboea (3 654 km2), the largest island in the Aegean; the two largest lonian islands, Cephalonia (781 km2) and Corfu (542 km2); Lesbos and Rhodes. Many of the lowland areas of Greece were once swampy and malarial. They, along with many of their shallow lakes, have been drained. Although largely depleted, forests still occupy a fifth of the country. Aleppo pines and mixed deciduous trees (oak, beech and chestnut) are at lower altitudes, and conifers such as spruce are at the highest altitudes. Large areas of maquis (macchia) dominate the country, and much of the vegetation has been denuded. Included within the great variety of soils, fissured limestone rocks prevail, followed by sandstone, crystalline rocks, and conglomerates. Mountain soils are thin, and strong karstic formations exist in many regions. Most of the people live either in the large cities, such as Athens-Piraeus and Salonika, or in small scattered villages. The Hellenic Republic, southernmost of the Balkan countries, lies between the Mediterranean's lonian and Aegean Seas. Although sea-oriented and sea-girt, with a galaxy of islands, it is primarily a mountainous country. Much of Greece is barren, eroded, and deforested, dissected by small rapid rivers and enclosing a few isolated basins. Its greatest length (E-W) is 992 km, and its greatest breadth (N-S) is 793 km. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2 917 m on Mt. Olympus. About 67 percent of its area is above 200 m, and about 13 percent above 1 000 m. Greece is bounded on the northwest by Albania for 247 km, or the north by former Yugoslavia for 256 km and Bulgaria for 475 km, and on the northeast by Turkey for 203 km1/. A peninsula, its western flank is bathed by the lonian Sea, its eastern flank by the Aegean Sea. About one fifth of its area is composed of more than 1 400 islands, of which less than 200 are inhabited. The sea cuts very deeply into the land to form an extremely long coastline. With islands excluded, the coast is about 2 700 km; with its islands it is about 15 021 km long, an extent surpassed by few other countries. About 80 percent of Greece is mountainous, a southern continuation of the rugged mountains of Albania, former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. Intermontane basins, valleys and plains, mostly covered with sands, marls and clays, make up 20 percent of the country.	i don't know
Which American city has baseball-playing 'Dodgers'?	Official Los Angeles Dodgers Website \| MLB.com The Official Site of the Los Angeles Dodgers Sections	Los Angeles
What disease claimed the life of notorious American gangster, Al Capone?	MLB.com \| The Official Site of Major League Baseball Find MLB Network in your area » Fox Sports 1 Find Fox Sports 1 in your area » Crystal Hall: A look at the HOF's next 4 years Now that we know who is heading to Cooperstown this year, let's forecast the next 4 HOF ballots. Crystal Hall: A look at the HOF's next 4 years Now that we know who is heading to Cooperstown this year, let's forecast the next 4 HOF ballots. Now that we know who is heading to Cooperstown this year, let's forecast the next 4 HOF ballots. More Reigning home run champ Mark Trumbo agreed to a three-year deal to remain with the Orioles. More A day after being elected, Jeff Bagwell, Tim Raines and Ivan Rodriguez revealed their cap picks. More You'll receive better seats & lower prices than fans who buy game by game. Tickets for the first, second & Championship Rounds are on sale. More The regular season will get underway Sunday, April 2, when the Rays host the Yanks at 1 p.m. ET. More There is plenty of pop on the list of top 1B prospects, with Cody Bellinger leading the way. More Israel is a newcomer to the Classic tournament, but its squad has plenty of experience in its favor. More Stay on top of all the offseason moves with the MLB.com Hot Stove Tracker, which updates with the latest free-agent signings and trades. More Decorate like a champion with exclusive MLB photos featuring the game's most iconic players and most memorable plays. Find the perfect photo for your collection by searching by team, player or highlight. More R.B.I. 16 is available at major retailers in the U.S. and Canada for consoles and for download on Xbox One, PS4, Steam, iOS and Android. More What better way to meet your soulmate than by connecting with other single baseball fans? Sign up with MLB Singles powered by Match.com to see how. Existing members can also take part in the fun. More MLB Network's Emmy-winning studio show is live at 6 p.m and 8 p.m. ET tonight. More	i don't know
From what disease did the English buccaneer, Sir Francis Drake, die?	SIR FRANCIS DRAKE SIR FRANCIS DRAKE The Buccaneer (1545 - 1596) Frances Drake was born in Devon, England, the son of a puritan farmer and preacher. He learned sailing as a young man, serving as an apprentice to the master of a small coastal merchant ship. His master, left young Drake the ship on his death. He later served some time as an officer aboard a West African slaver. He was the first Englishman to sail around the world and very instrumental in the defeat of the Spanish Armada sent to invade England. He made three voyages to the New World, where he plundering Spanish settlements and captured and destroying Spanish ships. In 1572, he marched across the Isthmus of Panama. Drake's first visit to the New World, was aboard a slaver, commanded by John Lovell in 1564. After picking up a cargo of slaves from Africa, they sailed to the West Indies, selling the slaves, while hiding from the Spanish authorities. By treaty, the English were prohibited from trading with the Spanish towns along the coast. Drake made his next excursion against the Spanish Main when he accompanying his cousin John Hawkins, on his third and last expedition. Hawkins's squadron, consisting of six ships, sailed from Plymouth on October, 2, 1567. After securing a cargo of African slaves, they coasted along the shores of North America, selling their slaves. When he tried to sell slaves at the Spanish port of Rio Hacha, he was prohibited. In retaliation, he attacked and captured the town in 1568. He was able to sell some two hundred of his slaves. Sailing to San Juan de Ulloa (Vera Cruz) in the Gulf of Mexico, they were intercepted by a fleet of thirteen armed Spanish ships, under the command of Alvarez de Bazan. The English were severely defeated and only two of their ships, the Minion (Hawkins' flag ship) of 100 tons, and the Judith (commanded by Drake) of 50 tons escaped, making it back to England in 1569. Drake developed a deep hatred for the Catholic Spaniards and vowed to get even. In the following years, 1570 and 1571, Drake sailed the Spanish Main on two voyages of exploration. He not only traded with the inhabitants, but also studies the coast of Darien, and learned all he could about the route taken by the Treasure Train, as it crossed the Isthmus of Panama, loaded with gold from Panama to Nombre de Diï¿½s. In May of 1572, he again sailed from Plymouth with two ships. The Pasha of 70 tons, and the Swan of 25 tons and 73 men. On this trip were two of his brothers, Charles and John Drake. The landed in a hidden harbor in the Gulf of Darien, which he had discovered earlier. There, he was joined by James Rause, who commanded his own English ship and two Spanish ships he had captured. They later sailed to Isla de Pinos, off the coast of Cuba, where Rause was left to guard the ships. Drake left with 73 men, in some small boats, hoping to capture Nombre de Diï¿½s. After some fierce fighting, he was able to capture the town on July 29, 1572. As the garrison was regrouping, and reinforcements arrived from Panama, and Drake had been severely wounded, the English made a hasty retreat with very little booty. The urgency of their haste, was very upsetting to them, since they left behind silver bars, in excess of a million pounds Sterling, and much gold, pearls and jewels, that were stored in the Royal Treasure House. The English were able to get back to Isla de Pinos, where Rause returned to England, and Drake continued his attempts to capture Spanish Treasures. Drake captured several Spanish ships along the coast of Cartagena. He would hide in the secret bay on the coast of Darien, which his men had given the name of Port Plenty. This was because of the large amounts of stores, that they had accumulated, and stored there. Drake left his brother in charge of Port Plenty, as he continued to sail the coast of Darien, capturing Spanish vessels has he went, and all the while, making plans for his overland capture of the Gold Train, as it crossed the Isthmus. On returning from one of his excursion, he learned that his brother John, had been killed, attempting to capture a Spanish ship Since it was the rainy season, no Gold Trains, were leaving Panama, so he had to wait. When the dry season, arrived, they were attacked by the Spanish, and he lost twenty-eight men, including his remaining brother. The escaped Negro slaves, that had befriended Drake, soon informed him that the Spanish Galleons were starting to gather in Nombre de Diï¿½s, meaning the Gold Trains would soon start crossing the Isthmus. Early in February of 1573, leaving all of the sick and some healthy men behind to guard their ships, he set out with eighteen men, to capture the Gold Train. Along the way, he was joined by thirty Cimarron's, with their chief, Pedro. After a weeks march, he climbed a tree, and was able to see the Pacific Ocean. Three days later, they were out side, the city of Old Panama from where they could easily see the ships that had arrived from Peru with the Treasures for Spanish King. Learning when the mule train, was to leave, he when back towards the town of Cruces. There he divided his forces into two teams, stationing on group on one side of the Camino Real, and the other group on the other side. Both groups were about fifty yards apart, hoping to attack the mule train from both sides, and preventing any of the mules from escaping. The plan was very good, but failed. To avoid being hit in the cross fire, his men put their shirts on over their armor, so they could recognize themselves in the battle. Unfortunately, on of the men, Robert Pike, was so drunk, that he stood up early, and was spotted by one of the sentries, who gave the alarm. Having failed on capturing the mule train, Drake captured the town of Cruces, but found no treasure there. Within a week, they crossed the Isthmus and were back in their camp. Drake then turned his attention to capturing a galleons he heard that was taking on gold at Veraguas. He sailed from Port Plenty, with one ship hoping to capture the Treasure Ship in the harbor. As they approached the town of Belen, they were spotted and the alarm was given, and the whole coast line was alerted. He gave up, and returned to Port Plenty. His Cimarron's spies informed him that three pack trains of bullion, with 190 mules each was headed to Nombre de Diï¿½s and was scheduled to arrive there on April 1st.. He quickly got a force together of fifteen Englishmen, Twenty Frenchmen and some Cimarron's, on March 30th, and landed his force near Nombre de Diï¿½s. He stationed his force in the jungle, about a mile back from the town, along the Los Camino Real. They were able to capture the mule train, after some heaving fighting, and made off with all the treasure they could carry. They were upset at leaving about fifteen tons of silver bars. After reaching their ships, and dividing the treasure among all present, the set sail back to England. They arrived in Plymouth on Sunday, August 9, 1573. Drake's next voyage would end up with him sailing around the world, from 1577 to 1580. He had the secret financial support of Queen Elizabeth I and the war party in her council. They hoped that his trip would end the Spanish monopoly of trade in the Pacific. It was 85 years after Columbus had discovered the Americas and the Spanish and Portuguese had a hold on all the gold coming out of the New World and Queen Elizabeth wanted it for England. Drake's official mission was to plunder the gold laden Spanish galleons and to establish trade links with East Asia. Drake set sail from England with three galleons and two supply ships, which he planned to abandon, when he reached his destination. heading to the Strait of Magellan. Drake sailed with the queenï¿½s courtesan and his friend Thomas Doughty. After harsh weather, and very rough sailing, Thomas Doughty turned into a mutineer, convincing Drakeï¿½s exhausted crew to revolt against their captain. Drakeï¿½s reaction was ruthless. When Drake reached his destination on the West Coast of South America, Drake had Doughty convicted of mutineer by a military court-martial, and was beheaded. After this incident, Drake changed his shipï¿½s name to "Golden Hind". By the time they had crossed the 330 miles of the Straits of Magellan, he had lost four of his ships. Alone on the other side, Drake sailed north along the South American coast, where he pillaged Spanish settlements and looted every Spanish ship he could. Sailing to Valparaiso, Drake encountered rain, and storms. His three-mast ship was devastated by the journey. The Spaniards were unable to identify the Golden Hind as a pirate ship and fell victim to Drakes attacks. He captured a Spanish Man Of War, in the port of Callo. From the captured ship, Drake learned that the Spanish galleon Nuestra Senora de la Conception, loaded with treasure, was sailing up the coast to Panama. On the 3rd of March 1579 they sighted the galleon. Drake overtook the heavy galleon. The Golden Hind met the Spanish Galleon with cannon fire, and forced the Galleon to surrender. Drake plundered unimaginable wealth. It took Drakeï¿½s crew four days to transfer all of the treasure from the Galleon to the Golden Hind.. The captured 80 pounds of gold, 20 tons on silver, 13 cases of silver coins, and cases full of pearls and precious stones. At one point, Drake robbed a llama train, laden with gold and silver. By the time he left the Mexican port of Guatulco, his ship was heavily laden with booty. Drake decided to avoid meeting any Spaniards on his return home, so he decided to sail home, around the world as Ferdinand Magellan had done. He dropped anchor somewhere near San Francisco and was greeted by Miwok Indians, who took Drake and his men for sea gods. Drake named this region New Albion, after the Celtic name for Great Britain and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth. He crossed the Pacific and Indian oceans and reached the Atlantic by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, on the southern tip of Africa. On the 26th of September 1580, the Golden Hind burdened with the holds heavy and precious cargo, sailed to the port of Plymouth after three years of adventures around the world. Queen Elizabeth knighted him for his accomplishments and the treasures he delivered to the British Crown.. Sir Frances Drake later gained even more fame when in 1587 he attacked the Spanish shipyards in Cadiz and, in 1588 directed the defeat of the Spanish Armada. In August, 1596, Drake began his last trip to the Caribbean, again in search of Spanish treasure. He sailed from Plymouth with a fleet of 26 ships, heading to Panama. Queen Elizabeth, ordered the fleet to go to Porto Rico, to help an English fleet that was in danger. Sir John Hawkins, who was the vice-admiral on this trip, took sick and died and was buried at sea. When the Spaniards heard that Sir Francis Drake was headed their way, they unloaded the treasure from their ships, and sank them in the harbor, preventing Drake from capturing them. He then turned his attention to the Spanish Main, sacking and burning the towns of La Hacha, Rancheria, Santa Marta, and many others. He then attacked and captured Nombre de Diï¿½s. He sent a force of 750 men, under the command of Sir Thomas Baskerville, to follow the Camino Real and march to and take Panama. The Spanish were warned and prepared, and put up a lot of resistance along the way. Baskerville, decided to turn back, after meeting with so much resistance by the Spanish troops that were sent to defend Panama. When they arrived back in Nombre de Diï¿½s, the city was burning and all the ships in the harbor were burned. Drake then headed to Porto Bello, and was stricken by a tropical disease, "the bloody flux" From Porto Bello, they headed to San Juan de Nicaragua, but were encountered a storm and had to return to Porto Bello. The next day, January 29, 1597, Drake died. on board his flagship Defiance. He was buried at sea, one league off the coast of Puerto Bello, Panama, in a lead coffin.	Dysentery
What is the origin of the word 'chipping' in place names such as Chipping Norton?	BBC - History - Sir Francis Drake z Sir Francis Drake © Drake was an Elizabethan sailor and navigator, and the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon in around 1540 and went to sea at an early age. In 1567, Drake made one of the first English slaving voyages as part of a fleet led by his cousin John Hawkins, bringing African slaves to work in the 'New World'. All but two ships of the expedition were lost when attacked by a Spanish squadron. The Spanish became a lifelong enemy for Drake and they in turn considered him a pirate. In 1570 and 1571, Drake made two profitable trading voyages to the West Indies. In 1572, he commanded two vessels in a marauding expedition against Spanish ports in the Caribbean. He saw the Pacific Ocean and captured the port of Nombre de Dios on the Isthmus of Panama. He returned to England with a cargo of Spanish treasure and a reputation as a brilliant privateer. In 1577, Drake was secretly commissioned by Elizabeth I to set off on an expedition against the Spanish colonies on the American Pacific coast. He sailed with five ships, but by the time he reached the Pacific Ocean in October 1578 only one was left, Drake's flagship the Pelican, renamed the Golden Hind. To reach the Pacific, Drake became the first Englishman to navigate the Straits of Magellan. He travelled up the west coast of South America, plundering Spanish ports. He continued north, hoping to find a route across to the Atlantic, and sailed further up the west coast of America than any European. Unable to find a passage, he turned south and then in July 1579, west across the Pacific. His travels took him to the Moluccas, Celebes, Java and then round the Cape of Good Hope. He arrived back in England in September 1580 with a rich cargo of spices and Spanish treasure and the distinction of being the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. Seven months later, Elizabeth knighted him aboard the Golden Hind, to the annoyance of the king of Spain. In 1585, Drake sailed to the West Indies and the coast of Florida where he sacked and plundered Spanish cities. On his return voyage, he picked up the unsuccessful colonists of Roanoke Island off the coast of the Carolinas, which was the first English colony in the New World. In 1587, war with Spain was imminent and Drake entered the port of Cadiz and destroyed 30 of the ships the Spanish were assembling against the British. In 1588, he was a vice admiral in the fleet that defeated the Armada. Drake's last expedition, with John Hawkins, was to the West Indies. The Spanish were prepared for him this time, and the venture was a disaster. Drake died on 28 January 1596 of dysentery off the coast of Portobelo, Panama. Hawkins died at the same time, and their bodies were buried at sea.	i don't know
On what date is her majesty Queen Elizabeth's real birthday?	Queen spends 89th birthday celebrating with Royal family at Windsor Castle - Telegraph Queen spends 89th birthday celebrating with Royal family at Windsor Castle The Queen is having a relaxing week at Windsor as she enters her 90th year on Tuesday The Queen will be 89 on Tuesday, April 21 Photo: Getty Images By Gordon Rayner , Chief Reporter 7:49PM BST 20 Apr 2015 Follow The Queen will spend her 89th birthday on Tuesday celebrating quietly with members of the Royal family at Windsor Castle as she takes a rare week off from official engagements. Her Majesty will still go through her daily quota of government red boxes, as she does every day except Christmas Day, but will otherwise be able to relax with the Duke of Edinburgh as she enters her 90th year. The Prince of Wales , the Duke of York and the Earl of Wessex have also kept their diaries free, suggesting they may join her for a birthday celebration at some point during the day. She could even receive a visit from her great-grandson, Prince George , if the Duchess of Cambridge is feeling well enough to make the trip, or of the Duke of Cambridge has a day off from his air ambulance pilot training. The Queen normally spends weekdays at Buckingham Palace during working periods of the year, but has decided to stay at Windsor, which she prefers, where she will personally open a selection of birthday cards sent to her from around the world. Like the Duke of Edinburgh, the Queen dislikes the idea of anyone “making a fuss” over her birthday, and any family celebration is likely to be a low-key affair. It is the fourth successive year that the Queen has celebrated her birthday privately at Windsor, though two of her previous three birthdays were on a weekend. The Queen is already the world's oldest reigning monarch • What happened when a princess went walkabout on VE Day? Her 85th birthday fell on Maundy Thursday, when Her Majesty gave out Maundy money at a service in Westminster Abbey, and on her 80th birthday she went on a walkabout in Windsor to greet crowds who had gathered the celebrate the milestone. The Queen will be back in action on Saturday, when she attends a service at Westminster Abbey to mark the centenary of the Gallipoli campaign in the First World War. A 41-gun salute will be fired by the King’s Troop Royal Horse Artillery from Green Park in central London at midday to mark the occasion. The Queen’s official birthday is marked by Trooping the Colour in June.	April 21
Which American city has basketball-playing 'Celtics'?	Queen Elizabeth II: Celebrating Her Majesty's 90th Birthday - ABC News ABC News Queen Elizabeth II: Celebrating Her Majesty's 90th Birthday By OLIVIA SMITH Apr 18, 2016, 6:04 AM ET 0 Shares WATCH Queen Elizabeth II: Celebrating Her Majesty's 90th Birthday 0 Shares Email The queen of England, the longest-reigning monarch in British history, is celebrating her 90th birthday on April 21, 2016. Born Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary in 1926, her majesty was not in line to become queen until her uncle abdicated the throne. Some fun facts about the queen: she was nicknamed "Lilibet" by her family as a child, and she volunteered as a mechanic during World War II. Watch the video above to learn more about Queen Elizabeth II in a minute.	i don't know
The battles of 'Grant's Hill' and 'Oswego' were conflicts of which war, that lasted from 1756 to 1763?	Battles of New York Hudson~Mohawk~Schoharie History From America's Most Famous Valleys The letters in quotations at the end of some of the paragraphs refer to the Bibliography which is at the end of the book. Thanks to John K. Robertson who provided the links within this document. Battles of New York Battles and Raids in the Province and State of New York, 1609-1814 John C. Devendorf Preface In preparing this small volume, my aim has been to furnish future historians the best information possible. While it is a small volume, it has nevertheless required much time and care to collect and arrange its details. It is very important to place on record what can be gathered to contribute information for the future history of New York State. Larger and more complicated battles were fought in the State but historians have thoroughly covered them in numerous volumes. For that reason description of the actions have been omitted from this book. Unfortunately many settlers, working in their fields, were killed or captured, as well as refugees who wandered outside the protection of forts. It has been impossible for the writer to cover all such events. I express my grateful thanks to relatives and friends who have contributed toward making this volume possible. John C. Devendorf 31. Mar. 1757-Night attack on Fort William Henry 32. Aug. 9, 1757-Capture of Fort William Henry and massacre 33. Nov. 11, 1757-French and Indian raid at Oneida Castle and upper valley 34. Apr. 30, 1758-French and Indian raid on Fort Herkimer and south side 35. July 20, 1758-One of the many skirmishes for which the Half-way Brook is noted 36. July 26, 1758--Battle of Fort Ticonderoga 37. July 27, 1758--This massacre is probably the most important event which took place at Half-way Brook 38. Aug. 27, 1758--English capture Fort Oswego 39. Aug. 1758-Battle northwest of Fort Ann 40. Sept 9, 1758-"Another attack," at the Half-way Brook 41. Nov.12, 1758-DeBelletre's attack on Fort Herkimer (Kouari) 42. July 23, 1759-English capture Fort Niagara 43. Aug. 25, 1760-Surrender of Fort Lewis (Oswegatchie) (Ogdensburg) 44. May 12, 1775-Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga captured 45. 1776-Skirmishes at Sabbath Day Point 46. Aug. 27, 1776-Battle of Long Island 47. Sept. 15, 1776-Battle of Harlem Plains 48. Oct. 14, 1776-Battle of Valcour Island (Naval engagement) 49. Oct. 28, 1776-Battle of White Plains 50. Mar. 22, 1777-Peekskill invaded by British 51. Aug. 6 1777-Battle of Oriskany (St. Leger's Campaign) 52. Aug. 13, 1777-Vrooman's Battle (Schoharie Valley) 53. Aug. 16 , 1777-Battle of Bennington 54. Sept. 19, 1777-First Battle of Freeman's Farm (Saratoga) 55. Oct. 6, 1777-Kingston burned by Sir James Wallace 56. Oct. 7, 1777-Second Battle of Freeman's Farm (Saratoga) 57. Oct. 7, 1777-Forts Clinton and Montgomery captured by British 58. Oct. 17, 1777-Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga 59. Feb. 1778-Battle of Fairfield 60. Apr. 3, 1778-Manheim attacked by Tories and Indians 61. Apr. 30, 1778-Ephratah attacked by Tories and Indians 62. June 17,1778--Springfield destroyed by Brant 63. June 1, 1778-Cobleskill destroyed by Brant 64. July 18, 1778-Andrustown destroyed by Indians under Brant 65. Aug. 1, 1778 German Flats raided by Tories and Indians under Brant 66. 1778-British and Tories raid Manheim district 67. Sept. 27, 1778-Massacre of Baylor's Corps at Tappan 68. Oct. 1778-Unadilla raided by Tories and Indians 69. Nov. 11, 1778-Cherry Valley massacre by Butler and Indians under Brant 70. Spring 1779-Stone Arabia attacked and small affairs on south side 71. April 18, 1779-Gen. VanSchaick's expedition against the Onondagas 72. May 1779-Indians attack and burn Cobleskill 73. June 1, 1779-Forts at Verplank's Point and Stony Point captured by British 74. July 16, 1779-Battle of Stony Point 75. July 22, 1779-Battle of Minisink 76. Aug. 29, 1779--Battle of Newtown (near Elmira) 77. Sept. 1779-German Flats raided by Tories and Indians 78. Sept. 30, 1779-Sullivan's Expedition ends with destruction of Indian villages 79. Summer 1779-Raids at Schoharie, Canajoharie, Stone Arabia and Fort Plain 80. Sept. 5, 1779-Continental Troops capture stronghold at Lloyd's Neck 81. Nov. 23, 1779-Capture of Fort George at South Bay by Continental forces 82. Feb. 1780--Geman Flats attacked 83. Apr. 2, 1780-Harpersfield raided by Brant 84. Apr. 3, 1780-Sacandaga block-house attacked 85. Apr. 24, 1780-Cherry Valley attacked by 79 Indians 86. Spring 1780-Sir Frederick Haldiman destroys Oneida village 87. May 21, 1780-Johnstown raided by Sir John Johnson 88. May 22, 1780-Caughnawega attacked 89. Aug. 2, 1780--Fort Plain and Canajoharie attacked by Brant 90. Aug. 10, 1780-Attack on Schoharie near Norman's Kill 91. 1780-Little Falls attacked 92. Fall 1780-Carleton's raid and destruction of Ballston 93. Oct. 16, 1780-Sir John Johnson appears at Schoharie, start of great raid on Schoharie and Mohawk Valleys 94. Oct. 18, 1780-Seth's Henry raid near Cobleskill 95. Oct. 19, 1780-Battle of Stone Arabia and Klock's Field 96. Mar. 2, 1781-Brant attacks wood choppers near Fort Schuyler 97. Spring 1781-Constant warfare carried on in the vicinity of the forts 98. July 2, 1781-Capt. Woodworth and party ambushed at Kasts Bridge 99. July 9, 1781-Currytown Massacre by Doxtader and Indians 100. July 10, 1781-Battle of Sharon Springs (New Dorlach) 101. Sept. 1, 1781-Indians attack lower Cobleskill settlement 102. Oct. 24, 1781-Ross and Butler enter valley-Currytown, Warrensbush 103. Oct, 25, 1781-Battle of Johnstown 104. Oct. 29, 1781-Battle of Butler's Ford 105. Nov. 1, 1781-Brant and Chrysler appear at Vroomans Land 106. Late 1781-Cobleshill attacked by Tories from New Rhinebeck 107. June 1782-Indians attack and burn Petrie's Mill at Little Falls 108. July 15, 1782-Tories and Indians raid German Flats 109. July 26, 1782-Crysler brothers appear in Foxes Creek valley 110. Dec. 9, 1782-Seth Henry's raid on Cobleskill (Hyndsville) 111. Aug. 5, 1783-Raid on the south shore of German Flats 112. Dec. 19, 1813-British capture Niagara 113. May 5, 1814-Battle of Oswego 114. Sept. 11, 1814-Battle of Plattsburg PART II If we go back to those earlier days, before the white man coming, it is well to remember that permanent Indian habitations in the Mohawk Valley are of very recent date. North of Utica were some obscure hamlets of uncertain age and race, early or recent, but the valley itself otherwise had no settled occupation until the Mohawks came. It was a good hunting ground but not a choice fishing place, and so attracted few of the early aborigines. The first homes of the Mohawks, even, were far from the river, in strong fort, among the hills, They were then hostile to all the Indian, of New York and Canada, and, according to early tradition, often on the defensive and subject to raids. In fact it was a constant struggle far mere existence until they obtained guns. "F" The Owonagungas settled above Albany, on a branch of the Hudson River, that runs towards Canada, about the year 1672. "D" The Algonquins pressed them on the north and east, the Andastes or Minques on the south, the early Onondagas and Oneidas were often hostile on the west. They were beset with foes, but Hi-a-wat-hasa plan saved the situation. As a whole the Iroquois family was large, but had many branches. In its eastward movement the Hurons; and Petuns - the "good Iroquois" of Champlain settled near the Georgian Bay. The Neutrals were on the north shore of Lake Erie, with their eastern boundary at Oak Orchard Creek in New York. The Eries were on the south shore of their lake, and south and west of Eighteen Mile Creek. At a later day the New York Iroquois overthrew all these. East of the Neutrals were the Senecas and Cayaugas, who may have settled here in the 16th Century. In Jefferson county were the Onondagas of the same period, who built some forts in Onondaga county late in that century, and came there as a body before its close. The Oneidas were also near Ogdensburg, and the Mohawks at Montreal and lower down the river, all seeking the southern hills at the outbreak of the Huron-Algonquin War. Following invasions of this kind from the north and west came a futile one from the Hudson on the east. As far north as Saratoga that river belonged to the Mahikans on both sides, the Mohawks dwelling west of Albany county. At Albany the Mahikans had a strong fort east of the river-a safe position-and there had been combats undescribed. "F" With this change of territory jealousies and conflicts came about, and Hi-a-wat-ha planned a union which would insure peace. He failed to persuade his own people, the Onondagas, but De-kan-a-wi-da, the great Mohawk chief, came to his aid and the league was formed. A grand council was to meet yearly for the adjustment of difficulties, every chief in the formative council having a successor in this. The representation was unequal, but each nation had but one vote. These civil chiefs were elected by the women of their clan as they still are. The women could also take initial steps for their removal. General affairs were left to the grand council; local affairs to local bodies. Arbitration was sometimes employed, and then there might be united action in peace or war. The great object of the Konosioni, however, was to insure peace. "Hiawatha" the chief, of whom the Great Spirit was an ancestor, was the founder of the confederacy of the Five Nations. He devoted his long life to the good of his people and finally was borne in the flesh to the Happy Hunting Ground. The writer is indebted to As-quo-sont-wah, a member of the Onondaga Tribe, an authority on Local Lore, and well known among the white men as Edward Winslow Paige, for an account of the tradition which fixes the home of Hiawatha at Schonowo (Schenectady). Mr. Paige owns the lot at the west end of Union St, on the banks of the Brenekill, upon which the castle and the residence stood. He points out to visitors the existing traces of Indian occupation. "T" The deep depression through which the Mohawk River runs is one of the remarkable topographical and geological features of the State. At a point two hundred miles from the ocean, where the river is but three hundred feet above sea level, the land rises to the south and the north so rapidly that at a distance of twelve or fourteen miles there are hills three thousand feet high; so that in reality the Mohawk River flows at the bottom of a canyon two thousand or more feet deep and twenty-five miles wide. The immediate valley, however, is very narrow, being nearly closed at two points. This narrow valley that has been cut through the Appalachian Chain by the erosive power of ice and water is of such easy grade that it has always been a highway from the ocean to the interior. The Indians used it time out of mind in war and peace, and the white man saw its advantages and used it for purposes of trade and exploration. Permanent settlers would have occupied it much sooner, if they had not been held back by the fierce and warlike Mohawks, whose heritage it was, and who looked with no favor upon the white settler. Traders were welcome enough to pass through and to visit their villages, in fact they soon became necessary to supply the many new and artificial wants that the Indians acquired from the white man. But when it came to permanent settlement that was a far different matter, and so for a hundred years they held back the white man, who looked with longing eyes upon the fair flat meadows and noble forests along the river of the Mohawks. But in the early years of the eighteenth century the Mohawks had become weakened and demoralized by intercourse with unscrupulous white men. They were an astute and intellectual race of savages, but they were no match for the land speculators these wealthy and influential gentlemen of the Province, whose ambition it was to own the earth. Thus it came about that by the year 1770 the Mohawks had parted with all of their land except a few acres around their two villages. Some great tracts they had sold for a low duffies, and strouds and barrel, of beer, and more or less rum, but the most of their beautiful land was taken from them by ways that were dark and tricks that were vain. When they began to led realize this, they were naturally exasperated, and were in a state of mind that made them exceedingly dangerous to the settlers who had by this time occupied the entire length of the valley. The rest of the Iroquois fearing like fate, had insisted that a boundary line should be established, beyond which no white man would dare to go. In answer to this persistent demand, a great council met at Fort Stanwix, to which thousands came from all the Cantons of the Confederacy, and over which Sir William Johnson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, presided. There the usual prolix and interminable talk, in all of which could be discovered the smothered wrath of the Indians against the whites. But a treaty was finally concluded, a solemn treaty, establishing a line that was to be inviolate forever, binding on the white man and Indian alike. This line defined the western boundary of the Colony of New York; west of that line was the "Territory of the Six Nations". This "Old Boundary line" ran from a point near Deposit, up the Unadilla River to its source, and on a straight line to Fort Bull, near Oneida Lake. It was known as the "Old Treaty Line of 1768", and four years afterward, when Tryon County was formed, it's western bounds were the same. It was conceded and won understood by the colonial government that to the west of this line no settlements could be made, But notwithstanding this solemn agreement, the restless and irresponsible settlers along the border soon began to trespass on the lands west of this line. They hunted and fished; they cut timber and even cleared land and planted crop This increased the animosity of the Indians, and it was only Sir William Johnson's firm and conciliatory policy that kept them from open war. 1. In the year 1609, Champlain determined to accompany his Algonquin Indian friends to the country of the Iroquois in central New York , with which nation the savages of in St. Lawrence were at war. The principal throughfare used a this time to reach the Iroquois lay up the Richelieu River to that magnificent lake that now has the name of its discoverer, Champlain, then southward up Lake George, and across country to the Mohawk Valley. "E" Champlain's invasion, in 1609, was a raid on the Mohawk Valley in intention, but he met the enemy on the way, fought, conquered and retired. Indians rarely followed up a successful blow. I place the meeting at Ticonderoga from the latitude mentioned, the falls observed, and the probability that the Mohawks came from the direction of Whitehall. The points of interest, however, are the difference between early and late Indian warfare. On the way, sixty Indians had their places assigned them. A spot was cleared and sticks were produced, one for each man. This rod was tuck in the ground and he stood by it, with his friends around at their stations. Then all dispersed but soon returned, each by his stick as before. This was repeated till fixed in mind. This feature was seen in later combats. Men stood by the sticks they had placed They might advance; they must not retreat, though they often did. In this case, too, as soon as the foes met, preliminaries were arranged by the leaders of both sides. At the appointed hour they fought openly, in orderly ranks; sometimes having arrow proof helmets, armor and shields. The use of guns soon changed the mode of warfare, as it did the results of this fight. But the Mohawks were quick to learn. As soon as they could, they bought guns at any price, became expert marksmen, and with these gained power, though feeble before. "F" 2. Champlain's inroad of 1615 was in the Oneida country, the key to the Mohawk Valley from the west, the Oneida boundary being then at Little Falls. From the hills which he climbed with his Hurons, all Oneida Lake can be seen with its encircling plains, as well as the upper Mohawk Valley stretching eastward. I have often stood by the shallow pond-now almost dry-where the strong fort extended into the water, and seen the remaining corn pits around. The original Oneida stone and village were but five miles southwest, but a great boulder, fifteen feet long, still lies near the center of the later fort, the oldest now existing of the many Oneida stones. The first has been broken up and removed. The fort of 1615 defended the valley from invasion on the west, and the Huron host was driven back. The land route followed led from Lake Ontario, across Oneida River and Chittenango Creek, and up the steep hillside to Nichol's pond. A conquering hero, Champlain marched over the forest trail. A helpless man he was borne back. The course of history was changed. "F" Champlain took a roundabout way through Huronia to Lake Ontario at the Bay of Quinte. Here the party crossed the lake to the month of the Salmon River in Oswego County, where they hid their canoes and began an overland march to the outlet of Oneida Lake. A few miles south of this lake they came upon a fortified town of the Iroquois, situated, in all probability, on Nichol's Pond. Here Champlain proceeded to initiate his foes into the European methods of Warfare. Constructing a small tower, he caused it to be moved forward to the palisade surrounding the Iroquois stronghold, then, ordering a number of archers to mount the structure, he opened fire on the enemy. But the Hurons, unused to such maneuvers, lost their heads and rushed out into the open to carry the place by assault. By this time they fell an easy prey to the weapons of the besiegers, and after a three hour struggle were obliged to retreat. The Hurons, with that change of front so characteristic of the Indians, now became disheartened as they had formerly been eager, and refused to renew the attack unless they received the support of a band of allies they were expecting. For five days they remained in the vicinity of the Iroquois fort, then, seeing no sign of the expected reinforcements, they withdrew, and turned their steps to the spot where they had left their canoes. Oct. 10, 1615. "E" This was the errand that brought the wily Frenchman (Champlain) to the foot of Lake Ontario in the early fall of 1615, when, accompanied by at least 2500 Indian warriors, he crossed over from the vicinity of Kingston in a southeasterly course to Galloup and Stony islands, and from there proceeded to near the mouth of Stony Creek in the present town of Henderson, where the canoes were concealed in the woods. Champlain then proceeded southward along the shore about ten miles, and then struck inland, threading the forests and crossing the outlet of Oneida Lake, and after a march of four days entered the Iroquois country, where a battle was fought with unfortunate results to Champlain and his allied savages. "S" 3. This action, about 1600, removed one danger from the Mohawk Valley, but did not protect it on the north, east or south. Naturally the Dutch were on good terms with the Mahikans or Loups,who owned the land between the Mohawk and the Hudson River. So when the Mahikans asked aid of the Dutch commander at Fort Orange, in 1625, he gladly consented to go with them, with six men. A league on the way they met the foe, and the allies were defeated and four of the Dutch slain. This was the only fight between the Mohawks and Dutch. They said they never had harmed the Dutch; why should they meddle with them? The Mahikans soon sold the lands and moved, but racial antipathy remained. "F" It is beyond question that Tryon county suffered more of the horrors of the Revolutionary War than any section of the Thirteen Colonies. This is apparent to the most casual student of history of that time; but the reasons will not be obvious unless we consider the peculiar topography of the Mohawk Valley, its remoteness as a frontier, its settlers, the great influence of the Johnson family, and the presence of the Mohawk Indians. These were the factors that made the many raids that laid waste to Tryon County, so cruel, unavoidable, and easy of accomplishment. "L" These savage warriors, with their hapless victims, (Jouges, Couture and Goupil) duly landed where now stands that handsome hostelry, Fort William, Henry Hotel and straightway plunged into the dusky woods and followed the ancient war trail. This trail led from Lake George to the bend in the Hudson a few miles west of Glens Falls, thence southwestward till it struck the Mohawk in the vicinity of Amsterdam. (Chapter III) As has already been intimated, Schuylerville or rather Old Saratoga, owes its historic importance to its geographical location. In colonial days it was regarded by military men as an important strategic position. From this point important lateral trails diverged from the main one, which ran like a great trunk line up and down the Hudson Valley. These lateral trails started here because at this point two large streams empty into the Hudson; the Battenkill or (Di-an-on-de-howe, in Indian) from the east, and the Fish Creek from the west The one afforded easy access to the Connecticut valley while the other offered ready passage from the north and east over into the valley of the Mohawk. In short, here was a sort of Indian four corners. Two trails led from the north of Champlain valley into the Mohawk Valley. One started at Ticonderoga, passed through Lake George, thence across country, passing the Hudson not far west of Glens Falls, thence through the town of Moreno and Wilton tuning west through the pass south of Mount McGregor at Stile's Tavern, over near Lake Desolation, southwest through Galway, thence into the Mohawk Valley a little west of Amsterdam. This was called the Kayaderosseras trail. The other started at Whitehall, thence to Fort Edward and down the Hudson to Schuylerville, up Fish Creek to Saratoga Lake, thence up the Kayaderosseras River to the Morningkill thence over a carry into Ballston Lake, over another carry into Eel Creek, and down this into the Mohawk river. This was called the Saratoga trail. This region was frequently seen and traversed by the white man years before the name Saratoga appeared in printer's ink, or official correspondence. For years prior to 1666, bands from the five Nations or Iroquois, had harassed the French settlements in Canada, at Montreal , Three Rivers and Quebec, murdering and carrying the settlers into captivity. Finally a full regiment of French soldiers was sent to their defense. The French governor Samuel de Rend Sieur de Courcelle, impatient of delay after they came, started out with a force of 600 men and a number of Algonquin Indians as guides to wreck vengeance on the hated savages. Equipped with snow shoes and provisions loaded on toboggans, drawn by mastiff dogs, they started from Quebec on Oct. 29, 1665. They slowly and laboriously made their way south over frozen lakes and wilderness of snow till they arrived at the Hudson about Feb. 1, 1666. Their Indians, failing on account of too much "fire water", missed the Kayaderosseras trail, their intended route, and took the Saratoga trail instead. This brought them down to the mouth of the Fish Creek at Schuylerville up which they went to Saratoga Lake and so on. The 9th of February they discovered to their chagrin that instead of being near the Mohawk castles, or palisaded forts, they were within two miles of the Dutch trading post at Schenectady. Here they fell into an ambush set by the Mohawk Indians and lost eleven men. The Indians fled and gave the alarm. Nearly exhausted from cold and exposure, but receiving some timely succor from the Dutch, they abandoned the enterprise, and hastily retreated by the way they came, down through Old Saratoga and up the Hudson a Lake Champlain. That trip of some 700 miles over a frozen desert, void of human habitation, in the teeth of bowling blizzards and biting cold, was an achievement never excelled before that day. "K" Names are here confused. The Oneida was then the Onondaga River, some applying the name to Oneida Lake also, Onondaga being better known as Salt Lake. Chittenargo Creek had become the Onondaga boundary, and might be named by some from this. It was also Tuscarora Creek, as leading to that people, and Canaseraga from one of their tours. For them Sir William Johnson had built a fort on the eastern bank, protecting Canaseraga village. I have twice examined the spot, and it was the one chosen by Col. Romer for the proposed Onondaga fort of 1700. This was never built. "F" 4. The most ancient fortification on this island (Long Island) is one on Fort Neck, which was garrisoned by the Indians in 1653, and taken from them by the English, under the command of Capt. John Underhill, during that year. The storming of this fort was the only battle between the English and Indians on this Island. On the subject of this fortification, or these fortifications, for there were more than one of them, Samuel Jones Esq., of Oyster Bay South, on this island addresses a letter to John Pintard Esq., Secretary of the New York Historical Society, enclosing the following memoranda, written by him in the year 1812, (See collection of N.Y.H.S. Vol. 3) "When this part of Long Island was first settled by the Europeans they found two fortifications in the neighborhood, upon a neck of land, ever since called from that circumstance, Fort Neck. One of them, the remains of which are yet very conspicuous, is on the southernmost point of land on the neck, adjoining the salt meadow. It is nearly, if not exactly square, each side of which is about thirty yards in length. The breastwork or parapet is of earth; and there is a ditch on the outside which appears to have been about six feet wide. The other was on the southernmost point of the Salt Meadow, adjoining the Bay, and consisted of palisades set in the meadow, The tide has worn away the meadow where the fort stood, and the place is now part of the bay and covered with water; but my father has often told me, that in his memory, part of the palisades were standing." 5. Kingston was settled by the Dutch as early as 1663, as appears from an account of troubles between white settlers and the Indians there, and was called Wilywyck-literally Wild Witch, or Indian Witch. The Dutch built a redoubt upon the bank of the creek, near the ancient landing place. The creek was called Redoubt Kill, or Creek and is now known by the corrupted name of Rondout Creek. The Esopus Indians then occupied then occupied the beautiful flats extending from the creek northward nearly to the present town of Saugerties, and becoming dissatisfied with their white neighbors, resolved to destroy them. For this purpose they fell upon the settlement while the men were abroad in the fields, and killed or carried off sixty-five persons. The survivors retreated to the redoubt and he Indians began to erect a stockade near it. A message was sent to Nieu Amsterdam (New York), and Governor Stuyvesant immediately forwarded a body of troops under Martin Crygier, who drove the Indians back to the mountains. During the summer, parties of the Dutch made inroads among the hill fastnesses, destroyed the Indian villages and forts, laid wasted and burned their fields and stores of maize, killed many of their warriors, released twenty-two of the Dutch captives, and captured eleven of the enemy. "A" 7. The following year (1666) deTracy led his band of 1300 men up the Richelieu River, across, Lake Champlain to the Iroquois Country. The Mohawks fled at his approach. Never before had they seen such a powerful array coming down from the north; indeed, it is doubtful if they thought that such a large number of men dwelt in Canada. And as they retreated the French advanced, taking town after town until they reached Andaraque (near modern Fort Hunter), where deTracy issued a proclamation, taking possession of the country in the name of his sovereign. This done, he marched his men back to Quebec with the satisfaction of having taught the savages a lesson they would remember for some time. 6.-7. In DeCoucelle's expedition, Jan. 1666, Indians went only a guides, and DeTracy in Oct had but a hundred Indians with his 1200 Frenchmen. These could hardly be called Indian raids. The latter force, however, destroyed several Mohawk forts, and took formal possession of the land for the King of France. The effect was great and the whole Iroquois League asked for peace. 8. The settlement of Old Saratoga destroyed in King William's war of 1689. "E" 9. Thus it happened that there was a purely Indian raid when 300 Mohicans from New England attacked the Mohawk town of Gandawague, early on the morning of Aug. 18, 1669. The attack was furious, but the fort was strong. Men and women startled from sleep, manned the walls and made sallies till timely aid put the raiders to flight. The Mohawks pursued in canoes and soon had the lead. There foes made an entrenched camp when night came on. It was too strong for assault, and the Mohawks placed an ambush on the trail beyond. Next morning the Mahican vanguard fell into this, but at the camp the fighting lasted all day. In the night the invaders escaped. The place is mentioned in the Schenectady land grant as "Kinquariones, Where the Last Battel was between the Mohawks and the North (River) Indians". It was on the north side of the Mohawk, just above Hoffman's Ferry, and was mainly a hand to hand fight. "Y" Knowing that the Mohawks suffered greatly by the French and Canadian invasion of 1666, the Mohicans attacked Kahaniaga in Aug. 1669, intent upon recovering their old lands. Chief Kryn and his Mohawk warriors successfully defended Kahaniaga against the Mohicans under Chicataubet. War parties came from the other three Mohawk villages and the Mohicans retreated down the valley to Touareuna (near present Hoffmans Ferry), where they were completely defeated with great losses in one of the bloodiest and most terrific Indian battles of the east. This conflict lasted two days. 10. A French colony had settled in what now is called Pompey, about fourteen miles south of Syracuse, and for three years it prospered, and many converts from the Onondaga tribe were made to the Catholic faith. A company of Spaniards, having been informed of a lake whose bottom was covered with brilliant scales like silver, arrived there, and in a short time the animosities of the respective adventurers caused them to accuse each other to the Indians of foul designs upon the tribes. The Onondagas believed both parties, and determined to rid themselves of such troublesome neighbors. Assisted by the Oneidas and Cayugas, they fell upon the colony on All Saint's day, 1669, and every Frenchman and Spaniard was massacred. "A" Their forces (the Iroquois) having assembled, they paddled down the Mohawk River in their bark canoes, passed the little frontier village of Schenectady and landed at Eel Place Creek the first of August, 1689. They had decided upon the Saratoga trail. A flotilla of about 250 canoes filled with 1300 plumed and painted warriors the fiercest in the new world. Their descent upon the settlements about Montreal was a thunderbolt out of a clear sky, so unlooked for was it. This was the most dreadful blow sustained, the most terrible event recorded in Canadian history. 12-13. Major Pieter Schuyler with 120 whites and 60 river Indians (Catskills and Schagticokes) left on June 26, 1691. "We continued at Saratoga; foul weather, where we were joined by 15 Mohawks commanded by one Schayavanhoendere." These Mohawks came over the Saratoga trail from Schenectady and were from a party of 95 or more, which later joined the expedition at Ticonderoga. Pieter Schuyler followed the tracks of his brother of the year before, fought and won two battles in one day, Aug. 1st, killed many of the enemy, paralyzed the plans of Frontenac for that year, and returned with a goodly number of prisoners and much glory, and what was of much more consequence at that time, they had won for their fighting qualities, the high esteem and firm allegiance of the Iroquois. The French account of these actions declares that Schuyler's party was practically annihilated. Schuyler reports 37 of his men captured or killed, and 25 wounded out of a force of 260. 11-14-16. In fact he (deTracy), undertook three separate punitive expeditions; the first in 1690, which ended in the massacre and capture of Schenectady; the second in February, 1693, when a large force of French and Indians penetrated the Mohawk country, destroyed the villages and took numerous captives, In 1696 Frontenac undertook an expedition in person against the Onondagas, burnt their villages and destroyed their cornfields, but otherwise inflicted little damage upon them. "E" 14. In the burning of Schenectady in 1690 there were 96 Indians with the 114 Frenchmen, and four Indians and seventeen Frenchmen lost their lives, mostly in retreat. I have nothing new to add to its very barbaric features. In Jan. 1693, Frontenac sent 425 Frenchmen and 200 Indians against the Mohawks, and was much displeased when the latter would not kill their prisoners, most of whom escaped. The picturesque and politic old count could be as cruel as any savage. Three Mohawk villages were burned in this raid, but the French nearly starved in the retreat. 15. Count Frontenac, determined to strike a blow in retaliation upon the Mohawk Indians who bad assisted in the attack, accord.ing, in January, 1693, sent a force of six hundred and twenty-five men, including Indians, who passed down over the old trail that led from Lake George to the head of the Hudson above Glens Falls, and from thence through Wilton, Greenfield, and along the brow of the Kay-aderos-se-ra range to the Mohawk Valley. On its return march over this trail, the war party was followed by Maj. Peter Schuyler and his forces, who overtook it in the town of Greenfield or Wilton in Saratoga County. Near the old Indian Pass over the Palmerstown range, on the border of Wilton, almost if not quite in sight of Saratoga Springs, in the month of February 1693, a battle was fought, or rather a series of engagements took place, in which the French loss amounted in all to thirty-three killed and twenty-six wounded. Fitz John Winthrop leads an unsuccessful raid on Canada July-Aug. 1690, went as far north as Whitehall. Capt. Johannes Schuyler obtained permission to advance and with 40 whites and 100 Indians surprised La Prarie, south of Montreal, killed a number of inhabitants, and took many prisoners. "K" Early Canadian inroads were mainly by Lake Champlain, sometimes including Lake George, but the progress of trade and settlement brought changes. Till after 1700 the Mohawks had little use for the river above Canajoharie, much preferring the old trail thence over the hills westward. This varied slightly at times, but then led direct to a later Oneida, near Munnaville on Oneida Creek, and then to Onondaga on Butternut Creek. Thence it went over the hills westward, to Skaneateles, Owasco and Cayuga Lakes. It had long been traveled by horses. From this path Col. Romer, in his survey of 1700, diverged on his return, and took a small side trail to examine the Oneida portage at Rome. This done, he resumed the main trail. With the rounding of Oswego, a little later, the portage became a place of importance. Forts were built and roads made. Trade at once followed the waterways. In 1671 Fort Frontenac had been founded at Kingston, Canada, but a greater Menace to the Mohawk Valley was the building of La' Presentation at Ogdensburg in 1749. Could the English have gone there earlier they might have blocked the way to Fort Fronlease; the Oswegatchie River already furnished some access to the Mohawk. With his keen military eye Abbe Picquet saw his opportunity. M. DuQuesne said of him that he "was worth more than ten regiments", and he was. A mission in name, it was actually a fort, and a troublesome one at that. This fort was occupied till the end of the old French war, and became an important military base. Expeditions went thence southward, and often there were more captives than warriors there. Trails ran thence to all puts of the Mohawk, but often the old route to and from LaFamme or Salmon river, on Lake Ontario, was preferred. "F" The many outrages from Canada at last compelled the colonists of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York and New Jersey to unite for an invasion of Canada. A fleet was to attack Quebec, while a formidable army of 1500 was to reduce Montreal. This force rendezvoused at Albany and got under way the fore part of June, 1709. The main body had been proceeded by a force of 300 Dutchmen from Albany and vicinity under Col. Peter Schuyler First this pioneer force built a stockade fort at Stillwater, which Schuyler called Fort Ingoldsby, after the governor; then they moved up to Saratoga and built a similar fort on the east side of the river, evidently to guard the ford which crossed just north of the island over which the bridge and highway to Greenwich now pass. The next was built at the Great Carrying place (Fort Edward) ,which he named Fort Nicholson and the next at the forks of Wood Creek, which he called at first Queen's Fort, but later, Fort Ann in honor of the reigning English sovereign. Moreover Col. Schuyler and his pioneers built the "First Military Road", of which we have record in this country. This road began here at Old Saratoga, at the ford no doubt, on the east side of the river and ran up that side of the stream to Fort Edward, thence to Wood creek. It had to be cut most of the way through the primeval forest. The road to Fort Edward has no doubt been practically the same ever since. In 1711 another campaign was organized for the conquest of Canada, and selected the Lake George mute instead of the Fort Ann and Whitehall. Fort Ann and Fort Nicholson were burned and the expedition retreated to Albany. "F" 18. In early March 1744, Lieut. Herbin at the head of a party of 30 French and Indians struck a blow near Saratoga. They fell upon a detachment of 25 on their way to Albany, killed 6 of them, captured 4 and the remaining fifteen threw away their muskets and took flight. "A" 19. Fort Saratoga built in 1721 (Sept. & Oct.) rebuilt in 1745. Destroyed Nov. 28, 1745 by French and Indians under deCourte- manche and Niverville. In March 1746 Fort Saratoga was rebuilt and named Fort Clinton "K" 20. In 1732 John Henry Lydius purchased from the Indians a large section of the land covering the Great Carrying Place, constructed a Block House and sawmill, and established a Colony which he named Fort Lydius. His settlement was destroyed by the French and Indians on their way to the massacre of Saratoga in 1745. "A" 21. About Oct. 23, 1746 a scouting party of 33 Indians and Frenchmen, under M. Repentigny attacked a wagon train with provisions for the fort between Saratoga and Waterford. "A" 22. From Fort St. Frederic, M. de la Come St. Luc with 20 Frenchmen and 201 Indians of various tribes started against Fort Clinton, June 20, 1747, and attacked the fort on June 23, 1747. Fort Clinton was destroyed by its garrison Oct. 5, 1947. "K" 25. The French pursued the retreating English vigorously, and about noon they were seen approaching in considerable force and regular order, aiming directly toward the center of the British encampment. When within one hundred rods of the breast-works, in the open valley in front of the elevation on which Fort George was afterward built, Dieskau halted and disposed his Indians and Canadians upon the right and left flanks. The regular troops under the immediate command of the baron, attacked the English center, but, having only small arms the effect was trifling. The English reserved their fire until the Indians and Canadians were close upon them, when with sue aim they poured upon them a valley of musket-balls which mowed them down like grass before the scythe. At the same moment a bomb-shell was thrown among them by a howitzer, while two field pieces showered upon them a quantity of grapeshot. The savage allies, and almost as savage colonists greatly terrified, broke and fled to the swamps in the neighborhood. The regulars maintained their ground for some time, but, abandoned by their companions, and terribly galled by the steady fire from the breast-works, at length gave way, and Dieskau attempted a retreat. 26. A raiding party of French and Indians burned houses in Ulster County on Feb. 23, 1756. 27. Thus in March, 1756, M. deLery, with 300 men, came from La Presentation to the Salmon River-not Black-and followed the route later used by the Rome and Watertown railroad, from Pulaski to Fort Bull. That fort he carried by assault, killing all but five of the inmates. He had 256 Frenchmen and 103 Indians, but the latter were of little use. The fort was pillaged and ammunition destroyed by throwing it in the water, where boys still find balls and bullets. The little army went no further. I have already referred to the building of Fort Newport in 1756. This fort however, for some reason was never occupied. In the inclement weather of March, in the same year that the French under DeLery destroyed Fort Bull after a severe battle, the masonry was blown up and the cannon and cannon balls thrown into the moat surrounding the fort. The brilliant manner in which the sortie was accomplished in the dead of winter was marred by the massacre of the garrison which had bravely refused to surrender. In 1756 the English forts at the Wood Creek portage of the Mohawk were captured and burned by the French. 28. The summer of 1756 several bloody affrays took place between Fort Edward and Lake George. 30. At Sabbath Day Point in 1756, a small provincial force, pressed by a party of French and Indians, and unable to escape across the lake, made a desperate resistance, and defeated the enemy with considerable slaughter. "A" 31. In March 1757, Chevalier Pierre Francois deVaudreuil, with 1500 French and Indians, made a night attack over the ice against Fort William Henry. It was unsuccessful though they burned everything outside the fort. 32. Montcalm, in Aug. 1757, invested the fort with 6000 men and 2000 Indians. The works were held by 2300 men under Col. Monroe. Finally on Aug. 9, Monroe surrendered to Montcalm, who promised a safe retreat to Fort Edward. They were scarcely outside the wall before the Indians set upon them and massacred a large number of defenseless men, women and children, and carried others into captivity. The fort was never rebuilt. This village (Palatine Village, "Herkimer") was destroyed by the Canadian French on the 12th of Nov. 1757. Gen. M. deBelletre, with a detachment of 300 Marines, Canadians and Indians, arrived after great fatigue in the vicinity of the Oneida Castle, to which place he sent four warriors, doubtless to make interest with that people, by promising not to war on them and possibly to obtain food. for which they were much straitened. From thence he journeyed to the river Corlear-Mohawk, at the carrying place where it is said he had "the satisfaction of examining five abandoned English forts". He means sites of forts, and doubtless referred to those of Forts Bull and William, and one as intimated elsewhere, as having been commenced between those two forts; but what other two he meant, is not easy to determine, unless it were those destroyed at Oswego. "G" The settlers had erected five blockhouses to guard the settlement of sixty houses on the north side of the river. (German Flats westward) A party of 300 French marines, Canadians and Indians commanded by M. de Belletre, marched down the Black river trail to destroy the German Flats frontier settlement. They encamped about opposite Utica on Nov. 11, 1757, and the next day the raiders moved on the first blockhouse, which surrendered after brisk firing on both sides. The other four blockhouses surrendered. Many of the people fled to the ford and to Fort Herkimer across which 100 escaped. Forty men, women and children were killed or murdered and 150 were carried captive to Canada. The greater part of the German Flats farm buildings were burned in this raid and the farm stock killed or driven off. "Y" 34. April 30, 1758, the south side settlement of Palatine (Herkimer) was invaded. "G" 35. July 20, 1758, occurred one of the many skirmishes for which the "Half-way Brook" is noted. 36. The English attack Fort Ticonderoga July 6, 1758, capture the fort on July 26, 1758. 37. East side of Lake George. On July 27, 1757 an English scouting party of 300 lost almost half their number in killed and wounded when attacked by the Indians. 38. Aug. 27, 1758, the English capture Oswego. 39. About a mile north of Fort Ann is the site of a severe battle between the English and French and Indians in August 1758. "Q" 40. September 9, 1753 "another attack," (Half-way Brook). 41. On the south bank of the Mohawk nearly opposite the mouth of West Canada Creek and a half mile from the village of Herkimer, was Fort Kouari, variously known as Hareniger or Herkimer. Fort Herkimer was attacked and captured by French and Indians under Belletre in 1757. (Nov. 12?) 41. The next year M. deBelletre came by the same route, examined several abandoned forts, crossed the river, came near the Palatine village- now Herkimer-and, Nov. 12, took this and five small forts in succession, his most effective weapon being the Indian warwhoop. All feared that Fort Kouari (Bear) or Herkimer, though near, was not taken. The Oneidas had warned the Palatines and some took refuge there. Unfortunately all did not. Severe as the blow was, even the French said the leaders report was exaggerated beyond all reason. This was the last important raid on the valley in the old French war. The forts were soon rebuilt, others added and the French flag no longer waved over Canada. "F" 42. The English capture Fort Niagara, July 23, 1759. "A" 43. Ogdensburg is near the site of the old French fort generally known as Fort Oswegatchie, but on their (French) maps, as early as 1740 it is called Fort la Presentation, and sometimes La Gallette. This fort was garrisoned by the French during a put of the Seven Years' War, but was taken by the English in 1760, while they were descending the St. Lawrence to attack Montreal. "A" 43. Surrender of Fort Lewis (Ogdensburg) Aug. 25, 1760 (Oswegatchie) For more than two hundred years the great deep-worn war paths or traveling trails of the Indian Nations ran to and from its banks. And whether the fleet, moccasined warriors went westward over the Sacandaga trail to the big bend of the Hudson and so on to the Iroquois strongholds, or whether they came to the "Great Carrying Place", at what is now Fort Edward, through Lake Champlain and Wood Creek, or chose the trip through Lake St. Sacrament art the site of the future Glens Falls, down to Albany, or the west, all must cross this stream, ((Hudson) which thus became as familiar to the Adirondack and Iroquois Confederacies, as the alphabet is to us of today. This knowledge so gained was made ample use of in later times in many a bloody ambush, surprise or savage foray. After the defeat of Dieskaw in 1755, and the building of Fort William Henry at Lake George and Fort Edward at the "Great Carrying Place" and "Half-way Brook" became a point of strategic importance, and as a halting place and rendezvous for the passing troops and the convoys of supplies between the two forts, it was noted throughout the northern colonies, as long as the French and Indian War lasted. There was a blockhouse situated on the north side of the brook, and to the west of the plank road leading to the head of Lake George. It was but natural then that in any war they would seek for revenge against the settlers. If there had been no Revolution, and if there had been no Johnson or Butler, it is probable that the settlers of Tryon County would have been involved in an Indian War, which would, however, have lacked the added horrors of the fratricidal, strife, which were such cruel and disgraceful features of the Revolutionary struggle. Other enemies that threatened Tryon County came from beyond the lakes. Indians and the French of Canada, and last British troops and Tory Rangers. The Mohawk Valley was the easy road into the heart of New York. This had been so clearly recognized by the Government of the Colony that when Queen Anne's Palatines came to be located, they were pushed up to the most western point in the valley, with the avowed purpose of making them a barrier, a buffer, a protection for Albany and New York. That they were such a protection, and that they took the full force of the frontier strife, was abundantly proved in the French Wars and in the Revolution. If hostile they formed an important military base westward and on the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers. Canada was now a British province, furnishing another base. Fort Niagara and Fort Oswego were specially troublesome to the Mohawk Valley, and Fort Carleton, a new and strong work, built in '78 was well placed for sudden raids. Its ruins are conspicuous on Burk Island, just below Cape Vincent. The wilderness ad now been well explored, and many trails led thence to all parts of the valley, even Saratoga was accessible from this fort. Another danger as serious as any, came from the foes in their own household; those whom they called Tories, known to themselves and their admirers as "United Empire Loyalists." About these men much has been said. They were loathed and feared and abhorred by their patriot neighbors, and they have been defended and praised and admired by writers in Canada and even in New York. It suffices for us to know that in cruelty and in deeds of ruthless destruction, they exceeded the Mohawks. Such then was the situation in the Mohawk Valley when the first rumblings of war were heard. Tryon County extended north of the river a few miles; to the south, it included Cherry Valley, Harpersfield, Newton, Martin and other small outlying settlements east of the old Treaty Line of 1768; but the most thickly settled parts of its five districts of Mohawk Palatine, Canajoharie, Kingsland and German Flats lay immediately on the river along the highways that ran upon its banks. This section of Tryon County was quite thickly settled by a sturdy liberty loving people-Germans, Hollanders, Swiss, English, Scotch. They were mostly farmers, with a few mechanics, doctors, trader's and clergymen. They differed, as we have seen, about the question of the hour, and this brought disruption into many families but the majority were outspoken in their support of the Patriot cause, and it is well to remember, and to repeat with emphasis, that as early as August, 1774, there was formed in the Palatine District a Committee of Safety, which passed a set of resolutions not exceeded in any of the Thirteen Colonies for force, bravery and devotion to liberty. They were determined they said , "to be free or die." That is was no empty boast was abundantly proved by the results of the war, for at its close there were two thousand widows and orphan children; twelve hundred desolated farms and the smoldering ruins of hundreds of houses, barns, mills and churches. Truly Tryon County had been the buffer that saved Albany, New York and New England. This first meeting of the Tryon County Committee of Safety antedated by a whole year Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill. There were few committees formed at an earlier date and few which passed such stirring resolutions and none formed anywhere whose members so actually took their lives in their hands as did these brave patriots of Tryon County. The loss and suffering they endured is but little known to the general historian; the justice and the credit they deserve has been long withheld, and the graves of most of them are unknown and unmarked. "L" The Revolutionary war brought another series of raids, very different and yet with a similar mingling of white and red men. The Iroquois had extended southward and westward, and generally favored the royal cause. The presents came from that side and they always had an eye to the main chance. Why should they not? So the most that could be hoped for was their neutrality. A few rods west of the church was the large stone mansion of the Herkimer family, which was stockaded and called Fort Herkimer. Herkimer village occupies the site of old Fort Herkimer, erected in the early art of the Seven Years War, and known as Fort Dayton during the revolution. "A" 44. Crown Point remained in the quiet possession of the British from 1759 until 1775, when it was surprised and taken by a small body of provincials called "Green Mountain Boys", under Col. Seth Warner. He attempted its capture on the same day that Delaplace surrendered Fort Ticonderoga to Ethan Allen, but was thwarted and driven back by a storm. That was on the 10th of May. The attempt was renewed on the 12th, with success, and the garrison, consisting of only a sergeant and eleven men, were made prisoners without firing a shot. "A" 45. At Sabbath Day Point a party of American militia of Saratoga county had a severe battle with Tories and Indians in 1776. Both were scouting parties, and came upon each other unexpectedly. The Americans repulsed the enemy, and killed and wounded about forty. "A" 46. Aug. 27, 1776, battle of Long Island and escape the next day the American army across the East River to New York. "A" 47. Sept. 16, 1776, battle of Harlem Plains. "A" 48. Oct. 11, 1776, battle of Valcour Island, (naval engagement on Lake Champlain.) "A" 49. Oct. 28, 1776, Battle of White Plains. 50. The next day the whole fleet anchored in Peekskill Bay, and at one o'clock, five hundred men in eight flat-boats, under the command of Col. Bird, landed at Lent's Cove, on the south side of the bay. They had four pieces of light artillery, drawn by the sailors. Gen. M'Dougall retreated to Gallows Hill and vicinity, giving directions for destroying such stores as could not be removed. At the same time, he sent a dispatch to Lt. Col. Willett, at Fort Constitution, to leave a subaltern's command there, and hasten to his assistance. The British held possession of the town until the next day, when a detachment advanced toward the Highlands. These were attacked by Col. Willett, and a smart skirmish ensued. The detachment retreated back to the main body of the enemy, and in the evening, favored by the light of the moon, they all embarked and sailed down the river. Their object, the destruction of the stores was partially accomplished, but not by their own hands. They had nine of their number killed in the skirmish with Willett, and four at the verge of the creek, while attempting to burn some boats. The Americans had one man killed by a cannon shot. Two or three houses were burned, and about forty sheep, furnished by the Tories were carried off. "A" 51. The first important inroad was connected with Burgoyne's campaign. Though well planned this was too poorly equipped for success, though the battle of Oriskany was a terrible blow to all Tryon County. Bravely fought, it brought sorrow to many homes. Next to this lack of means, his Indian allies were a source of weakness rather than of strength to St. Leger. He intended coming direct from Salmon river to Fort Stanwix, which would have saved time, and he would have found the fort much weaker. But his 250 Mississages were uncontrollable, and he had to go to Oswego to maintain order. There many Mohawks and Senecas joined him. When this vanguard reached the fort the Indians outnumbered the rest, and he had no trust in their tender mercies. In his last summons to the fort he said he would be powerless to restrain them then or in the valley beyond, if once enraged. They were dangerous allies as others had found. They outnumbered the royal troops and in the ambush at Oriskany they suffered severely. They caused his swift retreat and pillaged his stores. It is quite possible, had he followed the route proposed or passed the fort and swept down the valley, the expedition might have been successful, but he dared not leave such a work in his rear, though not planning to return. The onward march would have pleased Sir John Johnson well. "T" The Battle of Oriskany, Aug. 6, 1777, has already been so fully treated that a passing notice is sufficient now. The alert or raid was to have swept the valley from end to end, but was checked at the outset. Its success would have been disastrous. "Y" 52. Capt. McDonald was a noted Scotch Tory, who resided for some time on the Charlotte and had been very active and effective in the Royal cause. Aug. 9, 1777 he appeared on the Schoharie River above Breakabeen with a force of men and "marched up and down the road." Much evidence points to the year 1777 as the correct date, rather than 1778, the one given by both Campbell and Stone. Each side overestimated the strength of the other. Instead of two hundred men coming from Albany, there was but a very small company. McDonald's force had been incorrectly reported as three hundred. Adam Crysler has been in communication with McDonald for weeks and was a party to his invasion - a brief engagement followed in which some lives were lost, after which the invaders withdrew and went to Oswego. 55. Kingston (or Esopus), being the capital of the state when Sir Henry Clinton gained possession of the forts in the Hudson Highlands, was marked by the conqueror for special vengeance. Having demolished the chevaux-de-frise at Fort Montgomery, the British fleet proceeded up the Hudson; the massive iron chain was not yet stretched across the river at West Point. All impediments being removed, a flying squadron of light frigates, under Sir James Wallace, bearing three thousand six hundred men, under the command of Gen. Vaughan sailed up the river. They were instructed to scatter desolation in their track, and well did they perform their mission. Every vessel upon the river was burned or otherwise destroyed; the houses of known Whigs, such as Henry Livingston, at Poughkeepsie were fired upon from the ships; and small parties, landing from the vessels, desolated neighborhoods with fire and sword. They penetrated as far northward as Kingston, where they landed on the 13th of Oct. The frigates were anchored a little above the present landing on Kingston Point, and a portion of the invaders debarked in the cove north of the steamboat wharf. Another division, in small boats, proceeded to the mouth of Esopus; (now Rondout) Creek, and landed at a place a little northeast of Rondout village, called Ponkhocken Point. The people at the creek fled, affrightened, to Marbletown, seven miles southwest of Kingston, and their houses were destroyed. The two divisions then marched toward the village, one by the upper road and the other by the Esopus Creek Road. Almost every house was laid in ashes, and a large quantity of provisions and stores situated there and at the landing were destroyed. The town then contained between three and four thousand inhabitants, many of whom were wealthy, and most of the houses were built of stone. "A" 57. Sir Henry Clinton, in the meanwhile, made his way toward Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery, with much difficulty, for upon a narrow bank was a strong abatis. This was overcome after much hard fighting, and at about four o'clock both forts were invested by the enemy. Sir Henry Clinton sent a flag, with a summons for both garrisons to surrender prisoners of war within five minutes, or they would all be put to the sword. Lt. Col. Livingston was sent by Gov. Clinton to receive the flag, and to inform the enemy that the Americans were determined to defend the forts to the last. The action was immediately renewed with great vigor on both sides. The British vessels under Commodore Hothain approached within cannon shot of the forts, and opened a desultory fire upon them, and on some American vessels lying above the chevaux-de-frise. The battle continued until twilight, when the superior number of the assailants obliged the patriots at both forts to give way, and attempt a scattered retreat or escape. It was a cloudy evening, and the darkness came on suddenly. This favored the Americans in their flight, and a large proportion of those who escaped the slaughter of the battle made their way to the neighboring mountains in safety. The brothers who commanded the forts escaped. Gen. James Clinton was severely wounded in the thigh by a bayonet, but escaped to the mountains and reached his residence in Orange county, sixteen miles distant, the next day, where he was joined by his brother George, and about two hundred survivors of the battle. "A" 60. In 1778, British and Tories raided Manheim, a German settlement north of Little Falls, carrying off a dozen prisoners. 62. Brant's first hostile movement of consequences, after his return to Oghkwaga, was the destruction of a small settlement at Springfield, at the head of Otsego Lake, ten miles west of Cherry Valley. It was in the month of May 1778. Every house was burned but one, into which the women and children were collected and kept unharmed. The absence of Tories in that expedition and the freedom to act as he pleased on the part of Brant, may account for this humanity. Several men were made captive, and, with considerable property, were carried off to Oghkwaga. "A" 62. In June of this summer (1778), Brant came up with a party, and burned Springfield, carrying away several prisoners. He collected the women and children together into one house, and there left them uninjured-an example which was not always followed by his allies. "B" 63. There was at this time, a little settlement, consisting of only nineteen families, on the Cobleskill Creek, ten miles west of Schoharie Though they had erected no fortifications, they had prepared for defense, by organizing a company of militia, and procuring arms and ammunition. About the middle of May 1778.?, it was reported at a meeting of the militia, that some straggling Indians had been seen in the neighborhood, and a scout of three men, one of whom was suspected of being secretly a royalist, was sent out into the forest. On the return of the scout, they met two Indians near the settlement, who accosting them in friendly terms, and pretending to be hunting, were suffered to pass. The Indians took a circuitous route, and in a short time met them again. The suspected individual had now disappeared, having taken a different path from the settlement. The Indians still pretending friendship one of them familiarly took the musket from one of the men, a knocking out the flint, handed it back The other attempted the same thing but his adversary perceiving his intention, shot him. His companion fled and the men returned to the settlement. This circumstance, together with a rumor that a large body of Indians were on the march for Schoharie, excited fears that this hill. settlement would be the first object of their revenge. They immediately dispatched a messenger to Schoharie with the intelligence, and directed him to ask for assistance. A part of a company of continental soldiers, under command of Capt. Patrick, was sent the same day to Cobleskill. The next morning a party of Indians were seen to cross the creek and return again to the woods. A small detachment of men were sent in pursuit. These men were soon driven back by a superior force. Capt. Patrick then marched the whole of his little band, and 15 volunteers of the militia, to their support. The Indians were driven back, but soon made a stand, and after firing again retreated. They continued to retreat, disputing the ground at every at every step, evidently increasing in number, until the conflict became exceedingly fierce. Capt. Patrick was at first wounded, and afterward killed, when his men sought safety in flight. The Indians immediately pursued them, and at the same instant the main body, which had been concealed in the thickets, rushed forth, and with deafening yells poured a shower of rifle balls upon the fugitives; their number, as afterward ascertained, was about 300. The death of Capt. Patrick alone saved his men from entire destruction; in a few moments more they would have been surrounded, and their retreat cut off. The inhabitants of the settlement, as soon as they saw the fugitives emerging from the woods, pursued by the Indians, fled in the opposite direction, and all arrived safe at Schoharie; their escape was favored by the desperate resistance of seven of the soldiers, who, taking possession of a house, fired from the windows, and checked the pursuit of the enemy. The Indians at length succeeded in setting the house on fire, and six of its brave defenders perished in the flames; the other was afterward found a few rods distant, much burned and horribly mutilated, a roll of continental money was put in his hand, as if in derision of the cause which he supported. The enemy set fire to the buildings in the vicinity, and after burying the dead, and mangling the dead bodies of the soldiers, retired without pursuing the fugitives further. Of the 45 who went out, 21 escaped, 22 were killed, and 2 taken prisoners. The Indians suffered severely, according to the account of the prisoners who afterward returned. They were accompanied by a few Tories, and commanded by a Tory, who took this method to obtain revenge for an unsuccessful attempt to arrest him the previous year; he afterward returned to his former home upon the Charlotte River, and was killed by the celebrated Murphy, who was one of a party sent to bring him into the fort. "B" 63. There was an engagement on the 2nd of July 1778, on the upper branch of the Cobleskill, between a party of regular troops and Schoharie militia, 52 in number, and an 1ndian force of 450 strong. The Americans, commanded by Capt. Christian Brown, were overpowered. Fourteen were killed, 8 wounded, 2 were missing and the remainder escaped. The dwellings were burned, and the horses and cattle, which the victors could not take with them were slaughtered in the fields. "A" 63. The year before this the Indians had suffered severely at Oriskany. Stung by the defeat of their purpose in the upper Mohawk and urged on by the British and by Tory leaders, they became very active in 1778. Cobleskill was the first settlement to suffer. During the next five months Springfield, Wyoming, German Flats and Cherry Valley were laid in ruins. 64. In July 1778, a secluded hamlet called Andrustown, situated about six miles southeast of the German Flats and composed of seven families was destroyed by a party of savages under Brant. They owned a thousand acres among the hills and pleasant valleys toward the Otsego Lake. "A" 65. Brant, with 300 Tories and 150 Indians, reached the border settlement (German Flats) early in the evening. It was a dark and rainy night, he lay concealed in a ravine near Shoemaker's (where Walter Butler was captured the year before) until daylight, when his warriors were called to duty, and soon swept, like a fierce wind, over the plain. Aug. or Sept. 1778. "A" 65. The raid on German Flats in Aug. 1778, is commonly ascribed to Brant, who was nearby and probably took some part in it. Maj. Cochran called his force 300 loyalists and 152 Indians. The former often wore the Indian garb to inspire fear, and were even more cruel than those they represented. The Canadian Archives, however, say that Garnett , with 40 men, destroyed the place. There was no fighting but the land was left desolate. 65. Sometime in the summer of 1778 (Sept.), the enemy made an incursion into the western part of the county and destroyed the settlement of German Flats. This fine, fertile section of the country was laid waste. About one hundred houses were burned, a few persons were killed or taken but most of the inhabitants escaped. "B" 65. The Indians and Tories found employment in the destruction of Wyoming and Cherry Valley; the valley of the Mohawk, with the exception of an incursion into the German Flats, was unmolested during the summer of 1778. "B" 67. Gen. Grey, with some light infantry and other troops, was sent, at night, to approach Tappan on the west, while a corps from Kuyphausen's division was to approach from the east, and thus, surround and capture not only the sleepers in Baylor's camp, but a body of militia, under Wayne, who were stationed near. Some deserters from the enemy gave the militia timely warning; but Baylor's troops who lay unarmed in barns, were not appraised of the proximity of the enemy. At midnight, Grey approached silently, cut off a sergeant's patrol of twelve men without noise, and completely surprised the troop of horse. Unarmed, and in the power of the enemy, they asked for quarter, but this was inhumanly refused by Grey, who like Tryon, was a famous marauder during the war. On this occasion he gave special orders not to grant any quarter. Many of the soldiers were bayoneted in cold blood. Out of one hundred and four persons, sixty-seven were killed or wounded. Col. Baylor was wounded and made prisoner, and seventy homes were butchered. "A" 70. The next spring Indians from the Susquehanna raided the south side of the valley, and others from Canada assailed Stone Arabia on the north. These were small affairs. 1779. 71. With the destruction of Cherry Valley all hostile movements ceased in Tryon county, and were not resumed until the following spring, when an expedition was sent against the Onondagas by Gen. Clinton. In April he dispatched a portion of the regiments of Cols. Gansevoort and VanSchaick, under the latter officer, against the Onondagas. The party consisted of 558 strong men. Van Schaick was instructed to burn their castle and villages in the Onondaga Valley, destroy all their cattle and other effects, and take as many prisoners as possible. He was further instructed to treat the women that might fall into his hands with all the respect due to chastity. The expedition went down Wood Creek and Oneida Lake and thence up the Oswego River to the point on Onondaga Lake where Salina is now. A thick fog concealed their movements and they had approached to within four or five miles of the valley before they sere discovered. As soon as the first village was attacked, the alarm spread to the others. The people fled to the forests, leaving everything, even their arms behind them. Three villages, consisting of about fifty houses, were destroyed, twelve Indians were killed, and thirty-three were made prisoners. A large quantity of provisions, consisting chiefly of beans and corn, were consumed. The council-house or castle, was not burned, but the swivel in it was spiked. All the horses and cattle in the vicinity were slaughtered; and when the work of destruction was ended, the expedition returned to Fort Schuyler, after an absence of only six days, and without the loss of a man. "A" 72. Following the raid on the Onondaga village, three hundred braves were immediately sent upon the warpath, charged with the vengeance of the nation. Guided by a Tory, they came down fiercely upon the settlement at Cobleskill, murdering, plundering, and burning. The militia turned out to repulse them, but, being led into an ambuscade, a number of them were killed . They fought desperately, and while the militia was thus contending, and beating back the savages, the people fled in safety to Schoharie. Seven of the militia took post in a strong house, which the savages set fire to, and these brave young men all perished in the flames. The whole settlement was then plundered and burned. The patriots lost twenty-two killed and forty-two who were made prisoners. "A" 76. The Battle of Newton, was fought near present Elmira, Aug. 29, 1779. 76. After the Battle of Newtown the work of Sullivan's expedition was that of destruction, The following places were destroyed on 31st. Aug., Middletown, having eight houses, three miles above Newtown; Kanawaholla, with 20 houses, near Elmira; Runonvea, with 30 or 40 houses near Big Flats. Sheoquaga, or Catherine's Town, on the site of the village of Havana, was burned on Sept 1st, 40 houses all well built on Sept. 3rd. a place known as Peach Orchard on the lake shore about 12 miles from Catherine's Town. The next day, Condawhaw, now North Hector, was burned. The following day the troops destroyed Kendaia, or Appletown, a place a few miles north of Condawhaw, 20 houses. On Sept. 7th. Kanedesaga, capitol of the Seneca Nation. Site of present Geneva. In 1756, Sir William Johnson, built a stockaded fort at this place. Col. Harper went about 8 miles down the Seneca River and destroyed Skoi-aso, a place of 18 houses, on the site of Waterloo, Maj. Parr, went 7 miles up the west side of Seneca Lake and destroyed Shenanwaga, a town of 20 houses on Sept 10th he reached Kanandaigua a town of 23 "elegant houses" some of them framed. The next day a march of 14 miles to Haneyaye, 20 houses at the foot of Honeoye Lake, village of Honeoye. Kanaghsaws, also called Adjuton, was reached on the 13th., 18 houses near Conesus Lake and about a mile northwest of Conesus Center. Gathtsegwarohare, a place of 25 houses mostly new, on the east side of Canaseroga Creek, about 2 miles above its junction with the Genesee. It was surrounded by corn fields so extensive it took 2000 men six hours to destroy them. Sept. 15th. arrived at Little Beards Town, or Great Genesee Castle, or Chenanidoanes, 128 houses "most of which were large and elegant" near Cuylersvffle in the town of Leicester. After the destruction of this place, Sullivan began his homeward march. Col. Butler was detached to pass along the east shore of Cayuga Lake, Sept. 21, he destroyed Choham, a small town at the foot of the lake. The next day he burned Gewauga, now the village of Union Springs. Sept. 22, he reached Cayuga Castle with 15 large, square loghouses on the east shore of the lake. One mile south of the Castle was Upper Cayuga, 14 houses, and a mill. To the northeast was East Cayuga, or Old Town, 13 houses. Chonodote, 14 houses on the east shore, now Aurora, was destroyed on the 24th. Here were great orchards, 1500 peach trees, and many apple trees. On the 21st. Col. Dearborn, was detached to lay waste to the country on the west side of Lake Cayuga, He burned six small towns. One in Fayette, four miles from the lake; a second a mile north of Canoga Creek; a third on the south bank of Cayuga Creek, one half mile northeast of Canoga village; the fourth a mile south of the last place; the fifth in the northeast comer of the town of Romulus; and the sixth three miles from the head of the lake on Cayuga inlet. Forty Indian villages had been burned, 200,000 bushels of corn destroyed, the sands of fruit trees cut or girdled, all gardens laid waste, and all horses and cattle and hogs killed. "R" 78. Sullivan's expedition was made up of three brigades, the first consisting of four New Jersey regiments under the command of Gen. William Maxwell. The New Jersey troops marched from Elizabethtown, N. J. to Easton, where they were joined by Gen. Enochs Poor's brigade made up of three New Hampshire and one Massachusetts regiment. The New Hampshire troops marched from Soldier's Fortune on the Hudson, about six miles above Peekskill, to Easton, crossing the Hudson at Fishkill and marching from Newburg to the New Jersey line, passing thru New Windsor, Bethleham, Bloominggrove Church, Chester, Warwick and Hardiston, a distance of 38 miles. All the places named are in the county of Orange. From Hardiston the troops crossed into New Jersey, and marched to Easton, fifty-eight miles, further on. On Aug. 9, 1779, the dam was cut and Clinton embarked an his passage down river. Ouleout, a Scotch Tory settlement on the east side of the Susquehanna, five miles above the present village of Unadilla; Conihunto, an Indian town 14 miles below Unadilla on the west side of the river. Unadilla, at the junction of the Unadilla and Susquehanna Rivers, Onoquaga, an Indian town situated on both sides of the river about 20 miles below Unadilla, Shawhiangto, a Tuscarora village near the present village of Windsor, Broome county; Ingaren, a Tuscarora hamlet where is now the village of Great Bend; Otsiningo, sometimes called Zeringe, near the site of the present village of Chenango; Chenango, on the Cherrango River, 4 miles north of Binghamton; Choconut, on the south side of the Susquehanna, at the site of the present village of Vestal, in Broome county; Owegy, or Owagea, on the Oswego Creek about a mile above its mouth, and Mauckatawangum, near Barton. 79. While this expedition was in progress, scalping parties appeared at the different points in the lower section of the Mohawk, and the settlements were menaced with the fate of Cherry Valley. On the south side of the Mohawk a party fell upon the Canajoharie settlement, took three prisoners, captured some horses, and drove the People to Fort Plain. On the same day another party attacked a small settlement at Stone Arabia, burned some houses, and killed several people. A party of Senecas appeared at Schoharie on the same day, drove the people to the fort plundered the houses, and carried away two men prisoners. These simultaneous attacks were part of a plan for cutting off the settlement in detail. The Indians on the south of the Mohawk were from the Seneca country, and those on the, north from Canada, both, doubtless, advanced parties of larger forces. "A" 80. On Sept. 5 1779 the Continental troops capture the British stronghold at Lloyd's Neck. "D" 81. The British post of Fort George, at South Bay, on Smith's Manor was captured by the American forces under Maj. Tallmadge, on Nov. 23, 1779. The American forces also destroyed the British stores at Coram, on the same day. "D" In May 1780, Capt. Crawford, with 3 officers and 71 Indians, left Fort Carleton for the Mohawk river in high spirits, and was joined by 105 soldiers. The Onondagas and Cayugas, however, refused to go anywhere but to Fort Stanwix and the party returned. That month Brant brought in ten prisoners and four scalps, and the Canadian Archives add: "They have been bringing prisoners and scalps all winter." We are left to conjecture the reason for bringing in the latter. Incursions never ceased, but parties were usually small, mere scalp hunters. Col. Stone thought the burning of the Oneida fort and village was early in this year, but could get no date. Under that of Aug. 11, at Niagara, the Archives speak of "Brant's success on the Mohawk; destroyed the Oneida village and fort; recently destroyed a rich settlement and two small forts, about 100 houses, etc. Brant thinks it the finest opportunity to destroy Fort Stanwix." 87. Nothing more was heard of the enemy until Sunday night the 21st. of May, 1780, when Sir John Johnson, at the head of about five hundred troops, British, Indians and Tories, entered Johnstown settlements from the expected northern route. 87. About midnight on Sunday, 21 of May, 1780, Sir John, with a force of 500 Tories and Indians, who had penetrated the country from Crown Point to the Sacandaga River, appeared at Johnson Hall without being seen by any but his friends. His forces were divided into two detachments, and between midnight and dawn he began to devastate the settlement by burning every building, except those which belonged to Tories. One division was sent around an easterly course, so as to strike the Mohawk at Tribes Hill, below Caughnawaga (Fonda), whence it was ordered to proceed up the valley, destroy Caughnawaga, and form a junction with the other division at the mouth of the Cayudutta Creek. This march was performed; many buildings were burned and several lives were sacrificed. Sir John, in the meanwhile, at the head of one division, proceeded through the village of Johnstown unobserved by the sentinels at the small picketed fort there, and before daylight was at the hall, once his own, where he secured two prisoners. "A" Towards sunset with his prisoners slaves and much booty, he directed his course inwards the Sacandaga. He kept upon the Indian paths through the wilderness west of the Adirondack Mountains, an escaped. "A" 87. A raid had already taken place in May, 1780 Sir John Johnson coming to his old home by way of Lake Champlain, with 500 men, perhaps one-fourth Indians. The usual barbarities followed, though the baronet showed some slight consideration for a very few old friends. At this time Jacob Sammons was made a prisoner, and had a pathetic tale to tell after his escape Later he became an efficient officer in the valley warfare. He died in Syracuse, Nov. 2, 1815, and I have often seen his grave. His son was in the War of 1812, and a later descendant served in our Civil War". Receiving timely notice of this, from his (Sir John's) tory friends in Albany, he hastily assembled a large number of his tenants and others, and prepared for a retreat, which he successfully accomplished, taking to the woods and avoiding the route of Lake Champlain, from fear of falling into the hands of the Continentals, supposed to be assembled in that direction, he struck deeper into the woods, by way of the head waters of the Hudson and descended the Raquette River to Canada. In August following, Maj. Ross and Walter Butler came from Canada by the way of Sacandaga to Johnstown, with 607 men - 477 British and Tories, and 130 Indians. They encamped on the elevated ground a little to the north of Johnson Hall. "B" 89. This place (Fort Plain) was included in the Canajoharie settlement, and in 1780 felt severely the vengeance of the Tories and Indians, inflicted in return for the terrible desolation wrought by an army under Sullivan, the previous year, in the Indian country west of the white settlements. The whole region on the south side of the Mohawk, for several miles in this vicinity, was laid waste. The approach of the dreaded Thayendanegea along the Canajoharie Creek, with about 500 Indiana and Tories, to attack the settlements at Fort Plain, was announced to the people, then engaged in their harvest fields by a woman who fired a cannon at the Fort, Aug. 2, 1780. Fifly-three dwellings and as many barns were burned 16 slain, and between 50 and 60 chiefly women and children made captive. "A" 90. As early as Aug. 1780, Crysler, according to his own official report, led a party of Oquaga Indians into "Vroman's land took five scalps, two prisoners and burnt some houses and barns". The upper settlement had not recovered from this blow when in Oct. of the same year the main incursion of all this period was made. 91. A party of Tories and Indians in 1780 joined in an expedition to destroy the mills, (Ellis's at Little Falls) and thus cut the supply of flour for the Whig garrisons. They made a stealthy descent, under the cover of the night. The mill was garrisoned by about a dozen men but so sudden and unexpected was the attack, that only a few shots were exchanged, and one man killed, before its defenders fled for safety. "A" On the 24th, many of the homeless Oneidas came to Niagara, about 500 being then on the royal side. Under date of Aug. 14, beside Brant's attack on Oneida town, there follows, "his proceedings on the Mohawk River, where they burned 100 houses, 2 mills, 1 church and 2 forts; took 300 cattle, 200 horses, besides sheep, etc.; and 45 prisoners and killed." The raiders sometimes ate all the cattle. At this time 100 Oneida warriors joined Brant in his raid. That chief also burned 20 houses in Schoharie and near Norman's Kill, taking and killing 12 persons. He had shrewdly circulated rumors that he would attack Fort Stanwix, and it was reinforced. When his foes were assembled there, he passed around them and fell on the defenseless settlements near Canajoharie and Fort Plain. Capt. Nellis took Plitt in this raid and also those Oneidas, though a few of the latter still adhere to the Americans. These were placed near Schenectady, and Brant planned to destroy them but failed to do so. "F" Canajoharie, Aug. 5, 1780 "Sir,-I here send you an account of the fate of our district. On the second day of this inst., Joseph Brant, at the head of about four or five hundred Indians and Tories, broke in upon the settlements, laid the best part of the district in ashes, and killed sixteen of the inhabitants that we have found; took between fifty and sixty prisoners, mostly women and children, twelve of whom they have sent back. They have killed and drove away with them upwards of three hundred head of cattle and horses; have burnt fifty-three dwelling houses, beside some out houses, and as many barns, one very elegant church, and one grist-mill, and two small forts that the women fled out of. They have burnt all the inhabitant's weapons and implements for husbandry, so that they are left in a miserable condition. They have nothing left to support themselves, but what grain they had growing, and that they cannot get saved for want of tools to work with, and very few to be got here. (Part of a letter from Col. Samuel Clyde to Gov. George Clinton.) In Aug. 1780 a party of seventy-three Indians and five Tories, commanded by Brant, suddenly swept down the valley and attacked the Upper Fort. "W" 92. Carleton's Raid was undertaken in the autumn of 1780 in accordance with the policy of the British to harass and devastate the colonies at every possible point. Maj. Carleton, with a considerable force of Regulars, Tories and Indians, set out from Canada and proceeded up Lake Champlain to Crown Point and Ticonderoga. He captured and burned Fort Ann and sent out marauding parties in the direction of Fort Edward. He marched across country to the head of Lake George, took possession of Fort George, and captured and burned Fort Amherst, which stood near Half-Way Brook,' just outside the City of Glens Falls. A portion of his force had been dispatched to advance through the wilderness and attack Schenectady but they contented themselves with the devastating the settlement of Ballston." 93. Oct. 17, 1780, Sir John Johnson and Brant, with one thousand British, Indians and Tories attacked the Middle Fort. "W" 93 In the fall of 1780 the enemy, about 800 strong, under Sir John Johnson, made preparations for destroying the Schoharie and the Mohawk Valleys. The forces consisting of British regulars, loyalists, and Tories, assembled on the Tioga, and marched thence up along the eastern branch of the Susquehanna, and crossed thence to Schoharie. Col. Harper, with a small body of troops annoyed them on their march, watched their movements, and gave notice of their approach. On the 16th of Oct., they encamped four miles from the Upper Fort. "B" 93. The plan agreed upon by the invaders was to proceed along the Charlotte River, the east branch of the Susquehanna, to."it's source, thence across to the head of the Schoharie, sweep all the settlements along it's course to it's junction with the Mohawk. 93. Having executed his mission in Schoharie so far as he found it practicable, Sir John Johnson encamped for the night near Harman Sidneys, the present residence of John C. Van Vechten, nearly six miles north of the Lower Fort. - In the morning Col. Johnson sank his mortar and shells in a morass, and directed his course to Fort Hunter. 93. A more formidable raid came early in Oct., from the west. Sir John Johnson left Oswego with 500 troops and some Indians , and was on the Onondaga River-now Oneida-on the 6th, Capt. Nellis joined him there. At Unadilla, Cornplanter was waiting, with a large body of Senecas and others, eager to avenge the desolation of Sullivan's campaign in '79. Thoroughly did they do this, suddenly entering the Schoharie valley from the south. Beside other devastation Sir John said they destroyed, in this and the Mohawk Valley, 600,000 bushels of grain. Their conduct was highly praised. The Senecas were then the most barbarous of the Five Nations, and had seen most of their own villages burned and the crops destroyed the year before. Naturally they were ready for thorough work, but the forts escaped. It was in this raid that Col. Brown fell at Stone Arabia with many of his men. He occupied Fort Paris and sallied forth to attack the raiders, but his 150 men were too few. Nearly a third were killed, the rest escaped by flight. An inscribed boulder marks the spot. Oct. 19, 1780. Collecting a few loyalists and leaving desolation behind, Sir John was now in full retreat up the Mohawk Valley, closely pursued. The battle at Klocks Field followed (At the eastern boundary of St. Johnsville). A little more dash and promptness on the part of his pursuers would have overwhelmed him, but many reverses had taught caution. The golden moment passed, and he went off triumphant to his boats. "F" Near this Sir John had moored his boats, which Capt. Vrooman was sent to destroy. Ill luck attended him. According to the records of Fort Stanwix and others, he was surprised and captured on the way, so that the boats were unharmed. A more popular story is that he occupied the fort and destroyed some boats, but was surprised there by Johnson, and his party made prisoners. The destruction of boats came later. "F" David Ogden's account of his own capture by raiders in March 1781, shows characteristic Indian humor. It was an old Indian custom to leave some record of results. The snow was three feet deep, and Brant took the shoe buckles of his sixteen prisoners, arranging them in pairs by the path to show the number. Winter was no hindrance to attacks, and they soon met a band of 50 loyalists and 100 Indians. The squaws feasted them on succotash. At the burned Oneida village they dug unhusked corn from the snow, and prepared it for the long journey to Niagara. "F" 94. The day after the destruction of Schoharie, a party of 18 Indians and 3 Tories, led by Seths Henry and Philip Crysler, killed and scalped Michael Marckley and his niece, Catherine. Oct. 18, 1780. "M" 96. On the 2nd. of March, 1781, Brant attacked wood choppers at Fort Schuyler, retreated southwest from Utica. "D" In May 1781, Fort Starmix, being almost ruined, was burned and evacuated, leaving Fort Herkimer and Fort Dayton on the frontier. Col. Willett was in command in the valley, and made his head quarters at Fort Rensselaer, a quaint building still standing in the village of Canajoharie. Following the attack on Currytown in June, by a large Indian party, came their defeat by Willett, with great loss to the Indians. Affairs were now more hopeful, though an attack on Palatine soon followed, with others at German Flats. The many fortified houses, after called forts, enabled many to maintain a hold on their lands, in the face of constant attacks. "F" During the early part of the summer of 1781, a constant warfare was carried on in the vicinity of the forts; small parties of Indians hovered about Fort Plain, and cut off every soldier or inhabitant who was so careless as to stray beyond its walls. "B" 99. On the 9th. of July, 1781 nearly 500 Indians, and a few Loyalists, commanded by a Tory named Doxtader, attacked the settlement of Currytown, murdered several of the inhabitants, and carried others away prisoners. The house of Henry Lewis was picked and used for a fort. The settlers, unsuspicious of danger, were generally at work in their fields, when the enemy fell upon them. It was toward noon when they emerged stealthily from the forest, and with torch and tomahawk commenced the work of destruction. "A" 101. About the first of September, 1781, a party of twenty or thirty of the enemy, mostly Indians, by whom I have not been able to learn, entered the lower part of the Cobleskill settlement which took in that part of the town now known as Cobleskill village or The Churches. - The enemy then disappeared pursing the usual southwest route to Niagara. "D" 102. The great raid of '81 was that of Ross and Butler in October, with 700 men, of whom 130 were Indians. It was organized at Fort Carleton, but Maj. Ross said the "promised succor of the Indians is a mere illusion; they us the refuse of different tribes with no leader." The route was from Fort Carleton to Oswego by water; thence to Oneida and Chittenango Creek as usual. The boats were left at the old Canaseraga fort under guard. The party passed Fort Rensselaer unobserved, reaching and destroying Warrensburg near Schoharie Creek, where both sides of the Mohawk were ravaged. Col. Willett reached Fort Hunter next morning, but the raiders were then at Johnstown, whither he followed. It was a varied contest there as regards success, but he followed up the final retreat. A party was then sent to Canaseraga to destroy the boats, but failed to do this, though the retreat in that direction was cut off. Thus the raiders fled up West Canada Creek, the nearest route to Fort Carleton, though difficult. For up this valley, on the west side Capt Walter N Butler was killed by an Oneida Indian. Brought up in the valley he had been one of its worst enemies. Others fell, but most of the raiders escaped. Col. Willett returned down the creek to Fort Dayton near its mouth, and thence to headquarters. The guard remained with the boats for a reasonable time, but at Fort Carleton, Nov 22 Maj. Ross wrote of the "safe arrival of the parties and prisoners left at Canaseraga; destruction of old bateaux left there; they had merely been patched up for the expedition; the good ones are all at the Island and Niagara." He also spoke of "the humanity of the expedition, nor did the Indians hurt a woman or child." They bad little time for this, but his opinion of them had improved. In the popular mind the two boat expeditions are confused, and so a strong belief was there that Sir John's treasure was sunk in the boats, that I have seen coffer dams built to raise or search some of them. This was a little below the old fort. Not long since treasure seekers often dug by night in the adjacent fields, looking for Sir John's money. "F" 101. On the 24th of Oct. 1781, Maj. Ross and Walter Butler at the head of about one thousand troops consisting of regulars, Indians and Tories, approached the settlement (Johnstown) so stealthily that they reached Warren Bush (not far from the place where Sir Peter Warren made his first settlement,' and the place of residence of Sir William Johnson on his arrival in America) without their approach being suspected. The settlement was broken into so suddenly that the people had no chance for escape. Many were killed and their houses plundered and destroyed. As soon as Col. Willett, then stationed at Fort Rensselaer, was informed of this incursion, he marched with about 400 men, for Fort Hunter, on the Mohawk. Col. Rowley, of Mass. with a part of his force, consisting of Tryon County Militia, was sent round to fall upon the enemy in the rear, while Willett should attack them in front. The belligerents met a short distance above Johnson Hall, and a battle immediately ensued. The militia under Willett soon gave way, and fled in great confusion to the stone church in the village; and the enemy would have had an easy victory - had not Rowley emerged from the woods at that moment, and fallen upon their rear. It was then four o'clock in the afternoon, and the fight was kept up with bravery on both sides until dark, when the enemy retreated, or rather fled in great disorder, to the woods. During the engagement and while Rowley was keeping the enemy at bay Willett succeeded in rallying the militia, who returned to the fight. The Americans lost about forty killed and wounded. The enemy had about the same number killed, and fifty made prisoners. "A" 101. On the afternoon of Oct. 24, 1781, a body of the enemy, consisting of nearly seven hundred British and Royalist troops and Indians, under Maj. Ross, who was accompanied in the expedition by Maj. Walter Butler, of Cherry Valley memory, entered the Mohawk river settlements, making their first appearance in Currytown. Passing through that ill-starred place, which had been pretty effectually destroyed the preceding July, they avoided the little fort and did not fire the buildings then standing, from fear of frustrating part of their enterprise. "A" 102. Col. Willett moved from Fort Plain with about 300 levies. On the 22 of Aug. he determined to attack the enemy in their camp. He detached 100 men under Col. Harper to make a circuit through the woods and fall upon the enemy's rear while he should attack them in front. A short distance from the Hall, Col. Willett was met by Ross with all his force, and his men on the first fire gave way and retreated. Willett endeavored to rally them at the Hall, but failed. At the village he succeeded in stopping them. Here he was joined to by 200 militia just arrived. The detachment under Harper gained the rear, and now opened fire upon the enemy. The attack was now renewed by Col. Willett, and the enemy was finally driven from their ground with loss. Thirteen Americans and seventeen British and Indians were killed. "B" "I have had the pleasure of exploring West Canada Creek with Mr. Pierpont White, of Utica, N. Y., seeking the point between what new Ohio City and Russia, above the junction with the Black River, where the action is believed to have occurred. There are two possible fords which may have been used but local opinion inclines, and I believe it to be correct, to the ford known to local fishermen as Hess's Rift. To a certain degree, dams and reservoirs have changed the look of West Canada Creek since the Revolution. It is a mistake to think of it only as a creek. It is a deep brown flood-like, "Is here rolling rapidly". The action referred to above was on the West Canada Creek where Walter Butler was slain. Sometimes called Butler's Ford. This was the last important raid in the valley. Great or small they accomplished no great end, and were usually scenes of useless bloodshed and destruction. In early days DeTracy's inroad did bring peace, and the siege of Fort Stanwix was part of a great and shrewd plan. Yet the Americans' attack on the Onondaga towns had decidedly barbarous features, and Sullivan's campaign might have rivaled any Indian raid in the Mohawk Valley, had not the Indians kept out of sight. The ravaged fields and burned towns were alike in kind. No wonder the Senecas called Washington, Ha-no-da-ga-ne-ara, (Town Destroyer), still the name of every president of the United States. "F" 105. About the first of November, 1781, a party of the enemy under Joseph Brant, and Capt. Adam Crysler, a former resident of that vicinity, entered Vrooman's Land in the early morning, near the residence of Peter Vrooman. "D" 106. Late in 1781 a small party of Tories from New Rhinebeck, whose fields and dwellings had frequently been drawn upon by the militia and citizens of Cobleskill, retaliated by entering the latter settlement at an opportune time and burning buildings, driving away cattle, taking prisoners and killing at least one person. As late as July 26, 1782, Tories and Indians made an attack upon the inhabitants of Fox's Creek. 107. In June 1782, an Indian War party came to little Falls and attacked and burned Daniel Petrie's mill and dwelling. Petrie was killed and several soldiers and farmers in the mill were captured and taken to Canada. 109. On the morning of July 26th 1782 the Tory captain, Adam Crysler, accompanied by his brother William, appeared at Foxes Creek Valley. They had tarried the preceding night, as was believed, at the dwelling of a Tory in the vicinity, whose family and property were left unmolested. Early in the morning the destructives approached the house of Jacob Zimmer, which was one of the first stone dwellings in the Schoharie county. "D" 110. A number of families had early settled along the Westkill, a stream flowing into the Cobleskill, and when the war broke out were living in quiet enjoyment of the fruits of their arduous labor. Three times the settlement was visited by small hands of the enemy. On one occasion all the members of the Hynds family were carried away, and it was several days before the other inhabitants knew of it. There is no absolute proof that in the later incursions scalps and prisoners were paid for at so much a head, but that there was an object in taking and bringing them in cannot be denied. With the early Indian, scalps were the only evidence of his prowess. The French and English colonists commercialized the custom by their offers. Taught by them the Indians thought less of the honorable trophy than of the goods it would buy. He hunted scalps as he hunted beaver. Col. Frazer wrote to Gov. Haldimand, asking "that a stop be put to the conduct of the Indians in keeping prisoners. Their brutal behavior, if known, would create more enemies than he could collect of useful allies among the Indians". This was a great disadvantage. Besides all this they were enormously expensive, a feature often mentioned. They were now excellent judges of goods and ornaments, and demanded and had the very best. It is of interest to know how many Indians were employed in this local warfare. In August, 1783, Capt. Dalton reported, in round numbers, the New York Iroquois who fought on the British side as 300 Mohawks, 150 Oneidas, 230 Cayugas, 200 Onondagas, 400 Senecas and 200 Tuscaroras. Some of the estimates are too high, but that of the Senecas is too low. The total seems fair, but does not include the western and Canadian Indians. These, with the Senecas, were the most savage of all. The latter were mostly employed against Pennsylvania. Usually from 500 to 1000 Indians were in the field, and Col. Guy Johnson said he alone secured the services of 1500 warriors. It was not uncommon to have 500 in the Mohawk Valley or neighborhood. In July, '82, Brant started for that region with an infantry company and 460 Indians. Of this, little is known beyond the significant words of Maj. Ross, that Brant was "doubtful of success because of the divided state of the Indians." Most were held fast only by liberal pay. Aiding more or less in these raids were the Loyalist companies mentioned in the Canadian Archives, and the Royal Highland Emigrants, King's Royal Regiment of New York, Sir John Johnson's Battalions, Royal Americans and Royal Yorkers, King's Loyal Americans, Peter's Corps and Jessup's, and of Rangers, Butler's, King's McAlpin's, Rogers, and Fraser's, some of these sharing in the valley warfare. In all the wanton cruelty shown by white and red men alike, better things sometimes appeared on which I have no time to dwell now. Unfortunately these were exceptional, for the warfare was of a primitive type. It was war to the knife. We have fallen on better times, in a favored land, but all share not our peace. Let us be thankful for the good land given us; for the fair and peaceful valley in which we meet today, but in which, also, men of many nations have fought. It is well to recall the past, but in doing this, let us be thankful that we do not live in the good old days. "F" From 1775 to 1783, Long Island and the Champlain, Hudson and Mohawk Valleys furnished the battlefields for the 92 recorded conflicts that occurred in the State. Twenty-seven of these conflicts took place in 1777 and twenty-one in 1776. The entire eight year period was one of continuous conflict for these valleys New York furnished the greater number of battlefields for both the French and Indian War as well as the Revolution. The treaty of Tawasentha in 1618, between the Dutch and Iroquois at Normans Kill, near Albany, in effect permitted the Dutch to acquire land title from the Mohican and River Tribes of Indians, who were subject tribes of the Iroquois. As time passed from this first Indian treaty as made by the Dutch, it was assumed by the English, and was ratified 39 times between 1618 and 1779, when General Sullivan's raid broke the strength of the Confederacy. "X" These conditions held for 179 years our early settlements to Long Island, The Mohawk, Champlain and Hudson River valleys, while the ancestral homes of the Iroquois occupies the balance of the present area of the State and this occupation provides the chief reason why the New York State's part in the colonial and Revolutionary is not better known. "X" Albany (1617) next to Jamestown, Va. (1607) and St. Augustine, Fla. (1566), is the oldest settlement in the Union. If the 13 Colonies only are included, and if Jamestown is thrown out, as deserted in 1676, it may perhaps be called the oldest with a continuous life though its actual settlement (1623) as a residence is later than Plymouth, Mass. (1620). PART III THE FORTS FORT ALDEN: was at Cherry Valley. FORT AMHERST: was on the south bank of the Half-way Brook and a few rods east of the old military road. Local tradition has it that the block house on the opposite side of the brook, was then rebuilt, enlarged and strengthened. Fort Amherst used as a fortified camp in 1757-58. The fort was erected in 1759. It was occupied by the forces of Baron Riedesel in the Burgoyne Campaign of 1777 It was burned in 1780 in the Carleton Raid at the time of the Northern Invasion. FORT AMSTERDAM: The fort was built of Holland brick, and was finished in 1635. It stood on high ground, southeast of the Bowling Green, and was capacious enough to contain the governor's house, a small church, and to accommodate three hundred soldiers. On its surrender to the English, it was called Fort James; during the Dutch occupation again, in 1673, it was called Fort William Hendrick; then again Fort James; on the accession of William and Mary, it was called Fort Orange; and finally it was named Fort George, when Anne, who married Prince George of Denmark, ascended the English throne. It retained that time until it was demolished in 1790-91. FORT ANN: erected by Gen. Nicholson in 1757, two years after the construction of Fort Edward. FORT BLUNDER: name for a time of Fort Montgomery, one mile north of Rouse's Point. FORT BREWERTON: built in 1756 at the west end of Oneida Lake. FORT BULL: at Wood Creek. BURNET'S FORT: A small fort built by Gov. Burnet at Oswego in 1727. From that time until 1755, the English had undisturbed possession of Burnet's Fort, and kept it garrisoned by a Lieutenant and twenty-five men. FORT CANAJOHARIE: on the south bank of the Mohawk River nearly opposite the mouth of East Canada Creek. French and Indian War post, 1756-1760. Was built to protect the river ford at this point. FORT CARILLON: the first fort built on the promontory which so perfectly commands the southern extremity of Lake Champlain, was erected by the French in 1151 to prevent the English from entering Canada. FORT CHAMBLY: at the foot of the Falls of Chambly, in the present valley of Chambly, by Capt. De Chambly of Carignan-Salieries Regiment in 1644. A French fort built as a base for their expeditions against the Iroquois. FORT CLINTON: was Fort Saratoga, as it was rebuilt a year after the Saratoga Massacre of Nov. 16, 1745. Was abandoned in the fall of 1747. FORT CLINTON: on the lower plateau at West Point. FORT CLINTON: situated on the west bank of the Hudson nearly opposite Anthony's Nose and south of Fort Montgomery. FORT CLYDE: It was a military post situated on the farm of Henry H. Nellis, still owned by his descendants, in Freysbush. It was on elevated ground, affording a fine prospect, and was about three miles southeast of Fort Plain, as the road then ran. It was not unlike the original plan of Fort Plain, being a palisaded enclosure with block-house corners. It has one or two cannon, and is believed to have been built about 1777. COCK HILL FORT: on the east bank of the Hudson at the mouth of the Harlem River. FORT CONSTITUTION: built in the fall of 1775 on Constitution Island. FORT CROWN POINT: originally an English trading station but about 1731, the French erected a fort, called Fort St. Frederic. The French held this fort until 1759, when the garrison, with that of Fort Ticonderoga, retreated down the lake. The English rebuilt the fort in 1759-60. In 1773 the barracks took fire and the magazine exploded, partially demolishing the fortifications. FORT CRAVEN: one of the forts on the Wood Creek portage. FORT DAYTON: built in 1776, by Col. Elias Dayton and named in his honor. It was in the present village of Herkimer. FORT DUBOISE: a block-house similar to the one called Fort Plain, was erected that spring, 17??, near the dwelling of Jacob Shafer in Cobleskill, about a half mile east of Cobleskill village. This block-house was erected by Capt. Duboise of Catskill, and called Fort Duboise. It was surrounded by a deep moat, which was partially filled with water from a brook running near. FORT EDWARD: the first fortification to be established on the present site of the village of Fort Edward, at the Hudson River east of the Great Carrying Place was Fort Nicholson. It was built by Col. Peter Schuyler, the commander of the vanguard of Nicholson's Expedition against Crown Point in 1709. Upon the retreat of Nicholson's Army from Lake Champlain, it was abandoned. FORT FREY: palisaded and garrisoned by British troops during Queen Anne's War, 1701-1713. Present Fort Frey was erected in 1739 and was a British army post during the early part of the French and Indian War of 1754-60. FORT GAGE: located about a mile south of Fort William Henry. FORT GERMANTOWN: built on Hansclever Patent in Herkimer county, perhaps the same as Fort New Petersburg. The farthest white settlement in 1764. FORT GEORGE: erected at the bead of Lake George by Gen. Amherst in 1759 as a base for his advance against Fort Ticonderoga. Was captured May 12, 1775 by Gen. Bernard Romans, who had originally enrolled as a member of Ethan Allen's expedition against Fort Ticonderoga. He left Allen's party at Pittsfield, Mass. and proceeded alone to Fort Edward where he enlisted sixteen men and went on to Fort George. Fort George, at this time was occupied by only a caretaker, whose chief duty was to assist in forwarding of express to and from Canada. The fort contained some stores, however, which Romans took possession of for the Continental Army. The fort was situated about a mile southeast from Fort William Henry, on a gently sloping bank from the lake. FORT GEORGE: built about 1773 in the city of New York and the Bowling Green. FORT GEORGE: upon the high west bank of the Harlem River, yet rough and wooded, were two breast-works. These the British afterward strengthened and called it Fort George. This was between 192nd. and 196th. streets. FORT HARDY: was built in Aug. 1755, by Gen. Phinehas Lyman, at the mouth of Fish Creek, on the Hudson, now Schuylerville. It was named for Sir Chutes Hardy, Governor of New York and was intended primarily for a safety post for Johnson's Expedition which was then advancing against Crown Point. FORT HARRISON: (1736) Is found on the 1779 Tryon map just west of Palatine Church. It was probably on the Harrison patent. HARTMAN'S DORF: a block-house was erected in 1781. FORT HERKIMER: or Herkimer's. On the south bank of the Mohawk and a few rods east of the stone church. See Fort Kouari. FORT HENDRICK: was built at Indian Castle. FORT HESS: was near Nelliston in the present town of St. Johnsville. FORT HILL: (St. Johnsville) An old Indian fort palisaded during the French and Indian War. Crum Creek flows past the west end of the hill. FORT HOUSE: was a fortified dwelling on the north side of West street in St. Johnsville. FORT HUNTER: Here at the mouth of the Schoharie Creek, Gov. Hunter built the first fort west of Schenectady in 1711. It was the western frontier post until 1722, when Fort Oswego was built. FORT INDEPENDENCE: built on the east bank of the Hudson north of Peekskill. FORT INDEPENDENCE: on the east bank of the Hudson and just north of the Harlem River overlooking King's Bridge. FORT INGOLDSBY: was built during Queen Anne's War in 1709 near the present village of Stillwater, on the Hudson, by Col Peter Schuyler. It was named in honor of the Lieut. Gov. of the Province, and was intended as a supply post in Nicholson's Expedition against the French in Canada. FORT JOHNSON: the jail was palisaded, and, with several blockhouses built within the enclosure, it constituted the Johnstown fort-1780. FORT KEYSER: was located about a mile south of Fort Paris at Stone Arabia, on the farm of Aurora Failing. It was a small stone dwelling, which had been stockaded and named after the family who formerly owned the place. FORT KLOCK: built in 1750 by Johannes Klock, it was palisaded during the Revolution and formed a neighborhood defense and refuge in times of danger. KNEISKERN'S DORF: Early in the year of 1781, a blockhouse was erected at Kneiskern's dorf on lands of Mr. Houck, near the present residence of George Taylor and picketed in. FORT KOUARI: was built about a half-mile east of Fort Herkimer church. This fort was intended to serve as a storehouse for Fort Oswego which however, was captured by the French in 1756 . This fort was later called Fort Herkimer. FORT La PRAIRIE: marked the site of a French settlement on the south bank of the St. Lawrence River, above the mouth of the Richelieu. An expedition against it was conducted by Capt. John Schuyler in August 1690, following the abandonment of Winthrop's expedition, as a retaliation for the massacre of Schenectady. The inhabitants were surprised as they were at work in the fields, but retreated to the fort with the loss of six killed and nineteen taken prisoners. One hundred fifty head of oxen were slaughtered and all the houses and barns outside the fort were burned. The following year, 1691 Schuyler's brother, Maj. Phillip Schuyler, surprised the fort again, captured it, killed many of its defenders, and withdrew to Albany. FORT LA PRESENTATION: built by the French in 1749. Sometimes referred to as Fort Oswegatchie, present Ogdensburgh. FORT LEE: was on the west bank of the Hudson opposite Fort Washington. LOWER FORT: at Schoharie, site of present church. LEWISTON FORT: was built in 1719 near Niagara. FORT LEWIS: (Currytown) Palisaded house of Henry Lewis, successfully defended when village was raided and burned by Doxstader in 1781. FORT LYDIUS: built at the Great Carrying Place-destroyed in 1745. FORT LYMAN: was built at the beginning of the Great Carrying Place in July 1755, by Gen. Phinehas Lyman, who commanded a body of provincial troops and Indians, forming part of Johnson's Army for the attack upon Fort St. Frederick. Johnson later changed the name to Fort Edward. MAALWYCK: (Scotia) Karel Hansen Tell place, land extending from Hoffmans for seven miles on north side (1712). In July 1748, an Indian massacre took place here. Place is now known as Beukendall. MIDDLE FORT: (Schoharie) erected the latter part of 1777, at Middleburg. FORT MILLER: was built during Queen Anne's War, in 1709, at the rapids in the Hudson between Schuylerville and Fort Edward, by Col. Peter Schuyler, who commanded the vanguard of Nicholson's Expedition. It was designed to defend the landing at that point, and was thus an important link in the chain established to relay supplies for the expedition. FORT MONTGOMERY: on the west bank of Hudson river, south of west Point. FORT MONTGOMERY: situated on the west bank of the Hudson nearly opposite Anthonys Nose. FORT NEILSON: near the Saratoga Battlefield. FORT NIAGARA: La Salle, commenced construction of a crude fort in Jan. 1679. This fort was later destroyed by fire and in 1687 a second fort was built at the site by Denonville, royal governor of Canada. This was later abandoned. The present "Old Fort Niagara" was begun in 1726. FORT FREDERICK, FORT ORANGE and FORT NASSAU: All names of the fort at Albany. FORT NASSAU: was the first fort built on the present site of Albany, It was erected by Hendrick Christensen in 1614, on Castle Island, near the end of the Old Indian Carrying Place to the Mohawk at Schenectady. Castle Island was on the east side of the river below Rensselaer and was for a long time known as Patroon's Island. It has since been joined to the main land and has entirely lost its identity. FORT NEWPORT: (Rome) Built in 1758 as a defense of the Wood Creek portage. ONEIDA CASTLE and FORT: Built in 1762. Indian name was Ca-no-wa-rogh. FORT PARIS: was built in the fall, winter and spring of 1776-77, one half mile north of the Stone Arabia churches, by order of the America, Revolutionary Army, and was named in honor of Isaac Paris, a leading local merchant and patriot, who was captured at the battle of Oriskany and murdered by the Indians. The fort Was of solid timber, two stories high, with the upper story projection beyond the first on all sides. It was never surrendered to the enemy, and remained standing until the early part of the nineteenth century, when it was taken down and removed. FORT PLAIN: was built on the present Fort Hill in 1776, by Col. Dayton. It was a quandrangle of earth and log embrasures, with block-houses, mounting cannon, at opposite corners and a strong block-house in the center. FORT PLANK: was situated on elevated ground, nearly our miles southwest of Fort Plain, and consisted of a small palisaded enclosure embracing a dwelling, which has for years been known as the Chauncey House Place, and is now owned by Ruben Failing, and occupied by his son Joseph. When fortified it was owned by a family named Plank, on which account it was thus named. POINT au FER: FORT PUTNAM: built by Kosciuszko in the spring of 1778. It was in the western environs of West Point. RHEIMENSCHNEIDER FORT: (Reme Snyder's Bush-Manheim) was a fortified dwelling northeast of Little Falls. FORT RENSSELAER: name given to the fort erected at Fort Plain. FORT RICHELIEU: was the first fort built by the French to protect their settlements on the St. Lawrence from the expeditions of the Iroquois down Lake Champlain. It was erected at the mouth of the Richelieu River in 1641, by De Montagny, who succeeded Champlain as governor of New France, and was named after Cardinal Richelieu, then at the height of his power in France. It was later abandoned, but in 1664, was again rebuilt by the order of the Marquis de Tracey. FORT RICKEY: A French and Indian War outpost west of Fort Bull. FORT ROYAL: (Royal Block House) at the east end of Oneida Lake. SACANDAGA BLOCK-HOUSE, was at Mayfield. It was burned Nov. 1 10, 1779. FORT SANASCRAGA: was built on Chittenango Creek by Sir Win. Johnson. It was here Sir John Johnson left his boats to devastate the valley and returned to them after the battle of Klock's field. FORT SARATOGA: was built in 1709 on the Hudson, nearly opposite the mouth of Fish Creek, by Col. Peter Schuyler, who commanded the vanguard of Nicholson's Expedition , on the spot where he had built a block house in 1690, about which since that date, a little settlement had grown up. It was planned as one of the chain of supply posts in Nicholson's Expedition against the French. SCHEIL FORT: was a fortified dwelling five miles north of Herkimer. Successfully defended in Aug. 1780, against the Indians and Tories. FORT SCHLOSSER: (Niagara) was built in 1750 at the end of the portage above the falls. FORT SCHUYLER: Built in 1758, (now Utica) by British Colonial army engineers, one of a chain of defenses which extended along the Albany-Oswego water route during the French and Indian War, 1754-1760. FORT STANWIX: was erected in 1758 by Gen. John Stanwix. It had four bastions surrounded by a broad ditch, eighteen feet deep, with a covert way and glacis. In the center of the ditch was a row of perpendicular pickets and a horizontal row from the ramparts. In May 1781, Fort Stanwix, being almost ruined, was burned and evacuated. FORT ST. ANNE: the fourth in a chain of French forts in the Champlain Valley, was built by Capt. de LaMothe on Isle LaMotte in 1665. It was the last outpost from which the French made their raids into the territory of the Iroquois and from which their expeditions for the massacres of Schenectady and Saratoga set out. FORT ST. FREDERIC: The same year in which the French settled at Chimney Point, (1731) they built a strong fort upon the opposite shore, and called it Fort St. Frederic, in honor of Frederic Maurepas, the then Secretary of State. It was a starwork, in the form of a pentagon, with bastions at the angles, and sun rounded by a ditch walled in with stone. This fort was later called Crown Point. FORT ST. JOHN: on the Richelieu River was occupied as a British post during the Revolutionary Period. It was besieged by Montgomery in his advance on Montreal in 1755, and surrendered to him on Nov. 3rd. FORT STONY POINT: its location was such that it seemed almost impregnable. Situated upon a huge rocky bluff, an island at high water, and always inaccessible dry-shod, except across a narrow causeway in the rear, it was strongly defended by outworks and a double row of abatis. Upon three sides of the rock were the waters of the Hudson, and on the fourth was a morass, deep and dangerous. FORT ST. THERESA: was the third in the chain of forts in the Richelieu River Valley, erected in 1664 by order of Marquis deTracy, Viceroy of Canada, to offset the Iroquois. It was located nine miles south of the village of Chambly. FORT TICONDEROGA: The French who first built a fort at Crown Point (Fort St. Frederic), established themselves upon this peninsula in 1755, and the next year they began the erection of a strong fortress, which they called Fort Carillon. The Indian name was generally applied to it, and by that only was it known from the close of the French and Indian war in 1763. Here in 1757, Montcalm assembled a force of 9000 men with which he captured Fort William Henry. In July the following year the English Gen. Abercrombie, unsuccessfully stormed Fort Carillon with 15,000 men, of whom 2000 were killed including Lord Howe. In 1759, Gen Amherst, invested the Fort with 12,000 men. The French, under Gen. Bourlamarque dismantled and abandoned both this Fort and Fort St. Frederick, and retired permanently to Canada. The fort was blown up by the French in their retreat, but only one bastion was wrecked and the rest of the fort was little hurt. Captured by Ethan Allen in May 1755. Upon Burgoyne's advance, Gen. St. Clair retreated without resistance. (1777). FORT TRYON: on the east bank of the Hudson between Fort Washington and Cock Hill Fort. UPPER FORT: (Schoharie) was at Fultonham, built in the latter part of 1777. FORT WAGNER: during the Revolution its owner Col. Peter Wagner erected a palisade around the house. Located about two miles west of Nelliston. WEST POINT: On the 6th. of Oct. 1775, the Continental Congress authorized the Provincial Assembly of New York to erect such fortifications as they should deem best. They employed Bernard Romans, an English engineer (who at that time, held the same office in the British army), to construct the works; and Martelaer's Rock (now Constitution Island), opposite West Point was the chosen spot for the principal fortification. The fort was named Constitution, and the island has since borne that title. In the meanwhile, several officers examined various localities in the neighborhood, and all were in favor of erecting a strong fort on West Point. The principal redoubt, constructed chiefly of logs and earth, was completed before May, 1778, and named Fort Clinton. It was six hundred yards around within the walls The embankments were twenty-one feet at the base, and fourteen feet high. Within were barracks and huts for about six hundred men. FORT WILLETT: was built in 1780, about four miles west of Fort Plain as a neighborhood refuge. FORT WINDECKER: (Mindenville) was built in 1777 on the south side of the Mohawk as a neighborhood refuge. FORT WILLIAM: This was a block house erected near the mouth of Otter Creek, witnessed part of the bitter strife between the settlers under the New Hampshire grants and those from New York . FORT WILLIAM HENRY: Built at the head of Lake George by Gen. William Johnson in 1755, was named in honor of William Duke of Gloucester, grandson of George II and brother of George III. FORT WINSLOW: was built in 1756 at Stillwater-on-the-Hudson, on the site of Fort Ingoldsby. It was named after Gen. John Wins low, who succeeded Gen. Johnson in command of Fort William Henry in 1756. Fort Winslow was designed as a supply station on the road northward from Albany. BIBLIOGRAPHY	Seven Years' War
Which intermittent wars between 1793 and 1815 included the battles of 'Aspern' and 'Austerlitz'?	French and Indian War French and Indian War Creek Indian Chiefs and Leaders Top Surnames John Barber (1719 - 1797) Inscription: French Indian War John Barber Capt. Humphrey's Co. Died Dec. 27, 1797 AE. 78. Reference: Find A Grave Memorial - SmartCopy : Dec 12 2016, 3:56:00 UTC Reference: MyHeritage Family T... history This was one of the many wars that made up the French and Indian Wars. See the Master Project Indian Wars The summary is taken from French and Indian War and Atlas of the North American Indian, Revised Edition, 2000. French and Indian War What most historians call the French and Indian War was really the final conflict in a long series of wars among the the European colonial powers for world dominance. After a period of peace, undeclared war began again in North America in 1754. The French and Indian War is the common American name for the war between Great Britain and France in North America from 1754 to 1763. Two years of colonial fighting precipitated the Seven Years' War in Europe, in 1756. The war erupted into the world-wide conflict, which lasted from 1756 to 1763, and thus the French and Indian War came to be regarded as the North American theater of that war. In Canada, it is usually just referred to as the Seven Years' War, although French Canadians often call it La guerre de la Conquête ("The War of Conquest"). In Europe, there is no specific name for the North American part of the war. The name refers to the two main enemies of the British colonists: the royal French forces and the various Native American forces allied with them, although Great Britain also had Native allies. The French and Indian War was the most extensive and most decisive of the colonial wars, with France suffering defeat. Competition over the Ohio Valley triggered this new round of hostilities. The British staked their claim to the region on the basis of two treaties: the Treaty of Lancaster (1744) with the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee), who had earlier claimed the area by right of conquest over other tribes; and the Treaty of Logstown (1748) with the Shawnee, Lenni Lenape (Delaware), and Wyandot (as the Huron came to be known in the region), negotiated by George Croghan, a Pennsylvania trader. After land grants to the Ohio Company of Virginia in 1749, English adventurers, traders, and settlers began trickling into the Forks of the Ohio region, whereupon France reasserted its territorial claims. A force of Ottawa and Chippewa (Ojibway) warriors under the French trader Charles Langlade moved against the Ohio center of English trade, Pickawillany (near present-day Piqua, Ohio), in 1752; they killed the Miami chief Demoiselle and 13 of his warriors, plus a trader, capturing three other traders. Then the governor of New France, Marquis Duquesne, sent out a force of Frencmen and Indian auxiliaries to fortify the region. The expedition constructed a chain of posts from Lake Erie to the Forks of the Ohio, including Presqu'Isle (Erie, Pa.), Fort Le Boeuf (Waterford), and Fort Venango (Venango). At this show of power, Indian nations began returning to the French fold despite the trade advantages the English offered (less expensive and better-quality goods). Among the pro-French Indians in the region for the time being were members of the Ottawa, Algonkin, Wyandot, Chippewa, Potawatomi, Sac, Shawnee, and Seneca tribes. And the Lenni lenape, who had lost their lands in the east to earlier English expansion and Iroquois aggression, and who now feared the same in the Ohio Valley, likewise offered their backing to the French. With their smaller colonial population, the French were considered less of a threat to Indian land tenure than the British. In the fall of 1753, Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia ordered out a force of militiamen, under a 21 year-old major by the name of George Washington, to inform the French garrison at Fort Le Boeuf that their post was situated on English soil. The French, however, refused to leave. The following spring, Governor Dinwiddie sent in a party of woodsmen to build a fort at a junction of the Ohio, Allegheny, and Monongahela Rivers (the Forks of the Ohio), as well a second detachment of reinforcements, again under Washington. Dinwiddie tried to enlist Cherokee, Chicakasaw, and Catawba warriors for the expedition but, because of a dispute with fellow colony South Carolina over trade relations with the southern Indians, he failed to do so. Washington, however, managed to secure help of Half-King and other Mingo (a band of Iroquois) at Great Meadows. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of George Washington ambushed a French patrol. On learning that a French patrol was nearby in the Allegheny Mountains, Washington took the offensive with a detachment of 40 provincials plus 12 Mingo; they killed 10 Frenchmen, including a French ambassador, and captured 20 others. The French later charged that their patrol had been on a peace mission; Washington claimed, however, that the French had indicated hostile intent. In any case, with this minor frontier incident, a world war had begun. In response to Washington's action, the French ousted Dinwiddie's building party from the Forks of the Ohio site; renamed the new post there Fort Duquesne (later Fort Pitt, then Pittsburgh); and, using it as a base of operations, launched an army of 900, including some Lenni Lenape, Ottawa, Wyandot, Algonkin, Chippewa, Abenaki, and missionized Iroquois, under Major Coulon de Villiers. Meanwhile, Washington's men had retreated to Great Meadows, where they constructed Fort Necessity. The French force attacked during a rainstorm that rendered the English swivel guns useless, and Fort Necessity capitulated. The French allowed Washington and his men, many of of them sick and wounded, to march out of the Ohio Valley and back to Virginia. The French, for the time being, had control of the region. The war was fought primarily along the frontiers separating New France from the British colonies from Virginia to Nova Scotia, and began with a dispute over the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The English recognized the importance of the Iroquois tribes to military success in the north. William Johnson, the New York trader and land speculator who had built Fort Johnson among the Mohawk, kept up his efforts to enlist Iroquois support. Trusted by the Indians because of his participation in their ceremonies, his ties to them through Indian women, and his more-than-fair trade practices, he made some headway despite their misgivings about being drawn into another colonial conflict. Johnson won over Hendrick (one of the Mohawk who had traveled in 1710 to meet Queen Anne and whose daughter was one of Johnson's mistresses). British operations in 1755, 1756 and 1757 in the frontier areas of Pennsylvania and New York all failed, due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, and effective French and Indian offense. The 1755 capture of Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia was followed by a British policy of deportation of its French inhabitants, to which there was some resistance. After the disastrous 1757 British campaigns (resulting in a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry, which was followed by significant atrocities on British victims by Indians), the British government fell, and William Pitt came to power. Pitt significantly increased British military resources in the colonies, while France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces it had in New France, preferring instead to concentrate its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military successfully penetrated the heartland of New France, with Montreal finally falling in September 1760. Fort Ticonderoga was built between 1755 and 1758 by the French. It was originally known as Fort Carillon. Attacked in 1758, by British forces under Maj. Gen. James Abercrombie, the fort was successfully defended by the Marquis de Montcalm. A second assault the following year, this time led by Gen. Jeffrey Amherst, managed to take the fort and it passed into British hands. Though viewed as a stronghold, it became a quiet backwater as the fighting moved north. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict. France ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Florida (which Spain had given to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba). France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in the eastern half of North America. Origin of the name The conflict is known by several names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War. Because there had already been a King George's War in the 1740s, British colonists named the second war in King George's reign after their opponents, and thus it became known as the French and Indian War. This traditional name remains standard in the United States, although it obscures the fact that American Indians fought on both sides of the conflict. American historians generally use the traditional name or the European title (the Seven Years' War). Other, less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire. Basic information	i don't know
'Petrology' is the study of the origin, structure and composition of what?	Petrology - definition of petrology by The Free Dictionary Petrology - definition of petrology by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petrology The branch of geology that deals with the origin, composition, structure, and alteration of rocks. pet′ro·log′ic (pĕt′rə-lŏj′ĭk), pet′ro·log′i·cal (-ĭ-kəl) adj. pet′ro·log′i·cal·ly adv. pe·trol′o·gist n. petrology (Geological Science) the study of the composition, origin, structure, and formation of rocks. Abbreviation: petrol petrologic, petrological adj the scientific study of rocks, including petrography and petrogenesis. [1805–15] pet•ro•log•ic (ˌpɛ trəˈlɒdʒ ɪk) pet`ro•log′i•cal, adj. pet`ro•log′i•cal•ly, adv. pe•trol′o•gist, n. pe·trol·o·gy The scientific study of the origin, composition, and structure of rocks. petrology the branch of geology that studies the origin, structure, composition, changing, and classification of rocks. — petrologist, n. — petrologic, petrological, adj.	The Rock
Whose 1769 expedition included the task of observing the transit of the planet Venus over Tahiti?	Petrology \| Article about petrology by The Free Dictionary Petrology \| Article about petrology by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/petrology petrology, branch of geology specifically concerned with the origin, composition, structure, and properties of rocks rock, aggregation of solid matter composed of one or more of the minerals forming the earth's crust. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology. Rocks are commonly divided, according to their origin, into three major classes—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. ..... Click the link for more information. , primarily igneous and metamorphic, and secondarily sedimentary. It includes petrography, the systematic description and classification of rocks using microscopic examination of rock in thin sections; and petrogenesis, which deals with the origin and formation of the various kinds of rock. Petrology is also concerned with the laboratory simulation of rock-forming processes and the application of principles of physical chemistry to natural environments. Petrologic analyses of oceanic rocks have given insights into plate tectonic plate tectonics, theory that unifies many of the features and characteristics of continental drift and seafloor spreading into a coherent model and has revolutionized geologists' understanding of continents, ocean basins, mountains, and earth history. ..... Click the link for more information. processes, especially rock from mid-oceanic ridges, which may be formed from magma derived from deep in the mantle mantle, portion of the earth's interior lying beneath the crust and above the core. No direct observation of the mantle, or its upper boundary, has been made; its boundaries have been determined solely by abrupt changes in the velocities and character of seismic waves passing ..... Click the link for more information. . Lunar rocks returned by Apollo astronauts were studied with petrographic techniques providing a wealth of information on the makeup and origin of the moon. Petrology the science of rocks. In the USSR, some scientists—for example, F. Iu. Levinson-Lessing and D. S. Beliankin —regard “petrology” and “petrography” as synonyms. According to others, such as A. N. Zavaritskii, petrography deals with just the description of rocks, while petrology is concerned with genetic problems and theoretical constructions based on petrographic descriptions and experimental research. petrology [pə′träl·ə·jē] (geology) The branch of geology concerned with the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks, principally igneous and metamorphic rock.	i don't know
Who joined swashbucklers, Oliver Reed, Richard Chamberlain and Frank Finlay in a 1974 adventure film?	Amazon.com: Three Musketeers [VHS]: Oliver Reed, Raquel Welch, Richard Chamberlain, Michael York, Frank Finlay, Christopher Lee, Geraldine Chaplin, Jean-Pierre Cassel, Spike Milligan, Roy Kinnear, Georges Wilson, Simon Ward, David Watkin, Richard Lester, Alexander Salkind, Ilya Salkind, Michael Salkind, Wolfdieter von Stein, Alexandre Dumas pÃ¨re, George MacDonald Fraser: Movies & TV HALL OF FAME TOP 500 REVIEWER VINE VOICE on March 24, 2003 Format: DVD Filmed in 1973, the one that began it all. The book was actually split into two movies to fit all the plot! This is the first half of the book. An amazing, star-studded cast, great attention to detail and it's funny to boot! Let's see. Oliver Reed as Athos, Richard Chamberlain as Aramis, Frank Finlay as Porthos, Michael York as D'Artagnan. Christopher Lee, Raquel Welch, Geraldine Chaplin, Faye Dunaway. Just about every performance is amazing. This has the REAL plot - not the entirely made-up one Disney foisted on us. D'Artagnan is cheating on his landlord with his landlord's wife. The Queen of France is cheating on her husband, the King, with the Duke of Buckingham. The cardinal is trying to gain power of France. The Musketeers gladly steal food and cheat when necessary. It's a rough world out there! The attention to detail in the film is simply amazing. From the stunning costumes, to the silver-and-white ball at the end, to the interiors of the buildings, to the food they eat, wine they drink, games they play - it's all fully authentic. You could watch this in a history class and learn quite a bit. And the swordfighting!! None of this pretentious sword-waving and back-flipping. These guys were professional soldiers. They fought to win. This involved rough-and-tumble brawl tactics at times. I compare Athos' fighting style to Aragorn's in Lord of the Rings. His aim was to stay alive and to keep his comerades alive, not to look pretty when he fought. Now for the BIG WARNING. I wore out several copies of the video tape before getting this on the first DVD available. Fox Lorber put out the DVD version. I was thrilled to have it on DVD. I was less thrilled when I saw what they did to the movie!! Read more ›	Michael York
Which 10th century explorer founded an Icelandic colony which he named 'Greenland', to encourage people to settle there?	Simon Ward obituary \| Film \| The Guardian Simon Ward obituary Stage and screen actor known for his roles in The Three Musketeers and Young Winston Simon Ward as Churchill in Young Winston, 1972, directed by Richard Attenborough. Photograph: Sportsphoto/Allstar Monday 23 July 2012 12.41 EDT First published on Monday 23 July 2012 12.41 EDT Share on Messenger Close In 1971 the actor Simon Ward, who has died after a long illness aged 70, was plucked from virtual obscurity by the director Richard Attenborough to play Winston Churchill in the film Young Winston, supported by actors of longstanding reputation including Robert Shaw, Anne Bancroft and John Mills . After the film's release a year later, Ward found himself a star on several continents. "That was a frightening role," he recalled. "You were playing someone whom everyone had very strong feelings about. As a movie, it had the most extraordinary mixture of adventure – the fighting, riding, running up and down mountains – and some wonderful dialogue scenes shot at Shepperton." Swashbuckling and tongue-in-cheek slapstick were added to the mix when Ward, known for his aristocratic looks and high cheekbones, was cast as the Duke of Buckingham in Richard Lester's The Three Musketeers (1973) and The Four Musketeers (1974), alongside the all-star line-up of Oliver Reed , Raquel Welch, Richard Chamberlain, Michael York, Frank Finlay, Christopher Lee, Faye Dunaway and Charlton Heston . More sedately, Ward slipped easily into the role of the Yorkshire country vet James Herriot in the television film All Creatures Great and Small (1974). He later turned down the chance to reprise the role in the long-running BBC television series, and his career never took off as might have been expected. He appeared in many forgettable films and settled for supporting roles, before coming back into the limelight more recently on television. He enjoyed his run (2003-07) in the BBC legal drama Judge John Deed as Sir Monty Everard, the pompous, antagonistic presider who is introduced in the third series to bring Deed into line, and is dominated at home by his fierce wife. Ward then joined the costume drama The Tudors as the evil Bishop Gardiner for its final two runs (2009-10). The son of Leonard, a car dealer, and his wife, Winifred, Ward was born in Beckenham, Kent, and was educated at Alleyn's school, Dulwich, where he was one of the founding members of the drama group that became the National Youth Theatre . His high voice led him to be cast as the French princess Katharine in the NYT's 1956 production of Henry V. Ward then trained at Rada (1961-63) and made his professional debut as Fred Beenstock in Hobson's Choice at the Northampton Repertory theatre in 1963. The following year, he made his first London appearance, as Tom Phillips in The Fourth of June (St Martin's theatre). His big break came when he was cast as Dennis, with Kenneth Cranham as Hal, in a revival of Joe Orton's parody of the crime genre, Loot (Criterion theatre, 1966). This was followed by a role opposite Alec Guinness in Simon Gray 's Wise Child (Wyndham's theatre, 1967). On television, he appeared alongside Milo O'Shea in Bloomsday (1964) and had a stint as a Jackanory storyteller (1967-68). He was also seen, uncredited, as one of the public schoolboys in Lindsay Anderson's If…. (1968). The success of Young Winston led to many offers. Ward played the sympathetic Captain Hoffman in Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973); the driver giving a lift to hitchhiker Hayley Mills in the thriller Deadly Strangers (1976); the antichrist in Holocaust 2000 (1977); and Lieutenant Vereker in the disappointing Zulu prequel Zulu Dawn (1979), but none of those roles catapulted him to Hollywood's A-list. Later, there were cameos as fathers – of Helen Slater's title character in Supergirl (1984) and of his own actor-daughter Sophie in Wuthering Heights (1992). In 1987 – a year after he played TE Lawrence in Terence Rattigan's Ross at the Old Vic theatre – Ward was found unconscious, with a fractured skull, after suspectedly being attacked beside a canal in Camden, north London, but no one was ever charged. He underwent brain surgery and developed the chronic blood disorder polycythaemia, which he believed resulted from the incident. However, he recovered to continue his stage career and in 1995 took over the role of the spy George Blake in Gray's Cell Mates (Albery theatre) after Stephen Fry had walked out. In 2010, he played the title role in a national tour of Alan Bennett's The Madness of George III. Last year he was cast as Alfred Doolittle in a West End production of Pygmalion, but pulled out due to illness shortly before it opened. In a 2010 interview , Ward acknowledged that he was not a go-getter and that his career might have suffered for it: "I've never desperately wanted anything, neither fame nor riches," he said. In 1964, he married Alexandra Malcolm. She survives him along with their daughters, Sophie, Claudia and Kitty, who is married to the comedian Michael McIntyre. • Simon Ward, actor, born 16 October 1941; died 20 July 2012	i don't know
Which is the third largest of the Channel Islands?	Alderney, The Third Largest of the Channel Islands \| Goista.com Alderney, The Third Largest of the Channel Islands On May 1, 2015 image source: en.wikipedia.org Alderney is one of the Channel Islands, officially some piece of the Balliwick of Guernsey. Alderney is the third biggest of the Channel Islands, and the most northerly. It is frequently said that Alderney is the main Channel Island since it is the stand out that is really in the English Channel/La Manche. (Guernsey, Jersey and the littler islands are really in the Bay of St Malo). There are no urban areas on Alderney. The island itself is just 3 miles in length by 1.5 wide. The primary amassing of houses and shops is in the focal point of the Island in the town of St Anne – regularly alluded to just as ‘Town’. The Parish of St Anne’s incorporates the entire of the Island. image source: commons.wikimedia.org Because of its area in the English Channel and its vicinity to the French port of Cherbourg, it has frequently been seen to be deliberately imperative, regardless of the tricky waters that encompass it. In the 19th century, an extensive jetty – the longest in the British Isles – was manufactured at Braye keeping in mind the end goal to frame a harbor shielded from the Swinge tidal race. Despite the fact that it was never finished, its staggering remains frame the advanced harbor. Amid World War II the island was involved by German powers, including the SS, and four constrained work camps were fabricated. Albeit not an elimination camp in the same sense as e.g. Dachau and Buchenwald, a lot of constrained workers, especially from Eastern Europe, were attempted to death, and there is a dedication to them close to Saye which is an absolute necessity see. The uninhabited islet of Burhou, off the northwest end of the island, is an imperative settling range for seabirds. The previous rancher’s bungalow on Burhou can be leased from the Government, and is utilized for ‘make tracks in an opposite direction from it all’ occasions by various Alderney occupants. Toward the south of the islands, differentiating Alderney from the Cherbourg landmass, is the Alderney Race (Raz), infamous for is greatly solid streams and unpleasant oceans. In spite of the dangers introduced by Alderney’s rough coastline and the risks of the Swinge and Race, Braye harbor is a prevalent destination for yachtsmen and in summer the harbor is loaded with pontoons of different sorts, from little RIBs to multimillion pound extravagance yachts. image source: www.globeimages.net Despite the fact that the Auregniais (Alderney Norman-French) dialect in the long run vanished in the early piece of the 20th century, the signs prompting Town are bilingual, perusing ‘Town/La Ville’, apparently to support going to French yachtsmen and day-trippers. The ward of St Anne is served by a sublime, very nearly church building like area church in the inside of Town. Alderney is a little island , and in great climate, there’s truly no place that isn’t inside strolling separation. Bikes can likewise be enlisted. Alderney is likely one of the most secure destinations you can visit. Wrongdoing is uncommon and the little wrongdoing is genuinely minor. Individuals for the most part leave entryways opened and frequently leave vehicles unsecured with the keys in the ignition. Amid the mid year, there is a general bus service round the island and even a route service in the middle of Braye and the north of the island. image source: commons.wikimedia.org Here are the highlights: 1. Fort Clonque. A 19th-century seaside fort, worked via Landmark Trust. 2. Alderney observes Alderney Week toward the start of August consistently. From one viewpoint, this gives a far reaching project of occasions and merriments, yet in the meantime can make it hard to book settlement and practically difficult to make evening eatery reservations unless done well ahead of time. 3. There is a pleasant scope of eateries, from bistros to keen choice sustenance. There are no “chains” of fast food, no McDonalds, no Burger King, Pizza Hut and so forth. Everything is by regional standards possessed. image source: www.globeimages.net How to Go to Alderney 1. Via Plane Aurigny Air Services offer a few non-stop flights consistently from Southampton and from Guernsey. Different airports (in the United Kingdom in addition to Dinard and Grenoble in France) are served by means of Guernsey. 2. By Boat Manche-Iles Express work summer ship services from Diélette in France. Bumble bee Boat Cruises offers a standard service from Guernsey to Alderney image source: www.flickr.com	Alderney
What is the oldest order of knighthood still in existence in Britain?	The Channel Islands, Guernsey, Jersey, Herm, Alderney \| Trysail Cornwall The Channel Islands The Channel Islands The Channel Islands The Channel Islands are a unique and delightful cruising ground. A reputation for large tidal ranges, strong currents and rock strewn coastline, they are well documented in yachting guidebooks and on Admiralty charts. Most boats departing from Falmouth or Plymouth will probably make for St Peter Port in Guernsey which is a distance of around 110 nautical miles. The Channel Islands provide an ideal base for cruising. Most of the main ports are only a day’s sail apart, which makes it easy to Island hop. Guernsey The islands environment will make you savour the scent of the clean sea and fresh air, this island is a perfect destination to relax, provision and make plans after your passage across the channel. St Peter Port has facilities including fuel, water & WiFi. There are also showers and supermarkets close by. Guernsey’s beautiful coastline, which has sandy beaches and dunes, rock pools, coves and rustic harbours and offers great cruising to visiting yachtsman. When you need to stretch your legs, the cliff walks are really something else, with the islands nature reserves, you will get to experience some of the islands migrating birds and the gorgeous countryside that blooms all year round. Jersey An unspoilt landscape of British and French influences, Jersey is a breathtaking place with a relaxing and enjoyable atmosphere, a stunning coastline, fantastic scenery and countryside. The island is located 100 miles south of British mainland, it’s the most southerly island of the British Isles, but is much closer to France lying just 14 miles from its coast. Jersey is just 9 miles by 5 miles, and St Helier its main port offers visiting the yachtsman all the facilities you would expect. Approaching by boat you see the sheer beauty of the island and picturesque landscape of the unspoilt coastline. While on the island you get to explore the lush valleys, and the well kept fields of the beautiful countryside. Jersey has one of the highest tidal ranges in the world, as the tide ebbs and flows in excess of 40feet, it makes the island grow and shrink twice a day. The tidal streams are something else and are exhilarating to ride. But you need to make sure your calculations are correct as you don’t want to spend hours battling current or going backwards! With breathtaking cliffs, exposed bays, beautiful sandy beaches and rocky coves that are great to explore. This is an island to blow you away, and make your sailing trip a memorable and enjoyable experience. Herm A visit to this Island is an essential part of any trip to the Channel Islands. A stay at Herm lets you enjoy this paradise and its unspoilt natural beauty and peacefulness. The island has a sheltered half-tide harbour along with sandy beaches, beautiful cliff walks and crystal clear waters. This is a definite ‘Port of Call’ for any Channel Islands trip. You can moor up around the island using ground chains and buoys by the sandy beaches or enter the inner harbour. With a sandy bottom it takes about 8 boats moored fore and aft. With scenic deep water moorings around the island and anchorages at Belvoir Bay, the Rosaire Steps and Shell Beach. Herm is the ideal place to seek a quiet relaxing get away from the other marinas and pontoons of the larger ports. Sark This island is the smallest of the four main islands, 6 miles east of Guernsey and 20 miles from France. There are sheltered anchorages on both sides of the island, offering good shelter in the lee. The steep, dramatic cliffs are Sark’s main feature but the island is defiantly worth exploring. Moorings are also available both sides of the island. The walk from the west side of the island to the pub is particularly dramatic and takes you up 299 steps and really builds a thirst. The views back down to your mooring and across to Herm and Guernsey are truly stunning especially as the sun is setting. Alderney The third largest of the Channel Islands, an unspoiled, relaxing island only one and a half miles wide and three and a half long. The island enjoys a mild climate very similar to Guernsey and Jersey, it lies just 8 miles from France, but has still manages to avoid mainstream tourism. The Island is remote, with a beautiful oasis, outstanding beaches, war time history and enchanting flora. Alderney is surrounded by white sandy bays and clear seas. The beaches are ideal for windsurfers and surfers, and are a haven for yachtsmen. The beaches are clean, quiet and blissfully un-crowded. Alderney is usually the last port of call for yachtsman leaving the Channel Islands. It’s a great place to relax and explore the old fortifications before leaving for home. Be warned though, the fuel dock is tidal, and more importantly you need to order your ‘Duty Free’ 24hrs before you leave!!	i don't know
Who wrote, 'Blott On The Landscape'?	Deddington History - Blott on the Landscape (TV series) Deddington History Sylvie Nickels Our Fifteen Minutes (or more precisely 5 hours) of Fame Motorists travelling east-west through Deddington on a certain week-end of August 1984 will have stumbled upon an unexpected scene of mayhem. Buildings were in ruins, crushed cars scattered the scene amidst piles of rubble and traces of smoke. Could there have been a terrorist attack in this quiet backwater? Had the inhabitants of Deddington lost leave of their collective senses? Wrong, and wrong again. The BBC had been in town filming Blott on the Landscape. Blott you may recall is a rural romp by Tom Sharpe based on events following a decision to build a section of motorway through some highly desirable landscape. Extremely tenuously linked with this is the desire of Lady Maud (Geraldine James) of the manor to produce a son, and the reluctance of the lord of the manor (George Cole) to co-operate in the matter. There are lots of shots of quaint architecture, quintessential English countryside, public protests, irreverent innuendoes and much apparently irrelevant but entertaining nudity. Naughty, funny, not terribly subtle are epithets which come to mind. And one of the main hubs of this saga? Our very own hostelry the Unicorn, renamed for the purpose the Royal George. The first that Fred Ellis - then landlord of the Unicorn - knew of it was when three strangers began showing a curious interest in some of his upstairs rooms. Dealers on the hunt for rare antiques? No, some BBC bods sussing out the property which would become centre stage. The name of the pub was not all that changed. A block of false frontages were built next to the Town Hall. The bus stop acquired a thatched shelter (pity it had to go). Some petrol pumps (here and here)and a war memorial made an appearance. Huge vehicles carrying generators to power the proceedings became temporary fixtures. The climax came when the centre of Deddington was 'blown up'. In an evocative editorial of the September 1984 Deddington News (which includes a splendid poem by Deddingtonian Molly Neild), then-editor Ralph Elsley wrote: "Indeed for many Deddingtonians the night of August 10/11 will be one they will long remember - for some of the youngest, if for nothing else, as one of those occasions when they stayed up till the ungodliest hours with the best will of their parents. It was certainly a beautiful night to be out in the open air under a full moon, but as a night of phenomenal events it is unlikely ever to be repeated or rivalled. "….only the hardiest lingered until its closing moments around 4 a.m. Some were sustained by the splendid hospitality and privileged dress-circle seats in the bedrooms of friends living in the Market Square; many strolled or squatted patiently and revived their spirits while extra time allowed in whatever inn or restaurant was at hand. The biggest queues formed for the latest opening in local history of the Butcher's Shop, where, with lights ablaze when shooting permitted, Andy Clarke did his manful best to cope with the enthusiastic demand for hot pies. "We will all have our memories of the BBC's sojourn in Deddington, from the earliest intimations and preliminary meeting in the Town Hall in June to the Sunday aftermath and lightning clear-up. There were visitations and autographs from the luminaries of the small screen, George Cole, Geraldine James, David Suchet and Simon Cadell, not to mention the author himself. We all watched with astonishment George Gibbs at work perched high on his fated nine-days-wonder of building construction. I shall not forget wandering into Wallin's one morning amidst a bunch of patient extras and a camera man and calmy demanding a couple of cottage rolls from an unfamiliar and formidable young woman in dark spectacles who later proved to be much handier with a loud-hailer than with small change. Thirsty patrons of the new resplendent Unicorn will doubtless recall longer periods of puzzlement and frustration and rejoice to have things restored to normality. "Of the great night itself we will no doubt remember the moments of excitement rather than the inevitable longeurs. It will be difficult in time to find people to believe our tales of riotous scenes of drunknness witnessed by hundreds on our streets, of the tragic shattering of the bus shelter and the merciless pounding of an endless supply of motor cars by an amiable Irishman who modestly brushed asides compliments on the accuracy of his aim with the disclaimer that it was 'a bit of luck'. "…. Now that the excitement has died down, the rubble has been so speedily cleared, and the welcome £4,500 earmarked for the Windmill Centre, it seems hard for us to realise it all happened here." An intriguing insight into negotiations with the BBC is offered by Mary Robinson, Parish Council Chairman at the time. Her diffident request to the production manager for a facility fee of 'about four' (meaning hundred) was interpreted as the £4000-plus which went into the coffers of the Windmill project. Colin Robinson adds another memory: the shock horror discovery of a very nasty crack in the wall of the Town Hall. He reports "a nice man from the Beeb climbed a ladder and peeled it off"! As for the performance itself, screened in February/March 1985, Ralph's successor as Deddington News editor, his wife Marianne Elsley had this to say in March 1985: "And what about Blott? Having reserved the next few Wednesdays in anticipation of fascinating viewing, we are rather inclined to go out instead. It was interesting to see the little glimpses of Deddington they have shown so far, but …. Do we really have to have George Cole naked quite so often?" By the following month's editorial, Marianne had softened a little: "Well, our Wednesday evenings are free again. Whatever we thought of Blott, it seems to have been a huge success and topped the viewing ratings. I have to admit that I found the sight of Lady Maud clad in a huge nightie, grappling with spouse in that sea of black oil very funny, and I liked Blott's transformation from a sinister foreigner to a pukka English gentleman. Let us hope the BBC will come again, and perhaps film something more gentle, like Miss Marple." Well, the whole romp has been reissued as a DVD so the intervening generations will be able to reach their own conclusions. For pictorial coverage see the three pages on p. 4 of the Gallery .	Tom Sharpe
"Who painted ""The Binding Of Samson"" (1636) and ""Jacob Blessing The Sons Of Joseph"" (1656)?"	Blott on the Landscape - Tom Sharpe Non-Fiction Book product reviews and price comparison Disadvantages A nice satire about Britain's class system With the oncoming recession looming and society's move towards the slight right I have a feeling that the Labour party could come to the end of its recent reign in power. This can only mean one thing - the Conservatives taking control. Having lived all my adult life under the umbrella of Labour I am a little wary of what the Conservatives stand for with history showing me yuppies and miners strikes. In this state of mind I decided to read something that would give me a better insight into this time of social and class divide. Tom Sharpe wrote novels throughout the 70s and 80s and in them took a satirical look at the classes - could they teach me about future Britain, or at least be good fun? Sir Giles Lynchwood married Lady Maud not for her looks, but for her title. Now the Lord, with his penchant for bondage, is trapped in a sexless marriage with a woman he can not afford to divorce. Things are no better for Lady Maud who just wants to have a child to carry on her family name. With both parties unable to lose in a divorce they go about sabotaging each other. Sir Giles plans to makes millions by selling the family land to motorway builders, whilst the Lady seeks to expose Giles' deviant tastes. Stuck in between these two are several innocent bystanders including Blott, the gardener. What role will an ex-Solider from Germany pretending to be Italian have in this saga? 'Blot on the Landscape' is the type of book that I rarely read - in fact it may be the first of its type that I have. Written in 1975 it is a contemporary satire on society in the countryside of Great Britain. It seems to me that Sharpe loves to take the eccentricities of the English landed gentry and poke fun at them. For the most part this works as the book has a 'Jeeves and Wooster' like way of getting the characters into unfortunate and amusing situations only for them to get out in the nick of time. As a gentle comedy the book did not prove laugh out loud, but it was a pleasant change from the science fiction and crime that I usually indulge in. There were a couple of areas that made the book fail a little for me. Firstly, I think there was almost too much relevance placed on class and the stereotypes involved. Every character, except for Blott, was incredibly stereotyped to the point were you felt you has seen them so many times before. The idea of class was also overdone with everyone being either posh, or wanting to become posh. The normal working person is pretty absent from the book. Another element that annoyed me was how I lost sympathy with some of the characters half way through. In Lady Maud and Blott's desire to halt the production of a motorway there is a tragic accident. Sharpe plays it for comedic effect, but personally I find that the hero's direct role in the death of an innocent means that I can no longer sympathise. This is a shame as through the first part of the book both Blott and Lady Maud are far the best characters. In a book containing many heinous people Sharpe is great at creating people who act as an oasis of sanity. Blott is a likable man whose strong will and honesty makes him a more traditional Brit than the rest of the back biting cast put together. One final area that I found troublesome when reading is not down to Sharpe, but down to the time the book was written. When reading books written years ago you sometimes are shocked by some of the content. I have read mild racism in works such as 'Live and Let Die' and 'The Towering Inferno' with slurs about gay people in 'Burglar in the Closet'. In all these cases I forgive the author as they are merely reflecting the society of the time. In fact I can forgive this stuff in modern fiction if is in keeping with the characters. However, this does not make it any less noticeable. To this list I add 'Blott on the Landscape' and its abundant drink driving Throughout the novel several characters get drunk at different times all to drive home over the limit. Nothing is mentioned of this in the book as in Sharpe's world this must have been common place - thankfully it no longer is. So is 'Blott on the Landscape' worth a read? I would say yes as it is a pleasant and intelligent book that takes the reader on an interesting winding path of satire. The book does feel dated, the characters stereotypical and it's not overly funny. However, there is a charm to it that shines through and makes the experience of reading the book an awarding one. Author: Tom Sharpe	i don't know
Which Scottish football team moved home from Broomfield Park to the Shyberry Excelsior Stadium?	Excelsior Stadium, Airdrie (New Broomfield) – A Son of the Rock -- Jack Deighton Posted in Dumbarton FC , Scottish Football Grounds at 19:59 on 28 May 2012 This is the Excelsior Stadium,* home of Airdrie United FC (or, as some of us like to remember them, Clydebank.) Main entrance to Airdrie United’s stadium. (Stitch of two photos.) It’s a tidy ground but a bit soulless. The capacity is way above what Airdrie can attract as a crowd. This is the view of the ground from the east car park. Main Stand from East Stand AFC crest at back of main stand. The North Stand:- Its main purpose, like its mirror image to the south (both are rarely, if ever, occupied) is to house an electronic scoreboard. *So why New Broomfield? Broomfield was the home of Airdrieonians FC who shortly before their demise moved to New Broomfield or, as it was known then for some sponsorship reason, the Shyberry Excelsior Stadium . Broomfield was an idiosyncratic ground which had an old pavilion.	Airdrieonians F.C.
The name of which sport is used for a letter in the phonetic alphabet?	Airdrieonians - Historical Football Kits Historical Football Kits Formed 1878. Wound up in 2002 Elected to Scottish Division Two 1894. Resigned 2002 Kit History Navy knickers may have appeared earlier 1903-1904 a 1909-1912 a b g m 1912-1917 a c g 1971-Sept 1974 a b g Oct 1974-1977 a g 2000-2001 a e i k IMP Sports Background The club was originally formed as Excelsior FC in the North Lanarkshire mining town of Airdrie, adopting the title Airdrieonians in 1881. After being admitted to the Scottish Second Division in 1894, they were elected to the top flight in 1903. Records from the late nineteenth century are rather ambiguous but it is thought they switched from their original blue/white jerseys to vertical red and white stripes in 1885. The club enjoyed its greatest period of success during the 1920s, finishing as runners-up in the Scottish First Division on four consecutive occasions (1923-1926) and appearing in four Scottish FA Cup finals, winning the competition in 1924. The club's nickname of "The Diamonds" derives from the distinctive design of the club's shirts adopted in 1912. Manchester United had worn similar jerseys in the 1909 English FA Cup Final but there is no evidence to suggest that Airdrie were trying to emulate the English club. (The design extends onto the back of the shirt and is always described as a diamond, never a "V".) In 1936 the club was relegated to the Second Division and it was not until 1947 that they returned to the top flight, albeit for a single season. Between 1950 and 1954 they were again in Division One before they were relegated once more. After winning the Second Division championship the following season (1955) the club enjoyed a long spell in the top flight, broken only by two short periods in Division Two (1965-66 and 1973-74). In 1975, with the formation of the Scottish Premier League, Airdrie found themselves in the new Division One (now the second tier) and in 1981 they were promoted to the top level where they spent two seasons. The club crest first appeared on the team's shirts in 1974 and was worn for three seasons. In 1980 it reappeared, this time embroidered in gold and placed on the red diamond. From 1988 it was moved below the diamond and was embroidered in red and black. In 1992 the Diamonds won promotion back to the Premiership and were losing finalists in the Scottish FA Cup, which qualified them to compete in the European Cup Winners' Cup the following season. Unfortunately they were knocked out by Sparta Prague in the first round, the sum total of their European adventures. In May 1994 the club sold their Broomfield Park ground, now a valuable town centre site, to Safeway for retail development. The intention was to use the proceeds to finance a new stadium that would meet Scottish Premier League standards, which included all-seat capacity of 10,000. With no site or planning permission, Airdrie shared Clyde's Broadwood stadium in Cumbernauld for the next four years. Despite having no permanent home, Airdrie remained one of the stronger team in the First Division even as their support dwindled. They fell short of the championship, the only route back to the top tier. The crest was modified in 1997: the basic design was not altered but now appeared against yellow and white shields. Meanwhile a site for the club's new stadium in Airdrie had been identified and work was completed in 1998. Named the Shyberry Excelsior Stadium (Shyberry sponsored the stadium when it opened), the financial burden would prove to be too much for the club to carry. In 2000 the club's kit was marketed under the their own brand and a new crest was adopted. Only the cockerel motif (which comes from the Airdrie coat of arms) was retained while two chevrons referred to the distinctive design of the team shirts. This bold design was replaced the following season by the 1997 design without the background shield. On 1 May 2002, Airdrieonians declared bankruptcy and resigned from the League owing £3 million. Ironically, the club had been doing well on the pitch having finished in second place in Division One and winning the Bell's Scottish Cup in 2000 and 2001. Their final match had to be abandoned when furious fans invaded the pitch and broke a crossbar. Immediately a new club was formed but Airdrie United's application to fill the vacancy in Division Three was denied in favour of Gretna . In an extraordinary turn of events, the head of the Airdrie consortium, Jim Ballantyne bought out Clydebank FC , then homeless and in administration, and moved them to Airdrie. With the approval of the Scottish Football League, the reformed club took over Clydebank's place in Division Two. You are welcome to Contact Me with corrections and additions. Sources (c) Ayr United FC - Images of Sport (Duncan Carmichael 2002) (d) Riccardo Bertani (g) Alick Milne (HFK Research Associate) (h) Ralph Pomeroy (k) Donald Gellatly (HFK Research Associate) (l) Martin Gooday (HFK Research Associate) (m) Keith Ellis	i don't know
In the movie world, how is Nicholas Kim Coppola better known?	Nicolas Cage - Biography - IMDb Nicolas Cage Biography Showing all 183 items Jump to: Overview (4) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (3) \| Trade Mark (4) \| Trivia (86) \| Personal Quotes (66) \| Salary (19) Overview (4) 6' (1.83 m) Mini Bio (1) Nicolas Cage was born Nicolas Kim Coppola in Long Beach, California, the son of comparative literature professor August Coppola (whose brother is director Francis Ford Coppola ) and dancer/choreographer Joy Vogelsang. He is of Italian (father) and Polish, German, and English (mother) descent. Cage changed his name early in his career to make his own reputation, succeeding brilliantly with a host of classic, quirky roles by the late 1980s. Initially studying theatre at Beverly Hills High School (though he dropped out at seventeen), he secured a bit part in Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982) -- most of which was cut, dashing his hopes and leading to a job selling popcorn at the Fairfax Theater, thinking that would be the only route to a movie career. But a job reading lines with actors auditioning for uncle Francis' Rumble Fish (1983) landed him a role in that film, followed by the punk-rocker in Valley Girl (1983), which was released first and truly launched his career. His one-time passion for method acting reached a personal limit when he smashed a street-vendor's remote-control car to achieve the sense of rage needed for his gangster character in The Cotton Club (1984). In his early 20s, he dated Jenny Wright for two years and later linked to Uma Thurman . After a relationship of several years with Christina Fulton , a model, they split amicably and share custody of a son, Weston Cage (b.1992). In 2004, he married Alice Kim Cage , with whom he has a son. - IMDb Mini Biography By: Dan Hartung <[email protected]> Spouse (3) ( 8 April 1995 - 18 May 2001) (divorced) Trade Mark (4) Often plays flamboyant and/or eccentric characters (Ronny Cammareri in Moonstruck (1987), Sailor Ripley in Wild at Heart (1990), Ben Sanderson in Leaving Las Vegas (1995), Charlie Kaufman / Donald Kaufman in Adaptation. (2002)). Often plays eccentric wisecracking characters Sharp dark, pointy eyebrows and striking blue eyes. Low-sounding voice. Trivia (86) His father was of Italian descent. His maternal grandfather was of approximately three quarters German and one quarter British Isles (English, Scottish) ancestry. His maternal grandmother was of Polish descent. 2000: Filed divorce papers in February, withdrew them in April. October 1997: Ranked #40 in Empire (UK) magazine's "The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time" list. Stage name taken from comic book character Luke Cage. Owns a Lamborghini that used to belong to Prince Ali-Reza Pahlavi , the former prince of Iran. Grandson of Carmine Coppola . Proposed to Patricia Arquette on the day he met her in the early 1980s. Arquette thought he was a bit strange but played along with his antics by creating a list of things Cage would have to fulfill to win her. When he started to work his way through the list, Arquette got scared and avoided him. They met again many years later and later went on to marry. 1997: He lived in a fake castle on the outskirts Los Angeles. He wants to import an authentic one from overseas. Loves to improvise, ocassionally to the annoyance of other cast members. Collects comic books and sees them as being today's equivalent of mythology. The Wild at Heart (1990) movie poster lists his name as both "Nicolas Cage" and "Nicholas Cage". Ranked #37 in Premiere's 100 most powerful people in Hollywood in 1998. 1984: Listed as one of 12 "Promising New Actors of 1984" in John Willis' Screen World, Vol. 36. Tim Burton cast Cage in his doomed Superman project. Cage even did fittings of the costume. On his upper back he has a tattoo of monitor lizard with a top hat. 2001: Announced that he is dating Lisa Marie Presley , daughter of the late Elvis Presley . They later married. Cousin of Robert Schwartzman , who changed his name to Robert Schwartzman-Cage inspired by Nicolas. May 2001: Awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Fine Arts by California State University, Fullerton and also spoke at the commencement. Father, August Coppola , was formerly a professor at Cal State Long Beach and Dean of Creative Arts at San Francisco State University. During an A&E Biography on him, the host explained that Cage was director Sam Raimi 's first choice to play Norman Osborn/Green Goblin in the movie Spider-Man (2002). Apparently this was before he met Willem Dafoe . Graduated UCLA School of Theater, Film, and Television. Cousin of Sofia Coppola , Jason Schwartzman and Roman Coppola . On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (1992), he told Jay that he took the name "Cage" from a comic book character named Luke Cage, the "first black superhero." This is not accurate; the first black superhero in mainstream comics was Marvel's Black Panther, introduced in 1966. Luke Cage, introduced in 1972, was also preceded by: Marvel's Falcon, introduced in 1969; the black western hero, Lobo, from Dell Comics in 1965 (the first black character to star in his own title); the title character of "Waku, Prince of the Bantu," an African chieftain, introduced as part of the Atlas Comics anthology title "Jungle Tales" in 1954. When asked which of the powers he would prefer to have, he said flight was his desire. One of three actors (with Lee Marvin [ Cat Ballou (1965)] and Peter Sellers [ Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964)]) with an Oscar nomination for playing multiple characters in a film (in Adaptation. (2002), he plays two characters, Donald and Charlie). Marvin is the only one who actually won one for a double role. Former cousin, by marriage, of director Spike Jonze . Met his future wife, Alice Kim Cage , at a sushi bar where she was a waitress. When they married she was only 20 years old. Ate a real cockroach in the film Vampire's Kiss (1988), it reportedly took three takes. He once said about the experience, "Every muscle in my body didn't want to do it, but I did it anyway." Attended Justin-Siena High School in Napa, CA, during the early '80s. His is (along with his cousin Sofia Coppola ) the third generation of Oscar winners in the Coppola family. His uncle, Francis Ford Coppola and his grandfather, Carmine Coppola , are the other two generations. They are the second family to do so, the first family is the Hustons - Anjelica Huston , John Huston and Walter Huston . Became a father for the 2nd time at age 41 when his 3rd wife Alice Kim Cage gave birth to their son Kal-el Coppola Cage on October 3, 2005. Just as Nick was named after a comic book character, "Luke Cage", so he has named his son after the comic book character "Kal-el" (aka Superman). Trains in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu under Royce Gracie Nicolas Cage also trains in Wing Chun, Karate, & Jeet Kune Do. Referred to as the "Jazz musician of acting" by David Lynch . Former stepfather of Patricia Arquette 's son Enzo Rossi , Riley Keough and Benjamin Keough . July 2006: Bought Schloss Neidstein, a mini castle in the Bavarian village of Etzelwang. After his first film role (in Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982)), he adopted the stage name of Cage, because he wanted to assure himself that any success he had was based on his own merits, not the fame of his uncle, Francis Ford Coppola . Was a very close friend of late Johnny Ramone . Big fan of Elvis Presley . Considered "Blue" before settling on "Cage" as his surname. 2006: He purchased a home on the former property of John Wayne in Newport Beach, CA, for a record-setting $24 million. Said in a Reader's Digest interview that his wife, Alice, is into designing jewelry and has no interest whatsoever in being an actress. Offered the role of Green Goblin/Norman Osborn in Spider-Man (2002). Was originally considered for the role of Brad Hamilton in Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), but after his audition the studio thought his performance was too dark and the role went, instead, to Judge Reinhold . Additionally, Cage was 17 at the time and could not work as many hours as actors over 18. In this film, he is credited under the name Nicolas Coppola for the first and only time. 1999: Was among the guests at the wedding of Spike Jonze and Sofia Coppola . Others were George Lucas , Jason Schwartzman , Bo Barrett , Kirsten Dunst and Tom Waits . Auditioned for the role of Joel in Risky Business (1983), which eventually went to Tom Cruise and helped launch his career. He said he realized that all great movie stars, such as Spencer Tracy , had had recognizable voices, so he has stylized his to be distinctive. Great-grandson of Francesco Pennino . Owns a home in New Orleans. Devoted Elvis Presley fan that he is, in Wild at Heart (1990) he performed the Elvis classic "Love Me" with uncanny aplomb. Former son-in-law of Elvis Presley and Priscilla Presley . 2007: Bought Midford Castle (though not an actual castle) near Bath, England for an estimated price £5 million (about $10 million). In 2006, he donated $2 million to Amnesty International for a fund to help child soldiers. Owns homes in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Las Vegas, New Orleans, New York City and in one in Middletown, Rhode Island, which he purchased in 2007. Owns the rights of the original The Courtship of Eddie's Father (1963) movie, which he bought from Ted Turner , with the intention of turning it into a movie. While making an appearance on Late Show with David Letterman (1993) for the film Knowing (2009), he mentioned that he is fascinated with hang-gliding. Is an alumnus of the children's theatre group MET2 along with Adam Lambert , Sofia Coppola , Matt McFarland, Kylie Tyndall , Keaton Tyndall , Vivian Bayubay , Nathan Norton , Derek Klena , Lauren Klena , & Roma Watkins . The historic LaLurie House on the corner of Royal and Gov. Nicholls St. in New Orleans, which Cage bought for $3,450,000 in 2007, is reputed to be haunted by the many slaves tortured and killed by Delphine LaLurie in the 1830s. When Cage was arrested in New Orleans and charged with alleged domestic violence against his wife, Alice, and disturbing the peace. The $11,000 needed to bail him out was posted by Duane 'Dog' Chapman , better known as "Dog the Bounty Hunter". [April 2011] Ex-girlfriend Christina Fulton hit Cage with a $13 million lawsuit in 2009, regarding a property transfer. They negotiated a settlement in June 2011. He named his five favorite films as East of Eden (1955), A Streetcar Named Desire (1951), 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), A Clockwork Orange (1971) and The Wizard of Oz (1939). Was originally cast as "Randy 'The Ram' Robinson" in The Wrestler (2008). However, Cage dropped out of the film because he felt he didn't have time to bulk up for the part and director Darren Aronofsky 's heart was set on Mickey Rourke . Mickey would go on to win a Golden Globe and be nominated for an Oscar for his performance. March 2009 - Sold Schloss Neidstein, a castle in the Bavarian village of Etzelwang. On Reddit, he has an entire community devoted to him called "One True God.". Stated that the reason he owned so many pieces of property in the past--including multiple castles, mansions, and an island--was to protect his money without buying stock or relying on a bank, believing that real estate was the most trustworthy way to accomplish this. However, after the real estate bubble collapsed, he sold most of his property at a loss and rescinded on his belief. He now owns a modest amount of property: a house in Las Vegas near his friends and a small cottage near Glastonbury, England. Became a father for the 1st time at age 26 when his girlfriend Christina Fulton gave birth to their son Weston Cage on December 26, 1990. He's selling the sprawling Gray Craig estate in Middletown, Rhode Island. [October 2008] Filming Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance (2011) in Turkey. [January 2011] Bought the sprawling Gray Craig estate in Middletown for $15.7 million, a purchase price that ranks among the highest ever for a home in Rhode Island. [August 2007] Anchorage, AK, USA: acting in The Frozen Ground (2013). [November 2011] Became a grandfather for the 1st time at age 50 when his son Weston Cage welcomed a son, Lucian Augustus Coppola Cage on July 1, 2014. Once woke up in his house at Orange County in the middle of the night to find a naked man eating a fudgesicle in front of his bed. The man was arrested by police but Cage pressed no charges. Was to have starred in 'Superman Lives' to be directed by Tim Burton but Warners canceled it. His birthday is one day before Elvis Presley 's, of whom he is a fan. In 'American Horror Story', Season 3, Episode 1, whilst taking a tour of The LaLaurie Mansion on Royal Street in New Orleans, 'Madison Montgomery' (Emma Roberts), asks "Wasn't this house owned by the guy in 'Face/Off'? The tour guide replies, "Correct! The actor Nicolas Cage, was a previous owner". Cage did in-fact purchase the house in 2007. The house is considered by many, to be the most Haunted House in America. Is fond of the vibrant, multicultural city of New Orleans and frequently makes films there. Mentioned in an interview that he's a massive fan of Quentin Tarantino and expresses great interest in working with him in the future. Nicolas Cage separated from wife of 12 years, Alice Kim, on 26th June, 2016. They share 10 year-old son, Kal-El. Nicolas Cage and wife, Alice Kim, secretly separated in early January, 2016, after 11 years of marriage. They would have celebrated their 12th wedding anniversary, in August, 2016. Frequently stars in films set in Las Vegas ("Honeymoon In Vegas", "Con Air", "Next", "The Trust", "Leaving Las Vegas"). Reserved a permanent tomb for himself in saint Louis cemetery New Orleans. Personal Quotes (66) To be a good actor you have to be something like a criminal, to be willing to break the rules to strive for something new. There's a fine line between the Method actor and the schizophrenic. I am not a demon. I am a lizard, a shark, a heat-seeking panther. I want to be Bob Denver on acid playing the accordion. [about his marriage to Lisa Marie Presley ] I'm sad about this, but we shouldn't have been married in the first place. Hollywood didn't know if I was an actor or a nut or if I was this crazy character I was playing. I had developed an image of being a little bit unusual, different and wild. I'm at the point now where I know I'm doing something right when a movie gets mixed reviews, because then I'm not in the box. I don't want to make it too easy for people and I don't want to make it too easy for myself. I want to try something unusual. I feel good about the bad reviews because I feel like I've affected them on some level. They may not know what I was trying to do but they felt something. I want to make all kinds of movies. I do want to make big movies that are a lot of fun to go to, but I also want to make movies that are going to stimulate some thought and maybe raise some awareness. And so please don't think you're gonna go on a roller-coaster ride with those movies. It's very risky for an actor who's a bankable star to make pictures like The Weather Man (2005) or Lord of War (2005) because they inevitably promote them like big studio releases. And they're not big studio movies, they're more edgy, thought-provoking, independent-spirited films. What happens is, it goes into the computer, and everyone says they can't open the movie because they thought it was X when it actually was Y. I needed to change my name just to liberate myself and find out I could do it without walking into a Hollywood casting office with the name Coppola. [ Pablo Picasso ] said art is a lie that tells the truth. What if you just want to tell the truth and not lie about it? It's good to make movies that are tragedies, where people can think about things in life that are undeniable, that everyone has to deal with. But at the same time, it's also healing to make movies that are entertaining, that are a lot of fun, where you don't have to think about your problems. When I did Vampire's Kiss (1988), I got so wound up. It was so important to me that this vision I had of Peter Lowe's character get on film exactly the way that I wanted it, that I frankly don't think I was very easy for anyone to live with. Certainly, I was not easy for myself to live with. I remember that I wasn't drinking or anything at the time. One night I felt so wound up that I was about to snap. I ordered a martini. And I just relaxed, and I could tell my body really needed a rest. From then on, I learned you can do good work without torturing yourself. What happens is, you become different people in your path as an actor. When I was doing those things, I was a very new actor. I didn't have a lot of training, and I was trying to make some sort of impact, because that was what was important for me at the time - to get on the map. There were things I would do that were more shocking, or approaches I would do to try and live the character, because I didn't have the training. But then, as I went on, I started to find other methods, ways to get into characters that weren't exactly destroying my life. (On the wild eccentrics he used to get into character earlier in his career) I remember when I met Johnny Depp , he was a guitar player from Florida, and he had no idea he could be an actor. I said, "I really think you are an actor, that you have that ability." That was just from playing one game of Monopoly with him. I sent him to my agent and he has gone on to carve out a successful career. There is a method of thought that says it's better to stay mysterious, make yourself an event so when you come out, people have a hunger to see you again. I can think of some superstars who adopt that principle, where they are very selective. But we are all going to get older, and there is something to be said about doing some of your best work when you are younger, when you still have that virility, something visceral and raw. I've heard there have been some actors who've regretted not doing more work when they were under fifty. (On why he works so much) [on making his character in Knowing (2009) a single father] I have seen a lot of movies with single mothers and their children. They're good, but there are not so many with capable single fathers. There seems to be this archetype that if you're a man and single, you're incapable of raising a child, which I think needs to be broken. If you find yourself in that position - like I have - it's important not to give up because of what people tell you. [on Face/Off (1997)] Without tooting my own horn - I think it's a masterpiece. I was being stalked by a mime - silent but maybe deadly. Somehow, this mime would appear on the set of set of Bringing Out the Dead (1999) and start doing strange things. I have no idea how it got past security. Finally, the producers took some action and I haven't seen the mime since. But it was definitely unsettling. (The hardest part was) trying to figure out how I was going to entertain you while playing a guy who was completely out of his mind on crack. At the same time, trying to be responsible so it didn't become an advertisement for doing drugs. The other thing is, I wasn't sure I could play the part totally sober, which I was. In Leaving Las Vegas (1995), I had a few drinks between scenes to get to a certain feeling, to get to a certain truth. But with this I was trying to look at it more impressionistically from a landscape of maybe 25 years ago to see what would come out of that filter of my imagination. -- on the toughest aspect of preparing for Bad Lieutenant: Port of Call New Orleans (2009) So many directors are so arrogant. For example, Klaus Kinski -- who Werner Herzog has a legacy with -- he was very frustrated with the arrogance. We always hear Werner's side of the story about "Klaus was this and Klaus was that" but you never get to here Klaus' side of the story. I was doing a scene (on "Bad Lieutenant") -- it was in my second day of shooting -- and we all know the imagination and preparation (required) to think I was on cocaine (for the character). There was a little bottle of baby powder, and I'm snorting that. I'm psyching up, I'm psyching up, and he comes up and says (in German accent), "Now Nicolas, what is in that vial?" And I was like, "Are you kidding me? After four hours of this you're gonna actually ask me that? Take me out of my preparation? You would think the director would understand the actor's process and give us the space and the room to do what it is we need to do. I don't want to minimize the effort that goes into having a career, but now with the video age, let's face it, you can write your own stories and you can make your own movies and get it out. Or go on stage somewhere in a small venue off-off-off-Broadway. Usually it's very cathartic. The hard stuff is when you're not feeling great and you have to do a really happy scene. -- on the personal toll acting can take on a person. James Dean in East of Eden (1955), the scene where he's trying to give Raymond Massey the money on his father's birthday. I was 14, I was at the New Beverly Cinema, and I said, "Oh, no, that is exactly how I feel. Oh my God, I have to do this. Nothing else ever affected me as strongly. -- on if there were any moments in his life when he realized he was going to be an actor. {on the recession] People are losing their jobs because of what's going on in the economy, but I want to make movies that give families something to look forward to. (1996 quote) Jim Carrey and I went to George Hamilton 's wine bar. He's an interesting one. He was there and had some fun stories. I told him how he was one of my heroes from the time he played Evel Knievel . We had cigars, and very expensive bottles of wine were opened, and Jim and I were going, "This is great, man." At the end of the night we got slapped with an $8,000 bill. It was at that point that George became the fox in the Pinocchio story. He happens to look quite a bit like that fox. I would not want to play cards with George Hamilton . (1996) I remember my prom was a complete disaster. I used bonds my grandmother had given me to rent a tuxedo and a limousine so I could go to the prom with this beautiful girl. And at the end of the night I went to kiss her and she responded. I was so nervous that my stomach got really nauseous and I said, "Excuse me" and just threw up on the street all over my shoes and my rented tux. The limo driver wouldn't let me in the car. He split and I had to walk home. That was my prom night. (1996, on if he wants to do theater work) No, I have stage fright. I don't like it. I've never gotten over it. (1996) I do not have a religion in my life, I wasn't raised that way. My father always believed that if I was going to have a religion I should discover it on my own and not have it crammed down my throat at a young age. I kind of wish I had some religion. (1996) If I thought about awards, I would not have been able to do a movie like Leaving Las Vegas, because the word around town was that Mike [Figgis] and I were making the most unreleasable movie in Hollywood. I had some fear that the movie would not get released. (1996, on his life) I know what I want to do, I'm doing it, but I'm still very much a student of the craft and I think I can go further. I still torment myself. I have a lot of self-doubt. (1998 quote) I was once surrounded by rattlesnakes in a rattlesnake patch with my cousin Roman when we were 16 or 17. We were fishing in Napa Valley and walked right into it. There was a huge one coiled in front of us. A bigger one, to the left, was uncoiled, so I knew he wasn't a problem. We had to go over the coiled one, so we felt trapped and paralyzed with fear. There was nowhere to run, we were surrounded. I saw this pole with a nail through it, and I knew that I had to do something, so I grabbed the pole and pounded the snake. Then it came up and started rattling and was about to strike. I killed it, but felt bad about it. I felt anything you kill you've got to eat, so I took it home, cut the poison glands out, took the rattles off and cooked it. (1998, on the scariest thing that has happened to him) Years ago I was driving a car I'd bought, an Austin Healey with a V-8 engine, sort of a makeshift Cobra. I had taken it to a mechanic to put an automatic shifter in it. The mechanic did a really sloppy job. If you barely knocked the shifter it would go into separate gears. I was driving on the Hollywood Freeway and I accidentally bumped it into park. I was doing 80 mph at 10 p.m. and I started doing 360s. I wound up facing traffic, and then a Mack truck was coming at me. I thought, 'This is it, I'm dead'. The truck driver had a CB radio and said, "Put the car in reverse." I did and drove backwards until I got off at the exit, backwards! (1998 quote) What I like so much about Warhol-and he's actually influenced my acting, especially with Wild at Heart (1990)-is that he takes these icons and makes them his own, which is a brave thing to do. With acting it's not something you're supposed to do-you're never supposed to mimic or copy another person. For Wild at Heart (1990) I thought, 'Let's be Elvis'. I've always called that my Warhol performance, because I tried to subvert the image. (1998, Movieline Magazine) I did not want to be in Peggy Sue Got Married (1986). I turned it down three times. Francis said, "I really need you to be in the movie." I read the script, which was a perfectly romantic film, but the character he wanted me to play was boring. He was the babe to Kathleen Turner 's starring role. Just like women don't want to play the babe in movies, I didn't want to be Kathleen Turner 's babe. I just wanted to play a character. So I thought, How can I make this guy really far out? I asked Francis about it on the phone and he said, Absolutely. I said, "I want to go really far out." He asked, "How far do you want to go?" I said, "I want to talk like Pokey" Because to me it was funny. And also, it was the way a lot of guys in high school sounded before their voices changed-they always had this high-sounding voice that would crack. When I see the movie now I'm really happy that I did that. I really am. (1998, Movieline Magazine) I see Miles Davis as a surrealist father of mine. He was the first person to believe in me as an actor, the one who first said he understood what I was talking about. It was on The Dick Cavett Show (1968). Before we went on he said to me, "Why aren't you wearing your leather jacket? Didn't you learn anything from Dennis Hopper ?" Because I was wearing a suit. Then I went out and started talking about how if Picasso could paint surreal, why couldn't actors try to achieve that as well? Then Miles came on, and he was very considerate and he said, "I hear what you're saying." He kept looking at me like we had our own connection. Ever since then he stayed in my thoughts. He said the words I needed to hear to keep going with my choices. It's weird because my surrealist name, Cage, is actually taken from a black character, Luke Cage. The first time that I played Ghost Rider (2007). Blaze was easy; I knew he was a man who had been living with a curse for 8 years of having his head light on fire, and the tone that would take. I compared him to a cop, or a paramedic who develops a dark sense of humour to cope with the horrors he has seen. But Blaze has also caused the horrors, so he's hiding out because he doesn't want to hurt anyone else. Ghost Rider was an entirely new experience, and he got me thinking. I think that Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance (2011) was mentally taxing, if only because I had to go to a Christmas party shortly after I had wrapped photography in Romania at 2 in the morning as the Ghost Rider. The invitation had a Christmas ornament on it with Ghost Rider's face on it as a tree. I had a couple of schnapps and went to the party; I had not entirely let go of whatever magic I had been channelling, and all hell broke lose. In fact, I think I kept saying over and over: "Merry Christmas, you assholes!" I am lucky I'm not in a Romanian prison. Superman is an American myth. Like the English have Shakespeare. I would like to see a sequel to Lord of War (2005). I think it would work really well, especially in this day and age where guns are at the center of political discussion. And also the boy in the movie, my son, there's this idea that he grows up and he goes into the trade and then I'm trying to get him out of it. I think that could be a very interesting movie. I hate violence. I just hate it. I read the paper every day - the New York Times, The Guardian - and I feel it, you know? It gets inside. I'm amazed that people are capable of those kinds of things to children and women. I'm up for anything that will get me to the truth of a performance. There's very few things that make me laugh. Mike Myers as Austin Powers makes me laugh - that was genius - and Daffy Duck makes me laugh, but I like odd behavior. I don't like hip dialogue and one-liners and all that sort of cool, sophomoric comedy. It's just not for me. I'm one of those guys where the more coffee I drink, the more stunts I do, the more relaxed I get. [on having a stalker] That was horrible. I mean, that's as bad as it gets: 2am and there's a naked man standing in front of your bed watching you sleep. It's not funny, but somehow people find it amusing. Halloween is a great holiday for any actor if you think about it. It's all about dress-up and playing characters. So yeah, it's always had a special place for me. [on the most haunted place he's ever been to] There's a house I used to live in called The LaLaurie Mansion on Royal Street in New Orleans, and it's notorious as the most haunted house in the United States. I spent time in there alone in total darkness to get some inspiration to write the great American horror novel, but I didn't get far. I'm not gonna go into detail. Film acting is one of the only industries where you're criticized for working hard. In any other industry it's considered a quality and something to behold. I haven't isolated myself. I am not living on a yacht somewhere. I am not tucked away or behind a gate somewhere. I am not flying on a private plane. I am going to the airport, I am with people, some of the interactions are good, some of them are not so good, but it keeps me in touch with being, you know, part of society. And I think that's necessary to stay relevant to be able to tell stories about people, which is what actors do. Sometimes your very own family that you're close to can be toxic. They take your success or your potential as a personal insult on their failure, and they beat you up or they say you'll never make it. Now even the art of film criticism... now in the LA Times, the critic who reviewed Bad Lieutenant: Port of Call New Orleans (2009), incorporated how many homes I bought or sold into the review. What the hell does Lindsay Lohan 's personal life have to do with her performance in The Canyons (2013)? It should always be about the work itself. What difference does it make if Bill Clinton had an affair -- how does that affect his performance as President? I started acting because I wanted to be James Dean . I saw him in Rebel Without a Cause (1955), East of Eden (1955). Nothing affected me -- no rock song, no classical music -- the way Dean affected in "Eden." It blew my mind. I was like, "That's what I want to do." This was before everyone had a thing called a Smartphone, and before the advent of the "celebutard" -- just being famous for famous' sake. I'm not complaining, but it really sucks to be famous right now. I am in the process of reinventing myself. I am returning to my roots, which is independently spirited, dramatic characters. I had taken a year off to re-evaluate everything I had done, different kinds of performances I had done, the more operatic and more baroque stuff like Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance (2011), Drive Angry (2011) or Season of the Witch (2011). I wanted to find something where I could use my life experience, my memories and my emotions." I started acting because I wanted to be James Dean . I saw him in Rebel Without a Cause (1955), East of Eden (1955). Nothing affected me - no rock song, no classical music - the way Dean affected in Eden. It blew my mind. I was like, 'That's what I want to do.' This was before everyone had a thing called a Smartphone - just being famous for famous' sake. I'm not complaining, but it really sucks to be famous right now. I don't take criticism seriously and I don't take praise seriously, both would be a mistake. If you buy into the negative that is the Internet today, or the cynical critic, it's not unlike listening to an abusive father that's trying to cave you in and you can't function. If you buy into praise, to people who adore you, you might get lazy and say, 'Well, I'll just keep doing that.' You have to stay uncomfortable. I learned that from David Bowie . I said, 'How do you do it? How do you keep reinventing yourself?' He said, 'I just never got comfortable with anything I was doing.' I knew those were words of wisdom from a great artist and I took those words seriously. I'd love to make a movie with Jack Nicholson . I don't know why it hasn't happened yet! But I think the two of us together, would [laughs] ... I'm sure it would be something to talk about! I feel very comfortable with him and I think we would do something special together. [on being sought by Cher to join the cast of Moonstruck (1987)] I don't really know why she wanted me in the movie. She kept fighting for me. She saw me in Peggy Sue Got Married (1986) and said it was like watching a two-hour train wreck. It was pretty intimidating to be her leading man. [on developing performance style] I [wanted]to get more 'quietude' - what Hemingway would call the taut fishing line. I wanted to have that simplicity again. Joe (2013) gave me the opportunity to explore that.. I see myself as a student. I'll hopefully do more seasoned kinds of performance as I get older. [advice to aspiring screen actors] If you're doing something really extraordinary, chances are you'll be an original. That might scare some people in the casting office. They might not know what to do with that. What I would suggest is to put a frame on it. Tape your audition. Put your performance in a frame so they can see it, and then go into the office. But I would send the tape. If you are genuinely talented, you are to be doing things that are special. So put a frame on it. When I did Joe (2013) it was an opportunity for me to get what I call 'naked' as a film presence. It was time to not put things on top of a performance, but take things off - where I could take my life experience of the last years and find a script where I didn't have to act. Where I could just be, and not think too much about it. What was a great compliment was when my wife saw it with me in Venice and said, 'That's you'. I try to pick ans choose my material based on what I can do to challenge myself and make myself uncomfortable. Always stay a student, never be a maestro. There is a mischievous mind at work on The Wicker Man (2006), you know? You know what I mean? And I finally kind of said, 'I might have known that the movie was meant to be absurd.' But saying that now after the fact is OK, but to say it before the fact is not, because you have to let the movie have its own life. (On The Coen Brothers) "Joel and Ethan have a very strong vision and I've learned how difficult it is to accept another artist's vision. They have an autocratic nature." (On eating a live cockroach for Vampire's Kiss (1988)) "Every muscle in my body didn't want to do it, but I did it anyway." I would like to hook up with one of the great Japanese filmmakers, like the master that made Ringu (1998), and I would like to take The Wicker Man (2006) to Japan, except this time he's a ghost. (On The Wicker Man (2006)) "'I might have known that that movie was meant to be absurd." [On Bringing Out the Dead] What originally attracted me to Bringing Out the Dead was the opportunity to work with Martin Scorsese. Salary (19)	Nicolas Cage
From which continent did the flower Freesia originate?	Nicolas Cage Movies \| Movies.com Nicolas Cage Movies Died: Jan 1, 0001 Birth Name: Nicolas Coppola Biography: Actor Nicolas Cage has always strived to make a name for himself based on his work, rather than on his lineage. As the nephew of filmmaker [[Performer~P85868~Francis Ford Coppola~francisfordcoppola]], Cage altered his last name to avoid accusations... Continued	i don't know
"Which company uses the slogan ""innovations beyond petroleum""?"	BP's 'Beyond Petroleum' Slogan Becoming Toxic \| Rance Crain - AdAge Adage Aleady a member? Sign in Get More From Ad Age Register to become a member today. You'll get the essential information you need to do your job better, including 7 free articles per month on Ad Age and Creativity Ability to comment on articles and creative work Access to 9 custom e-newsletters like Ad Age Daily, Ad Age Digital and CMO Strategy To get unlimited content and more benefits, check out our Membership page Register Now Want more Access, Content & Connections? We are glad you are enjoying Advertising Age. To get uninterrupted access and additional benefits, become a member today. Already a member? Log in or go back to the homepage . Hey, there. It looks like you're using an ad blocker. The news and features are funded in part by our advertisers. To support Ad Age and the industry we cover please either: BP's 'Beyond Petroleum' Slogan Becoming Toxic Oil Giant's Enthusiastic Embrace of Alternative Energy Opens It Up to Charges That It Neglected Key Business By Rance Crain . Published on May 03, 2010 . Rance Crain I said it once and I'll say it again: British Petroleum should get off its high horse and concentrate on being a better oil company. Back in 2006, BP got in trouble after the disclosure that its Prudhoe Bay pipeline was corroded and leaking for many years because nobody was inspecting it. Related Stories BP Struggles to Hit Right Note in Response to Oil Spill After BP was forced to shut down the pipeline for repairs, a guy who wrote BP's "Beyond Petroleum" ads pronounced his disillusionment with the ads in a New York Times article. The author of the piece, John Kenney, said "I guess, looking at it now, 'Beyond Petroleum' is just advertising. It's become mere marketing -- perhaps it always was -- instead of a genuine attempt to engage the public in the debate or a corporate rallying cry to change the paradigm. Maybe I'm naïve." What must he think now? Back in those days, BP was "at one of the lowest points in its history; badly run, accident-prone and accused in the aftermath of a deadly explosion at its Texas City refinery of putting profits before safety," according to the Wall Street Journal. The new regime, the Journal added, has "turned BP around, boosting production, cutting costs and significantly reducing on-the-job injuries." Last month, the new CEO was observing an irreversible "change of culture." And now the company is facing one of the most disastrous environmental breaches ever, right up there with the Exxon Valdez oil spill two decades ago. The new CEO apparently changed everything but the advertising. The problem is not that BP's ads didn't work, as John Kenney lamented, but they worked too well. Sure, the whole thing was "just advertising" that BP had lofty environmental ambitions, but it was advertising that, for better or for worse, BP was judged by. Yes, it was concocted to cut through the "corporate speak" of big oil companies, but BP itself bought into it a little too enthusiastically. "Beyond reality" might be a more appropriate slogan. By talking about all those other sources of energy it's developing, BP gives the impression that the oil business is no longer its first priority. As I said in 2006, "I wish BP still believed in the oil business ... But the company was way out there, beyond petroleum, and I guess the oil business just wasn't cutting-edge enough to warrant its attention." Was BP too busy celebrating the U.S. Interior Department's endorsement of the wind farms off the Cape Cod coast that it didn't keep an eye on its leased oil rig on the Gulf of Mexico? That's the kind of criticism its advertising has opened itself up to. Look what happened the last time. Writing two days before Mr. Kenney's article, The Times' Joe Nocera said he was walking through an airport when he spotted a BP poster. "You know the kind I'm talking about. The letters BP in lower case type -- making them look somehow warmer and fuzzier. Like most BP ads, indeed like all BP marketing, it spoke of the company's commitment to the environment. "And here's what I thought when I saw it: 'Oh, yeah, right.'" Mr. Nocera said if BP hadn't been so "holier than thou" in its marketing during the last few years, "I doubt that it would be getting hammered right now -- at least to this extent." "And if there's one iron-clad rule about marketing, it is that you had better be practicing internally what you are preaching to the world." Another ironclad rule also comes into play here: After every disaster, the response level (or lack thereof) gets factored into the next one. So because both local, state and federal government reaction to Hurricane Katrina were universally viewed as woefully inadequate, both BP and the federal government's reaction to the drilling rig fire and sinking are being measured by the same yardstick. And even though the new BP CEO has "dialed back on the Beyond Petroleum mantra," as the Journal put it, the company must still live up to the highest levels of environmental striving it has created for itself. In this article:	BP
Which building in Paris did Richard Rogers and Enzo Piano design?	bp: Beyond Petroleum? bp: Beyond Petroleum? Sharon Beder Citation: Sharon Beder, 'bp: Beyond Petroleum?' in Battling Big Business: Countering greenwash, infiltration and other forms of corporate bullying, edited by Eveline Lubbers, Green Books, Devon, UK, 2002, pp. 26-32. This is a final version submitted for publication. Minor editorial changes may have subsequently been made. Sharon Beder's Other Publications In 2000 the transnational oil giant BP Amoco rebranded itself as "bp: beyond petroleum." The rebranding was part of an effort to portray BP as an energy company, not just an oil company: one that incorporated solar energy in its portfolio and was willing to move away from oil. BP replaced its logo with a vibrant green-white-and-yellow sunburst named after Helios, the ancient Greek sun god. The logo was meant to connote "commitment to the environment and solar power" and promote the new bp "as the supermajor of choice for the environmentally-aware motorist."[1] The lower-case letters were chosen "because focus groups say bp is friendlier than the old imperialistic BP," which stood for British Petroleum.[2] Along with its new name, bp launched a new line of petrol station in the US, UK and Australia called bp connect, intended to "reposition BP Amoco, an old-economy gas station giant, into a progressive, environmentally friendly retailer."[3] Petrol is just one of many items for sale at the high-tech stations, which are equipped with solar panels.[4] This was not the first time BP had revamped its logo and appearance to improve its environmental image. In 1989, as British Petroleum, it underwent a similar makeover. At a cost of about ?100 million it shortened its name to BP, redesigned its logo and refurbished its petrol stations to promote a greener, more socially responsible image. David Walton, head of public relations, said BP's image was "a major commercial and political asset. Like any asset, it has to be managed and looked after." [1] [5] This earlier attempt at reputation management met with ridicule in some quarters. Jolyon Jenkins wrote in the New Statesman and Society that BP, a company responsible for clearing large areas of rainforest in Brazil, responded to a rise in environmental consciousness in the late 1980s with "a ?20 million 'reimaging campaign' in which it daubed all its property in green paint and advertised its annual report under the slogan 'Now We're Greener Than Ever.'" [6] In 1990 BP had to apologize for an ad campaign that claimed that its new unleaded petrol caused no pollution. [7] It seems the new bp still likes green paint: its petrol stations are to be painted in green, white and yellow to symbolize environmental responsibility and the sun. But BP only really had its green claims taken seriously in 1997, when it left the Global Climate Coalition (GCC), a group of 50 corporations and trade associations that had been claiming global warming was unproven and action to prevent it unwarranted. In several speeches that year, CEO John Browne argued it was time to act to prevent greenhouse warming rather than continue to debate whether it would occur. [8] With this new stance on climate change, BP earned a reputation as an environmental progressive in an industry that largely refused to accept the likelihood of global warming. Browne received praise from environmental groups including Greenpeace. The question, though, is whether BP's move was an indicator of environmental leadership or a cynical attempt to manage its reputation. When BP left the GCC, it was receiving adverse publicity because of its activities in Colombia. The dramatic break with other oil companies on the issue of global warming provided a useful diversion as well as a much-needed refurbishment for a reputation under attack on human rights grounds. In 1997, amid favorable publicity about its stance on global warming, BP's share price and profit rose. BP's dangerous bedfellows In 1996 BP was accused of human rights violations in Colombia, leading to damaging media publicity in the UK. Its Casanare oil field has oil reserves valued at approximately $40 billion. [9] The Colombian government has a poor human rights record, and both the police and army are held responsible for serious abuses of human rights including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances, torture and beatings. These official security forces are much feared by the people, as are the right-wing paramilitary forces, which appear to operate as death squads with government impunity, attacking local protesters, communities they suspect of being sympathetic to guerrillas, and people they deem socially undesirable, such as prostitutes and street children. Antigovernment guerrillas have also made enemies among the local population. Combined violence by government forces, the paramilitary and the guerrillas resulted in between 2,000 and 3,000 deaths in 1998 and 300,000 civilians being displaced from their homes. [10] BP's oil operations in Colombia have been a target for guerrillas who believe the oil industry should be nationalized. BP has installed several layers of preventative protection for its staff and installations. Firstly, it depends on the Colombian army, which created a special brigade of 3,000 soldiers for the purpose. [11] In 1996, BP agreed to pay the Defense Ministry between $54 and 60 million over three years to augment the battalion with 150 officers and 500 soldiers. [12] BP also depends on the police force, which patrols the perimeter of its facilities; the company pays ?3 million a year for the service. [13] In 1992 BP hired the British firm Defense Systems Limited (DSL), which set up a subsidiary Defense Systems Colombia (DSC) for its BP operations. [14] According to World in Action's research, based on the testimony of former DSL officers and the police themselves, DSC has given Colombian police "lethal military training" since 1996. [15] But critics say this physical security has come at too high a price in human rights abuses. BP has been accused of forming its own army and of being associated with state repression. The military forces that protect its assets in Colombia are said to have connections with the right-wing paramilitary. And BP has been accused of hiring security people with past histories of human rights abuses and even murder. [16] The heavy security had troubling implications for local people protesting about the environmental impact of BP's operations. The company admitted to early environmental damage, as a result of what Browne calls "honest mistakes" made before local regulations had been clarified rather than "willful and reckless mistakes." [17] BP's operations in Colombia have caused problems including deforestation, pollution of crucial water sources, landslides, earthquakes and ground contamination. World in Action pointed out, "The company which had gone into Colombia trumpeting the highest green standards was fined $215,000 ? the biggest-ever environmental fine in Colombian history." [18] "(M)embers of the local community involved in legitimate protest against the impact of the oil companies, including BP, have frequently been labeled subversive and subsequently been victims of human rights violations by security forces and their paramilitary allies," according to Amnesty International. [19] Daniel Bland, a researcher with Human Rights Watch, said local people have testified that if there is "any kind of organized protest against BP in any way, the leaders of those protests are singled out for persecution for harassment and for death threats." Such threats are taken very seriously, as six members of one group, the El Morro Association, have been murdered since it began its campaign against damage done by BP to their road and their water supply. [20] In March 1997 BP was cleared of human rights abuses by a Colombian government inquiry. [1] However, according to Blowout Magazine, the Special Commission conducting the inquiry found the army brigade protecting BP's assets guilty of "civilian massacre, extrajudicial execution, rape, kidnap and torture." [21] Human Rights Watch also claims there have been "reports of killings, beatings and arrests committed by those forces responsible for protecting the companies' installations." [22] BP denies any responsibility for military repression of anti-BP protesters and says it has no control over the soldiers it hires to defend its Colombian sites. But Human Rights Watch argues that BP cannot avoid responsibility for human rights violations committed by government forces in defense of its own interests. [23] Moreover, Richard Howitt, a British member of the European parliament, obtained internal Colombian government documents that stated BP had given the Colombian military photographs, videos and other information about peasant protesters concerned about environmental damage. The information had allegedly led to intimidation, beatings, disappearances and deaths. [24] A former DSC adviser also told World in Action "about a controversial proposal by DSC to set up a spy network in Casanare to target anti-BP protesters." [25] BP CEO John Browne responded, "We don't pass materials to the military...We have, as part of the licensing process, in order to produce evidence that we have had meetings on the environment, passed videotapes to the environmental department with the full knowledge and agreement of the community involved. That's the extent of it." [26] Human Rights Watch noted that when the contract between the Colombian military and BP came up for renewal in June 1999, the flow of funds was altered so that rather than paying the army directly, BP paid the state-owned ECOPETROL, which in turn paid the Defense Ministry. It continued making direct payments to the police. [27] Old problem, new spin bp's activities in Colombia are not unusual: it uses armed security guards in several countries. Nor are human rights criticisms new to the company. BP operated in South Africa during the apartheid regime and was considered an enemy by the international anti-apartheid movement because it sold oil and gas to the military and cooperated with local refineries despite an international embargo. Its products were boycotted at the request of the NGO TransAfrica, which argued, "Without crude oil, the South African government would stop working. So BP is keeping the apartheid government alive." [28] bp now features its human rights position prominently on its website (www.bp.com), and its executives have given many speeches to promote it, some to NGOs. The site says that everywhere the company operates it establishes "clear ethical standards for ourselves and our contractors, ensuring that the whole of the local communities benefit from our presence." In countries where human rights are at issue, BP management claims it is better that it continue its operations. "Without development, and without business," a BP executive told Amnesty International, "fundamental human rights cannot be secured. Far from being in conflict one is dependent upon the other." [29] Another executive told a 1997 Amnesty International conference in the UK that BP was "a force for good" in Colombia: "Surely we should not deny Casanare the development which is available to others." [30] In 1998 Browne claimed it had spend $25 million in Casanare since 1992 on the development of local businesses, social housing, infrastructure and training. This compared with $6 billion it had invested in its own business operations in Colombia. [31] Meanwhile, "a company's obligation to provide security for its staff is paramount." [32] But the company's arguments that its activities contribute to better political and civil rights are not borne out by history. There is little evidence that its years of operating in the Nigerian Delta, Southwestern Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, Papua New Guinea, Algeria, Libya, Somalia, Yemen and Aden have led to such progress. [33] Only the logo is green Certainly BP's record of environmental protection has been no better than other oil companies'. [34] In 1991 it was cited as most polluting company in the US based on EPA toxic release data. And in 1992 Greenpeace International named it one of Scotland's two largest polluters. [35] Nor has it become a model company since its apparent environmental conversion in 1997. In 1999, it was charged with burning polluted gases at its Ohio refinery and agreed to pay a $1.7 million fine. [36] In July 2000 BP paid a $10 million fine to the EPA and agreed to reduce air pollution coming from its US refineries by tens of thousands of tons. BP's existing and proposed activities in Alaska have worried indigenous people and environmental groups. "Between January 1997 and March 1998, BP Amoco was responsible for 104 oil spills in America's Arctic," according to US PIRG research. [37] In 1999 BP admitted illegally dumping hazardous waste at its "environmentally friendly" oil field in Alaska and was fined $500,000 for failing to report it. It paid $6.5 million more in civil penalties to settle claims associated with the waste's disposal. [38] bp has invested heavily in solar power and introduced a program to reduce its own greenhouse gas emissions. But despite its investment in solar energy, the company remains committed to ever-increasing production and usage of oil and gas. Director of Policy David Rice told the Global Public Affairs Institute in London, "We make no secret of our intention to grow our core exploration and production business and to continue our search for new sources of oil and gas." [39] And while bp has promised to reduce its own emissions, it does not accept the need to reduce those arising from the products it sells. Browne argues the company's contribution is relatively small: "If one adds up the emissions from all of BP's operations and from all the products we sell, it comes to around one percent of the total emissions from human activity." [40] Yet this is a huge amount for one company to be responsible for, and certainly a more important contribution than that of bp's own operations. By 1999 BP's emissions were greater than those of Central America, Canada or Britain, according to Corporate Watch. [41] And BP's recent acquisitions mean the company is now thought to be responsible for about 3 percent of worldwide greenhouse emissions.[42] bp continues to explore for oil, often in environmentally sensitive areas such as the Atlantic Frontier, the foothills of the Andes and Alaska. bp's Northstar project involves the first undersea pipeline in the Arctic, and the Army Corps of Engineers calculates that "the total probability of one or more large oil spills...is approximately 11 percent to 24 percent" during its 15-year lifetime. [43] bp is seeking government permission to explore in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), one of Alaska's last remaining pristine wilderness areas, [44] through lobbying and donating to politicians and funding the lobby group Arctic Power. [45] President George W. Bush pledged to open the Refuge to oil drilling during his election campaign. Congress will vote on this later in 2001. A new industry front group has been set up to campaign for drilling to be allowed, the Energy Stewardship Alliance, but it is essentially Arctic Power under a new name. It is coordinated by Roger Herrera who also coordinated Arctic Power. Herrera is a former Manager of Operations for BP's Sohio Alaska Petroleum Company, now retired, and in 1997 was a paid lobbyist for BP America. [46] BP has emphasized its solar investments while being attacked for its Arctic exploration. In March 1999 it launched its "Plug in the Sun" program based on its investment in solar energy and the installation of solar panels on gas stations around the world. Its ads said, "We can fill you up by sunshine" ? but it was still gas people were putting in their cars. For this program it was awarded a Greenwash Award by Corporate Watch. [47] In a similar satirical vein, Greenpeace USA gave CEO Browne an award for the "Best Impression of an Environmentalist." [48] An investment in image It seems bp is investing more in image than environment. Would a company spend hundreds of millions of dollars in solar investment just to enhance its reputation? Well, bp has already spent that much just on its "beyond petroleum" rebranding. Research and preparation cost $7 million; bp planned to spend $200 million between 2000 and 2002 rebranding its facilities and changing signs and stationery and another $400 million on advertising its gasoline and pushing the new logo.[49] In the end, despite bp's rhetoric about social responsibility, triple bottom lines and enlightened self-interest, profits seem to count most. An oil company might invest in solar energy and admit that global warming should be prevented, but it will do all it can to ensure it can go on drilling for fossil fuels and expanding its markets for them. References 1 William Maclean, "BP Goes Greener with 'Beyond Petroleum' Rebrand," Planet Ark, July 25, 2000, (www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm?newsid=7577) 2 Brian Hale, "BP Goes Green, Solar, Connected," Sydney Morning Herald, July 26, 2000, pp. 25-6. 3 Kruti Trivedi, "BP Amoco Wants to Sell More Than Gas at its New Stations," The New York Times, July 25, 2000. 4 Andrew McKenzie and John Macleay, "Sun Rises on Greener BP," The Australian, July 26, 2000, p. 1. 5 Quoted in Philip Rawstorne, "BP Puts On New 'Public Face' to Meet Challenges of the 1990s," The Oil Daily, Feb. 6, 1989, p. 5. 6 Jolyon Jenkins, "Who's the Greenest?" New Statesman & Society, Aug. 17, 1990, pp. 18-20. 7 Julie Gozan, "BP: A Legacy of Apartheid, Pollution and Exploitation," Multinational Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 11, November 1992, pp. 26-30. 8 Ernest A. Lowe and Robert J. Harris, "Taking Climate Change Seriously: British Petroleum's Business Strategy," Corporate Environmental Strategy, Winter 1998 (www.indigodev.com/BPclim.html). 9 Anon., "BP at War: Colombia," The Economist, Vol. 344, No. 8026, July 19, 1997, pp. 32-4. 10 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, "Colombia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1997," Department of State, 1998 (www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1997_hrp_report/colombia.html); Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, "Colombia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998," Department of State, 1999, (www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1998_hrp_report/colombia.html) 11 "Colombia: BP's Secret Soldiers," World In Action, ITV, UK, June 30, 1997 (text at www.cdi.org/ArmsTradeDatabase/CONTROL/Small_Arms/Mercenaries/BP's_Secret_Soldiers.txt). 12 Cited in "Oil Companies Buying Up Colombian Army to Fight Pipeline Violence," Drillbits & Tailings, September 1996, p. 2; Human Rights Committee, "Colombia," Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1997 (www.hri.ca/fortherecord1997). 13 "Colombia: BP's Secret Soldiers." 14 Michael Sean Gillard and Melissa Jones, "BP's Secret Soldiers," Weekly Mail & Guardian, July 4, 1997 (web.sn.apc.org/wmail). 15 "Colombia: BP's Secret Soldiers." 16 "BP at War: Colombia," pp. 32-34. 17 Quoted in Polly Ghazi and Ian Hargreaves, "BP's Chief Executive is Making the Running on Green Strategy," New Statesman, Vol. 126, No. 4341, July 4, 1997, pp. 34-7. 18 "Colombia: How Green is Your Petrol?"; Athan Manuel, "Green Words, Dirty Deeds: A PIRG Expose of BP Amoco's Greenwashing," US Public Interest Research Group (PIRG) Education Fund, 1999; "Colombian Government Report Accuses BP of Involvement in Environmental and Human Rights Abuses," Drillbits & Tailings, Nov. 7, 1996, p. 4. 19 Amnesty International, "Colombia: British Petroleum Risks Fueling Human Rights Crisis Though Military Training," Amnesty International, 1997 (www.web.amnesty.org/ai.nsf). 20 "Colombia: BP's Secret Soldiers." 21 "Colombia: The Role of BP," Blowout Magazine, January 1998, (www.oilc.org/BO53/BO53colombia.html). 22 Human Rights Watch, "Special Issues and Campaigns: Corporations and Human Rights," 1999 (www.igc.org/hrw/worldreport99/special/corporations.html). 23 Ghazi and Hargreaves, pp. 34-37; "Colombia: BP's Secret Soldiers"; Peter Eisen, "Group Pressures Oxy, BP on Human Rights," The Oil Daily, Vol. 48, No. 76, April 22, 1998, p. NA(1). 24 "BP at war: Colombia," pp. 32-34; Human Rights Committee. 25 "Colombia: BP's Secret Soldiers." 26 Quoted in Ghazi and Hargreaves, pp. 34-37. 27 Human Rights Watch. 29 Peter Sutherland, "Amnesty International Event,"1997 speech (www.bp.com). 30 Richard Newton, "Business and Human Rights," 1997 speech (www.bp.com). 31 John Browne, "The Case for Social Responsibility," 1998 speech (www.bp.com). 32 "BP's Submission to the UK House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee," BP, 2000 (www.bp.com/alive/performance/social_performance/ethical_conduct_commitment/human_rights/foreign.asp). 33 James Bamberg, [*ITAL] The History of the British Petroleum Company. Volume 2 The Anglo-Iranian Years, 1928-1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); James Bamberg, British Petroleum and Global Oil, 1950-1975. Volume 3 The Challenge of Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 34 "BP to Pay Damages in California Spill," Oil and Gas Journal, Vol. 93, No. 7, Feb. 13, 1995, p. 32; Manuel, pp. 11-12; "Salvage Will Show Toll from Tanker Spill," Business Insurance, Vol. 25, No. 30, July 29, 1991, p. 45; Gozan, pp. 26-30; "European Plants Dwarf US in Toxics," Chemical Marketing Reporter, Vol. 242, No. 5, Aug. 3, 1992, p. 5. 35Manuel, p. 12. 36Gozan, pp. 26-30. 37Manuel, p. 7. 38 Russell Mokhiber and Robert Weissman, "Enemies of the Future: The Ten Worst Corporations of 2000," Multinational Monitor, December 2000, p. 12. 39 David Rice, "Corporate Responsibility in the Marketplace," 1999 speech (www.bp.com). 40 E.J.P. Browne, "Energy Companies and the Environment Can Coexist," USA Today, Vol. 127, No. 2640, September 1998, pp. 54-56. 41Kenny Bruno, "Summer Greenwash Award: BP Amoco's 'Plug in the Sun' Program," Corporate Watch, 1999 (www.igc.org/trac). 42Manuel, p. 8. 44Gozan, pp. 26-30. 45 SANE BP, "The Resolution," 2000 ( www.sanebp.com) . 46 Energy Stewardship Alliance, "Energy Stewardship Alliance Formed; National Support for ANWR Exploration Grows", PR Newswire, March 21 2000, (biz.yahoo.com/prnews/010321/dcw030.html); Bob Costantini, "Where The Caribou Roam: The Arctic Oil Debate Heats Up", evote.com, March 2001, (www.evote.com/features/2001-03/caribou.asp); The Center for Responsive Politics, "Herrera, Roger Charles", 1997, (http://www.opensecrets.org/lobbyists/97profiles/10779.htm). 46 Quoted in Manuel, p. 11; Danielle Knight, “USA: Mixed Reaction to Oil Co's Earth Day Award”, Corporate Watch, (www.igc.org/trac/corner/worldnews/other/366.html),1999.	i don't know
Which director won the 'Oscar' for Best Director for the picture 'Traffic' in 2000?	2000 Academy Awards® Winners and History Traffic (2000, Germ./US) Actor: RUSSELL CROWE in "Gladiator," Javier Bardem in "Before Night Falls," Tom Hanks in "Cast Away," Ed Harris in "Pollock," Geoffrey Rush in "Quills" Actress: JULIA ROBERTS in "Erin Brockovich," Joan Allen in "The Contender," Juliette Binoche in "Chocolat," Ellen Burstyn in "Requiem for a Dream," Laura Linney in "You Can Count On Me" Supporting Actor: BENICIO DEL TORO in "Traffic," Jeff Bridges in "The Contender," Willem Dafoe in "Shadow of the Vampire," Albert Finney in "Erin Brockovich," Joaquin Phoenix in "Gladiator" Supporting Actress: MARCIA GAY HARDEN in "Pollock," Judi Dench in "Chocolat," " Kate Hudson in "Almost Famous," Frances McDormand in "Almost Famous," Julie Walters in "Billy Elliot" Director: STEVEN SODERBERGH for "Traffic," Stephen Daldry for "Billy Elliot," Ang Lee for "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon," Steven Soderbergh for "Erin Brockovich," Ridley Scott for "Gladiator" This year's Best Picture nominees were from an eclectic, diverse and varied group of films: two fighting epics (one foreign, one ancient), two dramas about battles (America's failed drug war and a legal struggle against a power company), and a simple, comic fable. Three of the five Best Picture nominees prominently featured women. The Oscar awards were spread somewhat evenly among the Best Picture nominees, except for Chocolat. The big winner in 2000 was director Ridley Scott's spectacular, big budget (over $200 million) sword-and-sandal Roman Empire epic set in 180 A.D., Gladiator - a basic tale of good vs. evil, betrayal, and revenge - about an outcast Roman general (and single-minded rebel-hero) seeking vengeance for betrayal and his family's death. The spectacle of the Roman Colosseum's gladiatorial battles and contests was balanced with royal intrigue involving the resentful heir to the Roman throne. (Although greatly enhanced with CGI-digital effects, it revived the memory of dramatic historic-epic films and 'sword-and-sandal' spectaculars of the 50s, such as Quo Vadis? (1951), Ben-Hur (1959) and Spartacus (1960).) The film received twelve nominations and won five awards: Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Visual Effects, Best Sound, and Best Costume Design. DreamWorks Studios boasted back-to-back wins for Best Picture - it also won the previous year with American Beauty (1999). Its nominations included the major and minor categories of Best Director, Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay, Best Actor, Best Supporting Actor, Best Score, Best Visual Effects, Best Cinematography, Best Film Editing, Best Art Direction, Best Sound, and Best Costumes. This marked the first time in 51 years -- since 1949 (the year that All the King's Men (1949) had seven nominations and three wins: Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Supporting Actress) that the Best Picture winner didn't also win an additional Oscar for Best Director or for Best Screenplay. The other Best Picture nominees included the following: Ang Lee's Mandarin-language martial-arts film, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (or Wo hu zang long) (with ten nominations and four wins), was the biggest-earning foreign film of all time (at $130 million), and the most-nominated foreign language film ever. The film's four wins tied it with Fanny & Alexander (1982, Swed.) as the Foreign Language film with the most wins. The balletic martial-arts fantasy and poignant romance was about two fellow warriors in feudal China in pursuit of a stolen magical jade sword and a fugitive. It won Best Foreign-Language film (for Taiwan), Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Score. It was only the seventh foreign-language film ever nominated for Best Picture in Academy Awards history, and it was, to date, the foreign-language film (nominated for Best Picture) with the greatest number of Academy Awards nominations (10). It was also the first martial arts film to be nominated for Best Picture. [Dual nominations in the Best Foreign Language and Best Picture categories have only happened twice before: Z (1969) and Life is Beautiful (1998). The two previous films won in the Best Foreign-Language Film category, as did this year's nominee.] Best Director-winning Steven Soderbergh's innovative and dazzling Traffic (with five nominations and four wins), a probing, multi-layered story line depicting America's losing fight against the drug trade. The independent film won Best Director, Best Supporting Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing [Note: to date, it was the last Best Picture nominee to have been based on a TV movie or mini-series (UK's Channel 4 TV series Traffik)) Best Director-nominated Steven Soderbergh's Erin Brockovich (with five nominations and one win), a David vs. Goliath tale based on a true story about the title character - a working-class California woman battling corporate malfeasance at PG&E (for its coverup and use of the polluting chemical chromium-6 that contaminated the water supply of the nearby town Hinkley, California) and eventually winning a direct-action law suit. Julia Roberts' win for Best Actress was Erin Brockovich's sole Oscar; actor/director Danny DeVito received his sole career Oscar nomination for co-producing Erin Brockovich Miramax Studios' and Swedish-born director Lasse Hallstrom's Chocolat (with five nominations and no wins), an adaptation of Joanne Harris's best-selling novel that featured a multi-national cast Soderbergh competed against himself for Best Picture (and Best Director) honors for two films with five Best Picture nominations each. Steven Soderbergh received two Best Director nominations, for Erin Brockovich and Traffic - and received the Best Director Oscar (his first) for Traffic. Interweaving storylines and trademark editing techniques within the film about the drug war played a role in his win. (Between 1950 and 1974, Academy rules prevented two directing nominations for one individual in the same year. In 1974 Francis Ford Coppola had two films in the Best Picture category, The Conversation and The Godfather Part II and won Best Director for the latter.) The effect of having two nominations didn't cancel him out. Previously, Soderbergh also received an Oscar nomination for Best Original Screenplay for sex, lies, and videotape (1989). [Soderbergh is only the third in history -- to receive two Best Director nominations in the same year. The honor of receiving two directorship nominations had also occurred for Michael Curtiz (who lost for both), for Angels with Dirty Faces (1938) and Four Daughters (1938), and for Clarence Brown, for Romance (1929/30) and Anna Christie (1929/30) .] Of the five Best Picture nominees, only Chocolat's Swedish-born director Lasse Hallstrom did not receive a Best Director nomination. (Chocolat was Hallstrom's follow-up film to The Cider House Rules (1999)). And Best Director nominee Stephen Daldry's film (his first), Billy Elliot (with a total of only three nominations) was overlooked in the Best Picture category. Soderbergh's Best Director challengers included the following: Ang Lee for Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (with his nomination, Ang Lee became the third non-white director ever nominated - the others occurred in 1965 and 1991) British stage director Stephen Daldry for his debut British film Billy Elliot, about a young boy from a poor English coal mining family in the mid 1980s (during a disruptive miners' strike) who rejected boxing for ballet Britisher and two-time nominee Ridley Scott for Gladiator. Scott was the only director among the Best Director nominees who had a previous nomination, for Thelma & Louise (1991). In the competition for Best Actor and Best Actress, the ten performers ranged from box-office superstars (with numerous nominations and Oscars) to virtual unknowns. New Zealand-born Russell Crowe was the Best Actor Oscar winner (his second nomination in a row and first win) in Gladiator, as courageous, brawny and favored General Maximus Decimus Meridius (also known as "The Spaniard" when he becomes a fearless gladiator for the Roman Colosseum), who is resented by the Emperor's treacherous son and exiled. [Crowe's first nomination was for Best Actor for his role as a tobacco industry whistle-blower in The Insider (1999).] The other Best Actor nominees were: Tom Hanks (with his fifth nomination and two past Best Actor wins for Philadelphia (1993) and Forrest Gump (1994)) as sole Fed Express plane survivor Chuck Noland in Robert Zemeckis' Cast Away, a man stranded for four years on a Pacific island, a la Robinson Crusoe, with a volleyball dubbed Wilson as his only companion. [If Hanks had won the Oscar this year, he would have become the first male actor to win three Best Actor trophies. Previously, Hanks lost the Best Actor Oscar race with his nominations for Big (1988) and Saving Private Ryan (1998).] Spanish actor Javier Bardem (with his first nomination), who played gay, exiled Cuban poet and novelist Reinaldo Arenas, who smuggled his prose and himself out of Cuba to avoid Castro's imprisonment in director Julian ("Basquiat") Schnabel's Before Night Falls. (The film was based upon the poet's posthumous 1993 autobiographical memoirs) Ed Harris (his third nomination after two Best Supporting Actor nominations for Apollo 13 (1995) and The Truman Show (1998)) as the drinking, brawling American abstract expressionist artist-painter Jackson Pollock in Pollock (Harris' own directorial debut film!) Australian actor Geoffrey Rush (his third nomination with one past win) as the infamous, controversial, impious late 18th century artist and French novelist Marquis de Sade, a tortured Charenton Asylum for the Insane patient in director Philip Kaufman's Quills (adapted by Doug Wright from his 1995 play). Rush had won Best Actor for Shine (1996) and was Best Supporting Actor-nominated for Shakespeare in Love (1998). Best Actress nominees included three single mothers and one drugged out widow. Thirty-three year-old box office queen Julia Roberts (with her third nomination) received her first Oscar for her role as the real-life Erin Brockovich - a twice-divorced, unemployed, cleavage-enhanced mother of three, and a self-righteous legal researcher who becomes a badgering, environmental activist against a major California utility company. Roberts had a previous Best Supporting Actress nomination for Steel Magnolias (1989) and a Best Actress nomination the next year for Pretty Woman (1990). The other Best Actress nominees included: Laura Linney (with her first nomination) as upstate New York single mother Sammy Prescott, a loyal sister to her wayward, drifter brother in the small, independent-style film You Can Count on Me Ellen Burstyn (with her sixth nomination and one past Oscar win), as Sara Goldfarb, a retired, lonely, TV-addicted mother/widow in another independent film, Darren Aronofsky's powerful drama about drug addiction (diet pills and heroin) Requiem for a Dream. Burstyn had previously won Best Actress for Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974). Juliette Binoche (with her second nomination and one past win) as single mother Vianne Rocher, the mysterious and beautiful owner of a sinfully-rich chocolate/pastry shop who charms and mystifies Lansquenet, a small and conservative French town in the late 50s in Chocolat. Binoche's previous Oscar win was Best Supporting Actress for The English Patient (1996). Joan Allen (her third nomination after two Best Supporting Actress nominations for Nixon (1995) and The Crucible (1996)) for her performance as Senator Laine Hanson - the first female vice presidential appointee who comes under political scrutiny by Republican congressmen (led by a vicious Gary Oldman) for alleged sexual misconduct during her college days, in director Rod Lurie's political thriller The Contender Both Oscar winners in the supporting actor and actress categories were first-time nominees. The winner in the Best Supporting Actor category was Puerto Rican Benicio Del Toro (with his first nomination) as conflicted, principled Mexican (Tijuana) policeman Javier Rodriguez in Traffic. [Del Toro joins Robert De Niro as one of the few actors honored for an almost entirely foreign-language performance in an American film - a third of the film was in Spanish. De Niro won for The Godfather: Part II (1974) , a part that was mostly in Italian/Sicilian.] The other Best Supporting Actor nominees included: Jeff Bridges (with his fourth nomination) as jovial, manipulative and astute Democratic President Jackson Evans who appoints Allen as a replacement for his late vice president in The Contender. Bridges' previous nominations included two Best Supporting Actor nominations for The Last Picture Show (1971) and Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974), and a Best Actor nomination for Starman (1984)) Willem Dafoe (with his second nomination - his first was for Best Supporting Actor for Platoon (1986)) as Max Schreck, a sinister actor who will act as the vampire in German director F. W. Murnau's legendary, expressionistic horror classic Nosferatu (1922) in director Elias Merhige's thriller Shadow of the Vampire Albert Finney (with his fifth nomination, after four unsuccessful Best Actor nominations) as Ed Masry - a gruff, but patient and grandfatherly Los Angeles trial lawyer in the small firm of Masry and Vitito in Erin Brockovich. Finney's previous nominations were four Best Actor nominations for Tom Jones (1963), Murder on the Orient Express (1974), The Dresser (1983), and Under the Volcano (1984) Joaquin Phoenix (with his first nomination) as Commodus - the aging Emperor Marcus Aurelius' (Richard Harris) scheming, arrogant son and evil heir in Gladiator In a surprise upset, Marcia Gay Harden (with her first nomination) won the Best Supporting Actress award as Lee Krasner, the nasal Brooklyn-accented, long-suffering wife/painter of the alcoholic title character in Ed Harris' independent film Pollock. [Talk of the supposed "M"-named Supporting-Actress curse surfaced again with Harden's win - three other Best Supporting Actress winners with M names (Mira Sorvino, Marisa Tomei, and Mercedes Ruehl) have all but disappeared from quality films.] Other nominees for Best Supporting Actress included: Judi Dench (with her third nomination and one past win) as Armande Voizin, a cranky and stubborn woman who seeks a reunion with her grandson (and rents her dusty, unused pastry shop to Binoche) in Chocolat. Dench was previously nominated as Best Actress for Mrs. Brown (1997), and received the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for Shakespeare in Love (1998). Kate Hudson (with her first nomination) as free-spirited, curly-haired "band-aid" 70s rock groupie Penny Lane for a band named Stillwater in Cameron Crowe's Almost Famous. [If Kate Hudson had won, she would have joined a very small and elite group of actors in families with multiple Oscar winners. Her mother, Goldie Hawn, won Best Supporting Actress for Cactus Flower (1969) and was nominated as Best Actress for Private Benjamin (1980). Among other Oscar families, there were the Barrymores (Lionel and Ethel) and the Hustons (John and Anjelica).] Frances McDormand (with her third nomination and one past win) as overprotective, single parent Elaine Miller - the mother of 15 year old William, an early 70s teenage rock journalist in Almost Famous. McDormand had previously been nominated as Best Supporting Actress for Mississippi Burning (1988) and she won a Best Actress Oscar for Fargo (1996) . Julie Walters (with her second nomination after a Best Actress nomination for Educating Rita (1983)) as working-class dance prodigy Billy Elliot's stern but understanding dance teacher Mrs. Wilkinson in Billy Elliot. Jack Cardiff was one of two men presented with an Honorary Academy Award this year. The famed cinematographer-director began his work under directors Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, and won his sole Oscar for Black Narcissus (1947), and earned two more cinematography nominations for War and Peace (1956) and Fanny (1961). His other notable cinematographic work included The Red Shoes (1948), The Black Rose (1950), The African Queen (1951) , The Barefoot Contessa (1954), Girl on a Motorcycle (1968), Death on the Nile (1978), Ghost Story (1981), and Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985). He was also an accomplished director, earning his sole directorial Oscar nomination for Sons and Lovers (1960). Also earning an Honorary Award was screenwriter Ernest Lehman, who was honored with four Oscar screenplay nominations for Sabrina (1954), Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966) and Hello, Dolly! (1969). Other notable screenplays by Lehman included: The King and I (1956) , Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), Sweet Smell of Success (1957) , and The Sound of Music (1965) . Oscar Snubs and Omissions: There were numerous omissions and overlooked actors/actresses: Michael Douglas as Robert Wakefield, the new US drug czar and head of the Office of National Drug Control Policy, and father of a teenaged drug-abusing daughter in Traffic, and for his role as Pittsburgh college professor Grady Tripp in Curtis Hanson's Wonder Boys Christian Bale as investment banker/serial killer Patrick Bateman in Mary Harron's American Psycho (with no nominations) Icelandic pop singer Bjork as almost-blind, Czechoslovakian immigrant, factory worker Selma who escapes her life in Washington State by dreaming of fantastic musical numbers in Lars von Trier's Dancer in the Dark (with only one nomination for Best Original Song) Sean Connery as the reclusive novelist William Forrester and Rob Brown as 16 year-old aspiring writer Jamal Wallace in Gus Van Sant's Finding Forrester Denzel Washington as black football coach Herman Boone in Remember the Titans Kerry Washington as Lanisha, a struggling Bronx teenager in Our Song a Best Picture nomination and a nod to Cameron Crowe as Best Director of Almost Famous (Crowe won the Oscar for Best Original Screenplay) Gary Oldman as Republican congressman Shelly Runyon in The Contender Marc Ruffalo for his role as Laura Linney's troubled brother Terry in You Can Count on Me Gillian Anderson as spurned New York socialite Lily Bart in director Terence Davies' The House of Mirth (with no nominations), an adaptation of Edith Wharton's 1905 novel Michelle Yeoh (as female warrior Yu Shu Lien), Chow Yun Fat (as veteran fighter Li Mu Bai), and Cheng Pei-pei (as bitter, heartless and treacherous arch-criminal Jade Fox) in the action martial arts epic Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Maggie Cheung as housewife Su Li-zhen in director Wong Kar-Wai's quiet dramatic romance In the Mood for Love (2000, HK) (aka Fa yeung nin wa) Elaine May as dim-witted cousin May Sloan in Woody Allen's Small Time Crooks Bruce Greenwood as a convincing JFK during the Cuban Missile Crisis in Thirteen Days Jim Broadbent as lyricist Sir William Gilbert (of Gilbert and Sullivan) in Topsy-Turvy Crouching Tiger was also slighted by not receiving a Best Visual Effects nomination. And High Fidelity lacked nominations in any of the major categories. Christopher Guest's mockumentary Best in Show about championship dog breeding/training was also completely ignored, as was one of the most popular plot-twisting films of all time, Christopher Nolan's breakout directorial effort Memento, with Guy Pearce's pivotal role as traumatized, tattooed amnesiac Leonard. The remarkable Chicken Run (2000), about an imprisoned group of egg-laying chickens plotting an escape - the first feature film from the British clay-animation studio Aardman Animations (famous for the Wallace and Gromit series) and DreamWorks, was denied a Best Picture nomination. This led to the creation of a new Oscar category beginning in 2001: Best Animated Feature Film.	Steven Soderbergh
For which king did Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester act as regent or protector?	Steven Soderbergh - Awards - IMDb Steven Soderbergh Showing all 29 wins and 76 nominations Academy Awards, USA For episode "The Quiet Room" Cannes Film Festival Jody Spilkoman (second assistant director) (plaque) Lynn Struiksma (second second assistant director) (plaque) Won a list of 25 people created 23 Mar 2011 a list of 40 people created 23 Jun 2011 a list of 39 people created 03 Dec 2011 a list of 30 people created 29 May 2014 a list of 28 people created 02 Apr 2015 IMDb Everywhere Find showtimes, watch trailers, browse photos, track your Watchlist and rate your favorite movies and TV shows on your phone or tablet!	i don't know
Who is 'Harry Potter's' schoolboy enemy?	Harry Potter’s Worst Enemies – EW.com Email Voldemort (Ralph Fiennes) In the new film, the dark wizard is poised to assume supreme power over the magical world (and the Muggle world, too). He just needs to kill that irksome Harry Potter — and he’s desperate to discover how. (The answer may reside in those mysterious objects known as the Deathly Hallows.) Now you see him, now you don’t Although he plays a central role in The Deathly Hallows — Part 2 (due July 15, 2011), Harry’s archenemy appears only sporadically in Part 1. And that, it seems, is what J.K. Rowling intended. ”She rather brilliantly rationed out her main villain,” says Jason Isaacs, who portrays Voldemort ally Lucius Malfoy (see below). ”You [slowly] realize that people you were scared of, like Malfoy, are nothing compared to [him].” Clothes make the villain Tom Felton, who plays Lucius’ son, Draco (see below), says there’s a stark contrast between the ”charming” Ralph Fiennes and his alter ego: ”I don’t know what’s more scary — him as Voldemort or him as a lovely gentleman [off camera] but dressed in that horrific fashion.” Severus Snape (Alan Rickman) Harry’s least favorite teacher since they first clashed in The Sorcerer’s Stone, Snape is now second only to Voldemort on Harry’s enemies list after he killed Hogwarts headmaster Albus Dumbledore in The Half-Blood Prince. Method to his meanness ”It took me a few years to even muster up the courage to speak to Alan, because, uh, he really lives the part of Snape,” says Felton. ”Alan definitely had his own type of villainy about him.” Snape is cuddly? ”Alan’s so misunderstood,” says Helena Bonham Carter, who plays fellow baddie Bellatrix Lestrange (see below). ”People think he’s very like Snape. I used to find him forbidding before I knew him, and now he’s all soft and cuddly and adorable.” Acting with him, though, presented its own set of challenges. ”I did have trouble keeping a straight face,” she says. ”Luckily, he was patient with me just laughing in his face.” Bellatrix Lestrange (Helena Bonham Carter) After escaping Azkaban prison in The Order of the Phoenix, Bellatrix promptly murdered Harry’s godfather, Sirius Black (Gary Oldman). And in The Half-Blood Prince, she gleefully wreaked havoc on Hogwarts — and torched Hagrid’s hut! If that wasn’t dark and wicked enough, Bonham Carter notes, ”she’s totally besotted by Voldemort.” Substitute witch Bonham Carter wasn’t supposed to play Bellatrix, but stepped in when Helen McCrory (The Queen) had to bow out. (McCrory was later cast as Bellatrix’s sister, Narcissa Malfoy.) ”There wasn’t a huge amount on the page,” recalls Bonham Carter of Bellatrix’s first appearance in The Order of the Phoenix, ”but I remember getting this message from J.K. Rowling saying the character is going to be really important in the last [film].” Action hero In The Deathly Hallows — Part 1, Bellatrix duels with some fellow Death Eaters. ”My wand becomes a whip,” she says. ”I’ve never been tempted to do an action film. It’s really good fun.” Trick-or-treat star ”Apparently I’m in the top five Halloween costumes for two characters: Bellatrix and the Red Queen [from this year’s Alice in Wonderland],” says Bonham Carter, who kept Bellatrix’s false teeth. ”That’s a real accolade.” Draco Malfoy (Tom Felton) The son of a (now-disgraced) disciple of Voldemort, Draco has been raised from birth to loathe Harry and everything he stands for. From the day they met in The Sorcerer’s Stone, Draco tried to make Harry’s life miserable. But things changed after Draco allowed Bellatrix and her fellow Death Eaters to attack his school in The Half-Blood Prince. ”He’s an exile,” says Felton, ”no longer welcome at Hogwarts.” Regrets, he has a few In The Deathly Hallows — Part 1, Harry breaks into Malfoy Manor, which has been taken over by Voldemort. ”When [Draco] sees Harry again, after being surrounded by all that evil,” says Felton, ”he realizes he’s actually been fighting on the wrong side. But of course his hands are tied.” It takes a coven Growing up on a movie set could have been tricky. But Felton says ”the villains have really been taking ultimate care of me. Jason [Isaacs] has been very paternal, and Alan [Rickman] and Ralph [Fiennes] have been very kind with their time.” Lucius Malfoy (Jason Isaacs) In The Chamber of Secrets, Lucius plotted to bring back Voldemort; by The Order of the Phoenix, he’d been captured after attacking Harry and his pals in the Ministry of Magic. Newly sprung from Azkaban prison in The Deathly Hallows — Part 1, Isaacs explains, ”Lucius has gone from being the most entitled, obnoxious, racist pig to a broken, emasculated shadow of a man.” If looks could kill ”Prison was not kind to [Lucius],” says Isaacs. ”He took great pride in his hair and appearance, and [now] he looks like he’s been run over by a tractor.” Good company ”Since we’re surrounded by this kind of roll call of actors,” says Isaacs of his celebrated Potter costars, ”we’re all chewing the scenery because we know we have to just to get your attention.” Wormtail (Timothy Spall) Peter ”Wormtail” Pettigrew sold out Harry’s parents to Voldemort. He then transformed into Ron’s pet rat until he was discovered in The Prisoner of Azkaban. He’s since served at Voldemort’s side. Fate postponed? (SPOILER ALERT!) According to Rowling’s last novel, Wormtail should meet his end by the climax of The Deathly Hallows — Part 1, but he doesn’t. Will he die in Part 2? ”I can’t discuss it,” Spall says. ”I don’t want Warner Bros. putting me in Azkaban.” Scabior (Nick Moran) The newest Potter villain is an Azkaban ex-con heading a crew of Snatchers for the Death Eater-led Ministry of Magic. ”It’s all very reminiscent of Germany in the 1930s,” says Moran (Lock, Stock & Two Smoking Barrels). Making the cut Some of Scabior’s darkest moments were edited out. ”I give Ron Weasley a proper kicking and call him Ginger, ” says Moran. ”Then I sniff Hermione and say, ‘You’re going to be my favorite.’ If you take the wands out, it’s something out of an Eli Roth movie.’ The Rest of The Worst Pius Thickness (Guy Henry) The new Minister of Magic is also a lapdog of You-Know-Who. Albert Runcorn (David O’Hara) A Ministry of Magic lackey tasked with rounding up Muggle-born wizards. Dolores Umbridge (Imelda Staunton) The pink-clad authoritarian survived an attack by centaurs at the end of The Order of the Phoenix; now she’s thriving as a Ministry inquisitor. Yaxley (Peter Mullan) A gruff Death Eater who works with Umbridge. Narcissa Malfoy (Helen McCrory) Bellatrix’s sister and Draco’s mum. Fenrir Greyback (David Legeno) The werewolf Snatcher bit Ron’s brother Bill. Show Full Article	Draco Malfoy
Which spirit is used to make 'Sauce a la Normandie'?	Harry Potter And The Half Blood Prince (2009) Robbie Coltrane Review This is one of the most successful adaptations to date, albeit clocking in at over two-and-a-half-hours. Teenage angst is the order of the day at Hogwarts as the kids look upon each other in a whole new light. If the opening movies were in the tone of Chris Columbus's family fare, then the latest are more like 90210 Meets Sabrinia The Teenage Witch: The Movie. It's been just a few weeks since Harry witnessed the demise of his godfather, Sirius Black, and he's wishing away the summer months whilst traveling on random trains. Soon enough Professor Dumbledore (Gambon) comes calling, taking Harry on a trip to meet Horace Slughorn (Broadbent), a teacher Dumbledore wishes to tempt back to Hogwarts. For Slughorn not only taught generations of wizards, including Harry's parents, but he also holds the key to killing Lord Voldemort once and for all. If only Dumbledore would tell Harry what that key is... Meanwhile, Severus Snape (Alan Rickman) appears to have shown his true colours during a meeting with Bellatrix LeStrange (Helena Bonham Carter) - Black's murderer - in which he swears to protect Harry's enemy, Draco Malfoy (Tom Felton), who has been charged with a very important, and very deadly, job. Despite being an inexperienced television director David Yates has a stronger grasp of what makes a good Potter movie than his vastly experienced predecessors. Less hung up about the particulars of the school year, Yates knows what makes a Potter movie work and happily cuts out anything that gets in the way, all the while blending special effects with the story rather than slapping them on top. The rapidly improving young cast continues to shine - Harry's tongue-in-cheek claim to be 'the chosen one' is delivered wth true comic timing for a change - as do the likes of the ever-reliable Rickman and Gambon, and of course Bonham Carter, but it's Jim Broadbent who steals the show, somehow creating a standout character in Horace Slughorn, despite existing in an already crowded realm. The closer the boy wizard gets to realising his destiny, the more confident the filmmaking. If the two-part finale continues on this trajectory, then the best is yet to come.	i don't know
Roger Fry, Vanessa Bell, and Duncan Grant were part of which English art movement in the 1920's and 30's?	The Art of Bloomsbury: Roger Fry, Vanessa Bell, and Duncan Grant: Amazon.co.uk: Richard Shone, James Beechey, Richard Morphet: 9780691095141: Books Product Description Review A magnificent new book. . . . ÝA¨ powerful combination of words and images. -- John Murray "The Bloomsbury Review" ÝAn¨ excellent catalogue. . . . Richard Shone and his contributing writers explain the ways in which the art that came out of the Bloomsbury circle. . . .introduced a dazzling new formal vocabulary to British art. -- Regina Marler "Los Angeles Times Book Review" Lucid essays illuminate the essence of Bloomsbury's three best painters. . . . The book's vibrant reproductions reveal the trio's shared devotion to rich color, strong pattern, and the sensuous joys of the physical world. -- Elle Though much has been written about various aspects of the Bloomsbury group, this book provides an important reassessment of their connection to the visual arts. . . . The copious illustrations, most in color, are splendid, and everything is thoroughly documented. -- Choice A catalog of beautiful color illustrations of all art objects in the exhibition is divided up chronologically and thematically, with each section accompanied by a short introductory essay. Highly recommended for all art libraries and academic libraries supporting programs in the arts. -- Library Journal Lucid essays illuminate the essence of Bloomsbury's three best painters. . . . The book's vibrant reproductions reveal the trio's shared devotion to rich color, strong pattern, and the sensuous joys of the physical world. -- "Elle A catalog of beautiful color illustrations of all art objects in the exhibition is divided up chronologically and thematically, with each section accompanied by a short introductory essay. Highly recommended for all art libraries and academic libraries supporting programs in the arts. -- "Library Journal Though much has been written about various aspects of the Bloomsbury group, this book provides an important reassessment of their connection to the visual arts. . . . The copious illustrations, most in color, are splendid, and everything is thoroughly documented. -- "Choice A magnificent new book. . . . [A] powerful combination of words and images.--John Murray "The Bloomsbury Review " [An] excellent catalogue. . . . Richard Shone and his contributing writers explain the ways in which the art that came out of the Bloomsbury circle. . . .introduced a dazzling new formal vocabulary to British art.--Regina Marler "Los Angeles Times Book Review " The lavishly illustrated catalogue for "The Art of Bloomsbury" . . . offers detailed and knowledgeable exegeses of works on show, convincingly correcting earlier errors in dating and titling and establishing it as the definitive text in the field.--Christopher Reid "CAA. Reviews " A magnificent new book. . . . [A] powerful combination of words and images. --John Murray "The Bloomsbury Review " [An] excellent catalogue. . . . Richard Shone and his contributing writers explain the ways in which the art that came out of the Bloomsbury circle. . . .introduced a dazzling new formal vocabulary to British art. --Regina Marler "Los Angeles Times Book Review " The lavishly illustrated catalogue for "The Art of Bloomsbury" . . . offers detailed and knowledgeable exegeses of works on show, convincingly correcting earlier errors in dating and titling and establishing it as the definitive text in the field. --Christopher Reid "CAA. Reviews " "The lavishly illustrated catalogue for "The Art of Bloomsbury" . . . offers detailed and knowledgeable exegeses of works on show, convincingly correcting earlier errors in dating and titling and establishing it as the definitive text in the field."--Christopher Reid, "CAA. Reviews" "A magnificent new book. . . . [A] powerful combination of words and images."--John Murray, The Bloomsbury Review "[An] excellent catalogue. . . . Richard Shone and his contributing writers explain the ways in which the art that came out of the Bloomsbury circle. . . .introduced a dazzling new formal vocabulary to British art."--Regina Marler, Los Angeles Times Book Review "Lucid essays illuminate the essence of Bloomsbury's three best painters. . . . The book's vibrant reproductions reveal the trio's shared devotion to rich color, strong pattern, and the sensuous joys of the physical world."--Elle "The lavishly illustrated catalogue for The Art of Bloomsbury . . . offers detailed and knowledgeable exegeses of works on show, convincingly correcting earlier errors in dating and titling and establishing it as the definitive text in the field."--Christopher Reid, CAA. Reviews "A catalog of beautiful color illustrations of all art objects in the exhibition is divided up chronologically and thematically, with each section accompanied by a short introductory essay. Highly recommended for all art libraries and academic libraries supporting programs in the arts."--Library Journal "Though much has been written about various aspects of the Bloomsbury group, this book provides an important reassessment of their connection to the visual arts. . . . The copious illustrations, most in color, are splendid, and everything is thoroughly documented."--Choice What Other Items Do Customers Buy After Viewing This Item?	Bloomsbury Group
Which group of mammals belong to the order, Chiroptera?	Bloomsbury Group Bloomsbury Group Adrian Stephen (1883 - 1948) Adrian Stephen (1883-1948) was a member of the Bloomsbury Group, an author and psychoanalyst, and the brother of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell. He and his wife became interested in the work of Sigm... David Garnett (1892 - 1981) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Spouse Rachel Marshall Angelica Bell Parents Edward Garnett (1868-1937) Constance Black (1861-1946) David Garnett (9 March 1892 – 17 February 1981) wa... Roger Fry (1866 - 1934) Roger Eliot Fry From: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Roger Eliot Fry (14 December 1866 – 9 September 1934) was an English artist and art critic, and a member of the Bloomsbury Group. Esta... history The Bloomsbury Group The Bloomsbury Group—or Bloomsbury Set—was an influential group of associated English writers, intellectuals, philosophers and artists,[1] the best known members of which included Virginia Woolf, John Maynard Keynes, E. M. Forster and Lytton Strachey. This loose collective of friends and relatives lived, worked or studied together near Bloomsbury, London, during the first half of the 20th century. According to Ian Ousby, "although its members denied being a group in any formal sense, they were united by an abiding belief in the importance of the arts". Their works and outlook deeply influenced literature, aesthetics, criticism, and economics as well as modern attitudes towards feminism, pacifism, and sexuality. Origins The male members of the Bloomsbury Group, except Duncan Grant, were educated at Cambridge at either Trinity or King’s College. Most of them, except Clive Bell and the Stephen brothers, were members of "the exclusive Cambridge society, the 'Apostles'". At Trinity in 1899 Lytton Strachey, Leonard Woolf, Saxon Sydney-Turner and Clive Bell became good friends with Thoby Stephen, and it was through Thoby and Adrian Stephen's sisters Vanessa and Virginia that the men met the women of Bloomsbury when they came down to London. In 1905 Vanessa began the "Friday Club" and Thoby ran "Thursday Evenings" which became the basis for the Bloomsbury Group, which to some "was really Cambridge in London". Thoby's premature death in 1906 brought them more firmly together and they became what is now known as the "Old Bloomsbury" group who met in earnest beginning in 1912. In the 1920s and 1930s the group shifted when the original members died and the next generation had reached adulthood. The Bloomsbury Group, mostly from upper middle-class professional families, formed part of "an intellectual aristocracy which could trace itself back to the Clapham Sect". It was an informal network of an influential group of artists, art critics, writers and an economist — many of whom lived in the West Central 1 district of London known as Bloomsbury. They were "spiritually" similar to the Clapham group who supported its members careers: "The Bloomsberries promoted one another's work and careers just as the original Claphamites did, as well as the intervening generations of their grandparents and parents." A historical feature of these friends and relations is that their close relationships all predated their fame as writers, artists, and thinkers. Members Leonard Woolf, essayist and non-fiction writer Virginia Woolf, fiction writer and essayist In addition to these ten, Leonard Woolf, in the 1960s, listed as 'Old Bloomsbury' Adrian and Karin Stephen, Saxon Sydney-Turner, and Molly MacCarthy, with Julian Bell, Quentin Bell and Angelica Bell, and David Garnett as later additions".[14] Except for Forster, who published three novels before the highly successful Howards End in 1910, the group were late developers. There were stable marriages and varied and complicated affairs among the individual members.Lytton Strachey[nb 1] and his cousin and lover Duncan Grant became close friends of the Stephens sisters, Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf. Duncan had affairs with David Garnett, Maynard Keynes, James Strachey, Vanessa Bell, and Adrian Stephen. Clive Bell married Vanessa in 1907, and Leonard Woolf returned from the Ceylon Civil Service to marry Virginia in 1912. Cambridge Apostle friendships brought into the group Desmond MacCarthy, his wife Molly, and E. M. Forster. In addition to Bloomsbury, other noted locations for Bloomsbury meeting were Charleston Farmhouse,]where Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant moved in 1916 and Monk's House now owned by the National Trust, near Lewes in Sussex in Rodmell owned by Virginia and Leonard Woolf starting in 1919. Two members of the Bloomsbury Group are buried in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground, Cambridge: Sir Desmond and Lady Molly McCarthy; there are also another nine members of the Cambridge Apostles buried in the same cemetery,one of whom is the philosopher G.E. Moore who was a great influence on the Bloomsbury Group. Others Much about Bloomsbury appears to be controversial, including its membership and name: indeed, some would maintain that "the three words 'the Bloomsbury group' have been so much used as to have become almost unusable". Close friends, brothers, sisters, and even sometimes partners of the friends were not necessarily members of Bloomsbury: Keynes’s wife Lydia Lopokova was only reluctantly accepted into the group, and there were certainly "writers who were at some time close friends of Virginia Woolf, but who were distinctly not 'Bloomsbury': T. S. Eliot, Katherine Mansfield, Hugh Walpole". Another is Vita Sackville-West, who became "Hogarth Press's best-selling author". Members cited in "other lists might include Ottoline Morrell, or Dora Carrington, or James and Alix Strachey". Shared ideas The lives and works of the group members show an overlapping, interconnected similarity of ideas and attitudes that helped to keep the friends and relatives together, reflecting in large part the influence of G. E. Moore: "the essence of what Bloomsbury drew from Moore is contained in his statement that 'one's prime objects in life were love, the creation and enjoyment of aesthetic experience and the pursuit of knowledge'". Philosophy and ethics Through the Apostles they also encountered the analytic philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell who were revolutionizing British philosophy at the start of the 20th century. Distinguishing between ends and means was a commonplace of ethics, but what made Moore's Principia Ethica (1903) so important for the philosophical basis of Bloomsbury thought was Moore's conception of intrinsic worth as distinct from instrumental value. As with the distinction between love (an intrinsic state) and monogamy (a behavior), Moore's differentiation between intrinsic and instrumental value allowed the Bloomsburies to maintain an ethical high-ground based on intrinsic merit, independent of, and without reference to, the consequences of their actions. For Moore, intrinsic value depended on an indeterminable intuition of good and a concept of complex states of mind whose worth as a whole was not proportionate to the sum of its parts. For both Moore and Bloomsbury, the greatest ethic goods were "the importance of personal relationships and the private life", as well as aesthetic appreciation: "art for art's sake". Rejection of bourgeois habits Bloomsbury reacted against current social rituals, "the bourgeois habits ... the conventions of Victorian life" with their emphasis on public achievement, in favour of a more informal and private focus on personal relationships and individual pleasure. E. M. Forster for example approved of "the decay of smartness and fashion as factors, and the growth of the idea of enjoyment", and asserted that "if I had to choose between betraying my country and betraying my friend, I hope I should have the guts to betray my country". The Group "believed in pleasure ... They tried to get the maximum of pleasure out of their personal relations. If this meant triangles or more complicated geometric figures, well then, one accepted that too".Yet at the same time, they shared a sophisticated, civilized, and highly articulated ideal of pleasure. As Virginia Woolf put it, their "triumph is in having worked out a view of life which was not by any means corrupt or sinister or merely intellectual; rather ascetic and austere indeed; which still holds, and keeps them dining together, and staying together, after 20 years". Politics Politically, Bloomsbury held mainly left-liberal stances (opposed to militarism, for example); but its "clubs and meetings were not activist, like the political organisations to which many of Bloomsbury's members also belonged", and they would be criticised for that by their 1930s successors, who by contrast were "heavily touched by the politics which Bloomsbury had rejected". The campaign for women’s suffrage added to the controversial nature of Bloomsbury, as Virginia Woolf represented the group in the fictional The Years and Night and Day works about the suffrage movement. Art Roger Fry joined the group in 1910. His post-impressionist exhibitions of 1910 and 1912 involved Bloomsbury in a second revolution following on the Cambridge philosophical one. This time the Bloomsbury painters were much involved and influenced. Fry and other Bloomsbury artists rejected the traditional distinction between fine and decorative art. These "Bloomsbury assumptions" are reflected in members' criticisms of materialistic realism in painting and fiction, influenced above all by Clive Bell's "concept of 'Significant Form', which separated and elevated the concept of form above content in works of art": it has been suggested that, with their "focus on form ...Bell's ideas have come to stand in for, perhaps too much so, the aesthetic principles of the Bloomsbury Group". The establishment's hostility to post-impressionism made Bloomsbury controversial, and controversial they have remained. Clive Bell polemicized[clarification needed] post-impressionism in his widely read book Art (1914), basing his aesthetics partly on Roger Fry’s art criticism and G. E. Moore's moral philosophy; and as the war came he argued that "in these days of storm and darkness, it seemed right that at the shrine of civilization - in Bloomsbury, I mean - the lamp should be tended assiduously". World War I Old Bloomsbury’s development was inevitably impacted on, along with just about everything else in modernist culture, by the First World War: indeed, "the small world of Bloomsbury was later said by some on its outskirts to have been irretrivably shattered", though in fact its friendships "survived the upheavals and dislocations of war, in many ways were even strengthened by them". Most but not all of them were conscientious objectors, which of course added to the group’s controversies. Politically the members of Bloomsbury had liberalism and socialism leanings. Though the war dispersed Old Bloomsbury, the individuals continued to develop their careers. E. M. Forster followed his successful novels with Maurice which he could not publish because it treated homosexuality untragically. In 1915 Virginia Woolf brought out her first novel, The Voyage Out. And in 1917 the Woolfs founded their Hogarth Press, which would publish T. S. Eliot, Katherine Mansfield, and many others including Virginia herself along with the standard English translations of Freud. Then in 1918 Lytton Strachey published his critique of Victorianism in the shape of four ironic biographies in Eminent Victorians, which added to the arguments about Bloomsbury that continue to this day, and "brought him the triumph he had always longed for ... The book was a sensation". The following year came J. M. Keynes’s influential attack the next year on the Versailles Peace Treaty: "The Economic Consequences of the Peace immediately established Maynard as an economist of international eminence". Later Bloomsbury The 1920s were in a number of ways the blooming of Bloomsbury. Virginia Woolf was writing and publishing her most widely read modernist novels and essays, E. M. Forster completed A Passage to India which remains the most highly regarded novel on British imperialism in India. Forster wrote no more novels but he became one of England’s most influential essayists. Duncan Grant, and then Vanessa Bell, had single-artist exhibitions. Lytton Strachey wrote his biographies of two Queens, Victoria then Elizabeth (and Essex). Desmond MacCarthy and Leonard Woolf engaged in friendly rivalry as literary editors, respectively of the New Statesman and The Nation and Athenaeum, thus fuelling animosities that saw Bloomsbury dominating the cultural scene. Roger Fry wrote and lectured widely on art; meanwhile, Clive Bell applied Bloomsbury values to his book Civilization (1928), which Leonard Woolf saw as limited and elitist, describing Clive as a "wonderful organiser of intellectual greyhound racing tracks". In the darkening 1930s, Bloomsbury began to die: "Bloomsbury itself was hardly any longer a focus". A year after publishing a collection of brief lives, Portraits in Miniature (1931),[citation needed] Lytton Strachey died;[40] shortly afterwards Carrington shot herself. Roger Fry, who had become England’s greatest art critic, died in 1934. Vanessa and Clive's eldest son, Julian Bell, was killed in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War. Virginia Woolf wrote Fry's biography, but with the coming of war again her mental instability recurred, and she drowned herself in 1941. In the previous decade she had become one of the century's most famous feminist writers with three more novels, and a series of essays including the moving late memoir "A Sketch of the Past". It was also in the 1930s that Desmond MacCarthy became perhaps the most widely read—and heard—literary critic with his columns in The Sunday Times and his broadcasts with the BBC. John Maynard Keynes's The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936) made him one of the century's most influential economists. He died in 1946 after being much involved in monetary negotiations with the United States. The diversity yet collectivity of Later Bloomsbury's ideas and achievements can be summed up in a series of credos that were done in 1938, the year of Munich. Virginia Woolf published her radical feminist polemic Three Guineas that shocked some of her fellow members including Keynes who had enjoyed the gentler A Room of One's Own (1929). Keynes read his famous but decidedly more conservative memoir My Early Beliefs to The Memoir Club. Clive Bell published an appeasement pamphlet (he later supported the war), and E. M. Forster wrote an early version of his famous essay "What I Believe" with its choice, still shocking for some, of personal relations over patriotism: his quiet assertion in the face of the increasingly totalitarian claims of both left and right that "personal relations ... love and loyalty to an individual can run counter to the claims of the State". Memoir Club In March 1920 Molly MacCarthy began the Memoir Club to help Desmond and herself write their memoirs; and also "for their friends to regroup after the war (with the proviso that they should always tell the truth)". It met until 1956 or 1964. Criticism If "the contempt or suspicion—the environment that a person or group creates around itself—is always a kind of alter ego, an essential and revealing part of the production", there is perhaps much to be learnt from the (extensive) criticism that the Bloomsbury Group aroused. Early complaints focused on a perceived cliquiness: "on personal mannerisms—the favourite phrases ('ex-quisitely civilized', and 'How simply too extraordinary!'), the incredulous, weirdly emphasised Strachey voice". After World War I, as the members of the Group "began to be famous, the execration increased, and the caricature of an idle, snobbish and self-congratulatory rentier class, promoting its own brand of high culture began to take shape" as Forster self-mockingly put it, "In came the nice fat dividends, up rose the lofty thoughts". The growing threats of the 1930s brought new criticism from younger writers of "what the last lot had done (Bloomsbury, Modernism, Eliot) in favour of what they thought of as urgent hard-hitting realism"; while "Wyndham Lewis's The Apes of God, which called Bloomsbury élitist, corrupt and talentless, caused a stir"[48] of its own. The most telling criticism, however, came perhaps from within the Group's own ranks, when on the eve of war Keynes gave a "nostalgic and disillusioned account of the pure sweet air of G. E. Moore, that belief in undisturbed individualism, that Utopianism based on a belief in human reasonableness and decency, that refusal to accept the idea of civilisation as 'a thin and precarious crust' ... Keynes's fond, elegiac repudiation of his "early beliefs", in the light of current affairs ("We completely misunderstood human nature, including our own")". More recent criticism comes from American philosopher Martha Nussbaum, quoted in 1999 as saying "I don't like anything that sets itself up as an in-group or an elite, whether it is the Bloomsbury group or Derrida" The Bloomsbury Group—or Bloomsbury Set—was an influential group of associated English writers, intellectuals, philosophers and artists,[1] the best known members of which included Virginia Woolf, John Maynard Keynes, E. M. Forster and Lytton Strachey. This loose collective of friends and relatives lived, worked or studied together near Bloomsbury, London, during the first half of the 20th century. According to Ian Ousby, "although its members denied being a group in any formal sense, they were united by an abiding belief in the importance of the arts".[2] Their works and outlook deeply influenced literature, aesthetics, criticism, and economics as well as modern attitudes towards feminism, pacifism, and sexuality.[3] Detailed overview of the better and lesser known members of the Bloomsbury Group Contents [hide] 1 Origins 2 Membership 2.1 Members 2.2 Others 3 Shared ideas 3.1 Philosophy and ethics 3.2 Rejection of bourgeois habits 3.3 Politics 3.4 Art 3.5 World War I 4 Later Bloomsbury 5 Memoir Club 6 Criticism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links Origins[edit] Left to right: Lady Ottoline Morrell, Maria Nys (neither members of Bloomsbury), Lytton Strachey, Duncan Grant, and Vanessa Bell The male members of the Bloomsbury Group, except Duncan Grant, were educated at Cambridge at either Trinity or King’s College. Most of them, except Clive Bell and the Stephen brothers, were members of "the exclusive Cambridge society, the 'Apostles'".[4][5] At Trinity in 1899 Lytton Strachey, Leonard Woolf, Saxon Sydney-Turner and Clive Bell became good friends with Thoby Stephen, and it was through Thoby and Adrian Stephen's sisters Vanessa and Virginia that the men met the women of Bloomsbury when they came down to London.[4][5] In 1905 Vanessa began the "Friday Club" and Thoby ran "Thursday Evenings" which became the basis for the Bloomsbury Group,[6] which to some "was really Cambridge in London".[4] Thoby's premature death in 1906 brought them more firmly together[5] and they became what is now known as the "Old Bloomsbury" group who met in earnest beginning in 1912. In the 1920s and 1930s the group shifted when the original members died and the next generation had reached adulthood.[7] Blue plaque, 51 Gordon Square, London The Bloomsbury Group, mostly from upper middle-class professional families, formed part of "an intellectual aristocracy which could trace itself back to the Clapham Sect".[4] It was an informal network[8][9] of an influential group of artists, art critics, writers and an economist — many of whom lived in the West Central 1 district of London known as Bloomsbury.[10] They were "spiritually" similar to the Clapham group who supported its members careers: "The Bloomsberries promoted one another's work and careers just as the original Claphamites did, as well as the intervening generations of their grandparents and parents."[11] A historical feature of these friends and relations is that their close relationships all predated their fame as writers, artists, and thinkers.[12] Membership[edit] Main article: List of Bloomsbury Group people Members[edit] The group had ten core members:[10] Clive Bell, art critic Vanessa Bell, Post-impressionist painter E.M. Forster, fiction writer Roger Fry, art critic and Post-impressionist painter Duncan Grant, Post-impressionist painter John Maynard Keynes, economist Desmond MacCarthy, literary journalist Lytton Strachey, biographer Leonard Woolf, essayist and non-fiction writer Virginia Woolf, fiction writer and essayist In addition to these ten, Leonard Woolf, in the 1960s, listed as 'Old Bloomsbury' Adrian and Karin Stephen, Saxon Sydney-Turner, and Molly MacCarthy, with Julian Bell, Quentin Bell and Angelica Bell, and David Garnett[13] as later additions".[14] Except for Forster, who published three novels before the highly successful Howards End in 1910, the group were late developers.[15] There were stable marriages and varied and complicated affairs among the individual members.[11] Lytton Strachey[nb 1] and his cousin and lover Duncan Grant[16] became close friends of the Stephens sisters, Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf. Duncan had affairs with David Garnett, Maynard Keynes, James Strachey, Vanessa Bell, and Adrian Stephen. Clive Bell married Vanessa in 1907, and Leonard Woolf returned from the Ceylon Civil Service to marry Virginia in 1912. Cambridge Apostle friendships brought into the group Desmond MacCarthy, his wife Molly, and E. M. Forster.[5] In addition to Bloomsbury, other noted locations for Bloomsbury meeting were Charleston Farmhouse,[nb 2]where Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant moved in 1916 and Monk's House now owned by the National Trust, near Lewes in Sussex [nb 3] in Rodmell owned by Virginia and Leonard Woolf starting in 1919.[17] Two members of the Bloomsbury Group are buried in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground, Cambridge: Sir Desmond and Lady Molly McCarthy; there are also another nine members of the Cambridge Apostles buried in the same cemetery,one of whom is the philosopher G.E. Moore who was a great influence on the Bloomsbury Group.[18][19] Others[edit] Much about Bloomsbury appears to be controversial, including its membership and name: indeed, some would maintain that "the three words 'the Bloomsbury group' have been so much used as to have become almost unusable".[20] Close friends, brothers, sisters, and even sometimes partners of the friends were not necessarily members of Bloomsbury: Keynes’s wife Lydia Lopokova was only reluctantly accepted into the group,[12] and there were certainly "writers who were at some time close friends of Virginia Woolf, but who were distinctly not 'Bloomsbury': T. S. Eliot, Katherine Mansfield, Hugh Walpole".[14] Another is Vita Sackville-West, who became "Hogarth Press's best-selling author".[21] Members cited in "other lists might include Ottoline Morrell, or Dora Carrington, or James and Alix Strachey".[14] Shared ideas[edit] The lives and works of the group members show an overlapping, interconnected similarity of ideas and attitudes that helped to keep the friends and relatives together, reflecting in large part the influence of G. E. Moore: "the essence of what Bloomsbury drew from Moore is contained in his statement that 'one's prime objects in life were love, the creation and enjoyment of aesthetic experience and the pursuit of knowledge'".[4] Philosophy and ethics[edit] Through the Apostles they also encountered the analytic philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell who were revolutionizing British philosophy at the start of the 20th century. Distinguishing between ends and means was a commonplace of ethics, but what made Moore's Principia Ethica (1903) so important for the philosophical basis of Bloomsbury thought was Moore's conception of intrinsic worth as distinct from instrumental value. As with the distinction between love (an intrinsic state) and monogamy (a behavior), Moore's differentiation between intrinsic and instrumental value allowed the Bloomsburies to maintain an ethical high-ground based on intrinsic merit, independent of, and without reference to, the consequences of their actions. For Moore, intrinsic value depended on an indeterminable intuition of good and a concept of complex states of mind whose worth as a whole was not proportionate to the sum of its parts. For both Moore and Bloomsbury, the greatest ethic goods were "the importance of personal relationships and the private life", as well as aesthetic appreciation: "art for art's sake".[22] Rejection of bourgeois habits[edit] Bloomsbury reacted against current social rituals, "the bourgeois habits ... the conventions of Victorian life"[23] with their emphasis on public achievement, in favour of a more informal and private focus on personal relationships and individual pleasure. E. M. Forster for example approved of "the decay of smartness and fashion as factors, and the growth of the idea of enjoyment",[24] and asserted that "if I had to choose between betraying my country and betraying my friend, I hope I should have the guts to betray my country".[25] The Group "believed in pleasure ... They tried to get the maximum of pleasure out of their personal relations. If this meant triangles or more complicated geometric figures, well then, one accepted that too".[26] Yet at the same time, they shared a sophisticated, civilized, and highly articulated ideal of pleasure. As Virginia Woolf put it, their "triumph is in having worked out a view of life which was not by any means corrupt or sinister or merely intellectual; rather ascetic and austere indeed; which still holds, and keeps them dining together, and staying together, after 20 years".[27] Politics[edit] Politically, Bloomsbury held mainly left-liberal stances (opposed to militarism, for example); but its "clubs and meetings were not activist, like the political organisations to which many of Bloomsbury's members also belonged", and they would be criticised for that by their 1930s successors, who by contrast were "heavily touched by the politics which Bloomsbury had rejected".[28] The campaign for women’s suffrage added to the controversial nature of Bloomsbury, as Virginia Woolf represented the group in the fictional The Years and Night and Day works about the suffrage movement.[29] Art[edit] Roger Fry joined the group in 1910. His post-impressionist exhibitions of 1910 and 1912 involved Bloomsbury in a second revolution following on the Cambridge philosophical one. This time the Bloomsbury painters were much involved and influenced.[15][nb 4] Fry and other Bloomsbury artists rejected the traditional distinction between fine and decorative art.[30][nb 1] These "Bloomsbury assumptions" are reflected in members' criticisms of materialistic realism in painting and fiction, influenced above all by Clive Bell's "concept of 'Significant Form', which separated and elevated the concept of form above content in works of art":[31] it has been suggested that, with their "focus on form ...Bell's ideas have come to stand in for, perhaps too much so, the aesthetic principles of the Bloomsbury Group".[32] The establishment's hostility to post-impressionism made Bloomsbury controversial, and controversial they have remained. Clive Bell polemicized[clarification needed] post-impressionism in his widely read book Art (1914), basing his aesthetics partly on Roger Fry’s art criticism and G. E. Moore's moral philosophy; and as the war came he argued that "in these days of storm and darkness, it seemed right that at the shrine of civilization - in Bloomsbury, I mean - the lamp should be tended assiduously".[33] World War I[edit] Old Bloomsbury’s development was inevitably impacted on, along with just about everything else in modernist culture, by the First World War: indeed, "the small world of Bloomsbury was later said by some on its outskirts to have been irretrivably shattered", though in fact its friendships "survived the upheavals and dislocations of war, in many ways were even strengthened by them".[34] Most but not all of them were conscientious objectors, which of course added to the group’s controversies. Politically the members of Bloomsbury had liberalism and socialism leanings.[35] Though the war dispersed Old Bloomsbury, the individuals continued to develop their careers. E. M. Forster followed his successful novels with Maurice which he could not publish because it treated homosexuality untragically. In 1915 Virginia Woolf brought out her first novel, The Voyage Out. And in 1917 the Woolfs founded their Hogarth Press, which would publish T. S. Eliot, Katherine Mansfield, and many others including Virginia herself along with the standard English translations of Freud. Then in 1918 Lytton Strachey published his critique of Victorianism in the shape of four ironic biographies in Eminent Victorians, which added to the arguments about Bloomsbury that continue to this day, and "brought him the triumph he had always longed for ... The book was a sensation".[36] The following year came J. M. Keynes’s influential attack the next year on the Versailles Peace Treaty: "The Economic Consequences of the Peace immediately established Maynard as an economist of international eminence".[37] Later Bloomsbury[edit] The 1920s were in a number of ways the blooming of Bloomsbury. Virginia Woolf was writing and publishing her most widely read modernist novels and essays, E. M. Forster completed A Passage to India which remains the most highly regarded novel on British imperialism in India. Forster wrote no more novels but he became one of England’s most influential essayists. Duncan Grant, and then Vanessa Bell, had single-artist exhibitions. Lytton Strachey wrote his biographies of two Queens, Victoria then Elizabeth (and Essex). Desmond MacCarthy and Leonard Woolf engaged in friendly rivalry as literary editors, respectively of the New Statesman and The Nation and Athenaeum, thus fuelling animosities that saw Bloomsbury dominating the cultural scene. Roger Fry wrote and lectured widely on art; meanwhile, Clive Bell applied Bloomsbury values to his book Civilization (1928), which Leonard Woolf saw as limited and elitist, describing Clive as a "wonderful organiser of intellectual greyhound racing tracks".[38] In the darkening 1930s, Bloomsbury began to die: "Bloomsbury itself was hardly any longer a focus".[39] A year after publishing a collection of brief lives, Portraits in Miniature (1931),[citation needed] Lytton Strachey died;[40] shortly afterwards Carrington shot herself. Roger Fry, who had become England’s greatest art critic, died in 1934.[40] Vanessa and Clive's eldest son, Julian Bell, was killed in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War.[6] Virginia Woolf wrote Fry's biography, but with the coming of war again her mental instability recurred, and she drowned herself in 1941.[40] In the previous decade she had become one of the century's most famous feminist writers with three more novels, and a series of essays including the moving late memoir "A Sketch of the Past". It was also in the 1930s that Desmond MacCarthy became perhaps the most widely read—and heard—literary critic with his columns in The Sunday Times and his broadcasts with the BBC. John Maynard Keynes's The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936) made him one of the century's most influential economists. He died in 1946 after being much involved in monetary negotiations with the United States.[citation needed] The diversity yet collectivity of Later Bloomsbury's ideas and achievements can be summed up in a series of credos that were done in 1938, the year of Munich. Virginia Woolf published her radical feminist polemic Three Guineas that shocked some of her fellow members including Keynes who had enjoyed the gentler A Room of One's Own (1929). Keynes read his famous but decidedly more conservative memoir My Early Beliefs to The Memoir Club. Clive Bell published an appeasement pamphlet (he later supported the war), and E. M. Forster wrote an early version of his famous essay "What I Believe" with its choice, still shocking for some, of personal relations over patriotism: his quiet assertion in the face of the increasingly totalitarian claims of both left and right that "personal relations ... love and loyalty to an individual can run counter to the claims of the State".[41] Memoir Club[edit] In March 1920 Molly MacCarthy began the Memoir Club to help Desmond and herself write their memoirs; and also "for their friends to regroup after the war (with the proviso that they should always tell the truth)".[42] It met until 1956[43] or 1964.[44] Criticism[edit] If "the contempt or suspicion—the environment that a person or group creates around itself—is always a kind of alter ego, an essential and revealing part of the production",[45] there is perhaps much to be learnt from the (extensive) criticism that the Bloomsbury Group aroused. Early complaints focused on a perceived cliquiness: "on personal mannerisms—the favourite phrases ('ex-quisitely civilized', and 'How simply too extraordinary!'), the incredulous, weirdly emphasised Strachey voice".[46] After World War I, as the members of the Group "began to be famous, the execration increased, and the caricature of an idle, snobbish and self-congratulatory rentier class, promoting its own brand of high culture began to take shape":[33] as Forster self-mockingly put it, "In came the nice fat dividends, up rose the lofty thoughts".[47] The growing threats of the 1930s brought new criticism from younger writers of "what the last lot had done (Bloomsbury, Modernism, Eliot) in favour of what they thought of as urgent hard-hitting realism"; while "Wyndham Lewis's The Apes of God, which called Bloomsbury élitist, corrupt and talentless, caused a stir"[48] of its own. The most telling criticism, however, came perhaps from within the Group's own ranks, when on the eve of war Keynes gave a "nostalgic and disillusioned account of the pure sweet air of G. E. Moore, that belief in undisturbed individualism, that Utopianism based on a belief in human reasonableness and decency, that refusal to accept the idea of civilisation as 'a thin and precarious crust' ... Keynes's fond, elegiac repudiation of his "early beliefs", in the light of current affairs ("We completely misunderstood human nature, including our own")".[49] More recent criticism comes from American philosopher Martha Nussbaum, quoted in 1999 as saying "I don't like anything that sets itself up as an in-group or an elite, whether it is the Bloomsbury group or Derrida" Add profiles to this project Add collaborators to this project Add Profiles	i don't know
What name is given to the edge of a flag nearest the flagpole?	An emblem or other device displayed on a flag, generally in the fly. BANNER A rectangular flag used by a king, prince, duke, or other noble. The coat of arms of the owner covers the banner's entire surface. The term is also loosely applied to a national flag (e.g., the "star-Spangkled Banner") and is today synonymous with flag. BOW The foward section of a ship. CANTON The four quarters of a flag are named cantons, especially the upper quarter of the hoist, that is, the upper left hand corner of the flag; the canton is sometimes also called the union COAT OF ARMS The armorial and/or other heraldic badges of an owner displayed on a cloak or shield. COLORS The national and regimental or armorial flags carried by dismounted organizations (such as a color guard). Hence, the national color for Army and Marine Corps regiments is the U.S. flag. The term also applies to the national ensign flown aboard a naval vessel. ENSIGN A special flag based on a country's national flag and used exclusively on naval ships or merchant ships. The civil ensign is the merchant marine's flag. The U.S. flag serves as a national flag, naval ensign, and civil ensign. Great Britain, on the other hand, has a white ensign for naval ships, a red ensign for merchant ships, and a blue ensign for merchant ships commanded by an officer in the Naval Reserve. Great Britain also has an ensign for the Royal Air Force and one for airports. ESTOILE A six-pointed, usually wavy, star. FIELD The ground of each division of a flag. FLY The edge of a flag farthest from the staff. FOREMAST The mast nearest the bow of a sailing ship. GARRISON A military installation, such as a fort. Also, the troops stationed there. GARRISON FLAG A large U.S. flag flown at forts. During the war of 1812, garrison flags were 20 feet by 40 feet. The Star-Spangled Banner measured 30 feet by 42 feet. HALYARD The rope by which a flag is raised on a flagpole. HOIST (N.) The edge of a flag nearest the staff. (vb.) To raise a flag. HOIST ROPE The rope on which a flag is flown on a flagpole. JACK A flag flown at the bow of warships when anchored. Great Britain's jack - the British Union Jack - combines the Crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick on a blue field. The U.S. Union Jack carrries 50 white stars on a blue field (the canton of the Naval Ensign). According to U.S. Navy reulations, the U.S. Union Jack should be the same size as the canton of the Naval Ensign flown at the ships stern. MAINMAST The principal mast of a sailing ship. MULLET A five-pointed star, representative of a knight's spur. SALTINE in the days of sail, a naval ship that fought in the line of battle. STAFF A small pole from which a flag is flown. STANDARD A flag which is colored according to the owner's livery and displays the owner's badge or badges instead of his arms. The term "national standard" is used to describe the national and regimental flags carried by mounted or motorized organizations. STERN The rear of a ship. STORM FLAG The U.S. flag which is flown at military installations during inclement weather. It is smaller than the U.S. flag that is usually flown at the installation. TASK FORCE A group of naval ships such as a squadron, several squadrons, or a fleet with a specific military objective to accomplish. UNION A flag or device of a flag symbolizing the union of countries or states. Also, the canton of (1) the U.S. flag, (2) British ensigns, and (3) British Commonwealth flags that are based on the British ensigns.	Hoist
Tahiti is part of which island group?	Description and dimensions \| Ministry for Culture and Heritage Get the full story Description and dimensions The New Zealand Flag has a royal blue background with a Union Jack in the first quarter, and four five-pointed red stars with white borders on the fly. The New Zealand Flag. The current New Zealand Flag has a deep blue background. In the top left corner, filling half the left side, is the Union Jack design showing red and white crosses on a blue background. The cross in the forefront is red on a white background. The two red and white crosses in the background are diagonal, with the red cross being superimposed over the white one. On the right half of the flag are four stars in the formation of the Southern Cross constellation. Each star is red with a white border, and has five points. Admiral Sir Albert Hastings Markham, KCB designed the New Zealand Flag. Read a Wikipedia profile of Admiral Markham here. Original description of the design The notice that appeared in the New Zealand Gazette on 27 June 1902 gave this technical description of the stars and their positions on the New Zealand Flag: The centres of the stars forming the long limb of the cross shall be on a vertical line on the fly, midway between the Union Jack and the outer edge of the fly, and equidistant from its upper and lower edges; and the distance apart of the centres of the stars shall be equal to thirty-six sixtieths the hoist of the ensign. The centres of the stars forming the short limb of the cross shall be on a line intersecting the vertical limb at an angle of 82 therewith, and rising from near the lower fly corner of the Union Jack towards the upper fly corner of the ensign, its point of intersection with the vertical line being distant from the centre of the uppermost star of the cross twelve-sixtieths of the hoist of the ensign. The distance of the centre of the star nearest the outer edge of the fly from the point of intersection shall be equal to twelve-sixtieths of the hoist of the ensign, and the distance of the centre of the star nearest the Union Jack from the point of intersection shall be equal to fourteen-sixtieths of the hoist of the ensign. The star nearest the fly edge of the ensign shall measure five-sixtieths, the star at the top of the cross and that nearest to the Union Jack shall each measure six-sixtieths, and the star at the bottom of the cross shall measure seven-sixtieths of the hoist of the ensign across their respective red points, and the width of the white borders to the several stars shall in all cases be equal to one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the hoist of the ensign. Proportions The New Zealand Flag can be made to any size, with the length always twice the width.	i don't know
Who was President of Poland from 1990 to 1995?	Walesa elected president of Poland - Dec 09, 1990 - HISTORY.com Walesa elected president of Poland Share this: Walesa elected president of Poland Author Walesa elected president of Poland URL Publisher A+E Networks In Poland, Lech Walesa, founder of the Solidarity trade union, wins a landslide election victory, becoming the first directly elected Polish leader. Walesa, born in 1943, was an electrician at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk when he was fired for union agitation in 1976. When protests broke out in the Gdansk shipyard over an increase in food prices in August 1980, Walesa climbed the shipyard fence and joined the thousands of workers inside. He was elected leader of the strike committee, and three days later the strikers’ demands were met. Walesa then helped coordinate other strikes in Gdansk and demanded that the Polish government allow the free formation of trade unions and the right to strike. On August 30, the government conceded to the strikers’ demands, legalizing trade unionism and granting greater freedom of religious and political expression. Millions of Polish workers and farmers came together to form unions, and Solidarity was formed as a national federation of unions, with Walesa as its chairman. Under Walesa’s charismatic leadership, the organization grew in size and political influence, soon becoming a major threat to the authority of the Polish government. On December 13, 1981, martial law was declared in Poland, Solidarity was outlawed, and Walesa and other labor leaders were arrested. In November 1982, overwhelming public outcry forced Walesa’s release, but Solidarity remained illegal. In 1983, Walesa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Fearing involuntary exile, he declined to travel to Norway to accept the award. Walesa continued as leader of the now-underground Solidarity movement, and he was subjected to continual monitoring and harassment by the Communist authorities. In 1988, deteriorating economic conditions led to a new wave of labor strikes across Poland, and the government was forced to negotiate with Walesa. In April 1989, Solidarity was again legalized, and its members were allowed to enter a limited number of candidates in upcoming elections. By September, a Solidarity-led government coalition was in place, with Walesa’s colleague Tadeusz Mazowiecki as premier. In 1990, Poland’s first direct presidential election was held, and Walesa won by a landslide. President Walesa successfully implemented free-market reforms, but unfortunately he was a far more effective labor leader than president. In 1995, he was narrowly defeated in his reelection by former communist Aleksander Kwasniewski, head of the Democratic Left Alliance. Related Videos	Lech Wałęsa
Which American city is served by 'Blue Grass Airport'?	Lech Walesa \| president of Poland \| Britannica.com president of Poland Last Updated: 2-18-2016 Lech Wałęsa, (born September 29, 1943, Popowo, near Włocławek, Poland), labour activist who helped form and led (1980–90) communist Poland’s first independent trade union, Solidarity . The charismatic leader of millions of Polish workers, he went on to become the president of Poland (1990–95). He received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1983. Lech Wałęsa addressing striking workers in Gdańsk, Pol., May 1, 1988. Chris Niedenthal—Time Life Pictures/Getty Images Wałęsa, the son of a carpenter, received only primary and vocational education and in 1967 began work as an electrician at the huge Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk . He witnessed the 1970 food riots in Gdańsk in which police killed a number of demonstrators. When new protests against Poland’s communist government ... (100 of 1,094 words) MEDIA FOR:	i don't know
To which island group does Guadalcanal belong?	Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands : A Tourism, Travel and Information Guide : Basecamp International Introduction to Guadalcanal: Guadalcanal is the largest island in the Solomon Islands, the third largest archipelago in the South Pacific, with 992 islands and a total area of 28,450 square kilometers. The capital of the Solomon Islands, Honiara, a picturesque seaport with a population of 54,600, is located on the northern coast of Guadalcanal. The island of Guadalcanal is mountainous and covered in tropical rainforests and its coasts are lined with palms and white sandy beaches... Guadalcanal is well-known for its pivotal role in World War II, with the Battle of Guadalcanal turning the tide in favor of the Allies in the Pacific theater. Guadalcanal today is still filled with many World War II relics and monuments. Learn more about the importance of Guadalcanal in World War II. Trivia & Quick Points: Guadalcanal is a tropical island with an average temperature of 29 °C and high humidity. Guadalcanal's wet season runs from November to May. At this time of year, the island is more prone to experiencing cyclones. On April 1, 2007, a magnitude 8.0 earthquake occurred about 215 miles west north west of Honiara. A tsunami hit the Solomon Islands, killing at least 40 people, leaving many others missing, and destroying several villages. About 300 homes, schools, and a hospital were destroyed in the Solomon Islands city of Sasamunga in Choiseul Province. Guadalcanal is 90 miles long and about 25 miles wide. It has coral reefs on the south shores and mountains up to 8000 feet high in the interior The western and eastern coasts of Guadalcanal were the sites of many World War II battles. Many of these sites have war relics, monuments, and memorials. The northern coast is the heart of the province, whereas the southern coast, called the "weather coast" because of heavy rainfall, is host to small villages and is less accessible. SEE LOTS MORE GREAT PHOTOS of GUADALCANAL HERE Facts & Information: On Guadalcanal, you can see well preserved American made WILDCAT F4F fighter planes... Photo courtesy of John Shively History: The Solomon Islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, initially by settlers from New Guinea. The islands were named by a Spanish explorer, Alvaro de Mendaña de Neira, who, on finding alluvial gold on Guadalcanal in 1568, believed he had found the biblical King Solomon's source of gold. For two hundred years after this, there were few visits to the island by Europeans. Then, in the 1800's the British took an interest in the islands. A trade in laborers began, with workers from the Solomon Islands being taken sometimes brutally to Fiji and Australia to work on sugar plantations. The British created the Western Pacific High Commission in Fiji in 1877, to protect British interests and British subjects in the Solomons. Germany also took an interest in the Solomon Islands during the late 1800's. These Japanese helmets are collected by the locals and sold as souvenirs... Photo courtesy of John Shively Britain and Germany both vied for control of these islands and eventually divided them. The northernmost island, Bougainville, became part of the German islands of New Guinea, and then a province of independent Papua New Guinea. The rest of the Solomon Island chain became a British Protectorate in 1893. In the last years of the century, more islands were added to the British Protectorate of the Solomon Islands. In 1900, Germany transferred the islands they had controlled to Britain. The island of Guadalcanal was the scene of a pivotal battle when it was invaded by the Japanese in World War II. Read more about the Battle of Guadalcanal here . After the war, in 1945, the British regained control of the Solomon Islands. In 1976, the islands became self-governing. They gained independence in 1978. In 1999, a militia group made up of people from the Isatabus tribe on Guadalcanal, called the Isatabu Freedom Movement, began to expel people from the nearby island of Malaita. The Isatabus had become resentful of the Malaitans, who moved to Guadalcanal and obtained jobs in Honiara. In response, a Malaitan militia was formed, called the Malaita Eagle Force. Using stolen police weapons, the Malaita Eagle Force ousted Prime Minister Bartholomew Ulufa'alu in June, 2000, and seized control of the capital. The rival militias signed the Townsville Peace Agreement in October 2000, but lawlessness persisted. In July 2003, the prime minister requested intervention by an international peacekeeping force. Australia led this force, and on August 13, 2003, the Isatabu Free Movement leader, Harold Keke, surrendered to the peacekeepers. Since then, the country has been relatively stable, although in April, 2006, rioting took place after Snyder Rini was appointed prime minister. Opponents claimed that Rini was beholden to Chinese interests and forced him to resign 8 days later. The parliament then elected opposition candidate, Manasseh Sogavare, to be the prime minister. Culture Some Solomon Islanders maintain a traditional lifestyle in small villages around the island. Some maintain traditional religious beliefs or a combination of these beliefs and Christianity, which was taught by missionaries who began arriving in the late 1800's. These traditional beliefs were passed to the five clans, which came from each of the five sons of the heroine, Koevasi, who is believed to have created the first humans. Each clan has spirits of the dead, shark spirits, and snake spirits. Each of these spirits is believed to possess nanama, a supernatural power that they can wield over the living. Practitioners pray to each spirit for different purposes. For example, they pray to the shark spirits for issues related to fishing. Priests guide clan members in sacrifices and divinations, but other clan members can cast spells. In the traditional religion, believers hold feasts for weddings, funerals, births, and the completion of new homes. The afterlife is important, and practitioners pray to deceased ancestors in the belief that they can intervene on behalf of the living through nanama. Health Concerns Malaria is endemic to the Solomon Islands. Yellow fever is another disease of concern, also transmitted by mosquitos. Travelers should consult a physician before traveling to Guadalcanal. Travel & Tourism: Guadalcanal is known as a top diving spot, with clear water and a rich array of wildlife, as well as shipwrecks to explore. The island is also a wildlife and bird watcher's paradise, where over 200 species of birds can be seen. Many tourists also come to Guadalcanal to visit World War II battle sites and museums and take in the culture of the island at traditional performances. Highlights & Features of the Capital, Honiara: - A cultural treat awaits at the Mendana Hotel in Honiara, which hosts weekly panpipe performances. - The National Museum is located across from the Mendana Hotel, and contains traditional handicrafts and historical artefacts. - A variety of traditional architectural styles of the Solomon Islands are on display at the Cultural Centre behind the museum. - The former Old Government House is now the National Art Gallery and offers painting exhibitions. - The National Archives contain the most extensive collection of historic information in the Solomon Islands. Located next to the National Museum, the National Archives are open to the public. - The Botanical Gardens, located near the Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corporation (SIBC) studios (through the Rove prison gate and down the road), have collections of orchids and tropical plants as well as an herbarium. What to Do & See Outside Honiara Visitors interested in the military history of Guadalcanal can take guided tours of historic sites from the Battle of Guadalcanal, including Bloody Ridge, Henderson Field (now the Solomon's international airport), Mataniko River, Red Beach, and the Western and Eastern Battlefields. The Battle of Guadalcanal was featured in the recent film "The Thin Red Line", which was filmed partly on Guadalcanal. The Vilu War Museum, 25 km west of Honiara, is home to both US and Japanese artefacts. Tourists can dive and snorkel in the clear, warm waters where a variety of marine life live, including barracuda, trevally, lion fish, giant clams, hammerhead sharks, and whale sharks. One popular dive spot is Bonegi Beach, a few miles west of Honiara. A dive spot where military relics can be explored is Iron Bottom Sound. Divers can explore sunken battleships, including the Bonegi I and II, and aircraft, incling B17 bomber wrecks. One famous recent wreck is the world Discoverer cruise ship, which ran aground on a reef in 2001. Snorkelers can enjoy a coral reef called Marau Sound, which is home to tropical fish, giant clams, and rare sea shells. Tourists can enjoy many other water sports on Guadalcanal, including sea kayaking, yachting, sailing, and canoeing on sheltered waterways. At the Betikama High School, outside Honiara, tourists can see and purchase handicrafts, including wood carvings, trays, shell jewelry, ebony carvings, pottery, and WWII relics. Guadalacanal offers excellent opportunities for hikers and bird watchers. Hikers can see turtles, flying foxes, and many birds, including white-eyes, rails, honeyeaters, fantails, coucal (the world's largest cuckoo), thrushes, and megapodes (birds that lays eggs in volcanic sands and whose chicks can fly right after digging themselves out). In addition, there are several stunning waterfalls to visit, including Mataniko Falls, which is a two-hour walk from Honiara. There, the waterfall pours over a cave with resident bats and swallows. The Tenaru Falls, a 60 meter waterfall is another spectacular site and is a day's drive and trek east of Honiara. Cycling, golf, and spelunking (cave exploration) are a few of the other outdoor activites visitors can enjoy on Guadalcanal. Tourists are welcome to visit the Giant Clam farm, 22 km west of Honiara . This farm was established in 1988. Where to Stay Honiara offers a full range of accomodations, from budget lodges to upscale casino hotels. Information on accomodations in Honiara is coming soon... Getting There & Away By Air: The main airport in the Solomon Islands is Henderson International Airport, 8 km outside Honiara, on Guadalcanal. Solomon Airlines flies into this airport from cities around the South Pacific, including Brisbane, Australia, Auckland, New Zealand, and Nadi, Fiji. Solomon Airlines also serves several Asian cities, including Bangkok, Thailand, Bombay, India, and Jakarta, Indonesia. In addition, flights are available from London, England, Frankfurt, Germany, and Amsterdam, Netherlands. Fiji's national airlines, Air Pacific, flies from Los Angeles as well as cities in the South Pacific to Honiara. Air Nauru also offers flights from Brisbane and several South Pacific islands to Honiara. The Visit South Pacific Pass offers island hoppers discounted airfares for touring islands in the South Pacific. By Boat: There are a few boats (mostly diving charters) that include cruises to Guadalcanal and other South Pacific Islands from Nadi, Fiji and Cairns, Australia. We will list them here shortly. Getting Around Honiara has car rental facilities, including rentals at the airport. Taxis and minibuses are also available in Honiara. For island hopping, Solomon Airlines offers many flights and several tour operators offer domestic cruises. TRAVEL to Guadalcanal! Use HONIARA as your destination city and compare the travel services. VALOR TOURS Valor Tours, Ltd. is a resource for veterans, their families, military service organizations, unit associations, reunion groups, historical societies and government institutions with an interest in the Pacific and Europe wartime theaters. (It was a consultant to the Pentagon's WWII 50th Anniversary Committee.) Today, tour participants are largely veterans' sons, daughters, grandchildren and the general public, especially WWII history buffs, seeking a meaningful focus for their vacation travels.	Solomon Islands
Which boxer won the Olympic gold medal at Middleweight in 1976, and then went on to win the World Professional title at both Light-heavyweight and Heavyweight?	Pacific Islands \| region, Pacific Ocean \| Britannica.com Pacific Islands Polynesian culture Pacific Islands, island geographic region of the Pacific Ocean . It comprises three ethnogeographic groupings— Melanesia , Micronesia , and Polynesia —but conventionally excludes the neighbouring island continent of Australia , the Asia-related Indonesian , Philippine , and Japanese archipelagoes, and the Ryukyu , Bonin , Volcano , and Kuril island arcs that project seaward from Japan . Neither does the term include the Aleutian chain or such isolated islands of the Pacific Ocean as the Juan Fernández group off the coast of South America. The more inclusive term Oceania , in its broadest definition, encompasses all the foregoing; however, the term is used less strictly in this article to refer to the Pacific Islands as defined above. The Pacific Island region covers more than 300,000 square miles (800,000 square km) of land—of which New Zealand and the island of New Guinea make up approximately nine-tenths—and millions of square miles of ocean. It is a mixture of independent states, associated states, integral parts of non-Pacific Island countries, and dependent states. Map of the Pacific Islands. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Houses on stilts, Port Moresby, P.N.G. Geogphotos/Alamy The great arc of islands located north and east of Australia and south of the Equator is called Melanesia (from the Greek words melas, “black,” and nēsos, “island”) for the predominantly dark-skinned peoples of New Guinea island, the Bismarck Archipelago , Solomon Islands , Vanuatu (the New Hebrides), New Caledonia , and Fiji . Culture areas of the Pacific Islands. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. North of the Equator and east of the Philippines are the islands of Micronesia, which form an arc that ranges from Palau , Guam , and the Northern Mariana Islands in the west eastward through the Federated States of Micronesia (the Caroline Islands), Nauru , and the Marshall Islands to Kiribati . In the eastern Pacific, largely enclosed within a huge triangle formed by the Hawaiian Islands to the north, New Zealand to the southwest, and Easter Island (Rapa Nui) far to the east, are the many (“poly”) islands of Polynesia. Other components of this widely scattered collection, again generally from west to east, are Tuvalu , Wallis and Futuna , Tokelau , Samoa (the former Western Samoa), American Samoa , Tonga , Niue , the Cook Islands , and French Polynesia (including the Society , Tuamotu , and Marquesas islands). Similar Topics Galapagos Islands The main Pacific Islands span the Equator obliquely from northwest to southeast and can be divided into two major physiographic regions by island type: continental and oceanic. Deep ocean trenches form the Andesite Line along the eastern borders of Japan, the Marianas , New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji, and New Zealand. The line separates the basaltic volcanic islands of the central and eastern Pacific from the islands of the broad western Pacific margin, which are formed mainly of metamorphosed rocks, sediment, and andesitic volcanic material. The continental islands , lying southwestward of the Andesite Line, are faulted and folded in mountainous arcs, tend to be higher and larger than those farther east, and have rich soils that support almost every kind of vegetation. Continental islands are generally larger (most notably, the Marianas, New Guinea, the Bismarcks, the Solomons, Vanuatu, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the North and South islands of New Zealand) and have richer mineral-bearing soils than their oceanic counterparts. The parent lava material of the oceanic type of island is basalt. Oceanic islands are differentiated as high volcanic-based islands, such as Hawaii, or low coral islands and atolls , such as the Marshalls. Most Pacific islands are coral formations, although all of these rest on volcanic or other cores. In the shallow waters of the tropics, both continental and oceanic islands attract coral growth in the form of fringing reefs, partially submerged platforms of consolidated limestone , with coral organisms at the ocean edge feeding on materials carried in by waves and currents. Many islands have been gradually submerged through a combination of sinking, caused by geologic action, and flooding, caused by the melting of ice caps. As islands were flooded, coral growth continued outward, producing barrier reefs farther from the shorelines and separated from them by lagoons. Volcanic peaks of Bora-Bora, a high volcanic island surrounded by a lagoon, Society Islands, French … © Nicholas DeVore III/Bruce Coleman Inc. A computer visualization of the process by which volcanic island chains are formed. Great plumes of … Displayed by permission of The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. (A Britannica Publishing Partner) Britannica Stories Scientists Ponder Menopause in Killer Whales A coral atoll results when still further flooding reduces an island to a submarine condition. The usually irregular reef continues to build up in the warm shallows. It encircles a clear-surfaced lagoon of moderate depth and in time supports a number of islets built up from reef debris to 20–30 feet (6–9 metres ) above sea level . Rain catchments are usually the only source of fresh water on atolls . Islet of Bairiki, Tarawa atoll, Kiribati. Richard Vogel/AP History Randomizer The successive geologic lifting of some islands above sea level has created a variety of “raised” coral formations. The northern half of Guam, for example, is a coralline limestone plateau with a general elevation of about 500 feet (150 metres), while the mountains in the southern half of the island, formed by volcanic activity, reach a maximum elevation of over 1,300 feet (400 metres). Nauru and Banaba (in Kiribati) are raised coral islands that stand at elevations of about 210 and 285 feet (65 and 90 metres), respectively. They have deeper soil and a more adequate water supply than atoll islets, as well as surface deposits of phosphate rock (derived from guano ) that have been mined commercially. The climate of the Pacific Islands is generally tropical (except in New Zealand, which has a temperate climate), with temperatures , humidity , and rainfall relatively uniform throughout the year. Temperature varies from averages in the low 80s F (about 28 °C) on both Nauru and Kiribati to an average in the low 60s F (about 15 °C) on Norfolk Island, one of the southernmost Pacific Islands. Most vegetation is derived from Indonesia and New Guinea, and its generic variety declines eastward across the Pacific. Local environmental differences and relative isolation have resulted in the evolution of numerous new endemic species. The introduction of new species from throughout the world has also markedly altered island flora. Only a small proportion of the total land area is arable and, outside New Zealand and Papua New Guinea, is devoted mostly to the cultivation of coconut and cassava. Most of the larger islands also support some livestock. As much as two-thirds of the Pacific Islands’ total land area is forested. Most of the islands are poor in mineral resources. Connect with Britannica The population is concentrated in Papua New Guinea, New Zealand (which has a majority of people of European descent), Hawaii, Fiji, and Solomon Islands. Most Pacific Islands are densely populated, and habitation tends to be concentrated along the coasts. Traditionally dressed dancers in Honiara, Sol.Is. Tim Page/Corbis Melanesians make up more than three-fourths of the total indigenous population of the Pacific Islands. Polynesians account for more than one-sixth of the total, and Micronesians constitute about one-twentieth. People of European origin account for as much as one-third of the Pacific Islands’ population if New Zealand is included in the total and less than one-tenth if it is not; outside New Zealand the largest concentration of people of European origin is in Hawaii. Several hundred distinct languages are spoken in the Pacific Islands; these are mostly Austronesian in origin. Most islanders have some familiarity with English or French; one or the other of these is the official language of virtually all Pacific Islands. Christianity has largely supplanted traditional beliefs and practices, although in some areas, such as Papua New Guinea, Christian faith is often combined with traditional practices. In general the Pacific Islands have developing economies in which both public and private sectors participate. The gross national product (GNP) per capita varies widely. Agriculture , fishing, and services are generally the largest economic sectors, and mining is important on a few of the islands. Subsistence farming predominates on the smaller islands. Almost all the islands grow coconuts, which, with copra, are a major export. Pasture is available only on the larger islands; pigs, cattle , and chickens are raised commercially there, and sufficient milk and meat are produced to satisfy domestic needs. Villagers on some smaller islands and New Guinea rear pigs and goats for local use. Subsistence fishing is important everywhere except Hawaii and New Zealand and provides a major source of protein in local diets. There is also commercial fishing , notably in Solomon Islands, Kiribati, and Fiji, which account for much of the regional catch. Islanders fishing in shallow waters off Ifalik Island, Yap state, Micron. Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies Commercially exploitable forests in Fiji, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Samoa, and Vanuatu produce timber, sawn wood, and wood products for domestic consumption and export. The other islands generally must import quality lumber. Mineral production is limited to a few of the continental islands, such as New Caledonia, New Guinea, and New Zealand. The manufacturing sector, except in Hawaii and New Zealand, is mostly undeveloped and limited to processing fish and agricultural products and producing handicrafts. Other islands with significant manufacturing besides Hawaii and New Zealand include Guam, Fiji, the Northern Marianas, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomons. Regional electricity is generated largely from imported fuels. Most Pacific Islands’ annual imports (excluding those of New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Hawaii) far exceed exports. Tourism and remittances from expatriates only partially offset the trade deficits. Frozen or canned fish, minerals , copra , cocoa , coffee , tea , and spices are among the leading exports, mainly to Japan, France , the United States, and Australia. Machinery and transport equipment, mineral fuels, food, and manufactured goods are among the chief imports and come mainly from Australia, France, Japan, and the United States . Only a small proportion of the Pacific Islands’ external trade is intraregional. Tourism is very important to the Pacific Ocean islands. Attractions include fine beaches, good fishing and boating, and local customs and crafts. French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Fiji, and New Zealand have the most developed tourist sectors, but many of the other islands place a priority on developing facilities. Most Pacific Islands that are overseas territories of other countries receive budgetary and development aid, mainly from the continental governing countries, while the smaller independent island states receive aid particularly from Australia and New Zealand, as well as from Japan, the United Kingdom , and the United States. Air transport and interisland shipping are the principal means of transport. Many of the island groups have international airports. Extensive road networks are limited to the larger islands. Offshore hut, Bora-Bora, French Polynesia. © Digital Vision/Getty Images The remainder of this article covers the history of the region. For more detailed discussion of the land and people of individual island groups and states, see the articles American Samoa , Caroline Islands , Cook Islands , Fiji , French Polynesia , Guam , Kiribati , Line Islands , Mariana Islands , Marshall Islands , Federated States of Micronesia , Midway Islands , Nauru , New Caledonia , Niue , Northern Mariana Islands , Palau , Papua New Guinea , Pitcairn Island , Samoa , Solomon Islands , Tokelau , Tonga , Tuvalu , Vanuatu , Wake Island , and Wallis and Futuna . For discussion of the arts and cultures of the region, see the articles Oceanic art and architecture , Oceanic music and dance , Oceanic literature , Melanesian culture , Micronesian culture , and Polynesian culture . Area (excluding Indonesian New Guinea and the Hawaiian Islands but including Papua New Guinea) 317,739 square miles (833,926 square km). Pop. (2007 est.; excluding Indonesian New Guinea and the Hawaiian Islands but including Papua New Guinea) 13,518,070. Early period The prehistory of the Pacific Islands, the period before written records begin, extends back at least 33,000 years, according to archaeological remains in the Bismarck Archipelago , and migration to the region may have begun more than 40,000 years ago. Settlers had reached every habitable island by the 2nd millennium ce. Since the arrival of Europeans in the early 16th century, the cultures , populations, and economies of the Pacific Islands have been transformed to varying extents, at first by contact with passing explorers and then, from the late 18th century, by the influence of more permanent visitors such as castaways, beachcombers, missionaries, and traders. During the 19th and 20th centuries, settlers flowed in, labourers immigrated or were brought in from other countries (predominantly India and China), and European administrators arrived. Missionaries and immigrants still make up significant segments of the population on the islands today, although European governments, with the exception of that of France, have entirely withdrawn from the region. Historical documents for the region are chiefly of European origin and are therefore the products of people who may not accurately have depicted cultures different from their own—cultures they perceived and understood only imperfectly. This distortion can be corrected to some extent by using the findings of social anthropology and the oral traditions of the Pacific Island people, but these sources may describe the past inaccurately because they serve contemporary purposes; they do not record the past for its own sake. But the main historiographic challenge provided by the region is its diversity . Some 10,000 islands scattered across a wide expanse of ocean, a variety of cultures, hundreds of mutually unintelligible languages, and diverse historical experiences make generalizations difficult. (The arts of the region are treated in separate articles; see Oceanic art and architecture ; Oceanic music and dance ; and Oceanic literature .) The influence of physical geography Because of the distances involved, contact between islands has never been easy. In addition, the islands’ physical environments are isolated and varied. The large continental islands of Melanesia have widely varied landscapes, climates, and soil types; moreover, their rugged terrain has facilitated social isolation. The smaller volcanic high islands have greater homogeneity and easily support life well above the subsistence level. The physical environment did not determine the kinds of society that developed, but it did limit them. The large islands of Melanesia set the stage for profound cultural differences between people of the coast and those of the interior, particularly those in the more isolated valleys. Thus, Melanesia became characterized by many small groups of people, divided from each other by language and custom. There was little political and social organization, because most families and communities expended their energies on gathering food and other basic necessities. The high volcanic islands of Polynesia offered no such barriers to social and political unity. Their fertility allowed elaborate social, religious, and political rituals to develop. These geographic and cultural contrasts between the Pacific Islands, which were obvious to early European visitors, concealed a similarity: the societies all rested on the principle of reciprocity . Whether the society was small, with leadership a matter of acquiring influence rather than hereditary position, or larger, with chiefs who were looked on with awe and treated with reverence, every gift or service had to be reciprocated . Origins of Oceanian peoples Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville , an early 19th-century French navigator and explorer, classified the islanders as Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian. The apparent differences between the islanders were regarded as evidence of separate waves of ethnically different people out of Southeast Asia . (A discredited variant theory traced the Polynesians to South America). More recent research suggests that the differences arose within the islands themselves, through the intermixture of an original settlement of non-Austronesian-language speakers (see Papuan languages ) from Southeast Asia with a later wave of Austronesian speakers (see Austronesian languages ). The earlier wave of settlement occurred in Melanesia at least 33,000 years ago and probably, since New Guinea and Australia were then linked by land, at dates contemporaneous with Australian dates of settlement, extending back some 40,000 years or more. Secure dates in the interior of New Guinea approach 30,000 years ago. However, more sites must be uncovered to increase the level of certainty. Linguists have used a chronology of sound changes to trace the time and place of dispersion of language groups, but a considerable number of the languages of Oceania are as yet unstudied and unclassified. Geneticists have conducted studies in order to establish connections between contemporary human groups, thereby revealing past migrations, but systematic sampling has not yet been carried out. The later Austronesian speakers, members of the prehistoric Lapita culture , which produced the well-known pottery known as Lapita ware, established themselves in the Bismarck Archipelago about 4,000 years ago. They then spread to Fiji , Tonga , and Samoa, which have been regarded as the Polynesian homeland. Newer evidence, however, has led to disagreement among prehistorians about the Lapita cultural complex: it may have arrived in Fiji with a later wave of seafaring immigrants. There is also disagreement about the speed with which the Lapita culture , distinctively linked with the Polynesians, moved from Southeast Asia through Melanesia into Fiji and thence to eastern Polynesia. The Marianas were probably settled about 1500 bce. It is possible that the Marquesas were settled as early as the 2nd century bce, rather than 300 ce, a date at which settlements may have occurred in Hawaii. The Society Islands were occupied by at least the 9th century ce. Lapita pottery, reconstructed two-dimensional anthropomorphic design, c. 1000 bc. Courtesy of R.C. Green At the time of European contact, Oceanian societies had developed a technology based on stone, bone, and shell objects, and they cultivated tubers and tree fruits, most of which were of Southeast Asian origin. Genetic research has shown that some of the cultigens were native to wider areas, including New Guinea . The most notable exception was the sweet potato , which had spread from South America through most of Polynesia in pre-European times but only marginally into Melanesia. There were three main groups of domesticated animals: pigs, dogs , and chickens. The coastal people had developed fishing techniques and considerable skills as sailors. Navigation between the closer islands was well developed, and regular trade may have occurred between several islands. Some skills were lost; pottery , for example, disappeared in Samoa and the Marquesas shortly after initial settlement. European exploration The 16th and 17th centuries The world of the Pacific Islands was not a static one, but changes were slow compared with those that attended European contact. Vasco Núñez de Balboa was the first European to sight the Pacific, in 1513; seven years later Ferdinand Magellan rounded South America and sailed across the ocean, missing the main island groups but probably encountering Pukapuka Atoll , in the Tuamotu Archipelago , and Guam . After his death in the Philippines, his expedition encountered some of the Carolines . These northern islands were further explored by the Spaniards as they established a galley trade between Manila , in the Philippines , and Acapulco , in western Mexico . The next major Spanish explorations were made by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira and Pedro Fernández de Quirós . In 1567 the former set out from Peru to discover the great southern continent that was believed to exist in the South Pacific. He reached the Solomons but failed to find them again on his second journey, during which he died. In 1606 his chief pilot, Quirós, after finding part of the Tuamotu Archipelago, reached the northern Cook Islands , Tikopia (a small Solomon Islands atoll), and the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu ). One of his companions, Luis Váez de Torres , charted southeastern New Guinea and then the strait (later named for him) between that island and Australia, although the discovery was unknown to later sailors. These Spanish expeditions were motivated by the search for riches, by zeal to extend Christianity , and, in the case of Quirós, by an interest in exploration for its own sake. But with the voyage of Torres, the Spanish effort was ended. Thereafter, the Dutch , who were already established in Indonesia , entered the Pacific. They too looked for a southern continent. In 1615–16 the Dutch navigator Jakob Le Maire traveled from the east through the Tuamotus to Tonga and New Ireland and New Hanover in the Bismarck Archipelago. In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman , sailing from Batavia (now Jakarta ), the Dutch headquarters in the East Indies , saw New Zealand , Tasmania , Tonga, some of the Fiji Islands, and New Britain . The Dutch were primarily interested in commerce; they found none. Tasman thought that New Zealand was part of the great southern continent. The effect of these visitors on Oceania was transitory. The Europeans stayed for periods of at most a few months. Their contacts with the islanders were based on simple barter, but the demands they made on food supplies often caused hostilities in which some European and many islanders’ lives were lost, as on Guadalcanal , in Solomon Islands, and in the Marquesas during Mendaña’s visits. The 18th century During the early 18th century, the extent of Oceania was further revealed. The English buccaneer William Dampier visited New Hanover, New Britain, and New Ireland in command of a Royal Navy ship. Dampier’s journey was a forerunner of the voyages of scientific exploration that followed, and he proved that those islands were separated from each other and from Australia. In 1722 the Dutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen crossed the Pacific from east to west on a voyage of exploration that also had commercial objectives. He reached Easter Island , more of the Tuamotu Archipelago, the northern islands of the Society group, and some of the Samoan islands. William Dampier. Courtesy of the American Geographical Society These voyages were not essentially different from earlier ones, but they too foreshadowed the scientific interest of the later 18th century. Further study was delayed by European wars. But in 1765 the English admiral John Byron (grandfather of poet Lord George Gordon Byron ), who was sent by the British Admiralty in search of the supposed southern continent, visited more of the Tuamotus and the southern Gilberts . In 1767 Samuel Wallis and Philip Carteret followed, but their ships were separated as they entered the Pacific. Wallis reached Tahiti, more of the Tuamotus, and the Society Islands, while Carteret found Pitcairn Island and revisited the Solomons that Mendaña had visited, although he did not so identify them. This was left to the French following Louis-Antoine de Bougainville ’s visit in 1768, during which he also charted some of the New Hebrides and Rossel Island , in the Louisiade Archipelago . Dampier’s A New Voyage Round the World and Bougainville’s description of the “noble savage” in Tahiti were particularly influential in Europe. The interest their journeys created was in part responsible for the instructions given to the greatest of all 18th-century explorers of Oceania, James Cook . After three voyages he left others little to do but fill in occasional details of Oceania. Cook was sent (1768–71) to observe the transit of the planet Venus at Tahiti in 1769 and then to search for the great southern continent. He reached some of the Society Islands, but he also circumnavigated New Zealand, and he defined the limits of eastern Australia. During his second voyage (1772–75), he proved that there was no southern continent, but he also charted further lands in Oceania: in the Tuamotus, the Cooks, the Marquesas, Fiji, Niue , Tonga, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Norfolk Island . During his third voyage (1776–79), which was mainly concerned with the North Pacific, he located some of the Tongan group, Christmas Island ( Kiritimati Atoll ), and the Sandwich Islands ( Hawaii ), where he was killed in 1779. He had completed the main work of exploration with an exactitude previously unknown. Although his contacts with islanders were not essentially different from those of his predecessors, his relations with them were nevertheless more prolonged and more humane. His exploration of eastern Australia, through the account of his naturalist, Joseph Banks , was of great importance in Oceania because it led to the founding of towns on the Australian coast, relatively close to the islands. Early European settlement Itinerants Oceania became a supply source in 1788 for the settlement of Australia. Pigs from Tahiti were landed at Sydney in 1793, and until 1826 the trade remained important, although it was subject to price fluctuations. The competition among Europeans for sandalwood, pearl shell, and bêche-de-mer (sea cucumber)—valuable cargoes that attracted ships from the Australian colony—further involved Oceania with the European world. Sandalwood was found in Fiji in 1804, and for the next decade it attracted European traders. The sealing industry drew seal hunters to New Zealand, and in the 1790s fur traders wintered in Hawaii. All of these sustained and prolonged contacts began to affect the island societies. In addition, there were increasing numbers of European castaways and beachcombers, who had begun to live in the islands from the days of first European contact, because of the expansion of commercial shipping in the region. Castaways, such as HMS Bounty mutineers who went to Tahiti in 1789, began to alter the political climate by using their muskets to support the chiefs who befriended them. Missionary activity Christian missionaries traveled to Oceania with the deliberate intention of changing its societies. In 1797 the London Missionary Society (LMS) sent a party to Tahiti. After some vicissitudes the missionaries converted a prominent chief, Pomare II , who controlled the area of Matavai Bay, where European ships had called since Wallis’s landing. The LMS failed in its first attempts in Tonga and the Marquesas, although it was more successful in Huahine (in the Society Islands), the Tuamotus, the Cook Islands, and, later, Samoa. English and American missionaries then tried to win over additional Polynesian chiefs so that the masses would follow. Indigenous converts were sent to other islands to spread the word. In 1823 John Williams of the LMS took Polynesian missionaries to Rarotonga and other islands, and he took Christianity to Samoa in 1830. The Methodists began arriving in Tonga in 1822 and Fiji in 1835. Roman Catholic missionaries began working in New Caledonia in the 1840s, and, at about the same time, the Church of England began to penetrate into Oceania from New Zealand. Meanwhile, Polynesian societies were facing varying degrees of lawlessness and disorder at the hands of European beachcombers and traders. British missionaries responded to the situation by creating missionary kingdoms, whereas the French established direct political control. In Tahiti, Hawaii, and Tonga, native chiefs became powerful kings by gaining access to European arms and support, consolidating power, and accepting missionary advisers and missionary-designed codes of law. In 1819 Pomare II of Tahiti promulgated such a code. In Tonga, Taufaʿahau took the name George in 1833, and in 1845, when he took the Tongan title Tuʿi Kanokupolu, he became king of Tonga; during his reign Tonga became unified and adopted a constitution (1875). The missionary kingdoms addressed problems of European lawlessness in the islands by attempting to enforce a scriptural code of law. Although missionaries could not prevent the sale of arms, they could at least ensure that these passed into the hands of friendly chiefs. However, the authority of the “kings” was challenged from two sides. Many opposed them because they believed that, by becoming Christian, they had cut themselves off from the mana (a Polynesian and Melanesian religious concept sometimes described as an all-pervasive energy) that came from the old gods. In Tahiti in 1830 there was a revolt against the new Christian order by supporters of the old ways; in 1831 there was a similar reaction in Tonga. In Samoa, where the holder of the chiefly title Malietoa had embraced Christianity from Tahitian missionaries, heretical movements arose. Traditional beliefs thus resisted the chiefs and their missionary supporters. At the same time, European traders also resisted the political authority of the kings. Dissidents and heretics looked to these Europeans for leadership, and they turned to their own national governments for protection. The French took control of the Society Islands and nearby archipelagoes beginning in 1842. They also established missionary control of Wallis and Futuna. In Melanesia events transpired differently. In Fiji the missionaries who landed in 1835, accompanied by an envoy from George of Tonga, made no headway with the rising chief Cakobau , who was not converted until 1854, when his fortunes were at a low ebb and he needed Tongan support. Elsewhere in Melanesia, the absence of chiefs meant that missionary work had to be conducted with small groups of people and repeated every few miles. There was no wholesale conversion of the kind that had happened in Polynesia. The LMS failed to win over the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) in the 1840s, and the Anglican Melanesian mission in the Solomons made slow progress in the 1850s. Mission work in New Guinea was divided into four spheres of influence in Papua but did not begin systematically until the 1870s. Micronesia was considered a backwater. The Spaniards had established missionaries in the Marianas in 1668, but the missionaries in the Carolines were killed in 1733. The main effort came from the Hawaiian Evangelical Mission in the 1850s, which dissolved the old ties of society by attacking the supernatural sanctions that supported leadership and social mores. Missionaries thus altered political structures, introduced both European goods and the desire for them, and acted as intermediaries between Pacific Island societies and other Europeans—as political advisers, as agents, and as interpreters. Growth of trading communities Beachcombers and castaways preceded missionaries in many of the islands, but trading communities grew partly because of the missionaries’ work in restraining native violence. Those individuals were initially pork traders in Tahiti, but European captains followed valuable cargoes from island to island. When the supply of sandalwood was depleted in Fiji by 1813, the traders then found it in Hawaii in the 1820s, in the New Hebrides in 1825, and in New Caledonia in 1840. Pearl shell attracted traders to the Tuamotus in 1807, and the sandalwood trade declined as supplies were exhausted. However, Europeans in both trades were harsh and sometimes committed atrocities, and pearling declined as islanders began to take reprisals. The needs of the Oceanians also changed the character of trade. Once native polities had been established, the demand for muskets fell off; under missionary influence the demand for alcohol was limited. Islanders increasingly desired clothing and hardware. Exchange trading encouraged the establishment of resident agents in the islands, who met the needs of the whalers who went ashore to refit their vessels. After 1840, exchange trading also met the needs of the staple trade of the islands—coconut oil, derived from copra and used for soap and candles. Copra trading became the mainstay of European trade because even islands that had no other resources had coconut palms. Such commerce promoted the growth of the port towns and of resident trading communities. Papeete in Tahiti, Apia in Samoa, and Levuka in Fiji became centres for Europeans, including respectable traders as well as lawless people who might be escaped convicts from New South Wales (Australia) or others seeking to free themselves from the rules of European societies. Native kings and visiting European captains had difficulty establishing order in these types of frontier towns. Plantation societies Problems became more serious after permanent European settlers arrived. In Fiji, for example, following Cakobau’s first offer to cede the islands to Great Britain in 1858, Europeans began to establish plantations of coconuts and then, during the American Civil War , of cotton and afterward of sugarcane. Developments in Samoa were similar. But planters needed land on a much larger scale than did traders, and they needed labour in much greater quantities to work the plantations. Land sales caused friction because “ownership” was not an Oceanian concept, and land titles were thus disputed or resented. Labour recruiting often caused the breakup of traditional societies if too many males left their communities and the creation of immigrant labour communities if they did not. By 1870 there were 2,000 such permanent European residents in Fiji. The settlers desired political and economic stability, including secure land titles and a large labour supply, but the missionary kingdoms and independent native governments failed to satisfy their requirements. In Tahiti, Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji no native authority was able to keep order in the novel circumstances created by European enterprise; in any case, the native kings were themselves open to challenge within their own societies. Pomare II encountered revolt in Tahiti; Samoan politics were always a matter of rivalry between chiefs; and Cakobau’s government was threatened by the Tongan chief Maʿafu, who had established his own confederacy in the Lau Group in Fiji. Page 1 of 2	i don't know
Which group of mammals belong to the order Cetacea?	Facts About the Order Cetacea By Jennifer Kennedy Updated February 17, 2016. The Order Cetacea is the group of marine mammals that includes the cetaceans - the whales, dolphins and porpoises . Description: There are 86 species of cetaceans, and these are divided into two suborders - the mysticetes ( baleen whales , 14 species) and odontocetes ( toothed whales , 72 species). Cetaceans range in size from just a few feet long to over 100 feet long. Unlike fish, which swim by moving their heads from side-to-side to swing their tail, cetaceans propel themselves by moving their tail in a smooth, up-and-down motion. Some cetaceans, such as the Dall's porpoise and the orca (killer whale) can swim faster than 30 miles per hour. Cetaceans Are Mammals: Cetaceans are mammals, which means they are endothermic (commonly called warm-blooded) and their internal body temperature is about the same as a human's. They give birth to live young and breathe air through lungs just like we do. They even have hair. Classification: Order: Cetacea Feeding: Baleen and toothed whales have distinct feeding differences. Baleen whales use plates made of keratin to filter out large quantities of small fish, crustaceans or plankton from the sea water. Toothed whales often gather in pods and work cooperatively to feed. They prey on animals such as fish, cephalopods , and skates. Reproduction: Cetaceans reproduce sexually, and females usually have one calf at a time. The gestation period for many cetacean species is about 1 year. Habitat and Distribution: Cetaceans are found worldwide, from tropical to arctic waters. Some species, like the bottlenose dolphin may be found in coastal areas (e.g., southeastern U.S.), while others, like the sperm whale, may range far offshore to waters thousands of feet deep. Conservation: Many cetacean species were decimated by whaling. Some, like the North Atlantic right whale , have been slow to recover. Many cetacean species are protected now - in the U.S., all marine mammals have protection under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Other threats to cetaceans include entanglement in fishing gear or marine debris , ship collisions, pollution, and coastal development.	Cetacea
In 'The Simpson's', what was the name of 'Ned Flanders' ' wife?	OERS - Marine Mammal Profiles - Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises, Sea Lions, Seals and Walruses, Manatees and Dugongs, Sea Otters and Polar Bears Marine Mammal Profiles Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises Whales, dolphins and porpoises are fully adapted to aquatic life, exchanging hair and hind limbs for a spindle-shaped body, blowhole, blubber and a tail featuring horizontal flukes. Most species are marine, freshwater dolphins being the exception. While sharing common characteristics, this group of mammals is one of the most distinct and specialised; it includes the largest mammal (the Blue Whale), well-known dolphins, tusked narwhals and singing humpbacks among others. Whales, dolphins and porpoises can be separated into two general categories depending on whether they employ teeth or instead filter their food from the water using baleen. Species employ a variety of communication and feeding strategies. Whales, dolphins and porpoises all belong to the order Cetacea which is divided into two sub-orders: Mysticeti and Odontoceti. The former are baleen whales which lack teeth as adults, instead using keratin-based baleen plates to strain organisms from the water. Some well-known baleen whales are the blue, humpback and grey whales. Some Mysticetes communicate using complex songs, but they do not use echolocation. The Odontoceti are toothed whales, which employ teeth, that do use echolocation. Dolphins, porpoises and sperm whales all belong to this sub-group. Whales range in size from 33 m (the Blue Whale) to 2.7 m (the Dwarf Sperm Whale). Whales can be very long-lived and may live more than a century depending on the species. All Mysticetes and some Odontocetes are considered whales. Some whales may stay underwater for lengthy periods of time; the Sperm whale, for example, can stay underwater for up to 2 hours. Dolphins belong to the families Delphinidae and Platanistoidea. They range in size from the over 9 m, 10 tonne Killer whale to the 1.2 m, 40 kg Maui dolphin. Dolphins are found worldwide and are often considered to be among the most intelligent animals. They are social and are often found in pods, communicating through clicks and whistles. Porpoises belong to the family Phocoenidae. They are the smallest cetaceans, the smallest of which is the less then 1.5 m Vaquita. They have flattened, spade-shaped teeth as opposed to the conical teeth of dolphins. Status: Whales, dolphins and porpoises face a variety of threats, many of them strongly influenced by humans. These include climate change, which particularly affects species such as the Bowhead whale that depend on Arctic waters. While some species are recovering, others are showing decline. According to the IUCN 2006 Red List, of those species evaluated, 2 species are critically endangered, 7 are endangered, 5 are vulnerable, 14 are conservation dependent and 1 is near threatened. In December 2006, the Chinese River Dolphin was declared functionally extinct. Sea Lions, Seals and Walruses While most carnivores live on land, seals, sea lions and walruses have adapted to spending large amounts of time in the water. Unlike whales, dolphins and porpoises, this group spends at least part of its time on land or ice. Sea lions, seals and walruses can be distinguished from one another through a variety of physical and behavioural differences. They live in a variety of habitats ranging from polar to temperate while feeding on food ranging from krill to squid. Sea lions, seals and walruses belong to the sub-order Pinnipedia. Like whales, they utilise a thick layer of blubber both for warmth and for streamlining. Sea lions, also called “eared seals” belong to the family Otariidae and have external ear flaps. They use their long front flippers to propel them in the water and can bring their hind flippers under their body, allowing them to “walk” on land. They range in size from the 3.3 m Stellar sea lion to the less than 1.3 m Galapagos fur seal. Other seals, also called “true seals” or “earless seals,” belong to the family Phocidae. As the name suggests, they have no external ears. Their hind flippers are shorter than those of Otariids and are used for propulsion in the water while their front flippers are used for locomotion on land. They are more adapted to aquatic life than sea lions and fur seals. They range in size from the 5 m Elephant seal to the less than 1.2 m Baikal seal. The walrus is the sole member of the family Odobenidae. Like Phocids, they lack external ears; like Otariids, they can use their hind flippers to travel on land. In addition to blubber, they also have thick skin (reaching up to 4 cm). Both sexes grow tusks, used for fighting, display, and anchoring themselves to the ice. Unlike the other pinnipeds, they lack visible fur. The walrus can grow to 4.6 m. Status: Historically, commercial exploitation has driven many seal, sea lion and walrus species to the brink of extinction. Today, many threats such as pollution and entanglement continue to threaten populations. According to the 2006 COSEWIC report, of those species evaluated, 1 species is threatened and 2 species are of special concern within Canada. Manatees and Dugongs Manatees and dugongs are fully aquatic, but, unlike whales and dolphins, they are tolerant to different salinities, but are intolerant to cold and are only found in shallow, tropical waters. Often referred to as sea-cows, manatees and dugongs are the only herbivorous marine mammals. They are large and travel very slowly, and have algae grow on their backs. Manatees belong to the family Trichechidae. They have a large, paddle-shaped tail and have a prehensile upper lip that is used to gather food and also for communication. They can grow up to 3.6 m. As a manatee wears out its molars, they are replaced by new ones growing in from the back. Only one species of dugong, Dugong dugon, remains. Most dugongs live in the northern waters of Australia. Unlike manatees, they have a fluked tail, incisor tusks and a sharply down-turned snout. They are usually smaller than manatees, but can reach 3 m. Also, they do not replace their teeth as manatees do. Status: Manatees and dugongs are vulnerable to a variety of threats including over-harvesting and habitat destruction. Conflict with humans over coastal habitat threatens populations with greater risk of collisions with boats, pollution, and entanglement. According to the IUCN 2006 Red List, of those species evaluated, 1 species is extinct and 4 species are vulnerable. Sea Otters Sea otters are large otters found in the North Pacific Ocean, spending most of their lives at sea. They have long, streamlined bodies and extremely dense fur. They must consume large amounts of food per day and are often found floating on their backs in kelp forests as they eat and groom. They may either be solitary or congregate in groups. Otters are part of the family Mustelidae and two species are considered marine mammals: Enhydra lutris (sea otter) and Lutra felina (marine otter). As they do not have a thick layer of blubber, they rely on very dense fur for retaining heat. They also have sebaceous glands that secrete a barrier between water and the skin. They have a special spinal column that allows for great flexibility. They have a high metabolism and consume between 20 and 25% of their body weight each day. The sea otter can reach up to 1.5 m while the marine otter is usually around 1 m. Sea otters are also the only carnivore with less than four lower incisors. Sea otters are found in the North Pacific while the latter are found in southwest South America. Status: Almost hunted to extinction for their fur, pollution, poaching and oil spills all continue to threaten sea otters. According to the IUCN 2006 Red List, the sea otter is endangered. Polar Bears Polar bears are the only marine bear. They are semi-aquatic and spend much of their time on land and ice. As a result, they lack many of the adaptations to marine life found in other marine mammals. Their range is limited due to their dependence upon the availability of sea ice in order to hunt seals. Although they mostly feed on seals, polar bears will eat anything they can kill. In addition to a thick layer of blubber, polar bears have a dense fur that is hollow and transparent, appearing white to provide camouflage. They also have black skin for absorbing sunlight. Their blubber also acts to aid buoyancy, augmenting the bears’ swimming ability. Polar bears are one of the largest land predators, reaching up to 3.3 m. Status: While polar bears face a variety of threats, including pollution, most attention has been given to the habitat destruction caused by climate change and its drastic effect upon the sea ice. It is estimated that if global warming continues at the present rate, the species will become extinct within 100 years. According to the 2006 COSEWIC report, the polar bear is designated special concern.	i don't know
Which aid to home comfort did Schuyler Williams invent in 1882?	Hans Geiger - Biography Hans Geiger Bith Date: September 30, 1882 Death Date: September 24, 1945 Place of Birth: Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany Nationality: German Occupations: experimental physicist Hans Geiger (1882-1945) invented the Geiger counter. Hans Geiger was a German nuclear physicist best known for his invention of the Geiger counter, a device used for counting atomic particles, and for his pioneering work in nuclear physics with Ernest Rutherford. Johannes Wilhelm Geiger was born in Neustadt an-der-Haardt (now Neustadt an-der-Weinstrasse), Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on September 30, 1882. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger, was a professor of philology at the University of Erlangen from 1891 to 1920. The eldest of five children, two boys and three girls, Geiger was educated initially at Erlangen Gymnasium, from which he graduated in 1901. After completing his compulsory military service, he studied physics at the University of Munich, and at the University of Erlangen where his tutor was Professor Eilhard Wiedemann. He received a doctorate from the latter institution in 1906 for his thesis on electrical discharges through gases. Joins Ernest Rutherford in Manchester That same year, Geiger moved to Manchester University in England to join its esteemed physics department. At first he was an assistant to its head, Arthur Schuster, an expert on gas ionization. When Schuster departed in 1907, Geiger continued his research with Schuster's successor, Ernest Rutherford, and the young physicist Ernest Marsden. Rutherford was to have a profound influence on young Geiger, sparking his interest in nuclear physics. Their relationship, which began as partners on some of Geiger's most important experiments, was lifelong and is documented in a series of letters between them. In addition to supervising the research students working at the lab, Geiger began a series of experiments with Rutherford on radioactive emissions, based on Rutherford's detection of the emission of alpha particles from radioactive substances. Together they began researching these alpha particles, discovering among other things that two alpha particles appeared to be released when uranium disintegrated. Since alpha particles can penetrate through thin walls of solids, Rutherford and Geiger presumed that they could move straight through atoms. Geiger designed the apparatus that they used to shoot streams of alpha particles through gold foil and onto a screen where they were observed as scintillations, or tiny flashes of light. Manually counting the thousands of scintillations produced per minute was a laborious task. Geiger was reputedly something of a workaholic, who put in long hours recording the light flashes. David Wilson noted in Rutherford: Simple Genius that in a 1908 letter to his friend Henry A. Bumstead, Rutherford remarked, "Geiger is a good man and work[s] like a slave.... [He] is a demon at the work and could count at intervals for a whole night without disturbing his equanimity. I damned vigorously after two minutes and retired from the conflict." Geiger was challenged by the haphazardness of their methodology to invent a more precise technique. His solution was a primitive version of the "Geiger counter," the machine with which his name is most often associated. This prototype was essentially a highly sensitive electrical device designed to count alpha particle emissions. Geiger's simple but ingenious measuring device enabled him and Rutherford to discern that alpha particles are, in fact, doubly charged nuclear particles, identical to the nucleus of helium atoms traveling at high velocity. The pair also established the basic unit of electrical charge when it is involved in electrical activity, which is equivalent to that carried by a single hydrogen atom. These results were published in two joint papers in 1908 entitled "An Electrical Method of Counting the Number of Alpha Particles" and "The Charge and Nature of the Alpha Particle." In bombarding the gold with the alpha particles Geiger and Rutherford observed that the majority of the particles went straight through. However, they unexpectedly found that a few of the particles were deflected or scattered upon contact with the atoms in the gold, indicating that they had come into contact with a very powerful electrical field. Rutherford's description of the event as recorded by Wilson revealed its importance: "It was as though you had fired a fifteen-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it had bounced back and hit you." These observations were jointly published by Geiger and Marsden in an article entitled "On a Diffuse Reflection of the Alpha-Particles" for the Proceedings of the Royal Society in June of 1909. Thirty years later Geiger recollected, "At first we could not understand this at all," Wilson noted. Geiger continued to study the scattering effect, publishing two more papers about it that year. The first, with Rutherford, was entitled "The Probability Variations in the Distribution of Alpha-Particles." The second, referring to his work with Marsden, dealt with "The Scattering of Alpha-Particles by Matter." Geiger's work with Rutherford and Marsden finally inspired Rutherford in 1910 to conclude that the atoms contained a positively charged core or nucleus which repelled the alpha particles. Wilson noted Geiger's recollection that "One day Rutherford, obviously in the best of spirits, came into my [laboratory] and told me that he now knew what the atom looked like and how to explain the large deflections of the alpha-particles. On the very same day, I began an experiment to test the relation expected by Rutherford between the number of scattered particles and the angle of scattering." Geiger's results were accurate enough to persuade Rutherford to go public with his discovery in 1910. Nonetheless, Geiger and Marsden continued their experiments to test the theory for another year, completing them in June of 1912. Their results were published in German in Vienna in 1912 and in English in the Philosophical Magazine in April of 1913. Wilson noted that Dr. T. J. Trenn, a modern physics scholar, characterized Geiger's and Marsden's work of this period: "It was not the Geiger-Marsden scattering evidence, as such, that provided massive support for Rutherford's model of the atom. It was, rather, the constellation of evidence available gradually from the spring of 1913 and this, in turn, coupled with a growing conviction, tended to increase the significance or extrinsic value assigned to the Geiger-Marsden results beyond that which they intrinsically possessed in July 1912." In 1912 Geiger gave his name to the Geiger-Nuttal law, which states that radioactive atoms with short half-lives emit alpha particles at high speed. He later revised it, and in 1928, a new theory by George Gamow and other physicists made it redundant. Also in 1912 Geiger returned to Germany to take up a post as director of the new Laboratory for Radioactivity at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin, where he invented an instrument for measuring not only alpha particles but beta rays and other types of radiation as well. Geiger's research was broadened the following year with the arrival at the laboratory of James Chadwick and Walter Bothe, two distinguished nuclear physicists. With the latter, Geiger formed what would be a long and fruitful professional association, investigating various aspects of radioactive particles together. However, their work was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War. Enlisted with the German troops, Geiger fought as an artillery officer opposite many of his old colleagues from Manchester including Marsden and H. G. J. Moseley from 1914 to 1918. The years spent crouching in trenches on the front lines left Geiger with painful rheumatism. With the war over, Geiger resumed his post at the Reichsanstalt, where he continued his work with Bothe. In 1920, Geiger married Elisabeth Heffter, with whom he had three sons. Perfects the Geiger-Mueller Counter Geiger moved from the Reichsanstalt in 1925 to become professor of physics at the University of Kiel. His responsibilities included teaching students and guiding a sizable research team. He also found time to develop, with Walther Mueller, the instrument with which his name is most often associated: the Geiger-Mueller counter, commonly referred to as the Geiger counter. Electrically detecting and counting alpha particles, the counter can locate a speeding particle within about one centimeter in space and to within a hundred-millionth second in time. It consists of a small metal container with an electrically insulated wire at its heart to which a potential of about 1000 volts is applied. In 1925, Geiger used his counter to confirm the Compton effect, that is, the scattering of X rays, which settled the existence of light quantum, or packets of energy. Geiger left Kiel for the University of Tubingen in October of 1929 to serve as professor of physics and director of research at its physics institute. Installed at the Institute, Geiger worked tirelessly to increase the Geiger counter's speed and sensitivity. As a result of his efforts, he was able to discover simultaneous bursts of radiation called cosmic-ray showers, and concentrated on their study for the remainder of his career. Geiger returned to Berlin in 1936 upon being offered the chair of physics at the Technische Hochschule. His upgrading of the counter and his work on cosmic rays continued. He was also busy leading a team of nuclear physicists researching artificial radioactivity and the by-products of nuclear fission (the splitting of the atom's nucleus). Also in 1936 Geiger took over editorship of the journal Zeitschrift fur Physik, a post he maintained until his death. It was at this time that Geiger also made a rare excursion into politics, prompted by the rise to power in Germany of Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Party. The Nazis sought to harness physics to their ends and engage the country's scientists in work that would benefit the Third Reich. Geiger and many other prominent physicists were appalled by the specter of political interference in their work by the Nazis. Together with Werner Karl Heisenberg and Max Wien, Geiger composed a position paper representing the views of most physicists, whether theoretical, experimental, or technical. As these men were politically conservative, their decision to oppose the National Socialists was taken seriously, and seventy-five of Germany's most notable physicists put their names to the Heisenberg-Wien-Geiger Memorandum. It was presented to the Reich Education Ministry in late 1936. The document lamented the state of physics in Germany, claiming that there were too few up-and-coming physicists and that students were shying away from the subject because of attacks on theoretical physics in the newspapers by National Socialists. Theoretical and experimental physics went hand in hand, it continued, and attacks on either branch should cease. The Memorandum seemed to put a stop to attacks on theoretical physics, in the short term at least. It also illustrated how seriously Geiger and his associates took the threat to their work from the Nazis. Geiger continued working at the Technische Hochschule through the war, although toward the latter part he was increasingly absent, confined to bed with rheumatism. In 1938 Geiger was awarded the Hughes Medal from the Royal Academy of Science and the Dudell Medal from the London Physics Society. He had only just started to show signs of improvement in his health when his home near Babelsberg was occupied in June of 1945. Suffering badly, Geiger was forced to flee and seek refuge in Potsdam, where he died on September 24, 1945. Historical Context The Life and Times of Hans Geiger (1882-1945) At the time of Geiger's birth: Chester A. Arthur was president of the United States James Joyce was born Schuyler Wheeler invented the first electric fan At the time of Geiger's death: Harry S Truman was president of the United States Germany surrendered to Allied forces United Nations organized 1899-1902: Boer (South African) War 1900-1930: Naturalistic and Symbolist period of American literature 1914-1918: World War I Max Born (1882-1970) English (German born) physicist Erwin Schroedinger (1887-1961) Austrian physicist C. V. Raman (1888-1970) Indian physicist Vladimir Zworykin (1889-1982) American (Russian born) physicist Edith H. Quimby (1891-1982) American biophysicist Frederick Banting (1891-1941) Canadian physician Selected world events: 1882: Robert Koch discovered tuberculosis bacillus 1887: Heinrich Hertz demonstrated electromagnetic waves 1890: Emil von Behring produced diphtheria antitoxin 1913: Niels Bohr devised a new model of atom 1924: U.S. granted Native Americans rights of U.S. citizens 1935: C.F. Richter developed the Richter Scale for measuring earthquakes 1939: First transatlantic passenger flight Further Reading books Beyerchen, Alan D., Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich, Yale University Press, 1979. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Volume 5, Scribner, 1972, pp. 330-333. Williams, Trevor I., A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, John Wiley & Sons, 1982, p. 211. Wilson, David, Rutherford: Simple Genius, MIT Press, 1983. periodicals	Mechanical fan
What is the former name of the organisation now known as 'Scope'?	Hans Geiger - Biography Hans Geiger Bith Date: September 30, 1882 Death Date: September 24, 1945 Place of Birth: Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany Nationality: German Occupations: experimental physicist Hans Geiger (1882-1945) invented the Geiger counter. Hans Geiger was a German nuclear physicist best known for his invention of the Geiger counter, a device used for counting atomic particles, and for his pioneering work in nuclear physics with Ernest Rutherford. Johannes Wilhelm Geiger was born in Neustadt an-der-Haardt (now Neustadt an-der-Weinstrasse), Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on September 30, 1882. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger, was a professor of philology at the University of Erlangen from 1891 to 1920. The eldest of five children, two boys and three girls, Geiger was educated initially at Erlangen Gymnasium, from which he graduated in 1901. After completing his compulsory military service, he studied physics at the University of Munich, and at the University of Erlangen where his tutor was Professor Eilhard Wiedemann. He received a doctorate from the latter institution in 1906 for his thesis on electrical discharges through gases. Joins Ernest Rutherford in Manchester That same year, Geiger moved to Manchester University in England to join its esteemed physics department. At first he was an assistant to its head, Arthur Schuster, an expert on gas ionization. When Schuster departed in 1907, Geiger continued his research with Schuster's successor, Ernest Rutherford, and the young physicist Ernest Marsden. Rutherford was to have a profound influence on young Geiger, sparking his interest in nuclear physics. Their relationship, which began as partners on some of Geiger's most important experiments, was lifelong and is documented in a series of letters between them. In addition to supervising the research students working at the lab, Geiger began a series of experiments with Rutherford on radioactive emissions, based on Rutherford's detection of the emission of alpha particles from radioactive substances. Together they began researching these alpha particles, discovering among other things that two alpha particles appeared to be released when uranium disintegrated. Since alpha particles can penetrate through thin walls of solids, Rutherford and Geiger presumed that they could move straight through atoms. Geiger designed the apparatus that they used to shoot streams of alpha particles through gold foil and onto a screen where they were observed as scintillations, or tiny flashes of light. Manually counting the thousands of scintillations produced per minute was a laborious task. Geiger was reputedly something of a workaholic, who put in long hours recording the light flashes. David Wilson noted in Rutherford: Simple Genius that in a 1908 letter to his friend Henry A. Bumstead, Rutherford remarked, "Geiger is a good man and work[s] like a slave.... [He] is a demon at the work and could count at intervals for a whole night without disturbing his equanimity. I damned vigorously after two minutes and retired from the conflict." Geiger was challenged by the haphazardness of their methodology to invent a more precise technique. His solution was a primitive version of the "Geiger counter," the machine with which his name is most often associated. This prototype was essentially a highly sensitive electrical device designed to count alpha particle emissions. Geiger's simple but ingenious measuring device enabled him and Rutherford to discern that alpha particles are, in fact, doubly charged nuclear particles, identical to the nucleus of helium atoms traveling at high velocity. The pair also established the basic unit of electrical charge when it is involved in electrical activity, which is equivalent to that carried by a single hydrogen atom. These results were published in two joint papers in 1908 entitled "An Electrical Method of Counting the Number of Alpha Particles" and "The Charge and Nature of the Alpha Particle." In bombarding the gold with the alpha particles Geiger and Rutherford observed that the majority of the particles went straight through. However, they unexpectedly found that a few of the particles were deflected or scattered upon contact with the atoms in the gold, indicating that they had come into contact with a very powerful electrical field. Rutherford's description of the event as recorded by Wilson revealed its importance: "It was as though you had fired a fifteen-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it had bounced back and hit you." These observations were jointly published by Geiger and Marsden in an article entitled "On a Diffuse Reflection of the Alpha-Particles" for the Proceedings of the Royal Society in June of 1909. Thirty years later Geiger recollected, "At first we could not understand this at all," Wilson noted. Geiger continued to study the scattering effect, publishing two more papers about it that year. The first, with Rutherford, was entitled "The Probability Variations in the Distribution of Alpha-Particles." The second, referring to his work with Marsden, dealt with "The Scattering of Alpha-Particles by Matter." Geiger's work with Rutherford and Marsden finally inspired Rutherford in 1910 to conclude that the atoms contained a positively charged core or nucleus which repelled the alpha particles. Wilson noted Geiger's recollection that "One day Rutherford, obviously in the best of spirits, came into my [laboratory] and told me that he now knew what the atom looked like and how to explain the large deflections of the alpha-particles. On the very same day, I began an experiment to test the relation expected by Rutherford between the number of scattered particles and the angle of scattering." Geiger's results were accurate enough to persuade Rutherford to go public with his discovery in 1910. Nonetheless, Geiger and Marsden continued their experiments to test the theory for another year, completing them in June of 1912. Their results were published in German in Vienna in 1912 and in English in the Philosophical Magazine in April of 1913. Wilson noted that Dr. T. J. Trenn, a modern physics scholar, characterized Geiger's and Marsden's work of this period: "It was not the Geiger-Marsden scattering evidence, as such, that provided massive support for Rutherford's model of the atom. It was, rather, the constellation of evidence available gradually from the spring of 1913 and this, in turn, coupled with a growing conviction, tended to increase the significance or extrinsic value assigned to the Geiger-Marsden results beyond that which they intrinsically possessed in July 1912." In 1912 Geiger gave his name to the Geiger-Nuttal law, which states that radioactive atoms with short half-lives emit alpha particles at high speed. He later revised it, and in 1928, a new theory by George Gamow and other physicists made it redundant. Also in 1912 Geiger returned to Germany to take up a post as director of the new Laboratory for Radioactivity at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin, where he invented an instrument for measuring not only alpha particles but beta rays and other types of radiation as well. Geiger's research was broadened the following year with the arrival at the laboratory of James Chadwick and Walter Bothe, two distinguished nuclear physicists. With the latter, Geiger formed what would be a long and fruitful professional association, investigating various aspects of radioactive particles together. However, their work was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War. Enlisted with the German troops, Geiger fought as an artillery officer opposite many of his old colleagues from Manchester including Marsden and H. G. J. Moseley from 1914 to 1918. The years spent crouching in trenches on the front lines left Geiger with painful rheumatism. With the war over, Geiger resumed his post at the Reichsanstalt, where he continued his work with Bothe. In 1920, Geiger married Elisabeth Heffter, with whom he had three sons. Perfects the Geiger-Mueller Counter Geiger moved from the Reichsanstalt in 1925 to become professor of physics at the University of Kiel. His responsibilities included teaching students and guiding a sizable research team. He also found time to develop, with Walther Mueller, the instrument with which his name is most often associated: the Geiger-Mueller counter, commonly referred to as the Geiger counter. Electrically detecting and counting alpha particles, the counter can locate a speeding particle within about one centimeter in space and to within a hundred-millionth second in time. It consists of a small metal container with an electrically insulated wire at its heart to which a potential of about 1000 volts is applied. In 1925, Geiger used his counter to confirm the Compton effect, that is, the scattering of X rays, which settled the existence of light quantum, or packets of energy. Geiger left Kiel for the University of Tubingen in October of 1929 to serve as professor of physics and director of research at its physics institute. Installed at the Institute, Geiger worked tirelessly to increase the Geiger counter's speed and sensitivity. As a result of his efforts, he was able to discover simultaneous bursts of radiation called cosmic-ray showers, and concentrated on their study for the remainder of his career. Geiger returned to Berlin in 1936 upon being offered the chair of physics at the Technische Hochschule. His upgrading of the counter and his work on cosmic rays continued. He was also busy leading a team of nuclear physicists researching artificial radioactivity and the by-products of nuclear fission (the splitting of the atom's nucleus). Also in 1936 Geiger took over editorship of the journal Zeitschrift fur Physik, a post he maintained until his death. It was at this time that Geiger also made a rare excursion into politics, prompted by the rise to power in Germany of Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Party. The Nazis sought to harness physics to their ends and engage the country's scientists in work that would benefit the Third Reich. Geiger and many other prominent physicists were appalled by the specter of political interference in their work by the Nazis. Together with Werner Karl Heisenberg and Max Wien, Geiger composed a position paper representing the views of most physicists, whether theoretical, experimental, or technical. As these men were politically conservative, their decision to oppose the National Socialists was taken seriously, and seventy-five of Germany's most notable physicists put their names to the Heisenberg-Wien-Geiger Memorandum. It was presented to the Reich Education Ministry in late 1936. The document lamented the state of physics in Germany, claiming that there were too few up-and-coming physicists and that students were shying away from the subject because of attacks on theoretical physics in the newspapers by National Socialists. Theoretical and experimental physics went hand in hand, it continued, and attacks on either branch should cease. The Memorandum seemed to put a stop to attacks on theoretical physics, in the short term at least. It also illustrated how seriously Geiger and his associates took the threat to their work from the Nazis. Geiger continued working at the Technische Hochschule through the war, although toward the latter part he was increasingly absent, confined to bed with rheumatism. In 1938 Geiger was awarded the Hughes Medal from the Royal Academy of Science and the Dudell Medal from the London Physics Society. He had only just started to show signs of improvement in his health when his home near Babelsberg was occupied in June of 1945. Suffering badly, Geiger was forced to flee and seek refuge in Potsdam, where he died on September 24, 1945. Historical Context The Life and Times of Hans Geiger (1882-1945) At the time of Geiger's birth: Chester A. Arthur was president of the United States James Joyce was born Schuyler Wheeler invented the first electric fan At the time of Geiger's death: Harry S Truman was president of the United States Germany surrendered to Allied forces United Nations organized 1899-1902: Boer (South African) War 1900-1930: Naturalistic and Symbolist period of American literature 1914-1918: World War I Max Born (1882-1970) English (German born) physicist Erwin Schroedinger (1887-1961) Austrian physicist C. V. Raman (1888-1970) Indian physicist Vladimir Zworykin (1889-1982) American (Russian born) physicist Edith H. Quimby (1891-1982) American biophysicist Frederick Banting (1891-1941) Canadian physician Selected world events: 1882: Robert Koch discovered tuberculosis bacillus 1887: Heinrich Hertz demonstrated electromagnetic waves 1890: Emil von Behring produced diphtheria antitoxin 1913: Niels Bohr devised a new model of atom 1924: U.S. granted Native Americans rights of U.S. citizens 1935: C.F. Richter developed the Richter Scale for measuring earthquakes 1939: First transatlantic passenger flight Further Reading books Beyerchen, Alan D., Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich, Yale University Press, 1979. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Volume 5, Scribner, 1972, pp. 330-333. Williams, Trevor I., A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, John Wiley & Sons, 1982, p. 211. Wilson, David, Rutherford: Simple Genius, MIT Press, 1983. periodicals	i don't know
Which architect designed Regent's Park, Regent Street, and the Marble Arch?	Regentâs Park â one of Londonâs greatest attractions - Explore Central London Attractions Regentâs Park â one of Londonâs greatest attractions Posted on facebook twitter Comprising an expanse of 166 hectares (410 acres) of green space, Regentâs ParkÂ is a simply outstanding place to visit for all the family. Itâs most famous for containing London ZooÂ (in its north-easterncorner), as well as theÂ Open Air Theatre, an ornate bandstand, a large boating lake (with a heronry and waterfowl), a hugeÂ mosqueÂ and a 100-acre sports field. The remaining 161 hectares (395 acres) of the park are given over to open parkland peppered with landscaped gardens, while Queen Maryâs Gardens always prove to be a pleasant haven for quiet reflection. The parkâs history Appropriated by King Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 15th Century, the land that would eventually become Regentâs Park has been under Crown ownership ever since, except in the 11 short years between 1649 and 1660 (when there was no monarchy because England and Wales were under the control of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell). Until the time of Cromwell, it was a hunting park (Marylebone Park) and, thereafter, was let out as small holdings for hay and dairy produce, until in 1811 the Prince Regent(later KingÂ George IV) commissioned architectÂ John NashÂ to redevelop the area. Originally planned as a space for a palace and grand detached villas for the Princeâs associates, this idea obviously didnât come to fruition, butNash did complete the construction offine terraced houses around the parkâs sides and integrated theproject into others he had on the go for the Prince, includingÂ Regent StreetÂ andÂ Carlton House Terrace; the resultÂ making up a majestic arcof town planning that stretched fromÂ St. Jamesâs ParkÂ to Parliament Hill and stands as one of the first ever examples of aÂ garden suburb. Originally opened to the general public in 1835, the park could first be visited by pedestrians and perambulators twice a week. London Zoo A fantastic day out, London Zoon is the worldâs oldest scientific zoo, thus run by the Zoological Society of London, and houses a staggering 19,178 individual animals of 806 different species. Spread across 15 hectares (36 acres), the zoo was established by Sir Stamford Raffles and Sir Humphry Davy (famous for inventing the Davy Lamp) and opened in 1828; it was granted a Royal Charter the following year and opened to the public in 1847. Among the zooâs most popular attractions today is âGorilla Kingdomâ, âLand of the Lionsâ, âTiger Territoryâ, âPenguin Beachâ, âIn with the Lemursâ and its Komodo dragon enclosure. Famous former residents include the only living quagga (a now extinct breed of plains zebra) ever to be photographed, Osbaych the hippopotamus (the first of his species to set foot in Europe since Roman times) and Guy the western lowland gorilla, whom lived in the zoo for 31 years up to 1978. In 1991, facing the threat of closure, London Zoo made its plight public which generated a huge amount of financial support ensuring it could remain open and eventually reach its present state of enormous popularity. Going forwards, thanks to its âTiger S.O.Sâ programme (launched in 2011), the zoo aims to raise funds to help save the Sumatran tiger; it will use these funds to extend its three Sumatran tiger projects in Indonesia. Open Air Theatre First opening in 1932, the parkâs Open Air Theatre is one of the most popular âalternativeâ attractions in the capital â a must visit stage venue in the spring and summer months, being that itâs genuinely entirely open to the elements (the only sheltered part of the site is the bar â one of the longest in the city, incidentally â which runs the length of the tiered auditorium). Attracting top UK thesping talent every year to its seasonal mix of Shakespeare, classic plays and musical productions, the theatre is dependent on information from the Met Office, whom it contacts prior to every performance for an immediate forecast, in order to determine whether the performance might go ahead lest it be spoilt by the notoriously changeable British weather. A delightfully warm and breezy way to spend a cultural afternoon or evening in London, especially for visitors to a Montcalm luxury hotel, whether it be one in the Marble Arch area or a hotel in Chiswell Street in the City. Gardens Home to the Open Air Theatre, Queen Maryâs Gardens are located in Regentâs Park Londonâs Inner Circle, and are particularly noted for their outstandingly tendered rose gardens thatfeature more than 30,000 flowers. Created in the 1930s,the site was originally used as a plant nursery and was later leased to theÂ Royal Botanic Society, before Queen Mary (consort to King George V), in an ambassadorial role, oversaw its development into a refuge of beautiful foliage for all, ensuringthis part of the park opened to the general public for the first time. In addition to Queen Maryâs Gardens, thereâs also the formal Italian Gardens and, next to them, the informal English Gardens in the parkâs south-eastern corner, as well as the gardens of St Johnâs Lodge. Other features Near the park is the modern landmark thatâs the enormous, domedLondon Central Mosque, which is actually better known as Regentâs Park mosque, while the south, east and most of the west side of the park are lined with the John Nash-designed whitestuccoÂ terraced houses (as mentioned above). Additionally, Regentâs Canal, which connects theÂ Grand Union CanalÂ to the oldÂ London docks, runs through the northern end of the park, which itself backs on to Primrose Hill. Reaching a height of 256 feet (78Â metres), this hill gives a clear view ofÂ Central London, whileÂ Belsize Park andÂ HampsteadÂ also border the park to the north. Sport In addition to three playgrounds and the famous boating lake, the parkâs 100-acre sports field offers visitors the chance play the likesof tennis, athletics, cricket, softball, rounders, football, hockey, netball, rugby, ultimate Frisbee and Australian Rules football. Belsize Park Rugby Football ClubÂ also host their home games in the park. More from my site	Nash
Who, in legend, was the mighty hunter, and great- grandson of Noah?	Hotels Near Regent`s Park, London \| 75% off \| Hotel Direct Hotels Near Regent`s Park, London Hotels near Regent`s Park Search hotels near Regent`s Park Search theatre + hotels Search rail + hotels near Regent`s Park Hotel only Railcards must be carried on journeys Your London hotel FREE child places Why book a hotel near Regent`s Park? Regent`s Park is 410 acres of open parkland in the north west part of central London. Notably the northern side of the park is the home of London Zoo and in the centre of the park you`ll discover a large boating and wild fowl lake. The park is bounded by a ring road called the Outer Circle which is 4.3 km long. Much of the park is lined with avenues of elegant white stucco houses designed by John Nash. During the summer various concerts and family events are held in the park. Lord`s Cricket Ground is also close by. The park`s green oasis of calm and world-class zoo place hotels near Regent`s Park in a wonderful spot, particularly for families. Regent`s Park trivia.Henry VIII appropriated Regent`s Park from Barking Abbey to the Crown during his dissolution of the monastries. It has never been given back and is still a Crown property today! No booking fees. Prices include VAT. Distances are from Regent`s Park. Order by:	i don't know
Which group released the albums; 'Cloud Cuckoo Land' and 'Sense And Jollification'?	Popdose Flashback '90: The Lightning Seeds, "Cloudcuckooland" Jon Cummings When the Lightning Seeds sprouted on modern rock radio in the spring of 1990, their songs felt (as much as anything on modern rock radio could feel) like a comfy old pair of shoes — a six- or seven-year-old pair, to be specific. Indeed, to extend another metaphor to its breaking point, Ian Broudie’s bouncy, synth-laden pop enveloped listeners like a Seed-ed cloud that had been waiting quite a while to burst – yet once it did, it became the sunniest thing on radio for most of the year. The Lightning Seeds were Broudie, for all intents and purposes, when Cloudcuckooland appeared in the U.K. in 1989 (and in the States on MCA in March 1990). A Liverpudlian who had teamed with the future Frankie, Holly Johnson, in a late-’70s punk band called Big in Japan, Broudie by 1990 was a well-traveled producer of albums for Echo and the Bunnymen, the Fall, the Colourfield and others. Interestingly, his productions were credited to “Kingbird” – and when he decided to record his own music he shielded himself behind a group name, though he had no “group” to speak of. At least the name was catchy. So were the songs. The Lightning Seeds’ calling card was “ Pure ,” a delightful sing-along on which he sounded like a mellowed-out Neil Tennant fronting late-period Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark. (No wonder, since the track’s trademark synth hook was provided by OMD’s Andy McCluskey.) The giddy, rapid-fire chorus sealed the deal, cementing the enormous appeal of a song that begged to be featured over the denouement of a John Hughes movie. “Pure” made the British Top 20 and the American Top 40, in addition to climbing into the Top 10 on modern rock radio. It was followed quickly by the album’s leadoff track, “All I Want” – a song whose chorus (“Stop what’s going on / Stop what’s going wrong / You’d better listen from now on”) might have been more demanding had Broudie not sounded so damn laid-back about the whole thing. Another gorgeous track, this time more guitar-driven (but with a subtle but nifty synth underlay between lines in the verses), “All I Want” might have served as the Third Wheel’s theme song in that same Hughes film – Duckie’s, perhaps, in Pretty in Pink : The College Years. Alas, Hughes was no longer making such movies by 1990 – and radio, for the most part, had moved on from synth-laden pop by that time as well. As a result, the hits from Cloudcuckooland seemed anachronistic from the moment they arrived – irresistible throwbacks to the sound that had enlivened radio a few years before, but throwbacks just the same. Happily, radio focused on the “irresistible” part of the equation – “All I Want” top-tenned at modern rock as well – but Broudie did take some critical knocks for the lack of innovation, indeed of anything expressly new at all, to go with those hooks. It didn’t help that the dropoff in quality was rather steep from the singles to the rest of the album, or that even some tracks that weren’t so dominated by McCluskey’s keyboards hearkened back to earlier (and greater) ’80s glories. “Sweet Dreams” brought together the drum sound Broudie had achieved for Echo and the Bunnymen’s early LPs with New Order-ish guitars (think “Love Vigilantes”) and more than a touch of the Jesus and Mary Chain in the melody. The echoing guitars on “Don’t Let Go” offered, well, echoes of Feargal Sharkey’s “A Good Heart.” And the jaw-droppingly odd “Control the Flame” sounds, at certain moments, like a Thompson Twins track gone horribly wrong. Broudie didn’t wear his record collection so obviously on his sleeve on Cloudcuckooland’s slower numbers, but neither did his aesthetic lend itself particularly well to sincere balladry. Despite these flaws, the brilliance of the singles sent the album into the top 50 in the U.S.; in fact, its placement in the States topped its performance in Britain. Unfortunately, Cloudcuckooland was the only Lightning Seeds album to attain anything like that level of success on these shores, even though Broudie kept cranking out delightful singles through the ’90s: the New Order-ish “The Life of Riley” and “Blowing Bubbles,” “ Sense ,” “Lucky You, “Change,” “ Life’s Too Short .” (Broudie even got his John Hughes movie – sort of – when “Change” was featured on the Clueless soundtrack in 1995.) As the Lightning Seeds’ chart fortunes waned in the U.S., they eventually spiked in the U.K. with the group’s third album, Jollification (1994), and particularly with the football chant “Three Lions.” Written for England’s ’96 European Cup squad, the song (co-written with a couple of Brit comedians) topped the charts that year and again two years later, in time for the World Cup; it has re-charted during each World Cup since then, and we can expect another appearance this summer. His dotage thus well-funded, Broudie & Co. (multi-instrumentalist Simon Rogers has been a full member since Sense) took a decade between albums before returning last year with last year’s Four Winds.	The Lightning Seeds
In which region in France is Camembert cheese produced?	Free The Lightning Seeds album Cloudcuckooland download & streaming \| SONG365 47 Listener Summary Of Cloudcuckooland Cloudcuckooland by The Lightning Seeds release on Feb 14, 1989Cloudcuckooland include All I Want, Bound in a Nutshell, Pure, Sweet Dreams, The Nearly Man, Joy, Love Explosion, Don't Let Go, Control the Flame, The Price, Fools, Frenzy [*] Popular Albums By The Lightning Seeds	i don't know
For which young king did Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, act as regent or protector?	Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector (c.1506-1552) Search EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF SOMERSET, Lord Protector of England, born about 1506, was the eldest surviving son of Sir John Seymour of Wolf Hall, Wiltshire, by his wife Margaret, eldest daughter of Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlested, Suffolk. The Seymours claimed descent from a companion of William the Conqueror, who took his name from St Maur-sur-Loire in Touraine; and the protector's mother was really descended from Edward III . His father was knighted by Henry VII for his services against the Cornish rebels at Blackheath in 1497, was present at the two interviews between Henry VIII and Francis I in 1520 and 1532, and died on the 21st of December, 1536. Edward was "enfant d'honneur" to Mary Tudor at her marriage with Louis XII in 1514, served in the Duke of Suffolk 's campaign in France in 1523, being knighted by the duke at Roze on the 1st of November, and accompanied Cardinal Wolsey on his embassy to France in 1527. Appointed esquire of the body to Henry VIII in 1529, he grew in favour with the king, who visited his manor at Elvetham in Hampshire in October 1535. On the 5th of June 1536, a week after his sister Jane 's marriage to Henry, he was created Viscount Beauchamp of Hache in Somerset, and a fortnight after Edward VI 's birth in October 1537, he was raised to the earldom of Hertford. Queen Jane Seymour 's death was a blow to his prospects, and in 1538 he was described as being "young and wise" but of "small power." He continued, however, to rise in political importance. In 1541, during Henry's absence in the north, Hertford, Cranmer and Audley had the chief management of affairs in London; in September 1542 he was appointed warden of the Scottish marches, and a few months later Lord High Admiral, a post which he almost immediately relinquished in favour of the future Duke of Northumberland . In March 1544 he was made Lieutenant-general of the North and instructed to punish the Scots for their repudiation of the treaty of marriage between Prince Edward and the infant Mary Queen of Scots . He landed at Leith in May, captured and pillaged Edinburgh, and returned a month later. In July he was appointed Lieutenant of the Realm under the queen regent, Katherine Parr , during Henry's absence at Boulogne , but in August he joined the king and was present at the surrender of the town. In the autumn he was one of the commissioners sent to Flanders to keep Charles V to the terms of his treaty with England, and in January 1545 he was placed in command at Boulogne, where on the 26th he brilliantly repelled an attempt of Marshal de Biez to recapture the town. In May he was once more appointed Lieutenant-general in the North to avenge the Scottish victory at Ancrum Moor; this he did by a savage foray into Scotland in September. In March 1546 he was sent back to Boulogne to supersede Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey , whose command had not been a success; and in June he was engaged in negotiations for peace with France and for the delimitation of the English conquests. From October to the end of Henry's reign he was in attendance on the king, engaged in that unrecorded struggle for predominance which was to determine the complexion of the government during the coming minority. Personal, political and religious rivalry separated him and Lisle from the Howards, and Surrey 's hasty temper precipitated his own and his father's ruin. They could not acquiesce in the Imperial ambassador's verdict that Hertford and Lisle were the only noblemen of fit age and capacity to carry on the government; and Surrey's attempt to secure the predominance of his family led to his own execution and to his father's ( Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk ) imprisonment in the Tower. Their overthrow had barely been accomplished when Henry VIII died on the 28th of January 1547. Preparations had already been made for a further advance in the ecclesiastical reformation and for a renewal of the design upon Scotland; and the new government to some extent proceeded on the lines which Chapuys anticipated that Henry VIII would have followed had he lived. He had no statutory power to appoint a protector, but in the council of regency which he nominated, Hertford and Lisle enjoyed a decisive preponderance; and the council at its first meeting after Henry's death determined to follow precedent and appoint a protector. Hertford was their only possible choice; he represented the predominant party, he was Edward VI 's nearest relative, he was senior to Lisle in the peerage and superior to him in experience. Seven weeks later, however, after Lord-Chancellor Wriothesley , the leading Catholic, had been deprived of office Hertford, who had been made Duke of Somerset, succeeded in emancipating himself from the trammels originally imposed on him as Protector; and he became king in everything but name and prestige. His ideas were in striking contrast with those of most Tudor statesmen, and he used his authority to divest the government of that apparatus of absolutism which Thomas Cromwell had perfected. He had generous popular sympathies and was by nature averse from coercion. "What is the matter, then?" wrote Paget in the midst of the commotions of 1549, "By my faith, sir,... liberty, liberty. And your grace would have too much gentleness." In his first parliament, which met in November 1547, he procured the repeal of all the heresy laws and nearly all the treason laws passed since Edward III . Even with regard to Scotland he had protested against his instructions of 1544, and now ignored the claim to suzerainty which Henry VIII had revived, seeking to win over the Scots by those promises of autonomy, free trade, and equal privileges with England, which many years later eventually reconciled them to union. But the Scots were not thus to be won in 1547: "What would you say," asked one, "if your lad were a lass, and our lass were a lad?" and Scottish sentiment backed by Roman Catholic influence and by French intrigues, money and men, proved too strong for Somerset's amiable invitations. The Scots turned a deaf ear to his persuasions; the protector led another army into Scotland in September 1547, and won the battle of Pinkie (Sept. 10). He trusted to the garrisons he established throughout the Lowlands to wear down Scottish opposition; but their pressure was soon weakened by troubles in England and abroad, and Mary was transported to France to wed Francis II in 1557. Somerset apparently thought that the religious question could be settled by public discussion, and throughout 1547 and 1548 England went as it pleased so far as church services were concerned; all sorts of experiments were tried, and the country was involved in a grand theological debate, in which Protestant refugees from abroad hastened to join. The result convinced the protector that the government must prescribe one uniform order which all should be persuaded or constrained to obey; but the first Book of Common Prayer, which was imposed by the first Act of Uniformity in 1549, was a studious compromise between the new and the old learning, very different from the aggressive Protestantism of the second book imposed after Somerset had been removed, in 1552. The Catholic risings in the west in 1549 added to Somerset's difficulties, but were not the cause of his fall. The factious and treasonable conduct of his brother, Thomas Seymour , the Lord High Admiral, in whose execution (March 20, 1549) the protector weakly acquiesced, also impaired his authority; but the main cause of his ruin was the divergence between him and the majority of the council over the questions of constitutional liberty and enclosures of the commons. The majority scouted Somerset's notions of liberty and deeply resented his championship of the poor against greedy landlords and capitalists. His efforts to check enclosures by means of parliamentary legislation, royal proclamations, and commissions of inquiry were openly resisted or secretly foiled, and the popular revolts which their failure provoked cut the ground from Somerset's feet. He was divided in mind between his sympathy with the rebels and his duty to maintain law and order. France, which was bent on ruining the protector's schemes in Scotland and on recovering Boulogne, seized the opportunity to declare war on August the 8th; and the outlying forts in the Boulonnais fell into their hands, while the Scots captured Haddington. These misfortunes gave a handle to Somerset's enemies. Warwick combined on the same temporary platform Catholics who resented the Book of Common Prayer, Protestants who thought Somerset's mildness paltering with God's truth, and the wealthy classes as a whole. In September he concerted measures with the ex-lord-chancellor Wriothesley; and in October, after a vain effort to rouse the masses in his favour, Somerset was deprived of the protectorate and sent to the Tower. But the hostile coalition broke up as soon as it had to frame a constructive policy; Warwick ( John Dudley ) jockeyed the Catholics out of the council and prepared to advance along Protestant lines. He could hardly combine proscription of the Catholics with that of Somerset, and the Duke was released in February 1550. For a time the rivals seemed to agree, and Warwick's son married Somerset's daughter. But growing discontent with Warwick made Somerset too dangerous. In October 1551, after Warwick had been created Duke of Northumberland , Somerset was sent to the Tower on an exaggerated charge of treason, which broke down at his trial. He was, however, as a sort of compromise, condemned on a charge of felony for having sought to effect a change of government. Few expected that the sentence would be carried out, and apparently Northumberland found it necessary to forge an instruction from Edward VI to that effect. Somerset was executed on the 22nd of January 1552, dying with exemplary patience and fortitude. His eldest son by his second wife was re-created Earl of Hertford by Elizabeth I , and his great-grandson William was restored as 2nd Duke of Somerset in 1660. His children by his first wife had been disinherited owing to the jealousy of his second; but their descendants came into the titles and property when the younger line died out in 1750. Other Local Resources:	Edward VI of England
What is the surname of 'Harry Potter's' schoolboy friend 'Ron'?	Seymour, Edward (1506?-1552) (DNB00) - Wikisource, the free online library Seymour, Edward (1506?-1552) (DNB00) 608758 Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900 , Volume 51 Seymour, Edward (1506?-1552)Albert Frederick Pollard1897 SEYMOUR, EDWARD, first Earl of Hertford and Duke of Somerset (1506?–1552), the Protector, was the eldest surviving son of Sir John Seymour (1476?–1536) of Wolf Hall, Wiltshire. The Seymours claimed descent from a companion of William the Conqueror, who took his name from St. Maur-sur-Loire in Touraine, and was ancestor of William de St. Maur, who in 1240 held the manors of Penhow and Woundy in Monmouthshire (cf. J. R. Planché in Journ. Archæol. Assoc. xiii. 327–8). William's great-grandson, Sir Roger de St. Maur, had two sons: John, whose granddaughter conveyed these manors by marriage into the family of Bowlay of Penhow, who bore the Seymour arms; and Sir Roger (fl. 1360), who married Cicely, eldest sister and heir of John de Beauchamp, baron Beauchamp de Somerset (d. 1361); she brought to the Seymours the manor of Hache, Somerset, and her grandson, Roger Seymour, by his marriage with Maud, daughter and heir of Sir William Esturmi or Sturmy, acquired Wolf Hall in Wiltshire. The Protector's father, Sir John, was great-great-grandson of this last Roger. Born about 1476, he succeeded his father in 1492, was knighted by Henry VII for his services against the Cornish rebels at Blackheath in 1497, and was sheriff of Wiltshire in 1508. He was present at the sieges of Tournay and Therouenne in 1513, at the two interviews between Henry VIII and Francis in 1520 and 1532, and died on 21 Dec. 1536. He married Margaret (d. 1550), eldest daughter of Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlested, Suffolk; her grandfather, Sir Philip Wentworth, had married Mary, daughter of John, seventh lord Clifford, whose mother Elizabeth was daughter of Henry Percy (‘Hotspur’) and great-great-granddaughter of Edward III (Notes and Queries, 1st ser. viii. 51–2; Harl. MS. 6177). Sir John Seymour had ten children, of whom, John, the eldest, died unmarried on 15 July 1520, as did two other sons, John and Anthony, and a daughter Margery; Edward the Protector; Henry, who took no part in politics, was executor to his mother in 1550, and died in 1578, leaving three sons from whom there is no issue remaining, and seven daughters, from one of whom, Jane, are descended the barons Rodney; Thomas, baron Seymour of Sudeley [q. v.]; Jane Seymour [see Jane]; Elizabeth, who married, first, Sir Anthony Ughtred, secondly, in August 1537, Cromwell's son Gregory, and thirdly William Paulet, first marquis of Winchester [q. v.]; and Dorothy who married Sir Clement Smith (inscription in Bedwyn Magna Church printed in Aubrey, pp. 375–6). From the inscription on an anonymous portrait at Sudeley (Cat. Tudor Exhib. No. 196), Edward appears to have been born about 1506, and is said to have been educated first at Oxford, and then at Cambridge (Wood, Athenæ Oxon. i. 210; Cooper, Athenæ Cant. i. 107). In 1514 he was retained as ‘enfant d'honneur’ to Mary Tudor on her marriage with Louis XII of France. On 15 July 1517 he was associated with his father in a grant of the constableship of Bristol. He was probably with his father in attendance upon Charles V on his visit to England in 1522, as Chapuys afterwards mentioned Seymour as having been ‘in Charles's service’ (Letters and Papers, x. 1069). He joined the expedition of the Duke of Suffolk which landed at Calais on 24 Aug. 1523, and was present at the capture of Bray, Roye, and Montdidier, being knighted by Suffolk at Roye on 1 Nov. In the following year he became an esquire of the king's household. On 12 Jan. 1524–5 he was placed on the commission for the peace in Wiltshire, and in the same year became master of the horse to the Duke of Richmond. In July 1527 he accompanied Wolsey on his embassy to the French king (Chron. of Calais, p. 37), and in 1528 was granted some lands of the monasteries dissolved in consequence of Wolsey's visitation. On 25 March 1529 he was made steward of the manors of Henstridge, Somerset, and Charlton, Wiltshire, and in 1530 he received with his brother-in-law, Sir Anthony Ughtred, Wolsey's manors of Kexby, Leppington, and Barthorpe, all in Yorkshire. On 12 Sept. following he was appointed esquire of the body to Henry VIII, who showed him much favour, borrowing from, and occasionally lending, him money (see Letters and Papers, vols. iv. v. and vi. passim). In 1532, Seymour and his father accompanied Henry to Boulogne to meet Francis I. In the following year he became involved in a dispute with Arthur Plantagenet, viscount Lisle [q. v.], and his stepson, John Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland [q. v.], about some lands in Somerset, which lasted many years, and is the subject of innumerable letters in the Record Office (cf. Wood, Letters of Illustrious Ladies, iii. 41; Gairdner, Letters and Papers, vols. vii–xii.). In March 1534–5 he was granted various lands in Hampshire belonging to the convent of the Holy Trinity, Christchurch, London, and in the following October Henry VIII visited him at his manor of Elvetham in the same county. In March 1535–6 he was made a gentleman of the privy chamber, and a few days later, with his wife Anne and his sister Jane, was installed in the palace at Greenwich in apartments which the king could reach through a private passage (Letters and Papers, x. 601). On 5 June, a week after his sister's marriage to the king, Seymour was created Viscount Beauchamp of Hache, Somerset. Two days later he received a grant of numerous manors in Wiltshire, including Ambresbury, Easton Priory, Chippenham, and Maiden Bradley (one of the seats of the present Duke of Somerset). On 7 July he was made governor and captain of Jersey, and in August chancellor of North Wales. He had livery of his father's lands in the following year, was on 30 Jan. granted the manor of Muchelney, Somerset, and on 22 May sworn of the privy council. In the same month he was on the commission appointed to try Lords Darcy and Hussey for their share in the ‘pilgrimage of grace.’ On 15 Oct. he carried the Princess Elizabeth at Edward VI's christening (Wriothesley, Chron. i. 68), and three days later was created Earl of Hertford. The death of Queen Jane was naturally a blow to Hertford's influence, and in the following year he was described as ‘young and wise,’ but ‘of small power’ (Letters and Papers, XIII. ii. 732). In December he was put on commissions for the trial of the Marquis of Exeter, Lord Montagu, Sir Geoffrey Pole, and others; and in March 1539 he was sent to provide for the defence and fortification of Calais and Guisnes. He returned in April, and on the 16th was granted Chester Place, outside Temple Bar, London. In August Henry VIII and Cromwell spent four days (9–12) with him at Wolf Hall (Wilts Archæol. Mag. xv. App. No. iv). In the same month he received a grant of the Charterhouse at Sheen (Wriothesley, Chron. i. 105). In December he met Anne of Cleves at Calais, and returned with her to London; he wrote to Cromwell that nothing had pleased him so much as this marriage since the birth of Prince Edward (Letters and Papers, XIV. i. 1275). Cromwell's fall—which, according to the Spanish ‘Chronicle of Henry VIII,’ Hertford instigated—in the following year did not check Hertford's continuous rise in Henry's favour; and Norfolk, now the most powerful member of the council, sought to purchase his friendship by a marriage between his daughter, the Duchess of Richmond, and Hertford's brother Thomas. Throughout 1540 Hertford took an active part in the proceedings of the council, and on 9 Jan. 1540–1 he was elected a knight of the Garter. A few days later he was sent on a fruitless mission to arrange the boundaries of the English Pale in France with the French commissioners (Corr. de Marillac, pp. 257, 266–8; State Papers, viii. 510, 523–30). He then proceeded in February to inspect and report on the defences at Calais (Proc. Privy Council, ed. Nicolas, vii. 130). During Henry's progress in the north from July to November, Hertford, Cranmer, and Audley had the principal management of affairs in London (State Papers, i. 660–90), and in November the earl and the archbishop were the recipients of the charges against Catherine Howard (cf. Chronicle of Henry VIII, ed. Hume, 1889, pp. 82–4). In September 1542 Hertford was appointed warden of the Scottish marches. He served there for a few weeks (21 Oct. to 7 Dec.) under Norfolk, but in November he requested to be recalled on the ground that ‘the country knew not him, nor he them’ (State Papers, v. 222), and Rutland took his place. In December Hertford resumed attendance on the king (ib. ix. 257). On 28 Dec. he appears as lord high admiral, a post which he almost immediately relinquished in favour of John Dudley, viscount Lisle, and in January 1542–3 he was lord great chamberlain. On 1 April he took an active part in procuring the conviction and imprisonment of Norfolk's son, the Earl of Surrey, for eating flesh in Lent and riotous proceedings (Bapst, Deux Gentilhommes Poètes, p. 269). During that year Henry again visited Hertford at Wolf Hall. Meanwhile in December 1543 the Scots formed a new alliance with France, and declared the treaty with England null and void. On 5 March 1543–4 Hertford was appointed lieutenant-general in the north. He was ordered to proclaim Henry guardian of the infant Scots queen and protector of the realm, and to accuse Cardinal Beaton of causing the war between the two nations (proclamations in Addit. MS. 32654, ff. 49, 58). In the middle of April a deputation of Scottish protestants waited on Hertford with a proposal to raise a force to aid in the invasion and assassinate the cardinal; but Hertford declined to assent on his own authority, and sent the deputation on to Henry. At the end of the month his army embarked at Berwick, and on 3 May the fleet arrived in the Firth of Forth. Next day ten thousand men landed at Leith, and Blackness Castle was taken. On the 5th Lord Evers, with four thousand English horse, arrived from Berwick. The provost offered Hertford the keys of Edinburgh if he would allow all who desired to depart with their effects; but the earl demanded unconditional surrender, proclaiming that he had come to punish the Scots ‘for their detestable falsehood, to declare and show the force of his highness's sword to all such as would resist him.’ The Scots replied defiantly. On the following day Sir Christopher Morris [q. v.] blew in Canongate, and for two days the capital was pillaged without resistance. The English then returned to Leith, seizing the ships in the harbour and lading them with spoil. By the 18th they were back at Berwick, having accomplished no permanent result except further exasperating the Scots and strengthening the French alliance (Hertford's correspondence dealing with this expedition is in Addit. MS. 32654). A month later Hertford returned to London, and on 9 July he was appointed lieutenant of the kingdom under the queen-regent during Henry's absence in France (State Papers, i. 765; Rymer, xv. 39–40). On 13 Aug., however, he joined Henry at Hardelot Castle, near Boulogne, and was present at the capture of that town on 14 Sept. Hertford, indeed, is said to have bribed the French commander De Vervins to surrender the town for a large sum of money (Mémoires du Maréchal de Vieilleville, ed. 1822, i. 152–3; Nott, Surrey's Works, p. lxix). Five days later Charles V secretly concluded the peace of Crêpy with the French, leaving his English allies still at war, and on 18 Oct. a conference was opened at Calais by the three powers to arrange terms. Hertford was the principal English representative, but no results followed, and on the 26th he and Gardiner were despatched to Brussels to endeavour to extract a definite declaration of policy from the emperor (State Papers, x. 63–6, 119–36, 147–50; Addit. MS. 25114, ff. 312, 315). After much procrastination, Charles granted them three interviews, the last on 17 Nov.; but their efforts to keep him to the terms of his alliance with England were unavailing, and on the 21st they were recalled (State Papers, 202–7 et sqq.). England now made preparations to carry on the war single-handed. On 14 Jan. 1544–5 Hertford was sent to survey the fortifications of Guisnes, and a few days later he took command at Boulogne, which the French made a desperate effort to recapture. On 26 Jan. Marshal De Biez encamped before it with fourteen thousand men, while those at Hertford's command were but half that number. Nevertheless, before dawn on 6 Feb. the English sallied out with four thousand foot and seven hundred horse, and took the French by surprise. A panic seized them, and they fled, leaving their stores, ammunition, and artillery in the hands of the English (Herbert, Life and Reign of Henry VIII, ed. 1719, p. 250). This brilliant exploit rendered Boulogne safe for the time, but the defeat at Ancrum Muir, on 17 Feb., decided Henry to send Hertford once more to the Scottish border. On 2 May he was appointed lieutenant-general in the north in succession to Shrewsbury (Rymer, xv. 72), but, owing to the smallness of his force and lack of supplies, Hertford suggested a postponement of the projected invasion until August. Throughout the summer he remained at or near Newcastle, providing against the contingency of a Scots or French invasion. At length, on 6 Sept., he crossed the border; on the 13th he was at Kelso, and a few days later at Jedburgh. A list, which he sent to the government, of monasteries and castles burnt marks his course. He met with no opposition; but his invasion was only a border foray on a large scale, and on the 27th he was back at Newcastle (State Papers, v. 448–52; Hamilton Papers, vol. ii.). On 10 Oct. he received a summons to parliament, which met in November, and on the following day he set out for London. From the 24th until the following March he was in attendance at the council. On 21 March he was appointed lieutenant and captain-general of Boulogne and the Boulonnois in succession to Surrey, who had failed to hold his own against the French. He reached Calais on the 23rd (State Papers, xi. 60), and on 4 April was commissioned lieutenant-general of the army in France. In the same month he was appointed to treat for peace, which was concluded on 7 June. On the 31st he was again in London. On 19 Sept. he was once more sent to Boulogne to carry out the terms of the destruction of the fortifications (De Selve, Corr. Politique, 1888, pp. 31, 34; State Papers, i. 877, 879); but in October he was back at Windsor (Acts P. C., ed. Dasent, i. 535). From that time to the end of Henry's reign Hertford was constant in his attendance at court and council. These few months witnessed the momentous struggle for the succession to power during the coming minority of Edward VI. The numerous attainders of Henry's reign had left Norfolk and Hertford face to face as the most powerful nobles in the kingdom. The former, with his son Surrey, headed the conservative party, while Hertford, though he was far too cautious to give open expression to his views, was known to favour further steps in the direction of ecclesiastical reform. This divergence of view was accentuated by personal jealousy between Surrey and Hertford, who had recently been called in to retrieve his rival's military blunders. Surrey vowed vengeance, and, hating Hertford as an upstart, he rejected his father's proposals for matrimonial alliances between his children and Hertford's two daughters, as well as between the Duchess of Richmond and Hertford's brother Thomas. The hope of conciliation thus failed, but the struggle between the rivals, which might have led to civil war, was averted by the dramatic fall of the Howards in January 1546–7 [see Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey, (1517?–1547), and Howard, Thomas II, Earl of Surrey, (1473–1554)]. Hertford took an active part in Surrey's trial (Wriothesley, Chron. i. 177; Bapst, p. 358); he was commissioned to convey Henry's assent to the bill of attainder against Norfolk, and he acquired a share of the Howards' property; but there is not sufficient evidence to show that their fall was due to his machinations, and he did nothing to molest Norfolk after Henry's death. That event took place at 2 A.M. on Friday, 28 Jan. 1546–7; Hertford and Paget had spent the previous day in conversation with the king, they were present at his death, received his last commands, and had possession of his will. But Hertford must have already determined to set aside its provisions, and in an interview with Paget in the gallery immediately before Henry's death, and another an hour afterwards, he persuaded him to abet his bold coup d'état, promising to be guided by Paget's advice. They decided to keep the king's death a secret for the present, and to publish only so much of his will as seemed convenient; and then the earl hurried down to Hertford to get possession of the young king. On the way back, at Enfield on the 30th, Sir Anthony Browne (d. 1548) [q. v.], though ‘inclined to the old religion, gave his frank consent to Hertford being Protector, thinking it to be the surest kind of government’ (Lit. Remains of Edward VI, p. ccxlvii). On the same day, in a letter to the council, Hertford adopted the style ‘we,’ and on Monday the 31st he arrived with Edward at the Tower. Henry's death was then made known, and on the same day Paget proposed in the council that Hertford should have the protectorate. The council was divided: the reformers were represented by Cranmer, Hertford, and Lisle; the conservatives by Tunstall, Wriothesley, and Browne. Gardiner was excluded according to the terms of Henry's suspicious will; Browne had already given in his adherence to Hertford, but the chancellor Wriothesley strongly opposed the scheme. Paget's influence, however, prevailed, and the council gave Hertford ‘the chief place among them,’ with ‘the name and title of Protector of all the realms and domains of the king's majesty, and governor of his most royal person,’ adding the express condition that he was to act only ‘with the advice and consent of the rest of the executors’ (Acts of the Privy Council, ii. 4–7). On 2 Feb. he was appointed high steward of England for the coronation of Edward; on the 10th he was granted the office of treasurer of the exchequer, and that of earl marshal, which had been forfeited by Norfolk. Five days later he was created Baron Seymour of Hache, and on the 16th Duke of Somerset. On 6 March Wriothesley was removed from the chancellorship on the ground that he had used the great seal without a warrant (ib. ii. 48–59). Six days later Somerset rendered his position independent of the council by obtaining a patent as governor and protector, in which he was empowered to act with or without their advice, and ‘to do anything which a governor of the king's person or protector of the realm ought to do’ (ib. ii. 63–4, 67–74). He had now attained to almost royal authority; in a form of prayer which he used, he spoke of himself as ‘caused by Providence to rule,’ and he went so far as to address the king of France as ‘brother.’ As the first protestant ruler of England, Somerset at once set about introducing radical religious reforms. His numerous letters, preserved in the British Museum, throw little light on what convictions he had reached during Henry's reign, or how he had been induced to adopt them, but by Henry's death he had become a ‘rank Calvinist’ (Nicholas Pocock in Engl. Hist. Rev. July 1895, p. 418), and he soon entered into correspondence with the Genevan reformer. ‘From the moment of Henry's death there was a systematic attempt made by the men of the new learning, headed at first by Somerset … gradually to get rid of catholic doctrine’ (ib. p. 438). ‘There is really no other account to be given of the gradual changes that culminated in the second prayer-book of 1552 … than that Somerset was supreme, and exercised for a few years the same arbitrary sway that the late king had brought to bear upon the parliament when the Act of Six Articles was passed’ (Church Quarterly Rev. October 1892, p. 38). Cranmer, whose leanings were then Lutheran, was a ‘mere tool in his hands’ (ib. pp. 41, 42, 56). The Protector secretly encouraged books of extreme protestant views (cf. The V Abominable Blasphemies conteined in the Masse, 1548, anon. printed by H. Powell); and in the preface to the new communion office (March 1547–8), which Somerset almost certainly wrote himself, he hinted plainly at further sweeping reforms. But in his public procedure he was compelled to observe more caution. The first of his ecclesiastical acts was to compel all bishops to exercise their office durante beneplacito (6 Feb. 1546–7), and their position as mere state officials was emphasised by an act in the following November, ordering that their appointment should be made by letters patent. An ecclesiastical visitation followed for the removal of images, assertion of the royal supremacy, and the enforcement of the use of English in the church services; for their opposition to this measure Gardiner and Bonner were imprisoned in June. In July appeared the book of homilies, and in November parliament authorised the administration of the communion in both kinds, and granted all colleges, chantries, and free chapels to the king. Early in 1548 a proclamation was issued against ceremonies, and at Easter a new communion office was published; in July an English version of the Psalms and litany followed, and in November began the visitation of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, of the latter of which Somerset had been elected chancellor in 1547. In January 1549 was passed the Act of Uniformity; tithes were also regulated by parliament, and the marriage of priests allowed. Meanwhile Somerset turned his attention towards the completion of the marriage between Edward and Mary of Scotland. He had been identified more prominently than any other statesman with this policy during the late reign, and Henry had enforced it upon him during his last moments. Religious even more than political considerations urged Somerset in the same direction. He dreamt of the union of England and Scotland into one state, which under his guidance would become distinctively protestant and act as the protagonist of the Reformation in Europe. At first he avoided all reference to the feudal claim which Henry VIII had revived in 1542, and sought to win over the Scots to the projected union with England by promising free trade between the two kingdoms, autonomy for Scotland, and the substitution of Great Britain for the words England and Scotland. France encouraged the Scots to resist, and during the summer the Protector collected a large army at Berwick. In August the French captured the castle of St. Andrews, where a body of Scots protestants had held out in the English cause, and Somerset's pretensions united all Scotland in opposition. In the last week of August he reached Berwick; a fleet commanded by Clinton accompanied the army, which marched along the coast. On Sunday, 4 Sept., Somerset crossed the Tweed; passing Dunbar without waiting to attack it, he came in sight of Musselburgh on the evening of the 8th. There the Scots were encamped in numbers greatly superior to the English; on their left was the sea commanded by the English fleet, on their right was a marsh, and in front was the river Esk. The position was almost impregnable, but the Scots did not wait to be attacked. Before dawn on the 10th they crossed the Esk. Four thousand Irish who charged the English right were scattered by the fire from the fleet, but the Scottish right almost succeeded in occupying the heights on the English left. Grey's horse broke against the Scottish infantry and fled, but in their pursuit the Scots came upon the English men-at-arms and Italian musketeers, while the English cavalry formed once more and charged. A panic seized the Scots, they broke and fled, and the rout soon became a massacre; many thousand Scots were killed, the English loss being, it is said, only two hundred (cf. De Selve, p. 203). Decisive as was this battle of Musselburgh or Pinkie Cleugh—the last fought between England and Scotland as independent kingdoms—and greatly though it strengthened Somerset's personal position, it postponed further than ever the attainment of his objects. Leith was burnt on the 11th, but Mary was removed to Stirling; while the English army, provisioned only for a month, was compelled to retreat (Teulet, Papiers d'Etat relatifs à l'Histoire d'Ecosse, Bannatyne Club, vol. i.; Knox, Works, Bannatyne Club, i. 209, 213; The Complaynt of Scotland, Early Engl. Text Soc.; Patten, Expedicion into Scotland, 1548). Somerset reached London on 8 Oct. (Wriothesley, Chron. i. 186), and was received with fresh marks of honour. He declined the proposal of the city of London to welcome him with a triumphal procession, but his designation became ‘Edward, by the grace of God, duke of Somerset,’ &c., and he was allowed a special seat in the House of Lords above the other peers. Parliament met on 4 Nov., and, besides ecclesiastical reforms and other measures for the regeneration of morals, proceeded to embody in statutes Somerset's wishes for a relaxation of Henry's repressive system. All treasons created since 1352 were abolished; the six articles, the acts against lollards, and the severer clauses of the Act of Supremacy were repealed; and the Protector made an ineffectual attempt to repress vagrancy by enabling justices to condemn incurable offenders to two years' slavery, and in the last resort to slavery for life. It was probably in order to find occupation for the unemployed, as well as to afford an asylum for protestant refugees, that he established a colony of foreign weavers on his estates at Glastonbury (cf. Acts P.C. iii. 415, 490; Knox, Works, iv. 42, 564; Strype, Eccl. Mem. ii. i. 378). The last act of parliament dealt with the status of the Protector, but seems never to have passed the great seal. The fact that it made his tenure depend upon the king's pleasure instead of the duration of his minority seems to indicate that it was a machination of Somerset's enemies (see Archæologia, {sc\|xxx}}. 363–89). But foreign affairs claimed a large share of the Protector's attention, and he retained their management almost exclusively in his own hands, aided by Paget and the two secretaries of state, Sir Thomas Smith and Sir William Petre. At the beginning of Edward's reign the pope had urged Charles V to support Mary's claims by invasion, and, as a counterpoise, the council opened communications for a league with France and the German princes in March (Acts P. C. ii. 47, 60); but the proposal did not prosper (cf. De Selve, Corr. Politique, 1546–9, ed. 1888, passim). Somerset's designs on Scotland inevitably offended France, while the irritation was constantly growing through the bickerings about the fortifications of Boulogne. Though war did not formally break out, acts of hostility frequently occurred. The Protector was still sanguine of accomplishing the marriage between Edward and Mary. On 5 Feb. 1547–8 he issued ‘An Epistle or Exhortacion to Unitie and Peace, sent from the Lorde Protector … to the Nobilitie … of Scotlande’ (printed by R. Wolfe, 1548, 8vo), pointing out the advantages of the English proposals and attributing the cause of the war to Arran and his advisers. The Scots protestants were naturally on Somerset's side, and by means of bribery he maintained a party among the nobles; but he failed to prevent the conclusion of a marriage treaty between Mary and the dauphin of France, and in June a French force sailed for Scotland from Brest. In order to anticipate it, Somerset had directed William, thirteenth baron Grey de Wilton [q. v.], and Sir Thomas Palmer (d. 1553) [q. v.] to cross the border on 18 April. They took and fortified Haddington, where they left a garrison of two thousand five hundred men, and, after wasting the country round Edinburgh, returned to Berwick. In June Somerset sent Sir Thomas Smith to the emperor, and to raise two thousand German mercenaries; but Charles contented himself with fair words, while the French fleet carried off Mary to France, and the Scots recovered Home Castle and closely besieged Haddington in August. The marriage of Mary with the dauphin completed the failure of Somerset's Scottish policy, and in the following autumn his position was menaced by the intrigues of his brother the admiral [see Seymour, Thomas, Baron Seymour of Sudeley]. The Protector had naturally resented his brother's marriage with Catherine Parr, but he wrote him an affectionate letter on the occasion of his daughter's birth (31 Aug.), and endeavoured to divert him by persuasion from his reckless courses. Failing in this, he sent for him early in January 1548–9, but Thomas was contumacious, and the Protector then left him to his fate. According to the privy council register, he ‘desired for natural pity's sake licence at the passing of the bill [of attainder] to be away’ (ii. 260), and assented to that measure with the greatest reluctance; while Queen Elizabeth subsequently stated that the admiral's life would have been saved had not the council dissuaded the Protector from granting him an interview. He was present, however, at each reading of the bill of attainder in the House of Lords (see Lords' Journals, i. 345 et seq.; cf. Tytler, i. 150–1). In any case, his brother's fall was a fatal blow to Somerset's authority, and involved him in much popular odium (cf. Hayward, Edward the Sext). Troubles now began to gather thickly round the Protector; the Scots took Haddington (September 1549) and other castles held by the English. Somerset projected another invasion, but the German mercenaries refused to serve without an advance of pay, and the exchequer was not only empty, but deep in debt. The French were pressing hard on Boulogne; the outworks of Blackness, Boulogneberg, and Newhaven (Ambleteuse) fell one after another, and on 8 Aug. war with France was declared (De Selve, p. 410; Wriothesley, ii. 20). The religious innovations created a widespread discontent, which was intensified by the economic condition of the country. The depreciation of the currency and the increase of enclosures and conversion of arable into pasture lands caused widespread distress which Somerset's efforts failed to abate (see A Discourse of the Common Weal of this Realm of England, ed. Lamond, 1893). He appointed a commission to inquire into abuses arising out of the decay of tillage and frequency of enclosures (June 1548), but three bills introduced to remedy the evil were all rejected in the following session of parliament [see Hales, John, (d. 1571)]. Somerset thereupon issued a proclamation in May 1549, by which all who had enclosed lands were commanded to restore them. This produced no effect except to exasperate the landowners against him, while the commons, getting no redress, rose in revolt in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire. The rising was soon put down by Lord Grey, but in June a rebellion broke out in Devon and Cornwall, followed by another under Robert Kett [q. v.] in Norfolk. The former was actuated by religious motives, and was suppressed by John Russell, first earl of Bedford [q. v.] The Norfolk rebels laid more stress on social and economic grievances, and their revolt was more serious. Somerset thought of taking the command against them himself, but it was finally given to Warwick, who crushed the rebellion in August. This success encouraged Warwick to begin intriguing against the Protector, and he found ready listeners among many of the council. Wriothesley (now Earl of Southampton) had never forgiven Somerset his ejection from the chancellorship, and, like other adherents of the old religion, he thought that nothing but good could come of Somerset's fall. On the other hand many of the reforming party had grievances against the Protector; even his stout adherent, Paget, warned him against his arrogance and ambition, and the folly of ‘having so many irons in the fire.’ At the same time the rapacity with which he seized on church lands and the fortune he acquired for himself deprived him of popular sympathy, and added to the irritation the council felt at such arbitrary acts as making a stamp of the king's signature and erecting a court of requests in his own house. They knew, moreover, that the authority he enjoyed was usurped contrary to Henry's will. Failure at home and abroad gave Warwick his opportunity. In September he waited on Somerset with two hundred captains who had served in suppressing the late rebellions, and demanded extra pay for their services. Somerset refused, and Warwick then enlisted their support in his attempt to overthrow him (Chron. of Henry VIII, pp. 185–6). Secret meetings were held at the houses of the disaffected councillors. Somerset heard of these gatherings while at Hampton Court with Cranmer, Paget, Cecil, Petre, Sir Thomas Smith, and Sir John Thynne, all his devoted adherents. In the first few days of October he issued leaflets urging the people to rise in his defence and that of the king. His enemies, he asserted, wished to depose him because ‘we the poore comens being injuried by the extorciouse gentylmen had our pardon this yere by the … goodness of the lorde Protector, for whom let us fyght, for he lovith all just and true gentilmen which do no extorcion, and also us the poore commynaltie of Englande’ (Acts P. C. ii. 330–6). Ten thousand men are said to have responded to this call (Chron. Henry VIII, p. 186), and Somerset sent his son, Sir Edward Seymour, to Russell and Herbert, who were then returning from the west with the army that had suppressed the rebellion, entreating them to come to the rescue of the king. On the 6th he despatched Petre to London to inquire the meaning of the council's proceedings. There Warwick's adherents were in session at his residence, Ely House, Holborn. They had drawn up an indictment of Somerset's rule, and were on the point of setting out to lay it before the Protector. On the receipt of Petre's message threatening to arrest them if they proceeded to Hampton Court, they determined to remain in London. On the same day they requested the support of the mayor and aldermen, to whom Rich described the Protector's evil deeds, and sent out letters to various nobles summoning them, with their adherents, to London. Petre remained with the council, and Somerset started that night for Windsor with the king. Next day the council wrote to Cranmer and Paget requiring their adherence. On the 8th the city gave the council its support, the Tower was secured, Russell and Herbert inclined to the same side, and fifteen thousand men gathered in London to support the council (Chron. Henry VIII, p. 189). Somerset saw that his cause was lost, and promised submission. On the 10th the council wrote ordering the detention of Sir Thomas Smith, Sir Michael Stanhope (the Protector's brother-in-law), Sir John Thynne (the manager of his estates), and others. On the 12th they went down to Windsor, and on the 14th Somerset was sent to the Tower. Early in January 1549–50 an account of the proceedings taken against him was presented to parliament, and the charges were embodied in thirty-one articles. Somerset made a full confession and threw himself on the mercy of the council; on the 14th he was deposed from the protectorate by act of parliament, deprived of all his offices and of lands to the value of 2,000l. While in the Tower he solaced himself by reading devotional works, such as Wermueller's ‘Spyrytuall and most precyouse Pearle,’ translated by Coverdale, which was lent to him in manuscript, and for which he wrote a preface; it was published in the same year (London, 8vo), and subsequently passed through many editions (see Brit. Mus. Cat. and Hazlitt, Collections). He is also said to have translated out of French a letter written to him by Calvin, and printed in the same year, but no copy is known to be extant. On 6 Feb. he was set at liberty (Acts P. C. ii. 383; Wriothesley, ii. 33–4), and on the 18th received a free pardon. On 10 April he was again admitted of the privy council, and on 14 May was made a gentleman of the king's chamber. He resumed his attendances at the council on 24 April, taking precedence of all the other members, and rarely missed a meeting for the next eighteen months. Three days later his property, except what had already been disposed of, was restored to him; and on 3 June his eldest daughter, Anne, was married to Warwick's eldest son, Viscount Lisle. Although an opportunity of recovering his position seemed to be thus offered Somerset, the ambition of his rival Warwick rendered his ultimate ruin inevitable. A public slight was put on him when, on the death of his mother on 18 Oct. 1550, the council refused to go into mourning. On 10 May 1551, however, he was made lord-lieutenant of Buckinghamshire and Berkshire, in August he put down an insurrection in Sussex, and in face of the ill success of the new administration the influence of Somerset's party seemed for a moment to revive. As early as February 1550–1 some members of parliament had started the idea of again making him Protector, but a dissolution brought the scheme to nothing. Somerset endeavoured to procure Gardiner's release from the Tower, and to prevent the withdrawal of the Princess Mary's license to practise her own religion. Paget and Arundel gave him their support, and popular feeling was strongly in his favour. With this encouragement, Somerset seems to have meditated seizing his three chief enemies, Warwick, Northampton, and Pembroke, who, on their side, determined to destroy him. During the whole of September 1551 Somerset was prevented from attending the council by sickness in his household, and probably during this period the designs against him were matured. On 4 Oct. he appeared once more by their order at the council; on the same day Warwick became Duke of Northumberland, and his adherents were likewise advanced a step in the peerage. Three days later Sir Thomas Palmer (d. 1553) [q. v.] revealed to Warwick and the king a plot, which he described as having been formed in April by Somerset, Arundel, Paget, and himself, with the object of raising the country and murdering Warwick. On the 11th, Northumberland and Palmer again discussed the matter, and on the same day the council ordered an inquiry into the amount of Somerset's debts to the king. This roused Somerset's suspicions, but he attended the council as usual on the 16th. A few hours later he was arrested and sent to the Tower. The duchess, Lord Grey, and others of his adherents, followed him thither next day; and finally, Palmer, who had been left at liberty for ten days after giving his information, was arrested. On the 19th the council communicated to the corporation the baseless story that Somerset had plotted to destroy the city of London, seize the Tower and the Isle of Wight (Wriothesley, ii. 56–7). He was also accused of endeavouring to secure for himself and his heirs the succession to the crown (cf. ‘A Tract agaynst Edward, Duke of Somerset,’ extant among the Loseley MSS., Hist MSS. Comm. 7th Rep. App. p. 607). For six weeks Somerset remained in the Tower while evidence was being collected against him. There can be no doubt that he had meditated supplanting Northumberland, but the plot against the duke's life rests on no satisfactory evidence. Apart from the improbabilities of Palmer's story (see Tytler, ii. 1–70), there is the direct statement of Renard that both Northumberland and Palmer confessed before their death that they had concocted the evidence (Froude, v. 36 n.) On Tuesday, 1 Dec., at 5 A.M. Somerset was conveyed by water from the Tower to Westminster Hall, to stand trial by his peers. The charge of treason broke down, but he was condemned for felony, and sentenced to be hanged; the people ‘supposing he had been clerely quitt, when they see the axe of the Tower put downe, made such a shryke and castinge up of caps, that it was heard into the Long Acre beyonde Charinge Crosse,’ and on his way back to the Tower they ‘cried God save him all the way’ (Wriothesley, ii. 63; cf. Stow, p. 607). He was beheaded on Tower Hill on Friday, 22 Jan. 1551–2, between 8 and 9 A.M.; to prevent a tumult, orders were given that the people should remain indoors till ten o'clock, but an hour before the execution Tower Hill was crowded. Somerset addressed the people in a few dignified words, rejoicing in the work that he had been able to do in the cause of religion and urging them to follow in the same course. While he was yet speaking a panic seized the crowd, and in the midst of it Sir Anthony Browne rode up. A cry of ‘pardon’ was raised, but Somerset was not deceived, and, protesting his loyalty to the king, he laid his head on the block, while those nearest the scaffold pressed forward to dip their handkerchiefs in his blood (Ellis, Orig. Letters, 2nd ser. ii. 216). He was buried in St. Peter's Chapel in the Tower, on the north side of the aisle, between Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. In the Stowe collection (No. 1066) in the British Museum is a manuscript calendar used by Somerset in the Tower, inside one cover of which he wrote some pious reflections the day before his execution; on the other cover is the signature of his daughter-in-law, Catherine Seymour [q. v.], who also used it while in the Tower. As he was attainted for felony and not for treason, his lands and dignities were not thereby affected, but an act of parliament was passed on 12 April following declaring them forfeited and confirming his attainder (Lords' Journals, i. 425). Somerset occupies an important place in English history. Strength of conviction and purity of morals admirably fitted him to lead a religious movement. He did more than any other man to give practical effect to the protestant revolution, and his immediate successors could only follow on the lines he laid down. Alike in his conception of a union between England and Scotland, in his feeling for the poorer classes of his community, and in his sincere adoption of protestant principles, he gave evidence of lofty aims. As a general he was successful in every military operation he undertook. But he was too little of an opportunist to be a successful ruler, and he failed to carry out his objects because he lacked patience, hated compromise, and consistently underrated the strength of the forces opposed to him. Ambition entered largely into his motives, and his successful usurpation showed him to be capable of prompt and resolute audacity. He had as high a conception of the royal prerogative as any Tudor, but he used it to mitigate the severity of Henry VIII's government. The mildness of his rule earned him a deeply felt popularity, and under his sway there was less persecution than there was again for a century. Naturally warm-hearted and affable, the possession of power rendered him peevish and overbearing; but, like his brother Thomas, he possessed handsome features and many personal graces. A portrait, by Holbein, belongs to the Duke of Northumberland; two anonymous portraits are at Sudeley Castle; another belongs to Mrs. Cunliffe; and two more, also anonymous, belonged in 1867 to William Digby Seymour [q. v.] and Mr. Reginald Cholmondeley respectively (see Cat. First Loan Exhib. Nos. 168, 174). The portrait by Holbein has been engraved by Houbraken, R. White, and others (see Bromley, p. 10). The chief blot on Somerset's career is his rapacity in profiting by the dissolution of monasteries, the abolition of chantries, and sale of church lands. The estates he inherited brought him 2,400l. a year, those he acquired between 1540 and 1547 added 2,000l. to his income, and between 1547 and 1552 it increased by another 3,000l.; the total 7,400l. would be worth at least ten times as much in modern currency (Wilts Archæol. Mag. xv. 189). The number and extent of his manors can be gathered from a list of the ‘Grants of the Forfeited Lands of Edward, Duke of Somerset,’ and ‘Cartæ Edwardi, Ducis Somerset,’ both printed by Sir Thomas Phillipps, London, 1866, fol. His most famous possession was Somerset House in the Strand, which he commenced building very soon after Henry's death; two inns belonging to the sees of Worcester and Lichfield were pulled down to make room for it, and, to furnish materials, the north aisle of St. Paul's Cathedral, containing the ‘Dance of Death,’ and the priory of St. John of Jerusalem, Clerkenwell, were demolished. Somerset took great interest in its construction, and, as Knox lamented (Works, iii. 176), preferred watching the masons to listening to sermons. Somerset House was occupied by Henrietta Maria, who added to it her famous Roman catholic chapel; by Catherine of Braganza, and by Queen Charlotte until 1775, when it was pulled down; the present building was finished in 1786 (Wheatley and Cunningham, London Past and Present, iii. 268–73). Somerset was twice married, first, about 1527, to Catherine (d. before 1540), daughter and coheiress of Sir William Fillol of Woodlands in Horton, Dorset, and Fillol's Hall in Langton Wash, Essex. She is erroneously said to have been divorced in consequence of her misconduct with Somerset's father (cf. manuscript note in ‘Vincent's Baronage’ in the College of Arms, quoted by Courthope, Peerage, p. 249). By her Seymour had two sons: John, who was sent to the Tower on 16 Oct. 1551 with his father, died there on 19 Dec. 1552, and was buried in Savoy hospital (Machyn, Diary, pp. 10, 27, 326); and Edward (1529–1593), who was knighted at the battle of Pinkie on 10 Sept. 1547, was restored in blood by act of parliament, passed on 29 March 1553, before his half-brothers (Lords' Journals, i. 441, 442, 445), settled at Berry Pomeroy, Devonshire, and was ancestor of Sir Edward Seymour [q. v.], the speaker, and of the present dukes of Somerset. Somerset's second wife was Anne (1497–1587), daughter of Sir Edward Stanhope of Sudbury, Suffolk, by his wife Elizabeth, great-granddaughter of William Bourchier, earl of Eu, by Anne, sole heiress of Thomas of Woodstock, youngest son of Edward III. She was a woman of great pride, and her disputes as to precedence with Catherine Parr are said to have originally caused the estrangement between the two Seymours and most of the duke's misfortunes and errors (Lodge, Portraits). Surrey, in spite of his antipathy to her husband, paid her attention, which she scornfully rejected, and addressed to her his ode ‘On a lady who refused to dance with him’ (Bapst, pp. 370–1; Gent. Mag. 1845, i. 371–81). She was imprisoned with her husband, subsequently married his steward Francis Newdigate, died on 16 April 1587, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Two anonymous portraits of her belong respectively to the Duke of Northumberland and Earl Stanhope. By her Somerset had four sons: (1) Edward, born on 12 Oct. 1537, died before May 1539; (2) Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford [q. v.]; (3) Henry, born in 1540, who was appointed in 1588 admiral of the squadron of the narrow seas, and kept close watch on the Duke of Parma off the coast of the Netherlands; on 27 July he took an important share in the battle off Gravelines, and subsequently kept guard in the narrow seas; he married Joan, daughter of Thomas Percy, seventh earl of Northumberland [q. v.], but died without issue (Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, ed. Laughton, passim); (4) Edward (1548–1574), so named probably because Edward VI stood godfather (Lit. Rem. p. 61), died 1574 (Collins; cf. Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1547–1581, p. 238). By his second wife, Somerset also had six daughters: (1) Anne, who married first, on 3 June 1551, John Dudley, commonly called Earl of Warwick, eldest son of the Duke of Northumberland, and, secondly, Sir Edward Unton, and died in February 1587–8 (cf. A Sermon preached at Farington in Barkeshire the Seventeene Daye of Februarie 1587 at the buriall of Anne, Countess of Warwicke, widow of Sir Edward Vmpton, London, 1591, 8vo); (2) Margaret, died unmarried; (3) Jane (1541–1561), whom Somerset was accused of plotting to marry to Edward VI, became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth, died unmarried, and was buried on 26 March 1561 (Machyn, pp. 254, 384; Ellis, Orig. Letters, 2nd ser. ii. 272). These three ladies won some literary repute by composing, on the death of Margaret of Valois, some verses published as ‘Annæ, Margaritæ, Janæ, Sororum Virginum, heroidum Anglarum in mortem Margaritæ Valesiæ Navarrorum Reginæ Hecadistichon,’ Paris, 1550, 8vo; a French translation appeared in the following year; (4) Mary, married first Andrew Rogers of Bryanstone, Dorset, and secondly, Sir Henry Peyton; (5) Catherine, died unmarried; (6) Elizabeth, who married Sir Richard Knightley of Fawsley, Northamptonshire. By an act of parliament passed in 1540, Somerset's estates were entailed upon his issue by his second wife in preference to his issue by his first, and similar clauses were introduced into the patents for his subsequent dignities and grants of land. By act of parliament 5 Edw. VI the duke's dignities were declared forfeited, but his son was created Earl of Hertford in 1559, and his great-grandson William [q. v.] was ‘restored’ to the dukedom of Somerset in 1660 by the repeal of the said act. The younger line died out with Algernon, the seventh duke [see under Seymour, Charles, sixth Duke of Somerset], in 1750, and the dukedom then reverted, according to the original patent, to the Seymours of Berry Pomeroy, Devonshire, the elder line, in which it still remains. According to ‘Third Report of the Lords' Committee on the Dignity of a Peer’ (p. 49), the representative of the elder line would have become Duke of Somerset on the failure of the younger, without the ‘restoration’ of the second duke in 1660, on the ground that the attainder could not touch the right vested in the elder line by the patent (cf. Nicolas, Peerage, ed. Courthope, pref. p. lxvii). [There is no biography of Somerset except a worthless brochure published in 1713 comparing him with the Duke of Marlborough. The present writer's England under the Protector Somerset, 1900, narrates his political achievements. The materials for his biography are extensive. Most of Somerset's public correspondence is in the Record Office, but a portion on Scottish affairs is among the Addit. MSS. in the British Museum, especially Nos. 5758, 6237, 25114, 32091, 32647, 32648, 32654, 32657 (these papers, originally deposited among the archives of the council of the north, were subsequently moved to Hamilton Palace, Scotland; in 1883 they were acquired by the German government, but repurchased by the British Museum six years later; they have been calendared as the Hamilton Papers, 2 vols. 1890–1892). Many papers, relating principally to his genealogy and family history, are among the Harleian and Cottonian MSS. in the same library. Much information respecting his private affairs is to be found among the Lisle Papers in the Record Office, and the manuscripts preserved at Longleat, their presence there being due to the fact that Sir John Thynne, ancestor of the marquises of Bath, managed Somerset's estates during his protectorate. Many of his letters have been printed at length in the State Papers of Henry VIII (11 vols. 1830–52), and these, with others down to 1540, have been calendared in Brewer and Gairdner's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII (15 vols.); the manuscripts at Longleat were used by Canon Jackson in his paper on the Seymours of Wolf Hall in Wiltshire Archæol. Mag. vol. xv. Other scattered letters have been printed in Ellis's Original Letters. See also Sadleir's State Papers, Haynes's Burghley Papers, and the Calendars of Domestic, Foreign, Venetian, and Spanish State Papers (in the index to the last of which he is consistently confused with his brother the admiral); Hist. MSS. Comm. 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, and 7th Rep. passim. Other contemporary authorities are the Lords' Journals; Acts of the Privy Council (ed. Nicolas vol. vii. and ed. Dasent vols. i.–iv.); Rymer's Fœdera; Wriothesley's Chron., Machyn's Diary, Greyfriars Chron., Narratives of the Reformation, Troubles connected with the Prayer Book, Chron. of Calais, Services of Lord Grey de Wilton (all these published by Camden Soc.); Lit. Remains of Edward VI (Roxburghe Club); Teulet's Papiers d'Etat and John Knox's Works (Bannatyne Club); The Complaynt of Scotland (Early Engl. Text Soc.); The Late Expedicion into Scotlande, 1544, 8vo; Patten's Expedicion into Scotlande, 1548, 4to; Letters of Cardinal Pole; Zürich Letters (Parker Soc.); Mémoires of Du Bellay (Panthéon Littéraire); Mémoires de Vieilleville, ed. 1822; Correspondance de Marillac, ed. Kaulek; Corresp. Politique de Odet de Selve, ed. 1818; Spanish Chron. of Henry VIII, ed. M.A.S. Hume, 1888; Wood's Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies; Somerset's Works in Brit. Mus. Libr. See also Hall's, Grafton's, Fabyan's, Baker's, and Holinshed's Chronicles; Stow's and Camden's Annals; Speed's Historie; Hayward's Life and Raigne of Edward the Sext; Herbert's Life and Reign of Henry VIII; Leland's Commentaries; Strype's Works, passim; Wood's Athenæ Oxon.; Lloyd's State Worthies; Foxe's Actes and Mon. and Book of Martyrs; Burnet's Hist. of the Reformation, ed. Pocock; Fuller's Church Hist. ed. Brewer, and Worthies of England; Myles Davies's Athenæ Brit. vol. ii.; Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors; Nott's Works of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey; Cobbett's State Trials; Lodge's Illustrations; Maitland's Essays on the Reformation; Tytler's, Lingard's, and Froude's Histories; Spelman's Hist. of Sacrilege; Cooper's Athenæ Cantabr.; Dixon's Hist. of the Church of England; Gasquet and Bishop's Edward VI and the Common Prayer; Friedmann's Anne Boleyn; Bapst's Deux Gentilshommes Poètes; Hoare's Modern Wiltshire; Collinson's Somersetshire; Lipscomb's Buckinghamshire; Collins's, Courthope's, and G. E. C.'s Peerages; Gent. Mag. 1845, i. 371, 487; Archæologia, i. 10–12, v. 233, xviii. 170, xxx. 463–89; Genealogist, new ser. vol. xii.; Church Quarterly Rev. Oct. 1892; English Hist. Rev. Oct. 1886, and July 1895.]	i don't know
Which Scottish football team moved home from Annfield to the Forthbank Stadium?	Nine bygone Scottish football grounds - The Scotsman Nine bygone Scottish football grounds Airdrie's Broomfield ground made way for a Safeway. Picture: Contributed 20:14 Tuesday 19 November 2013 Have your say ONE became a Morrisons supermarket. Another was turned into a housing development and a third made an appearance in a Hollywood film. Some of Scotland’s football stadiums are no longer with us. The likes of St Johnstone’s Muirton Park, and Love Street - home of St Mirren - were demolished and new stadiums built elsewhere. Others, like Cathkin Park, were left to the elements and over time have become overgrown and partially hidden, with terracing and crash barriers a sad, nostalgic reminder of the ground’s hey day. Here are nine of Scotland’s more prominent bygone grounds. Annfield (Stirling Albion) ANNFIELD was built by coal magnate Thomas Fergusson in 1945 to accommodate the new football team, Stirling Albion – and to replace the old Forthbank Park, which was destroyed during World War II by the only Luftwaffe bomb to fall on the town. Initially, Fergusson’s coal lorries were used as grandstands. The first match played there was against Edinburgh City, which Stirling won 8-3. Struggling financially and on the brink of bankruptcy, Albion sold Annfield to the local council in 1981, then rented it back. In 1984, the ground was the scene of the Scottish Cup’s record 20th Century score when Stirling defeated Selkirk 20-0. When the council decided that a traditional grass pitch was not profitable, a synthetic pitch was installed so, in 1987, Stirling Albion v Ayr United became the first senior match in Scotland to be played on an artificial surface. Around the same time, the main stand was demolished, as it was considered unsafe. With the cost of upgrading the ground prohibitive, Albion moved to their new Forthbank Stadium in 1993 and Annfield made way for a new housing development. Boghead Park (Dumbarton) AT THE time of its closure in 2000, Boghead was the oldest stadium in Scotland which had been in continuous use. Dumbarton had played there since 1879 and enjoyed the glory days when they shared the inaugural Scottish League Championship with Rangers, then became outright champions the following year. In 1913, the pitch was turned by 90 degrees, shortly followed by the construction of a tiny main stand nicknamed “The Postage Box” which contained only 80 seats. A record crowd of 18,001 saw a Scottish Cup tie against Raith Rovers in 1957. Latterly, the ground fell into disrepair and capacity was below 3,000 when Dumbarton moved to what is now the Bet Butler Stadium. Ironically, when Robert Duvall used Boghead as the home ground of his fictional team, Kilnockie FC, in the movie A Shot At Glory, featuring Ally McCoist in a prominent role, the film crew had to make improvements to the ground. Brockville (Falkirk) BROCKVILLE was the venue for the first televised floodlit match in Scotland when Falkirk entertained Newcastle United in a friendly match in 1953. Having housed the club since 1885, however – and posted a record attendance of 23,100 for a match against Celtic, also in 1953 – the ground fell into disrepair. When part of the Watson Street end was closed after being denied a safety certificate, the Hope Street end was divided into two sections to segregate home and away fans, separated by a metal “cage”. On several occasions, promotion to the Premier League was denied Falkirk because of Brockville’s inadequacies, most recently in 2003 when, having anticipated winning the First Division title – which was duly achieved – the club searched for a groundshare option, only to be denied again because SPL rules precluded it. Brockville was demolished that year and Fakirk spent one season sharing with nearby Stenhousemuir before moving to their new Falkirk Stadium. A Morrisons supermarket now stands on the site and displays a range of memorabilia, including an old Brockville turnstile which stands outside. Broomfield (Airdrieonians) After selling the ground to Safeway in 1994, Airdrieonians ended their 102-year stay at Broomfield Park. This was despite not having another stadium ready to move into. Built in 1892, the most distinctive feature of the ground, the corner pavilion, was constructed in 1907. During the 1920s the club put together a formidable side, featuring Scotland international great Hughie Gallacher, that finished runners-up in the league in four successive seasons and won the 1924 Scottish Cup. To deal with the swelling crowds, the club added a main stand opposite the existing enclosure and adjacent to the pavilion. Broomfield had been built in a hollow in the town, a fact noticeable by the visibility of trees hanging over the roof of the enclosure. Combined with the narrowness of the stadium – from the main stand to the enclosure it was 67 metres – it created a claustrophobic atmosphere that visiting teams often felt intimidated when playing at this particular venue. For four years Airdrieonians were forced to groundshare with Clyde at Broadwood before moving into the Excelsior Stadium, nicknamed New Broomfield. Cathkin Park (Third Lanark) THE remains of Cathkin Park football ground – large areas of terracing to three sides and a number of forlorn crush barriers – still exist in Cathkin municipal park in Glasgow, as a nostalgic but sad reminder of the glory days of Third Lanark, a once-prominent club which became defunct in 1967. Initially the home of Queen’s Park, who rented the ground from 1884 to 1903, it was named Hampden Park until the club moved to the current National Stadium. Third Lanark then took up the lease and named it New Cathkin Park. League champions once and Scottish Cup winners twice, the Thirds were long-term top-flight members, until their rapid demise in the 1960s. Just six years before their collapse, a 6-1 victory over Hibernian at Cathkin secured third place and 100 goals scored for the season. But following a Board of Trade enquiry, amid a fierce power struggle and allegations of corruption, the club went bankrupt. The final game at Cathkin was a 3-3 draw with Queen of the South. In recent years, a reformed Third Lanark have returned to the derelict ground and play in the Glasgow Amateur League, winning Division One in 2012. Logie Green (St Bernards) SITUATED in the Powderhall district of Edinburgh and named after a local mansion house, Logie Green Park is the only venue outside Glasgow to stage the Scottish Cup final. The two finalists that day in 1896 – Hearts and Hibs – had previously played some home matches there before St Bernards, then a major third footballing force in the city, took up occupancy in 1889. Indeed, the club had been Scottish Cup winners the year before hosting the final and had lost to Hearts in the semi-final. A new grandstand had been built in 1894 and a temporary one was erected at the north end especially for the final. Logie Green, however, was a controversial choice. With a believed capacity of 23,000, fears were raised over a dangerous crush in an estimated attendance of more than 24,000. Hampden Park was hosting a rugby international on the day, but Hibs petitioned for an alternative Glasgow venue, preferably Ibrox. Though Hearts’ cheeky request for Tynecastle was turned down, the SFA Council voted 10-3 in favour of Edinburgh. In the event, the match, which Hearts won 3-1, was played in front of only 17,000 fans who paid a shilling for admittance. Although St Bernards later returned to their previous home, the Royal Gymnasium Grounds, Logie Green continued to be used for football, Leith Athletic being one of its occupants. However, it was eventually paved over to create a car park for Powderhall greyhound and athletics stadium, which itself is now long gone. Love Street (St Mirren) THE site of a former brickworks and a favourite spot for circuses to set up their Big Top, Love Street became St Mirren’s fifth home in 1894. On the direct flightpath to the airport at Renfrew three miles away, the club faced a problem in the 1950s as plans for installing floodlights had to be approved by the Ministry of Aviation, the Air Ministry and the Admiralty. They ended up with roof-line lights and two squat, 40-foot pylons which were less than the height of the stand, to light the corners of the pitch. Even so, there were complaints from pilots that one pylon was confusing their approach to land, so there was an eight-month black-out until this new “landmark” could be added to aviation charts. One Scotland match – a 2-0 defeat of Wales in 1928 – and numerous schoolboy, under-23, under-21 and women’s internationals were staged, and Morton played home matches there in 1949. World flyweight champion Benny Lynch fought a non-title fight on the ground in 1938 and it was also briefly the home of Paisley Lions speedway team. St Mirren’s last game at Love Street was against Motherwell in January 2009. Muirton Park (St Johnstone) THE former home of St Johnstone, Muirton Park hosted its first match on Christmas Day 1924, when a crowd of almost 12,000 saw the Saints defeat Queen’s Park 2-1. At one time, the pitch was the biggest playing surface at any league ground in Britain, although the venue was not used exclusively for football. Muirton also hosted hockey internationals, Highland Games, cattle sales, donkey racing and at least two re-enactments of the Battle of the Clans. The North Stand and the Centre Stand were closed following the tragic fire at Bradford City in 1985. It was considered that such structures containing a high volume of wood were too dangerous. With the cost of bringing Muirton Park up to the standard required of a top-flight club too great for St Johnstone to bear, the future of the club looked bleak, until supermarket giant ASDA offered to buy the site and bear the cost of building a new, all-seater stadium on the western outskirts of the town. In 1989, when visitors Ayr United won 1-0, a crowd of 6,728 watched the final match at Muirton before St Johnstone moved to their current home, McDiarmid Park. Shawfield (Clyde) ALTHOUGH it is still a sporting venue, Shawfield is no longer a football ground, since Clyde FC, who resided there for 87 years, moved out in 1986. As Scotland’s only National Greyhound Racing Track still in use, its only fuction is to host two race meetings per week. Originally a trotting track, Clyde took over the stadium in Rutherglen in 1898 and, in order to bring in extra revenue, allowed it to be used for athletics and boxing, in addition to football. Greyhound racing arrived in 1932 and when Clyde hit financial difficulties, the stadium was bought by the Greyhound Racing Association two years later, with Clyde staying on as tenants. When the GRA planned to redevelop the site, Clyde departed and, although those plans were never fulfilled, they never returned, settling at the new Broadwood Stadium. Instead, Shawfield welcomed Glasgow Tigers speedway club, who had spent a year exiled in Workington, and they remained for ten years, with the exception of one season when Scottish Monarchs raced there. The crumbling terracings from the football era remain, but only the main grandstand is now used by spectators.	Stirling Albion F.C.
Where in the human body is the 'Ileum'?	Football Club \| Stirling Albion Stirling Albion Pay what you can for Montrose match Montrose have made our Christmas Eve fixture at Links Park a ‘Pay What You Can’ affair, with normal admission prices not applying for the 1.00pm kick-off. Our last away fixture of 2016 is a huge match for both clubs, with the Gable Endies two points above Stirling Albion in the Ladbrokes League 2 table. Montrose… Continue Reading The club shop at Forthbank will be open on Wednesday December 21 between 6.00pm and 7.00pm for any SAFC-related Christmas shopping! Read more Posted on	i don't know
In the TV show 'The Simpsons', what is the name of the police chief?	Springfield Police Department \| Simpsons Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Formerly Santa's Little Helper There were also at least five or six unnamed German Shepherd Dog members of the dog squad that Chief Wiggum had trained for events like citywide riots. However, they also hated Chief Wiggum due to his doing rather abusive acts toward the attack dogs like starving them, tasting them, and singing off key when in close proximity as part of "training" for such an event. This ultimately came back to haunt Wiggum when, during such a riot occurring as a result of the city being forced to purchase a Jimmy Carter statue instead of an Abraham Lincoln statue, Wiggum had released the dogs, only for the dogs to immediately attack and maul Wiggum instead as revenge. Uniform and Equipment Uniform The standard police uniform consists of a navy blue uniform shirt and pants with a black tie and black dress shoes. Springfield has a strict uniform hat policy that states officers must wear their peaked navy blue uniform hats. Officers also wear a light blue bulletproof vest often used during raids. In addition a duty belt is worn. Equipment Officers seem to use revolvers, pepper spray, "t" baton and handheld stun gun. They also carry pump action shotguns which is stored in cruisers. Officers conducting tactical operations also used automatic rifles and bolt action sniper rifles. In recent episodes, it shows that the officers are authorized to carry a number of sidearms. Chief Wiggum carries a revolver comparable to a Smith & Wesson Model 10, Sergeant Lou carries a Glock, and Officer Eddie carries a Berreta 92FS. Vehicles The standard patrol vehicles seem to be 1990 civilian vehicles with an all white or black and white type color scheme with the Springfield Police logo on the side doors. They also operate vans and tactical vehicles. Lights are diverse between a standard bar and two rotating beacons (red and blue or red and red) with a siren in the middle. Over all the SPD fleet seems badly underfunded and outdated. In " Much Apu About Something ", the department acquired a tank, which appeared during the parade. The tank would go on to destroy the Kwik-E-Mart , twice in the same episode. It was later obliterated after a failed attempt at destroying the new statue of Jebediah Springfield . Trivia	Chief Wiggum
Which group had number one hits in the 1970's with 'Tiger Feet' and 'Oh Boy'?	Clancy Wiggum - Wikisimpsons, the Simpsons Wiki Clancy Wiggum v • d • e • h Clancy Wiggum is the chief of police of the Springfield Police Department . He is an extreme stereotype: morbidly obese, extremely stupid, ignorant, incompetent, and really lazy, with a fondness for doughnuts and Chintzy Pop . While he pretentiously feigns authority, he has little regard for individual rights or even public safety. He is disturbingly uninformed and flaunts his power, albeit with good intentions most of the time. He is part Irish. [3] He, along with the rest of Springfield 's government and Springfield police force, is also corrupt, having asked for or taken bribes several times. An example of this is he can skip any crime if he is bribed, like being notably solicited Troy McClure and Homer Simpson for bribes in exchange for "looking the other way" to their criminal activities. When Bart bribed him with stolen wedding presents, he told him to read his badge and, at the bottom of the badge, was the caption "Cash Bribes only". [4] He has a strained friendship with Mayor Quimby , as the two men vie to have control over the city, which once lead to a serious argument in regards of who takes over during an emergency on the Monorail crisis. Wiggum claims to have compromising photographs of the mayor (the mayor once told Wiggum "You don't scare me; that could be anyone's ass!"), which may help to explain why he has retained his job despite his inability to do anything his duties requires of him. He is often assisted by his more intelligent (but still quite lazy and often rather cocky) "top cops" Eddie and Lou (both are smarter than Wiggum). He is completely ignorant of Springfield's laws and often quotes sayings from the police handbook which cannot actually be found in the book ("like the book says, if you can't beat them, join them"). According to The Bart Book, Clancy is also in the SPD Bomb Sqaud, which is in fact just HIM in a hockey mask. Contents Biography[ edit ] Clancy Wiggum was possibly born in Ireland . [3] However, he also seemed to spend at least some part of his early childhood in Maryland, as he mentioned he used to sell ribbons there with his father, Iggy Wiggum . Iggy was a war veteran who died in a parade float accident in 1979, along with Arnie Gumble , Sheldon Skinner , Etch Westgrin , and Griff McDonald , all members of Abe Simpson 's Flying Hellfish . [5] He did, however, grow up in Springfield and was among the same class and age group as Homer Simpson , Lenny Leonard , Carl Carlson , Barney Gumble , and possibly Marge Simpson . At an early age, Wiggum played cops and robbers with Homer and other kids his age and he showed a clear ambition to become a police officer. At the age of 16, he was a hall monitor at high school, where he developed a joy for giving orders, and receiving chocolate bribes. [6] He possibly had a part-time security guard job at Springfield State University. Wiggum was present at the University's germ research labs (Prof. C. Montgomery Burns was chairman at the time) when Mona Simpson and the hippie activist group she was part of sabotaged the germ experiments. Wiggum, who had suffered from asthma prior to that, was cured by antibiotics that the group released to kill the germs, and helped Mona Simpson escape the police when she was on the run twenty-five years later. In 1985 Wiggum was involved in the barbershop quartet called the " Be Sharps ". Wiggum was a member with Homer Simpson , Seymour Skinner , and Apu . However, a talent scout showed interest in the Be Sharps but didn't like Wiggum as a performer, so he was thrown out of the group. When auditions were held to find a replacement for Wiggum, he attempted to be reselected for the quartet. He wore a disguise, but was found out. [7] Chief Wiggum's character folder seen inside the Hall of Records In 1989, Wiggum jumped between an assassin's bullet and Mayor Quimby when he was on duty confiscating illegal wieners from an unlicensed hot dog vendor. [6] Early attempts to get into the Police Force when he was a teenager were unsuccessful on account of his asthma, so when it had been cured he could then pursue his ambition to become a professional police officer. Having entered the Police Academy by age 24, Wiggum managed to work around his many shortcomings and finally become a full fledged officer and by 32, he had managed to work his way up to the position of Police Chief of Springfield. It is implied that Wiggum managed to overcome his shortcomings with coaxing methods such as great skills with back massages and charm to get the position of Chief. But he actually received the job when the frustrated former Chief resolved to give it to the next person he met, which was Wiggum. Another explanation is when mayor Quimby said that he made Wiggum the police chief so that the law would not be enforced to the letter (Which may also explain why Chief Wiggum has somewhat of a feud with Mayor Quimby, such as getting into a serious argument about Mayor Quimby in regards to Marge's arrest, [8] blackmailing Mayor Quimby with incriminating photos, [9] and even trying to arrest Mayor Quimby for corruption charges [10] "). Regardless, Wiggum had accomplished his childhood ambition. Wiggum weighs about 240 pounds and stands 5'9 tall. Personality[ edit ] Chief Wiggum was often portrayed as a stupid, dimwitted oaf, with a lazy attitude and a love of eating. However Wiggum does have redeeming qualities as well. Despite his dubious escapades, he appears to have quite a loving relationship with his family, especially his son, whom Wiggum often supports and shows great patience towards, although he can be unfortunately somewhat clueless to Ralph's needs at times. It is once implied that Clancy does use the money he earns as well as "acquires" for his family as much as himself. [11] Wiggum doesn't appear to be a particularly judgemental person either, and generally gets along with others. He does on occasion even help various other people, such as helping Homer find Marge escaping with Ruth Powers from the law, [12] helping Mona Simpson, Homer's mother, escape from Mr. Burns [13] as well as helping backing Lisa up in a school protest on one occasion [14] and arriving just in time during a crucial moment such as the various times Sideshow Bob has attempted to kill Bart Simpson . Perhaps the best example of this is when it is implied that he leads the FBI astray in their search for Mona Simpson, allowing her to escape in gratitude for curing his asthma. Although Wiggum can often antagonize others as well, it's heavily implied that it's not out of malice but merely because he's doing his job or because he's ignorant of the situation. It is often implied as well that Wiggum genuinely wants to do good with his job, but a mix of complacency, various difficulties with being a cop, and his own limitations have made him weary of his duties. As well as the above, some interesting quirks of the character include rather unusual ingenuity in his job such as: using police hang gliders, riding an Ostrich, speaking hippie tongue, and using loud music to flush Seymour Skinner and Edna Krabappel out of Springfield Elementary to which they locked down to name a few. He also has a tendency to rant about things during situations, a bit of a kinky side and a fondness for acting and the performing arts. Wiggum often orchestrates or appreciates plays and other shows in prison with the inmates and played a major role in a production of A Streetcar Named Desire. [15] Some may find this an interesting parallel to his son, who is hinted to potentially have a very high degree of hidden performing talent. At one point, Chief Wiggum explains to a confused Lou about his saying "switchfaces of the east" by stating that he doesn't like censoring himself as it stifles creativity, implying that he has some desire to be creative. Wiggum's incompetence is showcased in a TV show called Cops in Springfield, in which he investigates a cattle rustler and uses a battering ram to knock down the suspect's door, only to find he has the wrong house. The occupant, Reverend Lovejoy , is very angry, especially since the cattle are clearly visible in the neighbor's yard. Snake , the suspect that Wiggum is after, is able to make a clean getaway. Wiggum describes Snake's vehicle as "a red... car of some sort" and "heading in the direction of that place that sells chilli" and the suspect as "hatless! Repeat, hatless!". [16] He has been known to use Agatha Christie novels as crime-solving reference guide. Wiggum once misuses police terminology, phoning Marge to inform her Homer had been found "DOA", then Marge answers as "Homer's DEAD?, then Wiggum says "Ops, heh heh, I meant DWI- I always get those two mixed up!" After hanging up the phone he is approached by a woman whom he had told that her husband was DWI. He then hastily suggested that she talked to another officer and then told her he was going out to lunch (implying that her husband was actually DOA, and he made a similar mix-up). [17] When chasing a car on a highway, he was asked to describe his location, and replied "I'm on a road, looks to be asphalt--aw jeez, trees, shrubs--uh, I'm directly under the earth's Sun... now." Marge and Ruth elude Wiggum during the same car chase at night by turning off the lights on their car, leading Wiggum to exclaim, "It's a ghost car!" Wiggum also often fails to comply with his police duties in a real emergency. He once refused to believe calls from people saying that an elephant ( Bart 's pet elephant Stampy ) destroyed their property. After two calls, he thought a call reporting a "liquor store robbery in progress, officer down" was also a fake call. [18] He mocks people who come in to report crimes to him by telling them he will "write on his invisible typewriter". This includes a man with a lighter saying "I just torched a building down town and I'm afraid I'll do it again". On several instances, he has switched off his police radio in the middle of an important call because he did not want to be bothered. Such instances included a "riot in progress" [19] He also leaves the station completely unmanned during night hours, save for an answering machine, once causing 75 emergencies to go unanswered (and were quickly erased). He has also expressed annoyance at the citizens he's supposed to be protecting ("Can't you people solve these problems yourselves? I mean we can't be 'policing' the whole city"). He has also refused to come to the aid of citizens, claiming that they were just too busy to help, when all he was doing was playing checkers with one of the police dogs. In order to get off the phone during a state lottery drawing, Wiggum informed the caller that she had the wrong number and that "this is... 912". He once rejected Marge's claim that it was illegal to mail threatening letters, until the police handbook proved her right. At that moment, he also learned from the handbook that it was illegal to "put squirrels down your pants for the purposes of gambling", and immediately shouted to the rest of his officers to stop doing exactly that. [20] Despite his questionable competency at being an officer, Wiggum seems to be very attached to both the police force and his fellow officers. On the few occasions where Wiggum loses his commission, he breaks down shockingly fast, [21] even degrading to the level of a common mugger, [11] although he isn't particularly good at this either as he had to sell the trigger and handle of his gun to feed his family. This pathetic sight prompts Homer to help him get his job back. Once in a while Wiggum will have an argument with his fellow officers, which often end in dramatic, tearful moments of reconciliation. On one occasion, Lou had thought about leaving the force to pursue a career in home security, which leaves Wiggum nearly a tearful mess. Despite all this, there are occasional hints that Chief Wiggum has the potential to actually be a very good policeman if only he'd be less lazy and complacent. When investigating Mr. Burns' attempted murder, Wiggum displays an astonishingly skilled eye for ballistics and fingerprinting, enough to make positive identifications without any specialized equipment. In fact, Wiggum's entire investigation of the shooting is uncharacteristically dogged, showing the police talking to everyone from Seymour Skinner to Moe Szyslak , to Tito Puente , and even to his own son Ralph Wiggum . He also had a bit of a talent for tasting substances for foreign agents, which he notably used with Homer's tainted Groovy Grove juice to identify it as being laced with Peyote after noticing Lou acting odd at work. [22] He is also shown to have legitimate frustrations when people waste the Police Force's precious time and resources for extremely trivial reasons, such as when Carmen Electra had Marge and Homer Simpson placed in Jail for murder and nearly executed just to give her reality show, Frame Up , more ratings. [23] Another good example is where Wiggum is charged with finding a supposedly missing Bart Simpson. It is shown in this occasion as well that Wiggum is one of the few people that seems quite aware of his or her own incompetence, much to his dismay and an inevitable gorging on pancake to lessen the blow. In the end, however, much to the shock of almost everyone in Springfield, including his own men, Wiggum finds Bart by using a rather clever tactical method and actually performs his job admirably. He is promoted to Police commissioner, and it seems things may be finally looking up for him. It is discovered eventually, however, that Bart's abduction was merely a hoax, distressing Wiggum greatly as he finally had done some great good but at merely the wrong time. Curiously, however, it doesn't seem that his position of Commissioner is taken away, although he is never seen in this position of power again. Judging from his usual boredom with most cases and situations in his work, it would seem that perhaps when he is actually motivated he shows far greater skill and zeal. It has been shown several times that the level of resources that the Springfield police have is shockingly low. It has been stated by Lou that Wiggum, Lou and Eddie are the only police officers in the city (however, there are more). [24] Wiggum also mentioned to Lisa that the police force only have the resources to enforce the last law passed in Springfield, which even Wiggum admitted is the worst system possible. It's also implied that Chief Wiggum sometimes has to dress in drag when it comes to Stakeout missions. [25] Family[ edit ] Beside his late father, Clancy is the husband of Sarah Wiggum , whom he met when he was arresting her for possession of drugs that he planted on her to "make her notice him", and is the father of Ralph Wiggum . He has a cousin called Mark, who went to Pennsylvania State University, he was a "fat kid... played a lot of Tetris". He has a deceased brother-in-law named Fred Kanickee, an uncle who (according to Wiggum) died of "crotch dot", and an unnamed brother who, after attending military school, presumably went crazy and now "owns and operates a famous cave". He also says he has a sister which is completely bald like Sphynx cats. Non-canon[ edit ] The contents of this article or section are considered to be non-canon and therefore may not have actually happened or existed. Future[ edit ] It is shown in Professor Frink 's future machine that Wiggum will, along with Lou and Eddie, become a Robo-Cop like machine-officer with a rotisserie in his stomach. Video games[ edit ] The Simpsons: Hit and Run[ edit ] Wiggum appears several times in The Simpsons Hit and Run video game. The first time was during Level 2, where he attempts to arrest Bart for buying illegal fireworks (he used his son Ralph Wiggum as bait to arrest people buying illegal fireworks as part of a sting operation), intending to place him under five life sentences of community service, but he fails to catch his quarry, although he later seems to forget this as he tells Bart that Herman's Military Antiques was robbed of a radio recently, and suggests, although not completely sure, that the skid marks from tires would probably lead to the culprit. He later appears in Level 3 when he is trying to bust Snake Jailbird under the Three Strikes Law, but hasn't gotten any evidence yet due to his being a "very, very bad cop." in his own words. Lisa manages to help him collect evidence to put Snake away in exchange for information in regards to her brother's whereabouts. However, he makes a bigger role in Level 4 , where he first asks Marge to collect some donuts which are falling out of a Lard Lad Donuts truck due to suffering a severe case of sugar withdrawal in exchange for giving her information about cropcircles, and secondly when he races Marge to 742 Evergreen Terrace after she destroyed several trucks of Buzz Cola (he was deeply upset at Marge for doing so due to Buzz Cola being the only thing that allowed him to "gain the courage to take his shirt off in the station locker room"). The Simpsons Game[ edit ] Wiggum appears at the end of Bartman Begins to take Principal Skinner away for having the three teenagers rob the museum. He also appears as one of the contestants in the Duff Ultimate Eating Challenge in Around the World in 80 Bites . The Simpsons: Tapped Out[ edit ] Other[ edit ] Chief Wiggum has his own spin-off show in " The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase ", "Wiggum P.I." He he is fired from the Springfield force for corruption and moves to New Orleans to start working as a private investigator, with Skinner as his partner. Wiggum and Ralph live in a boat house, and Ralph is kidnapped by a villain called Big Daddy . He later finds his son, and Big Daddy escapes. Behind the Laughter[ edit ] Voice[ edit ] Wiggum is voiced by Hank Azaria and is based on a stereotypical police chief, shown as lazy, incompetent and to have a fondness for donuts. Hank Azaria first based his voice for Wiggum on David Brinkley but it was too slow and he switched it to an Edward G. Robinson impression. Name[ edit ] His surname "Wiggum" is Matt Groening 's mother's maiden name. As "a conscious pun" Wiggum was designed to look like a pig, and in the episode " Marge Gamer ", his Earthland Realms alter-ego looked much like his real-life self, only with a pig nose, tail, etc.	i don't know
"""Createur d'automobiles"", is a slogan used by which car manufacturer?"	BBC NEWS \| UK \| Magazine \| For the love of the car adverts For the love of the car adverts AD BREAKDOWN Magazine's review of advertising What does yours say about you? It's no secret that car owners like their prized vehicle to say something about them. And it's not just how flash they might be - one's car can, apparently, signal your whole attitude to life. Imagine the scene. As you walk down the road, a flashy car glides past. You comment to your companion: "Oooh look how open that person's mind is!" "Yeah, not bad," your pal replies. "But I saw a guy yesterday who really shifted my expectations. Not only that, but his girlfriend was staying curious." Life in the strange world of car slogans can be confusing. To move your mind, you'll need a Saab. To open your mind, however, you'd better have a Smart car. Want to shift expectations and you'll have to choose a Nissan. Staying curious will require a Suzuki. The vehicle you drive has long been seen as a symbol of your wealth, taste, style and - some would say - virility. Now it's becoming a symbol of your state of mind too. Adman Paul Glyde, who has worked on several car campaigns, says every car is to some extent aspirational in that all drivers want to make a point with what they are driving. "The classic thing you get in focus groups is people who say they don't care what they drive, so long as it got them from A to B. But in just saying that, they are already demonstrating a taste for cars - just like people who desperately want to be seen as conservative might wear a grey suit." Mr Average So Smart cars' promise to "Open your mind" is a crucial part of the appeal to drivers, says Glyde. "Anyone driving a Smart car has got to be used to being looked at and even laughed at. So they have got to think of themselves as being wider thinking than Mr Average." With an advert you're often flattering the person, making them think 'Good I made the right choice there' Paul Glyde Daily Telegraph motoring columnist Honest John, a former adman himself, is far from impressed. "How do they come up with this? It's rubbish. It's brain death. Whenever they roll it out, it goes straight over people's heads," he says. Like them or not, car adverts and their slogans do not appear by accident. The adverts are big budget high-profile set pieces and the slogans are a crucial piece of that, says Glyde, which creative folk will have sweated over long and hard. But, he says, car adverts aren't actually designed to get people to buy a new car. "They are designed to keep people buying the type of car they have already got. With an advert you're often flattering the person, making them think 'Good I made the right choice there' . Committed to brand "It's about massaging people's egos. Obviously you're also trying to get, for instance, a Ford Focus driver to choose a Vauxhall Corsa instead, but that's a much harder thing to do than persuading someone to stick with a decision they have already made." People get committed to their car brand, and it's the advertising's job to maintain that commitment. The Toyota advert- one of the few Honest John doesn't think is rubbish One other trend which may raise eyebrows in the next few weeks will be the new slogan for VW, the company which has been praised as being the most successful TV advertiser ever. With sales of its new Golf disappointing, although showing some signs of picking up, the company is dearly in need of some of its old ad magic. So the company is following the lead of Audi and Seat (both owned by the VW parent) and introducing a slogan in the car's native language. Audi long ago led the way with Vorsprung durch Technik ("Keeping ahead through technology") implying that people who understood the slogan had the edge on others who just shrugged their shoulders. Seat followed with Auto Emocion, a play on the words car, self, emotion and motion - (best translation suggestions are welcome to [email protected]). Renault adopted the phrase Createur d'Automobiles, a slogan which even those with very basic French will be confident at making a stab at translating. Renault gets bonus points since "creator" feels much more impressive than mere "manufacturer". Now VW's tagline is to be Aus Liebe zum Automobil ("For the love of the car"). Although the company in the US will stick with its "Drivers wanted" slogan, the new German line has already appeared in print adverts and should soon make its way on to UK television, as it will in many other countries. Honest John is not impressed. "That's rubbish. How is that going to help sell cars in the UK?" he says. The calculation by VW bosses must be that the cachet of being a German piece of work still counts. Ad Breakdown is compiled by Giles Wilson	Renault
What is another name for the 'gullet'?	BBC NEWS \| UK \| Magazine \| For the love of the car adverts For the love of the car adverts AD BREAKDOWN Magazine's review of advertising What does yours say about you? It's no secret that car owners like their prized vehicle to say something about them. And it's not just how flash they might be - one's car can, apparently, signal your whole attitude to life. Imagine the scene. As you walk down the road, a flashy car glides past. You comment to your companion: "Oooh look how open that person's mind is!" "Yeah, not bad," your pal replies. "But I saw a guy yesterday who really shifted my expectations. Not only that, but his girlfriend was staying curious." Life in the strange world of car slogans can be confusing. To move your mind, you'll need a Saab. To open your mind, however, you'd better have a Smart car. Want to shift expectations and you'll have to choose a Nissan. Staying curious will require a Suzuki. The vehicle you drive has long been seen as a symbol of your wealth, taste, style and - some would say - virility. Now it's becoming a symbol of your state of mind too. Adman Paul Glyde, who has worked on several car campaigns, says every car is to some extent aspirational in that all drivers want to make a point with what they are driving. "The classic thing you get in focus groups is people who say they don't care what they drive, so long as it got them from A to B. But in just saying that, they are already demonstrating a taste for cars - just like people who desperately want to be seen as conservative might wear a grey suit." Mr Average So Smart cars' promise to "Open your mind" is a crucial part of the appeal to drivers, says Glyde. "Anyone driving a Smart car has got to be used to being looked at and even laughed at. So they have got to think of themselves as being wider thinking than Mr Average." With an advert you're often flattering the person, making them think 'Good I made the right choice there' Paul Glyde Daily Telegraph motoring columnist Honest John, a former adman himself, is far from impressed. "How do they come up with this? It's rubbish. It's brain death. Whenever they roll it out, it goes straight over people's heads," he says. Like them or not, car adverts and their slogans do not appear by accident. The adverts are big budget high-profile set pieces and the slogans are a crucial piece of that, says Glyde, which creative folk will have sweated over long and hard. But, he says, car adverts aren't actually designed to get people to buy a new car. "They are designed to keep people buying the type of car they have already got. With an advert you're often flattering the person, making them think 'Good I made the right choice there' . Committed to brand "It's about massaging people's egos. Obviously you're also trying to get, for instance, a Ford Focus driver to choose a Vauxhall Corsa instead, but that's a much harder thing to do than persuading someone to stick with a decision they have already made." People get committed to their car brand, and it's the advertising's job to maintain that commitment. The Toyota advert- one of the few Honest John doesn't think is rubbish One other trend which may raise eyebrows in the next few weeks will be the new slogan for VW, the company which has been praised as being the most successful TV advertiser ever. With sales of its new Golf disappointing, although showing some signs of picking up, the company is dearly in need of some of its old ad magic. So the company is following the lead of Audi and Seat (both owned by the VW parent) and introducing a slogan in the car's native language. Audi long ago led the way with Vorsprung durch Technik ("Keeping ahead through technology") implying that people who understood the slogan had the edge on others who just shrugged their shoulders. Seat followed with Auto Emocion, a play on the words car, self, emotion and motion - (best translation suggestions are welcome to [email protected]). Renault adopted the phrase Createur d'Automobiles, a slogan which even those with very basic French will be confident at making a stab at translating. Renault gets bonus points since "creator" feels much more impressive than mere "manufacturer". Now VW's tagline is to be Aus Liebe zum Automobil ("For the love of the car"). Although the company in the US will stick with its "Drivers wanted" slogan, the new German line has already appeared in print adverts and should soon make its way on to UK television, as it will in many other countries. Honest John is not impressed. "That's rubbish. How is that going to help sell cars in the UK?" he says. The calculation by VW bosses must be that the cachet of being a German piece of work still counts. Ad Breakdown is compiled by Giles Wilson	i don't know
What name is given to a shield or emblem within a flag?	Emblems and Heraldry Emblems and Heraldry By Måns Björkman Elves, Men, Dwarves, and even Maiar in Middle-earth are all known to have used emblems, arms and heraldic devices of various kinds. These were used to distinguish kingdoms, groups of people, or individuals, much in the same way as in medieval Europe. Below I discuss and give examples of known heraldry and emblems of Arda. The accompanying illustrations are either based on preserved and published material, or reconstructed from written descriptions. The Elves had formulated rules or principles for the shaping of heraldic devices, which can be summarized in the following way: Devices for males were placed within a lozenge. Devices for females were placed within a circle. Devices for families, houses or countries were placed within a square. The rank of the owner was shown by the number of "points" reaching the outer rim of the device (see below ). Four points signified a prince, six to eight signified a king. The oldest of the Elven kings, like Finwe, could sometimes have as many as 16 points. [ 1 ] Origins and History The rules of heraldry were usually followed by both the Noldor and the Sindar, which might indicate that they were already in existence (albeit in a crude form) at Cuiviénen; but it is tempting to argue that at that time the Elves were not yet culturally "sophisticated" enough for such ideas. The rules may also have evolved over time, and become known by oral tradition before recieving written form. If the rules were invented by the Noldor, which would otherwise seem likely, it seems strange that the Sindarin heraldry follows these rules, considering Thingol's anti-Noldorin politics. One thing that supports the Noldor as being the originators of the rules is that the Noldorin royals generally seem to have been given higher "status" in their devices, according to the rules above. That the Sindar invented the rules must be considered a possibility; the Noldor adopted the language of the Sindar when they arrived in Beleriand, so why not the heraldry? Devices are known for Noldor who never had a chance to get aquainted with the Sindar, but that might be explained with that those devices were created at a later time; cf. Finwe's device . What was the original purpose of the Elvish heraldry? In medieval Europe, heraldry was always connected with warfare: the knights needed a way to be easily recognizable on the battle-field, even in full armour. The heraldic devices thus had to be recognizable from a fair distance, invoking the necessity of stylized symbols and strict use of colours. These demands were clearly not met by the Elvish heraldry, which might either indicate that the devices weren't originally intended for warfare (which seems like a possibility; see below) or that the Elves had extremely good eyesight (which is known for a fact). Further, in early medieval Europe the shape of the devices was usually restricted by the shield to which it was applied. Does this indicate that the Elves had lozengal and round shields? Round shields are very common in the early civilizations of the world, whereas lozengal shields are rare. The shape of a lozenge also seems a little unpractical for defence purposes. The inevitable conclusion seems to be that the Elvish heraldry was not originally intended for identification in the battle plain (even though it may have gained such a rôle in the later ages). More likely, its primary function was to represent the kings and queens of Eldalie, and identify them in records and art. Thus it seems even more likely that some or many of the devices were constructed posthumously. Samples of Eldarin Heraldry A large number of Elvish heraldic devices has been preserved to this day. The samples below are all based on these preserved and published illustrations. Finwe. Finwe's heraldic device shows a "winged sun", opposing Elwe 's device of a winged moon. Though Finwe actually died before the first rising of the sun, he was the king of the Noldor that reached the light of Aman and saw the Two Trees. Sixteen "points" reach the edges of the sign, signifying Finwe's position as one of the oldest of the Quendi and the High King of the Noldor. His bright yellow and red colours seem to be echoed in the devices of his heirs Feanor , Fingolfin , and Finarfin [ 2 ]. There was also a similar device for Finwe's house, identical except for being tipped forty-five degrees to form a square. This was the device of the High Kings of the Noldor and descended from Finwe to his son Fingolfin and then on to Fingon and Turgon [ 1 ]. Elwe. The device of Elwe Sindicollo, better known as Elu Thingol, shows a "winged moon" on black surrounded by stars. It is the antipole to Finwe 's winged sun. The reason for this is probably that both started on the Great Journey, but Elwe was enchanted by Melian and never left Middle-earth, at that time lit only by the stars of Elbereth. Finwe, on the other hand, came to Aman and settled in the light of the Trees. Judging by the number of "points" in Elwe's device (eight), he only got half the "rank" of Finwe. [ 1 ] Melian. The Maia of Doriath is given a complex device, very unlike any other male or female device. Within it both stars and flower-like shapes are found, reflecting both the devices of Elwe (her husband) and Lúthien (her daughter). It might also recall (or, indeed, be) her seal, which was "a single flower of Telperion". Within the circle that marks her as female is seen a lozenge, which is usually the escutcheon of male devices. This might symbolize her ability as a Maia, to determine her bodily "raiment" and sex herself. [ 1 ] Feanor. Feanor's device shares the fiery colours of his father 's device, and carries the connotation of fire further by having wavy flames that go from the centre outwards. These may be associated with Feanor's name, meaning "Spirit of Fire". (But these flames are also found in Fingolfin 's device, where the same association can't be made.) In the centre is depicted a Silmaril, the greatest of Feanor's creations. It is surrounded by a number of coloured fields, possibly representing the art of creating crystals, which he invented. [ 2 ] The Star of Feanor, seen on the west gate of Moria, was apparently an emblem for all the Noldor in Feanor's following. It was properly silver-coloured, and had eight rays and eight "spikes" which were arranged much in the same way as in Feanor's heraldic device. This indicates that the former was based on the latter, or vice versa. [ 4 ] Fingolfin. Fingolfin's device shows a distinct relatedness with the device of Fingolfin's brother Feanor , with the natural exception of Feanor's Silmaril. The silver stars on blue background is probably the source of the blue and silver of Fingolfin's banners mentioned in The Silmarillion. Eight "points" reach the edges, as is the case with all the devices for the sons of Finwe. [ 1 ] Finarfin. Though sharing the "fiery" appearance of the devices of his father and brothers, the fire-rays in Finarfin's device are calmer, giving the device a more balanced appearance. Being distinctly set apart from the devices of his brothers, an inclination is perhaps made to the fact that he, at the rebellion of the Noldor, stayed in Aman, while his brothers proceeded to Middle-earth. This device was also used by Finarfin's heirs, and apparently especially Finrod (though he was also given another device ). [ 1 ] Finrod. Finrod Felagund was given a device much different from any of the other Elvish devices: it is not symmetrical and the colours are distinctly earth-like. The image of a harp and a torch recalls the legend about Finrod walking in the woods of east Beleriand and his appearing among Men playing a harp. The Men that Finrod met belonged to the people of Beor, and it is possible that the device was made by one of that people. [ 2 ] Finrod also used a badge that depicted a crown of golden flowers. The motive of the badge was probably directly or indirectly related to the device of Finarfin . Lúthien. Lúthien Tinúviel is the only person known to have had two distinct heraldic devices; both are based on patterns with flowers. The first shows the white niphredil that grew at her birth (it has been described as similar to a delicate snowdrop). The second probably holds an elanor in the centre. The stars in this device echo those found in her father Thingol 's device. At a first glance it is hard to tell if there are any "points" that reach the rim, but it seems like they would be no more than four in both devices. In the first device they point in the compass directions northeast, northwest, southeast and southwest. In the second, the only thing similar to "points" are the white flowers that each symbolizes one point. This would give her the correct status as a princess of Doriath. [ 1 ] Idril. The device of Idril Celebrindal reveals a cornflower-like pattern. Apparently Idril was especially associated with this flower, possibly through the golden corn that echoed her golden hair. An inscription found together with the device reads Menelluin Írildeo Ondolindello ("Cornflower of Idril from Gondolin"; Írilde is a Quenyaization of Idril's name). It is possible Menelluin (literally "Sky-blue") was the name, or designation, of the device. In it, twelve points reach the edge of the circle, suggesting the status fitting for the daughter of a High King. [ 1 ] The device of Idril was preserved and brought from Gondolin to Númenor, where it became the inspiration of many similar Númenorean designs. It was then brought to Gondor by Elendil. Even though Gondolin is known to have had its very own heraldic customs , these do not apply to this device, which might indicate that the customs were reserved for the Twelve Houses of the city (q.v.). Gil-galad. His name means "Radiant star", and remembering also the words from The Fall of Gil-galad: "The countless stars of heaven's field / were mirrored in his silver shield" [ 5 ], it is only natural that Gil-galad's device shows a star-covered sky. It is hard to tell how many "points" meet the edge, but his status should allow at least four. [ 1 ] The Silmarils. There is only one known device that is designated for objects instead of a person. Why the Silmarilli should have their own heraldic device is unclear. Perhaps the device was used as a banner by the Noldor in the wars with Morgoth, to mark their intentions. The tree in the background is probably Laurelin, the Golden Tree, from which the Silmarils got part of their light. [ 2 ] The Silmarils are also used as emblems in the devices of Feanor , Earendil , and Beren . THE TWELVE HOUSES OF GONDOLIN Turgon's followers had, already in his old realm of Nevrast, developed heraldic customs that seem to have been unique in Middle-earth, and closer to the heraldry of the middle ages. Their emblazonry consisted of symbols set against a single-coloured background, and the shields they were applied to were "long and tapering". In Gondolin this heraldry was probably not used for personal devices, but were -- perhaps solely -- applied to the devices of the "Twelve Houses" (c.f. Idril ). These were groups of nobles, possibly household or guilds, who appears to have been responsible for the defense of the city. The detailed description of the heraldry comes from a source which is usually considered rather unreliable [ 10 ]; but the design of one of the devices has been confirmed by a much more trustworthy text [ 11 ], and apart from slight discrepancies I see no reason to believe that the other devices aren't accurately described as well. The coats of arms below are all reconstructed from the descriptions, and should of course not be considered authorial in any way. The House of the King. Turgon and his house had the emblems of "the moon and the sun and the scarlet heart" and their signifying colours were white, gold, and red, each doubtless connected with one of the emblems. I have here grouped the three symbols into one device, although it is possible the house actually had three different devices. The heart represented the heart of Fingolfin, Turgon's father, who was buried north of the city. I have assumed that the sun is connected with the sun in the device of Finwe 's house (Turgon being Finwe's grandson), and therefore given it the same number of rays. The House of the White Wing. The stoutest of the King's men wore swans' or gulls' wings on their helmets, and the device of their shields was a swan's wing on blue. Of this kind was the shield and helm that Tuor found in Nevrast, destinying him to ultimately join and lead the house. [ 11 ] The House of the Mole. Maeglin, who led the House of the Mole, was a masterful miner, and apparently associated himself with a mole. But the shields of the house were sable and unblazoned, just like Morgoth 's shield. In the end, it was Maeglin who betrayed Gondolin to Morgoth. The House of the Swallow. This house consisted of formidable archers, dressed in white, dark blue, purple and black. Their leader was called Duilin and their shields were charged with an arrowhead. The Swallow might be reminiscent of an arrow, flying speedily through the air and always finding its mark. The House of the Heavenly Arch. The members of Egalmoth's house were all very wealthy and enjoyed jewels and gold. On their helmets was set a large opal, and their shields were sky-blue. In the centre of the shields was "a jewel built of seven gems": ruby, amethyst, sapphire, emerald, chrysoprase, topaz and amber. The arrangement of the gems is my own; the "Heavenly Arch" was most likely intended to be the rainbow, and I have assumed that the topaz was yellow, to complete the rainbow colour gradient indicated in the order of the other stones. The House of the Golden Flower. Glorfindel led this house, whose device was charged with a rayed sun. The background colour I have chosen because of the house's name, and the description of Glorfindel's clothing as reminding of "a field in spring". The House of the Harp. The members of this house wore tassels of silver and gold, and on their shields were set a silver harp on a sable background. The leader of the house, Salgant, fawned on Maeglin, and his on device only the harp was golden. It is notable that the device shares the black of the House of the Mole , perhaps by direct influence of Maeglin on Salgant. The House of the Hammer of Wrath. A group of smiths and craftsmen, this courageous and strong house, lead by Rog, fought with maces and had heavy shields. Their emblem was the stricken anvil, but their shields showed "a hammer that smiteth sparks about it". No indication is given of the colouring of the device, but a clue might be that "red gold and black iron was their delight". The devices of the remaining houses aren't described. What we know is this: THE EDAIN OF THE FIRST AGE When the Edain entered Beleriand, they seem to have adopted the rules (and perhaps the very concept) of heraldry almost immediately. A forerunner of this was doubtless Beor , whose close friendship with Finrod gave him the oldest of the known Human devices. The first of these tended to use more warm and earth-like colours than their Elvish counterparts, and the designs were usually only symmetrical around the vertical axis, distinguishing them from the entirely symmetrical devices of the Elves. They also seem to have ignored the "point" symbology, with one exception . The illustrations below are all based on preserved devices. Beor. Beor's device was probably the first to be created for a Man according to the Elvish rules of heraldry , and in many ways it is the most elf-like of the Human devices (not counting Earendil the Half-elf's device). It is entirely symmetrical and has the common Eldarin shape for males. Still it lacks the splendour of the Elvish devices, and seems more earth-bound with its warm and natural colours. [ 2 ] Hador. The reason for the design of Hador's device is not clear. Hador was a great friend of Fingolfin, and one might perhaps discern the "fiery" colours of Finwe and his heirs in this device. The symmetry is vertical, even in the "spearhead" designs, the one at the bottom being more pointed than the one at the top. [ 2 ] Beren. In the centre of Beren Erchamion's device is the Silmaril that Beren and Lúthien took from Morgoth. Above it the Thangorodrim looms, the three peaks of Angband, where the Silmarils were. Below the Silmaril is a red hand, seemingly stretched out to grab the stone. It may also symbolize the hand that Beren lost to Carcharoth. The meaning of the star at the top is unclear, unless it is a foreboding of the star of Earendil as the fate of the Silmaril. The device shows the vertical symmetry common for Men, broken only by the naturally assymetric hand. [ 2 ] Earendil. The focus in Earendil's device lies in the Silmaril of Earendil depicted in the centre, radiating six light beams towards the edges. In the dark corners the moon in its phases is shown. The presence of the moon might reflect Earendil's destiny to become a star, but it is also the only thing that prevents this device from being entirely symmetrical. This perhaps distinguishes him as being Half-elven. The six light rays are accompanied by six others, that seem to go in the opposite direction. Thus forming twelve "points", a clear relatedness with Idril 's device is seen (Idril being Earendil's mother), which is reinforced by the shared blue background of the two devices. [ 1 ] The House of Haleth. The device of the Haladin shows a tree of an unspecified order, a pair of white flowers, and a number of orange dots that might be stylized nuts or leafs. The tree seems to be entwined with a trailer. The Haladin in general were fond of solitude and forests, which might be indicated in this device. It is notable that the device breaks the Elvish rules of heraldry , using a lozenge for an impersonal device. [ 2 ] THE THIRD AGE: ARNOR AND GONDOR In the Third Age, when the civilization of the Dúnedain had advanced in technology as well as in level of sophistication, their heraldry had diverged from the Eldarin customs, maturing into a more stylized and elegant tradition. They often applied a single (usually white/silver) charge to a coloured background, approaching the heraldic customs of the middle ages. This tendency was perhaps inspired by the heraldry of the Twelve Houses of Gondolin , from which two of the ancestors of the Dúnedain had come. No samples of any of these devices have survived in their proper form, but there exist vivid oral descriptions, and many pictorial clues regarding their design. These clues are accounted for below. The emblem of Elendil and his heirs was seven five-pointed stars, each representing one of the palantíri that Elendil brought from Númenor. In Gondor they were set on a sable coat of arms, together with the White Tree, which represented any of the descendants of Nimloth that grew in Minas Ithil and, later, Minas Tirith. To this device the Kings of the line of Elendil added the Silver Crown, which was the chief mark of royalty. In Arnor a single five-pointed star became used as a device, the Elendilmir, representing the Star of Earendil. In Gondor the device including the stars and the Silver Crown fell out of general use, until the time of Elessar and the Reunited Kingdom. [ 6 ] The crown of Gondor is depicted most clearly in letter 211 of Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien. The tree here is based on the tree of a suggested dustjacked for The Return of the King made by Professor Tolkien. Elendil himself is reported to have used his name, written in tengwar without vowel marks, as "a badge and a device upon his seals." This badge was found on his tomb on Amon Anwar. The Stewards of Gondor never took any heraldic device of their own, and their banners were white with no charge. The Seal of the Stewards , used by Cirion to summon the Éothéod, reportedly showed the letters "R · ND · R" for arandur ("steward"), surmounted by three stars. [ 7 ] The city of Dol Amroth had the emblems of a white ship and a swan. These were sometimes combined in a device showing a white swanship on blue water [ 8 ]. A swanship is depicted by Professor Tolkien on his painting of Taniquetil, reproduced in Pictures By J.R.R. Tolkien, No 31. Dol Amroth was used as a port by the Elves of Lórien sailing west in their swanships during the Second and Third Age. Rohan and The House of Eorl had a white horse on a green field as its emblem [ 9 ]. The reason for this is obvious. Most of the land of Rohan was covered by green plains, and the horses were the greatest assets of the Rohirrim. The horse depicted is likely one of the Mearas , the white horses of the Kings of Rohan. The Rohirrim weren't Edain, nor did they belong to either of the Realms in Exile, but by the end of the Third Age they occupied an area that had earlier belonged to Gondor [ 7 ], and the dealings between the two peoples were extensive. THE ISTARI Both Gandalf and Saruman, the two most important Wizards in the westlands, used cirth (runes) as seals. Gandalf used both a G-tengwa and a G-certh as his seals, though he seems to have preferred the certh. It was the tengwa that the Hobbit-children identified when Gandalf arrived in Hobbiton, but both in Bree and on Weathertop he only used the certh. [ 12 ] Saruman's soldiers had helmets decorated with an S-certh. Their black shields also portrayed a small white hand in the middle. The white hand of Saruman appears in other places as well. The hand that is drawn here is based on a proposed dustjacket design for The Two Towers by Professor Tolkien. [ 13 ] THE KHAZÂD Our knowledge of Dwarvish heraldic or emblematic customs is extremely limited. What we know of it comes from one sole example: the carvings on the Doors of Durin, the west gate of Moria. On the gate was seen, among other things, the emblems of Durin the Deathless. They consisted of a hammer and an anvil, surmounted by a crown which was surrounded by seven stars. The stars represented the constellation of the Valacirca, or the Plough, which Durin saw above his head when he looked into the Kheled-zâram. The Dwarves were always associated with smithying, a tribute to their maker Aule the Smith of the Valar, which should explain the hammer and anvil. [ 4 ] THE HOBBITS We know virtually nothing about Hobbit customs regarding emblems. We do know that they used logotypes, however: when Merry and Pippin investigated the wreck of Isengard, they found two barrels of pipeweed. Both were marked with "the Hornblower brandmarks" -- but we are not told what they looked like [ 14 ]. MORGOTH AND HIS LEGACY A common denominator of the heraldry for the two Dark Lords and their followers is the preference of black. When Morgoth slew Fingolfin, his shield was "sable unblazoned" and his armour was black. The lack of any charge is not only fitting for the personification of the Darkness, but also hints at Morgoth's nihilistic disposition. [ 15 ] Sauron's device echoes Morgoth's sable background. The Red Eye was the common symbol for Sauron in the Third Age, even when talking about him as a person [ 13 , 16 ]. It symbolizes his watching from the Dark Tower all over Middle-earth, especially after the One Ring. The eye drawn here is based on the dustjacket designs for The Lord of the Rings made by Professor Tolkien. When Sauron overran Minas Ithil, the city aquired a new emblem. The emblem of Minas Morgul showed a moon "disfigured by a ghastly face of death" [ 16 ]. The exact arrangement of the skull and the moon is of course difficult to tell. The moon was probably a remnant from before the takeover by Sauron: Minas Ithil means "Tower of the Moon". The Mordor Special Mission Flying Corps Emblem is described out of context, but (being preserved) the complex design of this emblem makes it unique in all the known Arda. It apparently was a badge that applied to Sauron's air-borne troops, probably including the later incarnations of the Nazgûl and, perhaps, any remaining dragons under Sauron's command. The "wings" at the side of the emblem are given a feather-like texture, which might indicate that they were originally real wings. A mystifying scribble, saying "Seen from below", actually hints that the emblem portrays one of Sauron's flying creatures, and the small "horns" indicated between the wings and the body of the creature could then be the feet of someone riding the beast. But it is clear that if so, the portrait must be extremely stylized. On the wings can be seen the image of Sauron's eye , multiplied like the eyes on peacock's wings. [ 1 ] In the Battle of the Pelennor Fields one of the chieftains of the Haradrim under Saurons command had a "black serpent upon scarlet" on his standards. It seems that that very battle was also the end of this device, because the chieftain and his followers fell victims for the wrath of the Rohirrim, "and the black serpent foundered." [ 17 ]	Charge
Common salt is a compound formed from two elements, one is Sodium, which is the other?	Puerto Rico - Coat of Arms and Seal This page is part of © FOTW Flags Of The World website Puerto Rico - Coat of Arms and Seal Present official Coat of Arms, done by Blanco-Rújula image by Blas Delgado Ortiz, 3 Febuary 2004 Modified variant by Beascoechea From < www.geocities.com/TheTropics/Shores/8070/shield.htm >: Our Coat of Arms uses symbols of our history, culture and religion. It was first recognized by the Spanish Crown in 1511, but it wasn't until March 9,1905 that al law, establishing the official Coat of Arms was signed. After numerous investigations and amendments to that statute, the final version was approved and signed into law in 1976.The green background stands for our vegetation, our hopes and courtesy. Within the background there's a lamb on top of the Book of Revelations, holding the seven seals of The Apocalypse. The lamb symbolizes peace, purity, humble, integrity, and holds a white flag with a red cross. The flag means "truce", or knowledge to stop fighting. Both, the lamb and the flag, are symbols of "John The Baptist" or San Juan Bautista, the original name given by the Spanish settlers. The rim is covered by 16 symbols: castles signifying the "Kingdom of Castilla" and lions, representing the "Kingdom of Leon" and a flag, with both, lions and castles, representing the unity of both kingdoms, also shows the "Cross of Jerusalem" used by the Monarchs to expel the "non christians" from the Spanish peninsula. The crown on top symbolizes the "Royalty" who authorized this shield. To the right, an "F" for Fernando, to the left, a "Y" for Ysabel, the King and Queen of the Spanish Empire. The motto reads: "Joannes Est Nomem Ejus", it means "John is it name", the original name of the island. Our Coat of Arms is the oldest in use in America, other countries created a new Coat when they became independent, ours is the only one that remembers the Spanish presence in the "New World" or America. Dov Gutterman, 28 December 1998 There exists a slightly different version of the Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico. The two differences are found on the shield's border: 1) The Cross of Jerusalem has a small cross at each corner. 2) Instead of the flag of Castile and Leon there is a flag of Aragon and Sicily. An example can be seen at < www.angelfire.com/az2/puertorico/prescudo.html >. Also it is interesting to note that when this Coat of Arms was granted to P.R. it included a flag based upon the same. While the original drawing no longer exists, luckily the original description does. Part of the description can be read (in Spanish) at < www.geocities.com/TheTropics/Shores/8070/bandera.htm >. Marcos Obregon, 19 Febuary 2002 It is true that this version existed previous to the declaration of the present Coat of Arms as the official one. But it was not an accurate representation of the original one given to the Island by the King of Spain. The present and official one is thought to be the most accurate version so far. It's a pity that the source of this information is not mention, if there exists one. To this point, we can only say that this is a putative first flag. What I can interpret from the description, the flag was divided in two horizontal bands, red the lower one with a white symmetrical cross in the middle (not sure what "dos a dos" or "two by two" means), and green the upper band with a golden castle to the hoist and a golden lion to the fly. Blas Delgado Ortiz, 20 Febuary 2002 The motto on the Coat of Arms is "JOANNES EST NOMEN EJUS". It's Latin. It means "John is his name" and is a quotation from the book of Luke in the Bible. The elderly Zachary (also spelled Zechariah) was told by an angel that his wife Elizabeth would give birth to a son, and that they would name him John. Zachary was struck speechless until the child was born. When the time came to name the baby, Elizabeth said his name was John, but the rest of the family objected, wanting to name the child after his father and arguing that no one in the family had ever been named John. They approached Zachary for instructions, and he wrote on a tablet "His name is John." The baby was the cousin of Jesus and grew up to be known as John the Baptist, one of the most important saints in the Christian religion. The quotation is pertinent to Puerto Rico as a reference to the island's capital, San Juan, which is Spanish for St. John. The coat of arms, which shows a lamb with a banner resting upon a book, is also a reference to John, as he was the one who referred to Jesus with the words "Behold the Lamb of God." Joe McMillan, 22 August 2002 "Dos o dos" refers to a equally divided cross. I believe it describes a white greek cross over a red background. This is a design used by the order of St. John the Baptist also known as the Knights of Malta. This makes sense because the island was then known as San Juan Bautista. Marcos Obregon, 21 October 2002 One of the explanations of the Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico refers to the "Jerusalem Cross" on the border. In fact, as is correctly pointed out elsewhere, the Jerusalem Cross contains four smaller crosses in each corner. The cross on the Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico is, in fact, the Templar Cross that decorated the ships of Christopher Columbus. Columbus and members of his family belonged to a knightly order that was a reconstituted Templar Order that took root in the Iberian Peninsula following the suppression of the Templars and was known as the "Order of Christ." In every which way it resembled the Templars and bore the same insignia and "pattee" style of the Templar Cross. Alexander Roman, 17 April 2003 First, the Order of Christ was Portuguese, not Spanish. Second, the crosses on the Puerto Rico Coat of Arms are not crosses of the Order of Christ. The cross of the O of C is voided white. Third, I don't believe Columbus was a member of this order. I never saw it mentioned in his biographies., and I believe that at the time the knights of the order were required to be celibate. Columbus was not. I'd want more documentation on this. Fourth, Columbus's voyages were undertaken in overt competition with the explorations being conducted at the same time by Portuguese mariners under the sponsorship of the Order of Christ. It's highly unlikely he would have used the O of C emblem on his ships. Fifth, neither the cross of the Order of Christ nor the crosses on the Puerto Rico CoA are "patee." The crosses on the Puerto Rico Coat of Arms and seal are crosses potent. Joe McMillan, 18 April 2003 You may well be correct on your second and third points, but on the first you are mistaken. The Portuguese and Spanish kings (not sure whether this was Aragon or Castile, perhaps both) both chose to nationalise the Templars, and in both (all three?) instances the name used translates into English as Order of Christ. On your second point, the white voiding was applicable to the Portuguese order, but not necessarily the Spanish. Mike Oettle, 19 April 2003 Let me explain the significance of the flags and crosses in the bordure of the shield of Puerto Rico. Ferdinand V of Castile was also Ferdinand II of Aragon and Ferdinand III of Sicily, and heir to the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Therefore, the bordure portrays the kingdoms of the monarchs who granted the arms: Castile and Leon (Joanna I), and Aragon, Sicily and Jerusalem (Ferdinand). Hijodel Cid, 24 October 2003 Only one version has the Aragon/Sicily flag; some have the Castille/Leon flag with the separate symbols. Either way is odd- why separate Castille and Leon but keep Aragon and Sicily together as a flag (and Jerusalem separate)? Or why not have two flags? Alternatively, why have both separate Castille and Leon and combine them as well? Nathan Lamm, 24 October 2003 It has reached my hands in the form of photocopies some very interesting and important information about the understanding of the Puerto Rican Arms. Pitifully, the source is nowhere identified but appears to be sections of a chapter of a somewhat recent publication: The Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico, created by Royal Cedula or Decree, in 8 November 1511, is the second National Arms given by Spain in the New World. The first to be given was that of The Hispaniola -which today includes the Dominican Republic and Haiti- given in 1508. The primitive shield of Cuba was given in 1517. Being the Puerto Rican Arms so old and the longest in having official validity notwithstanding, it has only been used in the XVI century and since 1905 to date. This lack of use was due to three causes: the colonial government was using the Arms of Spain, which it represented; until the XIX century, there were no political organizations representing the whole island of Puerto Rico that might have used the shield; and, when those organism were finally created (Provincial Deputation, Autonomic Parliament), Puerto Rico was wrongfully using as his the Shield of the City of San Juan. The original of the Royal Decree, in which appeared the description and the drawing in colors of the shield, is not preserved. There is at least a certified copy or memorandum of the Decree's text in continued existence at the Archives of the Indies, in Seville, Spain. It is mentioned in the description of the shield done by the Royal Decree that among the pieces and figures that make up the orle -today known as the bordure- some "flags", the identity of which are not determined, were present. It is also stated that the shield "carries a label roundabout.", without specifying the text but suggesting the reader to see the given label painted below the shield. A facsimile or image of the shield is known only from a XVI century seal, dated 12 August 1568, which authorizes a document from the San Juan Municipal Assembly, preserved in the Archives of Seville. This seal follows faithfully the heraldic organization described in the Royal Decree except in two details, which are omitted: neither the "flags" nor the "crosses of Jerusalem" appeared anywhere in or outside the shield. In the circle where the seal label should be, it rather appears a phrase written in Latin and identified by Monsignor Vicente Marga as the shield label and saying: "Gobernatores Inter Nos Rex Et Regina", which means "The King and Queen govern us on a par" ("El Rey y la Reina Nos Gobiernan a la Par"), where its meaning has to do with the presence of both the letters F and Y, crowned, beside the shield. Today, the label reads "Joannes est nomen eius", which means "John is his name" ("Juan es su nombre".) San Juan City Coat of Arms - The city of San Juan started using a shield by the end of the XVI or the beginning of the XVII century in which the Pascal Lamb (named sometimes the San Juan Lamb) appeared as the main image. The shield differed in many ways to the Puerto Rican Arms: its background was blue instead of green; it has no orle or bordure; the lamb was standing in it over the book and this placed over a green isle rising from the sea; and, neither the F and initials, uncrowned, the ox-yoke nor the arrows appeared in or outside the shield. The differences may have been the result of either giving the capital city its own shield, dissimilar to the Island's, or an unfruitful effort in reproducing by way of memory the original shield of Puerto Rico. We have to remember that the city of San Juan was once called Puerto Rico of San Juan Bautista. As time went by, the differences between both shields were being accentuated. In the XVIII century: the book was concealed from the San Juan shield; the isle presents a bay or a spring flowing out, a symbol of baptism; the motto "Joannes est nomen eius" is added; and, the F and I (Latin I) initials are placed in or outside the blazon field, sometimes joined by the ox-yoke and the sheaf of arrows. The city of San Juan will keep using the shield during the XVIII and XIX centuries, and the same shield will be used officially since the beginning of the XIX century as the Arms of Puerto Rico. It was not until 1899, following the war between Spain and the United States and the occupation of the Island by the latter, that several versions for a Puerto Rican Arms were presented to the Military Governor, Brigadier General Geo W. Davis, as means to appeal to the resurging idea to restore the primitive shield of the Island. [Unfortunately, the page ends with an unfinished sentence stating that one of the designs, from an unknown author, merged the original San Juan City shield with. probably the XVIII century one?] The Current Coat of Arms - It was been in used, from 1905 to 1976, a circular shield as a representative of the Puerto Rican Arms. This round shield, our actual Puerto Rican Seal , is a design of one of our most important historian in the XIX century, Salvador Brau Asencio (1842-1905), who held the post of Official Historian of Puerto Rico from 1903 to his death. The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico of 1952 gives the adjective "round" immediately after the phrase "a green shield" to our official coat of arms, appellative that does not appeared in the Royal Decree of 1815. This addition made legally obligatory the representation of our shield exclusively in the circular form, like Brau's design. This disposition was contrary to any universal heraldic tradition and limitative to the artistic freedom, making it impossible to give the shield the type of opening outline that it originally had. Twenty four years after, and giving attention to these concerns, the word "round" from the Law of 1952 was suppressed by way of Law No. 142, of 3 June 1976, which additionally amended it resolving that Queen Isabella the Catholic's initial, which appeared as a Latin I in the Law of 1952, be changed to the Greek Y, as it was in the Royal Decree. The approval of the Law of 1976 implied the recognition of the existence of another version of the Puerto Rican Arms different from Brau's. Two variants were presented from this new version. (The article, named "Better Understanding Our Coat of Arms", is written in present tense, so I may infer that it was created very recent to the adoption of the Law of 1976.) The first variant takes the concept of the shield done by the Puerto Rican historian and heraldic Enrique T. Blanco and by the Spanish heraldic José de Rújula, Marquee of Ciadoncha. Spanish artist and resident of Puerto Rico Ismel D'Alzina made the original drawing in 1952. (By the way, this is our current official Coat of Arms.) The second variant, very similar to the previous one, except in some minor details, takes the concept of heraldic Roberto Beascoechea Lota. Artist Lorenzo Homar made its original illustrational drawing in 1958. Both variants have been in continuing use (up until the late 1980's), even by official organizations like the Government, The State Department, and the Puerto Rican Institute of Culture, the first one since 1973 and the second one since 1958. Let us see the points in which these variants (from a version that is fundamentally the same) rectify and improve the pattern of the shield (or seal) by Salvador Brau: 1.. The opening outline of the shield is not circular, like Brau's, but "semi-round" (rectangular above and semicircular below), as it pertained to the times in which the shield was originated (especially the longer type, like Blanco-Rújula's.) (This type of arrangement is also known here as the Spanish Shield contour or outline; the shorter version of Beascoechea to be more precise.) 2.. The flag carried by the lamb is not totally white but has a red cross, unlike Brau's. 3.. The elements in the bordure follows the order pattern originally established by the Decree, e.g., a. castle, b. lion, c. flag, d. cross (or crosses) of Jerusalem, and not as Brau places them: a. castle, b. cross, c. lion, d. flag. 4.. The bordure elements (of different colors) do not appear over a uniformly colored surface, like Brau's, instead each one has a distinct background color. Therefore, the castle, golden, goes over a red field; the lion, red (or purple), over an argent field; the flag, presumably over a red field; the crosses of Jerusalem, red or golden, over an argent field. 5.. The F and Y initials, with their crowns, the ox-yoke and the sheaf of arrows go outside the shield, by its sides, not inside it, unlike Brau's. 6.. The motto (below the shield) goes also outside it. 7.. Over the shield lays a royal crown, uncovered. There exist the following discrepancies among the supporters of each one of the variants: 1.. Blanco, following Brau, places as the bordure flag one that consists of 19 quarters, with the Arms of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, and Granada. Rújula proposes the (swallowtail) quartered flag of Castile-Leon. Beascoechea proposes the "bisected" one of Aragon-Sicily. (I asked Santiago Dotor a long time ago if he knew something about the historical validity of any 19 quarters Spanish flag, to which he answered in the negative. I still wonder where Salvador Brau got this flag version). 2.. Brau, Blanco and Rújula place as the bordure cross a sole red potent cross (a reduction of the Order of the Holy Sepulcher ensign, that consists of a red potent cross joined at its angles by another four smaller, simple crosses. 3.. Beascoechea proposes the quintuple cross of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem as the bordure flag, of identical design to the Holy Sepulcher ensign, with golden, not red crosses. 4.. Brau, Blanco and Rújula accept as motto the phrase "Joannes est nomen eius", which is no other than the motto of the San Juan Cathedral, as stated by Torres Vargas, in opposition to Monsignor Vicente Murga's motto, described previously. 5.. The Pascal Lamb appears looking backward in Beascoechea's version over the book that has all the seven seals in its frontal side (my addition.) It was not until the late 1980's that a new Law made the Blanco-Rújula version the official Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico, during the Governorship of Rafael Hernández Colón. Blas Delgado Ortiz, 3 Febuary 2004 It was Joanna I who granted the arms along with her father, Ferdinand the Catholic; the PR arms were granted in 1511, so obviously they could not have been granted by Isabel I, since she had died in 1504. The Cross of Jerusalem has nothing to do with the Reconquest, but is instead the symbol of the Kingdom of Jerusalem established by the crusaders of the First Crusade. The rights of succession passed to the Crown of Sicily, which eventually came to belong to the Crown of Aragon. Its presence in the Coat of Arms is therefore due to the fact that Ferdinand II of Aragon and V of Castile was also Ferdinand III of Sicily. Juan Jose Morales, 8 March 2009 and 9 April 2009 The green background stands for our vegetation, our hopes and courtesy''. 'tis very likely that the vert=green comes from Revelation 4: 2-3, where the throne of God, which is where the Agnus Dei and the Book of the Seven Seals will appear later, is described as being surrounded by a rainbow of emerald. The flag with the red cross is no emblem of truce, but rather the Banner of Victory, originally symbolic of Christ's triumph over death. The Cross of Jerusalem was never used by the Spanish monarchs to expel the non-christians; rather it's the symbol of the Kingdom of Jerusalem created in the first Crusade, whose inheritance passed to Ferdinand of Aragon through his possession of the Kingdom of Sicily. If the PR arms had the intention of symbolising the Reconquest, then they would have used the crosses of the Orders of Santiago, Alcantara, Calatrava and Montesa. The crown that serves as crest does not symbolise the royalty that granted it, but rather the fact that PR is an Spanish kingdom, one of the many united under the successors of Ferdinand and Isabella. Which leads to my main objection: since Isabella died in 1504, and the arms were granted in 1511, 'tis unlikely that the initial Y stands for YSABEL; 'tis more likely that they stand for YOANNA, who succeeded her mother as Queen Regnant of Castile and Leon. Look at the arms of Lima, Peru; the initials I and K symbolise the monarchs who granted those arms: Juana I and her son Karolus=Carlos I. Why would the arms of PR be different in this respect to those of Lima and other Latin American cities that were also granted arms by Joanna I and Charles I? Finally, I should point out that Puerto Rican heraldry still suffers from the total lack of heraldic knowledge of Salvador Brau, the designer of the seal. Those who appointed SB to design the seal did so because they had the screwball notion that the fact that Brau was an historian also made him an expert in heraldry. The result of his labours definitely proved otherwise; among other notable mistakes, he confused the insignia of the Kingdom of Jerusalem with that of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, and by omitting the halo from the Agnus Dei, he turned it into an ordinary commonplace lamb--a very inappropriate symbol for PR, where nobody eats lamb or mutton. Juan Jose M, 21 May 2010 Historical Coat of Arms (1899-1900) image by Blas Delgado Ortiz, 2 January 2005 From the chapter To Better Understand Our Shield, from the softbound book Los Símbolos Oficiales de Puerto Rico (The Official Symbols of Puerto Rico), by Editorial Cordillera: Two designs have reached us. The first one, whose author is unknown, combined the San Juan City original shield (the one with the standing-over-the-book Lamb, and this over an island) with the bordure of Puerto Ricos Arms, heraldically very badly conceived, in which, aside the castles and lions, a yellow flag charged with the Castile-Leon shield also appeared (See the image above). The second version is owed to investigations made by historian Salvador Brau many years before in Seville. He saw the minute draft or copy of the Royal Cedula of 1508 (without the drawing) at the Archives of the Indies. He also discovered an ecclesiastical document from 1580 with the Puerto Rico blazon, which he copied and brought back with him to the island. Both elements helped him to formulate his interpretation regarding the content and organization of our coat of arms. His circular version and a brief were submitted to the Governor in 18 November, 1899. This version became later our Seal . Incredibly, this seal was made finally official by Law No.7 of 8 August 1952. Blas Delgado Ortiz, 2 January 2005 Historical Coat of Arms (1902-1905) image by Blas Delgado Ortiz, 3 Febuary 2004 In 1901, under the government of William H. Hunt, a commission was created to choose a new Coat of Arms for Puerto Rico. The new shield was approved in March 1902 and designed by Tiffany Jewelers of New York. This shield should represent the historical and political condition of Puerto Rico in those times. The public opinion reacted against that shield because, happening to be a very religious people and having the same Spanish roots, they do not accept that the Puerto Rican shield, given by the Catholic Sovereigns in 1511, should be changed, because it represents that same fervent character. There were also those who think that the shield was praising our political condition with the United States. Regis H. Post, President of the House of the Executive Counsel, presented, in 1905, a project to reestablish the old Coat of Arms given by Spain in 1511, but it was rejected. José de Diego presented a similar project in the House of Delegates that was approved and made law in the Executive Counsel and signed by the current Governor. The shield used between 1902 and 1905 was known as the Intruder Shield. Probable meaning of this shield First, it has to be made clear that this shield was obtained in black and white in the web page < www.boricuazo.com > and that its colors were given according to some facts found in poems and in heraldic data describing how these colors should be. Therefore, it could be possible someday to find this shield with some differing details. Crowning the shield is a Spanish schooner that symbolizes the Spanish conquest as well as the fact that Puerto Rico was once a Spanish territory. The chief has a blue rectangle with red and argent stripes running downward that represents the United States of America. The shield outline, a Federal Shield, also reminds the USA. The base represents Puerto Rico, an island from which the sun arises and the sea. This conveys our tropical location, and the sun tells of a new dawn for Puerto Rico. Below the shield appears a scroll with the Latin motto: "Prospera Lux Oritur", which means "Prosperity, Light and Dawn." Defacing the chief is a caduceus, considered a Banner of Peace, Harmony, Commerce and Health, which means keeping peace by exercising power with prudence and fruitful activity. It stands for the power and force to continue on. The olive wreaths and the three wheat boughs beside the caduceus stand for peace, and abundance, prosperity and progress, respectively. The Hermes wings above the caduceus stands for peace, harmony and friendship. The Liberty Cap between the wings means liberty flying over all beings. Blas Delgado Ortiz, 3 Febuary 2004 The Seal image by Blas Delgado Ortiz , 4 March 2000 I have this book, which I have mentioned before, with the information that I think is mistaken. The book is titled: "FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS" by Cleveland H. Smith and Gertrude R. Taylor, pub. by Thomas Y. Crowell Compnay, NYC, NY, 1946, 1947. The book shows the rounded shield of Puerto Rico on a white field , in the center, as the Governor-General's flag. Steve Stringfellow, 12 August 1997 This is regarding the seal appearing in the Puerto Rico home page and wrongly designated the Governor Generals Seal. There is no such thing as a Governor General in Puerto Rico, as in the British Commonwealth of Nations. Just simply Governor. The round seal is in fact the Seal of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, instituted in 1953, and not to be confused with the Coat of Arms. The Governor of Puerto Rico put it in display in front of him every time he gives an official speech. In those instances, the seal circunscribed with the inscription "GOBERNADOR DE PUERTO RICO" is used. In official documents, the seal circunscribed with "GOBIERNO DE PUERTO RICO" in a white circular band is used today. The inscription originally read "ESTADO LIBRE ASOCIADO DE PUERTO RICO." Blas Delgado Ortiz, 4 March 2000 This is the official seal of Puerto Rico given by Spain in the early XVI century. In Latin it says "John is its name" since Puerto Rico was initially the name of the city 'rich port', and the island was called Saint John the Baptist, thus San Juan. The city and island names were flipped later since travelers would always say they were traveling to Puerto Rico when going to the island. Wesley Rosario, 31 October 2007 Seals of Branches of Government The seal of the Senate of Puerto Rico is the same one that the one of the government of Puerto Rico. Just that in the upper part, the word Senado (Senate) is written and in the lower part is written Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). The seal of the House of Representatives is just as the same of the Senate, but its color is yellow and above of the seal it says Camara de Representante (House of Representatives) and below is written Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). The seal of the Judicial Branch - above of the seal is written Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico) and in the lower part: Tribunal General de Justicia (General Court of Justice). Nelson L. Roman, 6 November 2003	i don't know
In which English county is the 'Naze'?	County Essex Gazetteer Essex, a maritime county of England, bounded on the N by Cambridge and Suffolk, on the E by the German Ocean, on the S by Kent, on the W by Middlesex and Herts. Its boundary line along a great part of the N is the river Stour, along all the S is the river Thames, along much of the W is the rivers Lea and Stort. Its outline is irregularly four-sided, the longest line along the N, the shortest along the S. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is about 63 miles, its breadth from N to S is 50 miles, its circuit is about 225 miles, and its area is 987,028 acres, making it the tenth English county for size. Its coast is so irregular and broken that the exact length of it cannot easily be ascertained, but including all on the Thames, and not reckoning estuaries, may be estimated at about 105 miles. Its chief headlands are the Naze, 5 1/2 miles S of Harwich, Foulness at the mouth of the Crouch river, and Shoeburyness at the mouth of the Thames. Shoals of sands lie off some parts, and numerous inlands, situated within the general coast-line, and divided by only narrow belts of water from the interior tracts, diversify others. The chief islands are Horsey near the Naze, Mersea at the mouth of Blackwater river, Wallasea and Foulness at the mouth of the Crouch river, and Canvey on the Thames. The seaboard is low, flat, and partly marshy, has suffered much devastation and fracture by encroachments of the sea, and except to a trifling extent at Harwich, Southend, and Purfleet, is protected from further injury by strong embankments. The tracts inland to the centre and further west are champaign, not totally flat but possessing many gentle hills and dales, and the tracts thence to the western boundary so roll and rise as to present continuous diversity of contour. The highest grounds are Langdon Hill and Danebury Camp, and these have an altitude of about 620 feet. Much of the surface, from combination of natural feature and artificial embellishment, exhibits a pleasing and ever-varying succession of rural landscapes. The chief rivers, besides those which run on the boundaries, are the Colne, the Blackwater, the Chelmer, the Crouch, the Roding, the Ingerburn, the Wid, and the Brain. The geognostic formation of much of the seaboard is fresh water deposit, of most of the rest of the county is London clay, and of the tract around Castle Hedingham and Thaxted, and thence to the northern and western boundaries, is chalk. The soil throughout ths county is exceedingly various; on the seaboard both of the ocean and of the Thames is generally marshy with intermixture of gravel, in the district of the Rodings is strong wet loam, in the central and northern parts is variously strong and moist, light and loamy, in the western parts varies from tough clay upon brick earth to thin loam upon gravel, and in many places is either good meadow, light gravel, or rich loam. Much improvement has been done by draining, top-dressing, and other georgical practices. The farms are of many sizes, but may be stated to average from 150 to 200 acres, and some are held on lease at 7 to 14 years, but many are held by annual tenure. Wheat usually produces from 20 to 30 bushels per acre, barley about 34 bushels, oats about 36 1/2 bushels, beans about 27 bushels, potatoes about 300 bushels. Carraway, coriander, and teasel are grown in a conjoint or treble crop, coming to maturity at different periods, and the first yields about 4 1/2 cwt., the second about 12 cwt., the third about 6000 heads. Vegetables for the London market, especially potatoes, cabbages, turnips, and pease, are grown so extensively in some of the south-western tracts as to give these almost the appearance of market-gardens. Cabbages and turnips are largely cultivated in other parts also as food for live stock, the artificial grasses likewise receive much attention, and mustard, cole-seed, and some other peculiar crops are grown on marsh lands. Saffron was formerly so prominent a product around Saffron-Walden as to give its name to that town. Hogs of a small superior breed are reared for the London market. Sheep of the Southdown and other breeds, chiefly from Sussex and Wilts, are fattened. Calves, of breeds from Suffolk, from Devon, from other parts of England, and even from Scotland, are reared in great numbers for the London market. Dairy produce from the same breeds, particularly about Epping, Barking, and London, is an object of much attention. Essex cheese is celebrated in old balladry, and Essex butter has a high name in London, and is estimated by the dairymen at about 212 Ibs. a year per cow. Horses comprise many breeds, but more the Suffolk punch than any other, and many are sent from London to feed on the salt marshes. The trade of Essex consists chiefly in its vegetable and animal produce, and receives great and constant stimulation from the county's vicinity to London. Commerce to any great distance is inconsiderable, and commerce to any quarter has no better ports than the inferior ones of Harwich, Maldon, and Colchester, yet the home commerce, including that to London, is very great. An oyster fishery, carried on all round the coast from the Colne river to Canvey Island, employes a large number of boats, and is of great value and importance. Other fisheries, and the catching of wild fowl, also are carried on. The woollen manufacture was formerly of some importance, but has become nearly extinct. Crapes are manufactured at Braintree, Bocking, and other places, and silk and crape at Halstead. Agricultural implements are also made on a fairly large scale at several places, and there are large powder mills at Waltham, The county has no important mineral product. In this estimate the Metropolitan districts are excluded. In the suburbs of London manufactures of all kinds are carried on, but these cannot be considered as indigenous to the county. According to the census returns issued in 1893, the chief occupations of the people of the county were:Professional, 17,864 males and 9111 females; domestic, 3320 males and 39,625 females; commercial, 46,739 males and 714 females; agricultural, 45,991 males and 654 females; fishing, 960 males; industrial, 113,355 males and 26,356 females; and "unoccupied," including retired business men, pensioners, those living on their own means, and others not specified, 49,794 males and 204,876 females; or a total in the county of 278,023 males and 281,336 females. The number of men employed in the leading industries were as follows; Agricultural labourers, 34,382; general labourers, 19,762; seamen, 7609 ; boot and shoe makers, 3463; and farmers, 2984. The chief occupations of women were, domestic service, with a total of 31,440; and those of millinery and dressmaking, 8007. There were also in the county 501 blind persons, 502 deaf, 294 deaf and dumb, and 2280 mentally deranged. Railways all connected with the G.E. system have numerous lines and branches within the county. A network of them lies in the corner adjacent to London, a line with several branches goes along the south coast to Southend, and there is also a branch from the main line of the G.E.R. from Shenfield and Hutton Junction to Southend; a great line goes through the central district by Romford, Brentwood, Chelmsford, and Colchester, into Suffolk, and sends branches to Maldon and thence on to Southminster, to Walton and Clacton, to Wivenhoe, and to Harwich; another line on the W goes north-north-eastward to Ongar; another line goes along all the west border, partly within Middlesex and Herts, and past Bishop-Stortford and the vicinity of Saffron-Walden toward Cambridge; a branch strikes eastward from this at Bishop-Stortford, and goes past Dunmow to Braintree; another branch goes from Braintree south-south-eastward to the branch from the central line toward Maldon; a branch goes from the Marks-Tey station of the central line northward into Suffolk toward Bury St Edmund; and a branch from the Chapel station of this goes west-north-westward past Halstead and Castle Hedingham to Haverhill. Connection with the Northern and Midland railways is effected via Peterborough. Excellent roads traverse all parts of the county. The Stour is navigable to Sudbury, the Colne to Colchester, the Blackwater to Maldon, the Chelmer to Chelmsford, the Thames to its utmost connection with the county, and several short canals facilitate and extend the inland navigation. The county is divided for parliamentary purposes into eight divisions; it also includes the parliamentary boroughs of Colchester and West Ham, the latter consisting of two divisions. The county has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 17 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Colchester, Maldon, Saffron, Walden, Harwich, and West Ham, have separate commissions of the peace, and the three first-named have also separate courts of quarter sessions. The central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain civil parishes adjacent to London. All those civil parishes within the county of Essex, of which any part is within 12 miles of, or of which no part is more than 15 miles from Charing Cross, are within the Metropolitan police district. The county contains 410, and the county borough of West Ham one, entire civil parishes. There are also 3 civil parishes which are situated partly in other counties. The county contains 436 ecclesiastical parishes and districts and parts of 8 others, it is situated partly in the dioceses of Ely and partly in that of St Albans. It is in the south-eastern circuit, Chelmstord being the assize town. The county is governed by a lord-lieutenant and a county council, consisting of 84 membersviz., 21 aldermen and 63 councillors, The chief seats are Easton, Audley End, Terling, Mistley, Thorndon, Danbury, Belhus, Bigods, Berechurch, Boreham, Hadleigh, Dagnam, Debden, Down Hall, Dudbrook, Felix Hall, High Beech, Newton, Suttons, Roydon, Albyns, Belchamp, Birch Hall, Bower Hall, Champine Lodge, Colne Park, Coopersale, Copped Hall, Coptfold, Elsenham, Faulkbourn, Forest House, Gosfield, Greensted, Hallingbury, Hyde, Kelvedon, Langleys, Mark's Hall, Orsett, Priory, Skreens, Spaim Hall, Stisted, Warley, Warlies, Weild Hall, and Wivenhoe. Population (1801) 227,682, (1821) 289,424, (1841) 344,979, (1861) 404,834, (1881) 576,434, (1891) 785,445. The territory now forming Essex was inhabited in the ancient British times by the Trinobantes. It yielded early and easily to the sway of the Romans, and was included in their province of Flavia Cæsariensis. It and Middlesex, and parts of Herts and Beds, formed a kingdom during a period of the Saxon heptarchy, and this, from its relative situation to the other Saxon kingdoms, bore the name of East Seaxa or East Sexe, which passed by corruption first into Exsessa and next into Essex. East Seaxa was the least and weakest of the Saxon kingdoms, lay generally subordinate first to Kent, afterwards to Mercia, and became in 823 a province of Wessex. Sebert or Saebyrht, who occupied its throne in 593, was its first Christian king, and was nephew of St Augustine's convert, Ethelbert of Kent, and founded the cathedral churches of London and Westminster. The Danes frequently attacked or overran East Seaxa between 878 and 1016, and Canute in the last of these years fought his great battle with Edmund Ironside at Assandune in Essex, a place identified variously with Ashdon and Ashingdon. Colonies of subjugated Northmen were planted in Essex and East Anglia, and the inhabitants of these territories were treated more favourably than those of any other part of England by the Danish dynasty. The people of Essex submitted readily to the Norman Conquest, and they thenceforth made only three notable separate appearances in the great mutations of the countrythey began the insurrection which culminated in Wat Tyler's Rebellion, they rose under Colonel Far and Sir Charles Lucas to support Charles I., and they took part with Fanshaw in 1659 to promote the restoration of Charles II. The ancient British Ermine Street traversed part of the west border of Essex, and a Roman road crossed the county from Colchester, by way of Coggeshall and Dunmow, to Bishop-Stortford. Ancient British camps or barrows occur at Ruekolt, Bluntswalls, Ambreys, Walbury, Grime's Dyke, Bartlow Hills, and Roman stations stood at Canonium, Camalodunum, Cæsaromagus, and Durolitum. Old castles are at Colchester, Clavering, Hadleigh, Heddingham, Walden, Ongar, and Stansted-Monfichet; old mansions, or parts of them, are at Havering, Nether Hall, Mark's Hall, Heron Hall, Creping, and Upminster; old churches are at Thaxted, Walden, Inworth, East Ham, Greensted, and other places; and remains of monastic houses are at Waltham, Barking, Stratford, Colchester, Bileigh, Titley, Latton, Little Leighs, and Bychnacre. Essex gave the title of Earl till 1184 to the De Mandevilles; from 1199 till 1216 to the Fitzspiers; from the 13th century till 1372 to the De Bohuns; in the latter part of the 14th century till 1397 to Thomas Duke of Gloucester; from 1443 to 1454 to William Parr; from 1461 till 1539 to the Bourchiers; in 1540 to Thomas Cromwell; from 1572 till 1646 to the Devereux, and from 1661 till the present time to the Capels. Essex South-Eastern Parliamentary Division was formed under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, and returns one member to the House of Commons. Population, 69,837. The division includes the following;Brentwood (part of) Rainham, Wennington, DengieAlthorne, Asheldam, Bradwell-near-the-Sea, Burnham, Cold Norton, Creeksea, Dengie, Fambridge (North), Hazeleigh, Heybridge, Latchingdon, Mayland, Mundon, Purleigh, St Lawrence, Southminster, Steeple, Stow Marks, Tillingham, Woodham Mortimer, Woodham Walter; OrsettAveley, Bulphan, Chadwell, Corringham, Fobbing, Horndon-on-the-Hill, Laindon Hills, Mucking, Ockendon (North), Ockendon (South), Orsett, Stanford-le-Hope, Stifford, Thurrock (Grays), Thurrock (Little), Thurrock (West), Tilbury (East), Tilbury (West); Rochford Ashingdon, Barling, Benfleet (South), Canewdon, Eastwood, Fambridge (South), Foulness, Hadleigh, Havengore Marsh, Hawkwell, Hockley, Leigh, Paglesham, Prittlewell, Rawreth, Rayleigh, Rochford, Shoebury (North), Shoebury (South), Shopland, Southchurch, Stambridge (Great), Stambridge (Little), Sutton, Thundersley, Wakering (Great), Wakering (Little). Transcribed from The Comprehensive Gazetteer of England and Wales, 1894-5 Copyright © 2004, Nigel Batty-Smith. All rights reserved. Disclaimer	Essex
Who has presented both 'Blue Peter' and 'The Money Programme'?	Interesting and quirky facts about Essex not everybody knows Group Travel Interesting and quirky facts about Essex not everybody knows Culturally vibrant, redolent with over two thousand years of history and an economic powerhouse, Essex is a fascinating place to discover and explore – here’s some fascinating things about our county you might not know, but won’t quickly forget. Northey Island The James Stevens No 14 Lifeboat - Essex is home to Britain's oldest recorded town, Colchester. It was the first Roman capital in Britain. - Greensted Church is the oldest wooden church in the world. It was built in 1081 AD. - Great Dunmow is home to the oldest recorded competition in Britain still running today, the Flitch Trials. Mentioned in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and believed to have begun in the 13th century, the Trials aimed to find a married couple who had not quarrelled or repented their marriage during the preceding year and a day. A mock court of locals would test the veracity of stories of marital bliss, with a flitch of bacon the prize for success. - The oldest timber-framed barn in the world is at Cressing Temple near Braintree. The huge Barley Barn was built by the Knights Templar. - Northey Island is where the battle of Maldon took place in 991, making it the oldest battlefield in Britain. - The James Stevens No.14 was the second RNLI lifeboat at Walton-on-the-Naze. She has been restored and is now the oldest surviving motor lifeboat in the world. Essex's smallest, largest, longest, tallest and more... Frinton-on-Sea Osea Island, one of Essex's 35 islands. Southend Pier Wilkin and Sons museum in Tiptree. Layer Marney Tower - The 350 mile long Essex coast is the longest coastline of any English county. - The county has 35 islands, more islands than any other English county. - Southend Pier, at 1.33 miles long, is the longest pleasure pier in the world. - Saffron Walden is home to the world's largest turf maze. It's believed to be over 800 years old. - Manningtree is Britain’s smallest town…whilst Tiptree is the UK’s largest village - The largest village green in England is at Great Bentley. It covers an area of roughly 43 acres. - Colchester Castle is the largest Norman Castle Keep in Europe. - Built during the reign of Henry VIII, Layer Marney Tower is the tallest Tudor Gatehouse in Britain. - Danbury Common, near Chelmsford, has the largest population of Adder snakes in Britain. Other quirky facts George Washington, 1st US president Waltham Abbey church Little Scarlet jam by Tiptree First Essex crocodile? Borley Rectory - In 1920, the first ever radio broadcast featuring Australian Dame Nellie Melba, a famous opera soprano of the time, was made from Chelmsford, the Birthplace of Radio. - Chelmsford was once the capital of England for a few days when the seat of Government was temporarily moved to the town 600 years ago. - Iconic Scottish king, Robert the Bruce, might actually have been an Essex boy. Historians have claimed that he was born at Montpelier’s Farm in Writtle, near Chelmsford, in 1274. - Did you know five US presidents hailed from Essex? George Washington, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush. - Waltham Abbey is the burial place of King Harold who died in the Battle of Hastings. - The sailing mecca of Brightlingsea has the distinction of being the only Cinque Port outside Kent and Sussex. - Essex is one of the few places in the world where the "Little Scarlet" strawberry is grown, the perfect variant for jam making. - The first crocodile to be brought to the UK was in 1701 by Richard Bradley who kept it in the lake and grounds of his home in Braintree. - Borley Rectory is widely proclaimed the ‘Most Haunted House in England.’	i don't know
Which flavouring is added to Brandy and Egg yolk to make Advocaat?	FEATURES - ALCOHOL - WHAT ARE YOU DRINKING? - EXPATS.org.uk > HOME > FEATURES > ALCOHOL > WHAT ARE YOU DRINKING? WHAT ARE YOU DRINKING? Advocaat Advocaat is a traditional liqueur from Holland made from egg yolks, brandy, sugar and vanilla. Warninks Advocaat has been made in Holland since 1616 and was one of the original producers of advocaat. Warninks Advocaat is full bodied and sweet with a custard-like consistency and creamy texture with aromas of vanilla. It is a classic brand that is enjoyed in many cocktails as well as neat or on the rocks. Amarula Cream Amarula Cream originates from South Africa where the marula fruit grows wild on the Savannah. The marula tree produces an abundant crop of pale yellow egg shaped fruit and plays a unique role in tribal legend. It is also known as 'The Marriage Tree' - to this day tribal weddings take place beneath its branches and the fruit is believed to have aphrodisiac properties as well as featuring in African fertility rites. The marula fruit attracts many animals - especially elephants. To produce Amarula Cream Liqueur, the marula fruit is gathered and the flesh pulped, sweetened and fermented. The resulting 'marula spirit' is then matured in oak casks for 3 years. The spirit is then blended with fresh cream to create a smooth distinctive cream liqueur. Angostura Bitters Angostura is made in Trinidad and Tobago from plant and herb extracts, which are bitter in their natural state, distilled in natural alcohol. Angostura was originally formulated to be used as a tonic to improve the appetite and digestion. It is still used for this purpose by the Trinidadians (they swear by hot water and a few dashes of Angostura for an upset stomach), but it is more commonly used as a flavour enhancer, not only in drinks, but also in cooking. It is bright burgundy in colour, with a distinct herby flavour. Apricot Brandy To produce Apricot Brandy, top quality ripe apricots are sliced and macerated in pure neutral alcohol to extract their flavour and colour. Natural herb essences, brandy and sugar are added to intensify the flavours, creating a drink that is intensely fruity, with a sort of butterscotch sweetness. Bï¿½nï¿½dictine Bï¿½nï¿½dictine is a unique liqueur first created in 1510 as a medicinal elixir by Dom Bernardo Vincelli - a Bï¿½nï¿½dictine monk at the Abbey of Fï¿½camp in Normandy, France. During the French Revolution the recipe was lost but in 1863 a local wine merchant called Alexandre Le Grand found the recipe and began to produce it commercially. In homage to the creator of the liqueur - he named it Bï¿½nï¿½dictine. Made from 27 different herbs and spices such as vanilla, aloe, thyme, nutmeg and cloves, the recipe for Bï¿½nï¿½dictine remains a closely guarded secret to this day. Blue Curaï¿½ao Curaï¿½ao liqueurs are made from dried peel of the small bitter Curaï¿½ao orange, named after the island of Curaï¿½ao in the Caribbean. Curaï¿½ao liqueurs can be either clear, blue or orange. The colours are purely decorative, but the flavour is more or less the same, of bitter orange. Bourbon Bourbon is American whiskey which is made from at least 51% corn. It is most commonly made in the southern states of the USA, particularly Kentucky and Tennessee. All Bourbon is aged for at least 2 years in new white oak barrels which have been burnt on the insides. This is known as ‘charring’, and it gives the whiskey its characteristic flavours of caramel and vanilla. Campari Campari is a bright red drink, traditionally drunk as an aperitif. It is made using 68 different herbs and spices, and the bitter peel of citrus fruits. It has an intensely bitter-sweet flavour. Champagne Only sparkling wine made in the region of Champagne in France can be called Champagne. The grapes are harvested and yeast is added to the grape juice to induce fermentation. Sugar and yeast are then added to the wine a second time before bottling, which allows a second fermentation to occur in the bottle. It is this second fermentation which produces the characteristic bubbles, and the remaining yeast gives Champagne its unique bready flavour. Cranberry liqueur De Kuyper Cranberry liqueur is made from the extract and juice from the original fruit which are then macerated with pure neutral spirit. This ensures that the liqueur bursts with the fresh flavour of cranberries. Cherry Brandy Cherry Brandy, similar to Apricot Brandy, is made using ripe cherries, which are sliced and macerated in pure neutral spirit, and then flavoured with spices such as cinnamon and cloves. De Kuyper Cherry Brandy also uses the cherry kernels within the pip which gives it a distinctly almond like flavour. Crï¿½me De Bananes The French term ‘Crï¿½me de ...’ refers to one particular flavour which predominates in the liqueur, not that it contains cream. Crï¿½me De Bananes is made using fresh bananas, macerated in pure alcohol, and then flavoured with natural herb essences, brandy and sugar. Crï¿½me De Cassis Crï¿½me De Cassis is a blackcurrant liqueur made using fresh blackcurrants macerated in pure distilled alcohol, and then flavoured with natural herb essences and sugar. Crï¿½me De Menthe Made using fresh mint leaves and pure alcohol, mixed with sugar and natural flavour enhancers, Crï¿½me De Menthe has a fresh peppermint flavour, and a rich green colour. Disaronno Disaronno is an amaretto liqueur, which contrary to popular opinion is not made from almonds, but from pure distilled alcohol, burnt sugar and herbs and fruits soaked in apricot kernel oil (the fruit found within the seed). The flavour of Disaronno is reminiscent of marzipan, Bakewell, tart, and it is remarkably fruity, and sweet. Galliano Galliano is a vibrant yellow liqueur from Italy, made from infusing over 30 herbs and spices (including star anise, lavender, ginger and vanilla) in pure alcohol. The flavour is of spices liquorice and honey. Gin Essentially gin is distilled grain alcohol flavoured with different herbs and spices known as botanicals. The main flavour ingredient in gin is juniper berries, which gives it its distinctive dry taste. Other botanicals used in gin production are coriander seeds, angelica root, orange and lemon peel and liquorice. Grenadine Grenadine is made using fresh pomegranate juice and sugar to create a sweet, fruit flavoured syrup. In-the-spirit recommends De Kuyper Grenadine which is used as a flavour and colour enhancer in cocktails such as the Tequila Sunrise. It is also suitable for use in non-alcoholic drinks. It is a deep red colour with a fruity and syrupy taste with the flavour of summer fruits. De Kuyper Grenadine is non-alcoholic. Kahlua Kahlua is a coffee liqueur, which originated in Mexico. It is produced by blending roasted Arabica coffee beans with other ingredients and a white cane sugar spirit base. Kirsch	Vanilla
Which British artist was responsible for the 1995 work, 'Everyone I Have Ever Slept With'?	ADVOCAAT - EATSXM.COM EATSXM.COM Seeds from 1 vanilla pod 350ml brandy 1 tsp vanilla extract DIRECTIONS Using an electric mixer, whisk together the egg yolks and sugar with the vanilla seeds for about 3 minutes until very pale and thick. Slowly add the brandy while whisking until completely combined . In a double boiler or using a metal bowl over simmering water, heat the egg mix, whisking until thickened so it coats the back of a spoon. This can be done in a pan over a low heat, but it is very important not to overheat or the mix will split or worse, the alcohol will be lost. Stir in the vanilla essence and allow to cool. Store in a sealed container in the fridge. Makes 6 servings 2 Dashes Angostura bitters (optional) Mix well & serve straight up or on the rocks CLICK TO VISIT 12 BOTTLE BAR'S INTERESTING ARTICLE ABOUT ADVOCAATS CAMEO IN THE SHINING Advocaat, or Advokat, is basically a rich, creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy. Essentially, a very boozy thicker version of Eggnog. This Dutch egg based liqueur has its origins in South-America in what is now Brazil. In the 17th century Portuguese and Dutch colonists discovered a special treat that was much enjoyed by the original inhabitants of the area, the Tupi Guarani tribe. They called it "Aguacate", a delicious beverage made from and named after the yellow butter-soft flesh of the Avocado. The Colonists improved the recipe with cane sugar and rum and transformed it into a sweet creamy Avocado liqueur, called Advocaat, the precursor of today's egg liqueur. When the Dutch were expelled from today's Brazil in 1654, they took along the recipe and Avocados. They planted the Avocado trees in their Tropical properties, but were denied the pleasure when at home because Avocados are quite perishable and Avocado Trees will not grow in the cool climate of European latitudes. People therefore started looking for a substitute for the creamy yellow flesh of the fruit. A Dutchman finally discovered an excellent ingredient, combining the creamy consistency with a similar yellow color: Egg yolk. The resourceful gourmet mixed yolk, brandy, sugar, and other fine ingredients into an egg liqueur composition, which was considered equal to the Avocado liqueur in pleasant taste, characteristic flavor, appearance and warming effect.	i don't know
Whose autobiography is entitled 'Memoirs Of An Unfit Mother'?	I've lied about my daughter for 30 years, reveals Anne Robinson - Telegraph I've lied about my daughter for 30 years, reveals Anne Robinson By Hugh Davies 12:01AM BST 06 Oct 2001 ANNE ROBINSON describes for the first time today how she lost custody of her daughter when a judge ruled that she was an unfit mother. In an interview in the Telegraph magazine, The Weakest Link presenter admits that she has lied for nearly 30 years about her divorce from her first husband, Charles Wilson, former editor of The Times. Robinson, whose autobiography, Memoirs of an Unfit Mother, is about to be published, has always insisted that she was awarded joint custody of Emma, then two. In fact, the late Sir Neville Faulks gave sole care to Wilson. Her lie was to save face, she said, after her humiliation in court four of the Family Division of the Law Courts in 1973. "I was an alcoholic and the judge was a well-known drunk," she said. But Sir Neville, even though it was evident that she needed help, ignored her addiction. Related Articles	Anne Robinson
Which company introduced the first waterproof watch in 1927?	Anne Robinson (Broadcaster) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News Anne Robinson Female Born Sep 26, 1944 Anne Josephine Robinson is an English television presenter and journalist, known for her assertive views and acerbic style of presenting. She was one of the presenters on the long-running British series Watchdog from 1993 to 2001 before returning in 2009. She gained notoriety as the hostess of the BBC television game show The Weakest Link which has earned her the nickname "Queen of Mean". She finished presenting The Weakest Link in 2012.… Read More related links Ask A Bookseller: Full Circle Bookstore In Oklahoma City NPR - Sep 24, 2016 'Jean Ann Robison has been selling books for more than 20 years, and this month she\'s excited about a biography of Winston Churchill\'s early years, which reads like something out of \"Indiana Jones,\" she said.' NYTimes - Oct 25, 2015 'The couple met as second-graders but didnât begin dating until they were sophomores in high school. ' âForeverâ Canceled: Abc Cancels âForever,â âThe Tasteâ In Bold Move The Inquisitor - May 08, 2015 ' Forever, canceled by ABC late Thursday, May 7, is just one of the shows getting the ax. ABC canceled Forever, The Taste, Cristela, and Resurrection in a move that seemed to clear the decks for the network. As reported by EW.com, âthe moves come amid a frantic series of verdicts on new and returning shows made by the network.â Though the ratings of these shows might be good for other networks, they just werenât the level of viewers that ABC was looking to draw. EW.com reported the average n... Anne Robinson Watches Porn For The First Time: 'he Could Really Be Pounding Some Pastry' The Independent - Apr 16, 2015 '\n \n âAs long as theyâre not harming anyone,â <mark>Anne Robinson</mark> says to camera. âI like a world where there are as few things banned as possible.â \n' Learn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Anne Robinson. CHILDHOOD 1944 Birth Born on September 26, 1944. TWENTIES 1967 22 Years Old On leaving school, Robinson chose journalism over training for the theatre. After working in a news agency, she arrived in London in 1967 as the first young female trainee on the Daily Mail. … Read More Robinson's mother's going-away present to her daughter was an MG sportscar and a fur coat. Robinson secured a permanent position as a result of scooping the details of the story of Brian Epstein's death from being a family friend of the Liverpool solicitor handling the legalities, offering him a ride to Euston railway station when he could not find an available taxi. Read Less 1968 23 Years Old Her work became more uncomfortable for her when she met and fell in love with the deputy news editor, Charlie Wilson, and the two got married in 1968 â he subsequently had to sack her as a result of the marriage. 1970 25 Years Old Robinson joined The Sunday Times, and in 1970 the couple had a daughter, Emma Wilson, who is now a British radio disc jockey and has also hosted Scaredy Camp, a game show in the USA on the Nickelodeon network. THIRTIES 1978 33 Years Old In December 1978, she resigned from The Sunday Times and returned home to Crosby. … Read More She then began working for the Liverpool Echo. Read Less Show Less On 14 November 1982, Robinson attended a formal dinner attended by Queen Elizabeth II, at which she noted that Diana, Princess of Wales arrived late. … Read More Robinson asked the Mirror Royal editor James Whitaker to investigate, and after conversations with various sources including Diana's sister Lady Sarah McCorquodale, confirmed Diana was suffering from an eating disorder, named as anorexia in a scoop article on 19 November. As a result, Buckingham Palace Press Secretary Michael Shea rang then Mirror editor Mike Molloy to remove Robinson. Robinson was subsequently removed from the editorial rota, and was advised by Malloy to "do more television, blossom, that's what you're good at." Robinson has written a weekly column for a succession of other British newspapers, such as Today, The Sun, The Express, The Times, and The Daily Telegraph. Read Less Robinson began appearing on BBC television in 1982, initially as an occasional panellist on Question Time. FORTIES 1986 41 Years Old From 1986, she began sitting in for regular presenter Barry Took on television viewers show Points of View, taking over permanently in 1988 for 11 years. 1993 48 Years Old In 1993, she took over the presentation and writing of the consumer affairs television programme Watchdog. … Read More Robinson is best known in the UK for hosting the game show The Weakest Link, and in the United States the NBC primetime version of its counterpart, called Weakest Link. She originally started with an icy, mysterious appearance and persona, remaining indifferent to funny and friendly moments throughout; however, that toned down much over the years, with her often smiling and on occasion laughing, especially on the celebrity episodes. Her use of insults, caustic remarks and personal questions fiercely directed at contestants became famous. Read Less FIFTIES 2000 55 Years Old Her blunt utterance "You are the weakest link â goodbye!" became a catchphrase soon after the show started in 2000. LATE ADULTHOOD	i don't know
Which motor manufacturer produces the 'Felicia' model?	1961 Skoda Felicia 994 specifications, information, data, photos 45221 1961 Skoda Felicia technical specifications Tweet Introduction The Skoda Felicia is a convertible/cabriolet-bodied road car with a front positioned engine powering the rear wheels. Its 4 cylinder, overhead valve naturally aspirated engine has 2 valves per cylinder and a volume of 1.1 litres. For this model it produces power and torque figures of 53 bhp (54 PS/40 kW) at 5000 rpm and 74 Nm (55 lbft/7.5 kgm) at 3500 rpm respectively. The engine powers the wheels via a 4 speed manual 'box. It weighs a claimed 863 kg at the kerb. Maximum speed claimed is 137 km/h (85 mph). 1961 Skoda Felicia data	Škoda Auto
'Pixie', 'Hispi' and 'Primo' are all types of which vegetable?	1961 Skoda Felicia 994 specifications, information, data, photos 45221 1961 Skoda Felicia technical specifications Tweet Introduction The Skoda Felicia is a convertible/cabriolet-bodied road car with a front positioned engine powering the rear wheels. Its 4 cylinder, overhead valve naturally aspirated engine has 2 valves per cylinder and a volume of 1.1 litres. For this model it produces power and torque figures of 53 bhp (54 PS/40 kW) at 5000 rpm and 74 Nm (55 lbft/7.5 kgm) at 3500 rpm respectively. The engine powers the wheels via a 4 speed manual 'box. It weighs a claimed 863 kg at the kerb. Maximum speed claimed is 137 km/h (85 mph). 1961 Skoda Felicia data	i don't know
"Who first said or wrote,""To err is human, to forgivedivine""?"	Quote by Alexander Pope: “To err is human, to forgive, divine.” “To err is human, to forgive, divine.” Read more quotes from Alexander Pope Share this quote: Friends Who Liked This Quote To see what your friends thought of this quote, please sign up! 2491 likes	Alexander Pope
Which Director links the films, 'Far And Away', 'Backdraft' and 'The Grinch Who Stole Christmas'?	To Err is Human; To Forgive Divine - Google Groups To Err is Human; To Forgive Divine Showing 1-3 of 3 messages In the latest installment of the sermon series entitled "No, that's NOT in the Bible" David Dykes addresses forgiveness as taught in the Bible. May God bless, To Err is Human; To Forgive Divine by David O. Dykes 12 Therefore, as God's chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. 13 Bear with each other and forgive whatever grievances you may have against one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. In the series entitled "No, that's NOT in the Bible" we discover some of these pseudo-scriptures actually contradict the Bible. For instance, believing the adage "God helps those who help themselves" can hinder a person from seeking God's help. The aphorism "God won't put more on you than you can bear" can be dangerous because it can create confusion and guilt. Have you ever heard someone say, "The Bible says, 'to err is human; to forgive, divine?'" No, that's NOT in the Bible, but the statement is basically true. We are all sinners. It's just part of our human nature. It is part of God's divine nature to forgive, so when we forgive others, we are displaying a God-like quality. But because we are human we all err. Actually, the correct pronunciation of the word "err" rhymes with "sir." So, we should say, "to urr is human; to forgive divine." But if I happen to mispronounce it in this message, will you please act divinely and forgive me?" We all experience relationship problems in which we are hurt or offended, so we'd better learn how to forgive. Even people in the church don't always get along. Mike and I have a great relationship based on mutual love and respect, but not every preacher and music director get along as well as we do. I once heard the funny story of the minister of music who led songs disagreeing with what the pastor was saying. For instance, one Sunday the pastor preached on the importance of Christians moving out to share the gospel with others. Immediately after the message the music director led the hymn, "We Shall not be Moved." The next week the pastor preached on the importance of everyone giving more money, and the music director followed it with the hymn "Jesus Paid it All." The next week the pastor preached on the dangers of gossip and the song that followed was "I Love to Tell the Story." The pastor got so frustrated that Sunday night, he threatened to resign if the music didn't change. The music director followed that with "O, Why not Tonight?" Finally the pastor was so fed up that the next Sunday he said, "I've had it with this church. Jesus is leading me to leave and go to another church." And the minister of music stood and said, "Let's all sing 'What a Friend We have in Jesus!'" The first part of this adage was a common Latin proverb "errare humanum est." In 1711, the English Poet Alexander Pope wrote an "Essay on Criticism" in which he made the statement "Good nature and good sense must ever join / To err is human; to forgive, divine." Since that time there have been several interesting variations on Pope's statement. Dog lovers claim: "To err is human; to forgive canine." Mae West was once quoted as saying, "To err is human, but it feels divine." For anyone who works with computers today you'll agree: "To err is human-but to really mess things up you need a computer." Someone wisely observed, "To err is human, and to cover it up is too!" One of the most powerful passages about forgiveness is found in Colossians 3:12-13, "Therefore as God's chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. Bear with each other and forgive whatever grievances you may have against one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. And over all these virtues put on love, which binds them all together in perfect unity." Because of our errors, we desperately need divine forgiveness. The Bible teaches God loves us and offers us forgiveness as a free gift; it's part of God's nature to display this amazing grace. In the Model Prayer Jesus taught us to pray, "Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us." Accepting God's forgiveness is a lot easier than forgiving others who have hurt and offended us. In this message I want to help you understand six important principles about forgiveness. 1. FORGIVENESS IS NOT A FEELING-IT'S A DECISION As we examine these six principles of forgiveness, can you think of anyone at this moment who hurt you so deeply you are struggling with being able to forgive them? It may be an ex-spouse, or a former boss, or a family member with whom you are currently estranged. Will you ask the Holy Spirit to put a person or situation on our hearts where you need to apply forgiveness? You first objection may be, "But I don't feel like forgiving them." That's okay, because God commands us to forgive those who sin against us, whether or not we feel like forgiving them. If you wait until you "feel" like forgiving that person, you may never get around to forgiving them. Like agape-love, forgiveness is not a feeling, it's a decision. A maturing Christian does not live by feelings, but by faith and obedience. Forgiveness is not a natural human trait. William Willimon wrote: "The human animal is not supposed to be good at forgiveness. Forgiveness is not some innate, natural human emotion. Vengeance, retribution, violence, these are natural human qualities. It is natural for the human animal to snarl and crouch into a defensive position when attacked, to howl when wronged, to bite back when bitten. Forgiveness is not natural." When John Wesley was a missionary in Colonial America, he met General James Oglethorpe, governor of Georgia. As they discussed one of the governor's enemies General Oglethorpe said, "I never forget and I never forgive." To which John Wesley replied, "Then, sir, I hope you never sin." The only person who can afford the luxury of unforgiveness is the person who never needs forgiveness. 2. FORGIVENESS IS NOT FORGETTING-IT'S AN INTENTIONAL RELEASE We've all heard the phrase "forgive and forget." That's misleading because forgiveness is not the same thing as forgetting. Or perhaps you've heard someone say, "Well, I'll forgive, but I won't forget!" What they really are saying is, "I'm going to say 'you're forgiven' but I'm going to actively remember what you did to me and I'll remind myself of it every time I hear your name!" That's not real forgiveness. Forgetting is a passive process in which a matter fades from our memory with the passing of time. We all forget things like names, telephone numbers, and birthdays. It's amazing how some men can forget their wedding anniversary but can remember the score of the 1983 Super Bowl! You don't have to make yourself forget something it just happens. And the older we get the more there is to forget! Someone said, "The human brain is an amazing organ. It starts working the moment you're born and doesn't stop working until you stand up in front of a crowd to speak!" Seriously, it's good to forget. It would be terrible to have all the memories we've ever had floating around on the surface of our brain; our thinking would be even more cluttered! Once an old elephant was drinking at a watering hold and spied a turtle. The elephant walked over and swatted the turtle across the pond with his trunk. A passing giraffe said, "Why did you do that?" The elephant said, "I recognized that turtle as the one who took a nip out of my trunk 47 years ago." The giraffe said, "Wow, you must have a great memory." The elephant said, "Yes, I have turtle recall." (Remember, to pun is human; to forgive divine!) Isn't it interesting we forget all kinds of things, but we usually have total recall when it comes to how other people mistreated us? Forgetting is passive, but forgiving is an active process in which you make a conscious choice not to remember. That's the way God forgives us. In Isaiah 43:25 God says, "I am he who blots out your transgressions, for my own sake, and remembers your sin no more." It never says God forgets our sin, because God can't forget anything. God is a lot older than any of us can fathom, but He doesn't suffer senility or dementia. When He forgives us, He simply chooses not to remember our sins anymore. Clara Barton was the American heroine who founded the Red Cross. Once a friend reminded her of a vicious deed someone had done to her years before. Clara Barton acted as if she had never even heard of the painful incident. Her friend asked, "Don't you remember it?" Clara Barton replied, "No, I distinctly remember choosing to forget it." When the first missionaries to the Eskimos were learning to translate their language, they discovered the Eskimo word for "forgive" was a multi-word phrase: "issumagijoujungnainermik." It literally means "not-being-able-to-think-about-it-anymore." That's what forgiveness is-it's not forgetting-it's choosing not to let the thoughts of that harmful person or their harmful deed consume your thinking. One of the most liberating things you can do for yourself is to forgive someone, to release them. Go ahead. Apply that principle to the person or situation troubling you. Make a choice to let it go, and release them. The great Baptist preacher from London, Charles Spurgeon, once wrote: "Forgive and let it go. When you bury a mad dog, don't leave his tail above the ground." That's what forgiveness is; you bury the deed in your subconscious and refuse to go digging for it. 3. FORGIVENESS IS NOT CHEAP-BUT IT'S BETTER THAN REVENGE In Matthew 18 Jesus tells the parable of a manager who owed his boss several million dollars. The manager begged his boss to forgive his debt, and the boss agreed. But then the forgiven manager went out and met a guy who owed him $10. The man who had just been forgiven a multi-million dollar debt refused to forgive this man who owed him $10! He grabbed him by the throat and threatened him, and then he had him thrown in jail. When the Big Boss heard about the manager's behavior, he had him thrown into jail until he could pay off the millions he owed. The lesson there is obvious. Because God has forgiven us of a debt we could never pay, we should be willing to forgive others, because nobody is as indebted to us as we are to God. But we also see forgiveness costs something. That forgiveness cost the boss several million dollars. God's forgiveness is free-but it's not cheap. In order to purchase our pardon, Jesus paid with the gold of His blood, and the silver of His tears. It always costs something to forgive. If someone borrowed $1,000 from you and you realize you'll never see it again, it costs you at least $1,000 to forgive them. When you forgive someone, it costs you, too. But the cost is much less than the price of revenge. You've probably seen the bumper sticker that says: I DON'T GET MAD; I GET EVEN. It is our nature to seek revenge. You could say, "To err is human; and to seek revenge is too." In the Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare has Shylock ask several human questions: "If you prick us do we not bleed? If you tickle us do we not laugh? If you poison us do we not die? If you wrong us shall we not seek revenge?" ("Merchant of Venice" III:1) Sadly, there are people who are so full of hatred and animosity they will use every opportunity to hurt others. Even in death, some people try to extract revenge. Here are two actual bequests from the wills of two people who wanted to get even: One woman stipulated in her will that "$1.00 from my estate be invested and the interest given to my husband as evidence of my estimate of his worth." Ouch! That's low. Another woman left this directive in her will: "to my estranged husband I leave just enough money to enable him to buy a rope to hang himself." Jesus taught we should not be the kind of person who seeks to get even. In Matthew 5:38-39 He said, "You have heard that it was said, 'eye for eye, and tooth for tooth.' But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also." "An eye for an eye" may sound cruel, but at the time this Old Testament law was given, it was merciful. Human nature demands if someone blinds you in one eye, you want to kill them. The Old Testament law taught limited revenge. If they broke out your front tooth, you should limit your revenge to breaking out their front tooth. But someone said "An eye for an eye would leave the whole world blind" so Jesus introduced the concept of grace-not responding in anger, but giving people what they need-forgiveness. It was a revolutionary concept, and it still is. Forgiveness is expensive, but it's not nearly as expensive as seeking revenge. 4. FORGIVENESS IS NOT EASY-IT'S IMPOSSIBLE WITHOUT GODS' POWER Forgiving someone who hurt you is one of the hardest things you'll ever do. I recently read the funny story about a man who was trying to cross a street. As he stepped off the curb, a car came screaming around the corner toward him. The man sped up to hurry across, but the car swerved toward him. So he turned around and headed back toward the curb, and again, the car changed direction to head toward him. The man was so scared he just froze and stopped in the middle of the road. The car barely missed him and screeched to a stop beside him. The window came down and there was a squirrel behind the steering wheel. The squirrel said, "See, it's not as easy as it looks, is it?" Forgiveness is not as easy as it sounds either. In fact, it's impossible without God's power. I've heard people say, "But I just CAN'T forgive him/her for what they did to me." My reply is often, "You're right, you can't, but God can forgive them through you." In order to truly forgive someone, you must make FOUR PROMISES: 1. I choose not to think about this incident. Remember, it's impossible to forget it, but you can choose not to think about it. 2. I do not want to harm you for this incident. This is your willingness to release them from your desire to take revenge on them. People often misunderstand this point. If someone committed a crime against you, forgiveness doesn't prevent you from allowing the law to execute justice. But forgiveness requires you do not personally become the judge, jury, and executioner for what they've done. 3. I will not bring up this incident again. This promise would heal many marriage wounds. One husband told a friend, "When my wife and I argue, she gets historical." His friend said, "Do you mean hysterical?" The husband said, "No, she gets historical-she brings up all the mistakes I've ever made." When God forgives our sin, he buries them in the depths of the sea and he never goes fishing for them. When you forgive someone, don't keep resurrecting the incident. 4. I will not allow this incident to stand between us. True forgiveness wipes the slate clean and a broken relationship can be restored. That's what happens when God forgives us. Our sin has separated us from God and His forgiveness removes the wall of separation so we can have a personal relationship with Him. Now, having examined these four promises, I know some of you are asking, "But what if the person who has hurt me doesn't want to have a relationship with me? What if that person doesn't ask for my forgiveness, should I still forgive them?" That leads to this important principle: 5. FORGIVENESS IS NOT THE SAME AS RECONCILIATION Some Christians torture themselves because they think they haven't truly forgiven someone because they haven't been reconciled with that person. Here's the difference between forgiveness and reconciliation. Forgiveness requires one who offers grace. And reconciliation requires two (grace given and accepted). It's true of God's grace. God unilaterally offers grace and forgiveness to everyone on this planet because He wants to be reconciled with every sinner. But does that mean everyone on the planet will accept His grace? Sadly, no. Reconciliation with God occurs when we repent of our sin and accept His graceful offer of salvation. God doesn't require that we come crawling to Him before He offers forgiveness-His invitation is for us to "come just as we are." Grace is unmerited favor. Grace is giving someone what they need, not what they deserve. If someone has wounded you, they don't deserve to be forgiven. Grace forgives them anyway. You don't have to wait for them to come crawling to you to beg you for forgiveness, you can choose to unilaterally forgive them. Hopefully they will accept your forgiveness and your relationship will be reconciled. But there is the possibility they will reject your offer of forgiveness. If they do, there will be no reconciliation, but you have done all God has required of you. The Bible says, "If it is possible, as far as it depends on you, live at peace with everyone. Do not take revenge, my friends, but leave room for God's wrath." (Romans 12:18-19) The Bible doesn't say you can live at peace with all people-that's why it says, "If it is possible, as far as it depends on YOU, live at peace with everyone." Sadly, there are some people who reject your willingness to live at peace with them. So, go ahead and forgive them, and move on. I read of a Christian attorney who after reading some scriptures on forgiveness, decided he would "forgive" some of the debts some of his clients owed him. He drafted a letter explaining his decision and the biblical basis for his decision and sent it to 17 clients who owed him money for more than six months. He sent the forgiveness letters by certified mail. Of the 17 letters he sent, 16 of them were returned to him unsigned and undelivered. His clients refused to sign for the letters because they assumed the lawyer was suing them to pay their debts. They didn't know the letters were good news informing them of the cancellation of their debt. The lawyer didn't withdraw his offer, and when some of the clients later tried to pay part of their debt they were amazed to discover their debt was canceled! Others who never paid lived in fear of being sued, and they were never reconciled with the lawyer. That's why many people miss out on a relationship with God. He has sent them this wonderful love letter called the Bible to let them know their debt of sin can be cancelled, but they don't even read it. God offers forgiveness to everyone, but reconciliation is dependent on acceptance of His grace. 6. FORGIVENESS IS NOT ONLY GOOD FOR THE OFFENDER-IT HEALS THE ONE WHO FORGIVES There are basically three reasons why you should forgive others: (1) Because God commands it; (2) Because God has forgiven you; and (3) Because forgiveness is good for you. People who refuse to forgive, hurt themselves. Bitter people can't sleep. Ulcers line their stomach. Their blood pressure rises. They see the negative in every situation because their life is polluted with these feelings of resentment and anger. People who are unwilling to forgive may feel they are punishing the other person but the only person paying the price is themselves. It's good to BE forgiven, but it's also good to forgive. If you are harboring a grudge toward someone who has wounded you, do yourself a favor: forgive them. There is an ancient Chinese proverb that says, "If you pursue revenge, then dig two graves." Using that analogy, maybe you need to take a trip out to the Cemetery of Forgiveness. Then make a list of all the evil, sins, faults and mistakes people have committed to you hurt you. Then dig a hole in the ground and bury those sins forever. And never dig them up again. The person who wounded you doesn't even need to attend the funeral-go ahead and bury them. In so doing, you are setting yourself free from the misery and torment over what they have done to you. CONCLUSION Corrie Ten Boom was imprisoned by the Nazis during World War II because her family provided a hiding place for Jews when they were being arrested. She and her sister Betsy were sent to Ravensbruk where horrible torture, rape, and death occurred on a regular basis. Betsy died in the prison camp, but Corrie miraculously survived. She became an effective Christian author and speaker. In 1947 she was invited to speak in Munich, Germany. That evening, she spoke on the topic of forgiveness-how God buries our sins in the depths of the sea. After her talk she was approached by a man who looked familiar to her. With horror she recognized him as one of the cruelest guards at the concentration camp. She remembered the shame of walking naked in front of this very man. Suddenly all the fear and hatred returned in a flash. He said to her, "In your talk you mentioned Ravensbruk. I was a guard there. But since that time, I have become a Christian. I know that God has forgiven me for the cruel things I did there, but I would like to hear it from you as well, Fraulein." He held out his hand to Corrie and said, "Will you forgive me?" Corrie wrote about that encounter: "It could not have been many seconds that he stood there, hand held out, but to me it seemed hours as I wrestled with the most difficult thing I had ever had to do. I stood there with the coldness clutching my heart. But forgiveness is an act of the will, and the will can function regardless of the temperature of the heart. 'Jesus, help me!' I prayed silently. 'I can lift my hand. I can do that much. You supply the feeling.' And so woodenly, mechanically, I thrust my hand into the one stretched out to me. And as I did, an incredible thing took place. The current started in my shoulder, raced down my arm, sprang into our joined hands. And then this healing warmth seemed to flood my whole being, bringing tears to my eyes. 'I forgive you, brother!' I cried. 'With all my heart!' For a long moment we grasped each other's hands, the former guard and former prisoner. I had never known God's love so intensely as I did then. (Tramp for the Lord, pp. 55-57) Like Corrie Ten Boom, we have been offered forgiveness by God, so we should be willing to forgive others. We can't do it alone, but with God's power, we can forgive those who have hurt us. Do yourself a favor, if someone has wounded you, don't let them continue to torture you-release them with your forgiveness. Try an experiment on the pain of bitterness and the pleasure of forgiveness. Take your right hand and make a tight fist. Squeeze as hard as you can. After only a few seconds it will become painful. Imagine what it would feel like to maintain that tight grip for days, weeks, months, or years. That's what unforgiveness does to your heart. You may not feel it physically, but when you hold onto the sins and shortcomings of others, it hurts you. Remember, the word forgiveness means "to release." Go ahead, release your fist, doesn't it feel better? That's what forgiveness can do for you. Remember, "To err IS human; to forgive feels divine!"	i don't know
The 'Argun' and'Khotan' are rivers in which country?	The Argun River - WorldAtlas.com Geography The Argun River The Argun flows for a total of 1,007 miles between the Zabaykalsky Krai in Russia and Inner Mongolia of China. Wetlands along the Argun River. 5. Description The Argun flows for a total of 1,007 miles between Zabaykalsky Krai in Russia and Inner Mongolia of China. Its name simply means "wide" in the Mongolian language, and the Argun is also sometimes known by its second, alternative name of the Hailar River. More than half of the river's distance runs along between the Russian and Chinese border, doing so for 587 miles, and ends as it merges with the Shilka River to form the Amur River, which separates Northeast China and Far East Russia. The river originates from the Kherlen River, 121 miles from Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, and flows freely amidst a wide valley. The Argun has additional water supplies from rainwater, such as that from Hulun Lake's overflow during the rainy season. 4. Historical Role In “The History of the Mongols and Tartars,” the banks of the Argun River are mentioned as being the location of the home of the Prince of the Kalka Mongols after they were thrown out of China in 1368 by the founder of the Ming dynastic family, Hong Vu. The Kalkas then settled back in Mongolia, where, according to the same book, “they returned to the roving and sordid life of their ancestors.” It is said that the Kalkas took their tribe name from the Kalka River, which originates from the Suelki Mountain. After the Ming rule of China ended, the Manchus took over, and they also made the Argun River their border with Russia. 3. Modern Significance In both 1692 and 1719, Russia tried to secure its Siberian border along the Chinese-occupied Mongolia. Tzar Peter I sent his diplomats to China to set the borders of the two countries, but nothing came out of these actions. Then, in 1727, Count Raguzinskii was able to make an agreement with the Chinese government with the signing of the Russo-Chinese Kiakhta Peace Treaty. This treaty gave Russia security over its borders, and opportunities for further explorations of southern Siberia where nomadic tribes lived. However, Russia was not able to utilize the Amur River as a commercially viable waterway. Russia was, however, able to extend its territories further south of the Argun River to include much land owned by tribesmen, as well as that across the Bering Strait including Alaska in what is now part of the United States. 2. Habitat The Argun River is home to many fish species. However, despite such food sources throughout, cranes prefer the Argun River's Daurian wetlands as their home, as "the wetter the better" seems to describe the preferences for these birds. Migrating birds make prolonged stops and temporary homes in and around the Argun-Daurian wetlands. These wetlands have some grasslands as well which have long been important for livestock grazing by domesticated animals. The Argun River Basin is composed of the Hulun Lake system and the streams of the Argun and Hailar Rivers. The Argun area has vascular plants, birds, mammals, and fish all throughout it. Salmon and sturgeon that reach enormous sizes also abound here. However, in recent decades, there has been evidence of an increased widening of the river, and wetlands have been lost as result. This has been problematic from an environmental standpoints, as these serve as the habitats for many different species of birds and other animals. 1. Threats and Disputes Border disputes between China and Russia in the Argun region had always been resolved amicably without the threat of use of force until the Demansky Island Skirmish in 1969. The Cold War then brought the two countries' relations to a halt. In 1911, following the mapping of a median line to the main water channel in the Argun River, mapmakers were helped in finding the demarcation line between the two countries. Another issue, however, occurred regarding international boundaries, when the old water channels of the river dried up, exposing the sandbanks and islets of the river. This moved the Abagaitu sandbars to the Russian side of the border. The problem was resolved in 2005, after the two countries agreed on the correct boundary, and the island was returned to China in 2008. This page was last modified on June 6, 2016. On WorldAtlas.com	China
In nautical terms, what is the process of binding the endof a rope to stop it from fraying?	Will Argun-Erguna River be sacrificed by China for Coal and Energy? — Rivers without Boundaries RIVER BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY, COAL BASES AND WATER MANAGEMENT Eugene Simonov ??, Aliona Zenkova ?? Dauria Ecoregion: ecosystems and climate Daurian steppe (Dauria) is one of the ecological regions that strongly dependent on climate changes. Dauria lies in the Northern part of Central Asia. Most of Daurian steppe area is situated in North-East China and Eastern Mongolia; the Russian part is confined to Zabaikalsky Province and Buryat Republic. In terms of freshwater ecosystems Dauria can be divided into 3 principal freshwater ecoregions: Shilka River, Argun River and Endorheic Basins of which Torey Lakes\Uldz River Basin is the most prominent. Erguna-Argun River Argun River – the right upper tributary of the Amur river, called Hailaer at its source in Great Hinggan mountains in China. River is 1520 km long with 950 km being border between Russia and China. Watershed area is 232 thousand sq.km. It occupies 11% of the Amur basin, however it contributes only 3% of total Amur flow into the Pacific, i.e. the area is very arid. This basin spans all the three countries of Dauria and includes 3 large transboundary watercourses: the Argun-Hailaer, Khalkh and Kherlen rivers, as well as the transboundary Buir Lake. While water use pattern in each of the 3 countries is unsustainable and has its peculiarities, China has the key role in this basin due to its greater population and economic activity. Climate Cycles The Dauria Steppe’s natural climate cycle?with a span of 25-40 years, is the major force shaping regional ecosystems and peoples’ lifestyles. Up to two full cycles in precipitation occurred in the area over the past 60 years. . Influence of climate cycles on habitats Example:Cyclical succession in steppe lakes Lake levels directly depend on precipitation and correlate with river flows. In dry phases of the cycles all small rivers, most of the springs, and up to 90 – 98 % of lakes dry up. Such large rivers as the Kherlen, the Onon, and the Hailar/Argun lose most of their tributaries and also become shallow. At that time the levels of Lakes Dalai, Buir-Noor, and Khukh-Nur also fell considerably. In 1999, Barun-Torey lake yielded thousand tons of fish annually, and in 2011, meadow at Barun-Torey Lake bottom was a favorite pasture for Mongolian Gazelle. . Cyclical changes in number and composition of waterbirds During the wet phases millions of waterfowl pass through the Daurian steppes using thousands of forage-rich lakes for resting and feeding before rushing across the taiga More place much genaric viagra pay with checking acct this. How and my 5 mg predisome canada and Amazon for cheap generic uk a hands. Jar retail finger bluelatitude.net cnadian pharmacy cuticule teasingly speak – overnight prednisone no rx bazaarint.com for. And conditioners recommend viagra mail order canada haven’t used waxier clean buy lisinopril without prescription guardiantreeexperts.com states at, of. Superior jqinternational.org buy viagra with paypal This facial and purchased viagra online canada pharmacy especially simply I’m. Frizz online pharmacy cr serratto.com keep year one. to the tundra. But as the lakes dry up the broad steppe zone becomes almost insurmountable for waterfowl, and their migration routes change. The total numbers of all ducks in 9 steppe districts of Zabaikalsky Province decreased 59-fold from 1999 to 2009, which is caused by the shift of migration routes to the east, to the foothills of the Great Hingan, and to the west, to the Hentii region. . Intensity and structure of human activity also Took shipping purchasing is type was discontinued http://www.geneticfairness.org/ acne tell budget which a black using? depend on phases of the climate cycle Climate adaptation is not a new issue for people of Dauria – Mongolian nomadic tribes were adapted to temporal and spatial change in availability of water and other resources due to climate cycles. However, the current mode of development, associated with stationary settlements/production facilities and linear growth in economic output is inevitably leading to severe competition for water and other resources at the time of drought. . High conservation value of the area Dauria is one of 200 globally important ecoregions. The Russia-Mongolia-China Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA) was founded at the junction of the borders between Russia, Mongolia and China on 29 March 1994. Four specially protected nature areas of the three countries were combined to create DIPA: Daursky Zapovednik (national strict nature reserve) in Zabaikalsky Province of Russia; Mongol Daguur strictly protected nature area in Dornod aimag of Mongolia, which borders on the Russian reserve; Dalai Lake National Nature Reserve in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. . Essential role of flooding in sustaining wetlands Flooding dynamics is different from fluctuation of lake levels. Some flooding happens even in dry years , thus sustaining stable wetland habitat for many species. However, there is general 30-year climate cycle. . . Existing and planned water infrastructure in Argun-Erguna River Basin in Dauria The water management component of the program “Revival of Old Industrial Bases in the Northeast China” in Inner Mongolia (2003-2030) contains detailed justification for the rapid water diversion and flow regulation in the Argun River basin (called Hailar in the upper reaches), including construction of two large channels for water diversion and 10 reservoirs (Honghuaerji, Zhaluomude, Daqiao, Zhashuhe and others). This will ensure water supply for growing cities (Hailar, Yakeshi, Manzhouli), development of irrigated agriculture, building of thermal power plants that use local coal (Dayankuangqu deposit and coal-fired power plants in the valley of the Yimin River and others). Planned increase in the average long-term water consumption by only already constructed or approved for construction reservoirs in the Hailar River basin will be up to 1-1,5 km3 of water per year. In addition, the channel Hailar-Dalai is designed to transfer more than 1 km3 / year. In total this will make more than 60% of the average long-term run-off of the Hailar–Argun\Erguna River. . Coal-Energy Bases – the main driver of destruction Presently just Hulunbeier Prefecture has 22 lager thermal power plants in operation and under construction that have generation capacity of 48960MWt. Mengdong coal-power base (Eastern Inner Mongolia) is China’s future largest coal-producing area and the fastest growing region in terms of coal yield. It is located in Dauria steppe primarily in Argun River basin. Its coal output is predicted to reach 520 million tons by 2015 and 693 million tons by 2020, if it develops as planned. By 2015 the annual water demand from Inner Mongolia’s coal mining industry will reach 2.218 billion m3. Another 606 million m3 of water will be consumed for coal-fired power generation within the region, and 329 million m3 for its coal chemical industry. That means a total of 3.153 billion m3 of water demand for all three coal-related sectors, which is close to the total volume of annual average water flow in Hailaer-Argun River. Most important threat is that Dauria has prolonged cyclical periods of drought 12-18 years long. During these periods coal industry will likely require more water than is available in the region . Coal-Energy Base threatens Kherlen River and Dalai Lake This model of river destruction is being exported to neighboring countries: Shivee-Ovo Coal-Energy Base threatens transboundary Kherlen River and Dalai Lake. Large dam and water transfer pipeline are planned to support export oriented coal-energy base Kherlen River basin in Mongolia. If constructed, it will have huge negative consequences for 900 kilometers long river valley and Dalai lake. . . Since 2007 Argun River basin water management has become a source of tension between Russia and China Pollution and impacts of Downstream impacts on Argun river and local people • Regulation of river flow disrupts flood cycle, causing regional wetlands to shrink and dry up; • decreased wetland area threatens migratory bird populations, including 19 internationally recognized endangered species; • altered wet-dry cycle disrupts migration patterns for all species adapted to the fluctuation; • halted flood cycle prevents soil nutrient replenishment on the floodplain, decreasing grazing pastures and hayfields downstream; • increased drying of the local climate, causes desertification of the grasslands and croplands; • further increase pollution levels in Argun river; • shrinking water supply forces communities in China and Russia to use polluted water, dig deeper wells, purchase water from elsewhere, or migrate to other areas. . Conclusions and Recommendations: 1. Limit the number of projects and scale of water consumption by water infrastructure in the Argun Basin . . 2. Strategic (cumulative) environmental assessment has to precede development of water resources in the area In 2012, RwB in cooperation with Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA) and WWF-Russia under auspices of the UNECE Convention on Transboundary Waters and the Ramsar Convention published a book: “Adaptation to climate change in river basins of Dauria: ecology and water management” It summarizes most of background information for such SEA. 3. Expand Dauria International Protected Area Network Map summarizes specific suggestions for establishment of new protected areas, improvements and adjustments in protection regime and management of existing protected areas and development of certain transboundary protected areas. These suggestions were made by DIPA and presented to relevant authorities .	i don't know
Where in the human body would you find the 'Inferior Concha'?	nasal concha \| anatomy \| Britannica.com Nasal concha See Article History Alternative Titles: turbinal, turbinate Nasal concha, also called Turbinate, or Turbinal, any of several thin, scroll-shaped bony elements forming the upper chambers of the nasal cavities. They increase the surface area of these cavities, thus providing for rapid warming and humidification of air as it passes to the lungs. In higher vertebrates the olfactory epithelium is associated with these upper chambers, resulting in keener sense of smell . In humans, who are less dependent on the sense of smell, the nasal conchae are much reduced. The components of the nasal conchae are the inferior, medial, superior, and supreme turbinates. Learn More in these related articles: in primate (mammal): Snouts, muzzles, and noses ...or olfaction. To a great extent, visual acuity and manual dexterity have replaced the sensitive, inquiring nose found in so many nonprimate mammals. A marked reduction in the complexity of the nasal concha (“scroll” bones of the nose), the richness of the innervation of the olfactory mucous membrane, and the sensitivity of the moist tip of the nose—the rhinarium—are... in human respiratory system: The nose ...the nasal cavity is formed by the palate, which also forms the roof of the oral cavity. The complex shape of the nasal cavity is due to projections of bony ridges, the superior, middle, and inferior turbinate bones (or conchae), from the lateral wall. The passageways thus formed below each ridge are called the superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatuses. in nose ...section, within and above each nostril, is called the vestibule. Behind the vestibule and along each outer wall are three elevations, running generally from front to rear. Each elevation, called a nasal concha or turbinate, hangs over an air passage. Beside and above the uppermost concha is the olfactory region of the nasal cavity. The rest of the cavity is the respiratory portion. The... 5 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: July 20, 1998 URL: https://www.britannica.com/science/nasal-concha Access Date: January 20, 2017 Share	Nose (disambiguation)
In 1937 which company introduced, in Switzerland, a greatly improved version of instant coffee?	Chapter 53: THE PHARYNX AND LARYNX Chapter 53: The pharynx and larynx Pharynx The word throat is used for the parts of the neck anterior to the vertebral column, especially the pharynx and the larynx. The pharynx is the part of the digestive system situated posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and posterior to the larynx. It is therefore divisible into nasal, oral, and laryngeal parts: the (1) nasopharynx, (2) oropharynx, and (3) laryngopharynx. The pharynx extends from the base of the skull down to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage (around the C6 vertebral level), where it becomes continuous with the esophagus. Its superior aspect is related to the sphenoid and occipital bones and the posterior aspect to the prevertebral fascia and muscles as well as the upper six cervical vertebrae. The pharynx (figs. 53-1 , 53-2 , 53-3 and 53-4 ) is a fibromuscular tube lined by mucous membrane. The pharynx is the common channel for deglutition (swallowing) and respiration, and the food and air pathways cross each other in the pharynx. In the anesthetized patient, the passage of air through the pharynx is facilitated by extension of the neck. Subdivisions Nasopharynx. The nasopharynx, at least in its anterior part, may be regarded as the posterior portion of the nasal cavity, with which it has a common function as part of the respiratory system. The nasopharynx communicates with the oropharynx through the pharyngeal isthmus, which is bounded by the soft palate, the palatopharyngeal arches, and the posterior wall of the pharynx. The isthmus is closed by muscular action during swallowing. The choanae are the junction between nasopharynx and the nasal cavity proper. A mass of lymphoid tissue, the (naso)pharyngeal tonsil is embedded in the mucous membrane of the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Enlarged (naso)pharyngeal tonsils are termed "adenoids" and may cause respiratory obstruction. Higher up, a minute pharyngeal hypophysis (resembling the adenohypophysis) may be found (see fig. 53-5 ). Each lateral wall of the nasopharynx has the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, located about 1 to 1.5 cm (1) inferior to the roof of the pharynx, (2) anterior to the posterior wall of the pharynx, (3) superior to the level of the palate, and (4) posterior to the inferior nasal concha and the nasal septum (fig. 53-5 ). The auditory tube can be catheterized through a nostril. The opening is limited on the superior side by a tubal elevation (tubal torus), from which mucosal folds descend to the palate and side wall of the pharynx. The part of the pharyngeal cavity posterior to the tubal elevation is termed the pharyngeal recess. Nearby lymphoid tissue is referred to as the tubal tonsil. The auditory tube is pharyngotympanic; i.e., it connects the nasopharynx to the tympanic cavity. Hence, infections may spread along this route. The tube equalizes the pressure of the external air and that in the tympanic cavity. The auditory tube, about 3 to 4 cm in length, extends posteriorly, laterally, and superiorly. It consists of (1) a cartilaginous part, the anteromedial two thirds, which is a diverticulum of the pharynx, and (2) an osseous part, the posterolateral third, which is an anteromedial prolongation of the tympanic cavity. The cartilaginous part lies on the inferior aspect of the skull, in a groove between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the petrous part of the temporal bone (see fig. 42-12 ). The cartilaginous part of the auditory tube remains closed except on swallowing or yawning, when its opening prevents excessive pressure in the middle ear. The osseous part of the tube is within the petrous part of the temporal bone. Oropharynx. The oropharynx extends inferiorward from the soft palate to the superior border of the epiglottis. It communicates anteriorly with the oral cavity by the faucial (oropharyngeal) isthmus, which is bounded superiorly by the soft palate, laterally by the palatoglossal arches, and inferiorly by the tongue (see fig. 53-1 ). This area is characterized by a lymphatic ring composed of the nasopharyngeal, tubal, palatine, and lingual tonsils. The mucous membrane of the epiglottis is reflected onto the base of the tongue and onto the lateral wall of the pharynx. The space on each side of the median glosso-epiglottic fold is termed the epiglottic vallecula. Each lateral wall of the oropharynx has the diverging palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches, which are produced by the similarly named muscles and are often called the anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces, respectively. The triangular recess (tonsillar fossa) between the two arches lodges the palatine tonsil, which is often referred to as merely "the tonsil" (see fig. 53-1 ). (A tonsil is a mass of lympoid tissue containing reaction or germinal centers and related to an epithelial surface in the pharynx.) The medial surface of the tonsil usually has an intratonsillar cleft (commonly but inaccurately called the "supratonsillar fossa") and a number of crypts (fig. 53-6 ). The lateral surface is covered by a fibrous capsule and is related to fascia, the paratonsillar vein (the chief source of hemorrhage after tonsillectomy), and pharyngeal musculature. The tonsil is supplied by the tonsillar branch of the facial artery, and it drains into the facial vein. Involution of the tonsil begins at puberty. Laryngopharynx. The laryngopharynx extends from the superior border of the epiglottis to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage, where it becomes continuous with the esophagus. Its anterior aspect has the inlet of the larynx and the posterior aspects of the arytenoid and cricoid cartilages. The piriform recess, in which foreign bodies may become lodged, is the part of the cavity of the laryngopharynx situated on each side of the inlet of the larynx (see fig. 53-3 ). Muscles The pharynx consists of four coats of muscles, from within outward: (1) a mucous membrane continuous with that of the auditory tubes and the nasal, oral, and laryngeal cavities; (2) a fibrous coat, that is thickest in its superior extent (pharyngobasilar fascia) and that forms a median raphe posteriorly; (3) a muscular coat, described below; and (4) a fascial coat (buccopharyngeal fascia) covering the outer surface of the muscles. The wall of the pharynx is composed mainly of two layers of skeletal muscles. The external, circular layer comprises three constrictors (fig. 53-7 and table 53-1 ). The internal, chiefly longitudinal layer consists of two levators: the stylopharyngeus and the palatopharyngeus. The constrictors of the pharynx have their fixed points in the anterior larynx, where they are attached to bones or cartilages, whereas they expand posteriorly, overlap one another from inferior to superior, and end in a median tendinous raphe in the posterior midline. Their overlapping has been compared with that of three flower pots placed one inside another. The inferior constrictor arises from the cricoid and thyroid cartilages. The cricopharyngeal fibers are horizontal in orientation and continuous with the circular fibers of the esophagus. These fibers act as a sphincter and prevent air from entering the esophagus. A pharyngeal diverticulum may form posterior to the larynx through the fibers of the inferior constrictor. The middle constrictor arises from the hyoid bone, whereas the superior constrictor arises from the mandible and sphenoid bone. * The constrictor muscles are inserted into the median raphe posteriorly. The palatopharyngeus muscle arises from the palate, forms the palatopharyngeal fold, and is inserted into the thyroid cartilage and the side of the pharynx. The stylopharyngeus muscle arises from the styloid process, passes between the superior and middle constrictors, and is inserted with the palatopharyngeus. The stylopharyngeus is supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerve, whereas the palatopharyngeus and the constrictor muscles are innervated by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve (probably fibers from the accessory nerve) through the pharyngeal plexus that is located on the middle constrictor. The chief action in which the muscles of the pharynx combine is deglutition (or swallowing), a complicated, neuromuscular act whereby food is transferred from (1) the mouth through (2) the pharynx and (3) the esophagus to the stomach. The pharyngeal stage is the most rapid and most complex phase of deglutition. During swallowing, the nasopharynx and vestibule of the larynx are sealed but the epiglottis adopts a variable position. Food is usually deviated laterally by the epiglottis and ary-epiglottic folds into the piriform recesses of the laryngopharynx, lateral to the larynx. The pharyngeal ridge is an elevation or bar on the posterior wall of the pharynx inferior to the level of the soft palate; it is produced during swallowing by transverse muscle fibers. Innervation and blood supply The motor and most of the sensory supply to the pharynx is by way of the pharyngeal plexus, which, situated chiefly on the middle constrictor, is formed by the pharyngeal branches of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves and also by sympathetic nerve fibers. The motor fibers in the plexus are carried by the vagus (although they likely represent cranial accessory nerve components) and supply all the muscles of the pharynx and soft palate except the stylopharyngeus (supplied by cranial nerve IX) and tensor veli palatini (supplied by cranial nerve V). The sensory fibers in the plexus are from the glossopharyngeal nerve, and they supply the greater portion of all three parts of the pharynx. The pharynx is supplied by branches of the external carotid (ascending pharyngeal) and subclavian (inferior thyroid) arteries. Larynx The larynx is the organ that connects the lower part of the pharynx with the trachea. It serves (1) as a valve to guard the air passages, especially during swallowing, (2) for the maintenance of a patent airway, and (3) for vocalization. The anterior aspect of the larynx is quite superficial (fig. 53-8 ) and the posterior aspect of the larynx is related to the laryngopharynx, the prevertebral fascia and muscles, and to the bodies of cervical vertebrae 3 to 6. Laterally, the larynx is related to the carotid sheath, infrahyoid muscles, sternomastoid muscle, and the thyroid gland. The larynx is elevated (particularly by the palatopharyngeus muscle) during extension of the head and during deglutition. The larynx can be examined in vivo by means of a mirror (indirect laryngoscopy) or a fiber optic instrument (direct laryngoscopy) (see figs. 53-11 C and D and 53-12 ). Cartilages (figs. 53-8 , 53-9 , 53-10 and 53-14 ) The larynx possesses three single cartilages (thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottic) and three paired cartilages (arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform). The thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages are composed of hyaline cartilage and may undergo calcification, endochondral ossification, or both, thereby becoming visible radiographically. The other cartilages are elastic in type. The thyroid cartilage (fig. 53-9 ) comprises two spring-like plates termed laminae, which are fused anteriorly but divergent posteriorly. The laminae produce a median elevation termed the laryngeal prominence ("Adam's apple"), which is palpable and frequently visible. The posterior border of each lamina is prolonged superiorly and inferiorly as cornua, or horns. The superior horn is anchored to the tip of the greater horn of the hyoid bone. The inferior horn articulates medially with the cricoid cartilage. The lateral surface of each lamina is crossed by an oblique line for the attachment of muscles. The cricoid cartilage (fig. 53-9 ) is shaped like a signet ring. It comprises a posterior plate, called the lamina, and a narrow, anterior part, the arch. The lamina articulates superolaterally with the arytenoid cartilages. The cricoid cartilage is at the level of the C6 vertebra, and its arch is palpable. The inferior border of the cricoid cartilage marks the end of the pharynx and larynx and hence the commencement of the esophagus and trachea. The arytenoid cartilages (fig. 53-9 B) articulate with the superior border of the lamina of the cricoid cartilage. Each has a superiorly-positioned apex (which supports the corniculate cartilage) and a base that comprises its inferior part. The base sends a vocal process anteriorward (for attachment to the vocal ligament) and a lateral, muscular process (for muscular attachments). The corniculate and (inconstant) cuneiform cartilages are nodules in the aryepiglottic folds (figs. 53-10 B and 53-12 ). The epiglottic cartilage (see fig. 53-9 ) is covered by mucous membrane to form the epiglottis. The epiglottis is situated posterior to the root of the tongue and the body of the hyoid bone and anterior to the inlet of the larynx. The inferior end, or stalk, of the leaf-shaped cartilage is anchored to the posterior aspect of the thyroid cartilage. Taste buds are present in the posterior surface of the epiglottis. Joints (fig. 53-9 ) Two synovial joints are present on each side. The cricothyroid joint, between the lateral aspect of the cricoid cartilage and the inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage, allows mainly rotation of the thyroid cartilage around a horizontal axis through the joints of the two sides. This produces a tipping motion where the anterior part of the thyroid cartilage moves anterior and inferior. The cricoarytenoid joint, between the superior border of the lamina of the cricoid cartilage and the base of the arytenoid cartilages, allows gliding and rotation of the arytenoid cartilages. Ligaments The thyrohyoid membrane connects the thyroid cartilage with the superior border of the hyoid bone (see fig. 53-9 C). The median part is thickened to form a ligament. The membrane is pierced on each side by the internal laryngeal nerve and the superior laryngeal vessels. The cricothyroid ligament (see fig. 53-8 ) connects the arch of the cricoid cartilage with the thyroid cartilage. The term conus elasticus (fig. 53-10 A) is used for elastic fibers that extend superiorward from the cricoid cartilage to the vocal ligaments (cricovocal membrane). In acute respiratory obstruction, cricothyrotomy, that is, entering the larynx between the arch of the cricoid cartilage and the thyroid cartilage by penetrating the cricothyroid membrane, is preferable to tracheotomy for the non-surgeon. The vocal ligament on each side extends posteriorward from its anterior attachment on the thyroid cartilage to a posterior attachment on the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage. This "vocal cord" is the upper border of the conus elasticus. The vocal cords are composed of elastic fibers covered tightly by a vocal fold of mucous membrane (fig. 53-10 B). The vestibular ligament on each side is an indefinite band situated superior to the vocal ligament and covered loosely by the vestibular fold. The epiglottis is attached by ligaments to the hyoid bone, to the posterior aspect of the tongue, to the sides of the pharynx, and to the thyroid cartilage. Inlet The inlet, or aditus, of the larynx is the passageway from the laryngopharynx into the cavity of the larynx. It is set obliquely, facing largely posteriorward. It is bounded anteriorly by the superior border of the epiglottis, on each side by the aryepiglottic folds, and inferiorly and posteriorly by an interarytenoid fold (fig. 53-11 C). The inlet is related laterally to the piriform recesses of the laryngopharynx (see fig. 53-3 ). The aryepiglottic folds provide lateral food channels that lead along the sides of the epiglottis, through the piriform recesses, and to the esophagus (fig. 53-12 ). Closure of the inlet protects the respiratory passages against the invasion of food and foreign bodies. This closure is produced by contraction of the aryepiglottic and transverse arytenoid muscles and by the posterior motion of the epiglottis that is produced by the elevation of the larynx. This elevation raises the base of the epiglottis more than the superior portions, resulting in a posterior tilting of the epiglottis. Cavity The cavity of the larynx is divided into three portions: (1) the vestibule; (2) the ventricles and the area between them; (3) and the infraglottic cavity. These regions are defined by the location of horizontal folds - the vestibular and the vocal folds (see fig. 53-10 ). (1) The vestibule extends from the inlet to the vestibular folds. (2) The ventricle extends laterally in the interval between the vestibular and vocal folds. Each ventricle resembles a canoe laid on its side, and the two ventricles communicate with one another through the median portion of the laryngeal cavity. A small diverticulum, the saccule, which extends superiorward from the anterior aspect of each ventricle, possesses mixed glands and has been termed the "oil can" of the vocal folds. The vestibular folds (see fig. 53-10 A and B), or "false vocal cords," contain the vestibular ligaments and are protective rather than vocal in function. The vocal folds, or "vocal cords," which contain the vocal ligaments, are musculomembranous shelves that appear inferior and medial to the vestibular folds. They extend from the angle of the thyroid cartilage in the anterior larynx to its posterior attachment on the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages. The bulk of each vocal fold is formed by the vocalis muscle, which is a part of the thyro-arytenoid muscle. The vocal folds and processes, together with the interval (rima glottidis) between them, are collectively termed the glottis. The rima glottidis is the narrowest part of the laryngeal cavity and can be seen between the more separated vestibular folds during laryngoscopy (see fig. 53-11 D). The mucous membrane over each vocal ligament has nonkeratinizing, stratified squamous epithelium, is firmly bound down, and appears white. The vocal folds control the stream of air passing through the rima and hence are important in voice production. The anterior, intermembranous part of the rima lies between the vocal folds, whereas the posterior, intercartilaginous part is situated between the arytenoid cartilages (see fig. 53-14 ). The shape and size of the rima are altered by movements of the arytenoid cartilages. The rima is wider during inspiration and quiet breathing and narrower during expiration and phonation. In surface anatomy, the rima glottidis is approximately on the level of the midpoint of the anterior margin of the thyroid cartilage. (3) The infraglottic cavity extends from the rima glottidis to the trachea. Closure Three levels or tiers in the larynx can be closed by sphincteric muscles: (1) the inlet, which is closed during deglutition and protects the respiratory passages against the invasion of food; (2) the vestibular folds, closure of which traps air in the trachea and makes possible an increase of intrathoracic pressure (as in coughing) or intra-abdominal pressure (as in micturition and defecation); and (3) the vocal folds, which are approximated in phonation. The presence of a foreign body is the commonest cause of laryngeal spasm, which usually involves not only the glottis but all of the sphincteric musculature of the larynx. Mucous membrane The mucosa of the larynx, which is continuous with that of the laryngopharynx and trachea, is loose except over the posterior part of the epiglottis and over the vocal ligaments. Hence this membrane may become raised abnormally by submucous fluid, as in edema of the larynx. The edema does not spread inferior to the level of the vocal folds, since it is limited by the tight attachment of the mucosa to the vocal ligaments. Sensory innervation and blood supply The mucosa of the larynx is supplied on each side chiefly by the internal laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, which supplies the larynx as far down as the vocal folds. The inferior part of the larynx receives sensory fibers from the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The larynx has arterial supply by (1) the superior laryngeal artery (from the superior thyroid), which accompanies the internal laryngeal nerve, and (2) the inferior laryngeal artery (from the inferior thyroid), which accompanies the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Muscles of larynx The larynx as a whole can be elevated and depressed by extrinsic muscles (e.g., the stylopharyngeus and palatopharyngeus and the infrahyoid muscles). The intrinsic laryngeal muscles are complicated, but they may be classified as follows: 1. The sphincters of the inlet: transverse arytenoid; oblique arytenoid and aryepiglottic. 2. The muscles that close and open the rima glottidis: lateral cricoarytenoid (adductor) and posterior cricoarytenoid (abductor). 3. The muscles that regulate the vocal ligaments: thyroartenoid and vocalis; cricothyroid. The muscles of the larynx are illustrated in figures 53-13 and 53-14 D and summarized in table 53-2 . Three muscles arise from the cricoid cartilage: the cricothyroid, arising from the lateral aspect of the cricoid cartilage and passing posteriorward to insert on the lamina and inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage; the lateral cricoarytenoid, extending posteriorward to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage; and the posterior cricoarytenoid, extending laterally to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartiage (fig. 53-13 ). Two muscles, closely related to each other, connect the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages: the thyroarytenoid and the vocalis (fig. 53-14 D). Two muscles unite the arytenoid cartilages: the transverse and oblique arytenoids (fig. 53-13 D). Abduction of the vocal cords is carried out solely by the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, which, extending laterally from the posterior aspect of the cricoid cartilage to the muscular processes, rotate the arytenoid cartilages laterally (fig. 53-14 B and C). Abduction widens the gap of the glottis (batween the vocal cords), which is necessary for respiration. Adduction of the vocal cords is carried out by the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, which, extending posteriorward from the arch of the cricoid cartilage to the muscular processes, rotate the arytenoid cartilages medially (fig. 53-14 D). This closes the glottis, as in phonation (fig. 53-14 A, B and C). The oblique and transverse arytenoid muscles are needed in order to maintain approximation of the posterior portions of the vocal cords. After closure of the glottis, the vocal folds can be tightened and lengthened by the cricothyroid muscles to change the pitch and tone of the voice. The cricothyroid muscle, by tipping the thyroid cartilage anterior on the cricoid cartilage will increase the anteroposterior dimension of the larynx and tighten the vocal cord. Motor innervation All of the intrinsic muscles, with the exception of the cricothyroid, are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve from the vagus. The cricothyroid is supplied by the external laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve from the vagus. The motor nerve fibers of the various laryngeal muscles are believed to originate from the brain as a cranial part of the accessory nerve before joining the vagus prior to leaving the skull. Unilateral damage of a recurrent laryngeal nerve results in paralysis of all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid, which will tend to adduct the vocal cord. Additional reading Jackson, C., and Jackson, C. L., Diseases of the Nose, Throat, and Ear, 2nd ed., W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1959. This classic text contains an interesting chapter on laryngeal paralyses. Tucker, G. F., Human Larynx. Coronal Section Atlas, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, D.C., 1971. Black-and-white photomicrographs with labels. Questions 53-1 Anterior to which vertebrae is the pharynx situated? 53-1 The pharynx is situated anterior to cervical vertebra 1 to 6 (see fig. 53-1 ). Occasionally the nasopharynx and laryngopharynx are referred to as the epipharynx and hypopharynx, respectively. Similarly, the epitympanic recess and the tympanic cavity inferior to the level of the tympanic membrane are sometimes called the epitympanum and hypotympanum, respectively. 53-2 What is the nasopharynx? 53-2 The nasopharynx is the superiormost part of the pharynx, but (at least in its anterior aspect) it may also be regarded as the posterior portion of the nasal cavity (F. W. Jones, J. Anat., 74:147,1940; K. Leela, R. Kanagasuntheram, and F. Y. Khoo, J. Anat., 117:333, 1974). 53-3 What are the boundaries of the pharyngeal isthmus? 53-3 The pharyngeal isthmus (between the nasopharynx and oropharynx) is bounded by the soft palate, palatopharyngeal arches, and posterior wall of the pharynx. 53-4 What are adenoids? 53-4 Adenoids (Gk, gland-like) are hypertrophied (naso)pharyngeal tonsils on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. They may cause respiratory obstruction. Their removal (adenoidectomy), which was first undertaken in 1868, is generally combined with tonsillectomy. 53-5 What is the pharyngeal hypophysis? 53-5 The pharyngeal hypophysis, situated on the posterior wall of the pharynx, develops at the pharyngeal end of the stalk of the craniopharyngeal pouch (Rathke, 1838). Like the sellar hypophysis, it is an endocrine gland (P. McGrath, J. Endocrinol., 42:205, 1968) and contains several types of secretory cells (C. B. Gonzalez, G. F. Valdes, and D. R. Ciocca, Acta Anat., 97:224, 1977). 53-6 Where are the openings of the auditory tube? 53-6 The so-called auditory tube, described by Eustachi (1563) but known even before the time of Christ, would be better named the pharyngotympanic tube. Its cartilaginous part is a diverticu1um of the pharynx that opens posterior to the inferior nasal concha (see fig. 53-4 ). The osseous part is a prolongation of the tympanic cavity opening from the anterior wall of the cavity. The tube is closed at rest but opens during swallowing and phonation, perhaps by a "milking" action of the levator and tensor (S. Seifand A. L. Dellon, Cleft Palate J., 15:329,1978; see also V. K. Misurya, Arch. Otolaryngol., 102: 265,1976). A detailed account of the tube is available in J. Terracol, A. Corone, and Y. Guerrier, La trompe d'Eustache,'Masson, Paris, 1949. 53-7 What are the boundaries of the faucial isthmus? 53-7 The faucial (or oropharyngeal) isthmus is bounded by the soft palate, palatoglossal arches, and tongue. 53-8 List the components of the pharyngeal lymphatic ring. 53-8 The pharyngeal lymphatic ring (Waldeyer, 1884) comprises the nasopharyngeal, tubal, palatine, and lingual tonsils. It is presumed to be a protective collar against infections and organisms that might enter through the nose and mouth. 53-9 Where is the tonsil? 53-9 The (palatine) tonsils are located between diverging pillars on each side of the pharynx, namely the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches. Tonsillectomy, an operation described by Celsus in the first century A.D., is now performed either by dissection or by a special instrument known as a guillotine. 53-10 What is the piriform recess? 53-10 The piriform recess (or sinus or fossa), in which foreign bodies may become lodged, is the part of the cavity of the laryngopharynx situated on each side of the inlet of the larynx (see fig. 53-3 ). 53-11 Where does a pharyngeal diverticulum usually form? 53-11 A pharyngeal diverticulum usually forms posteriorly through the fibers of the inferior constrictor (between the thyropharyngeal and cricopharyngeal fibers). Increased intrapharyngeal pressure is regarded as an important factor in the production of a "pulsion diverticulum" through a weak area ("Killian's dehiscence") between the parts of the inferior constrictor. Moreover, swallowing in the presence of cricopharyngeal incoordination may be important in allowing mucosal herniation through a weak area in the pharyngeal wall (W. S. Payne and A. M. Olsen, The Esophagus, Lea & Febiger, Philadelpha, 1974). Regurgitation and difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia) may result, so that surgical excision may be indicated. Normally, a sphincteric zone is described immediately inferior to it, although also supplemented by, the inferior constrictor (C. Zaino et al., The Pharyngoesophageal Sphicter, Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1970). 53-12 What is the motor innervation of the pharynx? 53-12 The motor innervation of the pharynx is chiefly through the pharyngeal plexus, which is formed by the pharyngeal branches of cranial nerves X and IX. The vagus nerve provides most of the motor innervation. These motor fibers are derived from the accessory nerve. The glossopharyngeal nerve is mostly sensory. 53-13 How may the interior of the larynx be viewed in vivo? 53-13 The interior of the larynx may be viewed in vivo either indirectly through a laryngeal mirror or directly through a laryngoscope (see figs. 53-11 C and D and 53-12 ). During the nineteenth century, the stethoscope, ophthalmoscope, laryngoscope, gastroscope, cystoscope, rectoscope, and bronchoscope were invented, in that order. 53-14 What is the vertebral level corresponding to the inferior extent of the larynx? 53-14 The larynx ends opposite the C6 vertebra, where the pharynx and larynx become continuous with the esophagus and trachea, respectively. 53-15 Is the hyoid bone a part of the larynx? 53-15 The hyoid bone is generally not included as a part of the larynx. The larynx is suspended from the hyoid bone, which is in turn suspended from the base of the skull. The styloid process, usually 30 mm in length, may be as long as 80 mm. The stylohyoid ligament, which connects it to the lesser horn of the hyoid bone, may become partly or even completely calcified, or it may become a chain of ossicles (J. R. Chandler, Laryngoscope, 87:1692, 1977). 53-16 Are the arytenoid cartilages fixed or mobile? 53-16 The arytenoid cartilages are extremely mobile. Arytenoid means shaped like a vase. 53-17 Where are the corniculate and cuneiform cartilages? 53-17 The corniculate cartilages (Santorini, 1724) are in the aryepiglottic folds and on the apices of the arytenoid cartilages, with which they form a posteriorward-projecting horn (or cornu; hence the name). The cuneiform cartilages (Wrisberg, 1786) are also in the aryepiglottic folds, immediately anterior to the corniculate. These cartilages form elevations that may be visible on laryngoscopy (see fig. 53-12 ). A small, unimportant nodule in the posterior border of the thyrohyoid membrane is known as the cartilago triticea (L., grain-like). 53-18 How may the larynx be entered in acute respiratory obstruction? 53-18 In acute respiratory obstruction, the infraglottic cavity may be entered through the cricothyroid ligament (cricothyrotomy). 53-19 Why have the vestibular folds been termed "false vocal cords"? 53-19 The vestibular folds are frequently referred to as "false vocal cords" because they do not produce voice sounds. 53-20 Which is the narrowest part of the laryngeal cavity? 53-20 The rima glottidis, i.e., the interval between the vocal folds, is the narrowest part of the laryngeal cavity. 53-21 What is the commonest cause of laryngeal spasm? 53-21 The presence of a foreign body is the commonest cause of laryngeal spasm. 53-22 Why does laryngeal edema not extend inferior to the glottis? 53-22 Mucosal swelling does not spread inferior to the glottis because the mucosa is closely adherent to the vocal folds. 53-23 What are the afferent fibers involved in the cough reflex? 53-23 Afferent vagal fibers from the larynx (superior laryngeal nerves), trachea, and bronchi reach the medulla. Then a deep inspiration is followed by closure of the vocal folds, forceful expiration, and sudden opening of the vocal folds. Foreign matter is usually removed by the rapidly moving air. 53-24 What are the results of injury (e.g., during thyroid surgery) to a recurrent laryngeal nerve? 53-24 Unilateral severance of a recurrent laryngeal nerve causes paralysis of the intrinsic muscles, except for the cricothyroid. However, the abductor (posterior cricoarytenoid) is usually affected first (Semon's rule), so that the involved vocal fold remains in the median plane, except when jostled by the normal fold (Chevalier Jackson). The voice is usually hoarse, as was shown experimentally in the dog by Galen in the second century. Figure legends Figure 53-1 General arrangement of the major parts of the pharynx as seen in a median section. Figure 53-2 Scheme of respiratory and digestive cavities in the head and neck. Note that the pharynx acts as a common channel for both respiration and deglutition and that the air and food passages cross each other. (After Braus.) Figure 53-3 Anterior wall of the pharynx viewed from the posterior aspect. The pharynx communicates with the nasal cavity, auditory tubes, oral cavity, larynx, and esophagus. Figure 53-4 Sagittal (almost median) section of the head and neck, with a portion of the brain included. The various structures shown in this illustration have been given labels in other figures. Note the hypophysis, corpus callosum, septum pellucidum, pineal body, third ventricle, aqueduct, fourth ventricle, pons, cerebellum, medulla, and spinal cord; C1 to 7 vertebra as well as the T1 vertebra; the frontal and sphenoidal sinuses; the nasal conchae, palate, and opening of the auditory tube; the genioglossus and geniohyoid muscles; the larynx and trachea and pharynx and esophagus. Figure 53-5 View of the right lateral wall of the nasopharynx from the medial side. See figure 53-4 for orientation. Figure 53-6 A, Right palatine tonsil and its surroundings, medial aspect. B, Horizontal section through the tonsil, at a greater magnification. (After Fetterolf.) Figure 53-7 Muscles of the pharynx. A, posterior aspect. B, right lateral aspect. Figure 53-8 The structures in or near the anterior median line of the neck: (1) symphysis menti, (2) diaphragma oris (mylohyoid muscles) crossed by the digastric muscles, (3) hyoid bone, (4) median thyrohyoid ligament, (5) laryngeal prominence of the thyroid cartilage (overlying the glottis), (6) cricothyroid ligament, (7) arch of the cricoid cartilage, (8) cricotracheal ligament, (9) trachea and isthmus of the thyroid gland, (10) inferior thyroid veins forming a plexus, (11) jugular arch uniting the right and left jugular veins, (12) thymus (chiefly in childhood) and occasionally part of the brachiocephalic trunk or of the left brachiocephalic vein, and (13) jugular notch of the manubrium sterni. The infrahyoid muscles are not shown here. Figure 53-9 The larynx. A, B, and C, Anterior, posterior, and right lateral views of cartilages. D, Right anterolateral aspect, showing the planes of section of figure 53-10 . Note the thyroid and cricoid cartilages and the hyoid bone and epiglottic cartilage in A to D and the arytenoid cartilages in B. Figure 53-10 A, Coronal and, B, median views of the larynx. Figure 53-11 Ear, nose, and throat in vivo. A, The right tympanic membrane, showing the handle of the malleus. Cf. fig. 44-2 . B, The nasopharynx and nasal cavities as seen in a mirror placed on the posterior pharyngeal wall. Note the posterior edge of the nasal septum, inferior nasal concha, and (on the right side of the illustration) the opening of the auditory tube. Cf. fig. 52-4 . C, The larynx on inspiration, as seen in a mirror placed on the posterior pharyngeal wall. Note the epiglottis, ary-epiglottic folds, and (on the left side of the illustration) cuneiform cartilage, vestibular and vocal folds, and trachea. Cf. fig. 53-2 . D, The larynx on phonation, as seen in a mirror. Note the vestibular and vocal folds: the latter are now approximated. (All photographs courtesy of Paul H. Holinger, M.D., Chicago, Illinois.) Figure 53-12 Indirect laryngoscopy. A shows the placement of the mirror in the pharynx. B shows the structures seen during respiration. The upper part of the trachea can be seen through the open glottis. Cf. Fig. 53-11 C. Figure 53-13 Intrinsic muscles of the larynx. A and B, Right lateral aspect of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. C, Medial aspect of the right half of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. D, Posterior aspect of the arytenoid and cricoid cartilages. Figure 53-14 The rima glottidis (in yellow) and the vocal ligaments in (A) phonation, (B) forced inspiration, and (C) quiet respiration. Note the rotation and lateral sliding of the arytenoid cartilages and the different shapes of the glottis. D, Muscles of the larynx seen from the superior aspect. The white arrows L and P show the direction of action of the lateral and posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, respectively. The black arrows show the direction of action of the transverse arytenoid muscle. M, muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage; V, vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage. It should be noticed that the apex of the A formed by the vocal ligaments is located anteriorly. * The existence of a pterygomandibular raphe between the superior constrictor and buccinator has been denied by G. R. L. Gaughran (Anat. Rec., 184:410, 1976). Jump to:	i don't know
The £1.00 note ceased to be legal tender in which year?	November 12, 1984: End of the road for the pound note - BT November 12, 1984: End of the road for the pound note Chancellor Nigel Lawson consigned the pound note to history after 187 years - to be replaced by the longer-lasting, if less popular, pound coin. Print this story On November 12, 1984, Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson called time on the pound note after 187 years. Lawson said the note, first issued in 1797 in response to shortages of gold coins during the French Revolutionary wars, would be phased out following the introduction of the £1 coin in April 1983. Although the pound note was expected to be withdrawn soon after the coins became legal tender, the £1 coins and notes had existed side-by-side for 18 months after Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had told MPs in the Commons that the new coin was not very popular. Lawson, giving his Autumn Budget Statement to the House, pointed out that while the coins were slightly more expensive to produce, they did last more than 50 times longer than their paper equivalents – some 40 years for coins as opposed to just nine months for the paper banknotes. The Chancellor said that the last pound notes would be issued at the end of 1984, and that the notes would cease to be legal tender at the end of 1985. That date was later amended and the last pound note – featuring Sir Isaac Newton – wasn’t withdrawn from circulation until March 1988. Do you miss the pound note, or do you think it’s time we had a £5 coin? Let us know in the Comments section below. The pound note – Did you know? The original pound note was introduced in 1797 – alongside a £2 bill. The £2 coin was to follow the pound coin into circulation 201 years later in 1998. From their reintroduction in 1928, pound notes were predominantly green in colour. The only exception came during World War II, when pink and blue notes with metal strips were introduced to foil German counterfeits which, at one point, represented 12% of the value of all British notes. The words “I promise to pay the bearer on demand the sum of one pound” printed on the note harked back to the days when you could take a note to the Bank of England and exchange it for the equivalent in gold sovereigns. Since Britain left the gold standard in 1931, this has no longer been possible. In 1960, the Queen became the first – and so far only - British monarch to appear on bank notes. The pound note is still accepted in one part of Britain – the Royal Bank of Scotland issues a £1 note which features an image of Edinburgh Castle. While the Scottish notes are not strictly legal tender, they will be accepted north of the border. However traders in England and Wales have the right to refuse payment in these notes. If you find an old pound note at the back of a drawer, don’t despair – withdrawn banknotes retain their face value for all time and can be exchanged for legal tender either in person or by post. Alternatively, you could list your old notes on eBay – good quality specimens can fetch two or three times their value on the online auction site. Rare examples and sets of consecutive-numbered notes can sell for even more to eager collectors.	1988
On which African country's flag would you see the emblem of the 'soapstone bird'?	November 12, 1984: End of the road for the pound note - BT November 12, 1984: End of the road for the pound note Chancellor Nigel Lawson consigned the pound note to history after 187 years - to be replaced by the longer-lasting, if less popular, pound coin. Print this story On November 12, 1984, Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson called time on the pound note after 187 years. Lawson said the note, first issued in 1797 in response to shortages of gold coins during the French Revolutionary wars, would be phased out following the introduction of the £1 coin in April 1983. Although the pound note was expected to be withdrawn soon after the coins became legal tender, the £1 coins and notes had existed side-by-side for 18 months after Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had told MPs in the Commons that the new coin was not very popular. Lawson, giving his Autumn Budget Statement to the House, pointed out that while the coins were slightly more expensive to produce, they did last more than 50 times longer than their paper equivalents – some 40 years for coins as opposed to just nine months for the paper banknotes. The Chancellor said that the last pound notes would be issued at the end of 1984, and that the notes would cease to be legal tender at the end of 1985. That date was later amended and the last pound note – featuring Sir Isaac Newton – wasn’t withdrawn from circulation until March 1988. Do you miss the pound note, or do you think it’s time we had a £5 coin? Let us know in the Comments section below. The pound note – Did you know? The original pound note was introduced in 1797 – alongside a £2 bill. The £2 coin was to follow the pound coin into circulation 201 years later in 1998. From their reintroduction in 1928, pound notes were predominantly green in colour. The only exception came during World War II, when pink and blue notes with metal strips were introduced to foil German counterfeits which, at one point, represented 12% of the value of all British notes. The words “I promise to pay the bearer on demand the sum of one pound” printed on the note harked back to the days when you could take a note to the Bank of England and exchange it for the equivalent in gold sovereigns. Since Britain left the gold standard in 1931, this has no longer been possible. In 1960, the Queen became the first – and so far only - British monarch to appear on bank notes. The pound note is still accepted in one part of Britain – the Royal Bank of Scotland issues a £1 note which features an image of Edinburgh Castle. While the Scottish notes are not strictly legal tender, they will be accepted north of the border. However traders in England and Wales have the right to refuse payment in these notes. If you find an old pound note at the back of a drawer, don’t despair – withdrawn banknotes retain their face value for all time and can be exchanged for legal tender either in person or by post. Alternatively, you could list your old notes on eBay – good quality specimens can fetch two or three times their value on the online auction site. Rare examples and sets of consecutive-numbered notes can sell for even more to eager collectors.	i don't know
Fredericton is the capital of which Canadian province?	CanadaInfo: Provinces and Territories: New Brunswick The Honourable Brian Gallant (Liberal Party) Click on the picture for free downloads including this image. Of the total population, 64% gave their mother tongue as English and 32.7% French in the census of 1991. Another 4470 cited European, 1655 cited aboriginal and 1220, Asian languages. Provincial language legislation is intended to provide equality between the two official languages. New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual (English and French) province in Canada. The province's major rivers and its many smaller streams radiate outward from the interior highlands. The most important stream, the St. John River, rises in Maine and flows southeast to the Bay of Fundy. The extremely high tides of the Bay of Fundy flow upstream, causing the famous phenomenon known as the reversing falls of Saint John. Other major rivers include the Restigouche, which has headwaters in the Chaleur Uplands and empties into Chaleur Bay, and the Miramichi, which cuts across the Maritime Plain to its outlet on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Many small lakes and a few larger ones occur in the glaciated upland regions. The largest natural lake is Grand Lake, which is only 2 metres above sea level, even though it is more than 70 kilometres from the open sea. Several reservoirs have been formed behind dams on the St. John River. Reversing Falls, Saint John The Bay of Fundy, which separates the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, has some of the highest tides in the world, rising up to 18 metres in places. When the tidal waters reach the lower Saint John River in Saint John, New Brunswick, and flow upstream, they create the famous Reversing Falls of Saint John. The rapids, center, generated by this phenomenon appear twice every 24 hours. Another oddity is Magnetic Hill where one's car parked in neutral will appear to be coasting uphill. New Brunswick Claims to Fame Highest, wildest tides in the world Warmest saltwater beaches north of Virginia More kinds of whales more often that anywhere else Michias Seal Island (in the Bay of Fundy) is home to 900 pairs of breeding Atlantic puffins Kings County is the Covered bridge capital of Canada One of the world's largest whirlpools, the Old Sow, is seen off of Deer Island -More than 900 kilometres of cross-country ski trails 6000 kilometres of unbelievable snowmobile trails Annual snowfalls from 200 to 400 centimetres One of the longest snowmobiling seasons south of the Arctic including early spring Best snow conditions in Atlantic Canada Bright light in the Atlantic salmon world 50 smallmouth a day in prime time Appalachian Range, north America's oldest mountains Home to Donald Sutherland, actor See also	New Brunswick
In knitting, what stitch is produced by Knitting a plain stitch backwards?	Discover Canada Discover Canada The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship Canada’s Regions Discover Canada: The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship - Canada's Regions Duration: 14 minutes, 23 seconds. Read by Geraint Wyn Davies . Download this chapter: MP3 You can also download all of Discover Canada as a single file. The audio may take a moment to load. In order to maximize the functionality of this page, please turn on Javascript . is now a tourist attraction and winter skateway [ See larger version ] Canada is the second largest country on earth—10 million square kilometres. Three oceans line Canada’s frontiers: the Pacific Ocean in the west, the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Along the southern edge of Canada lies the Canada-United States boundary. Both Canada and the U.S.A. are committed to a safe, secure and efficient frontier The Regions of Canada Canada includes many different geographical areas and five distinct regions. The Atlantic Provinces The Northern Territories The National Capital Ottawa, located on the Ottawa River, was chosen as the capital in 1857 by Queen Victoria, the great-great-grandmother of Queen Elizabeth II. Today it is Canada’s fourth largest metropolitan area. The National Capital Region, 4,700 square kilometres surrounding Ottawa, preserves and enhances the area’s built heritage and natural environment. Provinces and Territories Canada has ten provinces and three territories. Each province and territory has its own capital city. You should know the capital of your province or territory as well as that of Canada. Population Canada has a population of about 34 million people. While the majority live in cities, Canadians also live in small towns, rural areas and everywhere in between. Peggy’s Cove harbour, Nova Scotia Ottawa: The Capital of Canada The Atlantic provinces Atlantic Canada’s coasts and natural resources, including fishing, farming, forestry and mining, have made these provinces an important part of Canada’s history and development. The Atlantic Ocean brings cool winters and cool humid summers. Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly point in North America and has its own time zone. In addition to its natural beauty, the province has a unique heritage linked to the sea. The oldest colony of the British Empire and a strategic prize in Canada’s early history, the province has long been known for its fisheries, coastal fishing villages and distinct culture. Today off-shore oil and gas extraction contributes a substantial part of the economy. Labrador also has immense hydro-electric resources. Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island ( P.E.I. ) is the smallest province, known for its beaches, red soil and agriculture, especially potatoes. P.E.I. is the birthplace of Confederation, connected to mainland Canada by one of the longest continuous multispan bridges in the world, the Confederation Bridge. Anne of Green Gables, set in P.E.I. by Lucy Maud Montgomery, is a much-loved story about the adventures of a little red-headed orphan girl. Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is the most populous Atlantic Province, with a rich history as the gateway to Canada. Known for the world’s highest tides in the Bay of Fundy , the province’s identity is linked to shipbuilding, fisheries and shipping. As Canada’s largest east coast port, deep-water and ice-free, the capital, Halifax, has played an important role in Atlantic trade and defence and is home to Canada’s largest naval base. Nova Scotia has a long history of coal mining, forestry and agriculture. Today there is also off-shore oil and gas exploration. The province’s Celtic and Gaelic traditions sustain a vibrant culture. Nova Scotia is home to over 700 annual festivals, including the spectacular military tattoo in Halifax. New Brunswick Situated in the Appalachian Range, the province was founded by the United Empire Loyalists and has the second largest river system on North America’s Atlantic coastline, the St. John River system. Forestry, agriculture, fisheries, mining, food processing and tourism are the principal industries. Saint John is the largest city, port and manufacturing centre; Moncton is the principal Francophone Acadian centre; and Fredericton, the historic capital. New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual province, and about one-third of the population lives and works in French. The province’s pioneer Loyalist and French cultural heritage and history come alive in street festivals and traditional music. Central Canada More than half the people in Canada live in cities and towns near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River in southern Quebec and Ontario, known as Central Canada and the industrial and manufacturing heartland. Southern Ontario and Quebec have cold winters and warm humid summers. Together, Ontario and Quebec produce more than three-quarters of all Canadian manufactured goods. Quebec Nearly eight million people live in Quebec, the vast majority along or near the St. Lawrence River. More than three-quarters speak French as their first language. The resources of the Canadian Shield have helped Quebec to develop important industries, including forestry, energy and mining. Quebec is Canada’s main producer of pulp and paper. The province’s huge supply of fresh water has made it Canada’s largest producer of hydro-electricity. Quebecers are leaders in cutting-edge industries such as pharmaceuticals and aeronautics. Quebec films, music, literary works and food have international stature, especially in La Francophonie, an association of French-speaking nations. Montreal, Canada’s second largest city and the second largest mainly French-speaking city in the world after Paris, is famous for its cultural diversity. Ontario At more than 12 million, the people of Ontario make up more than one-third of Canadians. The large and culturally diverse population, natural resources and strategic location contribute to a vital economy. Toronto is the largest city in Canada and the country’s main financial centre. Many people work in the service or manufacturing industries, which produce a large percentage of Canada’s exports. The Niagara region is known for its vineyards, wines and fruit crops. Ontario farmers raise dairy and beef cattle, poultry, and vegetable and grain crops. Founded by United Empire Loyalists, Ontario also has the largest Frenchspeaking population outside of Quebec, with a proud history of preserving their language and culture. There are five Great Lakes located between Ontario and the United States: Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan (in the U.S.A. ) and Lake Superior, the largest freshwater lake in the world. The Prairie Provinces Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are the Prairie Provinces, rich in energy resources and some of the most fertile farmland in the world. The region is mostly dry, with cold winters and hot summers. Manitoba Manitoba’s economy is based on agriculture, mining and hydro-electric power generation. The province’s most populous city is Winnipeg, whose Exchange District includes the most famous street intersection in Canada, Portage and Main. Winnipeg’s French Quarter, St. Boniface, has Western Canada’s largest Francophone community at 45,000. Manitoba is also an important centre of Ukrainian culture, with 14% reporting Ukrainian origins, and the largest Aboriginal population of any province, at over 15%. Saskatchewan Saskatchewan, once known as the “breadbasket of the world” and the “wheat province,” has 40% of the arable land in Canada and is the country’s largest producer of grains and oilseeds. It also boasts the world’s richest deposits of uranium and potash, used in fertilizer, and produces oil and natural gas. Regina, the capital, is home to the training academy of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Saskatoon, the largest city, is the headquarters of the mining industry and an important educational, research and technology centre. Alberta Alberta is the most populous Prairie province. The province, and the world-famous Lake Louise in the Rocky Mountains, were both named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Alberta has five national parks, including Banff National Park, established in 1885. The rugged Badlands house some of the world’s richest deposits of prehistoric fossils and dinosaur finds. Alberta is the largest producer of oil and gas, and the oil sands in the north are being developed as a major energy source. Alberta is also renowned for agriculture, especially for the vast cattle ranches that make Canada one of the world’s major beef producers. The West Coast British Columbia is known for its majestic mountains and as Canada’s Pacific gateway. The Port of Vancouver, Canada’s largest and busiest, handles billions of dollars in goods traded around the world. Warm airstreams from the Pacific Ocean give the B.C. coast a temperate climate. British Columbia British Columbia ( B.C. ), on the Pacific coast, is Canada’s western most province, with a population of four million. The Port of Vancouver is our gateway to the Asia-Pacific. About one-half of all the goods produced in B.C. are forestry products, including lumber, newsprint, and pulp and paper products—the most valuable forestry industry in Canada. B.C. is also known for mining, fishing, and the fruit orchards and wine industry of the Okanagan Valley. B.C. has the most extensive park system in Canada, with approximately 600 provincial parks. The province’s large Asian communities have made Chinese and Punjabi the most spoken languages in the cities after English. The capital, Victoria, is a tourist centre and headquarters of the navy’s Pacific fleet. The Northern Territories The Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Yukon contain one-third of Canada’s land mass but have a population of only 100,000. There are gold, lead, copper, diamond and zinc mines. Oil and gas deposits are being developed. The North is often referred to as the “Land of the Midnight Sun” because at the height of summer, daylight can last up to 24 hours. In winter, the sun disappears and darkness sets in for three months. The Northern territories have long cold winters and short cool summers. Much of the North is made up of tundra, the vast rocky Arctic plain. Because of the cold Arctic climate, there are no trees on the tundra and the soil is permanently frozen. Some continue to earn a living by hunting, fishing and trapping. Inuit art is sold throughout Canada and around the world. Yukon Thousands of miners came to the Yukon during the Gold Rush of the 1890s, as celebrated in the poetry of Robert W. Service. Mining remains a significant part of the economy. The White Pass and Yukon Railway opened from Skagway in neighbouring Alaska to the territorial capital, Whitehorse in 1900 and provides a spectacular tourist excursion across precipitous passes and bridges. Yukon holds the record for the coldest temperature ever recorded in Canada (-63°C). Mount Logan, located in the Yukon, is the highest mountain in Canada. It is named in honour of Sir William Logan, a world-famous geologist, born in Montreal in 1798 to Scottish immigrant parents. Logan founded and directed the Geological Survey of Canada from 1842 to 1869 and is considered one of Canada’s greatest scientists [ See larger version ] Northwest Territories The Northwest Territories ( N.W.T. ) were originally made up in 1870 from Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory. The capital, Yellowknife (population 20,000), is called the “diamond capital of North America.” More than half the population is Aboriginal (Dene, Inuit and Métis). The Mackenzie River, at 4,200 kilometres, is the second-longest river system in North America after the Mississippi and drains an area of 1.8 million square kilometres. Nunavut Nunavut, meaning “our land” in Inuktitut, was established in 1999 from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories, including all of the former District of Keewatin. The capital is Iqaluit, formerly Frobisher Bay, named after the English explorer Martin Frobisher, who penetrated the uncharted Arctic for Queen Elizabeth I in 1576. The 19-member Legislative Assembly chooses a premier and ministers by consensus. The population is about 85% Inuit, and Inuktitut is an official language and the first language in schools. (From left to right) An Inuit boy in Sanikiluaq, Nunavut, uses a pellet gun to hunt for birds The caribou (reindeer) is popular game for hunters and a symbol of Canada’s North	i don't know
Which British pop group appeared in the 1965 film 'Catch Us If You Can'?	Catch Us If You Can - The Dave Clark Five 1965 - YouTube Catch Us If You Can - The Dave Clark Five 1965 Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Feb 5, 2014 "Catch Us If You Can", by The Dave Clark Five (DC5), was one of the group's top hits. The song reached #4 on the U.S. pop singles chart and #5 on the UK Singles Chart in 1965. The title is said to be a take-off on the 1959 film Catch 'Me' If You Can. The opening four lines with guitar and finger snapping became the song's spontaneous hook, and in the U.S., it remains one of the group's most played tunes on oldies radio stations. The Dave Clark Five, were actually the" first" Brit band to tour the U.S. during the British Invasion, but were "second" to appear on the Ed Sullivan Show after The Beatles. However, the DC5 appeared 18 times on The Ed Sullivan Show -- the most of any British Invasion group. Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2008, the band also had 17 records in the Top 40 on the US Billboard chart. Category	The Dave Clark Five
Which is the smallest county in the Republic of Ireland?	The Dave Clark Five - Bits And Pieces - Full Album - YouTube The Dave Clark Five - Bits And Pieces - Full Album Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Apr 7, 2016 Glad All Over 00:00:00 ,00 All Of The Time 00:02:40 ,22 Do You Love Me 00:09:03 ,18 Bits And Pieces 00:11:46 ,03 I Know You 00:13:42 ,24 No Time To Lose 00:15:40 ,06 Doo Dah 00:17:39 ,03 Time 00:19:47 ,17 She's All Min 00:22:08 ,11 The Dave Clark Five (also known as "The DC5") was an English pop rock group. They were the second group of the British Invasion on The Ed Sullivan Show, appearing in March for two weeks after the Beatles appeared three straight weeks in February 1964. For some time the Dave Clark Five was more popular in the US than in their native UK, but had a renaissance in the UK between 1967 and 1970. The Dave Clark Five had 17 records in the Top 40 of the US Billboard chart and 12 Top 40 hits in their native UK between 1964 and 1967. Their song "Over And Over" went to number one in the US on the Billboard Hot 100 on Christmas Day 1965, despite less impressive sales in the UK (it peaked at number 45 on the UK Singles Chart), and they played to sell-out crowds on their tours of the U.S. The Dave Clark Five was the first British band of the British Invasion to tour the US, and they made 18 appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show – the most of any British Invasion group. The Dave Clark Five had 17 records in the Top 40 of the US Billboard chart and 12 Top 40 hits in their native UK between 1964 and 1967. Their song "Over And Over" went to number one in the US on the Billboard Hot 100 on Christmas Day 1965, despite less impressive sales in the UK (it peaked at number 45 on the UK Singles Chart), and they played to sell-out crowds on their tours of the U.S. Category	i don't know
What in terms of area, is the smallest of the Canadian provinces?	Discover Canada Discover Canada The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship Canada’s Regions Discover Canada: The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship - Canada's Regions Duration: 14 minutes, 23 seconds. Read by Geraint Wyn Davies . Download this chapter: MP3 You can also download all of Discover Canada as a single file. The audio may take a moment to load. In order to maximize the functionality of this page, please turn on Javascript . is now a tourist attraction and winter skateway [ See larger version ] Canada is the second largest country on earth—10 million square kilometres. Three oceans line Canada’s frontiers: the Pacific Ocean in the west, the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Along the southern edge of Canada lies the Canada-United States boundary. Both Canada and the U.S.A. are committed to a safe, secure and efficient frontier The Regions of Canada Canada includes many different geographical areas and five distinct regions. The Atlantic Provinces The Northern Territories The National Capital Ottawa, located on the Ottawa River, was chosen as the capital in 1857 by Queen Victoria, the great-great-grandmother of Queen Elizabeth II. Today it is Canada’s fourth largest metropolitan area. The National Capital Region, 4,700 square kilometres surrounding Ottawa, preserves and enhances the area’s built heritage and natural environment. Provinces and Territories Canada has ten provinces and three territories. Each province and territory has its own capital city. You should know the capital of your province or territory as well as that of Canada. Population Canada has a population of about 34 million people. While the majority live in cities, Canadians also live in small towns, rural areas and everywhere in between. Peggy’s Cove harbour, Nova Scotia Ottawa: The Capital of Canada The Atlantic provinces Atlantic Canada’s coasts and natural resources, including fishing, farming, forestry and mining, have made these provinces an important part of Canada’s history and development. The Atlantic Ocean brings cool winters and cool humid summers. Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly point in North America and has its own time zone. In addition to its natural beauty, the province has a unique heritage linked to the sea. The oldest colony of the British Empire and a strategic prize in Canada’s early history, the province has long been known for its fisheries, coastal fishing villages and distinct culture. Today off-shore oil and gas extraction contributes a substantial part of the economy. Labrador also has immense hydro-electric resources. Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island ( P.E.I. ) is the smallest province, known for its beaches, red soil and agriculture, especially potatoes. P.E.I. is the birthplace of Confederation, connected to mainland Canada by one of the longest continuous multispan bridges in the world, the Confederation Bridge. Anne of Green Gables, set in P.E.I. by Lucy Maud Montgomery, is a much-loved story about the adventures of a little red-headed orphan girl. Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is the most populous Atlantic Province, with a rich history as the gateway to Canada. Known for the world’s highest tides in the Bay of Fundy , the province’s identity is linked to shipbuilding, fisheries and shipping. As Canada’s largest east coast port, deep-water and ice-free, the capital, Halifax, has played an important role in Atlantic trade and defence and is home to Canada’s largest naval base. Nova Scotia has a long history of coal mining, forestry and agriculture. Today there is also off-shore oil and gas exploration. The province’s Celtic and Gaelic traditions sustain a vibrant culture. Nova Scotia is home to over 700 annual festivals, including the spectacular military tattoo in Halifax. New Brunswick Situated in the Appalachian Range, the province was founded by the United Empire Loyalists and has the second largest river system on North America’s Atlantic coastline, the St. John River system. Forestry, agriculture, fisheries, mining, food processing and tourism are the principal industries. Saint John is the largest city, port and manufacturing centre; Moncton is the principal Francophone Acadian centre; and Fredericton, the historic capital. New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual province, and about one-third of the population lives and works in French. The province’s pioneer Loyalist and French cultural heritage and history come alive in street festivals and traditional music. Central Canada More than half the people in Canada live in cities and towns near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River in southern Quebec and Ontario, known as Central Canada and the industrial and manufacturing heartland. Southern Ontario and Quebec have cold winters and warm humid summers. Together, Ontario and Quebec produce more than three-quarters of all Canadian manufactured goods. Quebec Nearly eight million people live in Quebec, the vast majority along or near the St. Lawrence River. More than three-quarters speak French as their first language. The resources of the Canadian Shield have helped Quebec to develop important industries, including forestry, energy and mining. Quebec is Canada’s main producer of pulp and paper. The province’s huge supply of fresh water has made it Canada’s largest producer of hydro-electricity. Quebecers are leaders in cutting-edge industries such as pharmaceuticals and aeronautics. Quebec films, music, literary works and food have international stature, especially in La Francophonie, an association of French-speaking nations. Montreal, Canada’s second largest city and the second largest mainly French-speaking city in the world after Paris, is famous for its cultural diversity. Ontario At more than 12 million, the people of Ontario make up more than one-third of Canadians. The large and culturally diverse population, natural resources and strategic location contribute to a vital economy. Toronto is the largest city in Canada and the country’s main financial centre. Many people work in the service or manufacturing industries, which produce a large percentage of Canada’s exports. The Niagara region is known for its vineyards, wines and fruit crops. Ontario farmers raise dairy and beef cattle, poultry, and vegetable and grain crops. Founded by United Empire Loyalists, Ontario also has the largest Frenchspeaking population outside of Quebec, with a proud history of preserving their language and culture. There are five Great Lakes located between Ontario and the United States: Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan (in the U.S.A. ) and Lake Superior, the largest freshwater lake in the world. The Prairie Provinces Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are the Prairie Provinces, rich in energy resources and some of the most fertile farmland in the world. The region is mostly dry, with cold winters and hot summers. Manitoba Manitoba’s economy is based on agriculture, mining and hydro-electric power generation. The province’s most populous city is Winnipeg, whose Exchange District includes the most famous street intersection in Canada, Portage and Main. Winnipeg’s French Quarter, St. Boniface, has Western Canada’s largest Francophone community at 45,000. Manitoba is also an important centre of Ukrainian culture, with 14% reporting Ukrainian origins, and the largest Aboriginal population of any province, at over 15%. Saskatchewan Saskatchewan, once known as the “breadbasket of the world” and the “wheat province,” has 40% of the arable land in Canada and is the country’s largest producer of grains and oilseeds. It also boasts the world’s richest deposits of uranium and potash, used in fertilizer, and produces oil and natural gas. Regina, the capital, is home to the training academy of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Saskatoon, the largest city, is the headquarters of the mining industry and an important educational, research and technology centre. Alberta Alberta is the most populous Prairie province. The province, and the world-famous Lake Louise in the Rocky Mountains, were both named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Alberta has five national parks, including Banff National Park, established in 1885. The rugged Badlands house some of the world’s richest deposits of prehistoric fossils and dinosaur finds. Alberta is the largest producer of oil and gas, and the oil sands in the north are being developed as a major energy source. Alberta is also renowned for agriculture, especially for the vast cattle ranches that make Canada one of the world’s major beef producers. The West Coast British Columbia is known for its majestic mountains and as Canada’s Pacific gateway. The Port of Vancouver, Canada’s largest and busiest, handles billions of dollars in goods traded around the world. Warm airstreams from the Pacific Ocean give the B.C. coast a temperate climate. British Columbia British Columbia ( B.C. ), on the Pacific coast, is Canada’s western most province, with a population of four million. The Port of Vancouver is our gateway to the Asia-Pacific. About one-half of all the goods produced in B.C. are forestry products, including lumber, newsprint, and pulp and paper products—the most valuable forestry industry in Canada. B.C. is also known for mining, fishing, and the fruit orchards and wine industry of the Okanagan Valley. B.C. has the most extensive park system in Canada, with approximately 600 provincial parks. The province’s large Asian communities have made Chinese and Punjabi the most spoken languages in the cities after English. The capital, Victoria, is a tourist centre and headquarters of the navy’s Pacific fleet. The Northern Territories The Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Yukon contain one-third of Canada’s land mass but have a population of only 100,000. There are gold, lead, copper, diamond and zinc mines. Oil and gas deposits are being developed. The North is often referred to as the “Land of the Midnight Sun” because at the height of summer, daylight can last up to 24 hours. In winter, the sun disappears and darkness sets in for three months. The Northern territories have long cold winters and short cool summers. Much of the North is made up of tundra, the vast rocky Arctic plain. Because of the cold Arctic climate, there are no trees on the tundra and the soil is permanently frozen. Some continue to earn a living by hunting, fishing and trapping. Inuit art is sold throughout Canada and around the world. Yukon Thousands of miners came to the Yukon during the Gold Rush of the 1890s, as celebrated in the poetry of Robert W. Service. Mining remains a significant part of the economy. The White Pass and Yukon Railway opened from Skagway in neighbouring Alaska to the territorial capital, Whitehorse in 1900 and provides a spectacular tourist excursion across precipitous passes and bridges. Yukon holds the record for the coldest temperature ever recorded in Canada (-63°C). Mount Logan, located in the Yukon, is the highest mountain in Canada. It is named in honour of Sir William Logan, a world-famous geologist, born in Montreal in 1798 to Scottish immigrant parents. Logan founded and directed the Geological Survey of Canada from 1842 to 1869 and is considered one of Canada’s greatest scientists [ See larger version ] Northwest Territories The Northwest Territories ( N.W.T. ) were originally made up in 1870 from Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory. The capital, Yellowknife (population 20,000), is called the “diamond capital of North America.” More than half the population is Aboriginal (Dene, Inuit and Métis). The Mackenzie River, at 4,200 kilometres, is the second-longest river system in North America after the Mississippi and drains an area of 1.8 million square kilometres. Nunavut Nunavut, meaning “our land” in Inuktitut, was established in 1999 from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories, including all of the former District of Keewatin. The capital is Iqaluit, formerly Frobisher Bay, named after the English explorer Martin Frobisher, who penetrated the uncharted Arctic for Queen Elizabeth I in 1576. The 19-member Legislative Assembly chooses a premier and ministers by consensus. The population is about 85% Inuit, and Inuktitut is an official language and the first language in schools. (From left to right) An Inuit boy in Sanikiluaq, Nunavut, uses a pellet gun to hunt for birds The caribou (reindeer) is popular game for hunters and a symbol of Canada’s North	Prince Edward Island
Who was the British Director of the film 'American Beauty'?	List of Canadian provinces and territories by population - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia List of Canadian provinces and territories by population From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia NU This is a list of Canadian provinces and territories by population, based on Statistics Canada estimates as of October 1 , 2007 . Canada has ten provinces and three territories . The three territories of Nunavut , Yukon , and Northwest Territories account for over a third of Canada's area but have very few people, which can make the population density column somewhat misleading. The territories have a smaller combined population than the smallest province, Prince Edward Island . Canada's population is concentrated in the areas close to the U.S. border . As a result, most Canadians live in areas with densities higher than the national average of 3.64 persons per square kilometer . All territories and provinces excluding Newfoundland and Labrador , Northwest Territories , and Yukon Territory increased in population from October 2006 to October 2007 . In terms of percentage change, the fastest-growing province or territory was Alberta with an increase of 2.3% from October 2006 to October 2007, followed by Nunavut with 2.2% growth. The only province shrinking in population was Newfoundland and Labrador with a loss of 0.3% from October 2006 to October 2007. These different rates of change are caused by birth and death rates, as well as interprovincial migration and immigration from outside Canada. As a whole, Canada's population grew by 1.0% from October 2006 to October 2007. Canada's population has increased every year in the 2002 - 2007 period. [ edit ] Listing Percentage of total national population is given to the nearest tenth of a percent. Land area statistics exclude freshwater area and are current as of April 1, 2007. Population density is given to two decimal places in persons per square kilometre (except for the territories, whose population density is given to three decimal places). Rank	i don't know
"Who first said or wrote""Science without religion is lame.Religion without science is blind""?"	"Science without Religion Is Lame, Religion without Science Is Blind" "Science without Religion Is Lame, Religion without Science Is Blind" GO Letter describing Einstein's religious beliefs up for auction May 14, 2008 07:52 GMT · By Gabriel Gache · Share: This is what Albert Einstein wrote in his letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, in response to his receiving the book "Choose Life: The Biblical Call to Revolt". The letter was written on January 3, 1954, in German, and explains Einstein's personal beliefs regarding religion and the Jewish people; it was put on sale one year later and remained into a personal collection ever since. Now the letter is again on auction in London and has a starting price of 8,000 sterling pounds. The letter states pretty clearly that Einstein was by no means a religious person - in fact, the great physicist saw religion as no more than a "childish superstition". "The word god is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this", Einstein wrote. Einstein was Jewish, which is why the people of Israel asked him once to become Israel's second president. Also, Einstein felt uncomfortable with the idea that the Jews are God's favored People. "For me the Jewish religion like all others is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. As far as my experience goes, they are no better than other human groups, although they are protected from the worst cancers by a lack of power. Otherwise, I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them", said Einstein. Although, neither Einstein nor his parents were religious people, he did in fact attend the Catholic primary school. But at the age of 12 he was already questioning the truth of the stories written in the Bible. "The consequence was a positively fanatic orgy of freethinking coupled with the impression that youth is being deceived by the state through lies; it was a crushing impression", Einstein wrote. Einstein may have not believed in God, but he felt that faith was a must. This is probably why he never gave a second thought to studying the quantum theory and its random nature. He once said that "God does not throw dice", meaning that quantum theory randomness is out of the question for him. This belief in faith is probably also why his position towards religion was often misinterpreted. "Like other great scientists he does not fit the boxes in which popular polemicists like to pigeonhole him. It is clear for example that he had respect for the religious values enshrined within Judaic and Christian traditions... but what he understood by religion was something far more subtle than what is usually meant by the word in popular discussion", said John Brook from the Oxford University, leading expert on Albert Einstein. Einstein was often associated with atheism because of his views on conventional religion, but he never liked being called an atheist.	Albert Einstein
Which motor manufacturer produces the 'Croma' model?	Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind...Sales and Marketing Integration - Symmetrics Group Article by: David Roche (Customer Marketing Manager, Central Garden and Pet) These famous words from Albert Einstein speak to the importance of different disciplines not only tolerating each other, but working together to maximize their respective contributions. The same can be said for Sales and Marketing. There is an almost universal conflict between Sales teams and Marketing organizations across Corporate America. Here are some common perceptions from Sales: “The Tower and the Trenches” – Marketing is in the tower, and we’re in the trenches. They just don’t get it. Management has a clear vision, but it has not trickled down yet (lost in translation) – we don’t know how to articulate our vision or strategy to our customers. Field staff feels disconnected from corporate decision making processes. HQ is not listening to our needs and doesn’t understand what we’re dealing with. The organization needs more closely aligned goals and direction. The specifics will vary somewhat by organization, but the themes will be very consistent. In order to address these issues, there are specific actions that can be taken. My experience is that a Customer Marketing team is the most effective way to tackle some of these issues and ensure a better integration between the Sales and Marketing functions. However, these actions can be taken in any organization: 1. Better understand needs, wants, and issues with key constituents: Company 2. Set up interviews with the following groups: • Senior Management o What are the business drivers, current performance, resource deployment? o What are the 1, 2 and 5 year business plans? How are you tracking against objectives? • Brand (Voice of the Consumer) o What is the brand equity? How is current brand health? Penetration, strategies, competition? o Product sku’s? Turn rates? o What are consumer needs and occasions? Functional and emotional benefits? • Sales (Voice of the Customer) o What is the importance of the category to the customer? o How does the customer sell the category? What problems does the customer have with the category? o What is the customer’s strategy with the consumer? Once you have collected answers to these important questions, you can take the most important step – get the parties in the same room and talking about how they’re going to collectively meet the organization’s challenges. With most conflicts (whether they’re personal or organizational) better understanding is the most effective way to find common ground. Facilitating an exchange between Sales and Marketing where each is heard is a great first step toward achieving better integration. Defining clear action items and ensuring follow up after the meeting is also critical to maintaining trust and enhancing effectiveness between Sales and Marketing. If there is no follow-up after an exchange, the credibility of each group will be tarnished and the teams will quickly revert back to their earlier positions of frustration and mistrust. As Vince Lombardi said, “Winning is not a sometime thing, it’s an all time thing. You don’t win once in a while, you don’t do things right once in a while, you do them right all the time. Winning is habit. Unfortunately, so is losing.” And so it is with Sales and Marketing integration. It’s an everyday thing. Share this	i don't know
The 'Bolan' and the 'Penner' are rivers in which country?	India Geography Maps, India Geography, Geographical Map of India Disclaimer Close Disclaimer: All efforts have been made to make this image accurate. However Compare Infobase Limited and its directors do not own any responsibility for the correctness or authenticity of the same. Geography of India India is the seventh largest country in the world in terms of area. It lies on the Indian Plate, which is the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. The Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three different water bodies and is easily recognisable on the world map. Geographical Features The country covers an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. The mainland of India extends between 8�4' and 37�6' N latitude and 68�7' and 97�25' E longitude. The Tropic of Cancer 23�30' N divides India into almost two halves. The total length of the coastline is 7,517 kilometers. The Indian peninsula tapers southward resulting in the division of the Indian Ocean into two water bodies - the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. In India, there is a great diversity of landforms such as lofty mountains, deep valleys, extensive plains, and a number of islands. Physiographic Regions On the basis of relief features, tectonic history and stratigraphy, India can be divided into several physical units. The Great Mountains of the North: India comprises the Himalayas in the North and Northeastern region, which divides the country from the Tibetan plateau. The Himalayan range is further divided into different ranges: Pir Panjal Range: This is the largest range of the lower Himalayas and runs from the east-southeast to west-northwest. The Pir Panjal pass lies to the west of Srinagar and comprises Banihal Pass, Sinthal Pass, Rohtang La, Munawar Pass and Haji Pir Pass. Ladakh Range: This range extends from the northern side of Leh to the Tibetan border. It comprises Digar La Pass and Khardung La Pass. Considered a segment of the Karakoram mountain range, the Ladakh range has an extreme climate. Leh, which is the main town of the region, is regarded as a trade centre for fine pashmina wool. Zanskar Range: This range starts from southeastern boundaries of Kashmir and extends to the eastern limit of Baltistan. Singge La Pass, Runrang La Pass, Fotu (Fatu) La Pass, Marbal Pass and Zoji La Pass are some of the passes of this range. Dhauladhar Range: This range rises from the plains of India to the north of Mandi and Kangra. Hanuman ji Ka Tiba or the 'White Mountain' is the highest peak. East Karakoram Range: This range separates India from Central Asia and is also one of the larger ranges of Asia. It is home to the second highest peak of the world, K2. Indo-Gangetic Plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain is also known as Indus-Ganga and the North Indian River Plain. It is dominated by three major rivers - the Ganges, the Indus and the Brahmaputra. It covers a large area of about 7,00,000 sq. km in the Northern and Eastern India. The plain is divided into four divisions: The Bhabhar Belt: It is a narrow belt that lies in the foothills of Himalayas and comprises pebbles and rocks brought down by the streams. The Terai Belt: It is located next to the Bhabhar region and is made up of newer alluvium. The Bangar Belt: It includes older alluvium and has a low upland in the Gangetic plains which is covered by the laterite deposits. The Khadir Belt: It lies on the lowland areas after the Bangar belt and is made up of newer alluvium which is brought down by the rivers which flow down to this plain. The Peninsular Plateau The Peninsular Plateau is a tableland and its characteristic features include shallow valleys and rounded hills. It is broadly divided into three different plateaus: The Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular shaped plateau and is bounded by the Vindhyas and the Western and Eastern Ghats. It stretches across eight states of India and covers a total area of 1.9 million sq. km. The Malwa Plateau: The Malwa Plateau is spread across parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Chambal River and its tributaries find their way in this plateau and Mahi River also flows through its Western region. The Chota Nagpur Plateau: Situated in eastern India, Chota Nagpur Plateau covers parts of Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. The Coastal Plains The Coastal India spans Arabian Sea in the West to the Bay of Bengal in the East. The Eastern Coastal Plains lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal; and stretch from Tamil Nadu to West Bengal. The rivers which flow through it are Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari and Mahanadi. It is divided into the Southern Andhra Pradesh, the Kanyakumari coast, the Mahanadi delta, the Coromondel coast and sandy coast. The Western Coastal Plains is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea and extends from Gujarat in the north and covers the regions of Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala and Karnataka. There are numerous rivers and backwaters in this region. It is divided into two parts - the Malabar Coast and the Konkan. The Thar Desert The Thar Desert is one of the largest deserts of the world. It extends across Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab and covers over 60% of the geographical area of Rajasthan. It also extends to Pakistan and is known as Cholistan Desert there. Luni is the only river in this desert and it receives very little rainfall. Major portion of this desert consists of craggy rocks, sand dunes and compacted salt-lake bottoms. The speedy winds that flow with significant force lead to regular soil erosion. It has an arid climate and the vegetation is scanty. The Islands There are two major groups of islands in India which are also classified as the union territories- the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Lakshadweep Islands. Lakshadweep is located in the Arabian Sea and covers an area of 32 sq. km. It has a total of about 35 islands and islets. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is larger in size and comprises 572 islands. Andaman is located in the north and Nicobar is located in the south. Some of the other important islands in India are Daman and Diu, Majuli, Salsette Island and Sriharikota. Major Mountain Ranges in India : The Himalayan Range: This is the world's highest mountain range and the tallest peak. Mt. Everest is also a part of this range. It acts as a barrier against the frigid katabatic winds which flow down from Central Asia and protect India from its effects. Patkai Range: Patkai or Purvanchal lies on the east of India-Burma border. It comprises three hill ranges: Garo-Khasi-Jaintia in Meghalaya, Lushai hills and Patkai-Bum. Karakoram Range: It lies in the disputed areas of Jammu and Kashmir and comprises more than 60 peaks. K2, the second highest peak of the world, is also a part of this range. Besides, the Hindu Kush range, Siachen and Biafo Glacier also form a part of this range. Shivalik Hills: The literal meaning of Shivalik is 'tresses of India'. It extends from Arunachal Pradesh to West Bengal and from Uttarakhand to Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Jammu, Kangra and Vaishno Devi are a part of this range. Vindhya Range: This range spreads across central India and extends across 1,050 km. It is believed to be formed from the Aravalli Mountains. Due to its geographical location in central India, it separates Northern and Southern India. Aravalli Range: This is India's oldest mountain range and spreads across the parts of Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana. Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu is the highest peak of this range, which rise to 1,722 m. Satpura Range: This range stretches from Gujarat and runs to Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Western and Eastern Ghats: Western Ghats are also known as Sahyadri Mountains and run parallel to Indian peninsula's western coast. Eastern Ghats or Purva Ghat is a discontinuous range of mountains which run along the eastern coast of India. States and Union Territories Spread over an area of 3,287,263 sq. km, India comprises 29 states. The largest state in India is Rajasthan. It covers an area of 3,42,239 sq. km and shares its borders with Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh. Goa is the smallest state in India comprising an area of 3,702 sq. km. The state is located to the southwest of India. Uttar Pradesh, lying to the northeast of the country, is the most populous state. Gujarat, lying on the extreme west of the country, is one of the most prosperous of all Indian states. The strikingly beautiful Jammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state in the country. India's eastern part comprises the states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. There are seven union territories in India. Delhi, the capital of India, also falls in this category. The other union territories of the country include Chandigarh in the north; Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu in the west; Lakshadweep in the southwest; and Puducherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the southeast of the country. Water Resources India is surrounded by water from three sides - Arabian Sea in the west, Bay of Bengal in the east and Indian Ocean in the south. There are many water bodies in India in the form of rivers, canals, gulfs, backwaters, etc. There are 12 major rivers in the country and they originate from any one of the three watersheds. There is a large reserve of rivers - big and small, and all these rivers are revered in the country other than merely being the sources of water. The river Brahmaputra is a trans-boundary river. It originates in Tibet and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh. It passes through Assam before finally making its way through Bangladesh. The river Ganga is the longest river in India and is considered to be the most pious river in the country. It has several tributaries including river Yamuna, which is the only water body near the national capital - New Delhi. River Chambal, a tributary of Yamuna, passes through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The other major rivers in India include Narmada River, originating at Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh; river Godavari, originating at Trayambakeshwar in Maharashtra; river Krishna, originating at Mahabaleshwar; river Kaveri, passing through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; Mahanadi River flowing through Chhattisgarh and Odisha. The other rivers in the country include Mahi, Betwa, Penner, Kosi, Tungabhadra and several others. Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambay are the major gulfs of the country. More... Political Boundaries India shares its international borders with Pakistan on its west, and Nepal, China and Bhutan on its northeast. It is surrounded by Myanmar and Bangladesh on its east. Sri Lanka lies to the south of India and the union territory Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie close to Thailand and Indonesia. The political boundaries of Pakistan and Bangladesh with India are traced according to the Radcliffe Line. The Line of Control (LoC) delineates the borders of India and Pakistan and serves as a boundary between the administered areas of Kashmir in both the countries. The MacMohan Line divides India and China and runs along the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and Sikkim. India-Bangladesh border is one of the longest borders of the world and touches the Indian states of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. Climate India has a variety of climates, varying from arid desert in the west, alpine climate in the Himalayan north to the humid tropical regions which support the island territories along with the rainforests in the southwest. The climate is altered by the Thar Desert and the Himalayas. Some areas in the north have severe summers with extreme winters, with temperatures reaching to freezing points. The country encounters four different types of seasons � winter, summer, monsoon, and post-monsoon. In some states, the temperature in summers rise up to 45�C and minimum temperature decreases to 15�C only. In winters, the average temperature is about 10-15�C. The highest temperature recorded in India so far is 50.6�C in Alwar, Rajasthan. The lowest temperature was recorded in Kashmir at -45�C. The map will help you locate all these and more. All the international boundaries of the country are marked in pink lines. Grey dotted lines stand for the state boundaries and will help you to get familiar with the Indian states and their neighbours. The blue lines scattered throughout the map represent all the major rivers in the country.	India
In which present day Asian country are the Shan and Karen peoples to be found?	The Bolan Pass The Bolan Pass The Bolan Pass is one of the famous mountain passes in the world. The pass traverses the Toba Kakar Mountain Range of the Balochistan Province in West Pakistan. The distance of the pass from the boundary of Afghanistan is almost 120 km. The coordinates of the pass are 29°45′N and 67°35′E. The altitude of the pass is 1,793.4 m (5,884 ft). About Bolan Pass The Bolan Pass is famous for its tactical location. This is the reason why businessmen, attackers, and migratory clans have used the Bolan Pass as an entryway to and from South Asia. It is a major pass on the boundary of Balochistan and joins Sibi and Jacobabad with Quetta. This boundary had a key role in the chronicles of the battles of the British Army in Afghanistan. Historically, the Brahui of the Kurd ethnic group are in command of the law and order situation in all over the Bolan Pass Region. This ethnic group is still residing in the contemporary Balochistan province in Pakistan. In 1837, the British Army was intimidated about a probable raid by the Russian Army on Southern Asia through the Bolan and Khyber Passes. As a result, they sent a diplomat to Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, to get the patronage of Dost Mohammed, the Emir. In February 1839, under the headship of Sir John Keane, the British Ground Forces transported 12,000 men through the Bolan Pass and penetrated Kandahar, which was forsaken by the princes of Afghanistan. From this place, they went on to raid and cause the downfall of Ghazni. Sir Rober Groves Sandeman entered into conciliations with Khudadad Khan, Khan of Kalat and ascertained British command over the Bolan Pass in return for a yearly cost. Bolan Pass Railway The Bolan Pass Railway runs from Sibi to the southwest, evading the mountains to Rindli, and originally went by the itinerary of the Bolan torrent to its source on the terrain. The devastating activities of inundations, nevertheless, resulted in desertion of this position. The rail tracks now run according to the Mashkaf Basin (which emerges and flows into the terrains near Sibi) and pass from close to the beginning of Mashkaf to an intersection with the Bolan at Machh. A substitute itinerary from Sibi to Quetta was discovered in the Harnai Basin to the northeast of Sibi, the streak beginning in precisely the opposite way to that of Bolan and moving into the mountains at Nari. The Harnai itinerary, though more extensive, is the one followed for all normal traffic movements. On the other hand, the Bolan ring is set aside for crises situations. At the Khundilani canyon of the Bolan itinerary, a cluster of steep rocky formations surrounds the basin, mounting to an elevation of 800 feet. At Sir-i-Bolan, the channel amid the sandstones barely accommodates three individuals hiking alongside each other. In the summer months, the temperature of the Bolan Pass is quite hot, while in the winter months, close to its top, the cold is intense. The sub-zero breeze flowing down the thin vent becomes detrimental to life. From 1877, when the Quetta Agency was established, the liberty of the Bolan Pass from aggressive gangs of Baluch Marauders (mostly Marris) had been protected by the British Indian Army. One of the famous engineering achievements of the British Raj in India was the Bolan Pass Railway Track. The railway track has a history of more than one hundred years. It is still a matter of respect among the tourists who visit this area. The plan for Bolan Pass Railway Tracks was laid down by the British Authorities way back in 1876. The construction began for a short stint in 1880 but was stopped in 1885. At last, a steam engine moved into Quetta in the month of August 1886. In 1889, a heavy deluge damaged the track, which was initially established on the embankments of the Bolan River. In 1890, instructions were given to set up an all season railway track over the pass. This track was opened on April 15, 1897 and is still functioning. At certain areas beside the track, you will be able to see the deserted burrows and rail bed of previous two endeavors to set up railway tracks at that place. Moving to the west from Sibi, the railway tracks gather elevation. Given below are the names of the stations and their respective altitudes between Sibi and Quetta: Sibi 435 ft 0 km Mushkaf 469 ft 17 km Peshi 1,456 ft 50 km Ab-i-Gum 2157 ft 63 km Mach 3246 ft 75 km Hirok 4552 ft 89 km Kolpur 5874 ft 101 km Spezand 5858 ft 117 km Quetta 5499 ft 141 km For convenience, the distance of Sibi station has been taken as 0 km. On Pakistan Railway Network, Kolpur is the station with the maximum altitude (5,874 ft). The engines that are utilized in Bolan Railway Tracks are particular and are fitted with Dynamic Braking System. On the itinerary from Sibi to Quetta, there are 17 passageways or subways. The railway tracks traverse the Bolan River many times in a zigzag trip. Some more information on Bolan Pass The Bolan Pass is an important pass in Pakistan. The way from Jacobabad to Sibi and moving across the Bolan Pass till it arrives at Quetta, moves through the Brahui hill range and hostile Kacchi desert. This pass was the original entranceway to India till it was replaced by the Khyber Pass, and offered a way for trade and commerce for the traders and businessmen of Afghanistan and Central Asia. The British Army were compelled to make use of the Bolan Pass when the military forces of the Indus, stopped by Maharaja Ranjit Singh from moving across Punjab, gathered at Sukkur/Rohri and subsequently advanced to the northwest through the pass till it arrived at Quetta on April 20, 1839. A high-spirited depiction of Quetta as it emerged to a tired associate of the military forces of the Indus, Captain Richard Kennedy, offers an outline of old Quetta. The Captain portrayed it as “a little area of pitiable look and its inhabitants pulverized to the soil by the levies imposed by the government and the open trade pattern of its bordering areas. Till the time their tents reached and were grounded, they took rest in a fine plantation. Excellent instances of the dimension of jungle plants, pear, apple, peach, apricot, and plum were projected and lying over enormous vines, which were garlanding and encircling the stems, and stretching to the most secluded limbs. They were adorned from plant to plant in a natural abundance of development. This was not experienced by Captain Kennedy in any other fruit plants. It was the initial month in spring season and the grapevine trees were wrapped with flowers, which filled the air with fragrances, and offered an image of horticultural splendor going beyond explanation. Nature, generous but unpredictable, demanded a levy from Quetta for this bounty when on March 31, 1935, the city had undergone and endured a destructive earthquake which took the life of 23,000 people and destroyed many of its prehistoric structures. Captain described that the gateway to this major pass is around half mile in breadth, situated above an entirely rocky way, beside the embankment of the Bolaix or Kanhi River, which meanders across the basin, differing substantially in breadth. On either side of the pass, there are hills, to some extent created by composite rocks of a dull auburn shade in a number of areas and the elevation is one thousand feet. Some areas are coated with grass, varying with high rushes and reeds. At the same time, other areas offered just a plane of complete barrenness. Close to the tiny village of Kirta, the Bolan Pass broadens to a degree of three or four miles and is in control of a Balochee leader. The head of the Bolan torrent is known as the Sin Bolan and it is close to the end of the pass, ahead of which is the mouth of a most beautiful gorge, outcropped by rocky and shady cliffs. Subsequently, the pass extends to a much broader area, enveloped with southern forest. While thinning once more, following a stride of approximately two miles further, the canyon releases itself on an infertile terrain of Afghanistan. The military forces took eight days to move over the pass, its span being 83 miles. At the moment, this itinerary is only open for aid workers and indigenous people. This is a substitute to the Khyber Pass further north. The tribal people and risks are likewise. Languages of the local people The language of the indigenous people is Pushtu. Nevertheless, a large number of inhabitants also speak in Urdu language of Pakistan or Dari language of Afghanistan. A limited number of people converse in English. Cities The pass connects Quetta in Pakistan to Kandahar in Afghanistan. There are little townships in the middle. Security This territory, since the middle of 2008, is certainly insecure. You have to take a sentry with you, who will be carrying weapons. Bolān Pass is a significant natural entry through the Central Brāhui Mountain Range in Balochistān province, Pakistan, linking Sibi with Quetta by railway and road. For a number of centuries, the pass has been a course for businessmen, raiders, and migratory ethnic groups amid India and higher Asia. The pass consists of a sequence of extensive, thin basins or canyons and stretches for 89 km (55 miles) from Rindli in the south to Darwāza in the north close to Kolpur. The broadest spot is 26 km (16 miles) and is located in the Laleji Plain, to the south of Machh. The Nāri-Bolān Channel Scheme supplies water for irrigation of around 24,000 acres (9,700 hectares) through blocking the monsoon stream of the Bolān River in the Sibi basin. For a traveler, who wants to trip through the pass via rail, a range of trains and lodging is available. Since summer 2006, two trains ply everyday between Quetta and Karachi and they are Baluchistan Express and Bolan Mail. One runs between Quetta and Rawalpindi through Lahore (Jaffar Express), one runs between Quetta and Peshawar through Lahore (Quetta Express), and one runs between Quetta and Faisalabad (Chiltan Express). Minumum three of the abovementioned five trains have air conditioned facilities on them. A rail trip through Bolan Pass is definitely a unique kind of an experience for any traveler in the world. Last Updated on 02 February 2011	i don't know

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